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<strong>ACTES</strong><br />

<strong>PROCEEDINGS</strong><br />

<strong>ACTAS</strong><br />

1


Sommaire / Summary<br />

Keynote Speakers<br />

Tausk Juan - Bienvenue ............................................................................................. 1<br />

Bagshaw Dale - The Place of Mediation in Civil Societies.......................................... 6<br />

Pre-conference<br />

Bagshaw Dale - Family Mediation and Violence against Women :<br />

Australian Legisation, Research and Practice .......................................................... 23<br />

Wicky Christiane - Mise en place et évaluation d’un programme de<br />

médiation à l’école <strong>com</strong>me lieu de socialisation ...................................................... 45<br />

Conference<br />

Allport Leysley - Mediation and Conflict: Management or Resolution?..................... 48<br />

Bagshaw Dale - The Reflexive Mediator: Theory and Practice................................ 49<br />

Bobot Lionel - L’Evaluation du Processus de Médiation de la FNSEA ..................... 58<br />

Bond Monique - Mediation as a parallel process to a Workplace Assessment......... 67<br />

Braga Neto Adolfo - Facilitation in the franchising sector ......................................... 74<br />

Brusati i Massaguer Glòria - Servicios Municipales de Mediación Comunitaria.<br />

La experiencia del Ayuntamiento de Mataró............................................................. 76<br />

Carocci Leonardo, Antolini Antonio - Mediazione Sociale e Sicurezza urbana:<br />

la progettazione partecipata <strong>com</strong>e fattore di protezione alla violenza e<br />

all’insicurezza urbana................................................................................................ 87<br />

Carvajal Sánchez Fernando - L’avènement de la justice réparatrice : une<br />

révolution paradigmatique ou un changement de statut du paradigme ? ................ 92<br />

Chidiac Marie-José - La médiation : une rencontre avec l’internormativité............. 104<br />

Chidiac Marie-José - La mediazione: un incontro con l’internormatività ................ 108<br />

Chidiac Marie-José - Die Vermittlung oder der Bereich der übergreifenden<br />

Normen ................................................................................................................... 112<br />

2


Coppola de vanna Anna - Al di la’dell’etnocentrismo delle Eta : la mediazione<br />

tra le generazioni..................................................................................................... 116<br />

Coulibaly Harouna - La médiation au Mali : un mécanisme traditionnel séculaire<br />

de résolution des conflits........................................................................................ 124<br />

De la Rúa Eugenio Diana - Mediación frente a las problemáticas contemporáneas:<br />

barrios marginales y su necesidad de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria ................. 131<br />

De Igarzabal Peralta - Ventajas de la mediación en sede judicial : un espacio<br />

para la auto<strong>com</strong>posicion ......................................................................................... 144<br />

Del Carmen Nadal María, Escarrá Luis Carlos - La mediación en las<br />

organizaciones. Su eficacia para entender los procesos de construcción de<br />

sentido y facilitar los cambios de cultura................................................................. 147<br />

Demaret Paul - L’Expérience en Médiation - résultats d’une enquête menée<br />

Auprès des médiés du Centre de Médiation de Luxembourg ................................. 157<br />

Duclos Bernard - Technologies de la Spirale, modélisation des différences<br />

Ethiques et culturelles............................................................................................. 164<br />

Escarrá Luis Carlos, Del Carmen Nadal Maria - Podemos hablas acerca de<br />

la interdisciplina en la mediación ? ......................................................................... 174<br />

Fong Dr. L. - Milan Mediation Model ....................................................................... 184<br />

Franco Nora M., Garayo Alicia B., de Almeida Mario, Aiello de Almeida<br />

Alba - Consultora en prevencion, administración y resolución de<br />

conflictos equipo IMCA ........................................................................................... 189<br />

Greco Sara - The intercultural mediator: personal qualities and<br />

<strong>com</strong>municative skills ............................................................................................... 195<br />

Haydee Silveyra - La obra construida .................................................................... 207<br />

Homminga Sjoerd, Fong Larry - Cognitive vs. Emotional focus in mediation ......... 212<br />

Comparing two different styles of mediation<br />

Labath Vladimir - A dynamic approach to mediation and training of<br />

Roma leaders.......................................................................................................... 213<br />

Lachat Michel - Nouvelle pratique de la médiation dans la juridiction pénale<br />

des mineurs dans le canton de Fribourg/SUISSE................................................... 216<br />

Lanna Michele - Conflitto e Mediazione. Dalla “soluzione” disfunzionale alla<br />

dissipazione del conflitto ......................................................................................... 222<br />

Loong Seng Onn - Development of Commercial Mediation in Singapore............... 231<br />

3


Lind - Implementing Victim/Offender Mediation nationally in Sweden .................... 244<br />

Lurin Jacqueline - Position face au conflit et médiation - Les résistances<br />

à la médiation.......................................................................................................... 247<br />

Malbosc Patricia, Lemoult Philippe - La médiation, valeur ajoutée de l’entreprise . 260<br />

Malcolm Ewan - Collaborative Conversations: the story of the Scottish<br />

Mediation Network .................................................................................................. 269<br />

Mc Cormack Carmen - Un cambio de paradigma en la gestión de<br />

conflictos vecinales en el Municipio de Morón, Buenos Aires – Argentina ............. 279<br />

Metelko Lisec Tanja - Epistemological analysis and <strong>com</strong>parison of<br />

legal process and mediation process. Pursuing and achieving justice ................... 283<br />

Millán Dra. Alicia ..................................................................................................... 298<br />

Nazareth Eliana Riberti, Dos Santos Lia Justiniano - The Importance<br />

of Co-Mediation in matters brought to family .......................................................... 303<br />

Olalde Alberto - Modelo global de convivencia escolar: Programas<br />

de intervención y experiencias de aplicación en el País Vasco.............................. 314<br />

Olmedo Silvia Susana - Los vecinos de Buenos Aires.<br />

Algunas reflexiones acerca de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria ....................................... 316<br />

Padilla Carme - El apoyo a la creación de servicios de mediación<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitaria municipal. La experiencia de la Diputación de Barcelona ................... 324<br />

Parkinson Lisa - Different Applications of Family Mediation including<br />

Mediations with family members who have never lived together ............................ 330<br />

Pérez González Beatriz - Política familiar no es lo mismo que Medicación<br />

familiar : el peso del familiarismo ...................................................... 339<br />

Pfefferkorn Wolfgang - The Verwall Natura 2000 mediation procedure.................. 351<br />

Potegui Lic Nora Coordinadora, Dr Santiago J. de Arizabalo – Sistemas<br />

de gerenciamiento de conflictos. Una herramienta para resolver<br />

conflictos por sectores de interés ........................................................................... 363<br />

Rapp Andreas - Public Mediation - Just Another Way Of Business Mediation? ..... 367<br />

Salberg Anne Catherine - Racisme et médiation, l’action restauratrice<br />

d’ACOR SOS-Racisme ........................................................................................... 375<br />

Satoshi Minamikata - Mediation for Mediators? Basic information of family<br />

court and procedure in Japan ................................................................................. 383<br />

4


Stimec Arnaud - Contribution à l’histoire de la médiation en entreprise :<br />

<strong>com</strong>paraison franco-américaine et perspectives..................................................... 388<br />

Thomas Anne B. - Building Trust to Manage Fear of Retaliation in the<br />

Workplace ............................................................................................................... 393<br />

Trebolle Maria Evangelina, Dr. Luis María Desimoni, - Delincuencia y<br />

mediación Penal...................................................................................................... 397<br />

Troisi Claudia, Ferrara Maria, Pucciarelli Chiara - Esperienze di Mediazione<br />

a Napoli................................................................................................................... 404<br />

Turchi GianPiero. Gherardini Valeria - Médiation <strong>com</strong>me un instrument qui<br />

produit un nouveau paradigme de justice ............................................................... 411<br />

Vazquez Larsson Monica - La Mediación y el ekeko o la personalización<br />

de la mediación versus la institucionalizacion de sus ideales................................. 419<br />

Vonèche Laura Cardia - Naissance d’une profession : le médiateur familial.......... 427<br />

Yazbek Vania Curi - ¿Es posible mediar conflictos en donde una de las partes<br />

es un niño o un adolescente? ................................................................................. 434<br />

5


KEYNOTE<br />

SPEAKERS


Palabras de Presentación del Presidente<br />

del Foro Mundial de Medaición<br />

Juan Tausk<br />

________________________________________________________________<br />

Bienvenue / Willkomen / Well<strong>com</strong>e /<br />

Brujim habaim / Beinvindos<br />

Sean todos ustedes muy bienvenidos a nuestra Vª Conferencia Internacional del Foro<br />

Mundial de Mediación.<br />

Lo podemos decir de muchas maneras, pero siempre deseamos lo mismo, el hacer un<br />

lugar para el otro en nuestro hogar, en nuestras vidas, en nuestro corazón. Legitimar,<br />

revalorizar, reconocer, está en nuestro vocabulario. También anhelar que el otro nos<br />

haga un lugar.<br />

Un lugar, un lugar en el mundo. No es acaso una cuestión central en el vasto campo de<br />

nuestra práctica el saber que en el otro hay un semejante, parecido a nosotros, con<br />

virtudes y sin duda defectos, que goza con la alegría y también padece en la pena.<br />

Gente que cree en su talento aunque a veces lo domina la vacilación. Hombres,<br />

mujeres que saben lo que es sostener sus mas intimas convicciones <strong>com</strong>prometiendo<br />

su palabra pero que a la vez saben lo que es soportar el peso de la incertidumbre.<br />

Eso es coherente con los valores y el método que se quiere llevar adelante: dar la<br />

palabra, autorizar al otro, reconocer en el otro a un sujeto y nuevamente: creer que se<br />

puede. Que se puede convivir, mejor. Sin pretender aspirar a la venturosa felicidad<br />

imposible, esa huidiza meta, sino aportar a que los sujetos puedan gozar mejor de sus<br />

vidas.<br />

Por ello, colegas, <strong>com</strong>o todo el mundo, ni mejores ni peores, hemos encontrado en la<br />

mediación un territorio fértil para desplegar nuestros deseos de construir una mejor<br />

convivencia, y cuando podemos, empezamos por nosotros mismos. Eso lo he<br />

aprendido de temprano de un joven estudiante de secundaria que había mediado inter-<br />

1


pares en una disputa brava en que había aparecido una navaja. Contaba él y no sin<br />

orgullo que sus padres decían: que ahora se podía hablar con él. No es poco. Pero más<br />

aún, reflexionaba diciendo: ”... la mediación te sirve para la vida...” Eatendí que esas<br />

palabras eran las mías y seguramente también las de ustedes.<br />

Precisamente en la búsqueda de nuevos recursos y métodos para transformar la<br />

creciente conflictiva, en todos los ordenes de la vida y en todos las sociedades y<br />

culturas, ha resultado la mediación <strong>com</strong>o un recurso eficaz para la pacificación y la<br />

convivencia, siendo notable que ello haya sucedido en todas las latitudes, sociedades y<br />

culturas del planeta. Pero a la vez también sabemos que no las tenemos todas con<br />

nosotros y no por ello renunciamos en insistir y hacernos responsables de actos e<br />

intenciones.<br />

El foro Mundial de Mediación pretende ser un espacio para dar a conocer nuestros<br />

descubrimientos, mostrar los resultados, transmitir conocimientos y reflexiones, mejorar<br />

la calidad de los servicios que ofrecemos y sobre todo, formarnos con seriedad y<br />

<strong>com</strong>promiso.<br />

Esto caracteriza a nuestra organización desde el <strong>com</strong>ienzo de una idea que surge en<br />

Dublín, en 1993, en la1ª. Conferencia Internacional de Mediación, antecedente del<br />

FMM. Varios de aquellos que la engendraron hoy están aquí: Barbara Wood, Delma<br />

Sweeney, Daniel Bustello, Dale Baghshaw y Mary Lloyd.<br />

Desde entonces no paramos de querer encontrarnos cada dos años: El Escorial, luego<br />

La Habana, pasamos por Cerdeña, los recibimos en Buenos Aires y hoy nos recibe<br />

Suiza. No nos bastaba eso y empezamos a encontrarnos en Adelaid, Australia y<br />

Singapur con nuestra delegación asiático pacífica en 2006 nos llevan a las Islas Fiji; en<br />

Rosario y dos veces en Buenos Aires para Conferencias Nacionales organizadas por la<br />

decana de las Delegaciones del FMM, en San Sebastian, en Mexico, en Caracas y otro<br />

lugares mas, para dar a conocer nuestra producción y aprender de nuestros colegas. Se<br />

formaron una tras otra nuevas Delegaciones: Pais Vasco, Mexico, Venezuela,<br />

Ecuador, Paraguay, Cuba. Un cuerpo de Delegados Internacionales ha motivado a sus<br />

colegas en 30 paises para asistir hoy, pero sepan que tenemos socios en mas de 60<br />

paises.<br />

Tenemos tan solo 10 años: cualquier proyecto en la vida no empieza a madurar antes<br />

de ese tiempo. Podemos decir que al cabo de una década, que nuestra organización es<br />

mundial. Eso lo vimos con emoción, qué digo, con lágrimas en los ojos, en Buenos Aires<br />

2


cuando al inaugurar la Conferencia del 2003, los niños y jóvenes mediadores de las<br />

escuelas públicas de la ciudad avanzaban orgullosos portando las banderas de los<br />

países presentes. Tantos países que hubo que fabricar banderas que nunca se habían<br />

desplegado en mi ciudad!<br />

Podemos decir que estamos para quedarnos y crecer con cada uno de ustedes. Tan<br />

solo deseamos más participantes de Africa y de Asia. Vendrán, iremos hacia ellos.<br />

Pero hoy, ustedes han hecho el esfuerzo de venir hasta aquí de los cuatro confines del<br />

planeta. Han confiado en esta nueva convocatoria del Foro Mundial de Mediación y no<br />

me cabe duda que para algunos ha sido un gran esfuerzo. Les agradezco enormemente<br />

la confianza, pero estoy convencido que partirán con satisfacción, cargados de ideas y<br />

aprendizajes, con colegas y amigos nuevos para toda la vida. Afortunadamente el<br />

Comité de Dirección y el Comité Organizador supo <strong>com</strong>prender la diferente distribución<br />

de ingresos y recursos en el mundo, teniendo la sabiduría de cobrar la inscripción de<br />

modo acorde.<br />

Quiero agradecer a nuestros anfitriones en el marco de esta hermosa localidad y bella<br />

República: el Canton del Vallais, en el nombre de su presidente Mr. Claude Roch y al<br />

presidente de la Comuna de Randogne y coordinador las <strong>com</strong>unas de Haut. Plateau de<br />

Crans Montana, hemos de disfrutar de la tradicional hospitalidad que caracteriza a esta<br />

Confederación.<br />

En especial deseo reconocer el inteso trabajo de nuestros anfitriones: el Institut<br />

Universitaire Kurt Bösch, representado por su presidente el Dr. Bernard Comby, a la vez<br />

presidente de esta conferencia, a<strong>com</strong>pañado por su equipo del Comité Organizador,<br />

Jean Pierre Rausis, Jocelyn Dahan, Salvador Puntes, Jean Pierre Bonafe Shmitt y en el<br />

nombre de ellos a todos los que <strong>com</strong>ponen su equipo de trabajo.<br />

Quiero agradecer la labor fraterna y <strong>com</strong>prometida del Comité de Dirección de FMM que<br />

tengo el orgullo de presidir: Dale Bagshaw, vicepresidenta; Juan Carlos Vezzulla,<br />

secretario, Barbara Wood, tesorera, y Larry Fong, Gail Ervin, Lisa Parkinson, Armando<br />

Castaneda Abay. Gerardo Judkovsky <strong>com</strong>o asesor legal, Elena Cohen Imach<br />

coodinando a los Delegados Internacionales, Tim Parkinson y Leonardo Lopez en la<br />

WEB, Victoria Pipino del estudio legal que nos representa en Madrid y finalmente: Jean<br />

Pierre Bonafe Schmitt, Rolf Herzog y Mohamed Kishavshee.<br />

3


Importa destacar que por primera vez el FMM ha hecho una licitación pública para<br />

encontrar sede para su Conferencia. Le tocaba a Europa y cinco propuestas de diversa<br />

consistencia nos llegaron: Edimburgo de la Scottish Mediation Network, de Bremen, de<br />

Viena, de Praga de la Associate Mediatoru y la propuesta del IUKB. En una evaluación<br />

cuidadosa realizada por el Comité de Dirección, resultó elegida. Estos dias que hemos<br />

de <strong>com</strong>partir no han de desmentir la decisión tomada.. Pero no hay que fruncir el ceño:<br />

esta ida y vuelta a través del Atlántico no es un destino: ahora queremos que nuestra<br />

Conferencia vaya hacia Africa, Asia, Medio Oriente, el Pacifico. Debemos recibir<br />

propuestas consistentes y factibles. Las habrá.<br />

Este ha sido un periodo particularmente activo. Concluyó con un Estatuto nuevo que ya<br />

incluye el trabajo de los dos Comités anteriores, ademas del presente, fue votado via<br />

internet por los socios del FMM de modo auditado y aprobado, estando registrado en<br />

nuestra sede legal, el Ministerio del Interior de España. Concluye con la creación de<br />

nuevas Delegaciones y con mas del doble de asociados. Se inicia un nuevo periodo en<br />

que se pueden y se habrán de potenciar nuestras fortalezas.<br />

Y deseamos que cada uno de ustedes se sienta implicado, que lleve al FMM a sus<br />

ciudades y regiones, que desarrolle eventos con nuestro apoyo, que cree nuevas<br />

Delegaciones para lo que tendrá toda nuestra colaboración. Queremos que sientan que<br />

podemos <strong>com</strong>partir esta experiencia y enriquecernos mutuamente.<br />

Hay quienes tan solo quieren empezar a conocernos: no vacilen, asóciense, son<br />

bienvenidos y participen de la Asamblea General de Asociados el sábado 10 de<br />

setiembre: haremos un balance de éxitos y desaciertos, una proyección al futuro y<br />

elegiremos al nuevo Comité de Dirección. Antes los socios elegían representantes por<br />

países que a su vez eran los electores del Comité de Dirección. Ahora, por primera vez,<br />

podrán votar todos los asociados de modo directo, siempre que se hayan inscripto hasta<br />

30 dias antes de la Conferencia. Eso será de 6 a 8 P.M. en el Auditorio Central con<br />

traducción simultánea. Luego el domingo 11 después del mediodía y una vez concluida<br />

la Conferencia se reunirá el Nuevo Comité con el que concluye su período, para<br />

planificar sus actividades y recibir la transmisión de la experiencia anterior.<br />

Quiero invitarlos a todos ustedes a participar intensamente en la diversidad de<br />

propuestas tan interesantes que se han presentado. Hay quienes no se han<br />

desalentado y han tenido la nobleza de venir aunque su trabajo no hubiera sido tomado<br />

por el Comité de Organización. También los invito a participar de un Foro Discusión<br />

4


sobre un tema crucial y determinante del destino de nuestra práctica y que organiza<br />

específicamente el Foro Mundial de Mediación: Avances Legales y Regulación de la<br />

Práctica de la Mediación, a realizarse el 10 de setiembre de 10 a 11.30 hs. con<br />

traducción simultánea<br />

Los veo a ustedes en la diversidad de nacionalidades, de razas, de credos, de culturas,<br />

de lenguas y sin embargo es esa diversidad tan poco tolerada en el mundo, tan temida<br />

para muchos y sin embargo para nosotros, es la razón de nuestros actos, la causa de<br />

nuestras existencias.<br />

No recuerdo en mi vida una experiencia más conmovedora, y veo aquí algunos de los<br />

que allí estuvieron, que cuando se fundó la Delegación regional denominada Foro de<br />

Mediación Asiático Pacifico en el 2000 en Australia, liderado por mi amiga y <strong>com</strong>pañera<br />

del Comité de Dirección, Dale Bagshaw.<br />

Sentados en ronda <strong>com</strong>o una antigua tribu, hombres y mujeres de rasgos orientales,<br />

indígenas, europeos, de Nueva Zelanda y de Papua Nueva Guinea y de Singapur y de<br />

Formosa y de Indonesia y otros paises mas, decidiendo construir juntos un proyecto.<br />

Sentir, creer que es posible, pese a todo. Pese a todo es el nombre que se impuso un<br />

templo de un suburbio de Buenos Aires fundado por sobrevivientes del holocausto.<br />

Pese a todo es posible construir nuestro proyecto. Lo estamos haciendo<br />

Ese es el mundo que quiero. Ese es el mundo del Foro Mundial de Mediación.<br />

5


The Place of Mediation in Civil Societies<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Dr Dale Bagshaw<br />

Associate Professor, Director, Conflict Management Research & Postgraduate Studies,<br />

School of Social Work & Social Policy<br />

University of South Australia<br />

Abstract<br />

This paper addresses some of the dominant political, cultural and economic discourses that<br />

influence the management of conflicts in our postmodernist world and implications for mediators.<br />

Conflict and violence are both a product and a constitutive part of the relationship between<br />

individuals and broader societal structures, and attempts to resolve conflict and eliminate<br />

violence in today’s <strong>com</strong>plex world are fraught with difficulties. Postmodernist conflict<br />

management theory indicates that representations of conflict through language, media and text<br />

can influence the possibilities for constructive out<strong>com</strong>es. Governments and the media, aided by<br />

advances in information technology, exacerbate conflict by reinforcing enemy images and<br />

stereotypes, polarizing parties and stirring up fear and anger. Militarism and patriarchy also<br />

reinforce constructions of masculinity that are associated with violence in our homes,<br />

workplaces and the world. Global, rational economics and managerialism promote particular<br />

masculine styles of leadership that place a higher value on productivity than human<br />

relationships. These dominant, <strong>com</strong>petitive discourses are to be challenged by mediators,<br />

individually and collectively, if we are to develop discourses of cooperation and peace, globally<br />

and in the microcosms of our homes, schools, <strong>com</strong>munities and workplaces.<br />

Introduction<br />

Conflict is a universal phenomenon and has been described as an inevitable and natural<br />

product of all human relationships. Some suggest that without conflict, learning, creativity,<br />

change and intimacy would not be possible. Many poor decisions have been made by groups<br />

who have too readily agreed with each other (known as ‘groupthink’) such as the decisions<br />

that led to the Bay of Pigs disaster and maybe even the decision to invade Iraq. Time will tell.<br />

Conflict itself is not what I will be addressing in this paper. The way we talk about or<br />

represent conflict, our different perspectives of conflict and our ways of handling it, however,<br />

can lead to destructive out<strong>com</strong>es for individuals, families, workplaces, <strong>com</strong>munity groups,<br />

nations and the world. Conflicts and disputes are social and cultural constructs and can arise<br />

from differences in power, differences in opinion, values, interests, needs, <strong>com</strong>munication<br />

6


and relationship factors such as stereotyping, prejudging, misunderstandings, cultural<br />

differences and so forth. There are many variables that need to be considered by mediators<br />

in any conflict, whether it be at a global level or within the family or workplace including: the<br />

social, cultural and political context, the stage of escalation of the conflict, the relationship<br />

between the parties, the balance of power, the processes used to handle the conflict and the<br />

substantive issues in dispute. As mediators we know that various factors such as the context,<br />

the nature of the relationship, the abuse of power and the use of adversarial processes can<br />

escalate the conflict and interfere with the parties ability to resolve or manage the substantive<br />

issues.<br />

This paper will address issues in the global cultural, economic and political context which<br />

inevitably influence the management of conflicts in our postmodernist world. Postmodernism<br />

is sometimes used as a term to describe the chaotic and confusing cultural, social and<br />

political changes that are occurring in Western society. Some suggest that in the Western<br />

world modernist culture, which has been built since the Enlightenment over the last few<br />

centuries around forms of rationality, self-discipline and bourgeois values, is succumbing to<br />

the effects of rapid technological and economic change. When describing our world as<br />

postmodern, ‘post’ can be understood in at least two senses. Firstly :<br />

...we are living in a world of flux and transition; the old is crumbling and fading<br />

yet the new is still indistinct and ambiguous;<br />

and secondly, ‘post’ can also refer to a world in which the old and the new co-exist :<br />

Here the present has many contents, many different political, cultural and economic<br />

experiences, many conflicting and unstable social and institutional alliances, many levels<br />

of personal and collective action (Penna & O'Brien, 1996, p.40).<br />

The weakness of modernist thinking was the search for grand or meta-theories (such as<br />

Marxism) that we know do not adequately explain the human condition and a reliance on<br />

rationality and linear ways for thinking. New and multiple identities and cultural forms are<br />

emerging in today’s world, challenging traditional values and ways of thinking and leading to<br />

new postmodernist approaches to mediation which focus on story-telling, language and<br />

meaning rather than on linear approaches such as problem-solving (Winslade & Monk,<br />

2000).<br />

7


The power of language<br />

Postmodernists question the so-called ‘neutrality’ or ‘objectivity’ of our professional practices<br />

(Bagshaw, 2000; Lincoln & Denzin, 1994, p.579). Professional practices manufacture a<br />

colonising discourse of the ‘other’ under the veil or guise of ‘neutrality’ or ‘objectivity’, without<br />

acknowledging that representations of ‘self’ and ‘other’ are always situated politically (Fine,<br />

1994, p.72). It is now recognised that language plays a powerful role in how concepts of<br />

‘normality’ are fashioned and subjectivities or identities are positioned (Penna & O'Brien,<br />

1996).<br />

From a postmodernist perspective thoughts and ideas are not possible without language.<br />

Language serves to socially construct our understandings of the world and our place in it.<br />

Language shapes our identities and gives meaning to our worlds. Language also has political<br />

implications and constructs a particular view of conflict. In this sense I am talking not just<br />

talking about the various languages that are spoken in the world (eg. English or German) but<br />

I am talking about the power of language as discourse, or dominant ways of talking about<br />

something (which, of course, can be linked to the dominant language spoken in a particular<br />

culture or context). Discourse determines what counts as knowledge or truth and what<br />

doesn’t, whose voices or views of the world are priveleged (eg. Anglo-Celtic in Australia) and<br />

whose are marginalised or silenced (eg. the voices of refugees and indigenous people in<br />

Australia). Dominant discourses are culturally and historically bound. Discourse is a powerful<br />

force in determining our realities or ‘truths’. Dominant discourses, or ‘truths’ control who can<br />

and cannot speak, what can and cannot be spoken about, how and in what contexts, and<br />

thereby what we can and cannot hear or know. An analysis of a dominant discourses will<br />

indicate whose voices are heard and whose voices are silenced, whose knowledge is<br />

privileged and whose knowledge is marginalised. Discourse analysis is therefore a powerful<br />

and political act. It is my intention here to identify some of the dominant Western, global<br />

discourses which are currently influencing conflict management attitudes, behaviours and<br />

practices (whilst respecting that I cannot generalise) and some implications of these for us as<br />

mediators who are trying to create a just and peaceful world.<br />

The cultural context: the language of origins and exclusion<br />

Postmodernists bring into focus the cultural dimensions of politics and the political<br />

dimensions of culture. The concept of culture is hard to understand as it is like the air that we<br />

breathe – we cannot see it and it is largely outside of our consciousness. Contemporary<br />

writers define culture as a ‘way of life’:<br />

…the ‘whole way of life’ of a social group as it is structured by representation and by<br />

power … a network of representations – texts, images, talk, codes of behaviour, and the<br />

8


narrative structures organising these – which shapes every aspect of social life (Frow &<br />

Morris, 1993, p.x).<br />

The concept of culture is <strong>com</strong>plex. Culture can be understood as learned systems or shared<br />

patterns of traditions, myths, legends, rituals, beliefs, values, norms, meanings and symbols<br />

that foster a shared sense of identity and <strong>com</strong>munity. To varying degrees these patterns and<br />

meanings are passed on, although cultures continuously evolve and change and vary from<br />

one location to another and from one historical period to another. In defining culture,<br />

Matsumo distinguishes between individual and shared cultures:<br />

The set of attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviour shared by a group of people,<br />

but different for each individual, <strong>com</strong>municated from one generation to the next<br />

(Matsumo, 1996, p16).<br />

Matsumo points out that there may or may not be a similarity between a person’s individual<br />

culture and the corporate shared meanings of the group’s culture, such as can be found in a<br />

workplace and which exists in the social consciousness beyond the individual. The concept<br />

of multiculturalism often refers to “the coexistence of many cultures as recognized parts of<br />

society” (Lum, 1999, p.81). In terms of ethnicity, Australia is the second most multicultural<br />

society in the world (to Israel). However in the broad sense multiculturalism also includes<br />

other cultural factors such as gender, national origin, socioeconomic status, sexual<br />

orientation and so forth (Pederson, 1988). Lum predicts that in the next 50 years or so<br />

immigration and fertility patterns will lead to increasingly multiracial, multicultural and<br />

multiethnic societies in the world (Lum, 1999, p. 83). Members of a specific culture<br />

experience their culture as “the way things are and the way things should be”, a<br />

phenomenon called ethnocentrism (Okun, Fried, & Okun, 1999, p. 9), our natural tendency to<br />

assume that everybody else views and understands the world in the same way that we do,<br />

which often leads to misunderstandings and conflict. Cultural differences can lead to conflict<br />

and culture influences the way we understand, view and interpret conflict and the way that<br />

we respond to it. Conflict exists in every culture, but there is great variation between cultural<br />

groups in the rituals and practices that have developed around it.<br />

Culture is often described by using the metaphor of an iceberg with the visible, uppermost<br />

layers such as fashions, food, popular music, language and verbal and non-verbal symbols<br />

bearing some similarity to an outsider or observer. The deeper layers of the iceberg,<br />

however, are hidden from view and include values and meanings which are diverse and<br />

harder to change (Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, 2001).<br />

9


Who has high status in a culture, such as a workplace, who is included in a particular<br />

category that is considered as ‘normal’ or ‘powerful’, and who is marginalised, ‘othered’,<br />

pathologised or considered as ‘deviant’ is usually determined by the dominant individuals or<br />

groups and is reinforced or maintained through the dominant discourses in the culture.<br />

Dominant discourses about what is ’normal’ behaviour with regard to conflict in the<br />

workplace, or a broader societal group, will vary from one cultural group and location to<br />

another and from one point in history to another.<br />

Our cultural identity is based on a <strong>com</strong>monality of experience, perspectives, language,<br />

traditions and environments. Language is central to the construction, negotiation and<br />

<strong>com</strong>munication of meaning and thought and enables us to categorise, label and make sense<br />

of a situation in similar or different ways. In <strong>com</strong>munication, for example, Westerners tend to<br />

focus more on “things and objects, rather than on processes and relationships” (Okun et al.,<br />

1999, p.8). They use categories as a shorthand way of understanding and <strong>com</strong>municating<br />

about events and experiences. Other cultures use different approaches to understanding and<br />

<strong>com</strong>municating which are either more abstract or more particular. This can be probematic in<br />

cross-cultural <strong>com</strong>munications . Categorising can be useful but can also lead to stereotyping<br />

others by putting them collectively in boxes instead of seeing their unique aspects. People<br />

belong to a number of categories - such as age, gender or ethnicity. One category may be<br />

ore relevant in some situations but not as relevant in others.<br />

All cultures share some broad, universal characteristics, such as the need for food, water,<br />

shelter, belonging and so forth which are often manifested in similar ways. However, these<br />

needs may be met in different ways in different cultures depending on history, the<br />

environmental context and the tools and technologies available. Cultural groups such as<br />

families, <strong>com</strong>munities, workplaces and so forth evolve ritual practices, prescriptions,<br />

patterns, cultural myths and symbols to support them. Language is central to this and<br />

dominant discourses reinforce or favour certain dimensions of the culture over others. Some<br />

dimensions tend to cluster and be<strong>com</strong>e mutually reinforcing. For example independence,<br />

individual rights, egalitarianism, control and dominance tend to be cultural dimensions that<br />

are <strong>com</strong>mon in Western cultures and interdependence, honour and family protection,<br />

authoritarianism, harmony and deference are <strong>com</strong>mon in Eastern cultures.<br />

Ethno-national differences<br />

Since the end of the Cold War, ethno-national difference has been the source of most violent<br />

conflicts in the world. Ethnic or national identity-based conflicts reify the local. Categories of<br />

origin are exemplified in dualistic constructs such as Catholic/Protestant, Muslim/Christian,<br />

10


indigenous/non-indigenous, Asian/Caucasian, Palestinian/Israeli. In conflicts with ‘others’,<br />

national, ethnic or religious groups draw upon their “remembered past” or sense of collective<br />

identity.<br />

Religion<br />

Religion is also a source of much violent conflict in the world, in particular when linked with<br />

fundamentalism. In Australia, political discourse around so-called ‘illegal’ immigrants, and the<br />

need to protect our country’s borders, has sanctioned and reproduced categorisations based<br />

on notions of legitimacy, thereby fostering discrimination and violence against religious and<br />

ethnic groups defined as ‘other’. At an international level the discourse on ‘war against<br />

terrorism’ is having a similar effect.<br />

The language of patriarchy - gender and power<br />

There is often a particular ideology justifying violence - such as ‘patriarchy’ where there is<br />

violence against women. Abuses of power are evident in cases of domestic violence and<br />

bullying and sexual harassment in workplaces and schools. In addressing the issue of<br />

violence we need to examine the links between violence and masculinity at a public macro<br />

level - as we see in militarism and wars, and at the more private, micro level – such as in our<br />

homes. Because of the relatively private nature of violence against women it “is still<br />

considered different, less severe, and less deserving of international condemnation and<br />

sanction than officially inflicted violence” (Copelon, 1994). However, it has been likened by<br />

some feminist legal scholars to torture. Domestic violence is the leading cause of violent<br />

death among women and is prevalent in all countries in the world (Comas- Diaz & Jansen,<br />

1995; Davies, 1997). It involves physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, social and economic<br />

abuses and causes millions of women in the world to suffer anguish, humiliation, debilitation<br />

and fear.<br />

The effects of patriarchal attitudes to women also impact on our other societal institutions.<br />

Gender-based bullying and sexual harassment in workplaces and in schools have some of<br />

the same or similar characteristics as domestic violence and can lead to similar effects.<br />

I would argue that much of the violence in the world can be linked to a particular construction<br />

of masculinity. The findings of my own PhD study suggest that in many Australian schools<br />

physical prowess and the ability to win a fight, or to rebel against school norms and abuse<br />

teachers, is necessary to the construction of a popular ‘macho’ masculine image. Boys report<br />

that they feel pressured to engage in physical fights and to abuse teachers to demonstrate or<br />

prove their masculinity and run the risk of being insulted by being called a ‘girl’, ‘wuss’ or a<br />

‘poofter’ if they decline to do so.<br />

11


In general, people will intervene if physical conflicts get out of control in the home, workplace<br />

or the school. However they do not respond in the same way to non-physical forms of<br />

violence such as verbal abuse, taunts and insults, which serve to subordinate and<br />

marginalise males and females who do not conform to the gender norms set by the dominant<br />

group. In two major studies I have undertaken in Australia, student victims in schools and<br />

domestic violence victims all reported that verbal and relational abuse can be far more<br />

damaging than physical abuse in the longer term, but it tends to be ‘normalised’ by teachers<br />

and service providers and does not attract as serious sanctions (Bagshaw, 2004). It is verbal<br />

abuse from boys, it seems, that is causing many of our teachers in our South Australian<br />

secondary schools to take stress leave from the workplace. At the same time, these<br />

behaviours, and similar behaviours by males in the workplace are often put down to “boys<br />

being boys” (Bagshaw, 2004; Gilbert & Gilbert, 1998; Sinclair, 1998). If we reflect on the<br />

gender of the leaders of the majority of countries who perpetrate wars and other forms of<br />

violence, we can also make the same link.<br />

The economic context: the language of global, rational economics and managerialism<br />

The steady globalization of international finance and trade is creating wealth for a few<br />

nations and individuals within them and is leading to marginalisation and social disintegration<br />

for millions around the world, increasing the gap between the rich and poor, both in and<br />

between nations, and leading to higher levels of poverty and violence. The influence of<br />

economic rationalism in the Western world has given rise to particular managerial “top-down”<br />

styles of leadership, downsizing, casualisation, unemployment and so forth. There has been<br />

a move toward "trust in the market and private business methods ... ideas ... couched in the<br />

language of economic rationalism" (Larry, 1995, p.94), the central tenet being that "all human<br />

behavior is dominated by self-interest" (Kamensky, 1996, p.251).<br />

Rationality has be<strong>com</strong>e one of the most important values in public organizations. Programs<br />

are implemented through top-down control mechanisms, limiting discretion as much as<br />

possible.<br />

Bureaucracies seek to be closed systems to the extent possible, thus limiting citizen<br />

involvement and efficiency. In many Western workplaces managers are now more inclined to<br />

be chosen for their technical <strong>com</strong>petence rather than for their people skills. In addition,<br />

Osborne and Gaebler suggest public administrators are responding to admonishments to<br />

12


"steer rather than row," and to be the entrepreneurs of a new, leaner, and increasingly<br />

privatised government and "those who steer the boat have far more power over its<br />

destination than those who row it" (Osborne & Gaebler, 1992, p.32). The shift from rowing to<br />

steering has left administrators in charge of the boat, choosing its goals and directions and<br />

charting a path to achieve them. Others suggest that public entrepreneurship and what Terry<br />

has called "neomanagerialism" has undermined democratic and constitutional values such as<br />

fairness, justice, representation, and participation in favour of self-interest (Terry, 1993,<br />

1998).<br />

Benjamin Zander, Amanda Sinclair and others in the management field have argued that we<br />

need a new, more feminine metaphor for leadership which makes sure all voices are heard.<br />

As Zander said in an interview on Australian radio (ABC) – “<strong>com</strong>petition is outdated. The<br />

world is hungry for <strong>com</strong>passion and love” (April 2004). Sinclair’s Australian research has<br />

highlighted the absence or invisibility of women in leadership roles in our workplaces. She<br />

found that most leaders of large Australian organisations are Anglo-Celtic males, in spite of<br />

the Australian workforce being among the most culturally and linguistically diverse of any<br />

workforce in the world. She points out there is a “close but obscured connection between<br />

constructs of leadership, traditional assumptions of masculinity and a particular expression of<br />

male heterosexual identity” (Sinclair, 1998, p. 1). She describes this homogeneity in the<br />

characteristics of leadership as being a “major liability” (ibid, p. 13) with costs for males and<br />

females, especially in an environment of dramatic change and with a workforce characterised<br />

by increasing diversity. Dominant notions of leadership are male-constructed and are<br />

interwoven with a heroic version of heterosexual masculinity associated with physical<br />

stamina, emotional toughness, stoicism and self-reliance (ibid, p. 37).<br />

She points out that many of the debates about leadership rely on arguments of economic<br />

imperatives and the language of the markets. However she cites evidence from Australia,<br />

France and the United Kingdom and elsewhere that women run their organisations better, ut<br />

their performance as leaders is frequently defined as something less than leadership. Sinclair<br />

argues that on the one hand the practice of leadership “has provided continuing and varied<br />

opportunities for the expression of male sexualities” (ibid, p.160). On the other hand, women<br />

in corporate leadership roles transgress societal expectations which requires them to actively<br />

censor or camouflage their female sexuality. Femininity conveys the opposite to leadership<br />

and defines one as ineffective as a leader, whilst masculinity is valorised and reinforced (ibid,<br />

p. 161).<br />

Sinclair argues a persuasive case for men and women “doing leadership differently”,<br />

privileging the “softer” more feminine skills of leadership. However she also points out that<br />

13


change will not occur without resistance and conflict. Structural changes in the economy<br />

have resulted in women be<strong>com</strong>ing a growing <strong>com</strong>ponent of the workforce, albeit at lower pay<br />

and in casualised positions. An emphasis on the feminine will mean managers will need to<br />

refocus on valuing people and not just productivity, and leadership styles will move towards<br />

collaboration and shared leadership based on respect for all people. Notions of shared<br />

leadership provide opportunities for employees and citizens to affirm and act on their public<br />

service motives and values. Shared leadership focuses on the goals, values, and ideals that<br />

the organization and <strong>com</strong>munity want to advance and must be characterized by mutual<br />

respect, ac<strong>com</strong>modation and support. As Burns would say, leadership exercised by working<br />

through and with people transforms them and shifts their focus to higher level values (Burns,<br />

1978).<br />

The political context: the language of war<br />

War cannot be separated from economics. Ghandi pointed out that “poverty is a form of<br />

violence” and others have highlighted that poverty and the lack of development in countries<br />

or groups fuels hatred and escalates hostilities. One of the most distressing realities of our<br />

time is that most wars have been fought in countries that can least afford them, primarily for<br />

economic reasons. Economic warfare, where sanctions are put in place to put pressure on<br />

errant regimes, gives rise to problems of poor nutrition and health. These sanctions create<br />

problems for the poor and the vulnerable (usually women and children), often leaving the real<br />

targets untouched. It has been argued that improvements in such areas as nutrition, health,<br />

education, water, sanitation and family planning would go far to reduce the underlying<br />

causes of many wars (Bellamy, 1996). Instead, large amounts of scarce resources are<br />

devoted to armaments, with industrialized countries as the dominant arms suppliers. War is<br />

lucritive for the wealthy countries who produce most of the armaments. Increased access to<br />

information technology has meant that the language of war is currently infecting the minds of<br />

many people around the globe. Using the example of the recent war in Iraq, one side talked<br />

about ‘liberation’, which the other described as ‘invasion’. So-called ‘weapons of mass<br />

destruction’, such as anthrax, have killed very few people <strong>com</strong>pared to the bombs and<br />

sophisticated guns that have killed thousands. In some Western countries, such as Australia,<br />

the media have been <strong>com</strong>plicit in using battle language in reporting activities in war-time –<br />

they tend to take up phrases and use them mindlessly and repetitively. We declare war on<br />

everything, but the real targets are often vulnerable or impoverished people and countries.<br />

Emotive phrases serve to legitimise war and create fear and panic responses. ‘Terror’, and<br />

‘evil’, for example are now overarching words that have a fuzzy meaning, not clearly defined,<br />

14


and are used to loosely to describe someone different to us - ‘the other’. ‘Collateral damage’,<br />

a term used often in recent wars, really means killing people one didn’t need or mean to kill.<br />

The events of September 11, when hundreds of people were killed, have raised legitimate<br />

concerns about issues of social justice and security. All of us want some reassurances that<br />

we will not have to live in constant fear of violence and terror. However, our increasing<br />

reliance on the war metaphor for describing difficult situations (e.g. war on terrorism, war on<br />

poverty, war on drugs, and war on crime) should be used with great caution.<br />

1. If we perceive or describe violent acts or situations as war, we grant the perpetrators of<br />

unspeakable acts a legitimacy they do not deserve.<br />

2. If we describe this as a war, we imply that war can bring our enemies to their knees and<br />

keep them from ever harming us again.<br />

3. If we describe this as a war, we avoid examining the motives of those we consider to be<br />

enemies.<br />

4. If we describe this as a war, we betray our own highest values of justice, due process,<br />

and fairness (Docherty, Accessed April 2004).<br />

The construction of enemies<br />

Conflict, as we know, is a product of social interaction and violent conflict is fuelled by the<br />

institutionalisation of difference and the language of inclusion and exclusion. Conflict, hether<br />

it be between employees at work, unions and employers, or war between countries, often<br />

involves a process whereby parties adopt opposing, dichotomous positions in relation to an<br />

issue or problem and then only hear or advance ideas that agree with their position. The<br />

opposing positions be<strong>com</strong>e increasingly rigid and intractable, and if there is no effective<br />

intervention the conflict escalates. The parties increasingly harden their respective positions<br />

and categorise and construct the ‘other’ as the ‘enemy’. A normative discourse develops<br />

which justifies these formations, valorising the cause of one side and denigrating the cause<br />

of the other.<br />

It is <strong>com</strong>mon for people to use binary categories or dualistic ways of speaking – such as<br />

‘good versus evil’, ‘them versus us’ – to construct an enemy. The enemy is objectified and<br />

dehumanised and described as being evil or deviant in some way - such as ‘terrorists’, ‘rogue<br />

states’, ‘axis of evil’ etc. Over the centuries fears of a constructed enemy have been fuelled<br />

by governments, leading to the proliferation of weapons in most countries in our world, with<br />

the more powerful nations seen as legitimately able to produce, stockpile and use unlimited<br />

15


weapons whilst at the same time persuading us that ‘others’ are irresponsible and a threat<br />

and therefore should be legitimately disarmed.<br />

At both micro and macro levels, we can trace historically how the enemy has been objectified<br />

and dehumanised. In World War 2, for example, the enemy was constructed as evil by<br />

governments on both sides with the aid of propoganda. Visual images, such as posters,<br />

depicted the enemy as objects, ‘not human’, evil, a threat to women and children, or as<br />

animals, inevitably depicting them in a derogatory way. This binary way of talking and<br />

thinking also fuels conflicts in the microcosms of families, workplaces and schools. Binary<br />

categories or versions of events exclude similarities, subtlety and context and imply that you<br />

are either ‘with us or against us’. We have witnessed in the recent war in Iraq how ‘outsiders’<br />

were constructed as ‘traitors to the cause’ (eg. France) or the ‘deserving enemy’ (eg. the raqi<br />

‘regime’) by the so-called ‘coalition of the willing’.<br />

The proximity of global conflicts - information technology and the media<br />

At a global level, the proximity of the media greatly influences our responses to global<br />

conflicts and imparts stories and images of violence to individuals, which in turn influence<br />

their attitudes and behaviour. We have witnessed war correspondents’ influence on the<br />

<strong>com</strong>munity’s acceptance of war in Iraq. Miltitary powers on both sides have sought to<br />

harness the image factory for their own purposes. Media reports rarely provide a balanced<br />

view. Sanitised, censored one-sided versions of ‘the truth’ are disseminated by various<br />

governments and the military via control of the media, in particular where there are<br />

journalists ‘embedded’ with the troops.<br />

Since the war in Vietnam in the 1960’s, often described as the first television war, image<br />

manufacturers have be<strong>com</strong>e key players in the politics of military conflict. Images of terrified<br />

Indochinese children fleeing the dragon’s breath of a napalm attack made a real difference to<br />

Australian people’s attitudes to the war in Vietnam (Slattery, 2003). With improvements in<br />

information technology we are now exposed to more and more stories and images that affirm<br />

our <strong>com</strong>mon humanity. Te<strong>com</strong>munications have brought the suffering of citizens in so-called<br />

enemy countries, and other horrific events, into our sitting rooms so that we can no longer<br />

reat them with indifference. The world has grown smaller and the faces of the enemy are<br />

now less blurred and indistinct, making it much harder for our respective governments to<br />

convince us that all people in a nation are ‘evil’ or ‘the enemy’. When we cannot or do not<br />

see the faces of our enemies it is easier for governments and the military machinary to<br />

objectify or demonise them. Increasingly, however, new technologies not only show us the<br />

faces, but let us hear the perspectives of ‘others’ who we can see are not really much<br />

different from us, despite the colour of their skin or the shape of their nose.<br />

16


In opposition to the assumption that war imagery and <strong>com</strong>mentary is powerful enough to shift<br />

national or world opinion are concerns about the increase in our levels of tolerance for<br />

violence and the effects of such imagery. Some people report that they have been<br />

anaesthetised or de-sensitized to violence and war by overexposure to violent events.<br />

Hearing the cries of wounded or starving children and seeing the suffering and anguish of<br />

their parents can lead to ‘<strong>com</strong>passion fatigue’ and some switch off the TV set or move to<br />

another channel. “The cult of ‘instantaneity’ that technology encourages can flatten<br />

information into a homogenous stream of violent images and instant analysis” (Bellamy,<br />

1996).<br />

American writer, Susan Sontag, describes the emotionally neutralising impact of repeated<br />

exposure to photography. In her most recent book – Regarding the Pain of Others - she<br />

argues that photography is less important than the principal medium of the news – television<br />

- which is organised to “arouse and to satiate, by its surfeit of images. Image glut keeps<br />

attention light, mobile, relatively indifferent to content” (Slattery, 2003). Sontag wants the<br />

imagery of war to regain some power to move and laments the loss of an innocent eye that<br />

would allow this. I agree that as peacemakers we must continue to be pubicly outraged by<br />

violence and war and work actively to challenge discourses that normalise, justify or condone<br />

it. Whilst modern technology and media reports are exposing us to many ‘truths’ that now<br />

cannot be downplayed by our own governments, the greatest concern is the possibility that<br />

violent discourses are being elevated and normalised in the process. TV channels <strong>com</strong>pete<br />

with each other to see who can offer the most sensational reports. Alarmingly, as the war in<br />

Iraq continued, the support for it from the citizens in countries such as Australia and the UK<br />

seemed to increase at one stage. However, it seems that the tide may now be turning. We<br />

cannot deny that to some extent we are trapped by our own national and cultural<br />

perspectives and the perspectives of our local media, which depict some nations and<br />

peoples as more remote and distant and less valued than others. Local stories and tragedies<br />

are given far more prominance than global stories, unless others ‘like us’ are involved. In an<br />

eloquent article in our Weekend Australian Magazine, Philip Adams provided an illustration of<br />

how our particular world views distort our perceptions.<br />

A million dead in China is equivalent to 500,000 dead in India, is equivalent to 1000 dead in<br />

the United States of America, is equivalent to 200 dead in London … or a couple of people<br />

dead in your own street. Without wishing to minimise the horror of 9/11 and similar<br />

tradgedies such as the bombings in Bali and in London, the Western media has depicted<br />

those deaths as being the most significant and dreadful deaths imaginable, averting our gaze<br />

from, and justifying, other deaths which are just as significant and dreadful - such as the<br />

17


20,000 or more murdered in Afghanistan in retaliation to the ‘War Against Terror’ and the<br />

deaths of hundreds of innocent civilians in Iraq – the deaths of faceless and nameless<br />

victims who are “not like us” (Adams, 2003).<br />

The institutionalisation of violence<br />

Vivienne Jabri (1996), in her book Discourses on Violence, assumes that violent human<br />

conflict is not inherent or ‘natural’ to the human condition. It is a social phenomenon<br />

emerging through, and constitutive of, our social practices through time and across space.<br />

Patterns and continuities of human conduct over time be<strong>com</strong>e institutionalised in discursive<br />

social or institutional systems. Violence is thereby rendered an institutional form of conduct<br />

which is largely seen as inevitable and at times acceptable. For example, research has<br />

identified how in many Australian families, schools and workplaces violence perpetrated boys<br />

or men is regarded as ‘normal’ - ‘it’s just boys being boys’ (Bagshaw, 2004; Bagshaw &<br />

Chung, 2000; Sinclair, 1998).<br />

Conflict, whether it is in a workplace, a family or in the broader international arena, can only<br />

be understood within a wider understanding of human action. Conflict is both a product and a<br />

constitutive part of the relationship between individuals and broader societal structures.<br />

Currently our focus tends to be on the management and regulation of interpersonal violence<br />

rather than its elimination. Regulations serve to legitimate violence and, in some situations,<br />

to justify it by labelling it as “just”, ‘normal’, ‘natural’, ‘humane’, or as a ‘necessary evil’, as<br />

evidenced in World War 2 posters. We have seen these processes at play in the justifications<br />

Copyright, 2005. Dr Dale Bagshaw, Associate Professor, University of South Australia 10<br />

put forward by men for abusing women, and by politicians for instigating the recent war in<br />

Iraq. The moral boundary between violent conflict and non-violent conflict is defined by the<br />

acceptance, legitimacy or justifications conferred on violent behaviour or the type of<br />

sanctions that are put in place.<br />

Challenging violent discourses<br />

The big question we should be addressing in this conference is: how can we challenge<br />

dominant discourses in our families, schools, <strong>com</strong>munities and workplaces that promote or<br />

justify violence when they are dominant in our broader societal, cultural, economic and<br />

political contexts. It is hard, for example, to identify, name and challenge bullying behaviours<br />

18


when they are used in some organisations as a legitimate management strategy and are<br />

modelled by our international leaders as a ‘just’ or appropriate way of dealing with<br />

differences. My philosophy is: “It is better to light a single candle than to curse the darkness”.<br />

As I said earlier, what can or cannot be depicted or talked about and who can and cannot<br />

say certain things will give us a clue as to whose discourses are dominant at a particular<br />

historical point in time and in a particular location, and whose discourses are subordinated or<br />

marginalised. Once a discourse has been identified and deconstructed it can lose its power.<br />

As mediators or peace-makers we need the <strong>com</strong>petence and collective power (perhaps<br />

through an organisation such as the World Mediation Forum) to identify, challenge and<br />

deconstruct the harmful discourses which are dominant in the world and to reconstruct<br />

empowering discourses, such as those which value cooperation, inclusion, shared leadership<br />

and peace. I also believe that the personal must also be political, that is each and every one<br />

of us must be <strong>com</strong>mited to working toward peaceful resolutions to conflicts, such as through<br />

our work as mediators, if we are to really make a long-lasting difference in our conflicted<br />

world. Given the importance I have placed on the power of language or storytelling I would<br />

like to leave you with a story told to me by an Indian friend and colleague who is a peace<br />

activist - Basil Varghese.<br />

When Basil was a small boy his grandfather took him for a walk. He pointed<br />

to a bird and suggested that as he travelled through life he should try to view<br />

the world from the perspective of an eagle. He then asked Basil to look down<br />

a well and to describe what he saw. At first Basil did not see anything, but<br />

after returning to the well two or three times he saw a small green frog. His<br />

grandfather then pointed out that most people are ‘well frogs’ and can only<br />

see what is in the confines of the well and the sky immediately above. He<br />

urged Basil to make every effort to climb out of his well as he journeyed<br />

through life and to start croaking when he reached the outside world. In time<br />

others will<br />

also climb out of their wells and start croaking too and if they try hard enough<br />

they will eventually all croak in unison and create a song together.<br />

I invite you to climb out of your wells during this conference and to look at the place of<br />

mediation in the world from the perspective of an eagle. It is only when we cease to be ‘well<br />

frogs’ that we can transcend the dominant ‘well-based’ discourses on conflict and construct<br />

new discourses that can bring peace and harmony to our world. We also need to explore<br />

ways that our individual voices can unite and speak as one so that we can collectively<br />

contribute to the building of civil and just societies.<br />

19


References<br />

Adams, P. (2003). No names, just numbers. The Weekend Australian Magazine (February<br />

22- 23), 11.<br />

Bagshaw, D. (2000). The Three M's-Mediation, Postmodernism, and the New Millennium.<br />

Mediation Quarterly, 18(3), 205-220.<br />

Bagshaw, D. (2004). Verbal abuse and adolescent identities: Marking the boundaries of<br />

gender. Doctor of Philosophy, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.<br />

Bagshaw, D., & Chung, D. (2000). Gender Politics in Research: Male and Female Violence<br />

in Intimate Relationships. Women Against Violence (8), 4-23.<br />

Bellamy, C. (1996). The State of the World's Children. Oxford: Oxford University Press.<br />

Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row.<br />

Comas-Diaz, L., & Jansen, M. (1995). Global Conflict and Violence Against Women. Peace<br />

and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psycholgy, 1(4), 315-331.<br />

Copelon, R. (1994). Intimate Terror: Understanding Domestic Violence as Torture. In R. J.<br />

Cook (Ed.), Human Rights of Women. National and International Perspectives (pp. 116-<br />

152). Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press.<br />

Davies, M. (Ed.) (1997). Women and Violence: Realities and Responses World Wide<br />

(Second edn.). London and New York: Zed Books Ltd.<br />

Docherty, J. (Accessed April 2004). Four Reasons to Use the War Metaphor with Caution.<br />

mediate.<strong>com</strong>.<br />

Fine, M. (1994). Working the Hyphens: Reinventing Self and Other in Qualitative Research.<br />

In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 70-82).<br />

Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.<br />

Frow, J., & Morris, M. (Eds.). (1993). Australian Cultural Studies: a reader. Sydney.<br />

Gilbert, R., & Gilbert, P. (1998). Masculinity Goes To School. St Leonards: Allen & Unwin.<br />

Kamensky, J. (1996). Role of Reinventing Government Movement in Federal Management<br />

Reform. Administration Review, 56(3), 247-256.<br />

Larry, T. (1995). Leadership of Public Bureaucracies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage<br />

Publications.<br />

Lincoln, Y., & Denzin, N. (1994). The Fifth Moment. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.),<br />

Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications: SAGE<br />

Publications.<br />

Lum, D. (1999). Culturally Competent Practice. A Framework for Growth and Action. Pacific<br />

Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.<br />

Matsumo, D. (1996). Culture and Psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.<br />

20


Okun, B., Fried, J., & Okun, M. (1999). Understanding Diversity: A Learning-as-Practice<br />

Primer.<br />

Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.<br />

Osborne, D., & Gaebler, T. (1992). Reinventing Government. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.<br />

Pederson, P. (1988). Handbook for Developing Multicultural Awareness. Alexandria, VA:<br />

American Association of Counselling and Development.<br />

Penna, S., & O'Brien, M. (1996). Postmodernism and Social Policy: A Small Step Forwards?<br />

Journal of Social Policy, 25(1), 39-61.<br />

Sinclair, A. (1998). Doing Leadership Differently. Carlton South: Melbourne University Press.<br />

Slattery, L. (2003, April 12-13). Mother of all prattles. Weekend Australian, pp. 32.<br />

Terry, L. (1993). Why We Should Abandon the Misconceived Quest to Reconcile Public<br />

Entrepreneurship with Democracy. Public Administration Review, 53(4), 393-395.<br />

Terry, L. (1998). Administrative Leadership, Neo-Managerialism, and the Public<br />

Management Movement. Administration Review, 58(3), 194-200.<br />

Ting-Toomey, S., & Oetzel, J. (2001). Managing Intercultural Conflict Effectively. Thousand<br />

Oaks: Sage Publications.<br />

Winslade, J., & Monk, G. (2000). Narrative Mediation. A New Approach to Conflict<br />

Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />

21


PRE-<br />

CONFERENCE<br />

22


Family Mediation and Violence against Women : Australian<br />

Legisation, Research and Practice 1<br />

______________________________________________________________________<br />

Associate Professor Dale Bagshaw, PhD<br />

Director, Conflict Management Research and Postgraduate Studies<br />

University of South Australia<br />

There are many factors that may constrain women from disclosing violence to family<br />

mediators and other service providers and these will be explored in this paper and the<br />

ac<strong>com</strong>panying workshop. As mediation relies on a roughly equal balance of power between<br />

the parties, and <strong>com</strong>petence to negotiate for oneself, it is argued that screening individuals<br />

separately for experiences of domestic violence is necessary prior to mediation, in particular<br />

during separation and divorce when violence is more likely to occur. This requires special<br />

mediator knowledge of the likely behaviour and needs of the people concerned and an<br />

awareness of the gender and cultural biases that may impact on their assessments. Whether<br />

or not mediators should proceed with mediation where there has been domestic violence is a<br />

highly contested issue. However, before this decision can be made, the fact that domestic<br />

violence has been a factor in a relationship needs to be discovered and disclosed.<br />

1. INTRODUCTION<br />

Many forms of violence that are deeply rooted in Australian and other societies as wellestablished<br />

practices have not been named as ‘violence’ in historical accounts nor in<br />

definitions of violence:<br />

The often subtle and pervasive nature of such behaviours, the ways such behaviours are<br />

made invisible, obfuscated, or in many instances encouraged by custom, language, and law,<br />

mean that recognising and naming “violence” as violence and then responding to it<br />

accordingly is a difficult task. … What gets named as violence is important for developing<br />

strategies to eradicate it 2 .<br />

1 Adapted from: Bagshaw, Dale. Contested Truths: Disclosing Domestic Violence in Family Law Mediation,<br />

Chapter 3 in Part 1 - Preparing for Success: Opportunities through Education, Pammer, W. J. & Killian, J. (Eds.)<br />

Handbook of Conflict Management, Marcel Dekker Inc: New York, 2003, pages 49-84<br />

ISBN number: 0-8247-4257-5. This paper is not to be copied or reproduced.<br />

2 Cook, S., & Bessant, J. (Eds.). (1997). Women's Encounters with Violence: Australian Experiences.<br />

Melbourne: SAGE Publishers, pages 11-13.<br />

23


Feminist analyses of violence focus on the gendered social contexts within which violence<br />

occurs. Poststructuralist feminists highlight that the meaning of the term ‘violence’ is socially<br />

constructed and prevailing notions of culpability and victimisation, the characteristics of the<br />

victim, and the particular social, historical and cultural context all influence interpretations of<br />

violence 3 . Any contest between the ‘truths’ or experiences and perceptions of men and<br />

women will be affected by patriarchal contexts within which the rights of men are favoured.<br />

In spite of the rise of feminism, women worldwide continue to struggle to have their needs<br />

recognised and met within male dominated systems. 4<br />

Domestic violence research findings clearly indicate that women are more likely to be<br />

‘victims’ or ‘survivors’ of domestic violence and men are more likely to be ‘perpetrators’ 5 .<br />

Socio-political approaches to domestic violence use these terms to focus attention on the<br />

continuing subjection of women to violence in the home by men. However, this does not<br />

mean that all males are perpetrators, or that females do not perpetrate violence against<br />

males. There are a small percentage of males who are victims of female violence 6 . This<br />

paper, however, will focus on violence against women.<br />

Attempts have been made to identify different types of victims and/or to explain how victims<br />

have precipitated violence against them, with the implication that the victim needs to change<br />

and is in some way responsible for, or contributes to the violence. For example, the tendency<br />

of mediators to focus on individual interests and needs, rather than the social context, and to<br />

try to be ’neutral’ in their role as facilitators, may lead to <strong>com</strong>promises that imply the<br />

‘survivors’ of domestic violence are blameworthy and need to change in some way. Feminist<br />

scholars have pointed out that the effect of this approach is to ignore those responsible for<br />

the violence and to leave the violence unchallenged 7 . Others have challenged the language<br />

of victimology, preferring to use language that describes the structures that limit women's<br />

access to power and resources 8 . The word ‘victim’ suggests that women are “passive,<br />

3 Richardson, D., & May, H. (May 1999). Deserving victims?: Sexual status and the social construction of<br />

violence. The Sociological Review, 47(2), 1-14.<br />

4 Davies, M. (Ed.). (1997). Women and Violence: Realities and Responses World Wide (Second ed.). London and<br />

New York: Zed Books Ltd..<br />

5 Archer, Wadham, Newburn, T., & Stanko, E. A. (1994). When Men are Victims. London. Bagshaw, D., &<br />

Chung, D. (2000). Gender Politics in Research: Male and Female Violence in Intimate Relationships. Women<br />

Against Violence (8), 4-23. Dobash, R. E., Dobash, R. P., Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1992). The Myth of Sexual<br />

Symmetry in Marital Violence. Social Problems, 39(1), 71-91.<br />

6 Bagshaw, D., & Chung, D. (2000). Gender Politics in Research: Male and Female Violence in Intimate<br />

Relationships. Women Against Violence (8), 4-23.<br />

7 McCarthy, T. (Ed.). (1997). Rethinking Theories of Victimology. Men's Violence Against Women. Thousand<br />

Oaks,California: SAGE publications.<br />

8 Abrams, K. (1995). Sex wars redux: Agency and coercion in feminist legal theory. Columbia Law Review, 95,<br />

301-305.<br />

24


inadequate and blameworthy” in relation to the violence against them 9 and the word ‘survivor’<br />

is therefore often preferred. Protectionist arguments for excluding all cases of domestic<br />

violence from mediation may be challenged on these premises. For some women this may<br />

be their first opportunity to assert their needs in the presence of the person who has<br />

previously perpetrated violence against them.<br />

2. THE NATURE OF VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN<br />

In the 1970’s in Australia, domestic violence was made public by the women’s movement as<br />

‘violence against women’ and now has a long political history. Over the past two or three<br />

decades, research into domestic violence has identified the predominance of male violence<br />

in patriarchal contexts and more recently has focused on the links between violence against<br />

women and dominant discourses about masculinity.<br />

Violence against women is prevalent worldwide and was first established as a development<br />

issue at the United Nations’ Decade for Women’s meeting in 1985. 10 Many researchers 11<br />

across the Western world have provided evidence for the preponderance of male violence<br />

toward women. There is much research evidence to support the premise that violence<br />

against women is a serious problem in Australia 12 . Central to most definitions of domestic or<br />

family violence is power and control by one person of another, who in turn experiences fear<br />

and intimidation. For example, in Australia the National Committee for Violence Against<br />

Women have defined male violence against women as:<br />

9 McCarthy, T. (Ed.). (1997). Rethinking Theories of Victimology. Men's Violence Against Women. Thousand<br />

Oaks,California: SAGE publications.<br />

10 (Davies, 1997). Davies, M. (Ed.). (1997). Women and Violence: Realities and Responses World Wide (Second<br />

ed.). London and New York: Zed Books Ltd.<br />

11 Dobash, R. E., Dobash, R. P., Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1992). The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital<br />

Violence. Social Problems, 39(1), 71-91;<br />

Gondolf, E. W. (1993). Reconceptualising Batterer Program Evaluation. Paper presented at the Proceedings of<br />

the 3rd National Conference for Professionals Working with Men who Batter, Minneapolis US; Straton, J. C.<br />

(1994). The Myth of the Battered Husband Syndrome. Masculinities: Interdisciplinary Studies on Gender, 2(4),<br />

79-83; Yllo, K. (1982). The Status of Women, Marital Equality and Violence against Wives. Journal of Family<br />

Issues, 5(3), 307-320. Eisikovits, Z. E., J. (1989), '', Social Service Review, vol. September, no. pp. 384-414<br />

(1989). Intervening with Men who Batter: A Critical Review of the Literature. Social Service Review,<br />

September, 384-414. Jouriles, E. N., & O'Leary, K. D. (1985b). Interspousal Reliability of Marital Violence.<br />

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 5(3); Pease, B. (1991). Evaluating treatment Programs for<br />

Violent Men: Dilemmas and Priorities . The NSW Local Domestic Violence Committees.<br />

12 Jones, Michelle, (1994) Violence Against Women in the Family: From International Year of the Family To<br />

The World Conference on Women and Beyond. Australian National Internship Program, Canberra, June.<br />

25


Behaviour by the man, adopted to control his victim, which results in physical, sexual or<br />

psychological damage, forced social isolation, or economic deprivation, or behaviour which<br />

leaves a woman living in fear. 13<br />

In addition, the Australian Family Law Act, 1975 defines ‘family violence’ as:<br />

conduct, whether actual or threatened, by a person towards, or towards the property of, a<br />

member of the person’s family that causes that or any other member of the person’s family to<br />

fear for, or to be apprehensive about, his or her well being or safety. 14<br />

Studies of domestic violence have demonstrated that:<br />

violence was used by men [against women] they lived with to silence them, to "win"<br />

arguments, to express dissatisfaction, to deter future behaviour and to merely express<br />

dominance 15 .<br />

Violence is hard to quantitatively measure because the abuse of power gives rise to<br />

emotional and psychological responses from victims that make experiences of violence<br />

difficult to report. In addition, victims and researchers often fail to identify non-physical forms<br />

of abuse as ‘violence’. For example, in a recent South Australian study 16 , which I conducted<br />

with my colleagues, of the needs of men, women and young people who have experienced<br />

domestic violence, we asked victims ‘how often’ the violence and abuse happened. They<br />

often reported that ‘he only hit me once or twice in a month, but I live in the fear he will hit me<br />

everyday’. In this study, the 120+ phone-in respondents (mainly women) were asked to<br />

consider the full range of abusive behaviours. When asked how frequently abuse happened,<br />

84 per cent responded that they experienced abuse at least once or twice a week or more<br />

often. Forty-nine per cent reported abuse as a daily experience. Many reported that multiple<br />

forms of abuse occurred simultaneously. Controlling and intimidating perpetrator behaviours,<br />

leading to fear, were central to the experience of all of the victims interviewed.<br />

An imbalance of power between perpetrators and victims distinguishes domestic violence<br />

from what Johnson describes as “<strong>com</strong>mon couple conflict”, where there is roughly equal<br />

balance of power between the people involved 17 . Johnson 18 uses the term “patriarchal<br />

13<br />

National Committee on Violence Against Women (1991). Position Paper, Australian Government Printing<br />

Services: Canberra.<br />

14 Australian Family Law Act 1975 with Regulations and Rules, Consolidated to 11 th June 1996, CHC Australia<br />

Ltd: North Ryde, 18 th edition, page 1,324.<br />

15 In Dobash, R. Emerson & Dobash, Russell P. (1990) "Research as Social Action. The Struggle for Battered<br />

Women". In Chapter 2 in Yllo, Kersti, Bograd, Michele Editors. (1990). Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse.<br />

SAGE Publications:Newbury Park, page 57.<br />

16 Bagshaw, Dale; Chung, Donna; Couch, Murray; Lilburn, Sandra, Wadham, Ben (2000) Reshaping Responses<br />

to Domestic Violence, Volumes 1, 2 and 3. Office of the Status of Women, Pirie Printers: Canberra.<br />

(http://www.padv.dpmc.gov.au/publications/publicat.htm)<br />

17 Ibid; Johnson, Michael Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence Against<br />

Women, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Volume 57, May, pages 287-294<br />

26


terrorism” to describe male violence against women because it has the advantage of<br />

“keeping the focus on the perpetrator and keeping our attention on the systematic, intentional<br />

nature of this form of violence”. He argues that this form of violence, which is the focus of<br />

‘feminist’ or ‘violence against women’ research, differs from what he calls “<strong>com</strong>mon couple<br />

conflict” 19 which is <strong>com</strong>monly identified in surveys conducted by ‘family’ researchers. He<br />

points out that the two traditions of research are dealing with non-overlapping phenomena—<br />

the sampling decisions give access to populations experiencing different forms of violence.<br />

Johnson also notes a possible sampling bias in self-report survey data aimed at identifying<br />

prevalence rates of domestic violence:<br />

Men who systematically terrorize their wives would hardly be likely to agree to participate in<br />

such a survey, and the women whom they beat would probably be terrified at the possibility<br />

that their husband might find out that they had answered such questions 20 .<br />

In reviewing a wide range of research literature there is ample evidence to confirm some of<br />

Johnson’s views 21 . ‘Family’ researchers, unlike ‘feminist’ researchers, tend to ignore the<br />

context of domestic violence and the <strong>com</strong>plex issues of gender and power and therefore their<br />

findings cannot be readily <strong>com</strong>pared to the findings of feminist researchers for whom these<br />

issues are central. The majority of family violence studies using survey techniques such as<br />

the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS) have focussed on physical assaults between couples 22 .<br />

However, in 1997, Murray Straus 23 , a key ‘family’ researcher involved in these studies,<br />

acknowledged that physical assaults are not necessarily the most damaging type of abuse<br />

and that verbal aggression can be far more damaging 24 . The <strong>com</strong>monly held view that<br />

domestic violence is mainly physical – such as hitting, slapping, pushing - has also been<br />

challenged by our South Australian study and most other domestic violence research. The<br />

vast majority of victims interviewed in our study reported that verbal, psychological and<br />

18 Johnson, M. (1995). Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence Against<br />

Women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(May), page 284<br />

19 Given the findings of qualitative research studies, it is dangerous to assume that some of what Johnson calls<br />

‘<strong>com</strong>mon couple violence’ will not escalate into ‘patriarchal terrorism’ over time.<br />

20 Johnson, M. (1995). Patriarchal Terrorism and Common Couple Violence: Two Forms of Violence Against<br />

Women. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57(May), page 289.<br />

21 Bagshaw, D., & Chung, D. (2000). Gender Politics in Research: Male and Female Violence in Intimate<br />

Relationships. Women Against Violence: An Australian Feminist Journal (8), July 2000, 4-23.<br />

22 Ibid.<br />

23 Straus, M. (1997). Physical Assaults by Women Partners: A Major Social Problem. In M.R. Walsh (Ed.),<br />

Women, Men and Gender: Ongoing Debates (pp. 210-221). New Haven & London: Yale University Press.<br />

24 Bagshaw, D., Chung, D., Couch, M., Lilburn, S., & Wadham, B. (2000). Reshaping Responses to Domestic<br />

Violence . Department for Human Services and Office of the Status of Women, Pirie Printers: Canberra; Straus,<br />

M. (1997). Physical Assaults by Women Partners: A Major Social Problem. In M. R. Walsh (Ed.), Women, Men<br />

and Gender: Ongoing Debates (pp. 210-221). New Haven & London: Yale University Press; Vissing, Y. M.,<br />

Straus, M., Gelles, R., & Harrop, J. (1991). Verbal aggression by parents and psychosocial problems of children.<br />

Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 223-238.<br />

27


emotional abuse occurred daily and was more devastating and long lasting in its negative<br />

impact. In particular, many spoke about the unpredictable nature of abusive events with<br />

psychological and emotional abuses occurring around the ‘little things’ of daily life. Most<br />

victims reported that threats of physical violence were as powerful in maintaining control as<br />

the actual incidents of violence. One of the reasons for this was that perpetrators had shown<br />

that they were capable of carrying out the threats 25 .<br />

Recently in Australia, in part due to increasing political pressure from men’s rights and<br />

father’s rights groups 26 , there has been increasing concern that some victims of domestic<br />

violence are being ignored or silenced - namely males who are abused by females. These<br />

concerns were fuelled by the release of a research report entitled Domestic Violence in<br />

Australia: Are women and men equally violent? 27 The researchers claimed to provide<br />

evidence, based on a large survey, that males and females in intimate heterosexual<br />

relationships perpetrate domestic violence equally. However when asked to analyse their<br />

research we found that the questions asked focused narrowly on a limited range of physical<br />

behaviours, did not address the history or context of conflicts and the findings therefore did<br />

not reflect similarity of motivation, action or consequences for the men and women involved.<br />

Our report, which rebutted their findings, was <strong>com</strong>missioned by the Commonwealth<br />

Government’s Partnerships Against Domestic Violence, and argued that the use of violence<br />

and the effects of violence differ both quantitatively and qualitatively for males and females 28 .<br />

We found that although there is some evidence that both men and women engage in abusive<br />

behaviour in heterosexual relationships, studies suggest that the nature and consequence of<br />

women’s violence is not equivalent to men’s violence in the following ways:<br />

• Men’s violence is more severe. For example, when Straus 29 re-analysed data from the<br />

often-cited 1985 National Violence Survey in North America, he found that men were six<br />

times more likely to inflict severe injury. Men in Australia <strong>com</strong>mit about 91 per cent of<br />

homicides, 90 per cent of assaults, nearly all sexual assaults and nearly all armed and<br />

violent robberies. 30<br />

25 Vissing, Y. M., Straus, M., Gelles, R., & Harrop, J. (1991). Verbal aggression by parents and psychosocial<br />

problems of children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15, 223-238.<br />

26 The recent political activity of the Lone Fathers Association in the Australia Capital Territory has resulted in<br />

the introduction of a men’s shelter in Canberra, with support from a $50,000 grant from the Commonwealth<br />

Government and $100,000 from the Government of the Australian Capital Territory.<br />

27 Heady, B., Scott, D., & de Vaus, D. (1999). Domestic violence in Australia: Are women and men equally<br />

violent? Melbourne: Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research.<br />

28 Bagshaw, Dale and Chung, Donna, Women, Men and Domestic Violence, A Report for the Office of the Status<br />

of Women, Partnerships Against Domestic Violence, Pirie Printers: Canberra, 2000.<br />

29 Straus, M. (Ed.). (1993). Physical Assault by Wives. Newbury Park: SAGE Publications.<br />

30 Egger, S. (1995). A Preview of Violence in Australia. Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service.<br />

28


• In Australia the vast majority of victims of femicide (60%) are killed by their intimate male<br />

partners in a private residence 31 . By contrast, less than 10% of Australian male<br />

homicides are perpetrated by intimate female partners 32 .<br />

• Most male homicides are <strong>com</strong>mitted by males in public places as a result of alcoholrelated<br />

arguments 33 . Women, however, are more likely to be killed by current and former<br />

male partners than by anyone else 34 .<br />

• Significant precipitants for men who kill their female partners are desertion, termination of<br />

a relationship and jealousy 35 . However, studies of wives who kill their husbands reveal<br />

that there is a history of marital violence in more than 70 per cent of the cases and over<br />

half of husband-killings occur in response to an immediate threat or attack by the<br />

husband 36 .<br />

• Men’s violence towards women is most often an attempt to control, coerce, humiliate or<br />

dominate 37 by generating fear and intimidation 38 . However, women’s violence is more<br />

often an expression of frustration in response to their dependence or stress 39 , or their<br />

refusal to accept a less powerful position 40 . Other studies also suggest that women’s<br />

violence is more likely to occur as self-defence in relationships where the male partner is<br />

violent 41 .<br />

31 Mouzos, J. (1999). Femicide: An Overview of Major Findings. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology,<br />

page 2.<br />

32 Mouzos, J. (1999). Femicide: An Overview of Major Findings. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.<br />

33 ibid.<br />

34 Ibid; Walsh, M. R. (Ed.). (1997). Women, Men & Gender: Ongoing Debates. New Haven & London: Yale<br />

University Press, page 207.<br />

35 Ho, R., & Venus, M. (1995). Domestic Violence and Spousal Homicide: The Admissibility of Expert Witness<br />

Testimony in Trials of Battered Women Who Kill their Abusive Spouses. Journal of Family Studies, 1(1), 24-32.<br />

36 Mouzos, J. (1999). Femicide: An Overview of Major Findings. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.<br />

Ho, R., & Venus, M. (1995). Domestic Violence and Spousal Homicide: The Admissibility of Expert Witness<br />

Testimony in Trials of Battered Women Who Kill their Abusive Spouses. Journal of Family Studies, 1(1), 24-32.<br />

37 Cascardi, M., & Vivian, D. (1995). Context for Specific Episodes of Marital Violence, Gender and Severity of<br />

Violence Difference. Journal of Family Violence, 10(3). Scutt, J. (1983). Even in the Best of Homes. Melbourne:<br />

Penguin.<br />

38 Campbell, A. (1993). Out of Control: Men, Women and Aggression. London: Pandora.<br />

39 ibid.<br />

40 Scutt, J. (1983). Even in the Best of Homes. Melbourne: Penguin.<br />

41 DeKeseredy, W., & MacLean, B. (1990). Researching Women Abuse in Canada: A realistic critique of the<br />

Conflict Tactics Scale. Canadian Review of Social Policy, 25, 19-27; DeKeseredy, W., & MacLeod, L. (1997).<br />

Woman Abuse: A sociological story. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; Jacobsen, N., Gottman, J., Waltz,<br />

J., Rushe, R., Babcock, J., & Holdsworth-Munroe, A. (1994). Affect, Verbal Content, Psychophysiology in the<br />

Arguments of Couples with a Violent Husband. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(5), 982-988;<br />

Saunders, D. (1986). When battered women use violence: Husband-abuse or self-defense? Violence and Victims,<br />

1, 47-60; Saunders, D. (1988). Wife Abuse, Husband Abuse, or Mutual Combat? A Feminist Perspective on the<br />

Empirical Findings. In K. Yllo & M. Bograd (Eds.), Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse (pp. 90-113). Newbury<br />

Park: SAGE Publications; Saunders, D. (1989). Who hits first and who hurts most? Evidence for the greater<br />

victimization of women in intimate relationships. Paper presented at the Annual Meetings of the American<br />

Society of Criminology, Reno, NV; Walker, L. (1984). The Battered Woman Syndrome. New York: Springer.<br />

29


• Most women whose partners are violent live in fear before, during and after separation 42 .<br />

However, male victims are far less likely to be afraid or intimidated and are more likely to<br />

be angry 43 .<br />

3. COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN<br />

The Australian Family Law Act, 1975 defines a family violence order as:<br />

an order (including an interim order) made under a prescribed law of a State or Territory to<br />

protect a person from family violence. 44<br />

For more than a decade in Australia the focus of law reform in the area of domestic violence<br />

has been to introduce new or amended forms of protection orders 45 with breaches of orders<br />

being a criminal offence. Criminal charges punish past actions and protection orders seek to<br />

establish a range of conditions that will prevent violence. However there is concern with the<br />

lack of enforcement of existing law, with unsatisfactory procedures and a lack of consistency<br />

across states and territories. There is also concern that some states and territories have<br />

adopted narrow definitions of domestic violence and exclude certain relationships from being<br />

eligible for protection, such as same sex relationships. 46<br />

As early as 1992, the National Strategy on Violence Against Women stressed that violence<br />

against women in Australia should not be allowed to continue 47 . However, others have<br />

suggested that it may take at least two generations before attitudes towards domestic<br />

violence can be changed.<br />

Abuse of women’s rights, be it domestic violence or blatant discriminatory customs or<br />

religious laws, are more often than not, simply tolerated or accepted as the norm 48 .<br />

42 Bagshaw, D., Chung, D., Couch, M., Lilburn, S., & Wadham, B. (2000). Reshaping Responses to Domestic<br />

Violence . Office for the Status of Women, Partnerships Against Domestic Violence, Pirie Printers: Canberra.<br />

43 Ibid..<br />

Campbell, A. (1993). Out of Control: Men, Women and Aggression. London: Pandora.<br />

Jacobsen, N., Gottman, J., Waltz, J., Rushe, R., Babcock, J., & Holdsworth-Munroe, A. (1994). Affect, Verbal<br />

Content, Psychophysiology in the Arguments of Couples with a Violent Husband. Journal of Consulting and<br />

Clinical Psychology, 62(5), 982-988. Heady, B., Scott, D., & de Vaus, D. (1999). Domestic violence in<br />

Australia: Are women and men equally violent? Melbourne: Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and<br />

Social Research. Stanko, E., & Hobdell, K. (Summer 1993). Assault on Men. Masculinity and Male<br />

Victimisation. British Journal of Criminology, 33 (3), 400-415.<br />

44 Australian Family Law Act, 1975 with Regulations and Rules, Consolidated to 11 th June 1996, CHC Australia<br />

Ltd: North Ryde, 18 th edition, page 1,324.<br />

45 Australian Family Law Act, 1975 with Regulations and Rules, Consolidated to 11 th June 1996, CHC Australia<br />

Ltd: North Ryde, 18 th edition.<br />

46 Ibid, page 5.<br />

47 National Committee on Violence Against Women (1992) National Strategy on Violence Against Women.<br />

Commonwealth of Australia, page vii<br />

48 Jones, Michelle (1994). Violence Against Women in the Family: From International Year of the Family to the<br />

World Conference on Women and Beyond. Australian National Internship Program, page 10<br />

30


A number of Australian studies have identified the extent of the problem in the <strong>com</strong>munity. In<br />

1995, a national study of Community Attitudes to Violence Against Women reported that the<br />

<strong>com</strong>munity estimates that nearly five out of ten women have been, or will be, subjected to<br />

domestic violence (defined broadly) and that one in five Australians believe that in some<br />

circumstances it is acceptable for a man to use physical force against his wife 49 . In this<br />

study, the members of the <strong>com</strong>munity were seen to be judgmental of women who<br />

experienced domestic violence by indicating that they did not understand why these women<br />

do not leave violent situations.<br />

In 1996, the Australian Bureau of Statistics national Women’s Safety Survey 50 found that only<br />

a small proportion (26 per cent) of women subjected to violence use crisis services or contact<br />

the police. The majority of women reported that they “dealt with it themselves” 51 . In the same<br />

year, another Australian study 52 of mediation and domestic violence identified that of the 75<br />

identified abused women who had attended family mediation sessions with their partner<br />

during the process of separation or divorce, 8 had told the agency “hardly anything”, and 12<br />

said “nothing” about the abuse or violence in their relationship, in spite of being asked.<br />

Seven did not answer this survey question. As a result of these findings the Australian<br />

Government’s Partnerships Against Domestic Violence have funded a range of domestic<br />

violence research, including the aforementioned South Australian study that the author and<br />

her colleagues undertook to investigate the needs of women, men and young people who<br />

have been involved in domestic violence situations 53 .<br />

The aim of our South Australian study was to inform the design and implementation of<br />

effective strategies and interventions to prevent domestic violence, based on a current<br />

analysis of the needs of victims, perpetrators and also young people who have witnessed<br />

domestic violence. The research strategies were inclusive of people from Aboriginal, rural,<br />

migrant, lesbian and gay <strong>com</strong>munities and the findings have been published in a substantial<br />

49<br />

Office of the Status of Women, (1995) Community Attitudes to Violence Against Women, Australian<br />

Government Publishing Service: ACT, July<br />

50 Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996). Women’s Safety Australia ABS Catalogue No. 4128.0, Commonwealth<br />

of Australia. For the purpose of this survey violence is defined as “any incident involving the occurrence,<br />

attempt or threat of either physical or sexual assault.” Page 2.<br />

51 Australian Bureau of Statistics (1996). Women’s Safety Australia ABS Catalogue No. 4128.0, Commonwealth<br />

of Australia.<br />

52 Keys Young (1996) Research/Evaluation of Family Mediation Practice and the Issue of Violence, Legal Aid<br />

and Family Services, Attorney-General’s Department, Canberra: ACT, page 59. In this study violence was<br />

defined in this survey as “behaviour by the man, adopted to control his victim, which results in physical, sexual<br />

and/or psychological damage, forced social isolation, or economic deprivation, or behaviour which leaves a<br />

woman living in fear”. (Pages i & ii.)<br />

53 Bagshaw, D., Chung, D., Couch, M., Lilburn, S., & Wadham, B. (2000). Reshaping Responses to Domestic<br />

Violence. Canberra: Partnerships Against Domestic Violence and Department of Human Services.<br />

31


three-volume report – Reshaping Responses to Domestic Violence (available on-line) 54 . The<br />

methodology involved: a literature review to identify current research and initiatives in the<br />

prevention of domestic violence; a phone-in over two days to target the various groups and<br />

ensuring participants’ anonymity (121 callers); and focus groups with women, men and<br />

young people, lesbians and service providers for people from Aboriginal and non-English<br />

speaking backgrounds.<br />

Violence, during and after separation, was identified as an ongoing concern for many women<br />

in our study. Women are much more likely to be abused, and even killed, during times of<br />

separation and divorce and increased support is required during this time. For example, in<br />

spite of the introduction of laws against stalking in Australia, women reported that they were<br />

likely to re-enter an abusive relationship rather than live with the fear and uncertainty of<br />

stalking.<br />

Our research showed that domestic violence victims had very high levels of <strong>com</strong>mitment to<br />

their relationships and nobody left their partner after a few incidents of violence and abuse.<br />

A <strong>com</strong>mon <strong>com</strong>munity response to women living in situations of domestic violence is to ask -<br />

“Why don’t you leave?” – a question that participants described as most unhelpful. One<br />

reason for many women remaining in abusive relationships was their feeling of responsibility<br />

for the success or failure of the relationship, which was often reinforced by the responses of<br />

family, friends and work colleagues. Women also found it hard to leave for many other<br />

reasons including: constant threats and intimidation that made them fearful, poor selfesteem,<br />

a belief that their partner (who they often still loved) could change, the presence of<br />

children, social isolation and/or a lack of resources. Informal networks were often women’s<br />

first source of help for domestic violence and the responses from family, friends and work<br />

colleagues were critical in determining future courses of action. However, findings<br />

highlighted the need for public education to help people to respond appropriately and<br />

effectively when people disclose domestic violence. The study also highlighted that service<br />

providers, such as doctors and police, need further education and training to assist them to<br />

identify and label domestic violence, establish or adhere to appropriate protocols, respond<br />

effectively and to make appropriate referrals. The female victims stressed the need for<br />

unconditional ongoing support from a friend, family member or professionals and for people<br />

to maintain their links with them, in spite of the perpetrator’s behaviour and their failure to<br />

leave the situation.<br />

54 This report is available on the Partnerships Against Domestic Violence website:<br />

http://www.padv.dpmc.gov.au/publications/publicat.htm<br />

32


Emotional abuse, threats and intimidation were reported to be equally or more devastating<br />

than physical violence but were rarely recognised by victims or service providers as<br />

‘domestic violence’. Ninety-five per cent of respondents reported that they had experienced<br />

abuse over a period of years and many reported patterns of extreme cruelty and ‘strategies’<br />

of abuse that became more diverse and subtle over time. In many relationships, acts of<br />

cruelty were perpetrated on the women, the children (as primary and secondary victims) and<br />

on family pets. Mothers reported that most of their children had witnessed the violence and<br />

some had also been directly involved, supporting other research that demonstrates the close<br />

links between domestic violence and child abuse 55 . Humiliation, cruelty, jealousy leading to<br />

isolation from friends and family and the infliction of emotional, sexual or physical pain were<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon experiences. Victims frequently spoke of the perpetrators’ need to control all<br />

aspects of their life, both in and away from the house. The link between length of relationship<br />

and the experience of cruelty was particularly notable, especially as the <strong>com</strong>mon theme in<br />

the women’s accounts of violent relationships was their daily experience of living in fear. The<br />

findings indicated that the vast majority of female victims were frightened of their partner,<br />

<strong>com</strong>pared to none of the male victims.<br />

4. MEDIATION AND VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN<br />

There are many definitions and models of mediation. The Australian National Alternative<br />

Dispute Resolution Advisory Council has adopted the following definition of mediation:<br />

Mediation is a process in which the parties to a dispute, with the assistance of a neutral third<br />

party (the mediator), identify the disputed issues, develop options, consider alternatives and<br />

endeavour to reach an agreement. The mediator has no advisory or determinative role in<br />

regard to the content of the dispute or the out<strong>com</strong>e of its resolution, but may advise on or<br />

determine the process of mediation whereby resolution is attempted 56 .<br />

Since the early 1990’s there has been an ongoing debate in Australia about whether<br />

mediation is possible at all where there is unequal power, and to what extent it is ethical for a<br />

mediator to empower the weaker party 57 . Family mediation is not normally favoured as an<br />

approach where domestic violence has been an ongoing factor of the relationship, and is<br />

chosen only under selected and carefully controlled conditions. While approaches to pre-<br />

55 Bagshaw, D. & Chung, D. (2001). The needs of children who witness domestic violence. Children Australia,<br />

Volume 26, Number 3, pages 9-17.<br />

56 National Alternative Dispute Resolution Council’s website: http://www.nadrac.gov.au<br />

57 H. Astor & H. Chinkin, (1992) Dispute Resolution in Australia, Butterworths: Sydney. Bagshaw, D. (1990)<br />

“Gender Issues in Mediation”, FIRM National Conference, UK.<br />

33


mediation or intake may vary family and child mediators must now <strong>com</strong>ply with Regulations<br />

62 and 63 of the Family Law Act, 1975 (as amended by the Family Law Reform Act, 1996).<br />

The Family Services Council’s Family Mediation Standards, developed in 1995, outlined the<br />

following as requirements for mediators when screening and assessing clients’ suitability for<br />

mediation 58 :<br />

Suitability for mediation shall be determined by the mediator, initially in separate contact with<br />

each party, which includes ascertaining any history of family violence and assessing: the<br />

likely safety of parties; equality of power; the risk of child abuse; and the emotional, physical<br />

and psychological health of parties. Where there is a separate intake officer, it shall remain<br />

the responsibility of the mediator to ensure that mediation is suited to the needs of the<br />

parties. Mediation shall not begin if either party lacks sufficient <strong>com</strong>petence and willingness<br />

to: collect and provide necessary information; identify their own needs and interests; identify<br />

and take into account the needs and interests of their children; or to negotiate for<br />

themselves.<br />

It is presumed that mediation will normally not be suitable in cases where there is a<br />

substantial imbalance of power; a history or risk of violence in the parties' relationship; a<br />

history or risk of child abuse; a fear in one party of the other party's control or potential for<br />

violence; and other limiting factors such as mental disability or illness, or substance abuse.<br />

Mediation can only proceed when it is assessed by the mediator that mediation is<br />

appropriate as prescribed under Regulation 62, and that all family members are safe and all<br />

parties to the mediation can participate effectively.<br />

In any family law mediation there is generally an insistence on the use of separate lawyers to<br />

represent and advise parties in association with mediation, so that people know their legal<br />

rights and their options if they want to give up mediation at any stage. Charlesworth 59 notes<br />

that this is consistent with the legal perspective of justice, “that is justice as being consistent<br />

with legal rights, or what the law would allow”. The social perspective of justice, which also<br />

influences family mediation is Australia, is “the sense of being treated fairly, being fully heard<br />

and given equal importance and dignity as the other parties and provided with a result not<br />

too far away from one’s deserts”.<br />

In 1995, the Commonwealth of Australia’s Legal Aid and Family Services Department<br />

<strong>com</strong>missioned a study of the issue of family violence and the practice of family mediation,<br />

58 Bagshaw. D. (1999). Developing Family Mediation Standards - An Australian Experience. Mediation<br />

Quarterly, 16(4), 389-496.<br />

59 Charlesworth, S. “Mediation and Perceptions of Justice in Australia”. In M. J. Meulders (ed) Families and<br />

Justice, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London, page 7.<br />

34


which was <strong>com</strong>pleted in June 1996. 60 Twelve of the Commonwealth-funded family mediation<br />

agencies participated in the study, at least one in each State and Territory, with a response<br />

rate of 47 per cent for women and 26 per cent for men. The survey indicated that the<br />

incidence of violence was high in the relationships presenting to the agencies at that time<br />

with almost three-quarters of the women reporting they had experienced some type of<br />

violence or abuse. Client views of the process, and/or out<strong>com</strong>es of the mediation were<br />

generally positive, with men expressing higher levels of satisfaction than women.<br />

Women who had experienced substantial abuse sometimes found that mediation<br />

represented a positive, empowering experience that could assist them in reaching a fair and<br />

reasonable agreement. A significant minority, however, reported not being asked by the<br />

agency about violence and abuse. A number of women disclosed domestic abuse for the<br />

first time, but their needs for information and referral were not necessarily met. The degree<br />

of harassment, intimidation and threats of physical violence reported by women as occurring<br />

before, during and after mediation suggested that mediators needed to be more aware of<br />

ways that men use mediation to continue the abuse and intimidation of their ex-partners. In<br />

a small number of cases, mediators may have misjudged the appropriateness of a case for<br />

mediation, especially where there were issues of child access (now renamed ‘visitation’) and<br />

custody (now ‘residence’). As an out<strong>com</strong>e of the study ongoing domestic violence training<br />

programs are now <strong>com</strong>pulsory for all family and child mediators in all agencies funded by the<br />

Commonwealth Government to mediate separation and divorce disputes.<br />

The Keys Young research indicated that abused women generally experienced less premediation<br />

anxiety, a more positive experience of the mediation process and a higher level of<br />

satisfaction with agreements where they:<br />

• had been subject to emotional abuse or one-off physical threats or threats only;<br />

• had been separated from their ex-partners for a considerable time;<br />

• had received personal counselling (as opposed to relationship counselling);<br />

• reported that they no longer felt intimidated by their ex-partner; and<br />

• felt confident in their legal advice and knew what they could reasonably expect from<br />

settlement;<br />

and where mediators<br />

• asked specific questions about violence and abuse, including non-physical types;<br />

60 Keys Young (1996), Research Evaluation of Family Mediation Practice and the Issue of Violence, Legal Aid<br />

and Family Services, Commonwealth of Australia. The definition of domestic violence adopted was the same as<br />

that cited earlier in this paper.<br />

35


• offered women specific guidance in considering the possible impact of violence and<br />

abuse on the mediation process;<br />

• offered women separate time with the mediator before, during and after sessions;<br />

• worked as a gender-balanced co-mediation team;<br />

• demonstrated that they understood the women’s concerns both within and outside the<br />

mediation session by implementing specific strategies to deal with these concerns;<br />

• demonstrated they could control abusive behaviour within the session; and<br />

• assisted women to deal with any harassment and intimidation which occurred outside the<br />

actual mediation sessions itself. 61<br />

Under the Australian Family Law Regulations introduced in 1996, family and child mediators<br />

are now required to assess for appropriateness of a case for mediation, considering: family<br />

violence, the safety of the parties, the equality of bargaining power, the risk of child abuse,<br />

the emotional, psychological and physical health of the parties and any other matter the<br />

mediator considers relevant to the proposed mediation. 62<br />

In assessing whether to proceed with mediation where there has been domestic violence<br />

there is a strong case for all forms of violence to be regarded as unacceptable, not just those<br />

acts involving physical assaults and injuries. Female victims in various domestic violence<br />

studies confirm the prevalence of physical, psychological, emotional, social and financial<br />

abuse (often in <strong>com</strong>bination), as well as other intimidating or controlling forms of abuse, such<br />

as stalking, sleep deprivation or driving too fast in the car 63 . Of significance for mediators is<br />

that the women in our South Australian study also said that they needed to be asked<br />

specifically and directly about violence and abuse in their relationship. They reported being<br />

too ashamed to tell people about the violence, often feeling that it was in some way their<br />

fault. Women also talked frequently about the need for non-physical forms of domestic<br />

violence to be more widely understood in the <strong>com</strong>munity.<br />

Mediators cannot be ‘neutral’ about violence, nor should violence be an issue to be<br />

mediated. It is illegal and contributes to a gross imbalance of negotiating power between the<br />

perpetrator and the victims, and in some cases may threaten the safety of the victim, the<br />

mediator and agency staff. The Regulations of the Australian Family Law Act, 1975 make it<br />

mandatory for family law mediators operating within the Act to actively screen for domestic<br />

61 Ibid, page iii.<br />

62 Family Law Regulations (1996), Statutory Rules, No 71, reg 62.<br />

63 The South Australian Phone-in responded to 120 callers (most of whom were female victims of violence).<br />

The female respondents reported all forms of abuse (physical, sexual, verbal, emotional, social and economic)<br />

and often the various forms of abuse overlapped.<br />

36


efore deciding whether or not to proceed with mediation. Where domestic violence has<br />

been present at any time in a relationship there are debates as to whether or not mediation<br />

should occur, and under what circumstances. However mediators first of all need to be able<br />

to surface the fact that violence has been present in a relationship and this requires special<br />

knowledge and skill.<br />

Feminist research and practice tends to be based on the theoretical premise that women are<br />

oppressed. However Kelly 64 stresses the importance of understanding how women<br />

categorise their own experience. Women experiencing domestic violence may not see<br />

themselves as oppressed and/or may see themselves as having appropriate methods for<br />

handling violent situations and may wish to proceed with mediation. Denying women<br />

individual agency and choice can further add to their oppression. In particular where they<br />

have left the abusive relationship and the perpetrator has accepted responsibility for the<br />

violence – mediation may offer some women a wel<strong>com</strong>e opportunity to negotiate for<br />

themselves, significantly increasing their self-esteem and sense of empowerment. Thus,<br />

some mediators in Australia may proceed with mediation where violence has been identified<br />

if the conditions identified by the Keys Young research are in place and the safety of all<br />

parties is assured.<br />

However, where the perpetrator is not accepting responsibility for the violent behaviour, or<br />

where the woman is fearful, or her ability to negotiate a fair out<strong>com</strong>e for herself is likely to be<br />

<strong>com</strong>promised, litigation may be the preferred option. If mediation were to proceed under<br />

these circumstances the use of an advocate or support person in the mediation is preferred,<br />

along with options such as ‘shuttle’ mediation. However, much more research is needed to<br />

be sure that mediation leads to satisfactory out<strong>com</strong>es in the short and long term in these<br />

cases.<br />

Caution needs to be exercised, however, before assuming that litigation is a preferred option<br />

for women and children who have experienced domestic violence. For example, recent<br />

research 65 has identified problems for this client group within the litigation process in the<br />

Family Court of Australia. In June 1996, the Family Law Reform Act, 1995 was introduced in<br />

Australia and it seems that the new concept of ongoing parental responsibility has “created<br />

greater scope for an abusive non-resident parent to harass or interfere in the life of the<br />

64 Kelly (1990) "How women define their experiences of violence”. Chapter 5 in Yllo, Kersti & Bograd,<br />

Michele (Editors) Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse: SAGE Publications: Newbury Park.<br />

65 Rhoades, Helen; Graycar, Reg & Harrison, Margaret “The first three years of the Family Law Reform Act<br />

1995” Executive Summary reprinted in the Family Law Update, Family Matters, Australian Institute of Family<br />

Studies, Issue No58, Autumn 2001, pages 80-83 (www.aifs.org.au/).<br />

37


child’s primary caregiver by challenging her decisions and choices ….” 66 , leading to a greater<br />

demand for ‘specific issues orders’. This study suggests that children’s welfare is being<br />

<strong>com</strong>promised in the way that allegations of violence are now dealt with at an interim stage of<br />

court hearings. The “best interests” of the non-resident parent (usually the father) is taking<br />

precedence over “best interests” of the child, which the Family Law Act specifies should be<br />

paramount in all decision-making. The notion of a child’s “right” of contact with both parents<br />

now means that judges and legal practitioners are less inclined at the interim stage to ask for<br />

suspension of contact with a parent where there are allegations of domestic violence. At the<br />

final judgement stage of a contact hearing, however, where the effect of the violence is<br />

scrutinised and evaluated in the form of a family report, orders made for “no contact” are the<br />

same as before the Reform Act was introduced, suggesting that a substantial number of<br />

children have been subjected to interim contact orders which may have been unsafe and/or<br />

had adverse psychological effects on the child. Residence orders giving parents equal time<br />

with their children have also been more prevalent where there is high level conflict between<br />

the parents, in spite of the strong objections of one parent, usually the mother. There has<br />

also been an increase in the number of contravention applications brought by non-resident<br />

parents (89 per cent fathers) alleging breaches of contact orders, many without merit and<br />

“pursued as a way of harassing or challenging the resident parent, rather than representing a<br />

genuine grievance about missed contact …” 67 . Interviews with parents by the researchers<br />

suggested that unsafe contact orders are being made by consent, either because mothers<br />

felt coerced by their lawyer who advised them that this was the “usual” approach of the court<br />

where there are allegations of violence at the interim stage, or they believed that the father<br />

would not agree to any other option and/or they did not have the resources to fight.<br />

The findings of the aforementioned research have been confirmed by the findings other<br />

studies 68 and were confirmed by mothers in our earlier South Australian domestic violence<br />

study who asserted that their abusive partners used the issue of child contact to continue<br />

their harassment after separation and divorce. In a current research study we are<br />

undertaking in partnership with a family mediation agency in South Australia - Children and<br />

Families in Transition 69 – separated mothers report that it is be<strong>com</strong>ing harder for women to<br />

have their <strong>com</strong>plaints about domestic violence dealt with in courts, in part due to the current<br />

legal emphasis on ‘shared parenting’ and successful lobbying from powerful ‘fathers rights’<br />

66 Ibid, page 81.<br />

67 Ibid, page 82.<br />

68 Dewar, J. & Parker, S. (1999), “The impact of the new Part VII Family Law Act 1975”, Australian Journal of<br />

Family Law, vol.13.<br />

69 For more information on the Children and Families in Transition Project see this website:<br />

http://www.unisa.edu.au/cmrg/cafit.htm<br />

38


groups with the current conservative government. Therefore, where family and child<br />

mediation is being conducted in the shadow of the law, and where the parties are being<br />

advised by separate lawyers, it is crucial that mediators recognise that so-called ‘objective<br />

standards’ based on legal precedents (often used as a guide to decision-making about the<br />

‘best interests’ of children) should be subjected to close scrutiny, in particular where there<br />

are allegations of domestic violence. Where there is domestic violence, the ‘best interests’ of<br />

children and their mothers may not be readily identified, named or understood by some<br />

lawyers or judges and currently in Australia ‘fathers rights’ may take precedence.<br />

5. FACTORS INHIBITING DISCLOSURE OF VIOLENCE<br />

There are many factors that make it difficult for women to leave abusive situations and/or to<br />

disclose to service providers the fact that domestic violence has occurred, including their<br />

feelings of shame, feelings of responsibility for causing the violence, fear of retaliation and a<br />

systemic failure to define behaviour as ‘violent’ if it is not physical. When victims do disclose<br />

violence they are often implicated or blamed for causing it. In spite of research evidence to<br />

the contrary, there has remained a conceptual tendency for some professionals to misdirect<br />

the causes of violence toward women. Responses from judges, magistrates, service<br />

providers and others in the Australian <strong>com</strong>munity have often misleadingly “redirected<br />

responsibility for the violent behaviour from the perpetrator to [other] factors” 70 such as<br />

alcohol abuse, stress or the fact that women may have somehow “asked for it”. Recently a<br />

male Australian magistrate 71 stated in a survey that women cause their own victimisation by<br />

“nagging”, “bitching” or in other ways provoking their partner. These and other suggestions<br />

reported in the media deter women from disclosing violence by denying women individual<br />

agency and serve to authorise and naturalise men’s violent behaviour 72 .<br />

Dobash and Dobash 73 noted how patriarchal patterns determine women's predicaments once<br />

violence be<strong>com</strong>es part of the relationship.<br />

Women feel guilty and trapped in these relationships. Guilty because cultural prescriptions<br />

make family problems into women's problems regardless of the source. Trapped, because it<br />

is considered disloyal to betray patriarchal privacy by seeking help from outsiders and thus<br />

70 Pease, B (1991) Evaluating Treatment Programs for Violent Men: Dilemmas and Priorities. The NSW Local<br />

Domestic Violence Committees: Medlowbath.<br />

71 In the NSW Judicial Commission, Apprehended Violence Orders: A Survey of Magistrates (1999) one<br />

magistrate claimed that “nagging” and “bitching” by women contributed to male attacks on females.<br />

72 Lane, B. (1999, August 31). She made me do it. The Age; Stapleton, J., & Lane, B. (1999, 31 August).<br />

'Dinosaur' magistrate rapped. The Age; Walker, M. (1995). Interpreting the Figures: Increase in women's<br />

violence or just more masculist legal tactics? The Australian Feminist Law Journal, 5(August), 123-125.<br />

73 Dobash, R. E., Dobash, R. P., Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1992). The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital<br />

Violence. Social Problems, 39(1), 71-91, page 57.<br />

39


expose husbands and the family to potential scrutiny. Women are also trapped by the<br />

difficulties with living an independent life free from men... .<br />

They also found that although female relatives and friends often provide support to victims,<br />

sometimes including material assistance, the women in their study also experienced<br />

dismissive responses and even the helpful responses were short lived. The responses of<br />

state agencies were less effective with responses from the police and social services leaving<br />

women even more isolated and husbands in a stronger position.<br />

In patriarchal, traditional <strong>com</strong>munities and families women are even more likely to define<br />

themselves in the context of relationships, and for this reason find it difficult to leave their<br />

partner or report domestic violence to police or other service providers. Some researchers<br />

have demonstrated similarities in the situations of hostages and abused women:<br />

both groups are likely to develop the Stockholm Syndrome, a positive psychological bond<br />

with their captors or abusers and an antipathy toward outsiders working to win their release 74 .<br />

Where women's identity is strongly linked to their male partner or to their family (in particular<br />

where they do not work outside the home and/or have strong religious affiliations) they may<br />

be more concerned with the ethic of responsibility and care than with their own well-being, or<br />

with avoiding shame or “protection of face” for their partner or the family, or they may blame<br />

themselves for the violence 75 . In many cultures, to a greater or lesser extent, women are<br />

strongly socialised to meet the needs of others. These women may find it especially difficult<br />

to assert their interests and needs within a context of responsibility for others, such as<br />

children. Women may also lack, or perceive themselves as lacking, as many real options as<br />

men, or they may not be aware of their entitlements 76 , in particular if they are refugees or<br />

migrants. These problems are exacerbated if women are dependent on men economically.<br />

There are grave implications for these women’s ability to participate in mediation, where they<br />

are expected to be <strong>com</strong>petent to negotiate for themselves. It is therefore critical that<br />

mediators and other service providers identify whether or not violence has been a factor in a<br />

relationship before determining a viable course of action. However this may not be easy to<br />

do.<br />

In 1998, the U.S. National Resource Centre on Domestic Violence National Crime<br />

Victimisation surveys identified a number of factors that inhibit women from reporting<br />

domestic violence, not only to police, but researchers as well. These included “the private<br />

74 Graham, Del, Rawlings Edna, Rimini, Nelly (1990) "Survivors of Terror: Battered Women, Hostages and the<br />

Stockholm Syndrome" in Chapter 10, Yllo, Kersti & Bograd, Michele (Editors) Feminist Perspectives on Wife<br />

Abuse: SAGE Publications: Newbury Park, page 231.<br />

75 Bagshaw, Dale (1990) "Gender Issues in Mediation." Mediation UK, Vol. 6, No. 4, Autumn 1990.<br />

76 Ibid.<br />

40


nature of the event, the perceived stigma associated with one’s victimization, the belief that<br />

no purpose may be served in reporting it, and even fear of retaliation from the offender” 77 .<br />

Another study that used both quantitative and qualitative research methods, found that<br />

women and men subscribed to differing definitions of what constituted violent behaviour.<br />

Men upgraded women’s behaviour when disclosing incidents of physical abuse. Men found<br />

women’s violent behaviour “notable” or “remarkable” but not seriously threatening. On the<br />

other hand, women “discounted”, “underestimated”, “down-played” or “normalised” the violent<br />

behaviour of their male partners by seeing it as “excusable” or “understandable” 78 . Women<br />

with violent partners also often assumed responsibility for a violent incident, blamed<br />

themselves for causing it and worried that their partner’s reaction to the incident could<br />

contribute to further violence 79 .<br />

Australian studies 80 have identified “neutralisation techniques” used by battered women to<br />

justify their continued involvement with their violent spouse. These included: denial by<br />

women of the assaulter’s responsibility, denial of the extent of injury, self-blame for the<br />

situation, denial of the possibility of leaving because of economic dependency, and appeal to<br />

a moral <strong>com</strong>mitment toward the partner and their children. All of these factors militate against<br />

women reporting abuse or seeking help from public services.<br />

6. CONCLUSIONS<br />

Feminist perspectives not only inform how we think about the causes and contexts of<br />

domestic violence, but raise important questions about dominant cultural discourses which<br />

are reflected in legislation, policy and the nature of conventional research and practice in this<br />

area. 81 Post-structuralist feminists stress that there is no such thing as ‘neutrality’ in research<br />

or in service provision, such as in the practice of mediation, since we can never function<br />

independently of the dominant ideologies, belief systems or discourses, which in most<br />

societies tend to be patriarchal and heterosexist. Ideology and knowledge are determined<br />

and shaped by the dominant groups in any society and are reflected in dominant discourses<br />

77 National Resource Centre on Domestic Violence (1998). Incidence Rates of Violence Against Women: A<br />

Comparison of the Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey and the 1985 National Family Violence<br />

Survey, page 6 URL:http://www.vaw.umn.edu/Vawnet/incidence.htm.<br />

78 Currie, D. H. (1998). Violent Men or Violent Women? Whose Definition Counts? In R. K. Berge (Ed.), Issues<br />

in Intimate Violence (pp. 97-111). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, page 107.<br />

79 Ibid, page 107.<br />

80 Eisikovits, Z., & Peled, E. (1990). Qualitative Research on Spouse Abuse. In D. J. Besharov (Ed.), Family<br />

Violence: Research and Public Policy Issues (pp. 1-12). Washington D.C.: The AEI Press, p. 5.<br />

81 Brograd, Michele (1990) Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse. Chapter 1 in Yllo, Kersti and Bograd,<br />

Michele, Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse, Sage: Newbury Park.<br />

41


(including legislation) in Australia which tend to be white, heterosexist, Western, male and<br />

middle-class. 82 The values and perspectives underpinning research, policies and practices<br />

therefore need to be made explicit.<br />

In a male dominated society where men's lives, values and attitudes are taken as the norm,<br />

Bograd notes that: "the experiences of women are often defined as inferior, distorted, or are<br />

rendered invisible." 83 Therefore, in designing any approach to intervention involving women<br />

survivors of domestic violence, it is important to:<br />

• endeavour to understand the experiences of women from their own frame of reference;<br />

• avoid explicitly or implicitly blaming women for, or implicating women in, violent behaviour<br />

towards them;<br />

• approach women as survivors who have many adaptive capacities and strengths, and to<br />

• validate the experiences of the women.<br />

Interventions involving victims of domestic violence should take place in a collaborative<br />

environment 84 where women understand the purpose of the intervention, the history and<br />

nature of the violence is known by the professionals involved, and where women will feel<br />

safe and free to discuss issues of violence without fear of judgment, stigma or recrimination<br />

from their partner or their families. They must be assured of safety, respect, confidentiality<br />

and understanding. From a feminist perspective, collaborative models of practice are<br />

characterised by shared power between the victims (usually women) and the professionals<br />

involved, and openness to what develops from being "inside the culture" of the person being<br />

interviewed 85 . Data must be collected in pre-mediation interviews in a culturally sensitive<br />

way that surfaces domestic violence, but with the explicitly stated purpose of improving the<br />

lives of survivors of domestic violence, to avoid objectifying the women’s experiences 86 and<br />

to avoid the risk of further violence.<br />

It is important to note that data collection and its interpretation are inherently political<br />

activities 87 .<br />

In ascertaining the experiences and needs of survivors of abuse, research<br />

82 Bagshaw, Dale “The Three M’s: Mediation, Postmodernism and the New Millennium”. Mediation<br />

Quarterly, Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. Volume 18, Number 3, Spring, 2000, pages 205-220.<br />

83<br />

Brograd, Michele (1990) Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse. Chapter 1 in Yllo, Kersti and Bograd,<br />

Michele, Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse, Sage: Newbury Park, page 15.<br />

84<br />

Hoff, Lee Ann (1990) Collaborative Feminist Research and the Myth of Objectivity. Chapter 11 in Yllo,<br />

Kersti and Bograd, Michele, Feminist Perspectives on Wife Abuse, Sage: Newbury Park.<br />

85 Ibid, p. 272.<br />

86 Ibid.<br />

87 Bagshaw, Dale and Chung, Donna. Gender politics and research: Male and female violence in intimate<br />

relationships. Women Against Violence. An Australian Feminist Journal, Issue 8, July 2000, pages 4-23.<br />

42


should be conducted in a way that ensures that cultural differences between people are<br />

acknowledged and respected and untested cultural and gender stereotypes are not implied.<br />

When screening for violence prior to mediation the same principles should apply and<br />

questions should be carefully framed. For example, instead of asking why a woman does<br />

not disclose the violence or call the police (which could subtly blame the woman for her<br />

failure to protect herself) it is better to seek out the social factors that constrain the woman<br />

from disclosing violence and seeking assistance.<br />

It has been argued that disclosing violence is not easy for many women for different reasons;<br />

it is particularly difficult for women from indigenous, refugee and other culturally diverse<br />

backgrounds (see Bagshaw 2003 for more 88 ). It may be even harder for the small minority of<br />

male victims as it goes against dominant discourses about masculinity for a male to be a<br />

‘victim,’ in particular at the hands of a woman. More research is needed to understand the<br />

experience of these men.<br />

Because of the increased risk of violence against women occurring during separation and<br />

divorce, and the difficulties that these women experience in disclosing violence, this paper<br />

has argued that it is essential that family and child mediators see individual participants<br />

separately prior to mediation and actively screen for violence in order to determine whether<br />

or not these women are <strong>com</strong>petent and safe to proceed with mediation. In any approach to<br />

survivors of domestic violence professionals should:<br />

• be primarily concerned for the safety and protection of the victims (usually women and their<br />

children) before, during and after the mediation;<br />

• respect and accept individual difference and diversity within and between cultural groups;<br />

• maintain confidentiality within clearly prescribed limits;<br />

• demonstrate empathy;<br />

• involve women as equal partners or collaborators in processes for change;<br />

• emphasise voluntary participation based on informed consent;<br />

• make a <strong>com</strong>mitment to honesty and open sharing of knowledge and information, and<br />

• maintain a focus on strengths and empowerment of the women in decision making.<br />

Finally, mediators should strive to be self reflexive, constantly checking for their own<br />

gendered cultural biases and prejudices in relation to violence against women, both<br />

Bagshaw, Dale “The Three M’s: Mediation, Postmodernism and the New Millennium”. Mediation Quarterly,<br />

Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. Volume 18, Number 3, Spring, 2000, pages 205-220.<br />

88 Bagshaw, Dale. Contested Truths: Disclosing Domestic Violence in Family Law Mediation, Chapter 3 in<br />

Part 1 - Preparing for Success: Opportunities through Education, Pammer, W. J. & Killian, J. (Eds.) Handbook of<br />

Conflict Management, Marcel Dekker Inc: New York, 2003, pages 49-84<br />

43


individually and collectively. This will require ongoing education, training and supervision<br />

and will be discussed further in my main conference paper – The Reflexive Mediator: Theory<br />

and Practice.<br />

44


Mise en place et évaluation d’un programme de médication à l’école<br />

<strong>com</strong>me lieu de socialisation<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Wicky Christiane<br />

Avocat honoraire/médiateur/formateur<br />

Présidente des Boutiques de droit (Lyon)<br />

Responsable formation à AMELY (Association Médiation Lyon)<br />

Abstract<br />

« La violence est souvent parole non aboutie, impossible de s’exprimer si ce n’est par les coups<br />

et les cris »<br />

Actuellement, les structures scolaires, <strong>com</strong>me celles du quartier sont en crise, et ne sont plus à<br />

même de jouer leur rôle traditionnel de régulation et de socialisation, ce qui explique la montée<br />

du sentiment d’insécurité et de violence. La violence au sein de l’institution scolaire ne<br />

représente que l’une des facettes de la crise actuelle du système scolaire non seulement<br />

<strong>com</strong>me lieu d’acquisition des connaissances, mais aussi <strong>com</strong>me lieu de socialisation. Mais cette<br />

crise de l’institution scolaire se double d’une autre crise ; Celle des modes de régulation des<br />

conflits dans les établissements scolaires. Ceci nous amène à dire, que l’école doit renforcer<br />

son rôle de socialisation d’autant qu’il existe une forte demande de la part des élèves en matière<br />

d’écoute de leurs problèmes et de prise de parole. D’où l’émergence d’un autre modèle de<br />

régulation des conflits : La médiation scolaire qui a vu le jour au début des années 90, sur<br />

l’instigation de mouvements associatifs <strong>com</strong>me l’Association Médiation Lyon (AMELY)<br />

L’objectif de cette pré conférence est de sensibiliser les participants aux techniques de<br />

médiation dans le cadre de la médiation scolaire.<br />

Ainsi le matin nous nous attacherons à définir :<br />

• La notion de médiation<br />

• Les acteurs de la médiation<br />

• Le processus de médiation<br />

45


La méthode utilisée sera celle de travail en groupe et de mise en situation (jeu de rôle en<br />

médiation scolaire).<br />

L’après midi nous nous attacherons à présenter la mise en place d’un projet de médiation<br />

scolaire :<br />

• La crise du système scolaire<br />

• La méthodologie d’intervention<br />

• La méthodologie d’évaluation<br />

Une vidéo sur la mise en place d’un programme de médiation vous sera projetée<br />

On parle beaucoup d’école de la citoyenneté, mais il s’agit le plus souvent de discours et<br />

nous pensons que l’apprentissage des techniques de médiation représente une<br />

concrétisation de cette idée car elle devrait permettre non seulement d’améliorer la<br />

résolution des conflits dans l’école mais aussi dans le quartier. La médiation favorise ainsi<br />

d’une manière concrète cet apprentissage à la citoyenneté, mais aussi participe à cette<br />

re<strong>com</strong>position des rapports entre l’école et le quartier.<br />

(A ce jour AMELY a sensibilisé à la médiation 11225 élèves et formé 1576 médiateurs<br />

élèves dans 39 écoles primaires, 24 collèges et 5 lycées)<br />

46


CONFERENCE<br />

47


Mediation and Conflict: Management or Resolution?<br />

______________________________________________________________<br />

Leysley Allport<br />

Aim<br />

The aim of the workshop will be to explore how far mediation is used as a tool to manage<br />

conflictual situations, or to resolve conflict at a deeper level.<br />

Learning Objectives<br />

By the end of the workshop participants will;<br />

• Have explored different perceptions of conflict and how it arises<br />

• Have identified responses to dealing with conflict, in particular the difference between<br />

conflict management and conflict resolution<br />

• Have considered different models of mediation and what they set out to achieve in terms<br />

of management or resolution<br />

• Have considered this in the context of family mediation in particular<br />

• Have heard about family mediation practice in two countries (Belgium and the UK) and<br />

considered how far each are offering conflict management or conflict resolution<br />

• Have had opportunity to discuss their own practice experience and that of other<br />

participants<br />

The workshop will be of interest to mediation practitioners particularly those involved in family<br />

mediation. It will be participative in its approach, with a mixture of presentation and group<br />

work.<br />

The workshop will be run by Lesley Allport (see CV), who may be joined by Diana Evers,<br />

who works in Belgium. Both are experienced mediators and trainers in the field of family<br />

mediation. Both are currently students on the European Masters Degree in Mediation.<br />

48


The Reflexive Mediator: Theory and Practice<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Associate Professor Dale Bagshaw, PhD<br />

Director, Conflict Management Research & Postgraduate Studies<br />

University of South Australia<br />

Abstract<br />

This paper outlines a postmodern constructivist approach to mediation and argues for mediators<br />

and mediator trainees to develop self-reflexive habits to enhance their self-awareness and to<br />

promote collaborative, client-centred practices. The author also advocates that mediators<br />

develop knowledge and skills in the use of reflective questioning to assist participants in<br />

mediation to deconstruct dominant discourses, broaden their perspectives and to empower them<br />

to control their own destinies.<br />

Introduction<br />

Most Western dispute resolution research, theory and practices are based on modernist<br />

ways of thinking, which value scientific explanations, objectivity, rationality and neutrality and<br />

the search for ‘facts’ or universal ‘truths’. These theories generally only accept knowledge<br />

that can be seen through evidence and promote essentialism (categorizing or labeling) and<br />

dualistic thinking (right/wrong, either/or). They ignore the <strong>com</strong>plexity of our lives and promote<br />

simplistic ways of viewing conflict and related concepts such as ‘power’, ‘neutrality’ and<br />

‘identity’. They privilege the mediator as ‘expert’, promote adversarial ways of thinking about<br />

conflict and favour structured, solution-oriented approaches (such as problem-solving) to its<br />

resolution. They ignore other factors, such as the power of language to define people’s<br />

identities, realities and meaning - without language we have no thought.<br />

Postmodernist theories and ideas, such as social constructivism (Gergen, 1985), offer a<br />

more <strong>com</strong>plex understanding of post-industrial society and conflict than modernist ideas and<br />

value conflict, <strong>com</strong>plexity, diversity and the co-existence of multiple ‘truths’ and identities.<br />

Constructivism involves describing a view that reality is “constructed” by one’s attitudes,<br />

beliefs, and cognition about what he or she perceives in his or her world (Brown &<br />

Christensen, 1999, p. 317). Social constructivism … stresses the social aspects of knowing<br />

and the influence of cultural, historical, political and economic conditions (Dean, 1993: 57-8<br />

in Payne, 1997:31).<br />

49


Stories about conflict that people bring to mediation are seen as constructions in language<br />

that shape experience (Winslade & Monk, 2000). People view things from a particular<br />

cultural position; perspectives are particular social or cultural views of reality that serve<br />

certain interests. Conflicts arise over whose meanings get to be privileged. People’s needs<br />

and interests, therefore, are not ‘essential’, they are constructed in discourses that both<br />

emerge out of and shape social processes. Constructivists assume that people’s lives and<br />

identities are shaped by the meaning they give to their experiences, which is in turn shaped<br />

by and reflected in dominant ‘normalising’ discourses and cultural practices in society, and<br />

their historical position in the social structure. From this philosophical perspective, the<br />

mediator is more concerned about how clients’ world-views, or constructions of the conflict or<br />

events, are getting in the way of an effective solution.<br />

Constructivists argue that there is not one truth or reality but there are multiple ways of<br />

looking at similar issues within different contexts. Socially agreed upon ways of talking about<br />

things (dominant discourses) construct people’s reality and their interpretation of<br />

experiences. These discourses, however, can be deconstructed and thereby can lose their<br />

power. People experiencing a similar event can define themselves as victims of terrible<br />

injustice, strong in the face of injustice, or as being primarily unaffected by the event. These<br />

constructions will be influenced by the cultural context and factors such as age, gender,<br />

ethnicity, class, social status, sexuality, ability and so forth. For example, ‘macho’ males will<br />

be less likely to describe themselves as ‘victims’ or as ‘being fearful’, as it goes against the<br />

dominant social constructions of masculinity. In addition, some people’s versions of reality<br />

are privileged in certain contexts (such as young, white, Western male) and others are<br />

marginalised (such as children, elderly or indigenous people) or silenced (such as refugees).<br />

Modernist mediators can fall into the trap of categorising and labeling their clients (for<br />

example as ‘abnormal’ or ‘dysfunctional’) and their problems in ways that reify and reinforce<br />

the power and knowledge of the mediator. From a postmodernist perspective, however, the<br />

mediator accepts that there is no ‘normal’ way of being, whilst recognising that some<br />

dangerous ways of being are unacceptable or illegal. It is assumed that if people’s<br />

experiences and behaviors are accepted or ‘normalised’ by the mediator they will be less<br />

likely to take a defensive stance and will be more receptive to exploring new ways of being or<br />

behaving.<br />

Self-reflexivity<br />

Constructivist ideas suggest that it is impossible for a mediator to be neutral, which requires<br />

the mediator to take a reflexive approach to practice (Gergen & Gergen, 1991; Jones, 1992;<br />

Mauthner & Doucet, 1998; Probyn, 1993; Steier, 1991). Self-reflexivity recognises that our<br />

50


practices are culturally specific (Fraser & Nicholson, 1990), not neutral, and involves the<br />

mediator “being explicit about the operation of power” (Ribbens, 1989: 162) and mindful of<br />

their power position in the mediation process. The reflexive mediator assumes a nonhierarchical<br />

position (‘bottom up’ rather than ‘top down’) and works collaboratively with clients<br />

in a more collegial, partnership role, sometimes described as engaging in conversation rather<br />

than as intervention (Brown & Christensen, 1999). It is the participants’ knowledge that is<br />

privileged, and the participants who supply the interpretive context for determining the<br />

meanings of events. The mediator is primarily interested in their different world views, as<br />

expressed through their stories about the conflict, and assists them to open up to alternative<br />

views or stories that might be more useful to their situation and to the resolution of the<br />

conflict (Winslade and Monk, 2000).<br />

The concept of reflexivity is stressed in feminist research. It is based on the idea that “worlds<br />

are constructed, or even autonomously invented, by ‘scientific’ inquirers who are<br />

simultaneously participants in their worlds” (Steier, 1991: 1) and recognizes that knowledge<br />

is embedded in the constructing process. Steier (1991) variously describes self-reflexivity<br />

as: “turning-back of one’s experience upon oneself” (page 2) and “being conscious of<br />

ourselves as we see ourselves” (page 5).<br />

The notion of reflective thought is different but related to the concept of reflexivity. It was first<br />

introduced by John Dewey nearly 100 years ago and involves reviewing our attitudes and<br />

behaviours in ways that help us identify underlying assumptions, without necessarily<br />

challenging their ideological bases or taking power positions into account. We can look for<br />

alternative meanings behind each assumption but there is no fundamental challenge to their<br />

validity. Critical reflection, or reflexivity, goes beyond identifying assumptions to examining<br />

the “dominant ideology and the power relations this ideology justifies…how it is embedded in<br />

the inclinations, biases, hunches, and apparently intuitive ways of experiencing reality that<br />

we think are unique to us” (Brookfield, 2000, p. 38). An ideology can appear to be<br />

benevolent or moral in intent but can have hidden, unanticipated, harmful long-term effects,<br />

as can be witnessed in the aftermath of the removal of indigenous children from their families<br />

in the last century.<br />

Brookfield warns, however, that being critical thinkers may increase our self-awareness and<br />

inform our decision-making but it doesn’t always result in <strong>com</strong>fortable conclusions and<br />

involves feedback from others:<br />

A critically reflective stance towards our practice is healthily ironic, a necessary hedge<br />

against an overconfident belief that we have captured the one universal truth about good<br />

practice …we must consistently involve others—particularly learners and colleagues—as<br />

51


<strong>com</strong>mentators on our efforts…we depend on these people to keep us honest (Brookfield,<br />

2000, p. 46, 47).<br />

Reflective learners or practitioners take time-out to critically challenge their value<br />

assumptions and habitual behaviours and are receptive to feedback from others. Reflexivity<br />

takes this further – it is generally assumed to mean “reflecting upon and understanding our<br />

own personal, political and intellectual autobiographies” and making explicit where we are in<br />

relation to our clients (Mauthner & Doucet, 1998, p.121). Reflexivity is required both within<br />

the practitioner-client interaction, and in the production of accounts and interpretations of the<br />

interaction (Probyn, 1993). In self-reflexivity the influences of characteristics such as gender,<br />

race, class, age, ability and sexuality on the relationship between professional and client are<br />

critically examined.<br />

Alldred stressed that reflexivity in research should involve “critical scrutiny ... that<br />

acknowledges that the analysis is an artifact, produced in a particular moment by a person<br />

occupying particular subject positions, and within the particular power relations described”<br />

(Alldred, 1998, p.147). Poststructuralists acknowledge that all knowledge is situated, which<br />

means, among other things, that the mediator is directly implicated in the knowledge that he<br />

or she produces, such as in the way a mediation is conducted and the agreements are<br />

shaped (Haraway, 1988). Mediators, therefore, cannot describe themselves as being<br />

‘neutral’ or ‘objective’. Instead they are conscious that their personal and professional<br />

experiences, beliefs, values and assumptions, personality, ethnicity, sex, class, age and so<br />

forth shape the way they view conflict, approach conflict and interpret or privilege the various<br />

accounts of conflict provided by the participants. The way the participants are invited to<br />

participate in mediation; the information they are given prior to the mediation; the cultural<br />

characteristics of the mediator(s); the context, timing and location of the mediation; the<br />

particular aspects of the conflict that mediators select to focus on or give priority to; the type<br />

of questions they ask; who they ask, when and how; the interpretations that they make of the<br />

answers - all situate knowledge in a particular way. In addition, the participants’<br />

personalities, culture, health, experiences and perceptions also shape the meaning given to<br />

questions and events, and influence the knowledge that is produced (Haraway, 1988).<br />

Postmodernist mediators emphasise the importance of self-reflexivity in their practice.<br />

Reflexivity demands awareness and control of one’s own professional, personal and cultural<br />

biases in order to understand the standpoint of the ‘other’. Reflexive practitioners will have<br />

the courage to take time out to develop their self-awareness. They will be more able to<br />

connect their personal self with their professional self and to:<br />

• consciously engage in a continual process of self-reflection, asking the critical “why”<br />

questions;<br />

52


• use an “inside-out” approach to professional development, which involves interrogating,<br />

revising, confirming and consolidating various aspects of their own extensive practical<br />

knowledge before they place any reliance on experts (Hunt, 1987, p. 33);<br />

• rely on client feedback to test their observations, perceptions and formulations of the<br />

experiences, beliefs and needs of their clients;<br />

• be willing to see perspectives other than their own;<br />

• be open to new information about their practices;<br />

• be open to new strategies and techniques as life-long learners;<br />

• acknowledge that both they and their clients have expertise to bring to bear on the<br />

conflict situation.<br />

Hunt notes that practitioners using “outside-in” thinking rely on the prescriptions of others to<br />

guide their thinking and practices (Hunt, 1987). They rely on prescriptive answers to the<br />

‘how’ and ‘when’ questions and put little emphasis on asking the critical ‘why’ questions.<br />

Reflective questioning<br />

So far I have placed importance on the mediator being self-reflexive. However, in education<br />

it is well known that critical reflection and contextual awareness enhances learner-centred<br />

approaches to teaching and learning. Techniques such as reflective questioning, when used<br />

in mediation, enhance the conflict literacy of the participants, widen the context, and privilege<br />

their knowledge, not the knowledge of the mediator. In other words, reflective techniques<br />

offer strategies to assist mediators to ‘empower’ the participants to make their own decisions<br />

and assist them to resolve their own conflicts in the future. For this reason I have found<br />

reflective questions to be among the most powerful tools in my mediation teaching and<br />

practice. Reflective questions can assist parties to surface some of their culturally<br />

embedded ideas around social constructs that impede the successful resolution of a conflict,<br />

such as constructs of femininity or leadership, for example by asking: “what has led you to<br />

believe that women cannot be effective leaders?”<br />

Reflective questions provoke insights that can change attitudes and behavior and expand<br />

people’s views of the world. They encourage the client, not the mediator, to do the ‘thinking<br />

work’ in mediation sessions. However, for reflective questions to be effective they should be:<br />

• specific<br />

• cast in simple, positive language<br />

• active, not passive<br />

• curious, exploratory<br />

53


• respectful, without implying judgment, blame or creating defensiveness<br />

• open<br />

• mutual – the same question should be asked of each participant<br />

Reflective questions can be used at all stages of the mediation process for a number of<br />

purposes:<br />

• To assist people to reconsider or modify views, attitudes or positions - e.g. how is it that<br />

you think that you can’t resolve this issue when you been able to resolve other issues in<br />

the past?<br />

• To externalise problems – e.g. how has this conflict been allowed to escalate like this<br />

when you’ve been such good colleagues?<br />

• To stimulate insight - e.g. what did you hear Bill say and what did it mean to you?<br />

• To anticipate change - e.g. what would have to happen over the next month for you to<br />

reconsider your position?<br />

• To frame issues in a way that promotes cooperation – e.g. how can you both cooperate<br />

as parents so that John [their son] can get what he is entitled to, the best of each of you?<br />

• To stimulate new ideas, attitudes, behaviours and/or options - e.g. what do you think you<br />

can do differently to assist Jane to agree with what you want?<br />

• To stimulate empathy (in a separate session) - e.g. if you were to imagine what it would<br />

be like to be in his shoes, how would you respond?<br />

• To stimulate people to expect positive out<strong>com</strong>es – e.g. if you did get what you want,<br />

what would it be like?<br />

• To assist people to focus on the future - e.g. if you could move forward a year and things<br />

could be the way you want them to be, how would things be different?<br />

• To highlight exceptions to the pattern of conflict – e.g. it seems that you have<br />

successfully resolve conflicts in the past – what did you do then that might be useful<br />

now?<br />

Dr John Haynes (often described as the ‘grandfather’ of modern mediation), in a series of<br />

mediation tapes that we made just before he died, illustrated how variations on the following<br />

two sets of reflective questions can be used by the mediator at various stages in the<br />

54


mediation process to put dissonance into participants’ thinking, shift them from their positions<br />

and inject the notion of change. These questions also encourage empathy, as each person<br />

has to consider the other in the answer. For example in a dispute between Bill and Jane, the<br />

mediator could ask the parties two sets of reflective questions in turn, using the following<br />

sequence (note that one starts first with the first question, and the other starts first with the<br />

second):<br />

1. Bill, what are you prepared to do differently to assist Jane to agree to what you want?<br />

2. Jane, what are you prepared to do differently to assist Bill to agree to what you want?<br />

3. Jane, what can Bill do differently to assist you to agree to what he wants?<br />

4. Bill, what can Jane do differently to assist you to agree to what she wants?<br />

These questions are particularly useful when generating options. They can be given to<br />

participants as homework, along with a conflict map (for example, see Appendix 1).<br />

There are many other techniques, such as reframing and metaphors that can assist<br />

participants to reflect on their experiences and situations in ways that produce new<br />

understandings and insights. Learning and insight can be developed through images<br />

embedded in stories. “The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind<br />

of thing in terms of another” (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 5). Metaphors can help to<br />

encapsulate a very <strong>com</strong>plex situation, turn an abstract concept into a more concrete idea, or<br />

represent another <strong>com</strong>plex concept. Haughey (2001, p.5), for example, cites a response to<br />

the use of the metaphors of paddling (in part looking forward) and rowing (looking backward)<br />

a canoe.<br />

The paddler seems to focus on the currents around the canoe, whereas the rower focuses<br />

on the rowing. I saw how we can be so caught up in our own work that other ways of seeing<br />

are lost to us. Like the rower, we focus on the rowing more often than the goal.<br />

Training/coaching mediators to be reflexive<br />

So far I have been describing the difference between prescriptive and elicitive or reflective<br />

approaches to mediation. Lang and Taylor (2000) highlight the difference between these<br />

approaches in mediator training. With the reflective or elicitive approaches the trainer is a<br />

catalyst for the mediator trainee’s learning and nurtures exploration and discovery through<br />

reflection. This approach is interactive. For example, in the mediation training programs I run<br />

at the University of South Australia, the coaches ask two reflective questions immediately<br />

after playing the mediator in the role-play that encourage trainee mediators to identify their<br />

strengths and points of learning:<br />

55


• What did you do that was successful?<br />

• In hindsight, what would you have liked to have done differently?<br />

The coach also encourages trainees to identify the reasoning behind their strategies and to<br />

consider the impact of their specific interventions on the disputants, for example by asking<br />

reflective questions such as:<br />

• What did you learn from the exchanges between X and Y that followed your intervention?<br />

• What did you hope that your question would produce?<br />

Effective coaches or trainers refrain from criticising, analysing and providing answers and<br />

avoid fault-finding and/or approval. The goals of their reflective questions are to:<br />

• encourage and assist the trainee mediator to reflect on experience through a process of<br />

exploration and inquiry<br />

• support the trainee in discovering new ways of thinking or doing<br />

• engage the trainee in identifying new knowledge and<br />

• help the trainee to learn the process and value of reflection (Lang & Taylor (2000).<br />

In summary, reflective approaches are very different to prescriptive approaches to<br />

intervention and mediator training. In prescriptive approaches, the ‘expert’ mediator, or the<br />

‘expert’ trainer directs the process, and the participants or the trainee mediators are seen as<br />

passive receptacles for learning. Reflective approaches, on the other hand, are more likely to<br />

empower clients and trainees to examine and expand their world-views and learn from their<br />

experience.<br />

Finally, there are many tools that practitioners can use to engage in self-reflexive learning or<br />

practice and to promote self-reflection in their clients. For example, learning journals are<br />

useful to help mediators or trainees to develop a habit of reflection and the discipline of<br />

critical analysis (Lang & Taylor, 2000). They are a useful way of systematically recording the<br />

mediator’s thoughts, impressions, concerns, questions and reflections. They may also be<br />

useful for participants in mediation as a way of recording their responses to reflective<br />

questions between sessions.<br />

56


References<br />

Brookfield, S. D. (2000). The concept of critically reflective practice. In Wilson, A. W. &<br />

Hayes, E. (eds) Handbook of adult and continuing education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-<br />

Bass, 33-49.<br />

Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Be<strong>com</strong>ing a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-<br />

Bass.<br />

Fraser, N., & Nicholson, L. J. (Eds.). (1990). Feminism/Postmodernism. New York, London:<br />

Routledge.<br />

Gergen, K. (1985) The social constructivist movement in modern psychology. American<br />

Psychologist, 40, 266-275.<br />

Gergen, K., & Gergen, M. (1991). Research and Reflexivity. London: SAGE Publications.<br />

Hunt, D. E. (1987). Beginning with ourselves: In practice, theory and human affairs.<br />

Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books/OISE Press.<br />

Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago<br />

Press.<br />

Lang, M., & Taylor, A. (2000). The Making of a Mediator: Developing Artistry in Practice. San<br />

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />

Mauthner, N., & Doucet, A. (1998). Reflections on a Voice-centred Relational Method:<br />

Analysing Maternal and Domestic Voices. In J. Ribbens & R. Edwards (Eds.), Feminist<br />

Dilemmas in Qualitative Research: Public Knowledge and Private Lives. London: SAGE<br />

Publications, 119-146.<br />

Payne, M. (1997). Modern Social Work Theory. London: Macmillan.<br />

Probyn, E. (1993). Sexing the Self: Gendered Positions in Cultural Studies. London:<br />

Routledge.<br />

Ribbens, J. (1989). Interviewing: an "unnatural situation"? Women's Studies International<br />

Forum, 12(6), 579-592.<br />

Schön, D. A. (1995). The new scholarship requires a new epistemology. Change, 27<br />

(6), 26<br />

Steier, F. (1991). Research as Self-Reflexivity, Self-Reflexivity as Social Process. In F. Steier<br />

(Ed.), Research and Reflexivity. London: SAGE Publications, 1-11.<br />

White, M. (1989). The externalising of the problem and the re-authoring of lives and<br />

relationships. Dulwich Centre Newsletter, Summer.<br />

Winslade, J., & Monk, G. (2000). Narrative Mediation. A New Approach to Conflict<br />

Resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />

57


L’Evaluation du Processus de Médiation de la FNSEA 89<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Lionel Bobot<br />

Etudiant Doctoral ESSEC, Membre du Comité d’Orientation d’ESSEC IRENE (Institut de<br />

Recherche et d’Enseignement sur la Négociation en Europe)<br />

1. Introduction<br />

Aujourd’hui, on dénombre en France plus de 2 millions retraités agricoles dont 920.000 sont<br />

d’anciens chefs d’exploitation.<br />

La SNAE (Section Nationale des Anciens Agriculteurs), membre de la FNSEA (Fédération<br />

Nationale des syndicats d’exploitants agricoles, principal syndicat d’agriculteurs français), a<br />

souhaitée inciter ses adhérents à rester des gens actifs notamment à travers la vie<br />

associative autour de sa <strong>com</strong>mission de travail « rôle social des anciens exploitants dans la<br />

société », avec la mise en place de médiateurs en milieu rural dans le but d’une meilleure<br />

résolution des conflits.<br />

Ainsi elle a participé à une réflexion sur la médiation puis a décidée dès 1998 de former et<br />

installer des médiateurs locaux.<br />

Ces volontaires, anciens exploitants, participent à 2 stages internes de médiation puis sont<br />

basés dans leur région en coordination avec leur Fédération.<br />

e service de médiation est gratuit et est utilisable par tous les agriculteurs, adhérents ou non<br />

dans plus de 20 départements.<br />

Il concerne notamment des litiges par rapport à des terrains, des successions, des conflits<br />

exploitant/propriétaire ou des problèmes de voisinage.<br />

89 Nous souhaitons remercier Mme Sabine Agofroy pour sa contribution à cet article. Nous souhaitons également<br />

remercier l'ESSEC pour son programme de support à la recherche ainsi que le Professeur Alain Lempereur et la<br />

FNSEA et plus particulièrement la SNAE pour avoir fortement contribué à l’élaboration de l’étude et en avoir<br />

autorisé la publication .<br />

58


2. La FNSEA&SNAE<br />

L’agriculture française est l’un des secteurs d’activité les plus organisés.La mise en place<br />

des organisations agricoles est étroitement liée à l’histoire de l’agriculture depuis un peu pls<br />

d’un siècle.<br />

Le syndicalisme agricole français constitue véritablement le noyau dur de l’appareil<br />

professionnel agricole.<br />

Crée à la Libération, La FNSEA, fédération nationale des syndicats d’exploitants agricoles,<br />

va très vite s’imposer et revendiquer la représentation du monde agricole et reste le syndicat<br />

majoritaire en France. La FNSEA entretient aussi des relations privilégiées avec les<br />

chambres d’agriculture et les organisations mutualistes (mutualité, crédit, coopérations) et<br />

ces organisations se retrouvent au sein du CAF (Conseil de l’agriculture française).<br />

Depuis toujours en France, le syndicalisme agricole s’appuie sur des syndicats locaux qui<br />

sont constitués à l’échelon <strong>com</strong>munal ou cantonal.<br />

La SNAE, section nationale des anciens exploitants, est l’une des quatre sections sociales<br />

de la FNSEA, fédération nationale des syndicats d’exploitants agricoles.<br />

La section dispose d’une structure pyramidale : les anciens exploitants sont représentés aux<br />

niveaus local, cantonal, départemental, régional et national.<br />

La SNAE dispose actuellement de 85 sections départementales regroupant plus de 80.000<br />

exploitants agricoles retraités et leurs conjoints, et a un conseil d’administration de 27<br />

administrateurs venus de 27 départements différents.<br />

Les préoccupations des anciens agriculteurs s’orientent autour de six grands thèmes, objets<br />

de six <strong>com</strong>missions de travail :<br />

- La retraite : suivi des projets de loi, revendications pour améliorer le sort social des<br />

retraités agricoles;<br />

- La situation des veufs,et veuves en agriculture : élaboration d’un guide sur les<br />

démarches à effectuer en cas de décès, création de lieux d’accueil dans les FDSEA ;<br />

- Le rôle des anciens agriculteurs dans la société : médiation ;<br />

- L’animation des sections départementales : journées de formations, structuration...<br />

- La santé : autonomie, dépendance, santé, aide à domicile : protocole d’accord avec<br />

MSA, ADMR.<br />

- La transmission des exploitations : contacts avec les Jeunes Agriculteurs (JA).<br />

59


3. Genèse du processus de médiation<br />

La <strong>com</strong>mission de travail « anciens agriculteurs : acteurs dans la société » a lancé en 1998<br />

un projet de formation des anciens agriculteurs à la médiation.<br />

Les sociétés rurales traditionnelles étaient très bien pourvues en médiateurs (Billaud, 2003) :<br />

les notables ruraux, les conseillers municipaux, le curé....<br />

Cependant la multiplication des conflits dans le monde rural et plus spécialement dans le<br />

monde agricole et la perte d’influence de certains acteurs (notamment religieux) a fait naître<br />

la volonté de créer un réseau de médiateurs.<br />

Médiation chaude<br />

La médiation est un terme d’actualité qui émerge dans la société contemporaine.<br />

Beuret (2003) distingue la médiation miroir et la médiation passerelle. La médiation miroir<br />

(ou médiation froide) est, en général, le fait d’intervenants externes reconnus par les<br />

différents acteurs. La médiation passerelle (ou médiation chaude) est mis en oeuvre par des<br />

acteurs qui sont personnellement impliqués dans l’action et qui, à moment donné, prennent<br />

une position de recul pour faire le lien entre les différentes parties en présence.<br />

Le processus de médiation étudié ici est une médiation « chaude », réalisée par des anciens<br />

agriculteurs implantés localement et reconnus auprès des acteurs agriculteurs.<br />

4 – Evaluation du processus de médiation<br />

Cet étude a eu pour objectif d’évaluer le processus de médiation au sein de la SNAE et ainsi:<br />

- Quantifier le nombre de médiations : par an, par départements,..;<br />

- Evaluer les différentes situations de médiation : litiges exploitatants / propriétaires, .....<br />

- Evaluer le résultat de ces médiations : nombres d’accords, d’échecs,.. ;<br />

- Analyser le profil des médiateurs : âge, motivations, ........... ;<br />

- Evaluer le taux de satisfaction des médiateurs : relations avec leur Fédération, les<br />

retours / aux médiations éffectuées, satisfaction / à leur formation...<br />

- Evaluer le résultat de ces médiations : nombres d’accords, d’échecs,.. ;<br />

- Evaluer les axes d’amélioration du processus de médiation : <strong>com</strong>munication, formation,<br />

fédérations.. ;La <strong>com</strong>mission de travail « anciens agriculteurs : acteurs dans la société »<br />

a lancé en 1998 un projet de formation des anciens agriculteurs à la médiation.<br />

60


5 - Les perceptions des médiateurs par rapport au processus<br />

Nous avons analysés les perceptions des médiateurs formés concernant l’évaluation du<br />

processus de médiation. La méthode consistait à mesurer de façon quantitative et qualitative<br />

l’opinion des médiateurs. L'analyse avait été réalisé grace au service juridique de la SNAE<br />

par l’envoi d’un questionnaire à l’ensemble des personnes formées à la médiation. 48% des<br />

médiateurs on répondu à notre enquête d’opinion, soit un total de 116 médiateurs..<br />

Graphique 1 – Combien de Médiations avez- vous effectuées :<br />

Médiations / an 77<br />

Médiations Totales 202<br />

Le nombre moyen de médiations par an tourne entre deux et trois. Cependant il existe une<br />

grande disparité suivant les départements car certains ont une cellule active de médiation,<br />

d’autres sont quasiment inactifs (voir annexe-cartographie des médiations).<br />

Graphique 2 – Dans quels domaines avez-vous effectués vos médiations? (%Total)<br />

Litige Fermage 47 26%<br />

Coopérateur/Coopérative 6 3%<br />

Société (GAEC, EARL...) 16 9%<br />

Entreprise en difficulté &<br />

Dettes Banques 20 11%<br />

Voisinage 43 23%<br />

Familial 29 16%<br />

Servitudes 17 9%<br />

Drainages 5 3%<br />

Total 183 100%<br />

Litige Fermage<br />

Coopérateur/Coopérative<br />

Société (GAEC, EARL...)<br />

Entreprise en difficulté & Dettes<br />

Banques<br />

Voisinage<br />

Familial<br />

Servitudes<br />

61


Concernant les domaines de médiation, il apparaît 3 principaux domaines d’intervention : les<br />

litiges fermage (26%), les conflits de voisinage (23%) et les conflits familiaux (16%). Par<br />

ailleurs les médiations dans le cas d’entreprises en difficultés avec notamment une<br />

médiation avec la banque (11%), les litiges sociétés (9%) et les conflits de servitudes<br />

apparaissent importants (9%)..<br />

Tableau 3 – Comment avez-vous fait connaître le service « médiation » dans votre<br />

département ?<br />

60%<br />

50%<br />

51%<br />

40%<br />

30%<br />

20%<br />

20%<br />

20%<br />

10%<br />

5%<br />

4%<br />

0%<br />

Fédération Presse Publicité Bouche à oreille Autre (réunions)<br />

La question de la <strong>com</strong>munication du service « médiation » est un point essentiel dans la<br />

mise en pratique de ce processus. Ainsi le canal de la Fédération représente plus de 50%<br />

des réponses. Il convient de signaler aussi l’importance du “bouche à oreille”.<br />

Graphique 4 – Qui a fait appel à vous pour réaliser la médiation ? (%Total)<br />

60%<br />

57%<br />

50%<br />

40%<br />

30%<br />

30%<br />

20%<br />

10%<br />

0%<br />

13%<br />

Fédération Exploitant Autres<br />

62


Sur la question de savoir qui a fait appel à la médiation, c’est la Fédération qui arrive en tête<br />

(57%), alors que l’exploitant ne représente que 31% .<br />

Tableau 5 – Quelles relations entrenez-vous avec le service juridique de la FDSEA?<br />

Entretien antérieurement au dossier 27 42%<br />

Collaboration au cours de la médiation 28 44%<br />

Participation à la rédaction de l'accord 6 9%<br />

Suivi de l'application de cet accord 2 3%<br />

Autre 1 2%<br />

Total 64 100%<br />

Les relations avec le service juridique sont un élément clé de la réussite du processus de<br />

médiation dans les fédérations.Il apparaît qu’un entretien antérieurement au dossier entre le<br />

médiateur et le service juridique soit effectué (42%). D’autrepart une collaboration au cours<br />

de la médiation peut s’effectuer sinon dans 44% des cas.<br />

Tableau 6 – Réussite ou Echec de la Médiation<br />

70%<br />

66%<br />

60%<br />

50%<br />

40%<br />

30%<br />

34%<br />

20%<br />

10%<br />

0%<br />

Réussite<br />

Echec<br />

Le pourcentage de réussite des médiations serait de 66%. Il faut rester très vigilant par<br />

rapport à ce score car la notion de réussite dans la médiation reste <strong>com</strong>plexe (Salzer,1999)<br />

car la présence d’un accord n’est ni suffisante pourqu’il y ait médiation réussie, ni<br />

nécessaire, notamment s’il y a eu des progrès dans la reconnaissance des autres, de leur<br />

légitimité et de leurs intérêts (Touzard, 2003).<br />

63


Résultats Qualitatifs<br />

• Points forts du Processus de Médiation:<br />

Les principaux points forts relevés concernant le processus de médiation sont : la<br />

volonté de renouer le dialogue, l’appel à la participation des acteurs et la pacification des<br />

conflits.<br />

• Difficultés rencontrées :<br />

Les principales difficultés rencontrées sont : faire rencontrer les acteurs et leur<br />

motivation, le manque de temps et les problèmes familiaux.<br />

• Points à renforcer :<br />

Les principales points à renforcer sont : faire connaitre la médiation, installer la confiance<br />

entre médiateurs et approfondir les techniques de médiation.<br />

Limites<br />

Tout d’abord l’évaluation de la médiation (Touzard, 2003) est <strong>com</strong>plexe car la présence d’un<br />

accord n’est ni suffisante pourqu’il y ait médiation réussie, ni nécessaire, notamment s’il y a<br />

eu des progrès dans la reconnaissance des autres, de leur légitimité et de leurs intérêts.<br />

Concernant les résultats de l’étude elle-même, nous avons dégagés certaines limites à ce<br />

processus de médiation :<br />

• Le Médiateur : il est à la fois syndicaliste FNSEA et médiateur et cela peut poser un<br />

problème notamment si un agriculteur en conflit vient d’un autre syndicat.<br />

• Les Problèmes de conflits :<br />

o si le litige est d’ordre technique (servage, drainage,..) alors le médiateur a la capacité<br />

de gérer ce conflit<br />

o si c’est une médiation familiale alors le médiateur peut se retrouvé affaiblit par la non<br />

connaissance de ce type de conflits<br />

o si c’est une médiation concernant des difficultés financières : alors le médiateur n’est<br />

pas ou peu formé, d’autrepart il peut se poser un problème de neutralité vis à vis des<br />

banques plus spécialement du Crédit Agricole qui travaille étroitement avec le monde<br />

agricole et ses représentants.<br />

• L’âge du Médiateur : l’âge moyen des médiateurs est de 70 ans ce qui peut constituer un<br />

obstacle, d’autre part il y a des changements profonds de l’agriculture et l’âge avancé du<br />

médiateur par rapport à sa période active peut créer une relative “déconnexion” des<br />

64


préoccupations ou nouvelles problèmatiques apparues ces dernières années<br />

(législatives, financières ,...).<br />

Conclusion<br />

En conclusion, deux points sont à souligner :<br />

• C’est un processus qui a le mérite d’exister mais à <strong>com</strong>pléter avec un relais de<br />

médiateurs experts. Ainsi l’implantation d’un processus de médiation dans un syndicat et<br />

dans un monde agricole est une réelle avancée dans la gestion alternative de conflits.<br />

• La mise en place d’une médiation « chaude » paraît la bonne solution choisie : le monde<br />

agricole est un monde “clos” et parfois méfiant par rapport à l’extérieur avec d’autrepart<br />

des problèmes spécifiques et techniques, ainsi le fait que la médiation soit réalisée par<br />

des anciens exploitants agricoles et présents localement apparait efficace et la<br />

médiation « froide » serait mal perçue.<br />

Références Bibiographiques<br />

BILLE (Raphael), MERMET (Laurent).Concertation, décision et environnement La<br />

Documentation Française, 2003.<br />

BONAFE-SCHMITT (Jean-Pierre), DAHAN (Jocelyne), SALZER (Jacques), SOUQUET (Marianne),<br />

VOUCHE (Jean-Pierre). Les Médiations. La Médiation. Ramonville : Erès, 1999.<br />

DAUCE (Pierre). Agriculture et Monde Agricole. La Documentation Française, 2003.<br />

GOLDBERG (Stephen), SANDER (Frank) & ROGERS (Nancy). Dispute Resolution: Negotiation,<br />

Mediation and Other Processes. Boston : Little, Brown & Company, 1992.<br />

HERVIEU (Bertrand). Les agriculteurs. PUF, 1996.<br />

KOLB (Deborah). The Mediators. Cambridge, MA : M.I.T. Press, 1983.<br />

LEMPEREUR (Alain). « Negotiation and mediation in France. The challenge of skill-based<br />

learning and interdisciplinary research » Harvard Negotiation Law Review. Vol. 3, Printemps<br />

1998, pp. 151-174.<br />

LEMPEREUR (Alain). « La technique de conciliation. Les six étapes du processus », Gazette<br />

du Palais, numéros 277 à 279, 4-6 octobre 1998, pp. 36-42.<br />

LEMPEREUR (Alain). « Existe-t-il des processus pour faciliter la médiation ? », L'avocat et le<br />

chef d'entreprise dans la pratique de la médiation <strong>com</strong>merciale. Paris : CMAP, 1999, pp. 29-<br />

36.<br />

LEMPEREUR (Alain) (dir.). Modèles de médiateur et médiateur-modèle. Actes du colloque des<br />

14 et 18 décembre 1998. Paris-Cergy : ESSEC IRÉNÉ, 1999.<br />

65


MOORE (Christopher). The Mediation Process. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 1996.<br />

SALZER (Jacques) & ROMANO (Carlo). Enseigner, c'est aussi savoir <strong>com</strong>muniquer. Paris :<br />

Edition de l'Organisation, 1990.<br />

SIX (Jean-François). Le Temps des médiateurs. Paris : Seuil, 1990.<br />

SIX (Jean-François). Dynamique de la médiation. Paris : Desclée de Brouwer, 1995.<br />

SUSKIND (Lawrence), CRUIKSHANK (John). Breaking the impasse :Consensual<br />

approaches to resolving public disputes. Basic Books, 1987.<br />

TOUZARD (Hubert). La Médiation et la résolution des conflits. Paris : Presses Universitaires<br />

de France, 1977.<br />

Annexe – Cartographie des Médiateurs<br />

Absence de Formateurs<br />

Médiateurs Formés<br />

Médiateurs inactifs<br />

Médaiteurs actifs<br />

66


Mediation as a parallel process to a Workplace Assessment<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Monique Bond<br />

Deputy Executive Director,<br />

Federal Centre for Workplace Conflict Management<br />

What is a Workplace Assessment?<br />

In short, a Workplace Assessment is a diagnostic tool used to gather timely, relevant<br />

information from employees and managers on perceptions about a number of workplace<br />

issues. The key objective is to identify and address factors that are impacting on the health of<br />

an organization at a point in time.<br />

Workplace Assessment tools (questionnaires and interview guides) are designed to capture<br />

views on organisational factors (e.g. how work is planned and organised); individual<br />

behaviours (e.g. perceptions about how people treat one another); <strong>com</strong>munications within<br />

the group and with external groups; and the overall cohesiveness of teams within a work unit.<br />

Conducting a Workplace Assessment assists people at all levels in a workplace to be<strong>com</strong>e<br />

aware of issues that are <strong>com</strong>mon to the group; to accept that they need to address these<br />

issues, and to take action to resolve them. In addition to highlighting strengths and positive<br />

factors at play in a work unit, this process identifies specific concerns and underlying causes<br />

of dissatisfaction, a well as negative impacts on morale, productivity and teamwork. Once<br />

identified the process is designed to ensure a “team approach” to address concerns and<br />

move forward in a positive, healthy manner.<br />

Ultimately, the main objective is to allow a team to address, in a collaborative manner,<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon and priority issues which are creating workplace conflicts and a high level of<br />

dissatisfaction within the work environment.<br />

Why conduct a Workplace Assessment?<br />

Often times, it is difficult for managers to properly diagnose the different sources of conflicts<br />

within the work environment which are impacting negatively on the health and productivity of<br />

67


the organization. Based on experience we know that delay and avoidance of conflict<br />

generally leads to the escalation of problems rather than solution. A Workplace Assessment<br />

assists leaders to identify, validate and address, in a proactive manner, specific workplace<br />

issues that are keeping the team from working effectively together. Workplace Assessments<br />

can be applied in small work units as well as fairly large groups.<br />

How is mediation used within the context of a Workplace Assessment?<br />

Given that a Workplace Assessment is designed to address priority issues in the workplace<br />

which are shared by the majority of employees, it leaves individual issues generally<br />

unresolved. At the end of a Workplace Assessment I have often found that employees were<br />

not entirely satisfied with the process because they did not have the opportunity to see their<br />

own issues addressed. For many employees it be<strong>com</strong>es a question of motivation to<br />

participate in this group process. Is this a process that will help me deal with my own issues<br />

or is this a process that will address only deep rooted issues that are affecting the whole<br />

organization?<br />

I have found through our practice at the Federal Centre where we coordinate Workplace<br />

Assessments for our clients (e.g. over forty Workplace Assessments were <strong>com</strong>pleted for the<br />

Department of Justice and other federal departments and agencies) that by integrating<br />

mediation into the process, it increased the effectiveness of the workplace diagnostic and<br />

intervention significantly.<br />

The diagram below illustrates how mediation, as one of several alternative conflict resolution<br />

tools, is managed as a parallel process.<br />

S E R V I N G C A N A D I A N S<br />

A U S E R V I C E D E S C A N A D I E N S<br />

Typical workplace<br />

assessment<br />

Key Components:<br />

- Design phase.<br />

-Questionnaires.<br />

- Interviews for team issues.<br />

- Analysis.<br />

- Report.<br />

- Consultation.<br />

- Action planning.<br />

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Since a typical Workplace Assessment will include either or both a questionnaire and an<br />

interview, employees would be given an opportunity to raise with the practitioner any issues<br />

that affects them personally and would provide direct access to informal conflict resolution<br />

services:<br />

• Facilitation and mediation services when dealing with personal issues, with colleagues or<br />

with the supervisor/manager;<br />

• Individual issues can include, for example, health issues requiring ac<strong>com</strong>modation (e.g.,<br />

special needs) relationship issues with others in the organization, professional<br />

development related issues, etc.<br />

During the interview, the practitioner would listen and reflect with the employees, using an<br />

interest-based approach, on the issues that are affecting them and review options for<br />

engaging in a mediation process with the colleagues or the supervisor/manager. With the<br />

consent of the employee, the practitioner would then arrange the mediation which would be<br />

carried-out on a separate track.<br />

By creating a separate track for dealing with individual issues in a parallel process to a<br />

Workplace Assessment, it maximizes the effectiveness of the overall intervention and<br />

increases the level of satisfaction for employees who would otherwise be dissatisfied with the<br />

Workplace Assessment process.<br />

The <strong>com</strong>bination of both processes, if managed well, enable organizations to address the<br />

interests and needs of the organization itself, the managers, the group and all individuals<br />

which have had unresolved personal issues for some time and which have contributed to the<br />

escalation of conflict with the manager or within the group.<br />

Key Success Factors<br />

The effective use of mediation as a parallel process largely depends on the implementation,<br />

at the outset of the Workplace Assessment, of the following critical steps:<br />

1) Consult with manager and employees on the proposed methodology for conducting the<br />

Workplace Assessment, including the built-in parallel mediation track for addressing<br />

individual workplace issues.<br />

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2) Obtain agreement from all employees on the approach that will be used by the ADR<br />

practitioner in terms of:<br />

• Interviews: These would typically have two <strong>com</strong>ponents. The first part of the<br />

interview would focus on issues affecting the group and the organization as a whole<br />

whereas the second part would focus on individual and personal issues that the<br />

employees want to see addressed;<br />

• Interest-based approach used for the interview: For the purpose of the discussion<br />

on individual issues, the ADR practitioner is expected to listen to the employee and<br />

elicit information with respect to their issue(s) using restatements, reframing and<br />

questions that will get at the interests and needs of the individual. This is done in a<br />

way that allows both, the employee and interviewer to get a deeper understanding of<br />

the issue and reflect on what has been done to date to raise and address the issue,<br />

the effectiveness of the action(s) and brainstorming on options to move forward;<br />

• Access to mediation: It is preferable that employees take the opportunity during the<br />

interview to raise issues that can be addressed early in the process through<br />

mediation. Direct access to the ADR practitioners is available at any time during the<br />

Workplace Assessment process.<br />

3) Clarify and confirm how the ADR practitioner will ensure the confidentiality of the<br />

interview. For example, this could include the following measures:<br />

• Notes taken will be kept to a minimum during the interview process;<br />

• Content of the conversation will not be reported back to the manager unless<br />

necessary and agreed to by the employee for the purpose of follow-up; and<br />

• Notes will be kept on file but will not be accessible to third party in accordance with<br />

the Privacy Act (applies in the federal public service).<br />

4) Commitment from the manager to participate in mediation even when it may require that<br />

he or she revisit, through mediation, issues that may have been raised previously in other<br />

forums.<br />

5) Consensus as to how individual workplace issues will be brought forward for possible<br />

mediation whether it relates to an issue with the manager or with a colleague. This would<br />

entail an agreement to the following modalities:<br />

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• How the other party will be approached (e.g., a call from the ADR practitioner, e-<br />

mail from employee);<br />

• Timelines for addressing issues;<br />

• What information is <strong>com</strong>municated to the other party(ies) about the issue(s);<br />

• How pre-mediation session(s) can be arranged;<br />

6) Support from the unions (local and/or national representatives, as required depending<br />

upon the scale of the project) on the proposed methodology and the basis for their<br />

participation at the mediation(s).<br />

7) Commitment and open-mindedness from employees to participate in mediation whether<br />

they requested it or it was raised by another colleague. This level of <strong>com</strong>mitment is<br />

significant as it applies to both parties. The overall objective is to improve the workplace<br />

atmosphere for everyone.<br />

8) Trust in the ADR practitioner in terms of his / her <strong>com</strong>petencies as well as the ability to<br />

maintain the integrity of the process and terms of reference that have been agreed to at<br />

the outset.<br />

Distinguishing individual issues from group issues<br />

One of the main pitfalls of offering mediation as a parallel process to the workplace<br />

assessment would be to arrange individual mediation to address workplace issues that, at<br />

first glance appears to be of concern to one individual when in fact, it concerns several<br />

individuals in the group.<br />

It is important that the ADR practitioner be able, throughout the interviews and the different<br />

stages of the workplace assessment, to distinguish between the individual issues and the<br />

group issues. It is also important that employees feel safe to raise individual issues and be<br />

re-assured that they can do so in a private manner.<br />

When several individuals raise similar types of questions which are variations of the same<br />

theme, it may no longer be appropriate to approach it on an individual basis. All indications<br />

may point to a group issue that needs to be raised as part of the larger group exercise.<br />

The following chart provides examples of the types of workplace issues that may be<br />

considered as individual issues and group issues within the organization.<br />

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Workplace assessment<br />

- Group issues -<br />

• Management style;<br />

• Internal <strong>com</strong>munication;<br />

• External <strong>com</strong>munication;<br />

• Team work;<br />

• Interpersonal relations;<br />

• Effectiveness of operation;<br />

• Organization of workload;<br />

• Human Resources management<br />

• Services to the client;<br />

• Readiness to change;<br />

• Learning organization;<br />

• Work environment.<br />

Mediation as a parallel process<br />

- Individual issues -<br />

• Specific interpersonal relationship<br />

matters;<br />

• Professional development matters;<br />

• Ac<strong>com</strong>modation matters (e.g., duty to<br />

ac<strong>com</strong>modate);<br />

• Individual application of organizational<br />

policies within the work unit (e.g.,<br />

education, leave policy, flexible work<br />

arrangement);<br />

• Work performance;<br />

• Personal needs for which the employee<br />

is seeking flexibility with respect to<br />

working conditions (e.g., hours of work);<br />

• Altercation with colleague.<br />

Possible Traps<br />

As ADR practitioners we need to be mindful of the potential traps when we engage in a<br />

concurrent process involving mediation and workplace assessment, as two distinct interestbased<br />

approaches to address workplace issues.<br />

Some of these traps include the following:<br />

• Employees personalizing organizational issues and wanting to access mediation with<br />

their manager to address what is beyond his / her control (e.g., shift work as a condition<br />

of employment, staffing policies);<br />

• Employees raising workplace issues that are more appropriately dealt with through the<br />

labour – management forum for the organization; an example of this would be<br />

employee(s) that raise an issue(s) of a health and safety nature;<br />

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• Employees that appear to be affected about a situation to a much greater extent than “a<br />

reasonable person” would be in the same circumstances; an example of this would be<br />

someone who takes offence to having his or her office relocated;<br />

• Employees who, once made aware that a colleague is wanting to engage in a mediation<br />

to address a behavioural matter / issue, have a change of heart about their <strong>com</strong>mitment<br />

to the process.<br />

For this process to be effective there needs to be a buy-in from all participants and a<br />

<strong>com</strong>mitment to engage in this collaborative approach with the ultimate objective to improve<br />

the quality of the workplace.<br />

73


Facilitation in the franchising sector<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Adolfo Braga Neto<br />

Administration Board President of the IMAB - Mediation<br />

and Arbitration Institute of Brazil<br />

In Brazil, Facilitation, as a conflict management procedure among a group of people,<br />

is showing an efficient procedure to deal with conflicts in the franchise sector. It has<br />

been used among franchisor and its franchisees. The initiative allows the<br />

identification of mutual difficulties in their daily operations and also the recognition of<br />

problems in their <strong>com</strong>munication and their relationships. It provides a big thinking<br />

about their own business, promoting the creation of elements to solve conflicts and to<br />

build up new operations.<br />

Conflicts in the franchise sector are more <strong>com</strong>mon than many people suppose. The<br />

appearance of peace of a fast food restaurant, a famous women shop or a big<br />

language foreign school hidden big battles among franchisor and its franchisees<br />

behind closed doors far from the public. Each side always demands that there is lack<br />

of information, low operation profits, daily invasions in the franchisee territory, and<br />

bad use of money from the marketing program. So a lot of problems that need a<br />

different way to be solved and the solution should <strong>com</strong>e as fast as the market<br />

demands.<br />

All these conflicts are receiving a different treatment. They have been taking to a<br />

conflict resolution professional, the facilitator, who tries to facilitate the dialog among<br />

them in order to discuss openly. This professional may be a mediator, but this<br />

mediator must pay attention to some specific characteristics because he is in a<br />

unique opportunity, when a group of decision makers are interested in discuss their<br />

conflicts and are assembled to do that.<br />

The facilitator must be attempted to each movement of each person of the group. It<br />

means he must observe all kinds of <strong>com</strong>munications among them. Remember each<br />

step what they decided in the past and what they decided to follow in the future. He<br />

74


needs follow firmly the agenda they decided. He sometimes seems to be like a<br />

secretary of the meetings, taking notes of every consensus or conflicts among them.<br />

At the same time, he needs to bring questions which will demand thinking about their<br />

own business and also must stimulate active participation of each one.<br />

He must do all this work following some rules which he must impose at the beginning<br />

of the procedure. He also needs to demand respect to get order during the sessions.<br />

Besides he uses the same <strong>com</strong>mon rules of mediation like when a person says other<br />

people just listen, etc. He must also give different treatment to the conflicts which<br />

involves two parts only. When the group realizes there a conflict between two of them<br />

and the interest at risk are restricted to them. It must be isolated to the group<br />

because they demand another dialogue between both parts far from the group. It<br />

could or not stop all the procedure. It will depend on the point of view of the group.<br />

This must be done in order to avoid bad influences from this isolated conflict to the<br />

group works. It will lead good results, because the facilitation tends to give equal<br />

treatment to each person of the group, respecting the each one.<br />

The advantages of facilitation in franchise sector are many. It permitted a franchisee<br />

to get out of franchise restaurant net without any losses to both sides when he<br />

realized that the smell of his famous net was bad to his health. It also permitted the<br />

revision of some franchise rules, when franchise operations are not going well in<br />

some territory. So these are some examples which facilitation was used to deal with<br />

successfully conflicts in franchise sector.<br />

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Servicios Municipales de Mediación Comunitaria. La experiencia<br />

del Ayuntamiento de Mataró<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Glòria Brusati i Massaguer<br />

Coordinadora de Planes integrales territoriales<br />

Coordinadora del Servicio de Mediación Comunitaria<br />

Ayuntamiento de Mataró<br />

Presentación<br />

En los últimos años la mediación se está dibujando <strong>com</strong>o una útil herramienta de trabajo<br />

para los municipios para afrontar las diferentes situaciones de conflicto que surgen en la<br />

vida cotidiana de nuestras ciudades, cada vez más <strong>com</strong>plejas y que requieren un<br />

tratamiento más global del que se ha dado hasta el momento. Es necesario definir qué tipo<br />

de servicio tienen que desarrollar en los ayuntamientos para poder aprovechar todas las<br />

potencialidades que la mediación ofrece a la gestión municipal.<br />

En el Ayuntamiento de Mataró, desde hace poco más de dos años se puso en marcha un<br />

servicio de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria en dos barrios concretos de la ciudad: Rocafonda y El<br />

Palau. A partir de la experiencia desarrollada podemos fijar unas determinadas<br />

características de un servicio municipal de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, tal y <strong>com</strong>o exponemos a<br />

continuación.<br />

Introducción<br />

El proyecto de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria ciudadana hay que enmarcarlo, aunque brevemente,<br />

en el entorno donde se genera la propuesta. En este sentido dedicaremos las próximas<br />

páginas a ubicar la ciudad de Mataró, y los dos barrios donde se desarrolla el servicio, así<br />

<strong>com</strong>o la experiencia del Plan integral territorial donde se enmarca el proyecto.<br />

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Mataró<br />

Mataró es una ciudad de poco más de 113.004<br />

habitantes90 y de 22,57 km2 de superficie,<br />

situada a 28 km. de la ciudad de Barcelona,<br />

bien <strong>com</strong>unicada con ella por ferrocarril,<br />

autopista y carretera.<br />

Es una de las ciudades más importantes de la Región Metropolitana de Barcelona, zona<br />

motora de la economía catalana, en especial del sector industrial y de servicios. Mataró es la<br />

capital y centro de servicios de la <strong>com</strong>arca del Maresme que con una superficie de 397 Km2<br />

y una población de 291.000. habitantes, constituye una de las zonas de Cataluña con un<br />

desarrollo económico más intenso (gran parte de la confección textil española se produce en<br />

esta <strong>com</strong>arca).<br />

Mataró ha sido tradicionalmente una ciudad especializada en el género de punto, pero<br />

actualmente está diversificando sus sectores productivos, tendiendo hacia una terciarización<br />

de su economía desarrollando sectores relacionados con su capitalidad de <strong>com</strong>arca y su<br />

papel de ciudad intermedia.<br />

Rocafonda-El Palau y el Plan integral territorial<br />

Rocafonda y El Palau son dos barrios situados en la zona norte de la ciudad, donde se<br />

concentran más de 15.000 habitantes, la mayoría procedentes de las oleadas migratorias de<br />

los años 60 y 70 procedentes del resto de España. Como en muchos otros barrios de<br />

Cataluña, su configuración, aunque planificada, ha dado lugar a unas características<br />

urbanísticas, económicas y sociales determinadas, que nos llevan a definirlos <strong>com</strong>o “barrios<br />

vulnerables”:<br />

• Urbanísticas: falta de equipamientos; alta densificación; calles estrechas; falta de zonas<br />

verdes; viviendas deficientes: dimensiones, escaleras…<br />

• Sociales: bajo nivel de instrucción de la población; aumento del número de hogares<br />

unipersonales; envejecimiento de la población; altos porcentajes de población recién<br />

venida.<br />

90 Censo de habitantes a 31 de marzo de 2003.<br />

77


• Económicas: altas tasas de paro; renta baja; predominio del pequeño <strong>com</strong>ercio; baja<br />

actividad económica <strong>com</strong>ercial.<br />

Ante esta realidad se plantea el objetivo de diseñar un plan de acción que contemple todas<br />

estas necesidades de forma integrada y con el objetivo de ofrecer a los barrios la posibilidad<br />

de transformar su estructura urbana, económica y social.<br />

El Plan Integral de Rocafonda-El Palau es una experiencia piloto, iniciada por el<br />

Ayuntamiento de Mataró el año 2001 con la estrecha colaboración de las entidades del<br />

territorio.<br />

El Plan integral es un proyecto de transformación global de estos dos barrios de la ciudad,<br />

mediante la potenciación de nuevas metodologías organizativas que favorecen el trabajo<br />

transversal y multidisciplinado dentro de la administración local y potencian una gestión más<br />

relacional del territorio, apostando por la promoción de la participación ciudadana en los<br />

procesos de diseño o implantación de proyectos.<br />

El Plan integral se fija tres objetivos principales:<br />

1. mejorar el nivel de equipamientos, <strong>com</strong>unicación, servicios, infraestructuras y viviendas;<br />

2. reforzar la cohesión social con la participación ciudadana;<br />

3. incrementar la actividad económica.<br />

Uno de los primeros proyectos que se desarrollaron alrededor del proceso de diseño y<br />

elaboración del Plan Integral de Rocafonda-El Palau fue un diagnóstico participado por<br />

ambos barrios, que sirvió para detectar aquellas necesidades y situaciones que requieran<br />

una intervención directa. Una de las realidades que más destacaba era la existencia<br />

permanente de situaciones de conflicto entre los ciudadanos y, por este motivo, se propuso<br />

el diseño de una intervención directa, dentro del Plan Integral, encargado de gestionar los<br />

conflictos en los barrios de Rocafonda y El Palau, que se plasma en la puesta en marcha de<br />

un servicio de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria.<br />

78


La mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria<br />

Conceptualización<br />

El Servicio de Mediación Comunitaria del Ayuntamiento de Mataró nace, en diciembre del<br />

año 2002, a partir de la voluntad de la administración local y de las entidades del territorio de<br />

apostar por la resolución alternativa de conflictos en el ámbito <strong>com</strong>unitario, trabajando en<br />

dos ámbitos principales: la prestación del servicio de mediación y la dinamización de la<br />

<strong>com</strong>unidad.<br />

Desde el inicio, la apuesta del Ayuntamiento de Mataró era de un tipo de Servicio que fuera<br />

más allá de les mediaciones formales, que buscara, no sólo la gestión eficaz de problemas<br />

concretos, si no que considerase la Resolución Alternativa de Conflictos desde la vertiente<br />

transformativa, de recuperación de la condición de ciudadanía del los vecinos y vecinas del<br />

territorio; de manera que favorezca al desarrollo de la <strong>com</strong>unidad y a su corresponsabilidad<br />

en la toma de decisiones de aquello que les afecta directamente.<br />

Se parte de que el conflicto puede trabajarse en sus tres fases:<br />

• La prevención, donde se trabaja con los agentes del territorio y los ciudadanos, para<br />

evitar que se creen condiciones favorables a la aparición de conflictos vecinales.<br />

• La provención, en la que interviene directamente el mediador/a por tal de intentar<br />

encontrar, de forma conjunta con las partes implicadas, una solución o una simplificación<br />

de la situación del conflicto.<br />

• El estallido, donde la figura del mediador ha de realizar una tarea de contención de la<br />

situación, por tal de poder trabajar posteriormente la provención.<br />

Se plantea el Servicio de Mediación Comunitaria <strong>com</strong>o un espacio de tratamiento del<br />

conflicto en sus diferentes fases, considerando la mediación en su sentido más amplio,<br />

<strong>com</strong>o un instrumento de amplio abanico, válido para trabajar multidisciplinariamente<br />

muchas de las necesidades del territorio. El Servicio no se limita a la aplicación de una<br />

técnica concreta si no que hace uso del amplio abanico de metodologías y estilos de<br />

trabajo de la Resolución de Conflictos y de la participación ciudadana.<br />

Así, se establecen <strong>com</strong>o principales objetivos del servicio:<br />

• Dar a conocer y difundir la cultura de la mediación <strong>com</strong>o una herramienta de mejora de<br />

la cohesión social y de fomento de la participación ciudadana y el capital social.<br />

• Fomentar el uso del diálogo entre ciudadanos/as, frecuentemente de diferentes culturas<br />

y/o generaciones<br />

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• Favorecer una gestión transversal de los conflictos por parte de la Administración,<br />

conexionando los diferentes equipos de trabajo y creando canales de <strong>com</strong>unicación<br />

interno/externo<br />

Para conseguir estos objetivos se define la figura del mediador/a <strong>com</strong>o un profesional con<br />

presencia en el territorio que crea lazos de <strong>com</strong>unicación con los vecinos y vecinas, así<br />

<strong>com</strong>o con los diferentes servicios de la administración, convirtiendo un puente de unión<br />

entre ésta y la ciudadanía, con el objetivo de establecer los canales y los espacios de<br />

participación necesarios para garantizar la gestión transversal del conflicto. Esta gestión<br />

transversal incluye la intervención en situaciones de conflicto, pero también una acción<br />

socioeducativa dirigida a la promoción de la participación ciudadana en la toma de<br />

decisiones que afecten su cotidianidad .<br />

Se trata ,entonces, de hacer uso de la mediación <strong>com</strong>o una herramienta de participación y<br />

corresponsabilización de la ciudadanía, implicando a les entidades y asociaciones.<br />

Para ello se fijaron tres ámbitos de trabajo diferenciados:<br />

• Por un lado prestación del servicio, que consiste en la recepción y tratamiento de<br />

casos que lleguen al mediador/a, ya sea directamente o derivados de algún otro servicio<br />

y/o entidad.<br />

• Por otro lado la dinamización <strong>com</strong>unitaria, más dirigida a la difusión de la cultura de la<br />

mediación <strong>com</strong>o elemento cohesionador y generador de capital social<br />

• por último y necesario tratándose de un servicio nuevo, el ámbito de la difusión y de la<br />

coordinación, a través del cual se daba a conocer el servicio y se construía la red de<br />

trabajo que tiene que utilizar el mediador a la hora de desarrollar su labor.<br />

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Experiencias<br />

A lo largo de 2003 este servicio de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria empezó a funcionar con la<br />

voluntad de identificar, analizar y proponer soluciones a los problemas o ineficiencias en la<br />

gestión de los conflictos <strong>com</strong>unitarios, buscando la mejora constante del servicio que se<br />

desarrolla en los barrios.<br />

El cuadro siguiente sintetiza el conjunto de acciones desarrolladas a lo largo de estos dos<br />

primeros años de funcionamiento, 2003 y 2004.<br />

Ambito de<br />

trabajo<br />

Prestación del<br />

servicio<br />

Dinamitzación<br />

de la<br />

<strong>com</strong>unidad<br />

Difusión y<br />

coordinación<br />

Actuación Tipología Resultados Agentes<br />

colaboradores/<br />

participantes<br />

Recepción y<br />

tratamiento de<br />

casos<br />

Total: 59 casos<br />

Prodime<br />

(Proyecto de<br />

Dinamización y<br />

Mediación)<br />

• Elaboración<br />

de protocolos<br />

derivación<br />

• Formación<br />

• Sensibilizaci<br />

ón<br />

• Conflictos<br />

interpersonales<br />

• Comunidad de<br />

vecinos 91<br />

• Entidades<br />

• Uso del espacio<br />

público<br />

Fortalecimiento tejido<br />

asociativo<br />

Creación red de<br />

trabajo del servicio<br />

Total de casos: 47<br />

• Casos que aceptan<br />

la mediación: 32<br />

• Se llega acuerdo:30<br />

• Casos que no<br />

aceptan: 8<br />

• Casos derivados que<br />

no se dirigen al<br />

servicio: 16<br />

• Creación de<br />

<strong>com</strong>isiones de<br />

trabajo para mejorar<br />

el barrio<br />

• Nuevos<br />

interlocutores con la<br />

administración<br />

• Corresponsabilizació<br />

n en les<br />

problemáticas del<br />

territorio<br />

• Trabajo para canviar<br />

las percepciones de<br />

los vecinos i vecinas<br />

• Establecer relación<br />

con diferentes<br />

servicios de la<br />

administración<br />

• Establecer relación<br />

entidades del<br />

territorio<br />

Todos los vecinos<br />

y vecinas de los<br />

barrios de<br />

Rocafonda y El<br />

Palau<br />

Entidades i<br />

ciudadanos/as del<br />

barrio de El Palau<br />

• Técnicos i<br />

profesionales<br />

del territorio<br />

• Entidades de<br />

los barrios<br />

El primer año de funcionamiento supuso, en un determinado sentido, la tarea más difícil,<br />

que se ha ido consolidando durante el segundo año. No tan sólo se trataba de un Servicio<br />

de nueva implantación con muy pocos referentes en nuestro país si no también, de la<br />

91 Los conflictos surgidos en el marco de las <strong>com</strong>unidades de vecinos son de diferentes tipos:<br />

instalación de ascensores, limpieza, apertura de una nueva actividad en los locales del edificio, etc.<br />

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introducción al ámbito municipal de un nuevo paradigma: el de la cultura de la paz. Con el<br />

objetivo de difundir el servicio y la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria se empezó a trabajar<br />

estableciendo contactos con los diferentes servicios municipales que trabajaban en el<br />

territorio y con las diferentes entidades que desarrollan su actividad a Rocafonda-El Palau.<br />

Esta labor de difusión sirvió para <strong>com</strong>enzar a diseñar canales de <strong>com</strong>unicación y,<br />

lógicamente, trabajó los conflictos que surgían sobre el territorio. Esta labor se <strong>com</strong>pletó con<br />

la impartición de un curso de 20h a 28 técnicos procedentes de las diferentes<br />

administraciones, durante el cual se explicaron los fundamentos de la resolución de<br />

conflictos y <strong>com</strong>o la mediación y el mediador podían ser figuras <strong>com</strong>plementarias a la tarea<br />

que los diferentes profesionales desarrollan en su día a día. Fruto de esta formación se<br />

establecieron los primeros protocolos de derivación de casos que se proporcionaron a todos<br />

los servicios que colaboraron.<br />

En paralelo, se ha avanzado en los dos ámbitos principales de trabajo: la prestación de<br />

servicio y la dinamización <strong>com</strong>unitaria.<br />

Por lo que hace referencia a la prestación de servicio se ha centrado en la realización de<br />

mediaciones formales para gestionar conflictos que llegaban al servicio, ya fuera derivado<br />

por otros servicios municipales o por les entidades del territorio, o bien por ciudadanos/as<br />

que se dirigían al servicio. Las mediaciones se realizaban en la oficina del servicio o bien en<br />

espacios neutrales que se considerasen adecuados: escaleras de vecinos, sedes de<br />

entidades y/o asociaciones, etc.<br />

Dentro del ámbito de la prestación de servicio tenemos que destacar la atención de<br />

conflictos, que podríamos calificar de uso del espacio público. Se han atendido casos<br />

importantes donde diversos colectivos se encontraban en situación de conflicto por el uso<br />

de un espacio público. La mayoría eran conflictos cronificados, es decir, hacia tiempo que se<br />

daban y habían requerido con frecuencia la intervención de la policía local y/o de la<br />

presencia de responsables políticos. La intervención del mediador/a en ambos casos<br />

consistió en el establecimiento de canales de <strong>com</strong>unicación con las diferentes partes<br />

implicadas. Los resultados más destacables de estas actuaciones han sido: el<br />

reconocimiento y revalorización de colectivos enfrentados; la mejora de la gestión del<br />

conflicto por medio del trabajo en red con los servicios municipales. Finalmente, señalar que<br />

se va consiguiendo establecer lazos de <strong>com</strong>unicación entre colectivos que, a pesar de<br />

<strong>com</strong>partir un mismo espacio, nunca habían establecido ningún tipo de contacto más allá del<br />

recelo y la desconfianza.<br />

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De aquí podemos extraer que la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria puede ser, además de una<br />

herramienta de resolución de conflictos, una herramienta de transformación de la <strong>com</strong>unidad<br />

y de la gestión local.<br />

Por último, se incide en el ámbito de la dinamización de la <strong>com</strong>unidad o de la acción social,<br />

ámbito que podríamos calificar de auténtico hecho diferencial del servicio de mediación<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitaria promovido por el Ayuntamiento de Mataró.<br />

Las actuaciones en este ámbito se han centrado en el barrio de El Palau, dónde la situación<br />

del tejido asociativo era de fuerte debilidad y dónde era preciso incidir para mejorar la<br />

percepción que tenia la ciudadanía de su barrio, hasta entonces bastante negativa.<br />

Utilizando herramientas propias de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria y del trabajo social se ha<br />

trabajado con las entidades del territorio.<br />

Estas actuaciones han dado lugar a:<br />

• la creación de un espacio de encuentro entre las entidades dónde se aborden las<br />

problemáticas del barrio y se diseñen actuaciones que impliquen a la ciudadanía.<br />

• la reorganización de la AV con la incorporación de nuevos miembros con voluntad de<br />

participar y de implicarse en la mejora del barrio. Personas que han tomado consciencia<br />

de su papel activo en la toma de decisiones sobre aquellos asuntos que mas los afectan<br />

y que quieren establecer nuevas relaciones con la administración que se basen en la<br />

corresponsabilización enfrente de las problemáticas del barrio.<br />

En este ámbito, por lo tanto, es necesario destacar que la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria ha llegado<br />

a ser una herramienta de promoción del capital social, fortaleciendo el tejido asociativo tanto<br />

internamente <strong>com</strong>o en la creación de redes de colaboración, y mejorando la percepción de<br />

los ciudadanos/as de su barrio.<br />

Conclusiones<br />

De la tarea desarrollada durante este año y medio se desprende que la mediación<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitaria puede ir más allá de la gestión de los conflictos y llegar a ser una herramienta<br />

que nos ayude a mejorar en la gestión de nuestras ciudades. Así pues:<br />

• Representa una oportunidad de incrementar el protagonismo de la sociedad civil.<br />

Posibilita los recursos necesarios para que la ciudadanía disponga de espacios donde<br />

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esolver democráticamente y participativamente sus diferencias, inherentes por otro lado<br />

a la convivencia en la ciudad.<br />

• Responde a una voluntad política de evolucionar hacia una administración más<br />

relacional, más dinámica, capaz de adaptarse a la realidad cambiante de forma no<br />

traumática.<br />

• Desarrolla intervenciones preventivas desde la necesaria transversalidad de las<br />

acciones dirigidas a la gestión de conflictos <strong>com</strong>unitarios.<br />

• Interviene en conflictos basados en las opciones legítimas de los ciudadanos de<br />

satisfacer sus ideales de convivencia, perfilándose <strong>com</strong>o una herramienta que conecta<br />

con nuevas necesidades sociales.<br />

• Adecuadamente gestionada, economiza recursos humanos y materiales.<br />

De hecho, y más allá de si las partes llegan a un acuerdo satisfactorio, el propio proceso<br />

de la mediación tiene un efecto didáctico quizás inicialmente intangible pero con muchas<br />

consecuencias para la Administración municipal. El ciudadano entiende que es capaz<br />

de aportar soluciones al conflicto del cual forma parte, que no se pueden dejar las<br />

cuestiones que le afecten a les manos de un tercero y, por lo tanto, entiende que la<br />

construcción y mejora de la vida de su barrio, de su ciudad, de su entorno pasa por la<br />

corresponsabilización.<br />

La ejecución de la experiencia nos ha confirmado lo que ya intuíamos: que mediación,<br />

democracia participativa y trabajo <strong>com</strong>unitario, lejos de ser <strong>com</strong>partimentos estancos, se<br />

mezclan y <strong>com</strong>plementan. Todos ellos están bajo el refugio de la cultura del diálogo.<br />

Así, la mediación puede disminuir los costes de las decisiones políticas al hacerlas más<br />

participativas, en la medida que busque el consenso entre los miembros del Consistorio y la<br />

ciudadanía. En este sentido, entendemos la mediación <strong>com</strong>o una práctica de flexibilidad<br />

política y <strong>com</strong>o un conjunto de técnicas de participación, que da herramientas para evitar ver<br />

al otro solamente <strong>com</strong>o nuestro adversario.<br />

A partir de esta experiencia podemos establecer un modelo de servicio municipal de<br />

mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, en el que definimos la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria <strong>com</strong>o un programa de<br />

acción en el ámbito local cuyo objetivo es la prevención, gestión y resolución de conflictos<br />

propios de la convivencia ciudadana que fomenta las acciones desarrolladas en el marco del<br />

programa en el diálogo, la participación y el protagonismo de la ciudadanía en estos<br />

procesos. Por medio de la acción mediadora se busca también la profundización en la<br />

cultura democrática en relación a la transformación de los sistemas, de las estructuras y las<br />

prácticas democráticas.<br />

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Todo eso se consigue poniendo en juego tres conceptos básicos, inspiradores de nuestra<br />

propuesta teórica y metodológica: el diálogo, la participación y el protagonismo.<br />

El diálogo es una acción que permite la construcción de espacios en los cuales la escucha<br />

activa, la <strong>com</strong>prensión y el reconocimiento convergen al servicio de un objetivo único:<br />

encontrar espacios de <strong>com</strong>unicación auténtica donde dibujar diversas posibilidades de<br />

encuentro entre las personas desde el respeto mutuo, y por lo tanto, desde el respeto a la<br />

diferencia. Esta acción es aplicable no solamente en las relaciones interpersonales, sino que<br />

también es válida en las relaciones sociales y por lo tanto es de vital importancia para la<br />

mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria.<br />

El protagonismo no es uno de los conceptos más trabajados en el campo de las ciencias<br />

sociales a pesar de su importancia. En contraposición con la tradición asistencialista de los<br />

servicios municipales, defendamos un cambio de actitud de manera que las personas<br />

puedan disfrutar del derecho de decidir sobre sus propias vidas y tanto los profesionales<br />

<strong>com</strong>o las administraciones han de ser capaces de garantizar el cumplimiento de este reto y<br />

potenciar la creación de sistemas y estructuras que lo favorezcan.<br />

La participación es, en los últimos años, uno de los conceptos más importantes en la gestión<br />

local. La participación no es solamente una filosofía que nos permite escuchar y incorporar<br />

propuestas y voces diversas en los asuntos públicos; sino que también es una acción.<br />

Pensada así, la participación permite la proyección de otros conceptos interesantes, <strong>com</strong>o la<br />

vinculación con el entorno.<br />

Los tres conceptos operando conjuntamente nos permiten pensar el futuro, entendido <strong>com</strong>o<br />

una construcción dónde es posible la harmonización de las diferencias, es decir, la base de<br />

la convivencia.<br />

Aquello que tendría que caracterizar la democracia actual es el reconocimiento y la<br />

legitimación del conflicto <strong>com</strong>o un elemento constitutivo de la convivencia democrática y la<br />

existencia de herramientas que favorezcan la materialización de estas ideas, de entre las<br />

cuales ha de tomar especial relevancia protagonismo y la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria.<br />

Por lo tanto, cada vez se perfila <strong>com</strong>o más necesario fomentar los centros de mediación<br />

sociales para cubrir las carencias de la administración, pues estos centros representan un<br />

punto de acogida de los conflictos, previo a la denuncia. La mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria es, al<br />

mismo tiempo, una sólida política pública que, por un lado, fomenta la creación de lazos de<br />

85


convivencia y, por el otro, incrementa la aparición de espacios sociales, a la vez que permite<br />

desarrollar políticas de formación que admitan la intervención. Pero hay que ser proactivos y<br />

no reactivos, es decir, incidir en la mediación preventiva, en el sentido de crear una cultura<br />

de la mediación para afrontar los problemas de formas diferentes, más que en la mediación<br />

curativa, cuando el conflicto ya se ha dejado entrever. La mediación es un espacio que<br />

aumenta la democracia y promueve el desarrollo social, pues requiere participación y, al<br />

mismo tiempo, otorga protagonismo a los diferentes actores.<br />

86


Mediazione Sociale e Sicurezza urbana:<br />

la progettazione partecipata <strong>com</strong>e fattore di protezione alla violenza<br />

e all’insicurezza urbana<br />

_______________________________________________________________<br />

Dr. Leonardo Carocci<br />

Responsabile del I e IV Progetto “Mediazione Sociale” – Roma,<br />

Coop. Soc. PARSEC<br />

Dr. Antonio Antolini<br />

Responsabile del II e III Progetto “Mediazione Sociale” – Roma<br />

Coop. Soc. EUREKA I<br />

Il contesto<br />

Il Comune di Roma ha avviato nel 1999 il progetto sperimentale “Mediazione Sociale”, in tre<br />

quartieri periferici ritenuti tra i più disagiati; nel 2001 lo estende ad altri tre quartieri. La<br />

gestione del progetto è affidata a 3 cooperative sociali romane (Parsec, Magliana 80, Eureka<br />

I). Nel 2004 anche il V Municipio del Comune di Roma attiva un proprio progetto in uno dei<br />

suoi quartieri. Successivamente viene varato il Progetto “Esquilino Sicuro”, in un quartiere<br />

adiacente la centrale stazione Termini. Attualmente sono 8 i quartieri della capitale in cui si<br />

opera attraverso la mediazione sociale, all’interno di sette diversi Municipi <strong>com</strong>posti ciascuno<br />

di circa 200.000 abitanti. Il progetto lavora prevalentemente in contesti territoriali<br />

caratterizzati da elevata presenza di edifici di edilizia popolare dove si registrano molteplici<br />

casi di disagio sociale (famiglie con difficoltà economiche, alti tassi di disoccupazione, lavori<br />

precari, dispersione scolastica), diverse modalità di conflittualità urbane (latenti e/o agite) tra<br />

cittadini ma anche tra questi e le istituzioni. Passività, rassegnazione e indifferenza<br />

caratterizzano gli atteggiamenti di fronte al degrado urbano, ai conflitti tra diverse etnie, ai<br />

casi di microcriminalità, di spaccio e consumo di sostanze stupefacenti, atti di vandalismo, di<br />

bullismo e di violenza gratuita.<br />

87


L’approccio<br />

Il progetto “Mediazione Sociale”, partendo dalla mappatura e dall’analisi dei conflitti presenti<br />

sui territori, si orienta verso l’empowerment di <strong>com</strong>unità favorendo la progressiva<br />

responsabilizzazione delle <strong>com</strong>unità locali nella gestione condivisa degli aspetti legati al<br />

vivere quotidiano. Curando con i cittadini la promozione di una cultura del dialogo sociale<br />

attraverso la costruzione di percorsi in cui gli stessi partecipano al processo di mediazione<br />

dei conflitti, il progetto nelle sue diverse azioni tende al soddisfacimento delle esigenze<br />

<strong>com</strong>uni attraverso prassi orientate essenzialmente a evidenziare le potenzialità insite nel<br />

dialogo, nel rispetto reciproco, nella rimessa in <strong>com</strong>unicazione tra cittadini e tra questi e le<br />

istituzioni; in sintesi nella partecipazione attiva alla ricerca di soluzioni condivise rispetto alle<br />

criticità e ai problemi evidenziati dagli stessi cittadini. In tal modo vengono poste in essere le<br />

condizioni fondamentali che permettono di lavorare sul senso di insicurezza (reale e<br />

percepito) sempre più presente tra i cittadini. Il rafforzamento dei legami sociali, il senso di<br />

appartenenza ai luoghi e agli spazi urbani, il riconoscimento e consapevolezza di un diverso<br />

modo di leggere e abitare i conflitti (o a volte la violenza che spesso si instaura tra i confini e<br />

le barriere anche simboliche che i cittadini innalzano, prima di fronte ai propri problemi e<br />

bisogni, poi soprattutto nei confronti dell’alterità, della diversità, del disagio sociale)<br />

divengono fattori protettivi da evidenziare e valorizzare e forme di deterrenza di fenomeni<br />

sempre più diffusi <strong>com</strong>e la paura e l’ansia sociale. In questo modo la mediazione sociale a<br />

Roma lavora in un’ottica di sicurezza urbana partecipata e integrata. Opera con l’obiettivo<br />

generale di avviare con i cittadini processi che favoriscano una cultura mediativa per “una<br />

città (che) si-cura”. L’orientamento che sottende tale proposta è quello di porre al centro<br />

non tanto il “problema della sicurezza”, quanto piuttosto la “sicurezza urbana <strong>com</strong>e risorsa<br />

da costruire insieme”.<br />

Il metodo: Il Progetto “Mediazione Sociale” sin dall’inizio ha lavorato in maniera contestuale<br />

alle specifiche caratteristiche e alle differenti problematiche e criticità presenti nei diversi<br />

territori. Tuttavia possiamo tracciare le linee generali che caratterizzano nell’insieme le azioni<br />

progettuali:<br />

• Mappare i conflitti attraverso l’analisi dei bisogni e delle risorse di ciascun quartiere in un<br />

ottica di mediazione e di gestione creativa e non violenta dei conflitto<br />

• Facilitare la <strong>com</strong>unicazione tra gli attori che sono presenti in ogni territorio (cittadini,<br />

istituzioni locali e centrali, associazioni, agenzie scolastiche ed educative, servizi pubblici,<br />

parrocchie, ecc.).<br />

88


• Promuovere e diffondere tra i cittadini, i servizi e le scuole (attraverso progetti di<br />

mediazione scolastica integrata) la cultura mediativa nella gestione dei conflitti e delle<br />

controversie, tanto a livello interindividuale quanto <strong>com</strong>unitario.<br />

• Promuovere azioni di progettazione partecipata nella gestione delle criticità di ciascun<br />

quartiere, che coinvolgano e valorizzino le risorse presenti.<br />

• Promuovere azioni di riqualificazione urbana partecipata dei luoghi giudicati insicuri dalla<br />

popolazione, attraverso il coinvolgimento degli attori e delle reti sociali coinvolte sul<br />

territorio.<br />

Attraverso tali azioni si è inteso contribuire al miglioramento della qualità della vita sociale dei<br />

quartieri, in un’ottica di sicurezza urbana partecipata e integrata, dove anche la promozione<br />

di eventi aggregativi simbolici e condivisi con i cittadini (carnevale, feste di quartiere,<br />

capodanno, tornei sportivi) favoriscano il recupero o lo sviluppo di un senso di appartenenza<br />

ai territori, stimolando la consapevolezza che è possibile “fare insieme” e migliorare le<br />

condizioni sociali e urbanistiche dei quartieri e della città nel suo insieme.<br />

Metodologicamente, i mediatori operano con funzioni di facilitatori della <strong>com</strong>unicazione e di<br />

stimolo alla realizzazione di percorsi condivisi; la loro posizione è quella di internità/esternità<br />

rispetto alla stessa <strong>com</strong>unità territoriale, permettendogli di condividerne le prospettive, i<br />

linguaggi e la fiducia, ma anche di rimanere, nei casi di conflitto, “al di sopra delle parti”, e di<br />

individuare risorse e soluzioni precedentemente non considerate. Più che trasmettere la<br />

necessità teorica di una cultura nonviolenta nella gestione dei conflitti, si è operato in favore<br />

di esperienze concrete di gestione e trasformazione delle criticità attraverso azioni di<br />

partecipazione di rimessa in <strong>com</strong>unicazione. La mediazione sociale si è configurata così in<br />

un insieme di azioni che hanno contribuito alla costruzione (o ricostruzione) di scambi<br />

<strong>com</strong>unicativi, finalizzate inoltre alla <strong>com</strong>prensione e alla gestione delle ragioni e delle<br />

condizioni della <strong>com</strong>patibilità relazionale. Ha rappresentato molto più della semplice<br />

applicazione di una tecnica di trattamento dei conflitti, configurandosi <strong>com</strong>e processo di<br />

produzione di socialità in grado di rigenerare legami tra le persone e di moltiplicare le<br />

possibilità di condividere e affrontare i problemi, rigenerando così il tessuto connettivo che<br />

lega il cittadino al territorio e al suo ambiente di vita.<br />

A partire dall’esplorazione delle dinamiche sociali esistenti intorno al conflitto, è stato<br />

possibile che la figura del mediatore divenisse equivicina a tutte le <strong>com</strong>ponenti sociali<br />

coinvolte, inserito, in ogni fase della sua presenza sul territorio, in un flusso continuo di<br />

produzione di realtà, attraversando vari gradi e sfumature di internità al tessuto sociale,<br />

modificando il contesto e modificandosi a sua volta in relazione ad esso. Inserendosi nel<br />

flusso di <strong>com</strong>unicazione del quartiere, il mediatore diviene così una sorta di meticcio, uno<br />

89


che viene da fuori, ma che in qualche modo diviene parte della <strong>com</strong>unità e della sua storia..<br />

Le azioni del mediatore sociale, si confrontano costantemente e si modificano continuamente<br />

interagendo con la realtà sociale del quartiere e possono configurarsi <strong>com</strong>e attività che<br />

contribuiscono al miglioramento della vita degli abitanti di un determinato territorio. Il senso<br />

del permanere del mediatore all’interno della <strong>com</strong>unità, il far sì che le diverse posizioni e le<br />

diverse prospettive, possano reciprocamente confrontarsi e scontrarsi con pari dignità<br />

partendo dall’ascolto attivo, dall’astensione consapevole dall’azione autoreferenziale,<br />

produce <strong>com</strong>e effetto l’azione <strong>com</strong>une con i soggetti locali per la trasformazione della realtà<br />

problematica.<br />

La metodologia adottata, si fonda su una concezione del conflitto interpretato <strong>com</strong>e<br />

opportunità di cambiamento e di crescita per l’intera <strong>com</strong>unità locale, una dinamica<br />

potenzialmente virtuosa, piuttosto che una patologia sociale da curare. La <strong>com</strong>unità<br />

territoriale risulta essere così un campo (a volte permeato dal conflitto a volte dal dialogo), in<br />

cui occorre non ignorare mai differenze e processi di occultamento. Il senso di questa azione<br />

rimane all’interno della <strong>com</strong>unità e si nutre di dinamiche di partecipazione. In questo<br />

processo interattivo, il mediatore contamina la <strong>com</strong>unità sulla possibilità di trovare sempre<br />

migliori soluzioni funzionali alla gestione del conflitto, stimola le mediazioni necessarie e<br />

segue il processo di soluzione e i suoi effetti nel corpo sociale interagendo coi soggetti nel<br />

progettare azioni e praticare soluzioni. In ogni territorio l’approccio alla gestione dei conflitti<br />

ha così stimolato la creazione di momenti stabili e informali di dibattito e confronto sulle<br />

problematiche evidenziate dai cittadini stessi, divenuti protagonisti di esperienze di<br />

progettazione partecipata e integrata del proprio territorio.<br />

I risultati<br />

In tutti i territori sono attualmente attivi “Tavoli Sociali”, momenti di confronto in cui i diversi<br />

attori e le diverse prospettive particolari possono confrontarsi, scontrarsi e rielaborare<br />

insieme nuove prospettive e soluzioni a problemi <strong>com</strong>uni e che vedono la partecipazione di<br />

un totale di 140 realtà associative e istituzionali dei territori: <strong>com</strong>itati di quartiere e gruppi<br />

informali di cittadini, scuole (presidi, direttori e insegnanti), università, servizi sociali,<br />

funzionari amministrativi e politici, sindacati, associazioni professionali e di categoria,<br />

associazioni sportive e di volontariato, vigili urbani, forze dell’ordine, parroci. Il progetto opera<br />

attraverso contatti diretti e indiretti che coinvolgono annualmente circa 4.500 cittadini in<br />

ognuno dei 7 territori, per un totale vicino alle 30.000 persone. L’esperienza dei “Tavoli<br />

Sociali”, sviluppa un confronto teso alla costruzione di progetti partecipati di sviluppo del<br />

90


quartiere che possono prendere varie forme: quella della partecipazione attiva a percorsi di<br />

riqualificazione urbana partecipata, quella della progettazione di spazi sociali, di servizi o di<br />

imprese locali o percorsi scolastici propedeutici all’educazione alla legalità. Attraverso la<br />

valorizzazione degli elementi più positivi emersi nell’esperienza della Mediazione Sociale, il<br />

Comune di Roma sta sperimentando la nascita di nuove forme di aggregazione sociale,<br />

l’avvio di percorsi di formazione o riqualificazione lavorativa, la promozione di nuove figure<br />

professionali (custode di quartiere dell’area scuola, verde, dello sport, ecc.), l’apertura di<br />

strade o di centri polifunzionali destinati ad attività culturali, ricreative, sportive e di<br />

formazione permanente. Il percorso sperimentato a Roma dalla “Mediazione Sociale”<br />

rappresenta non solo un momento di lettura dei conflitti e dei problemi dei quartieri, non solo<br />

un terreno di gestione della conflittualità, ma anche l’ integrazione operativa tra i vari<br />

partecipanti a un percorso di condivisione di progettualità <strong>com</strong>une, che nasce prima nel<br />

quartiere e che cerca nelle istituzioni gli interlocutori necessari. L’uscita da un ruolo<br />

esclusivamente curativo nei confronti di ipotetiche o reali “patologie sociali” ha significato<br />

introdurre prassi atte a stimolare il protagonismo delle persone e delle <strong>com</strong>unità nella<br />

gestione della conflittualità, scoprendo e rivalutando l’insieme delle funzioni mediative del<br />

territorio, di quelle modalità e di quei ruoli che di volta in volta la <strong>com</strong>unità sceglie di adottare<br />

nella gestione di conflitti e problemi. Secondo questa impostazione metodologica la<br />

partecipazione diviene il passaggio obbligato riguardo i processi di mediazione e ne è<br />

contemporaneamente condizione preliminare e prodotto finale. Favorire la partecipazione<br />

della popolazione ai processi di mediazione significa - in sostanza - sostenere e valorizzare<br />

quei gruppi e quelle persone che stanno producendo cambiamento attraverso l’uso di uno<br />

strumento non nuovo ma spesso ignorato: il dialogo e la fiducia reciproca. Risorse<br />

indispensabili ed elementi costitutivi per abitare le relazioni umane, poiché non si abitano i<br />

luoghi, ma appunto le relazioni.<br />

91


L’avènement de la justice réparatrice : une révolution<br />

paradigmatique ou un changement de statut du paradigme ?<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Fernando Carvajal Sánchez<br />

Université de Genève, Faculté de Psychologie<br />

et des Sciences de l’Education<br />

Je ne suis pas née pour partager la haine sinon l’amour. -Antigone-<br />

Une définition de paradigme pour la justice<br />

Un paradigme est une construction intellectuelle, théorique, utilisée pour analyser, pour<br />

légitimer et pour avoir une influence déterminée et déterminante sur une réalité sociale<br />

spécifique. L’existence d’un paradigme est centrale dans toute structure théorique.<br />

« Un grand paradigme (episteme, mindscape) contrôle non seulement les théories et les<br />

raisonnements, mais aussi le champ cognitif, intellectuel et culturel ou naissent théories et<br />

raisonnements. Il contrôle de plus, l’épistémologie qui contrôle la théorie, et il contrôle la<br />

pratique qui découle de la théorie (…) Comme Foucault l’a fait pour l’episteme, j’utiliserai ce<br />

terme de paradigme non seulement pour le savoir scientifique, mais aussi pour toute<br />

connaissance, toute pensée…» (Morin, 1991, pp. 212-213).<br />

Suivant Johnstone (2002) et Walgrave (2002a, 2003), le recentrage de la justice sur la<br />

réparation des préjudices doit être <strong>com</strong>pris <strong>com</strong>me un changement paradigmatique. Younes<br />

pense que l’apparition des formes réparatrices de la justice, <strong>com</strong>me la médiation pénale, ne<br />

suppose pas nécessairement un « changement radical de paradigme » de la justice. (2002,<br />

p. 54).<br />

Johnstone s’appuie sur le célèbre travail de Kuhn, dont l’originalité a été « de détecter, sous<br />

les présupposés ou postulats, un fonds collectif d’évidences cachées et impératives qu’il a<br />

nommé paradigmes et de soutenir que les grandes transformations dans l’histoire des<br />

sciences étaient constituées par des révolutions paradigmatiques. » (MORIN, 1991, p. 212).<br />

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Kuhn conteste la notion conventionnelle qui pense la science <strong>com</strong>me une accumulation<br />

continuelle des connaissances. Johnstone, citant Kuhn, suggère par contre que l’évolution<br />

scientifique consiste " of a series of peaceful interludes interrupted by revolutions in wich one<br />

way of constructing reality was replaced by annoter. " (2002, p. 112).<br />

Kuhn distingue deux régimes de sciences. Les « sciences normales » et les « sciences en<br />

crise » Le progrès de la science se ferait donc par ruptures, par sursauts et non pas<br />

linéairement. Une crise dans une science surviendrait quand son édifice théorique n’arrive<br />

pas à répondre convenablement aux questions qu’elle se pose. C’est justement dans la<br />

science en crise, ou grâce à celle-ci, que le changement de paradigme se produit. Les<br />

problèmes traités correctement par la « science en crise » deviennent les paradigmes qui<br />

vont assurer par la suite la stabilité de la nouvelle « science normale ».<br />

Lacki (2004) pense introduire un développement novateur dans la théorie de Kuhn. Pour<br />

Lacki, pendant une période de « science normale », il peut y avoir aussi de « l’anormal ».<br />

Autrement dit, une approche « marginale » possédant son propre paradigme qui va coexister<br />

pendant un certain temps avec la science dominante, qui est souvent la plus ancienne. Il<br />

peut donc être utile de garder opérationnelles les deux sciences car elles sont<br />

<strong>com</strong>plémentaires et permettent, à toutes les deux, de fournir une explication <strong>com</strong>plète aux<br />

problèmes qui les occupent. Selon Lacki, avec l’apparition d’un nouveau paradigme s’installe<br />

alors un « rapport de réduction » entre les deux sciences, mais la tension entre elles<br />

continuera d’exister.<br />

Renaissance de la justice réparatrice<br />

Selon WALGRAVE . (2002a, 2002b) la justice réparatrice est orientée principalement vers la<br />

réparation des dommages causés par un délit. La différence entre la justice réparatrice et la<br />

justice que nous appellerons ordinaire, rétributive : il faut payer ; et réhabilitative : il faut<br />

réinsérer, serait donc le changement paradigmatique proposé par la première. En effet,<br />

tandis que cette justice ordinaire s’occupe surtout du délinquant, la préoccupation centrale<br />

de la justice réparatrice est d’essayer de réparer tous les dommages (personnels et sociaux)<br />

causés par l’acte et en cela de restaurer un lien social détérioré ou rompu.<br />

93


La justice ordinaire, dite également rétributive 92 , (la <strong>com</strong>posante réhabilitative étant <strong>com</strong>prise<br />

aussi dans la justice réparatrice) prétend rétablir l’équilibre moral rompu par le délit,<br />

« rétribuant » le délinquant, en lui occasionnant un mal équivalent à celui qu’il a produit,<br />

autrement dit, avec une juste peine. 93<br />

D'après Johnstone (2002), la justice réparatrice était le moyen privilégié de régulation de<br />

conflits en Europe avant la consolidation de l’église <strong>com</strong>me pouvoir temporaire pendant le<br />

XIII e siècle. Avec l’avènement de la justice rétributive et son ultérieure atténuation<br />

(ré)légitimante par la justice réhabilitative, la <strong>com</strong>posante réparatrice de la justice a été<br />

<strong>com</strong>plètement instrumentalisée et elle est devenue très marginale.<br />

Selon WALGRAVE (2002c) la justice réparatrice a été réintroduite dans la culture juridique<br />

occidentale vers les années 80 à partir de pays <strong>com</strong>me la Nouvelle-Zélande et l’Australie.<br />

L’imbrication des modèles de la justice<br />

Avec un but purement discursif, réduisons à deux les modèles actuels de justice : rétributif et<br />

réparateur. De cette façon, il nous est alors possible de parler d’une discipline « normale »<br />

(rétributive) et d’une discipline « marginale» (réparatrice).<br />

Suivons Kaminski dans son raisonnement sur le prétendu caractère alternatif de la justice<br />

réparatrice. Il affirme :<br />

« Le sens le plus contemporain est celui qui semble convenir le mieux (pour définir le<br />

substantif féminin alternative) : solution de remplacement. Or les alternatives pénales ne<br />

sont pas des solutions de remplacement. Elles ne sont jamais seules : elles restent<br />

suspendues à l’institution qui leur donne leur caractère alternatif. Elles constituent toujours<br />

des modalités expérimentales, précaires, des dérivations constamment capitonnées aux<br />

modalités canoniques de la gestion pénale » (2001, p. 141).<br />

Alors selon Kaminski, la justice réparatrice ne serait pas une justice alternative car elle ne<br />

constitue pas, du moins actuellement, une solution de rechange aux pratiques de la justice<br />

ordinaire. Dans ce sens, la justice réparatrice resterait pour l’instant une approche marginale.<br />

92 Nous utiliserons en général le terme « justice ordinaire » et parfois l’expression « justice retributive » dans le<br />

souci d’alléger notre texte.<br />

93 Cette définition est élaborée à partir du tableau de FAGET (1997, p 197)<br />

94


Il semble alors pertinent postuler la coexistence de la justice réparatrice et de la justice<br />

ordinaire. La justice serait ainsi une discipline en crise qui peut être approchée avec un<br />

regard ordinaire ou avec un regard réparateur que certains appellent « alternatif », mais qu’il<br />

serait plus précis de nommer marginal.<br />

Ces regards, ordinaire ou réparateur, seront, malgré leurs différences évidentes,<br />

« fonctionnellement <strong>com</strong>plémentaires » et « paradoxalement opposés ».<br />

Les justices ordinaire et réparatrice seront « fonctionnellement <strong>com</strong>plémentaires » car elles<br />

peuvent coexister tout en utilisant chacune d’entre-elles des éléments constituants de l’autre.<br />

Ainsi, certains auteurs <strong>com</strong>me Walgrave revendiquent la possibilité d’utiliser la coercition et<br />

même la punition, principes indissociables de la justice rétributive, dans le cadre de la justice<br />

réparatrice. "Restoration is the key objective. In many cases, agrément cannot be reached or<br />

may be insufficient (…) Coertion may then be considered, but so far as possible it must still<br />

primarily serve restoration". (2002a, p 194).<br />

Cependant, il est certain que la coercition occupe une position très différente s’agissant de la<br />

justice réparatrice ou de la justice rétributive. Si pour certains défenseurs de la première, la<br />

punition peut être un moyen utilisé pour parvenir aux fins de la restauration des dommages<br />

causés par un délit, pour la deuxième, par contre, la punition est devenue dans la pratique<br />

une fin en soi.<br />

En ce qui concerne la justice rétributive, elle a utilisé à maintes reprises des éléments de la<br />

justice réparatrice lors de la mise en place de certains projets. Tel fut le cas par exemple du<br />

« Reparative Probation Program », créé par l’État de Vermont (USA) en 1995. Grâce à ce<br />

programme et <strong>com</strong>me condition de probation pour éviter la prison ferme, des offenseurs nonviolents,<br />

déjà condamnés, rencontraient un <strong>com</strong>ité de citoyens bénévoles avec lequel ils<br />

discutaient de l'impact de leur délit et établissaient un contrat de réparation et un plan pour<br />

éviter la récidive. (COHEN, 2001, pp 212-213).<br />

Les justices rétribuve et réparatrice sont « paradoxalement opposées » car elles véhiculent<br />

des valeurs différentes tout en restant profondément imbriquées. La justice en général est<br />

très sensible à l’idéologie qui lui sert de support. Par exemple, le traitement réservé, dans<br />

certains cas, par ces deux types de justice aux personnes de l’entourage de l’offenseur sera<br />

révélateur de certaines valeurs qu’elles défendent.<br />

95


D’un côté, le "family group conference", une des pratiques emblématiques de la justice<br />

réparatrice, sollicite les proches de la victime et de l’offenseur pour essayer, tous ensemble<br />

et avec l’aide d’un tiers neutre, de trouver une solution réparatrice au conflit qui les oppose.<br />

Ainsi, tant l’offenseur que ses proches ont un rôle actif et positif.<br />

De l’autre côté, et à l’opposé, la justice rétributive révèle une tendance « intégriste » de plus<br />

en plus marquée à criminaliser les proches de l’offenseur, surtout dans le cas de la<br />

délinquance politique en général et plus particulièrement du « terrorisme ». Antigone, le<br />

mythe de Sophocle, montrait à quel point les conséquences juridiques de la transgression<br />

d’une norme, qui d’ailleurs s’avère parfois immorale ou injuste malgré le fait d’être tout à fait<br />

légale, ne peuvent pas abolir la loyauté envers les êtres aimés (frères, aimants ou amis). Les<br />

travaux de Kohlberg (1963) ont dévoilé l’existence d’une transgression de certaines normes<br />

juridiques qui peut être moralement acceptable, voir moralement souhaitable.<br />

Les dispositions intégristes de la justice rétributive ont ouvertement recours à la punition<br />

collective, aux exécutions extrajudiciaires, à l’inversion de la charge de la preuve, à la<br />

diminution de l’âge d’imputabilité, à l’abolition de la présomption d’innocence, et<br />

fréquemment même à la torture. La justice rétributive intégriste s’éloigne des valeurs du<br />

siècle des lumières et des idées de Cesare Beccaria qui humanisèrent la justice et les<br />

peines. Il n’y a plus de place pour l’estimation des circonstances endogènes <strong>com</strong>me la folie<br />

ou exogènes <strong>com</strong>me la misère. La consigne est : « tolérance zéro ». Comme en baseball :<br />

" Three strikes and you are out ". 94<br />

Ainsi l’armée des États-Unis a conçu une zone de non droit dans le territoire illégalement<br />

occupé de Guantanamo pour y construire son camp de concentration. Le gouvernement<br />

étasunien, s’abrogeant le droit d’impartir injustice en claire violation des principes de la<br />

séparation des pouvoirs de l’État de Droit, s’accorde la faculté d’emprisonner à Guantanamo<br />

des citoyens de 40 États. En même temps, ce même gouvernement soustrait ses propres<br />

citoyens à la juridiction internationale et à celles des pays étrangers. Aucune garantie<br />

juridique n’est accordée aux prisonniers. Il n’existe pas un procès préétabli, il n’y a pas des<br />

charges et la protection de l’habeas corpus n’est pas respectée.<br />

La justice rétributive intégriste est en train de devenir une technique du maintien de l’ordre<br />

établi, aggravant de cette façon une tendance peu démocratique et très technique du procès<br />

94 "The three-strikes law stipulates that anyone convicted of three felonies is subject to a mandatory prison<br />

sentence of 25 years to life. " (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999, p. 332).<br />

96


pénal traditionnel qui, à la différence de la procédure réparatrice, ne laisse guère de place<br />

aux interventions de la victime ou de l’offenseur, concentrant la parole et le pouvoir sur les<br />

avocats et le juge. DINNEN (1997) citant Braithwaite (1996) illustre les écarts entre la justice<br />

rétributive et la justice réparatrice sur ce point :<br />

Restorative justice is deliberative justice ; it is about people deliberating over the<br />

consequences of a crime how to deal with them and prevent their recurrence. This constrasts<br />

with the professional justice of lawyers deciding which rules apply to a case and constraining<br />

their deliberation within a technical discourse about that rule application. (p. 255).<br />

Une époque des changements<br />

Le versant économique de la mondialisation et les résistances qu’il génère ainsi que des<br />

phénomènes <strong>com</strong>me la fin de l’ère du pétrole bon marché, la révolution technologique dans<br />

des domaines aussi divers que les <strong>com</strong>munications, l’information et les manipulations<br />

génétiques, représentent un moment-charnière dans l’histoire de l’humanité. Il est impossible<br />

pour le moment de prévoir quel sera le résultat.<br />

Il y a désormais crise ouverte des fondements de la pensée en philosophie, épistémologie,<br />

science, mais on est encore incapable de se fonder sur l’absence de ces fondements. La<br />

crise de société et de civilisation est annoncée, diagnostiquée, dénoncée, mais la fin de la<br />

“civilisation industrielle“ n’annonce encore aucune aurore (…) nous sommes en une ère<br />

agonique de gestation ou de mort. (MORIN, 1991, p. 235).<br />

Morin pense que nous sommes actuellement au début de la construction d’un nouveau<br />

« paradigme de <strong>com</strong>plexité (…) et il s’agit non de la tâche individuelle d’un penseur, mais de<br />

l’œuvre historique d’une convergence de pensées. » (1991, p. 238).<br />

Reprenons, avant de conclure, les deux interprétations du significat que pourrait avoir<br />

l’avènement du paradigme réparateur de la justice que nous évoquions dans le sous-titre.<br />

Nous pouvons désormais tenter une réponse qui ne se veut pas définitive mais qui espère<br />

contribuer au travail nécessairement collectif de « convergence de pensées » qui pourraient,<br />

à terme, permettre la nouvelle construction paradigmatologique dans le domaine de la<br />

justice.<br />

97


L’avènement de la justice réparatrice : une révolution paradigmatique ?<br />

Nous sommes souvent victimes du sophisme « prendre nos envies pour des réalités ». La<br />

crise de la justice ordinaire est certes évidente dans la mesure où elle serait en manque de<br />

légitimité et n’arriverait pas à répondre efficacement à un certain nombre de problèmes,<br />

(l’impunité, l’engorgement des prisons et de tribunaux, l’impossibilité de réinsertion de<br />

détenus, la faute d’une réponse adéquate à des délits de corruption et de « col blanc » ainsi<br />

qu’aux incivilités, etc.). Néanmoins, nous ne pouvons pas en déduire que nous vivons la<br />

mort du paradigme rétributif. Selon Châtelet (2005),<br />

Historiquement, la révolution s'entend <strong>com</strong>me rupture. C'est à présent l'acception courante<br />

du terme (…) On veut dire qu'une rupture décisive est marquée ; qu'avant l'événement<br />

révolutionnaire, il y avait une certaine configuration, et qu'après un tout autre ordre<br />

s'instaure, totalement différent de ce qui précédait.<br />

La justice ordinaire et la justice réparatrice se trouvent profondément imbriquées. « Un<br />

grand paradigme détermine, via théories et idéologies, une mentalité, un mindscape, une<br />

vision du monde… Une révolution paradigmatique change notre monde. » (MORIN, 1991, p.<br />

218). L’essor actuel d’une certaine justice rétributive ne permet pas d’affirmer que la vision<br />

globale que nos sociétés pluralistes ont sur la question de la justice, serait en train de vivre<br />

une mutation radicale. Le faible taux de participation spontanée dans la médiation pénale,<br />

serait un indice de l’absence d’une culture réparatrice. “Disputants are reluctant to participate<br />

in mediation and there are very low levels of self-referral.“ (SHARYN & ROACH, 2000, p.<br />

134).<br />

Pour Morin, « un (vrai) changement de paradigme est révolutionnant. » (1991, p. 234). Or,<br />

l’absence d’un saut qualitatif abrupt, d’une rupture entre les deux modèles de la justice,<br />

permet d’écarter l’idée d’une révolution paradigmatologique de la justice. Comme le dit<br />

Morin, « les grands paradigmes ont une vie multiséculaire et leur agonie peut prendre un<br />

siècle. » (1991, p. 234). À défaut de pouvoir prédire l’abolition du paradigme rétributif de la<br />

justice, il est possible de signaler, et de souhaiter parfois, sa coexistence avec le paradigme<br />

réparateur.<br />

98


La justice réparatrice : un changement de statut du paradigme<br />

On peut postuler que vu les liens entre la justice, la politique et l’idéologie, l’instauration<br />

éventuelle d’un nouveau paradigme dominant n’obéirait pas uniquement à des raisons<br />

scientifiques, bien que celles-ci aient beaucoup d’importance.<br />

Pendant une réaction chimique, il existe un moment critique avant qu’une transformation<br />

qualitative ne se produise. Cette évolution nécessite l’apport d’une nouvelle force qui est<br />

connue <strong>com</strong>me « l’énergie de Gibbs. » (GIBBS J-W, 1839-1903). Le déplacement de la<br />

discipline en crise (justice rétributive) <strong>com</strong>me approche centrale pour résoudre les<br />

problèmes, par la discipline marginale (justice réparatrice) pourrait obéir donc à un travail<br />

théorique et peut être aussi à un travail politique de la part de ses partisans. Cette tâche<br />

considérable peut devenir « l’énergie de Gibbs » nécessaire pour que la justice réparatrice<br />

occupe une place centrale dans la réponse aux délits tout en gardant une justice rétributive<br />

instrumentalisée <strong>com</strong>me outil de soutien. Réduire la justice rétributive à sa plus minime<br />

expression suppose que nous pensons l’approche répressive incontournable pour protéger<br />

la société de certains prédateurs irréductibles.<br />

Nous n’assistons pas actuellement à l’apparition d’un nouveau paradigme de la justice car<br />

l’approche réparatrice a toujours existé. Pour Morin, « plusieurs paradigmes peuvent<br />

coexister (belliqueusement ou pacifiquement) au sein d’une même culture. « (1991, p. 219).<br />

Nous postulons pour la justice la coexistence de deux paradigmes entre lesquels peuvent se<br />

produire des glissements. La prédominance du paradigme de la justice rétributive<br />

(intégriste ?) ou celui de la justice réparatrice dépendra donc des multiples facteurs<br />

institutionnels, politiques, culturels, idéologiques sociaux et économiques.<br />

La médiation pénale est certainement l’expression la plus aboutie, la plus globale et la plus<br />

médiatisée de la justice réparatrice. Participer à une médiation implique une décentration<br />

pour les deux parties d’un conflit. Certaines normes utilisées pendant une médiation<br />

« émanent des parties elles-mêmes, et il apparaît qu’elles ne peuvent être ramenées à un<br />

cadre normatif unique, les parties doivent créer un autre espace dans lequel elles pourront<br />

se rencontrer. C’est « l’espace de la reconnaissance. » Cette approche réparatrice de la<br />

justice, pluraliste par définition, « nous force à dépasser le cadre de la pensée dualiste,<br />

(…) elle installe la <strong>com</strong>plexité au cœur du droit… » (YUONES, 2002, p. 59).<br />

La médiation <strong>com</strong>me mécanisme de régulation des conflits, peut présenter un équilibre entre<br />

une philosophie politique à caractère téléologique et une philosophie de type déontologique.<br />

99


La première favorise la fin poursuivie, autrement dit, la réparation des dommages. La<br />

deuxième, elle, met en avant, dans le cas de la médiation, la recherche de la <strong>com</strong>munication<br />

et l’explicitation des causes qui ont produit le conflit et, en dernière instance, la résolution du<br />

différend entre les parties.<br />

La justice ordinaire et la justice alternative sont, rappelons-le, « fonctionnellement<br />

<strong>com</strong>plémentaires » et en même temps « paradoxalement opposées ». Ces deux modèles de<br />

justice se trouvent fortement associés. Nous pouvons maintenant postuler que leurs<br />

paradigmes sont bien opposés mais leur antagonisme n’empêche pas leur <strong>com</strong>plémentarité.<br />

Le rapport de réduction ne concerne donc que le statut des paradigmes, (dominant ou<br />

marginal). Dans le même sens et vu l’utilité que peut avoir un modèle de justice pour l’autre,<br />

nous devons écarter la possibilité d’un rapport de disjonction (l’un ou l’autre) qui nous<br />

obligerait à choisir entre les deux.<br />

Certains partisans de la justice réparatrice pensent que dans une médiation correctement<br />

menée, il n’y a pas de perdants car, dans le pire de cas, elle sème au moins un germe de<br />

<strong>com</strong>munication entre les parties, ce qui favorise indéniablement le lien social. Les visions<br />

binaires peuvent parfois s’avérer partielles, limitées et limitantes. C’est pourquoi il peut être<br />

utile de sortir l’analyse de la justice de la logique binaire et disjonctive qui l’appauvrit. « C’est<br />

dans la logique trinitaire et non binaire que la médiation existe et s’ac<strong>com</strong>plit. 3 est son<br />

chiffre » (SIX & MUSSAUD, 2002, p. 9).<br />

Une discipline <strong>com</strong>me la médiation, emblème de la justice réparatrice, définie<br />

ontologiquement par sa <strong>com</strong>plexité, appelle sans doute une approche épistémologique du<br />

même type (<strong>com</strong>plexité). L’idée de Morin (2001) d’un paradigme « <strong>com</strong>plexe dialogique<br />

d’implication/ distinction/ conjonction » (p.284) conçu en termes de prédominance du<br />

statut d’un de deux paradigmes peut nous permettre de concilier épistémologiquement la<br />

coexistence de deux approches de la justice. Comme pour la physique, une théorie et une<br />

pratique (T*) déterministe, unitaire, de la justice, pouvant fournir une explication et<br />

une solution totale à tous les problèmes qu’elle est censée résoudre, ne saurait<br />

exister aujourd’hui.<br />

100


En guise de conclusion : La « déviance » de la justice réparatrice<br />

Selon KNOEPFLER (2002, pp. 340-341), pour certains auteurs la médiation pénale <strong>com</strong>me<br />

<strong>com</strong>posant de la justice de proximité, serait une extension du contrôle social de la part<br />

d’États ayant délaissé le champ social au profit du domaine sécuritaire. On est fréquemment<br />

exposé au paralogisme consistant à prendre des conséquences pour des objectifs. On peut<br />

admettre qu’un des résultats de la mise en place de la médiation pénale soit une<br />

augmentation du contrôle social, par la voie de son application à des infractions qui étaient<br />

auparavant classées. Mais on peut difficilement associer l’institutionnalisation de la<br />

médiation pénale, avec une volonté explicite du pouvoir politique de favoriser son essor afin<br />

d’augmenter la surveillance sociale insidieusement, étant donné la structure très cloisonnée<br />

de démocraties occidentales. Cependant, il ne faut pas oublier que par définition la loi, et<br />

encore plus la loi pénale, est un mécanisme de contrôle social. 95<br />

En outre, un chercheur qui négligerait le <strong>com</strong>posante idéologique dans les choix des<br />

décideurs stratégiquement placés pécherait par angélisme. Nous savons que dans les<br />

démocraties représentatives occidentales, en construction permanente, car « le projet<br />

démocratique apparaît <strong>com</strong>me un projet essentiellement in<strong>com</strong>plet » (VECA, 1999, p.105),<br />

beaucoup de décisions importantes sont prises à « portes fermés » et non pas suite à une<br />

controverse publique élargie. Qui plus est, le public est loin d’être suffisamment éclairé pour<br />

pouvoir participer à des débats de société de plus en plus <strong>com</strong>plexes.<br />

Il existe donc un danger réel de voir la justice réparatrice « récupérée », instrumentalisée par<br />

l’idéologie sécuritaire véhiculée par la tendance intégriste de la justice rétributive dans le<br />

dessein d’étendre le contrôle de la justice pénale sur les petits délits, sur les incivilités<br />

(JOHNSTONE, 2002) et, nous rajouterons, sur la contestation politique. Cependant, ce<br />

danger ne doit pas empêcher une application plus importante de la justice réparatrice<br />

<strong>com</strong>me un outil pour <strong>com</strong>battre à la fois la criminalité et l’exclusion. La peur de la<br />

« mauvaise » utilisation qui pourrait être faite d’une nouvelle technique n’a jamais arrêté les<br />

chercheurs ni l’humanité, de continuer à développer des techniques innovatrices. La justice<br />

réparatrice, même utilisée à des fins opposées à celles qui ont inspiré ses premiers<br />

partisans, n’aurait de toute façon pas les conséquences néfastes ou les dangers potentiels<br />

tels que ceux issus du développement de la fusion nucléaire ou des manipulations<br />

95 ‘For Parsons, law should be treated as a generalized mechanism of social control that operates diffusely in<br />

virtually alls sectors of the society’ (Parsons, 1962 :57). Cité par SHARYN & ROACH (2000).<br />

101


génétiques. Un des objectifs de la science a été de maîtriser notre environnement. Elle<br />

devrait aussi fournir des outils de « savoir vivre ».<br />

Nous avons eu Treblinka et Hiroshima et, toutes proportions gardées, nous avons<br />

actuellement Abu Ghraib et Guantanamo. Nous produirons certainement des monstrueuses<br />

chimères génétiques, cependant nous continuerons à innover et à chercher malgré nos<br />

échecs et nos perversions. La justice réparatrice en tant que technique offre un potentiel<br />

énorme qu’aucun péril ne saurait occulter. Toutefois il est prioritaire de prévenir la déviance<br />

des pratiques qu’elle inspire car "it involves the exercise of power by some people over<br />

others, and that there is an urgent need for critical investigation of the nature, limits,<br />

problems and dangers of such exercise of power”. (JOHNSTONE, 2002, p. 171)<br />

BIBLIOGRAPHIE<br />

BECCARIA, C. (1643, 1979). Des Délits et Des Peines. Paris : Flammarion.<br />

CHÂTELET, F. (2005, 9 juin). Idée de révolution. Encyclopædia Universalis. {Page Web}.<br />

Accès :http://www.universalis<br />

COHEN, R.-L. (2001). Provocations of Restorative Justice, in : Social Justice Research, Vol.<br />

14, N° 2 June 2001. (pp. 209-232). New York : Plenum Publishing Corporation.<br />

DINNEN, S. (1997). Restorative Justice in Papua New Guinea. In International Journal of the<br />

Sociologie of Law 1997, N° 25. (pp. 245-262). Academic Press Limited<br />

FAGET, J. (1997). La médiation. Essai de la politique pénale. Ramonville Saint-Agne :<br />

Éditions Érès.<br />

JOHNSTONE, G. (2002). Restorative Justice. Ideas, values, Debates. Devon (UK): Willan<br />

Publishing.<br />

KAMINSKI, D. (2001). De l’amour de son prochain et de son châtiment. In A. Wyvekens & J.<br />

Faget. (Ed.), La justice de proximité en Europe. Ramonville Saint-Agne : Trajets ÉRÉS.<br />

KNOEPFLER, J. (2002). Médiation pénale, justice réparatrice, justice de proximité. In A.<br />

Kuhn V. Dittmann, R. Maag & H. Wilparächtiger (Ed.), Entre médiation et perpétuité, (pp.<br />

313-343). Zurich: Verlag Rüegger.<br />

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SHARYN, L. & ROACH, A. (2000). Law and social change. London : Sage Publications.<br />

SIDANIUS, J. & PRATTO, F. (1999) Social Dominance. Cambridge : University Press.<br />

SIX, J.F. & MUSSAUD, V. (2002). Médiation. Paris : Seuil.<br />

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WALGRAVE, L (2002b), From <strong>com</strong>munity to dominion: in search of social values for<br />

restaurative justice. In E. Weitekamp and H. J. Kerner (Ed.), Restorative Justice. Theoretical<br />

foundations, (Chapter 5, pp. 71-89.). Cullompton, UK : Willan Publishing,<br />

WALGRAVE, L (2002c). La justice restaurative et la justice pénale : un duo ou un duel ? In<br />

R. Cario (dir.), Victimes: du traumatisme à la restauration, (Chapitre 18, pp. 275-303). Paris :<br />

l'Harmattan / École Nationale de la Magistrature.<br />

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Judicial Reaction To Crime. In A. von Hirsch, J. Roberts, A. Bottoms, K. Roach and M. Schiff<br />

(Eds.), Restorative Justice and Criminal Justice. Competing or reconcilable paradigms ? (pp.<br />

61-78) Oxford : Hart Publishing.<br />

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foundations for a sytemic approach. In L. Walgrave (Ed.), Restorative Justice and the Law,<br />

(Chapter 10, pp. 191-218). Cullompton, UK: Willan Publishing.<br />

YOUNES, C. (2002). Médiation, subjectivisation de la norme et décentrage du sujet. In C.<br />

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65). Paris: Éditions Karthala<br />

103


La médiation : une rencontre avec l’internormativité<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Marie-José CHIDIAC 96<br />

Docteur en Droit<br />

En général, la médiation, notamment administrative, fait appel à l’application du droit étatique<br />

en ajoutant à la réflexion juridique (tel que la conformité de la décision administrative à la loi<br />

sur la motivation des actes administratifs, la vérification de la publicité des actes<br />

administratifs – publicité active et passive –, l’adoption de la décision dans les délais légaux,<br />

le recours à la notion d’équité), une liste d’indicateurs relatifs aux principes de bonne<br />

administration, au bon accueil des citoyens, à l’utilisation d’un langage clair, <strong>com</strong>préhensible<br />

et explicite envers les citoyens, la bonne information de ceux-ci, …<br />

Ce faisant, la médiation administrative ne se pose pas, semble-t-il, en général, de question<br />

sur les limites de l’application du droit étatique et se croit parée contre l’auto-suffisance du<br />

droit, puisqu’elle y ajoute, lors de l’instruction des réclamations des citoyens, des paramètres<br />

<strong>com</strong>me ceux ci-dessus mentionnés.<br />

En tout état de cause, la croyance en l’efficacité presque hégémonique du droit positif pour<br />

proposer ou susciter des solutions, paraît couler de source.<br />

Le perfectionnement de quelques outils et techniques incitant la médiation à mieux<br />

humaniser ses relations avec les citoyens constitue un continuum naturel du travail<br />

traditionnel, d’un Médiateur, surtout lorsque ce dernier est un juriste. Mais remettre en<br />

question ou élargir le droit étatique ne semble pas être un souci permanent de la médiation<br />

administrative.<br />

Et pourtant, l’internormativité définie <strong>com</strong>me étant la théorie qui construit des relations entre<br />

les normes, ne cesse, dans notre monde contemporain, de gagner du terrain et constitue,<br />

selon nous, l’essence même du travail de médiation.<br />

96 Ce texte n’engage que son auteur.<br />

104


Selon le Professeur Guy ROCHER 97 , le concept d’internormativité postule « la coexistence<br />

d’ordres ou systèmes normatifs différenciés parallèles, <strong>com</strong>plémentaires ou antagonistes ».<br />

Le Professeur Jean CARBONNIER en a élaboré la notion (dans son ouvrage « sociologie<br />

du droit ») mais c’est Santi ROMANO 98 qui a longuement développé l’idée antérieurement à<br />

la création du terme lui-même.<br />

Pour Pierre MOREAU, le concept d’internormativité constitue une idée de ce que la<br />

normativité peut connaître de sources hybrides en restituant le droit dans sa signification<br />

sociologique première.<br />

L’internormativité a deux significations assez différentes développées par le Professeur Guy<br />

ROCHER 99 .<br />

- « La première fait référence au transfert ou passage d’une norme ou d’une règle, d’un<br />

système normatif à un autre. L’internormativité se reconnaît alors à ce qu’une règle qui a<br />

été produite ou formulée à l’intérieur d’un système normatif donné, se retrouve telle<br />

quelle ou à peu près telle quelle dans un autre ordre normatif.<br />

C’est le cas lorsque le droit, par l’intervention du législateur ou d’un juge, accepte de<br />

recevoir une règle technique dans le corpus des règles juridiques et de lui donner ainsi<br />

« force de loi ».<br />

La règle technique se trouve alors incorporée à deux ordres normatifs : l’ordre normatif<br />

qui régit une technique ou une profession où elle a pris naissance, et l’ordre juridique qui<br />

l’a accueillie.<br />

- Dans un second sens, la notion d’internormativité fait référence à la dynamique des<br />

contacts entre systèmes normatifs, aux rapports de pouvoir et aux modalités<br />

d’interinfluence ou d’interaction qui peuvent être observées entre deux ou plusieurs<br />

systèmes normatifs.<br />

97 Guy ROCHER, Centre de Recherche en Droit public, Faculté de Droit, Université de Montréal, les<br />

phénomènes d’internormativité : faits et obstacles, In : Le Droit soluble, Contributions Québecquoises à l’étude<br />

de l’internormativité sous la direction de Jean-Guy BELLEY, Paris, LGDJ, Droit et Société, n° 16, 1996, p. 26.<br />

98 Santi ROMANO, L’ordre juridique, traduction française de la 2 ème édition italienne parue en 1946, par L.<br />

FRANCOIS et P. GOTHOT, Paris, Dalloz, 1975.<br />

99 Guy ROCHER, loc. cit.,p. 27.<br />

105


Entendu dans cet autre sens, l’internormativité ne suppose pas nécessairement le<br />

partage d’une règle d’un ordre normatif vers un autre. Dans ce second sens,<br />

l’internormativité peut prendre la forme d’une résistance à ce passage, tout autant que<br />

celle de l’emprunt d’une norme ‘étrangère’ ».<br />

C’est dans ce second sens surtout que la médiation traverse des frontières et ouvre des<br />

horizons nouveaux en faisant prendre conscience de la dynamique des interfaces des<br />

systèmes normatifs et des interactions du droit, de la sociologie, de la philosophie, … Les<br />

« passeurs de frontières » 100 pourraient être juristes, sociologues, philosophes, mais<br />

d’autres normes, d’autres disciplines et de ce fait d’autres passeurs de frontières<br />

pourraient bien entendu être pris en considération <strong>com</strong>me l’économie, la morale, le<br />

domaine technologique…<br />

La perception des réclamations ou plutôt l’instruction des réclamations paraît être plus<br />

ouverte à d’autres domaines de normativité que celle du domaine du droit.<br />

L’internormativité incite donc à pratiquer l’interdisciplinarité.<br />

L’internormativité serait donc un pont jeté entre les juristes et les spécialistes des sciences<br />

sociales et d’autres sciences. C’est une sorte d’harmonisation des systèmes juridiques entre<br />

eux mais surtout entre eux et d’autres systèmes normatifs.<br />

Désormais, une autre science que celle du droit, voire de l’hégémonie du droit, est non<br />

seulement possible avec la médiation, mais souhaitable dans la régulation voire la solution<br />

des conflits entre l’administration et les citoyens qui s’estiment lésés par cette dernière.<br />

L’affirmation du professeur Jean CARBONNIER, selon laquelle « plaider pour le non-droit ne<br />

serait pas le non-normes », prend, dans la médiation, tout son sens.<br />

La médiation en tant que mode alternatif de résolution des conflits, serait finalement formée<br />

par une conjonction des normativités, porteuse d’une nouvelle justice vivante. En effet, les<br />

normativités sociologiques, psychologiques, morales, éthiques, de mœurs, de bienséance,<br />

philosophiques, professionnelles, scientifiques, … modifient la norme de droit dans un sens<br />

plus réaliste et enrichi, dont l’application ne pourrait être finalement que plus sociale et<br />

humaine.<br />

100 La formule est de Marcel JOLLIVET, Sciences de la nature. Sciences de la société. Les passeurs de<br />

frontières, CNRS Editions, Paris, 1992.<br />

106


La médiation n’appelle pas à l’immersion <strong>com</strong>plète et l’approfondissement total des autres<br />

systèmes, mais fait prendre conscience de l’utilité des diversités de normes, de la nécessité<br />

de rapprocher des disciplines, de les coordonner et les harmoniser.<br />

Le besoin de nos contemporains d’une « justice élargie », accessible, souple et humaine,<br />

paraît, grâce à ce concept, rencontré.<br />

107


La mediazione: un incontro con l’internormatività<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Di Marie-José CHIDIAC 101<br />

Dottore in Legge<br />

In generale, la mediazione, particolarmente quella amministrativa, fa appello all’applicazione<br />

del diritto statale aggiungendo alla riflessione giuridica (rispetto alla conformità della<br />

decisione amministrativa alla legge sulla motivazione degli atti amministrativi, alla verifica<br />

della pubblicità degli atti amministrativi – pubblicità attiva e passiva –, all’adozione della<br />

decisione entro i termini di legge, al ricorso alla nozione di equità), un elenco di indicatori<br />

relativi ai principi della buona amministrazione, della buona accoglienza dei cittadini, dell’uso<br />

di un linguaggio chiaro, <strong>com</strong>prensibile ed esplicito nei confronti dei cittadini e della buona<br />

informazione di questi ultimi.<br />

Così facendo, la mediazione amministrativa sembra non porsi, in generale, domande sui<br />

limiti di applicazione del diritto statale e si crede premunita contro l’autosufficienza del diritto,<br />

in quanto essa vi aggiunge, al momento dell’istruzione dei ricorsi dei cittadini, dei parametri<br />

<strong>com</strong>e quelli summenzionati.<br />

In ogni caso, il credere nell’efficacia pressoché egemonica del diritto positivo nel proporre o<br />

indurre delle soluzioni, parrebbe dato per scontato.<br />

Il perfezionamento di alcuni strumenti e tecniche che stimolano la mediazione a umanizzare<br />

maggiormente i suoi rapporti con i cittadini costituisce un continuum naturale del lavoro<br />

tradizionale di un Mediatore, soprattutto qualora si tratti di un giurista. Ma rimettere in<br />

questione o ampliare il diritto statale non risulta essere una preoccupazione permanente<br />

della mediazione amministrativa.<br />

Eppure, l’internormatività definita in quanto teoria che instaura delle relazioni fra le norme<br />

non cessa di guadagnare terreno nel nostro mondo contemporaneo e costituisce, a nostro<br />

avviso, l’essenza stessa del lavoro di mediazione.<br />

101 Il presente testo non impegna altri che il suo autore.<br />

108


Secondo il Professor Guy ROCHER 102 , il concetto di internormatività postula «la coesistenza<br />

di ordini o sistemi normativi paralleli differenziati, <strong>com</strong>plementari o antagonisti».<br />

Il Professor Jean CARBONNIER ne ha elaborato la nozione (nella sua opera «sociologia del<br />

diritto») ma è stato Santi ROMANO 103 a sviluppare a lungo l’idea ancor prima dell’invenzione<br />

del termine stesso.<br />

Per Pierre MOREAU, il concetto di internormatività costituisce un’idea di ciò che la<br />

normatività può assimilare da fonti ibride restituendo il diritto nel suo significato sociologico<br />

primario.<br />

L’internormatività presenta due significati assai diversi sviluppati dal Professor Guy<br />

ROCHER 104 .<br />

- «Il primo fa riferimento al transfert o passaggio di una norma o di una regola da un<br />

sistema normativo a un altro. L’internormatività si riconosce allora nel fatto che una<br />

regola prodotta o formulata all’interno di un dato sistema normativo si ritrova tale e quale,<br />

o pressoché tale e quale, in un altro ordine normativo.<br />

Questo è il caso in cui il diritto, mediante l’intervento di un legislatore o di un giudice,<br />

accetta di recepire una regola tecnica nel corpus delle regole giuridiche e di conferirle<br />

così «forza di legge».<br />

La regola tecnica si trova pertanto incorporata in due ordini normativi: l’ordine normativo<br />

che regge una tecnica o una professione in cui ha avuto origine, e l’ordine giuridico che<br />

l’ha accolta.<br />

- In un secondo senso, la nozione di internormatività fa riferimento alla dinamica dei<br />

contatti fra sistemi normativi, ai rapporti di potere e alle modalità di interinfluenza o di<br />

interazione osservabili fra due o più sistemi normativi.<br />

102 Guy ROCHER, Centre de Recherche en Droit public, Faculté de Droit, Université de Montréal, Les<br />

phénomènes d’internormativité : faits et obstacles, In: Le Droit soluble, Contributions Québecquoises à l’étude<br />

de l’internormativité sous la direction de Jean-Guy BELLEY, Paris, LGDJ, Droit et Société, n° 16, 1996, p. 26.<br />

103 Santi ROMANO, L’ordre juridique, traduzione francese della 2 a edizione italiana, pubblicata nel 1946, di L.<br />

FRANCOIS e P. GOTHOT, Paris, Dalloz, 1975.<br />

104 Guy ROCHER, loc. cit.,p. 27.<br />

109


Intesa in questo senso, l’internormatività non presuppone necessariamente la<br />

condivisione di una regola fra un ordine normativo e un altro. In questo secondo senso,<br />

l’internormatività può assumere la forma tanto di resistenza a questo passaggio quanto di<br />

presa in prestito di una norma ‘estranea’».<br />

È soprattutto in questo secondo senso che la mediazione valica le frontiere e apre nuovi<br />

orizzonti facendo prendere coscienza della dinamica delle interfacce dei sistemi normativi<br />

e delle interazioni del diritto, della sociologia, della filosofia… I «valicatori di frontiere» 105<br />

potrebbero essere giuristi, sociologi, filosofi, ma si potrebbero prendere in considerazione<br />

altre norme, altre discipline e di conseguenza altri valicatori di frontiere <strong>com</strong>e l’economia,<br />

la morale, il campo tecnologico, ecc.<br />

La percezione dei ricorsi o piuttosto l’istruzione dei ricorsi sembrerebbe essere più aperta a<br />

campi di normatività altri dal campo del diritto.<br />

Dunque l’internormatività incita a praticare l’interdisciplinarietà.<br />

L’internormatività può essere pertanto un ponte fra giuristi e specialisti in scienze sociali e di<br />

altre scienze. Una sorta di armonizzazione dei sistemi giuridici fra di loro, ma soprattutto fra i<br />

sistemi giuridici e altri sistemi normativi.<br />

Con la mediazione, una scienza altra da quella del diritto, o dovremmo dire dell’egemonia del<br />

diritto, è ormai non solo possibile ma desiderabile nella <strong>com</strong>posizione o soluzione dei conflitti<br />

fra l’amministrazione e i cittadini che si ritengono lesi da quest’ultima.<br />

L’affermazione del professor Jean CARBONNIER secondo la quale «perorare per il non<br />

diritto non porterebbe a delle non-norme» 106 , assume tutto il suo senso nella mediazione.<br />

La mediazione in quanto modalità alternativa per la risoluzione dei conflitti sarebbe infine<br />

costituita da una congiunzione di diverse normatività portatrice di una nuova giustizia, di un<br />

«diritto vivo» 107 . In effetti, le normatività sociologiche, psicologiche, morali, etiche, di<br />

105 La formula è di Marcel JOLLIVET, Sciences de la nature. Sciences de la société. Les passeurs de frontières,<br />

CNRS Editions, Paris, 1992.<br />

106 J. CARBONNIER, préface de l’ouvrage rédigé sous la direction de Jean-Guy BELLEY, « Le Droit soluble »,<br />

Contributions Québecquoises à l’étude de l’internormativité, Paris, LGDJ, Droit et Société, n° 16, 1996, p. 2.<br />

107 L’expression est de E. EHRLICH, considéré <strong>com</strong>me le fondateur de la sociologie du droit, cité par Me Louise<br />

LALONDE, « Les modes de prévention et de règlement des différends : vers une nouvelle conception de la<br />

justice ? Quelques réflexions », Québec, 2001, p.15.<br />

110


costume, di buona educazione, filosofiche, professionali, scientifiche, ecc. modificano la<br />

norma di diritto in un senso più realistico e arricchito, la cui applicazione in fin dei conti non<br />

potrà che essere più sociale e umana.<br />

La mediazione non fa appello all’immersione totale e all’approfondimento totale degli altri<br />

sistemi, ma fa prendere coscienza dell’utilità delle diverse norme, della necessità di<br />

ravvicinare le discipline, di coordinarle e armonizzarle.<br />

Il bisogno dei nostri contemporanei di una «giustizia allargata», accessibile, flessibile e<br />

umana sembrerebbe, grazie a questo concetto, soddisfatto.<br />

111


Die Vermittlung oder der Bereich der übergreifenden Normen<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Marie-José CHIDIAC 108<br />

Doktorin der Rechte<br />

Generell wird bei der – u.a. administrativen – Vermittlung auf die Anwendung des staatlichen<br />

Rechtes, ergänzt durch die rechtliche Überlegung über die Konformität des<br />

Verwaltungsbeschlusses mit dem Gesetz über die Begründung administrativer Handlungen,<br />

die Prüfung der aktiven und passiven Veröffentlichung administrativer Handlungen, die<br />

Annahme des Beschlusses binnen gesetzlicher Fristen, die Billigkeit, eine Liste der<br />

Indikatoren der Grundsätze der ordnungsgemäßen Verwaltung, die gute Aufnahme der<br />

Bürger, die Benutzung einer deutlichen, verständlichen und klaren Sprache gegenüber den<br />

Bürgern, die richtige Informationen derselben usw., zurückgegriffen.<br />

Somit stellt die administrative Vermittlung sich scheinbar und im Allgemeinen nicht die Frage<br />

nach den Grenzen der Anwendung des staatlichen Rechtes und glaubt sich gegen die<br />

Selbstgerechtheit dieses Rechtes gefeit, weil sie bei der Untersuchung der Reklamationen<br />

der Bürger Parameter wie die oben erwähnten hinzunimmt.<br />

Wie dem auch sei, das Vertrauen in die beinahe alles bestimmende Effizienz des positiven<br />

Rechtes bei der Suche oder Vorlage von Lösungen scheint logisch zu sein.<br />

Die Perfektionierung bestimmter Mittel und Verfahren, welche die Vermittlung dazu<br />

befähigen, ihre Beziehungen zu den Bürgern menschlicher zu gestalten, ist die natürliche<br />

Folge der Arbeit des Vermittlers, vor allem wenn letzterer ein Jurist ist. Die Infragestellung<br />

oder Erweiterung des staatlichen Rechtes scheint hingegen nicht zu den ständigen Anliegen<br />

der administrativen Vermittlung zu liegen.<br />

Und dennoch gewinnt die Normenübergreifung als die Theorie, die Beziehungen zwischen<br />

den Normen aufbaut, in unserer heutigen Welt immer mehr an Boden und stellt nach<br />

unserem Dafürhalten die Grundlage der Vermittlungsarbeit dar.<br />

108 Dieser Text verpflichtet nur seinen Verfasser.<br />

112


Laut Professor Guy ROCHER 109 verlangt das Konzept der Normenübergreifung die<br />

„Koexistenz verschiedener paralleler, ergänzender oder antagonistischer Ordnungen und<br />

Systeme“.<br />

Professor Jean CARBONNIER hat diesen Begriff in seinem Werk „Soziologie des Rechtes“<br />

erfunden, aber Santi ROMANO 110 hat bereits vorher diesen Gedanken vor der Entstehung<br />

des Begriffes entwickelt.<br />

Für Pierre MOREAU ist das Konzept der Normenübergreifung eine Idee dessen, was<br />

Normen aus hybriden Quellen schöpfen kann, und gibt das Recht in seiner erstrangigen<br />

soziologischen Bedeutung wieder.<br />

„Internormativität“ hat zwei recht unterschiedliche Bedeutungen, wenn man den<br />

Ausführungen von Professor Guy ROCHER 111 folgt.<br />

- „Die erste Bedeutung bezieht sich auf die Übertragung einer Norm oder einer Regel,<br />

eines Normensystems auf ein anderes. Internormativität ist daran zu erkennen, dass eine<br />

Regel, die im Rahmen eines bestimmten Normensystems geschaffen wurde, sich<br />

unverändert oder beinahe unverändert in einer anderen normativen Ordnung wieder<br />

findet.<br />

Dies ist der Fall, wenn das Recht durch Eingriff des Gesetzgebers oder Richters eine<br />

technische Regel in seine Korpus aufnimmt und auf diese Weise „gesetzkräftig“ wird.<br />

Die technische Regel ist demnach in zwei normativen Ordnungen eingeschlossen: die<br />

Norm, der ein Verfahren, eine Technik oder ein Beruf, in der sie entstanden ist, und die<br />

Rechtsnorm, die sie aufgenommen hat.<br />

- In ihrer zweiten Bedeutung bezieht Internormativität sich auf die Dynamik der<br />

Beziehungen zwischen normativen Systemen, die Machtverhältnisse und die Modalitäten<br />

109 Guy ROCHER, Centre de Recherche en Droit public, Faculté de Droit, Université de Montréal, les<br />

phénomènes d’internormativité : faits et obstacles, In : Le Droit soluble, Der Der Der Beitrag Quebecs zur Studie<br />

der Internormativität unter der Leitung von Jean-Guy BELLEY, Paris, LGDJ, Droit et Société, Nr. 16, 1996,<br />

Seite 26.<br />

110 Santi ROMANO, die Rechtsordnung, französische Übersetzung der zweiten italienischen Ausgabe 1946 von<br />

L. FRANCOIS u. P. GOTHOT, Paris, Dalloz, 1975.<br />

111 Guy ROCHER, Zitat von Seite 27<br />

113


der gegenseitigen Beeinflussung oder Einwirkung, die zwischen zwei oder mehreren<br />

normativen Systemen festzustellen ist.<br />

Nach der zweiten Bedeutung setzt Internormativität nicht notwendigerweise die Teilung<br />

einer Regel einer Norm mit einer anderen voraus. In dieser Bedeutung kann<br />

Internormativität nämlich die Form eines Widerstandes gegen diese Übertragung<br />

annehmen, selbst wenn sie eine „fremde Norm“ annimmt.<br />

Vor allem in dieser Bedeutung überschreitet die Vermittlung Grenzen und erschließt neue<br />

Horizonte, indem sie deutlich auf die Dynamik der Schnittstellen zwischen den<br />

normativen Systemen und die Wechselwirkungen zwischen Recht, Soziologie,<br />

Philosophie usw. hinweist. Die „Pendler zwischen beiden Welten“ 112 könnten dabei<br />

Juristen, Soziologen, Philosophen usw. sein, jedoch aus anderen Normen und<br />

Disziplinen, und aus dem Grund als „Grenzüberschreitende“ ebenso so sehr in Betracht<br />

gezogen werden wie die Wirtschaft, die Moral, der technologische Bereich usw.<br />

Die Aufnahme von Beschwerden - oder vielmehr die Analyse - von Beschwerden erscheint<br />

anderen normativen Bereichen offener als dem Bereich des Rechtes zu stehen.<br />

Internormativität regt deshalb zu interdisziplinärem Vorgehen ein.<br />

Internormativität wäre demnach ein echter Brückenschlag zwischen Juristen,<br />

Sozialwissenschaftlern und anderen Wissenschaften. Es ist eine bestimmte Art der<br />

Vereinheitlichung der Rechtssysteme und vor allem zwischen letzteren und anderen<br />

normativen Systemen.<br />

Somit ist eine andere Wissenschaft als die des Rechtes und dessen Hegemonie nicht nur<br />

dank der Vermittlung möglich, sondern sogar wünschenswert, wenn es um die Regelung<br />

bzw. Lösung von Konflikten zwischen Verwaltungen und Bürgern, die sich von der<br />

Verwaltung geschädigt fühlen, handelt.<br />

112 Die Formel stammt von Marcel JOLLIVET, Naturwissenschaften. Sozialwissenschaften. Die Grenzgänger<br />

(frei übers.), CNRS Editions, Paris, 1992.<br />

114


Die Behauptung des Professors Jean CARBONNIER, laut der „das Plädoyer für<br />

Rechtlosigkeit kein Plädoyer für Normenlosigkeit ist“ 113 , würde sich bei der Vermittlung<br />

bewahrheiten.<br />

Die Vermittlung als alternative Methode zur Lösung von Konflikten wäre letzten Endes eine<br />

Zusammenfügung von Normen, den Trägern einer neuen Justiz, eines „lebendigen<br />

Rechtes“ 114 . In der Tat verändern die soziologischen, psychologischen, moralischen,<br />

ethischen, sittlichen, philosophischen, beruflichen, wissenschaftlichen usw. Normen die<br />

Rechtsnorm auf eine realistischere und umfassendere Weise. Die Anwendung dieser<br />

Rechtsnorm wäre letztendlich sozialer und menschlicher.<br />

Die Vermittlung ruft nicht zum kompletten Eintauchen in oder zur totalen Einverleibung<br />

anderer System auf, sondern unterstreicht den Nutzen der Vielfalt der Normen, die<br />

Notwendigkeit der Annäherung der Disziplinen, deren Koordination und Vereinheitlichung.<br />

Das Bedürfnis unserer Zeitgenossen nach einer „breiteren“, zugänglichen, flexiblen und<br />

menschlichen Justiz wurde dank dieses Konzepts gedeckt.<br />

113 J. CARBONNIER, Vorwort des Werkes unter der Leitung von Jean-Guy BELLEY, « Le Droit soluble »,<br />

Beitrag Quebecs zur Studie der Internormativität unter der Leitung von Jean-Guy BELLEY, Paris, LGDJ, Droit<br />

et Société, Nr. 16, 1996, Seite 2.<br />

114 Ausdruck von E. EHRLICH, der als der Gründer der Soziologie des Rechtes betracht wird, Zitat von Louise<br />

LALONDE, « Les modes de prévention et de règlement des différends : vers une nouvelle conception de la<br />

justice ? Quelques réflexions », Québec, 2001, Seite 15.<br />

115


Al di la’dell’etnocentrismo delle Eta : la mediazione tra le<br />

generazioni<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Anna Coppola de vanna<br />

Presidente Cooperativa C.R.I.S.I. di Bari<br />

1. Nella stanza di mediazione<br />

I genitori e G. sono seduti davanti ai mediatori: taciturni, il capo chino, l’espressione triste.<br />

La madre e la figlia sono sedute più vicine; il padre, invece, è distante, un po’ periferico; la<br />

sua posizione marginale è quella assunta in tutta la storia familiare e, soprattutto, nella<br />

vicenda conflittuale.<br />

Egli è un costruttore di bare e pare essere lì <strong>com</strong>e rappresentante di questa fabbrica, in<br />

attesa di ricevere un’ordinazione per una cassa da morto.<br />

Quando i mediatori chiedono di parlare del conflitto la madre esordisce dicendo che G. è una<br />

ragazza ribelle, non ascolta, si <strong>com</strong>porta male, nel corso dell’anno scolastico ha spesso<br />

«marinato» la scuola, falsificando la firma dei genitori nella giustifica e, quando l’hanno<br />

scoperta, hanno deciso di impedirle di continuare la frequenza scolastica, lasciandola chiusa<br />

in casa ed impedendole la frequentazione dei luoghi di aggregazione parrocchiale e le uscite<br />

con gli amici.<br />

Sperano in questo modo che ella <strong>com</strong>prenda la necessità di obbedire alle regole dei genitori<br />

e di <strong>com</strong>portarsi adeguatamente per esprimere gratitudine per tutto quello che hanno fatto<br />

per lei.<br />

G. non aspetta che i mediatori le offrano la parola ed espone le cose dal suo punto di vista,<br />

per riferire che i suoi non sono genitori, ma carcerieri e che la punizione è sproporzionata<br />

alla marachella <strong>com</strong>messa e che questo non è giusto.<br />

I toni della voce esprimono una forte rabbia da parte di entrambe; il padre, invitato a parlare,<br />

si limita a dire che è d’accordo con la moglie.<br />

116


La madre è molto stanca, G. reclama gesti di affettuosità. Ha un grande bisogno di<br />

accoglienza, di appartenenza. «Non posso darle affetto se non mi considera <strong>com</strong>e madre e,<br />

d’altra parte, lei rifiuta la mia affettuosità, non si <strong>com</strong>porta <strong>com</strong>e una figlia.»<br />

Il bisogno di riconoscimento è fortissimo, negato e mascherato attraverso la richiesta di<br />

<strong>com</strong>portamenti di ruolo: un figlio deve <strong>com</strong>portarsi bene, una madre deve essere affettuosa.<br />

C’è un grido soffocato «voglio essere tua figlia», «voglio essere tua madre!», ma le parole<br />

che pronunciano sono esattamente il contrario: «non sei una brava figlia», «non sei una<br />

buona madre».<br />

La rabbia, l’aggressività sono elevatissime, si avverte la paura della morte definitiva di<br />

questo rapporto e questa paura rende sempre più aspri i toni del dolore. I mediatori cercano<br />

di uscire dal problema con domande sulla storia pregressa. I coniugi P. sono sposati da 10<br />

anni; lui è falegname e lavora in una fabbrica di bare, lei è casalinga. Dopo 5 anni di<br />

matrimonio scoprono che non possono avere figli e decidono di adottarne uno.<br />

Viene loro proposto di adottare due fratelli, G, appunto e suo fratello M. che è gravemente<br />

ammalato. I coniugi accolgono i due bambini presso di loro e si dedicano con grande<br />

impegno alla loro cura. Le condizioni di salute di M. peggiorano tanto che essi si occupano<br />

della sua ospedalizzazione, vivono tutto il dramma della malattia, «dimenticando» G. Il<br />

bambino muore e, a qualche mese di distanza, <strong>com</strong>inciano le prime manifestazioni del<br />

conflitto tra G. e la madre.<br />

I bisogni personali urgenti e inespressi, quello di G. di appartenere al contesto familiare e di<br />

sperimentare una filialità negata dalla presenza del fratello malato; quello della madre di<br />

riprovare a mettere in campo un ruolo materno duramente messo alla prova, collocano<br />

entrambe in una posizione di attesa, di riconoscimento da parte dell’altra. La rabbia per il<br />

mancato riconoscimento cela l’espressione delle richieste e veicola giudizi di ingratitudine, di<br />

incapacità; il dolore per la perdita del legame diventa insopportabile: per entrambe si tratta di<br />

una questione vitale. Sentono che sta per riattualizzarsi un’esperienza di morte; sentono che<br />

potrebbe non essere ineluttabile <strong>com</strong>e le altre perdite che hanno vissuto. Molti lutti si sono<br />

susseguiti: quello della coniugalità non evoluta fino alla genitorialità; quello della genitorialità<br />

biologica mancata; quello della morte del figlio adottivo. Molti lutti, molte sepolture,<br />

ineluttabili. Di fronte a questa ulteriore esperienza luttuosa sentono di doverla impedire: il<br />

padre è lì, in attesa di conoscere se dovrà costruire ancora una bara nella quale seppellire<br />

l’ultimo legame esistenziale rimasto o se potrà essere risparmiato dal farlo.<br />

117


I mediatori accolgono il senso di separazione, la solitudine, la paura della perdita, la<br />

sofferenza; permettono che risuonino gli antichi dolori sedimentati da qualche parte dentro<br />

ciascuno di loro; li rispecchiano, dando loro voce, trasformano le accuse in richieste<br />

permettendo il riconoscimento della reciproca situazione di sofferenza: madre e figlia<br />

riconoscono di essere state sole e di aver desiderato essere insieme; di essersi sentite<br />

separate, proiettate nello spazio infinito senza alcun punto di riferimento e di aver desiderato<br />

condividere tempi e spazi; di essersi sentite soffocare dietro la maschera della costruita<br />

indifferenza e di aver voluto gridare all’altra il proprio sentimento.<br />

Da qui l’importanza della memoria e, attraverso la memoria, della ricerca della storia<br />

pregressa, del recupero del tempo. Il mediatore apre una porta, perché il futuro non è il<br />

presente di domani, ma è tutt’altra cosa.<br />

Via via che il percorso mediativo procede, tutti, nella stanza di mediazione, sentono che non<br />

sarà necessario costruire un’altra bara.<br />

2. L’esperienza barese<br />

Le difficoltà <strong>com</strong>unicative e, quindi, l’impossibilità a potenziare le capacità di relazionarsi tra<br />

le generazioni è un aspetto doloroso del mancato riconoscimento; un aspetto tutto<br />

particolare di quell’etnocentrismo delle età che, di fatto, ostacola il passaggio da una fase<br />

all’altra della crescita e blocca la fiducia reciproca tra appartenenti a generazioni diverse.<br />

“Personalmente non ricordo il momento preciso in cui io e mio padre abbiamo <strong>com</strong>inciato a<br />

guardarci negli occhi ed a parlare…non più monologhi, ma dialoghi; silenzi prolungati…. ma<br />

non quelli imbarazzanti che ergono barriere, bensì quelli che avvicinano e ti fanno sentire<br />

<strong>com</strong>plici”.<br />

E’ l’esperienza che gran parte degli adolescenti ha vissuto; a seconda della fase del ciclo<br />

vitale in cui è avvenuta e del modo in cui si è realizzata essa ha orientato il corso della<br />

nostra storia, ma <strong>com</strong>unque ha segnato un passaggio: da appendice di qualcosa o qualcuno<br />

a identità distinta, da presenza passiva a valido interlocutore.<br />

Ricordiamo la fatica impiegata per farci ascoltare, la paura che il nostro mondo rimanesse<br />

intrappolato sotto lo sguardo indagatore dell’adulto; la delusione per non essere visti <strong>com</strong>e<br />

altro diverso da chi ci ha generato ed allo stesso tempo la diffidenza a mostrarci all’altro<br />

<strong>com</strong>e si è veramente…e poi il senso di rinascita una volta oltrepassata la linea di confine tra<br />

118


le proprie verità e quelle degli adulti, spinti dal bisogno e dal desiderio di costruire un<br />

linguaggio <strong>com</strong>une.<br />

Questa esperienza è una preziosa risorsa per il mediatore allorquando egli ha dinanzi a sé<br />

due generazioni a confronto…alle prese con il riconoscimento dei propri bisogni e della<br />

propria diversità…a volte ancora in tempo per strutturare una relazione significativa, a volte<br />

senza più speranza, perché un evento ha tracciato distanze incolmabili ed è troppo tardi per<br />

recuperare un gesto, una sola parola.<br />

Quando nel 1996 il nostro gruppo di mediatori baresi ha voluto condurre la sperimentazione<br />

dell’Ufficio di Mediazione ha ritenuto di attribuire allo stesso una peculiarità che lo<br />

diversificava dagli altri uffici nati contemporaneamente in Italia: si è chiamato ufficio per la<br />

mediazione civile e penale perché si è voluto accogliere il disagio e le istanze del bambino<br />

e/o dell’adolescente attraverso ogni tipo di esperienza da costui vissuta ed ascoltarlo in<br />

occasione sia di <strong>com</strong>portamenti penalmente rilevanti e/o socialmente allarmanti - pensiamo<br />

al fatto reato, alla diserzione scolastica, al fenomeno del bullismo - sia di eventi traumatici<br />

<strong>com</strong>e la separazione dei genitori. Gli uffici di Milano e Torino, pertanto, hanno focalizzato<br />

l’attenzione sul minore che delinque, mentre Bari ha sperimentato l’efficacia della<br />

mediazione operando in ogni contesto di vita del minore, dilatando così lo spazio<br />

<strong>com</strong>unicativo, e dunque lo spazio partecipativo, oltre la relazione a due, nella vita sociale.<br />

Fino a novembre 2001 i mediatori del nostro centro hanno lavorato volontaristicamente;<br />

successivamente l’Ufficio ha assunto caratteri interistituzionali attraverso un protocollo di<br />

intesa che ha coinvolto il Tribunale e la Procura minorili, il Comune, la Provincia, la Regione<br />

ed il Centro Giustizia Minorile. Oggi, pertanto, trattasi di un Servizio pubblicamente<br />

riconosciuto e di agevole accesso per il cittadino; gode di grande credibilità soprattutto grazie<br />

alla professionalità di coloro che vi operano e che dedicano tempo ed energie perché la<br />

cultura della mediazione si radichi sempre più sul territorio. L’ufficio ha gestito oltre 300 casi<br />

e ricorrenti sono state le mediazioni tra genitori e figli, tra fratelli.<br />

Nella stanza di mediazione non si relazionano le astratte categorie, non le fittizie maschere<br />

dei ruoli, ma gli esseri umani concreti, che si riconoscono attraverso il racconto di se stessi<br />

all’altro e potenziano le personali capacità di immaginare e progettare il futuro.<br />

Nella mediazione tra Vincenzo, 29 anni, ed Antonella, sedicenne, si assiste allo scontro della<br />

diversità di bisogni e valori ed alla disperata ricerca di un modo per farli convivere, perché è<br />

troppo doloroso sentirsi soli nella stessa casa! Loro due, fratello e sorella, rimasti senza<br />

genitori, con una esperienza di abbandono e di collegio alle spalle, ora devono gestire la loro<br />

quotidianità in modo autonomo….ma è difficile per Antonella accettare le rigide regole di<br />

119


convivenza che ha stabilito Vincenzo (andare a scuola, rientrare la sera ad un preciso orario,<br />

sbrigare le faccende di casa) e non avere la possibilità di dimostrargli la sua affidabilità,<br />

anche al di là delle regole! Ed è faticoso per Vincenzo portare il peso di responsabilità più<br />

grandi di lui e non avere nessuno con cui condividerle! Gli eventi hanno bruciato le tappe,<br />

Vincenzo ed Antonella sono cresciuti troppo in fretta e la differenza di età e di ruoli li ha resi<br />

quasi due sconosciuti. Nella stanza di mediazione ritrovano l’essenza (ciò che una cosa non<br />

può non essere): la solidarietà, l’orgoglio familiare, la dignità personale.<br />

Vincenzo ad un certo punto si esprime così: ci sono parole che io non so dire, ti voglio bene,<br />

ad esempio… non l’ho mai detto a nessuno, ma ad Antonello l’ho detto in tanti altri modi.<br />

Ed Antonella: è bello dirlo, io lo dico spesso, ma è ancora più bello sentirselo dire.<br />

E poi si guardano, a lungo, in silenzio, quasi a voler riscrivere la loro storia, da domani, con<br />

un linguaggio <strong>com</strong>une.<br />

Nella mediazione tra Maria e Rosa, rispettivamente madre e figlia, si assiste ad una sfrenata<br />

<strong>com</strong>petizione tra donne….ma, al di là delle offese, delle critiche e degli sguardi taglienti, c’è il<br />

terrore che l’una non sia abbastanza per l’altra, la paura di non essere all’altezza <strong>com</strong>e<br />

madre, l’amarezza della figlia di non essere stata considerata capace di sostenere la<br />

mamma nei momenti di difficoltà.<br />

Rosa aveva una grande voglia di vivere…ora non sorride più, e questo mi fa soffrire – dice la<br />

madre.<br />

Non mi hai mai raccontato di te, mamma, io ho potuto condividere la tua vita solo attraverso i<br />

racconti della nonna, e questo mi fa soffrire – risponde Rosa.<br />

Per la prima volta nella stanza di mediazione madre e figlia si ascoltano, non c’è più la<br />

mistificazione di una relazione, una sorta di “<strong>com</strong>e se”, di “facciamo finta che”; c’è una verità,<br />

una storicità della relazione che si costruisce qui ed ora e che trasforma la <strong>com</strong>petitività in<br />

alleanza.<br />

3. Una storia antica che ritorna<br />

A proposito dell’etnocentrismo delle età Benjamin ha scritto: “La nostra lotta per divenire<br />

responsabili la <strong>com</strong>battiamo contro un essere mascherato. La maschera dell’adulto si<br />

chiama esperienza. E’ inespressiva, impenetrabile, sempre la stessa. Quest’adulto ha già<br />

vissuto tutto: gioventù, ideali, speranze, la donna. Tutte illusioni. Ne siamo intimiditi e<br />

amareggiati. Forse ha ragione. Che dobbiamo rispondergli? Non abbiamo esperienza”.<br />

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La in<strong>com</strong>unicabilità tra generazioni è storia antica ed il tema ac<strong>com</strong>pagna, in realtà, ogni<br />

situazione di conflitto che i mediatori si trovano a gestire perché il sogno eterno dell’uomo è il<br />

progetto della propria identità. La sua costruzione è un aspetto fondamentale del processo di<br />

crescita ed essa si consolida e si realizza attraverso il riconoscimento da parte degli altri.<br />

Può accadere, però, che proprio le persone che noi più amiamo non ci riconoscano per<br />

quelle parti importanti di noi stessi, ma addirittura le squalifichino, le sviliscano, distruggendo,<br />

così, il sogno.<br />

La varietà e la intensità di questa esperienza diventano una sorta di colonna sonora del film<br />

della nostra vita che, nei momenti più tormentati della nostra esistenza, prende il<br />

sopravvento fino a coprire il suono delle parole. Scopriamo allora che quel muro di<br />

in<strong>com</strong>prensione non è mai crollato e lo portiamo dentro, <strong>com</strong>e un macigno, e condiziona<br />

<strong>com</strong>portamenti e scelte; che siamo ricaduti nella trappola <strong>com</strong>mettendo gli stessi errori e non<br />

resta che acquisirne consapevolezza; che possiamo proprio da quella esperienza trarre<br />

risorse incoraggianti per innescare un cambiamento ed uscire dal conflitto.<br />

Tutto questo spesso accade nel corso di una mediazione familiare: i genitori che aderiscono<br />

ad un percorso di mediazione non incontrano i mediatori in virtù di un ruolo; sono lì perché<br />

esseri umani in difficoltà, con il fardello della loro storia: e nella loro storia sono stati<br />

anch’essi figli e quei figli avevano o hanno ancora dei genitori. Esplorare il loro vissuto vuol<br />

dire far riemergere spesso un dolore antico: che è quello di non essere stato capito o<br />

rispettato, di non avere mai imparato a <strong>com</strong>prendere o ad ascoltare l’altro; di aver avuto più<br />

di quello che si poteva desiderare in termini di affetto ed attenzione. I debiti ed i crediti<br />

affettivi maturati al momento del distacco dal nucleo familiare di origine incidono sul nostro<br />

bilancio e sull’investimento che di esso facciamo allorquando scegliamo di costruire una<br />

nuova famiglia.<br />

La mediazione allora è il luogo in cui è possibile ridare un senso alle cose, ridimensionare le<br />

aspettative, sdrammatizzare gli eventi, mostrare la reciproca fragilità, valorizzare la diversità,<br />

andare incontro alle difficoltà dell’altro ed accogliere l’altrui punto di vista.<br />

Nel fare questa operazione si <strong>com</strong>pie un ulteriore tentativo: quello di spogliarsi<br />

dell’atteggiamento paternalistico dell’adulto che si arroga, per il solo fatto di essere adulto, la<br />

capacità di saper interpretare “in modo oggettivo e definitivo” i bisogni e i desideri dei<br />

fanciulli. La mediazione familiare tende a responsabilizzare i genitori rendendoli persone<br />

consapevoli, capaci di autonomia decisionale, ma, soprattutto, attenti ascoltatori dei propri<br />

figli. Il cammino mediativo, quindi, diventa il luogo di apprendimento di un linguaggio diverso,<br />

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quello del fanciullo il quale chiede di essere aiutato a costruirsi la propria visione del mondo,<br />

di essere depositario di verità sostenibili, di essere rispettato nei suoi tempi di crescita, di non<br />

vedersi negata la sua fanciullezza, ma anche di non veder ostacolata la espressione del suo<br />

divenire. Il binomio ascoltare-<strong>com</strong>unicare è inscindibile; di conseguenza per potersi<br />

esprimere il bambino ha bisogno di essere ascoltato; per ascoltarlo dobbiamo <strong>com</strong>unicare<br />

con lui. La mediazione è l’occasione per costruire relazioni, rafforzare legami, colmare<br />

silenzi, accorciare distanze.<br />

Anche se il fanciullo non è nella stanza di mediazione in realtà si innesca un dialogo a tre; i<br />

genitori faticosamente mettono da parte il proprio modo di pensare e si adattano ad una<br />

modalità espressiva che appartiene all’infanzia, dalla quale possono addirittura apprendere e<br />

rileggere il significato degli eventi.<br />

4. Conclusioni<br />

La mediazione ci insegna che è possibile prestare attenzione al linguaggio delle generazioni,<br />

andare al di là delle parole e dei <strong>com</strong>portamenti e cogliere l’essenza.<br />

Antonio Scurati, scrittore napoletano, nel suo libro “Il Sopravvissuto” racconta di una strage<br />

<strong>com</strong>piuta a scuola da un ragazzo ventenne, il giorno degli esami di stato. Vitagliano Caccia<br />

uccide tutti i docenti tranne il prof. Andrea Marescalchi il quale diventa, per designazione<br />

della <strong>com</strong>unità scolastica e del paese, il depositario di una qualche verità che possa<br />

spiegare il gesto efferato.<br />

Il giorno del corteo funebre la folla degli adulti si dispone in processione fuori dalla chiesa; i<br />

giovani, invece, si radunano su una collinetta poco distante, con i loro motorini, tutti rivolti<br />

verso la chiesa. Antonio Scurati scrive così:<br />

Andrea viene raggiunto dal <strong>com</strong>missario Amodio.<br />

“Eccoli là. Secondo lei, cosa fanno laggiù, professore?”<br />

“Fanno quello che fanno sempre, fin da quando sono bambini, <strong>com</strong>missario. Ci osservano.”<br />

“Io direi che qualche volta fanno anche di più: ci ammazzano…A me pare, <strong>com</strong>unque, che in<br />

questo momento ci stiano spiando”.<br />

“Ma che dice, <strong>com</strong>missario! Cerchi di non perdere il controllo, almeno lei” protesta Andrea.<br />

“Sono lucidissimo, professor Marescalchi. Non le sembra strano che tutti i ragazzi del paese<br />

se ne stiano laggiù in disparte, mentre noi siamo qui a piangere i nostri morti?”<br />

“Sono anche i loro morti”, ribatte Andrea sdegnato.<br />

“Ne è proprio sicuro, professor Marescalchi? E’ dalla loro schiera, dopo tutto, che proviene<br />

l’assassino”.<br />

…………………………<br />

Noi, loro, quella contrapposizione non ha alcun senso……<br />

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Eppure il professor Marescalchi deve riconoscere con se stesso che effettivamente i ragazzi<br />

del paese, <strong>com</strong>presi i suoi studenti, sono quasi tutti ammassati in quell’angolo remoto della<br />

piazza.<br />

…………<br />

Ma l’isolamento scelto dai ragazzi non significa che il <strong>com</strong>missario abbia ragione a<br />

sospettarli in blocco.<br />

Sì, è vero, i ragazzi se ne stanno lì in fondo, a occhi asciutti, curvi sui loro motorini, a fumarsi<br />

le loro canne, a smozzicare le loro solite quattro insensate frasi gergali, a strisciarsi l’uno<br />

addosso all’altro, anche in faccia alla morte.<br />

Sì, è vero, in quell’istante, probabilmente, i loro cervelli inamovibili sono occupati a calcolare<br />

se i pochi giorni che li separano dal sabato sera si possono considerare un lasso di tempo<br />

sufficiente a togliere il lutto, per poi potersene andare dignitosamente in discoteca, <strong>com</strong>e<br />

ogni fine settimana.<br />

Sì, tutto questo è vero. Lo sanno bene sia Andrea che il <strong>com</strong>missario, entrambi professionisti<br />

delle turbolenze giovanili, e dunque profondi conoscitori dell’egoismo, dell’indifferenza,<br />

dell’insensibilità, dei mille modi in cui l’egemonia assoluta della vitalità – chè questo e<br />

nient’altro è, in fondo la giovinezza – si manifesta <strong>com</strong>e inflessibile estraneità agli occhi del<br />

mondo adulto.<br />

Ma al <strong>com</strong>missario sfugge una cosa essenziale. Lui, per eccesso di realismo, per troppa<br />

sagacia, sembra non capire che la separatezza, la distanza, persino il disdegno sui volti di<br />

quei ragazzi, perfino la cicca nelle loro bocche, masticata anche in faccia allo sfacelo del<br />

mondo, sono fiori della corona che quella gioventù depone, contrita e riverente, sul marmo<br />

dei sepolcri.<br />

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La médiation au Mali : un mécanisme traditionnel séculaire de<br />

résolution des conflits<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Harouna Coulibaly<br />

Président, Association des Jeunes pour le Maintien et la<br />

Consolidation de la Paix au Mali-AJMCPM/ONG<br />

1. Structure de la société malienne et les dynamiques sociale<br />

1.1. De la diversité à l’unité sociale<br />

Le Mali <strong>com</strong>pte une population totale de 10 685 948 habitants (est. Jull. 2000) inégalement<br />

répartie sur l’ensemble du territoire national. Les régions du Nord du pays (Tombouctou, Gao<br />

et Kidal) qui couvrent 60% du territoire ne <strong>com</strong>pte environ que 10% de la population totale.<br />

Constituée de 95% de noirs et de 5% d’arabes, la population malienne est <strong>com</strong>posée de plus<br />

de 75 groupes ethniques parmi lesquels les Bambaras, les Malinkés, les Peulhs, les Dogons,<br />

les Bozos, les Touaregs, les Maures, les Sarakollés, des Kassonkés….Cette population<br />

malienne est partagée entre trois croyances religieuses dont 90% de musulmans, 9%<br />

d’indigènes et 1% de chrétiens.<br />

Bien qu’assez diversifiées, les <strong>com</strong>munautés maliennes ont tiré profit des valeurs<br />

socioculturelles des grandes civilisations ouest africaines des XVIII ème et XIX ème siècles. Ces<br />

valeurs qui s’attachent à la tolérance et à la non violence sont partout sous-jacentes dans de<br />

nombreuses traditions culturelles et s’expriment à travers la sagesse populaire. Et, malgré la<br />

grande diversité dans laquelle les sociétés ont appris à s’épanouir, il existe une certaine<br />

unité du peuple malien. Cette unité qui a pour caractéristiques essentielles le respect de soi<br />

et de l’autre, la concorde, la modération, la tolérance et la non-violence, est fondée sur<br />

certaines pratiques sociales traditionnelles.<br />

1.2. Les fondements de base de l’unité sociale au Mali<br />

Dans la plupart des sociétés ouest-africaines dites segmentaires, c’est à dire à base de<br />

clans liés entre eux par un système de solidarité, les alliances jouent un rôle essentiel dans<br />

la cohésion sociale. Dans le but de prévenir et de gérer les conflits qui étaient omniprésents<br />

à l’époque, nombre de traditions et de pratiques sociales <strong>com</strong>munes aux peuples de cette<br />

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égion ont contribué efficacement et participent encore aujourd’hui au maintien de la paix. Et,<br />

parmi ses pratiques et mécanismes nous notons entre autres.<br />

- Le mariage inter clanique :<br />

La pratique de l’exogamie et de la polygamie assurent des relations d’échanges<br />

matrimoniaux entre clans à l’exception des hommes de castes réduits à l’endogamie.<br />

Ces alliances inter-claniques par le biais du mariage créent des liens de sang qui<br />

réduisent considérablement les risques de conflits ouverts.<br />

- Le «sanankouya» ou «alliance à plaisanterie»<br />

Le «sanankouya» appelé aussi cousinage à plaisanterie est un système de solidarité<br />

inter-clanique et inter-ethnique très répandu en Afrique de l’Ouest. Il ne repose pas sur<br />

une parenté réelle entre alliés à la différence de la «parenté à plaisanterie» qui concerne<br />

des personnes ayant des liens de parenté avérés. La manifestation la plus remarquable<br />

du sanankouya réside dans les échanges de plaisanteries entre alliés. Les propos<br />

souvent injurieux qu’échangent à toute occasion les partenaires ne peuvent donner lieu à<br />

aucune conséquence. Mais au delà de cet aspect ludique, l’alliance requiert une<br />

assistance mutuelle entre alliés (sanankoun) en toutes circonstances, un devoir voire une<br />

obligation de médiation lorsque l’un des partenaires est en conflit avec un tiers. De<br />

nombreuses études consacrées à ce phénomène typique des sociétés ouest africaines<br />

ont donné lieu à des interprétations différentes quant à ses origines et à sa signification.<br />

L’alliance engage donc les contractants et leurs descendants. Elle unit des groupes<br />

portant des patronymes différents et qui se repartissent entre différentes ethnies vivant<br />

dans différents pays de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. On peut citer ainsi les alliances Diarra-<br />

Traoré; Keïta-Coulibaly, Touré-Cissé-Diaby, Bathily-Soumaré.<br />

Le sanankouya peut avoir un caractère inter-ethnique (Mandingue-Peul, Bamanan-Peul,<br />

Sonrhai-Dogon, Dogon-Bozo, Minianka-Sénoufo, etc.).. L’alliance peut unir aussi des<br />

groupes ethniques à des castes (Peuls-Forgerons) ou des castes entre elles (forgeronsautres<br />

castes.) ou encore des contrées entre elles dans la mesure ou celles-ci ont un<br />

peuplement relativement homogène. Quant aux fonctions du sanankouya, il permet de<br />

canaliser les tensions éprouvées dans les rapports de parenté clanique et avec les alliés<br />

matrimoniaux. En effet le sanankouya établit une relation pacificatrice qui joue le rôle<br />

d’exutoire de tensions qui autrement dégénéreraient en violences.<br />

Ainsi, il permet aux africains de l’ouest de différentes contrées de fraterniser au premier<br />

contact, de dédramatiser des situations qui ailleurs conduiraient à des conflits ouverts.<br />

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Au Mali, le sanankouya agit <strong>com</strong>me une thérapeutique qui participe quotidiennement à la<br />

régulation sociale. Les plaisanteries qu’échangent les alliés contribuent à détendre<br />

l’atmosphère, à rétablir la confiance, toutes choses indispensables au dialogue.<br />

- Les alliances matrimoniales étendues<br />

Les empereurs prenaient des épouses dans les différentes provinces de leur vaste état.<br />

Les liens de sang qui résultaient de ces alliances constituaient un lien entre la famille<br />

impériale et les suzerains locaux. Les enfants issus de ces mariages devenaient des<br />

relais efficaces du pouvoir central et constituaient d’excellents médiateurs en cas de<br />

conflits. On retrouve dans cette pratique des alliances étendues et le rôle de médiateur<br />

du neveu dans les Empires et dans de nombreux royaumes des XVIIIème et XIXème<br />

siècles.<br />

- La coopération économique<br />

L’établissement et le développement de relations économiques entre différentes<br />

<strong>com</strong>munautés ou États constituent aussi un moyen important de sauvegarde de la paix.<br />

L’activité diplomatique soutenue entre les souverains maliens et ceux du Maroc avaient<br />

entre autres, des mobiles économiques qui concourraient au maintien de la paix. Les<br />

empereurs avaient si bien <strong>com</strong>pris le rôle des échanges économiques dans l’intégration<br />

des peuples des empires qu’ils fondaient. Dans le contexte soudano sahélien caractérisé<br />

par l’ouverture des espaces et la facilité de circulation des hommes et des biens, les<br />

marchés, les foires jouent un rôle essentiel dans le rapprochement des <strong>com</strong>munautés. Le<br />

marché n’est pas seulement un espace d’échanges économiques, mais il est aussi un<br />

espace de convivialité où se nouent des relations interpersonnelles et<br />

inter<strong>com</strong>munautaires.<br />

2. Perspectives de la médiation sociale<br />

2.1. Un mécanisme traditionnel de résolution des conflits<br />

La médiation <strong>com</strong>prise <strong>com</strong>me l’entremise d’un tiers neutre entre deux ou plusieurs parties<br />

en vue de les concilier ou de les réconcilier, est une pratique ancienne et essentielle dans<br />

les relations sociales au Mali.<br />

Dans les conceptions religieuses traditionnelles, l’harmonie de l’Univers nécessite une<br />

médiation constante entre les forces de l’univers et les hommes, entre les ancêtres et les<br />

descendants et entre les vivants eux mêmes. La conciliation ou la réconciliation est souvent<br />

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scellée par des sacrifices d’animaux (victimes expiatoires) effectués par le descendant le<br />

plus âgé de la famille fondatrice du village. Les chefs de lignage, les prêtres, les forgerons<br />

assument cette fonction dans des situations précises. En Islam la médiation entre les<br />

membres de la même <strong>com</strong>munauté doit être un <strong>com</strong>portement, mieux un devoir pour tout<br />

croyant. En s’inspirant sur ces sources religieuses, les sociétés maliennes ont eu la<br />

particularité d’avoir spécialisé des catégories sociales dans les missions de médiation et de<br />

conseil. Ce sont les «Niamakala» (forgerons, griots, cordonniers, «finah»).<br />

- Artisans de Paix et agents diplomatiques<br />

Les mécanismes de prévention et de règlement des conflits dans les sociétés maliennes<br />

fonctionnent en grande partie grâce à des hommes et des femmes qualifiés appartenant<br />

aux groupes “castés” de la grande famille des «niamakala». D’autres acteurs tels les<br />

Ulémas, les mentors (dans les cours impériales), les notables locaux (chefs de village,<br />

imam etc.) participent également au maintien de la paix par leurs intercessions diverses.<br />

- Les Niamakala : Numu (forgeron) Jeli (griots) Garanké (cordonniers) Finah<br />

Parmi ces groupes “castés”, les griots jouent un rôle particulier. Ils étaient et sont<br />

toujours omniprésents dans nombre de sociétés ouest africaines en tant que conseillers<br />

auprès des souverains agents diplomatiques entre princes, médiateurs - pacificateurs à<br />

l’intérieur de la société globale. Leur statut particulier en faisaient des «arbitres non<br />

engagés», des agents désignés de la médiation sociale. Le forgeron, de par ses<br />

fonctions qui sont généralement de l’ordre du sacré (sacrificateur) parce que se<br />

rapportant aux cosmogonies et aux mythes fondateurs, est un acteur essentiel de la<br />

régulation sociale. Le Finah chez les bamanan, les Mabo Peul exercent également leurs<br />

talents dans la médiation et le conseil. Des réseaux relationnels plus ou moins denses<br />

s’établissaient entre certains de ces acteurs au delà des frontières étatiques ou<br />

<strong>com</strong>munautaires facilitant le jeu diplomatique.<br />

- Notables et autres personnes d’influence<br />

Les «Rois femmes» de la région de Ségou, «Mansa Moussow» lointains descendants<br />

des princes locaux déchus à la suite de la formation des royaumes bamanan de Ségou.<br />

Considérés par les populations <strong>com</strong>me maîtres du «sol» en tant que descendants des<br />

fondateurs, craints et respectés pour cela, ils arbitraient les conflits fonciers en amenant<br />

les parties en conflit à la négociation. Les chefs coutumiers, les imams, les prêtres (de<br />

cultes traditionnels ou chrétiens) ont aussi un rôle important dans la médiation sociale et<br />

l’arbitrage des conflits.<br />

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3.2. La médiation dans le contexte actuel des conflits en Afrique<br />

Dans l’analyse des problèmes actuels de l’Afrique, il nous parait utile de se départir de<br />

«référent précolonial», cette construction intellectuelle que l’on bâtit autour du passé<br />

précolonial de l’Afrique et que l’on cherche à opposer systématiquement à la «modernité». Il<br />

n’existe pas d’antinomie, ni de rupture entre tradition et modernité dans la vie quotidienne<br />

des sociétés maliennes. Il est cependant évident que les conflits actuels ne revêtent pas les<br />

mêmes formes et n’ont pas les mêmes causes que ceux que connaissaient les sociétés dites<br />

«pré-coloniales».<br />

3.2.1. Le contexte nouveau des conflits actuels<br />

Les conflits actuels se produisent dans le cadre des «Etats-nations» africains qui ont<br />

beaucoup de mal à émerger ou à se consolider. S’il est vrai que l’Etat et la nation ne sont<br />

pas des phénomènes étrangers à l’Afrique, force est aussi de reconnaître que l’ «étatnation»<br />

dans sa forme présente est le résultat d’un «greffage» opéré par la colonisation et<br />

dont la réussite varie selon les contextes. Sous le couvert de l’ethnicité, de nombreux conflits<br />

en Afrique traduisent cette crise de «l’Etat-nation» qui ne parvient pas à la définition claire<br />

d’une citoyenneté pour tous et dont l’absence notoire de démocratie constitue un frein au<br />

développement. L’inadéquation des systèmes politiques aux évolutions, l’aggravation des<br />

problèmes économiques (qui exacerbe la question de la répartition équitable des ressources<br />

nationales), la gestion autoritaire des questions identitaires (non reconnaissance de la<br />

diversité culturelle, exclusion des minorités) constituent quelques unes des causes des<br />

conflits qui ravagent le continent. Leurs effets sont d’autant plus désastreux que les<br />

protagonistes recourent à des moyens sophistiqués et à des techniques d’extermination à<br />

grande échelle (le concept de «purification ethnique» se rattache à cet contexte nouveau).<br />

Les conflits sociaux occasionnés par les revendications corporatistes ou catégorielles<br />

typiques des sociétés modernes sont aussi en expansion.<br />

3.2.2. L’efficacité et la limite de la médiation traditionnelle dans la résolution des<br />

conflits sociaux actuels<br />

Dans le cas précis du Mali l’expérience récente a prouvé que le recours aux mécanismes<br />

traditionnels pouvait être d’une certaine efficacité dans la prévention et le règlement de<br />

certains conflits. Il en a été ainsi pour le dénouement des crises scolaires successives qui<br />

ont marqué la vie du pays depuis la réforme politique de 1991. Plus spectaculaire et<br />

exemplaire a été le rôle de ce que l’on appelle la «société civile» dans le règlement de la<br />

douloureuse et difficile question du Nord du Mali, la révolte touarègue qui mettait en péril<br />

l’unité même du pays. Ceci étant, notre approche des différentes expériences maliennes en<br />

la matière nous incite à penser que le recours aux mécanismes traditionnels de médiation,<br />

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pour être efficace, doit se faire avec discernement, et selon la nature du conflit. Cette<br />

observation s’inscrit dans la droite ligne du passionnant débat en cours sur le rôle de la<br />

société civile, aux contours souvent imprécis, dans les mutations politiques en cours dans<br />

nos pays.<br />

3.2.2.1 La nécessité de circonscrire le champ d’utilisation des mécanismes<br />

La médiation sociale, qu’elle soit assurée à travers le sanankouya (alliance à plaisanterie) ou<br />

par les acteurs qualifiés tels les griots et autres ne peut se substituer au dialogue direct et à<br />

la négociation entre acteurs de la scène politique. Les limites de la médiation menée par les<br />

notables, les religieux et autres associations sont apparues très vite dans la recherche de<br />

solutions à la crise politique née de la contestation par l’opposition des résultats des<br />

consultations électorales d’avril 1997. C’est que le contentieux est éminemment politique et<br />

requiert une négociation entre les acteurs politiques. Le rôle d’un médiateur est de contribuer<br />

à ramener un climat de confiance entre les parties en conflit et d’essayer au tant que<br />

possible de rapprocher les positions en obtenant des uns et des autres des concessions<br />

mutuelles. C’est en cela que la médiation se distingue d’une simple intercession qui ressort<br />

d’un rapport hiérarchique entre les parties avec la possibilité pour l’une d’entre elle de tirer<br />

avantage de sa position. Il y a donc un malentendu qui fait que là où les uns voient une<br />

médiation, les autres ne perçoivent que ruse et divertissement. S’y ajoute la difficile question<br />

de la neutralité absolue qui doit caractériser les médiateurs. Tout cela explique que la<br />

médiation utilisant des pratiques traditionnelles n’est pas une panacée.<br />

3.2.2.2 Adapter les mécanismes traditionnels au nouveau contexte politique<br />

Certaines réflexions sur le sujet ont posé de façon très pertinente la question du rapport à<br />

établir entre les pratiques traditionnelles de régulation sociale et les exigences de l’état de<br />

droit. La formalisation (par la législation ou la codification) de certaines de ces pratiques ne<br />

risquerait-elle pas d’en <strong>com</strong>promettre l’efficacité? Le débat reste ouvert. Sur le plan politique<br />

et institutionnel, la reconnaissance par les autorités politiques du rôle de la médiation dans la<br />

régulation sociale a conduit à l’adoption en 1997 d’un décret portant création d’un poste de<br />

médiateur de la République.<br />

3.2.2.3 Promouvoir des formes de dialogue et de concertation inspirées des<br />

traditions africaines<br />

Les mécanismes et les techniques qu’utilisent la <strong>com</strong>munication dans les Sociétés africaines<br />

ont été très peu étudiés jusqu’ici. D’une façon générale on sait que celle-ci privilégiait la<br />

recherche constante du consensus et cela à travers des procédures appropriées de prises<br />

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de décisions. La démarche visait à limiter les risques de polarisation des opinions contraires<br />

source de confrontations.<br />

L’exemplarité du processus qui a conduit au rétablissement de la paix dans les régions du<br />

Nord du Mali ressort aussi et surtout de l’efficience du choix des formes de dialogue et de<br />

concertation par les médiateurs et les pouvoirs publics. Outre les grandes conférences qui<br />

ont jalonné le processus (Ségou, Mopti) qui regroupaient les différentes parties, les<br />

médiateurs et la société civile, de larges débats ont été initiés à la base (à l’intérieur des<br />

<strong>com</strong>munautés et entre leurs représentants) favorisant une prise de conscience collective<br />

face au drame que constituait ce conflit. Ces concertations se faisaient naturellement suivant<br />

des procédures et un protocole de gestion de la parole conformes aux normes sociales et<br />

culturelles des populations concernées.<br />

Les cultures africaines recèlent dans leur profondeur des ressources pouvant contribuer à la<br />

promotion d’une culture de paix et d’un nouvel humanisme fondés sur la reconnaissance et<br />

le respect de l’autre. Ces valeurs de tolérance trouvent au Mali leur expression dans des<br />

attitudes largement partagées tels le devoir d’accueil et le respect dû à l’étranger.<br />

Nous pensons qu’une meilleure connaissance des mécanismes et des modes de<br />

fonctionnement des sociétés africaines éclairerait davantage notre appréciation des<br />

mutations en cours contribuant ainsi à l’effort collectif de recherche et de maintien de la paix.<br />

4. Conclusion<br />

Les cultures africaines recèlent dans leur profondeur des ressources pouvant contribuer à la<br />

promotion d’une culture de paix et d’un nouvel humanisme fondés sur la reconnaissance et<br />

le respect de l’autre.<br />

La médiation est un outil d’usage très répandu dans la résolution non-violente des conflits<br />

sociaux au Mali. Elle se pratique avec la considération des valeurs socioculturelles et<br />

s’inspire sur les mécanismes et pratiques traditionnelles des peuples contemporains de<br />

l’Afrique de l’Ouest, dont la connaissance peut aboutir à la conception d’un outil universel de<br />

résolution des conflits et participée à la restauration de la paix dans le monde.<br />

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Mediación frente a las problemáticas contemporáneas: barrios<br />

marginales y su necesidad de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Diana de la Rúa Eugenio<br />

Mediadora<br />

En épocas de economías que fluctúan en forma vertiginosa las ciudades reflejan esas<br />

situaciones de cambio a la que la población general se ve sometida, migrando de lugares más<br />

<strong>com</strong>prometidos a lugares idealmente más prósperos. Los migrantes se instalan <strong>com</strong>o pueden y<br />

donde pueden.<br />

Esta propuesta apunta a <strong>com</strong>partir la experiencia de algunos conflictos que se presentan en<br />

barrios conflictivos, generalmente asociados a una situación económica muy precaria.<br />

Este trabajo plantea cómo llegan las personas allí y cómo estos fenómenos migratorios<br />

acentúan las vulnerabilidades sociales y también cómo poder detectar aquellas situaciones que<br />

escalan escondidas detrás de las diferentes creencias. Violencia, alcohol y drogas en los casos<br />

que llegan a Mediación Comunitaria.<br />

Quiénes y cómo mediar en los casos que se presentan es el desafio de esta era.<br />

Desde hace unos años una nueva realidad se está instalando en las grandes ciudades:<br />

gente que migra desde lejos -<strong>com</strong>o por ejemplo desde áreas rurales, países vecinos y<br />

algunos no tan cercanos- generalmente buscando un nuevo inicio, más oportunidades o al<br />

menos, la posibilidad de sobrevivir.<br />

Las ciudades del mundo, grandes y pequeñas, se perciben <strong>com</strong>o genuina posibilidad de una<br />

vida mejor por lo que gente de todas partes está llegando a las urbes sin tener siquiera un<br />

mínimo de garantías de prosperidad o tan solo un espacio físico digno.<br />

Es un movimiento humano de supervivencia, un desplazamiento generalmente forzado por<br />

razones de tipo económicas o situaciones de violencia y/o guerra en sus lugares de origen.<br />

En ciertos países surgieron temores para quienes cuestionan las estructuras políticas,<br />

culturales y religiosas. En países fundamentalistas tanto en lo religioso <strong>com</strong>o en lo<br />

dogmático, la vida para quienes piensan diferente se torna muy difícil. Este temor se suma a<br />

los motivos por los cuales la gente migra.<br />

Idealmente la gente tiene en mente que una ciudad próspera podrá brindarles un lugar<br />

donde vivir, posibilidades y futuro. Todo esto suena maravilloso y es lo que sueñan aquellos<br />

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que se desplazan en busca de nuevos horizontes. Pero usualmente las ciudades no están<br />

preparadas para recibir esta voluminosa cantidad de nuevos habitantes. A veces lo más que<br />

puede hacerse -desde las estructuras de poder- es ignorar todo, mirar para otro lado, es<br />

decir: no asumir que llegan estas personas, así que no se les brinda un espacio y ni siquiera<br />

se reconoce la situación. Como suele ser algo no esperado, imprevisto, no hay planes de<br />

contingencia que puedan absorber la asimetría que se provoca. Los recién llegados buscan<br />

por sí mismos un lugar donde instalarse y aunque no cuente con los servicios mínimos se<br />

asientan <strong>com</strong>o pueden, tal vez pensando que será algo pasajero y que en poco tiempo<br />

encontraran algo más digno.<br />

Sin embargo, es poco probable que eso suceda. Lo usual es que esos precarios<br />

asentamientos se hagan cada vez más grandes y más populosos, a su vez más<br />

“permanentes” aunque se mantenga el déficit de servicios públicos básicos para la vida.<br />

Y se genera una cuestión paradójica: la gente se sigue quedando en estos espacios<br />

marginales, ya sea porque no les es viable volver a su residencia anterior, por razones de<br />

todo tipo, incluyendo que aún en esa forma de vida –muy precaria- se siente más segura.<br />

Muchos se quedan para no reconocer, ante su grupo sociocultural anterior, que fracasó en<br />

su empeño de buscar mejoras para sí y su familia. Otros, deslumbrados por el estilo de vida<br />

agitado y febril que suele haber en las ciudades, ya no tienen interés en abandonarla.<br />

También influye el hecho que entre el pensar que la situación será pasajera y darse cuenta<br />

que se convirtió en algo definitivo pasa demasiado tiempo y para entonces ya se resintieron<br />

las estrategias naturales para salir de la situación. El lugar puede ser más o menos peligroso<br />

o inseguro pero es frecuente dejarse llevar por el desaliento y desesperanza. Y en esos<br />

lugares se puede llegar a lograr una identidad de grupo aunque sea de tipo marginal. Se<br />

establecen lazos de familia y/o vecindad para con esos grupos marginales, lazos no<br />

necesariamente pacíficos ni de buenos pronósticos. Pero lazos que les permitan verse a sí<br />

mismos <strong>com</strong>o parte de un grupo de pertenencia. Actualmente, en las villas más antiguas de<br />

Argentina se pueden encontrar vecinos con 4 y hasta 5 generaciones de "villeros".<br />

Este devenir de la situación suele durar años y eso genera conflictos en los grupos internos<br />

(hacia sus pares) y sobre todo externos (hacia el resto del tejido social): malentendidos,<br />

temores, hostilidades, discriminación, angustia y enojo que no pueden ser resueltos<br />

fácilmente por las personas que se sienten víctimas de una situación no provocada por ellos.<br />

Por otro lado, los habitantes habituales de las ciudades se sienten incómodos y temerosos<br />

ante esta invasión de gente con códigos diferentes.<br />

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Si bien este no es un trabajo que focaliza específicamente en la dinámica de las villas sino<br />

en la utilidad y necesidad de la Mediación Comunitaria en los Barrios Marginales, es<br />

necesario dar un marco de referencia al campo de trabajo ya que se acentúa la asimetría y<br />

aumenta la tensión. Hay que entender plenamente esta situación para poder intervenir <strong>com</strong>o<br />

mediadores, teniendo en cuenta los sentimientos, las emociones, las frustraciones, los<br />

temores, los códigos que se manejan en estos barrios para no empeorar la situación de los<br />

afectados. El alcoholismo y la drogadependencia son hábitos de vida cotidiana que<br />

empeoran el escenario de los conflictos que surgen en forma permanente y por ende las<br />

formas de resolverlos. Las villas pueden ser reductos de criminales y también hogar de<br />

gente trabajadora y decente, primeras víctimas de esta situación. Hay que maximizar<br />

esfuerzos para neutralizar los aspectos negativos de esta convivencia tan disímil.<br />

Mediación Comunitaria es una herramienta accesible, flexible y contenedora de los<br />

problemas de convivencia que se presentan en los barrios marginales; también sirve para<br />

mostrar y <strong>com</strong>partir nuevos modelos de conducta, más sociales y más solidarios que<br />

dignifiquen a la persona y la revalorice para que pueda pensar y decidir por sí misma, para<br />

que poco a poco se pueda construir una cultura de paz que se haga habitual y mejore la<br />

calidad de vida de todos.<br />

En el mundo<br />

No solo Argentina tiene esta situación. Lo mismo se ve en el orden internacional: los katchi<br />

abadis (Pakistán), focos insalubres (Cuba), bustees (en India) y las favelas (de Brasil) –por<br />

nombrar las mas conocidas- o sea grupos de todo el mundo. Sin embargo, para UN-Habitat,<br />

la agencia internacional de la ONU encargada de este tema, todavía tenemos algunas<br />

chances sobre cómo cada uno podría ayudar a mejorarlo. Según sus datos, por ejemplo:<br />

para el año 1800 sólo el 2% de la población era urbana. Para el año 2008, más de la mitad<br />

de la población humana estará instalado en los centros urbanos. Podemos asumir que<br />

habrá nuevos grupos de personas que fluirán hacia las ciudades, aumentando la<br />

problemática que presentamos en este trabajo.<br />

En la Ciudad de Buenos Aires<br />

- En el caso de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires hay 19 villas de Emergencia, con una<br />

población de 105.000 personas según datos oficiales de los censos del Instituto de la<br />

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Vivienda (Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires). Mayoritariamente la población se<br />

<strong>com</strong>pone de gente del interior del país y de gente de los países vecinos. Ultimamente se<br />

ha presentado la curiosa situación que los consulados de Perú y Paraguay asesoran a<br />

sus conciudadanos para que –incluso las personas que se encuentran ilegalmente en el<br />

país- puedan acceder a beneficios de tenencia de los terrenos que usurparon, lo que<br />

produce una instancia internacional a la que ya existe. También hay desplazados de<br />

otros lugares de la misma ciudad, que por cuestiones económicas han perdido la<br />

posibilidad de vivir en los lugares donde acostumbraban y finalmente consiguen un lugar<br />

en alguna villa.<br />

En las provincias, según datos de investigación del diario La Nación (15-AGO-04):<br />

- En la Provincia de Buenos Aires, casi el 25% de la población vive en villas y<br />

asentamientos precarios. Tan sólo en el conurbano bonaerense hay 490 villas con casi<br />

700.000 personas, a lo que hay que sumar los asentantamientos más informales aún.<br />

- En el gran Rosario, cinturón suburbano de la ciudad más importante de la provincia de<br />

Santa Fe, el cálculo es de alrededor de 300.000 personas.<br />

- En la Provincia de Córdoba, en la época de la crisis del año 2001, el conurbano<br />

cordobés ya tenía casi 160 asentamientos, con más de 100.000 personas.<br />

- Y en todas las provincias se repite este fenómeno.<br />

Las olas de migrantes nacionales suelen venir de ciudades o pueblos que se empobrecen.<br />

Además, estos migrantes tienen un fuerte <strong>com</strong>ponente mestizo de indígenas. Esta situación<br />

se ha más que duplicado en los últimos años.<br />

Los inmigrantes de otros países -más frecuentes en estos barrios- suelen ser personas de<br />

Bolivia, Paraguay y Perú, que viven con sus creencias y tradiciones, muchas veces<br />

contradictorias entre una y otra cultura, sobre todo en rituales religiosos.<br />

Generalmente estas situaciones debilitan el tejido social de la zona, lo cual favorece el<br />

aumento de las conductas delictivas y antisociales, conviviendo entonces la pobreza con la<br />

delincuencia. La gente se encuentra desorientada y no sabe cómo resolver sus problemas.<br />

No saben que tienen derecho de acceso a la justicia -y mucho menos el cómo hacerlo- ni<br />

tampoco ningún tipo de experiencia en participación ciudadana. Desde el grupo social<br />

externo se discrimina a todos los villeros, sin distinguir entre gente decente y criminales, lo<br />

que va llevando a un camino cada vez más lleno de frustración y discriminación.<br />

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MEDIACION ES UNA HERRAMIENTA PARA QUE LOS VECINOS MEJOREN SU<br />

CONVIVENCIA ya que significa una participación activa para buscar formas de resolver las<br />

disputas en forma pacífica y <strong>com</strong>o generadora de decisión personal en la toma de<br />

decisiones y autoestima. Desde luego que la Mediación no es -ni debe ser- sucedáneo de<br />

acciones que se deben tomar desde la estructura polítca. Lo que hace mediación es trabajar<br />

con el aquí y ahora de los conflictos de convivencia, poniendo al alcance de la gente otra<br />

forma de dirimir los conflictos habituales.<br />

Si en estos barrios hubiesen Centros de Mediación, podrían recibir estos conflictos,<br />

canalizarlos y buscar colaborar con las partes en la búsqueda de soluciones. Incluso<br />

podemos decir que se generaría gran cantidad de información sobre casuística que al<br />

Estado puede serle útil para detectar necesidades y establecer y articular políticas públicas.<br />

El Centro de Mediación funciona <strong>com</strong>o un lugar de aprendizaje donde se a<strong>com</strong>paña al<br />

pensamiento en la búsqueda de alternativas conjuntas para dirimir disputas, generando un<br />

movimiento intelectual y de participación con horizonte de futuro, superando el escollo que<br />

generan las emociones.<br />

En los países en vías de desarrollo, donde la actitud de las personas es esperar la<br />

resolución de los conflictos por parte del Estado, la Mediación Comunitaria desarrolla una<br />

actitud proactiva de autonomía por parte de los vecinos, ya que los ejercita para tomar<br />

decisiones y los libera de la actitud paternalista o fatalista.<br />

La gente de la villa tiene sus propias pautas culturales, por eso es importante capacitar a<br />

sus vecinos para que puedan atender casos donde sus problemáticas son muy particulares.<br />

El mediador <strong>com</strong>unitario trabaja con un alto nivel de <strong>com</strong>promiso hacia la tarea de<br />

Mediación "en" la <strong>com</strong>unidad y "para" la <strong>com</strong>unidad ya que MEDIACIÓN COMUNITARIA<br />

ES UN PROCESO QUE PROCURA MANTENER Y MEJORAR LA RELACIÓN DE LAS<br />

PARTES EN CONFLICTO.<br />

Esto NO quiere decir que mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria sea "justicia de 2° categoría" o<br />

"Mediación de 2° categoría" sino que es más eficiente por su operatividad<br />

Es muy importante que el servicio de Mediación Comunitaria haya nacido de las<br />

necesidades de las personas de la <strong>com</strong>unidad, que todos sepan que existe, y dónde.<br />

Porque EL "PROCESO" Y EL "RESULTADO" DE LA MEDIACIÓN COMUNITARIA<br />

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IMPACTAN DIRECTAMENTE EN EL ÁMBITO SOCIAL, CON UN EFECTO<br />

RETROALIMENTADOR.<br />

Cuando hablamos de "Proceso" estamos hablando de un esfuerzo conjunto para mirar el<br />

conflicto <strong>com</strong>o un "problema mutuo que debe ser abordado con criterios objetivos y flexibles"<br />

entre todos los involucrados.<br />

Y cuando hablamos de "Resultado" hablamos de "lo que resulta" de este Proceso, ya sea<br />

una solución -o una no-solución- (Johan Galtung)<br />

Una buena alternativa es establecer Centros de Mediación Comunitaria dentro de estos<br />

Barrios marginales porque significa "estar" a donde están los destinatarios de este servicio,<br />

ya que muchas veces la gente no va a los Centros que están alejados porque sencillamente<br />

no tiene dinero para pagar el transporte, no tiene los $0.80 centavos que cuesta el colectivo.<br />

Es importante tener en cuenta el tipo de iniciativa que encaró la organización de los Centros<br />

de Mediación Comunitaria, por ejemplo si es política pública o iniciativa privada, si es un<br />

Centro único o si forma parte de un programa específico, si es de diagrama centralizado o<br />

descentralizado, etc. (3)<br />

Mediación Comunitaria y fenómenos migratorios<br />

Como mediadores <strong>com</strong>unitarios practicantes tenemos la posibilidad de mediar en casos que<br />

involucren personas de migraciones internas o de diferentes países (generalmente<br />

limítrofes) con diferentes tradiciones, hábitos, etc.<br />

Estas diferencias se hacen más evidentes cuando trabajamos con grupos de escasos<br />

recursos, que viven en barrios muy carenciados, por eso, la Mediación Comunitaria en Villas<br />

de Emergencia -al menos en Buenos Aires- es una tarea <strong>com</strong>pleja que demanda mucho<br />

<strong>com</strong>promiso por parte del mediador, quien no sólo debe atender el conflicto sino que debe<br />

saber que cada caso suele acarrear variables de exclusión social, fuera del alcance del<br />

mediador, pero que influyen notablemente en la conducta de los participantes. No hay<br />

“espacio” para ignorar esta situación. Debemos estar preparados para trabajar<br />

productivamente.<br />

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Otro tema importante a considerar es la descendencia tanto de los migrantes <strong>com</strong>o de los<br />

inmigrantes, que tratan de incorporar los códigos de la gran ciudad y dejar de lado sus<br />

tradiciones de origen en pos de construir una nueva identidad, lo cual genera -a su vez- otro<br />

nuevo conflicto en el grupo <strong>com</strong>unitario. El tema de la “identidad de los descendientes” es<br />

muy importante en sí mismo porque produce una brecha generacional que suele empeorar<br />

la situación, los mayores sienten que sus opiniones o consejos no son respetados ni tenidos<br />

en cuenta. El mediador también debe estar alerta a esta variable.<br />

Últimamente, debido a la crisis económica de nuestro país, nuevos grupos se están<br />

trasladando a las villas de emergencia y a otros lugares –en una suerte de ocupación o<br />

relocalización informal- que generalmente son espacios ajenos.<br />

Estos grupos, que anteriormente eran ayudados por sus <strong>com</strong>unidades de origen o tenían<br />

ingresos económicos más estables, cuando llegan a esas villas tienen que integrarse y vivir<br />

en estos barrios, donde todo les parece extraño y difícil de entender. Y sobre todo,<br />

peligroso. Cuando los participantes en Mediación pertenecen a estos grupos, el mediador<br />

debe afrontar no sólo el conflicto que les convoca sino también el impacto del daño, de las<br />

huellas que la crisis económica ha dejado en estas personas. Es necesario que el mediador<br />

haga su tarea con dedicación y entusiasmo.<br />

¿Qué casos podemos ver en el Centro de Mediación Comunitaria?<br />

En el Centro de Mediación Comunitaria puede presentarse un caso, por ejemplo de familia,<br />

que incluya violencia doméstica. También puede haber casos que escondan problema /s de<br />

algún tipo de adicción (por ejemplo drogas, alcohol). Estos casos -muy delicados- debieran<br />

ser tratados por profesionales o gente especialmente entrenada, por lo tanto es importante<br />

que los mediadores <strong>com</strong>unitarios, si no saben exactamente cómo tratarlos, puedan saber<br />

dónde derivarlos. Es sumamente útil que cada Centro de Mediación Comunitaria tenga<br />

información de los centros de salud, instituciones, y organizaciones especializadas a<br />

quienes recurrir ante esta situación. No olvidar que el alcoholismo y la drogadependencia en<br />

estos barrios marginales forman parte de un escape psicológico ante la falta de futuro que<br />

los vecinos perciben. El mediador no debe confundir su rol con el del terapeuta, así que la<br />

intervención del mediador es derivar el caso a Centros adecuados .<br />

¿Qué tipo de Mediaciones son las más frecuentes en estos barrios?<br />

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A nivel bilateral:<br />

- casos de recupero de propiedad, de alquiler.<br />

- casos de recupero de pertenencias<br />

- casos de recupero de materiales (de construcción)<br />

- casos por conflictos por los parcelamientos<br />

- delimitación de las calles o "propiedades".<br />

- casos de familia (visitas, manutención)<br />

- casos por animales domésticos (ruidosos, feroces)<br />

- casos de discriminación por lugar de origen<br />

- casos de convivencia (ruidos, etc.)<br />

A veces un vecino agranda su casa levantando una suerte de "medianera" sobre la pared<br />

del otro, o alzando paredes para nuevos ambientes, o nuevos "pisos", etc. lo que produce<br />

rajaduras en las paredes aledañas. Sin embargo no piensa en hacerse cargo del daño que<br />

produjo. La cuestión "edilicia" en estos barrios no sigue ninguna pauta regular. Cada uno<br />

hace lo que quiere.<br />

Son frecuentes los problemas por ruidos: por griterío en la casa vecina, por música a todo<br />

volumen, bailantas. También por tapar o ensuciar frentes o accesos a las casas de otro.<br />

Droga, alcoholismo y violencia son algunos de los peores escenarios para los habitantes de<br />

las villas, donde conviven honestos y trabajadores vecinos en una desigual realidad con<br />

altos márgenes de criminalidad de los que ellos también son víctimas. El mediador<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitario debe estar alerta a los sutiles mensajes que puedan intercambiar los<br />

participantes -aunque sean no verbales- para desalentar cualquier forma de amenaza que<br />

se intente durante el proceso de Mediación.<br />

Pareciera que el tratar de "recuperar" lo prestado, lo dado, lo prometido, es lo más frecuente.<br />

En estos Barrios marginales y conflictivos hay un gran nivel de informalidad en cuanto a la<br />

"burocracia" de la propiedad. En general no hay papeles que acrediten nada (contratos,<br />

recibos, facturas, etc.) así que casi todo puede traer conflicto.<br />

No olvidar que -también en general- ni siquiera se detentan títulos de propiedad del terreno.<br />

Ha habido casos en que se ha "vendido" la casa -o el lote- más de una vez, y en estos casos<br />

suele prevalecer la fuerza.<br />

O incluso un acuerdo entre partes puede quedar sin efecto, <strong>com</strong>o por ejemplo:<br />

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El acuerdo entre 2 vecinos por el uso de un pasillo para entrar a la casa puede deshacerse<br />

ante la llegada de nuevos vecinos, y todas las modificaciones edilicias que se hicieron -de<br />

acuerdo con el Acuerdo inicial- solo acrecentará el enojo de las partes. Con que el recién<br />

llegado decida incorporar dicho pasillo <strong>com</strong>o una especie de habitación, ya tenemos otro<br />

conflicto. Esto es: un caso donde una parte -(A)- le dio a su vecina – (B)- el uso de un<br />

pasillo, con permiso de construcción. (B) construyó un anexo a su casa según lo convenido<br />

con (A). Posteriormente (A) “vendió” su propiedad a (C) y (C) decidió que quería recuperar el<br />

pasillo. Sin ese anexo la casa de (B) quedaba desarticulada. Debemos hacer especial<br />

hincapié en cuáles serán los criterios de legitimidad que se utilizarán.<br />

A nivel grupal<br />

- violencia (dirimir conflictos a los golpes o navajazos, portación de armas)<br />

- convivencia (por ej: que no dejen la basura sobre la puerta de entrada del vecino)<br />

- discriminación<br />

- Ruidos y música a todo volumen es un conflicto usual.<br />

• Si no tenemos acuerdo mantendremos el conflicto<br />

• Si tenemos acuerdo puede no cumplirse<br />

Entonces: ¿Qué hacer?<br />

Es entonces cuando el mediador debe retomar la iniciativa y redirigir la situación: vuelve a<br />

buscar herramientas accesibles a las partes para que se sientan seguras de lo que han<br />

acordado. A veces las partes dudan del cumplimiento del acuerdo y el mediador no puede<br />

ser garante de ningún acuerdo, pero sí puede invitar a alguna persona que les parezca<br />

respetable -a las partes- para que sea testigo del acuerdo. Eso fortalece el <strong>com</strong>promiso de<br />

lo acordado. Si bien incorpora a alguien más en este proceso, ese alguien es bienvenido por<br />

ambas y le consistencia a la relación y a la responsabilidad asumida.<br />

No olvidar en los Barrios Conflictivos hay un alto índice de analfabetismo, por lo que la<br />

escritura en sí, no siempre genera confianza.<br />

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CASOS<br />

Devolución de una pieza (habitación) alquilada. Veamos su desarrollo<br />

Un hombre al que llamaremos Juan reclamaba la restitución de una pieza (habitación)<br />

alquilada (rentada) en una zona bastante marginal dentro de un barrio conflictivo de la<br />

Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Toda la construcción <strong>com</strong>prendía de 2 piezas en la planta baja, un<br />

baño muy precario, una escalera también precaria, que llevaba a otra pieza y una cocina<br />

arriba. Una pieza se la alquiló (rentó) a un señor que llamaremos Pedro y el resto era<br />

utilizado por el hermano de Juan.<br />

En la pieza alquilada (rentada) por Pedro también vivía su esposa, Teresa. Esa única pieza<br />

era su vivienda <strong>com</strong>pleta, ya que ahí mismo tenían una pequeña cocina portátil donde<br />

cocinaban sus alimentos. Además esa pieza estaba en pésimas condiciones ya que incluso<br />

se inundaba cada tanto, cuando llovía muy fuerte.<br />

Pedro y Teresa tenían 2 hijos y una hija, todos casados según él. Uno sólo de los hijos vivía<br />

también en este barrio, aunque en una zona más tranquila, no tan marginal.<br />

Juan, el "propietario" detentaba una "legitimidad" de dicha propiedad debido a haber sido<br />

"censado" en ese lugar por 3 Censos organizados por el Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos<br />

Aires.<br />

Tras varias promesas de desalojo incumplidas, el caso llegó a Mediación. Fueron necesarias<br />

2 reuniones con las partes en conjunto y 2 reuniones privadas para llegar a un acuerdo que<br />

se cumplió sin problemas.<br />

Este caso en particular escondía un problema subyacente:<br />

Pedro aparentemente era un miembro sumamente importante de una secta religiosa, por lo<br />

menos Juan así lo creía, y eso provocaba un sentimiento de temor de Juan hacia Pedro. El<br />

temor a que le produjera algún "daño" era muy fuerte.<br />

Durante el Proceso de Mediación, Pedro incluso hizo sutiles <strong>com</strong>entarios a la mediadora, tal<br />

vez para intentar averiguar si ella también era vulnerable a tales creencias.<br />

Al no obtener el resultado esperado, ni de temor ni de simpatía especial sino un <strong>com</strong>promiso<br />

a seguir buscando opciones, Pedro <strong>com</strong>enzó a planificar el desalojo de la pieza, en<br />

términos bastante razonables -recordar que ese lugar era muy precario-<br />

Si bien inicialmente la posición de Juan parecía la más sólida por ser el “dueño” y Pedro<br />

aparecía <strong>com</strong>o vulnerable, el tabú “de tipo religioso" que imponía se alzaba entre ambos.<br />

Por otro lado, Pedro había decidido irse pero no quería ser “echado” sino marcharse<br />

dignamente.<br />

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Después de cumplido el Acuerdo, Juan volvió a visitar a la mediadora, para agradecer su<br />

servicio de Mediación y por haber roto el tabú que le significaba tratar con Pedro. En<br />

realidad, en la Mediación sólo se habían utilizado las herramientas que la misma Mediación<br />

brinda para crear el clima de confianza y respeto para los involucrados y el equilibrio de<br />

poder entre las partes. Ese equilibrio se había roto por el temor al tabú y el recobrar la<br />

sensación de autogobierno fue decisivo para el resultado.<br />

¿Quiénes son los mediadores de estos Centros de Mediación Comunitaria?<br />

¿Qué cosas necesitamos para trabajar <strong>com</strong>o mediador <strong>com</strong>unitario?<br />

Primero y principal “debemos ser obvios y tratar con los recursos disponibles”, o sea no<br />

pretender lo perfecto ni lo esperable según nuestra educación formal <strong>com</strong>o mediadores sino<br />

optimizar todo lo que tengamos a mano. Aclarado este punto, podemos plantear lo<br />

siguiente:<br />

Si el Centro está ubicado dentro del Barrio, la experiencia de muchos mediadores en este<br />

aspecto de la actividad, tanto de nuestro país y del exterior que tienen experiencia en<br />

Centros en este tipo de Barrios, se coincide en que -en lo ideal y general- es mejor que los<br />

mediadores no sean vecinos de dicho Barrio, o al menos no “demasiado cercanos”. Esto se<br />

debe a la posible "politización" del Centro, del "poder" que "detenta" el mediador, del uso<br />

que hace el mediador del "papel del mediador". Y también porque es frecuente que los<br />

vecinos no vean con mucho respeto a alguien a quien conocen tanto, sus rutinas cotidianas,<br />

su sistema familiar, etc. y a su vez, porque el mediador ya conoce a los vecinos, sus rutinas<br />

cotidianas, su sistema familiar, etc.<br />

Es posible que el mediador puede tener prejuicios o preconceptos que impiden la<br />

neutralidad. O al menos los vecinos pueden percibir esto, o se lo imaginan. Para el caso, el<br />

resultado es el mismo: la No Confianza, la falta de credibilidad y de legitimidad <strong>com</strong>o<br />

mediador. Es obvio que este planteo se refiriere a cuando HAY posibilidad de “elegir” entre<br />

varias opciones; dependiendo de las características; a veces se puede y a veces no. Así que<br />

si hay que elegir dentro del mismo barrio, podemos decir que los mediadores <strong>com</strong>unitarios<br />

debieran ser las personas más representativas de la villa, con una imagen de<br />

honestidad y respeto hacia los otros vecinos. Que sea una persona respetada para<br />

poder dar un marco de neutralidad y confidencialidad a la mediación.<br />

141


Si bien deben ser capacitados en forma consistente, a la capacitación debe sumársele el<br />

apoyo técnico para hacer un relevamiento de seguimiento y así poder <strong>com</strong>probar la<br />

eficiencia del proceso <strong>com</strong>o también para articular los cambios que fuesen necesarios.<br />

Como estos Centros suelen surgir de una fuerte voluntariedad, hay que sostenerlos para<br />

que sea más permanente.<br />

Hay que tener en cuenta que mucha gente no se presta al diálogo ya sea por decisión<br />

personal, porque el conflicto le resulta muy extraño para poder "procesarlo" o -sobre todoporque<br />

tiene poca experiencia en diálogos y no quiere exponerse a que todos se enteren del<br />

poco entrenamiento para explicar sus propias ideas.<br />

Evidentemente el mediador debe ser alguien que tenga prestigio dentro del grupo de<br />

vecinos. Un ideal sería -por ejemplo- si el Barrio es grande, que los mediadores vengan de<br />

distintas cuadras, así los vecinos lo perciben <strong>com</strong>o alguien que puede entenderlos -porque<br />

tiene el mismo estilo de vida- y al mismo tiempo no tienen la "excesiva familiaridad" de sus<br />

conocidos.<br />

Cuando hace unos años la Defensoría del Pueblo de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires capacitó<br />

vecinos de Barrios Carenciados, había 2 Barrios que estaban uno frente al otro, a cada lado<br />

de la autopista. Una de las opciones era que los mediadores que vivían en el Barrio "A"<br />

fueran a mediar al Barrio "B" y viceversa, lo cual fue una excelente propuesta.<br />

Puede suceder que no se pueda contar con esa posibilidad, que no haya “tanta” gente <strong>com</strong>o<br />

para hacer circular a los mediadores, pero siempre es posible pensar en las mejores<br />

posibilidades para llevarlo a cabo, incluso con un proceso de revisión periódica para poder<br />

evaluar y modificar aquello que no resulta tan eficiente en la practica de la Mediación. Es<br />

indispensable hacer hincapié en la necesidad de ser mediador legitimado <strong>com</strong>o neutral por<br />

las partes para poder ser eficientes.<br />

Indirectamente, los Centros de Mediación Comunitaria entrenan a los vecinos a manejar las<br />

emociones y frustraciones que surgen durante los conflictos, de manera que se encauzan en<br />

la búsqueda de soluciones pacificas al conflicto o al menos lo menos en el intento de “tratar”<br />

el problema de la forma más armoniosa y respetuosa posible.<br />

Cuando intervenimos en <strong>com</strong>unidades mas aisladas, por ejemplo en las <strong>com</strong>unidades<br />

mayoritariamente de grupos indígenas, debemos acercarnos a la cultura de ellos para que<br />

puedan tener interés en escuchar nuestras propuestas, ya que cualquier intervención debe<br />

142


contemplar, analizar y respetar la cultura imperante en el grupo, y recién a partir de allí<br />

podremos <strong>com</strong>partir nuestra propuesta.<br />

Las relaciones colaborativas y el deseo de satisfacer las necesidades de identidad,<br />

seguridad, pertenencia y bienestar son importantes fuentes de motivación humana, así que<br />

si vemos a la Mediación Comunitaria <strong>com</strong>o instrumento de <strong>com</strong>unicación y de pacificación<br />

social que brinda nuevas respuestas a los conflictos que se presentan, tenemos la<br />

responsabilidad y el honor de trabajar desde el meollo de la cuestión. No puedo imaginarme<br />

muchas actividades que brinden la satisfacción que nos da el saber que si bien no vamos a<br />

cambiar el mundo, nuestra actividad <strong>com</strong>o mediadores <strong>com</strong>unitarios forma parte<br />

fundamental de ese cambio.<br />

BIBLIOGRAFÍA<br />

• Barush Bush y Folger: "La Promesa de Mediación". Ed. Granica, 1996<br />

• de la Rúa Eugenio, Diana y Radrizzani Goñi, José M.: "Mediación Comunitaria: una<br />

necesidad social impostergable”. II Congreso Nacional de Mediación -México- 2002<br />

• de la Rúa Eugenio, Diana "Conflictos en Barrios Conflictivos". 1° Encuentro de las<br />

Américas para la Resolución Pacífica de Conflictos" -Argentina- 2002<br />

• de la Rúa Eugenio, Diana: "Organización de Centros de Mediación Comunitaria" . 2°<br />

Encuentro de las Américas para la Resolución Pacífica de Conflictos" -México- 2003<br />

• Fisher, R. & Brown, S.: "Getting Together:". Penguin Books, 1989<br />

• Galtung, Johan: "Seach for peace" Pluto Press 2nd Edition (2002)<br />

• Galtung, Johan: "Transformación de conflictos" Montiel Soriano Editores (2004)<br />

• Kolb y otros: "Cuando hablar da resultado". Paidos, 1996<br />

• Mnookin, Kolb y otros: "Mediación: Una respuesta interdisciplinaria". Eudeba, 1997<br />

• Muldoon, B.: "El corazón del conflicto". Paidos, 1998<br />

• Nicolau, George, Community Mediation: Progress and Problems (1986).<br />

• Rubin, Pruitt & Hee Kim: "Social Conflict". Mc Graw-Hill, 1994 (2° Ed.)<br />

• Singer, Linda “La resolución de conflictos <strong>com</strong>unales, Resolución de Conflictos”, 1996<br />

• Stone, Patton & Heen: "Difficult Conversations". Viking Penguin, 1999<br />

• Stulberg, Joseph "Taking charge / Managing conflict" Lexington Books (1987)<br />

• Ury, W: "Alcanzar la paz" Paidos, 2000<br />

143


Ventajas de la mediación en sede judicial : un espacio para la<br />

auto<strong>com</strong>posicion<br />

_______________________________________________________________<br />

De Igarzabal Peralta<br />

Objectivos<br />

A introduction de los medios alternativos de resolucion de conflictos en los procesos<br />

judiciales fr los tribunales ordinarions (proyecto en ejecución desde setiembre de 2000,<br />

conforme ley 8858, en la Provincia de Cordoba, Republica Argentina).<br />

Desarrollo<br />

Corresponde antes de introducirnos en lo que es objeto de nuestra presentació, que fijemos<br />

a grandes rasgos el concepto de mediación, su objetivo y sus finalidades.- La mediación es<br />

un procedimiento informal en el cual un tercero neutral, el mediador, utilizando técnicas para<br />

lograr la <strong>com</strong>unicación entre las partes, pretende una soución superadora del conflicto,<br />

acordada pr ellas y mutuamente satisfactoria.- Este sistema apuesta a revalorizar las<br />

relaciones y la capacidad de las personas de solucionar sus propios problemas.-<br />

Tiene <strong>com</strong>o fin principal lograr acercamiento y <strong>com</strong>unicación entre las partes. Logrando ello,<br />

es posible alcanzar el acuerdo.- El mediador actúa <strong>com</strong>o facilitador de la <strong>com</strong>unicación,<br />

modificando posiciones y priorizando los intereses para alcanzar una solución viable, que ni<br />

prometa más de lo posible ni menos de lo necesario, con resguardo de los derechos<br />

humanois irrenunciables.-<br />

Se señalan <strong>com</strong>o ventajas de la mediación las siguientes: a) es un medio efectivo para<br />

resolver disputas; b) significa ahorro de tiempo y es menos costoso que el proceso judicial;<br />

c) favorece las buenas relaciones y restablece la paz; d) se logra un acuerdo hecho por las<br />

propias partes y e) aporta al crecimiento personal de los intervinientes.-<br />

MODERNIZACION DEL PODER JUDICIAL-MEDIOS ALTERNATIVOS DE RESOLUCION<br />

DE CONFLICTOS<br />

144


El proceso judicial clásico sufre en nuestro país constantes críticas referentes todas ellas a<br />

su duración, elevados costos y falta de previsibilidad. Ello, se señala. afecta las relaciones<br />

interpersonales, tanto en conflictos de índole familiar <strong>com</strong>o patrimoniales y lesiona el tejido<br />

social.- En los programas desarrollados en nuestro país por el Banco Mundial se prioriza el<br />

interés en el uso de los medios alternativos: mediación, conciliación arbitraje.-<br />

El Poder Judicial de la Provincia de Córdoba al introducir la mediación en su ámbito afirmó<br />

su <strong>com</strong>petencia, de origen constitucional., de resoilver los conflictos.- La resolución jurídica<br />

del caso es una de las firmas y siempre se tiene acceso a ella. Pero ello no es óbice para<br />

arbitrar otras formas a las que los ciudadanos puedan ocurrir. No hay porqué delega esa<br />

actividad a órganos administrativos o a la actividad privada, sin perjuicio de que pueda<br />

existir un quehacer conjunto.-<br />

Las formas alternativas de decisión de controversias si bien constituyen una modalidad<br />

nueva del ejercicio de la función jurisdiccional, persiguen idéntico fin, es decir la resolución<br />

de conflictos interpersonales en el marco de las estructuras normativas del Estado.- la<br />

instancia de mediación puede ser prejudicial o una etapa dentro del proceso una vez<br />

trabada la litis (demanda, <strong>com</strong>parendo y contestación de la demanda).<br />

Este encuadre exige que la mediación se desarolle en ámbitos físicos del Poder Judicial, ello<br />

inspira confianza al ciudadano pues es el lugar donde tradicionalmente concurre para<br />

solucionar sus conflictos.-<br />

Siendo una instancia voluntaria, el cambio cultural que debe producirse en los operadores<br />

jurídicos (jueces y abogados) y el público hace necesario sea de carácter obligatorio en<br />

algunos supuestos.- Ellos son: juicios de bajo monto, incapacidad económica de alguna de<br />

las partes, por voluntad del juez en razón de la naturaleza del asunto sometido a su<br />

consideración.-<br />

La mediación en sede judicial no obsta a que se desarrolle también en el ámbito<br />

extrajudicial, administrada por el Poder Ejecutivo, o en el ámbito estrictamente privado-<br />

En todos los casos el acuerdo a que se aribe, a los fines de tener fuerza ejecutoria en caso<br />

de incumplimiento, debe ser homologado judicialmente.-<br />

145


La actividad del mediador se cumple en sede judicial, por un equipo interdisciplinario de<br />

profesiones (abogaos. psicologos, arquitectos, contadores,trabajadores sociale, ingenieros,<br />

etc.).-Pueden ser elegidos por las partes o en su defecto por sorteo.-<br />

El Centro judicial de Mediación coordina todas las actividades tendientes al desarrollo de la<br />

mediación, registra los datos relevantes con fines estadísticos, recibe las denuncias por<br />

violaciones éticas, actúa <strong>com</strong>o control de gestión y ordena mediadas internas que tiendan a<br />

mejorar las tareas que se prestan.- Depende directamente dl Tribunal Superior de Justicia y<br />

est´sa dirigido por un Director, Un Coordinador General de los que depende personal<br />

jerárquico y auxiliares administrativos. Todos ellos han realizado capacitación en<br />

mediación.-<br />

146


La mediación en las organizaciones. Su eficacia para entender los<br />

procesos de construcción de sentido y facilitar<br />

los cambios de cultura<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Dra. María del Carmen Nadal<br />

Contadora Pública, Mediadora, Negociadora, Arbitro, Doctorando en Administración<br />

Dr. Luis Carlos Escarrá<br />

Dr. En Ciencias Económicas, Mediador, Negociador, Arbitro<br />

Los progresos científicos y tecnológicos operados en el mundo han transformado la forma<br />

en que los seres humanos se organizan para cumplir con sus objetivos, es así que asistimos<br />

a un cambio de paradigma en las organizaciones actuales que dejan sin sentido<br />

muchas de las configuraciones reconocidas hasta el momento.<br />

Algunas señales de esta situación la constituyen:<br />

a) el paso de la pirámide a la red en las estructuras,<br />

b) el nuevo liderazgo que surge movilizado por la sociedad del conocimiento,<br />

c) la cultura organizacional vista <strong>com</strong>o un contexto enactuado,<br />

d) la necesidad de potenciar la generación de valor en el reconocimiento de la diversidad y<br />

e) el tomar conciencia que la mayoría de los conflictos surgen por la asignación de<br />

significado que cada uno le otorga a los hechos y conversaciones en los que interviene de<br />

alguna forma.<br />

Es así que cada uno de los individuos va adaptándose o no a estas nuevas circunstancias,<br />

produciéndose desajustes en la coordinación de acciones a llevar adelante.<br />

En muchas ocasiones se nos pide intervenir <strong>com</strong>o consultores a la vieja manera cuasi<br />

dictatorial, señalando “lo que debe hacerse” y produciendo la lógica resistencia que demora<br />

aún más el logro, ya que los mismos individuos están inmersos en esta sociedad en<br />

cambio que legitima la expresión de sus diferencias.<br />

147


A fin de estudiar las organizaciones para intervenir en ellas, existen distintos enfoques de<br />

abordaje, a través de los cuales es posible acercarse al objeto de estudio. En este caso nos<br />

enfocaremos en el modelo semiótico-cognitivo para poder intervenir colaborando con<br />

cambios culturales que requiera la organización.<br />

Basados en los modernos conceptos de organización, tendremos <strong>com</strong>o premisa la<br />

necesidad de aprender a aprender <strong>com</strong>o forma de crear el círculo de reflexividad. Para<br />

que esta reflexividad opere, cada persona tiene que lograr la apertura mental necesaria para<br />

reconocer la falibilidad de alguna de sus creencias iniciales y la posibilidad de afrontar otras<br />

Todo esto implica interpretar los procesos de construcción de sentido con que cada uno<br />

de los miembros de la organización explica las sorpresas que percibe al enactuar con el<br />

medio cuando sus supuestos, expectativas, proyecciones, no son confirmadas<br />

Cuando hablamos de cambios de cultura desde este enfoque, estamos refiriéndonos a la<br />

forma en que pueden generarse los conocimientos <strong>com</strong>partidos por los miembros de la<br />

organización. Por lo tanto existe un proceso de socialización de conocimientos.<br />

Hay más de un mecanismo de aprendizaje, entre ellos: aprendizaje mediante el estudio<br />

(learning by studing) , aprendizaje mediante la acción (learning by doing ) y aprendizaje<br />

mediante la interacción socializada (learning by interacting). En nuestro caso nos<br />

apoyaremos en este último mecanismo.<br />

La <strong>com</strong>unicación es la clave en los procesos organizacionales por ser el factor más<br />

importante en los procesos que determinan las acciones de las personas que participan en<br />

ellos. Esta interacción <strong>com</strong>unicacional está realizada a través de narrativas, que al decir de<br />

Marinés Suarez “se sostiene que las personas para dar sentido a sus vidas estructuran sus<br />

experiencias en forma de relatos o historias que mantienen una determinada coherencia<br />

entre los hechos, personajes y argumento que es lo que hace que esta historia tenga<br />

sentido para cada uno”.<br />

El proceso que el individuo realiza <strong>com</strong>prende la distinción entre figura y fondo en la<br />

situación observada, la descripción de la misma, la explicación que le da en base a sus<br />

creencias y la narración que realiza para si y los demás. La <strong>com</strong>unidad puede hacer suya<br />

esta narrativa, socializando el conocimiento adquirido.<br />

148


Para que este proceso opere es importante el intercambio fluido entre los miembros de la<br />

organización y para ello la mediación aparece <strong>com</strong>o herramienta eficaz para fijar las<br />

pautas para que ese contrato cultural se haga explicito.<br />

Es a través de los principios básicos de la mediación, tales <strong>com</strong>o la confidencialidad, la<br />

multi-parcialidad, el respeto por el otro, la informalidad, voluntariedad, colaboración,<br />

auto<strong>com</strong>posición , acento en el futuro, que se logra fomentar el diálogo y la <strong>com</strong>prensión<br />

mutua, el respeto por ópticas diferentes<br />

Con la utilización que el mediador hace de sus herramientas de <strong>com</strong>unicación, facilitando el<br />

curso de las conversaciones entre los miembros de la organización, la trama con que cada<br />

uno de ellos ha construido el sentido de la situación va surgiendo a la luz y puede ser<br />

entendido en forma recíproca por todos los participantes.<br />

Las propiedades del proceso de construcción de sentido y el encuentro con el<br />

contexto de la mediación. La riqueza de <strong>com</strong>prender <strong>com</strong>o opera este proceso de<br />

construcción de sentido reside en las propiedades del mismo. Dada la brevedad de este<br />

trabajo, haremos solo una primera aproximación a ellas. A partir del reconocimiento de las<br />

mismas es posible efectuar en el contexto de la mediación las intervenciones disparadoras<br />

de nuevas situaciones que provoquen la necesidad de explicar las sorpresas.<br />

Para este análisis de las propiedades tomamos <strong>com</strong>o base la concepción de Weick que<br />

identifica siete propiedades del proceso de construcción de sentido, las que iremos<br />

relacionando en el encuentro con el contexto de la mediación:<br />

1. Conexión con la construcción de la identidad<br />

El proceso <strong>com</strong>ienza con un hacedor de sentido, con el discurso que asume y lo identifica<br />

(¿Cómo puedo saber lo que pienso hasta que veo lo que digo?) Este hacedor no es en si<br />

singular, sino que es un enigma continuo sufriendo redefiniciones, en coincidencia con la<br />

presentación de algún yo a otros, intentando decidir cual de los yo es el apropiado. Lo que la<br />

situación en cuestión habrá significado para esa persona está dictado por la identidad que<br />

adopte al ocuparse de esto y a quien representa<br />

Esto constituye, según Brez y Earley una “ estructura dinámica , situada socialmente que<br />

media los procesos intrapersonales e interpersonales más significativos” y responden a tres<br />

necesidades : Auto-valoración, auto-eficacia y auto-consistencia y puede resumirse en una<br />

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frase “ Por que soy quien soy y deseo ser así, hago las cosas bien y esto es coherente con<br />

lo que pienso y lo que represento”. Es por eso que cuando sucede algo no esperado, puede<br />

producirse una falla en la confirmación del yo de uno, y se desencadena el proceso de<br />

construcción de sentido.<br />

Esta identidad esta construida asimismo por la forma que ellos creen que los otros ven <strong>com</strong>o<br />

son ellos , el pensamiento imaginado en la mente de los demás. Al mencionar la conducta<br />

individual en las organizaciones, en ella aparece lo individual <strong>com</strong>o algo en si mismo y <strong>com</strong>o<br />

representación de su colectividad (identidad colectiva).<br />

En esta breve descripción surgen innumerables puntos de apoyo para la intervención del<br />

mediador con sus técnicas, dando tiempos suficientes para las narrativas iniciales desde el<br />

momento mismo de la presentación, con un parafraseo que permita a la persona confirmar<br />

que es entendido en la identidad que ha adoptado al ocuparse del asunto, abriendo el marco<br />

de la situación para identificar los vínculos significativos para el sujeto, cuyas opiniones le<br />

importen, que necesidad ha de ser satisfecha para la confirmación de su yo, cuales son los<br />

valores de la identidad colectiva que representa<br />

2. Retrospección<br />

Esta idea de la retrospección deriva de Schutz sobre “ la experiencia significativa vivida”,<br />

con lo que surge que todo lo percibido cuando lo deseo tener en cuenta, es pasado. El acto<br />

de reflexión es un cono de luz que se extiende hacia atrás desde un presente particular,<br />

desde la particular forma que el Ego le da a la experiencia vivida.<br />

Los proyectos y sentimientos en marcha afectan la mirada hacia atrás. En esta<br />

retrospección aparecen muchos significados posibles, por lo que se presenta confuso para<br />

el constructor de sentido. Lo que él necesita en el presente es determinar sus valores,<br />

prioridades, tener claridad sobre preferencias, sobre los proyectos que le importan para dar<br />

sentido a la experiencia transcurrida, para definir figura-fondo.<br />

Observemos hasta aquí la importante labor que el mediador puede desempeñar en este<br />

proceso clarificador con sus preguntas reflexivas.<br />

El pasado es reconstruido conociendo el resultado, por lo que pueden surgir sesgos<br />

retrospectivos. Esto que puede verse <strong>com</strong>o una limitante, puede ser utilizado por el<br />

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mediador a través de preguntas circulares que propongan imaginar un escenario futuro<br />

prometedor <strong>com</strong>o si fuera presente y desde allí hacer la retrospección acerca de lo que fue<br />

necesario para lograr ese resultado, ya que se ha determinado que es más fácil construir<br />

sentido de eventos cuando están ubicados en el pasado.<br />

3. Enacción de contextos significativos<br />

Todo el trabajo de Follet otorga marco a este punto, en el sentido que en el ámbito<br />

organizacional la gente produce parte del contexto que enfrenta. La enacción está<br />

entendida <strong>com</strong>o acción en el mundo, las personas actúan y al hacerlo crean los materiales<br />

que se convierten en las restricciones y oportunidades que enfrentan. Hablar de “el<br />

contexto” <strong>com</strong>o un ente apartado de lo individual resulta un punto ciego en el análisis de las<br />

organizaciones, ya que debo tener en cuenta que también “yo soy contexto para otros”. Es<br />

así <strong>com</strong>o en lugar de hablar de resultados de la acción sobre el contexto, debiéramos hablar<br />

de relación, encuentro, influencia mutua en el proceso de encontrarnos, por lo que llegamos<br />

a ser algo diferente.<br />

La gente crea sus contextos, así <strong>com</strong>o estos crean a la gente. Lo equiparamos al concepto<br />

de profecías autocumplidas : la gente crea y encuentra lo que espera encontrar. Existe una<br />

fé o creencia en el contexto que es creado con mi enacción, a través del cual siento que<br />

valido mis acciones.<br />

En el campo de los conflictos, cada uno ve al otro <strong>com</strong>o el generador de la situación, la<br />

<strong>com</strong>prensión del contexto enactuado, intentada por el mediador a través de la reciprocación<br />

(Haynes) es uno de los ejemplos para visualizar este aspecto<br />

En este punto podemos trabajar con el rol del mediador en las organizaciones <strong>com</strong>o un<br />

facilitador de la confrontación (no <strong>com</strong>bate) de intereses de los miembros del grupo,<br />

haciendo evidentes las in<strong>com</strong>patibilidades de las formas de actuar de cada uno, que van<br />

generando el contexto. Se puede trabajar promoviendo la integración de las diferencias,<br />

viendo la posibilidad de alinearlos para la coordinación de acciones a través de ejercicios<br />

que procuren la construcción de contextos resilentes, que no se dispersen ante las<br />

diferencias culpándose mutuamente, sino que aprendan a <strong>com</strong>plementarlas, generando<br />

sentimientos de confianza mutua.<br />

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4. Social<br />

Al decir de Weick, lo que dije, distinguí y concluí está determinado por quien me socializó y<br />

<strong>com</strong>o fui socializado, tanto <strong>com</strong>o por la audiencia que anticipé revisarían las conclusiones a<br />

las que arribé.<br />

Es interesante la cita de Walsh y Ungston diciendo que” una organización es “ una red de<br />

significados <strong>com</strong>partidos intersubjetivamente que son sostenidos a través del desarrollo y<br />

uso de un lenguaje <strong>com</strong>ún y la interacción social cotidiana”. Asimismo se tiene en cuenta<br />

que la conducta es contingente de la conducta de otros, o sea está influenciada por la<br />

presencia actual, imaginada o implícita de otros, tal <strong>com</strong>o lo dijimos al tratar identidad.<br />

Esta propiedad se hace más notoria en la organización laboral por cuanto las decisiones<br />

habrán de ser <strong>com</strong>partidas o aceptadas por otros, a fin de implementarlas, entenderlas o<br />

aprobarlas. Teniendo en cuenta lo expresado el proceso de construcción de sentido no es<br />

un proceso individual sino social, ya que un individuo crea pensamientos nuevos en el<br />

contexto de interacción con otros, presentes en su mente al momento de elaborarlos. Luego<br />

de este proceso, él puede hacerlos evidentes, <strong>com</strong>unicarlos a la <strong>com</strong>unidad, estos mensajes<br />

de todos los actores pueden ser recíprocamente entendidos por los otros, internalizados y<br />

generalizados <strong>com</strong>o propios y constituirse en parte de la cultura.<br />

En el encuentro con la mediación, son muchos los aportes que podemos hacer en este<br />

proceso, tanto en la identificación del proceso interno con que cada uno ha ido construyendo<br />

sentido, <strong>com</strong>o en la posibilidad de generar el diálogo que ponga en evidencia este<br />

aprendizaje.<br />

El entendimiento de distintas ópticas, favorecido por principios de la mediación <strong>com</strong>o la<br />

colaboración y respeto mutuo, el ejercicio de ponerse en el lugar del otro, permite abrir la<br />

puerta para conocer al otro, confrontar intereses, encontrar otras formas de ser y hacer y<br />

<strong>com</strong>partirlas o alinearlas con las propias.<br />

Todos han de llegar a un encuentro con supuestos, anticipaciones de lo que los demás<br />

piensan de sus ideas. En el juego de una interacción sana en la que la escucha activa de las<br />

opiniones del otro confirme o no mis supuestos, me permite reelaborar mis pensamientos<br />

con nuevas argumentaciones, Este aprendizaje reflexivo favorece un cambio de cultura<br />

basado en la confianza y genera valor por la integración social de la diversidad.<br />

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5. Continuo<br />

Mi habla se extiende en el tiempo, <strong>com</strong>pite por la atención con otros proyectos continuos y<br />

se refleja después de que se terminó, lo que significa que mis intereses ya pueden haber<br />

cambiado.<br />

El proceso de construcción de sentido es permanente, nunca <strong>com</strong>ienza, uno siempre está<br />

en medio de las situaciones, las cuales identifica <strong>com</strong>o tales en el momento que hace foco<br />

en algo que sucedió, le presta atención . Es un devenir constante en el cual vamos siendo (<br />

tal la definición cuántica del ser humano), es un flujo continuo. Las personas en medio de<br />

ese flujo va haciendo proyectos, y es cuando ese flujo se interrumpe, tiene un quiebre, que<br />

afecta mis proyectos, cuando en medio de una determinada emoción o sentimiento que<br />

frena , se desencadena un proceso de construcción de sentido para explicar la sorpresa y<br />

darle continuidad al flujo. La emoción se produce ante la interrupción de una expectativa, lo<br />

cual dispara mi atención sobre la situación<br />

En la organización, sobre todo en el marco <strong>com</strong>plejo en el cual se desarrollan las<br />

actividades, el proceso de cambio continuo, la incertidumbre, crea en forma constante<br />

situaciones que pueden disparar estas interrupciones, por lo que resulta útil generar las<br />

reuniones de trabajo en las cuales un mediador puede ir desgranando preguntas que<br />

identifiquen cuales son las acciones y los planes que es probable que se interrumpan, cual<br />

es la distribución de las interrupciones, donde se encuentran las interrupciones que con<br />

mayor probabilidad ocurrirán .<br />

Asimismo considerando que la experiencia vivida, cuando es <strong>com</strong>partida contribuye a lograr<br />

aprendizajes efectivos, permite al mediador hacer aflorar la narrativa acerca de dichas<br />

experiencias, señalando los focos de atención, generando reflexión para reformular<br />

situaciones, socializando las conclusiones para que se internalicen.<br />

Asimismo tengamos en cuenta que <strong>com</strong>o hablamos de continuo, el mismo espacio de la<br />

mediación es un espacio en el constantemente se esta construyendo sentido, por lo que<br />

cada una de las intervenciones de los miembros o del mediador, son ocasiones propicias<br />

para que se provoquen quiebres que lleven a desencadenar nuevos procesos y reflexionar<br />

sobre ellos.<br />

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6. Centrado en y por las señales extraídas<br />

La cosa que distinguí y embellecí <strong>com</strong>o el contenido del pensamiento es sólo una parte<br />

pequeña de la expresión que llegó a ser saliente por el contexto y las disposiciones<br />

personales<br />

El proceso en general es rápido, por lo que veremos más productos que procesos. Se hace<br />

más dificultoso frente a las paradojas, los dilemas y los eventos inconcebibles. Lo importante<br />

es la forma en que la gente observa, extrae señales y embellece lo que extrae<br />

La señal extraída se transforma para el constructor en equivalente de la información<br />

<strong>com</strong>pleta, y genera un razonamiento sobre las consecuencias que trae aparejadas.<br />

Las señales extraídas son simples, familiares estructuras preseleccionadas de las cuales la<br />

gente desarrolla un sentido extenso de lo que puede ser que ocurra.<br />

El contexto en el que se desarrolla la observación reviste importancia, dado que si en el<br />

mismo los eventos tienen significados equívocos o multiples, se tendrá en cuenta quien es el<br />

que lo dice (su historia), los propósitos corrientes que sostiene, el escenario en que fueron<br />

hechas las observaciones o la relación que se tiene con el mismo.<br />

Esto puede apreciarse también en la organización, allí la gente tiene distintas ubicaciones y<br />

esta familiarizada con distintos dominios, por cual le otorga significados diferentes a eventos<br />

que son <strong>com</strong>unes a ambos. Así en la cima, se desarrollan proyectos estratégicos y en<br />

general tienden a manifestarse conservadores del status adquirido por sus miembros ,<br />

desestimando los cambios que no lo favorezcan; en tanto en la base se tienen en cuenta<br />

proyectos operativos y dan la bienvenida a los cambios que les brindarían oportunidades de<br />

promoción.<br />

Las señales al ser <strong>com</strong>prendidas <strong>com</strong>o realidad, son sostenidas con gran fe por el<br />

constructor de sentido, enactuando un contexto congruente con dicha concepción.<br />

Teniendo en cuenta esta propiedad , es que el mediador puede actuar <strong>com</strong>o linterna<br />

iluminando para a hacer foco en diversas señales, prestando atención a las narrativas,<br />

reformulando, ayudando a reencuadrar , a fomentar contextos de creación de opciones,<br />

removiendo la cristalización de conocimientos hacia aperturas mentales que incorporen una<br />

154


nueva mirada a la situación. En esta interacción es posible reconocer las limitaciones del<br />

enfoque anterior y permitirse una nueva oportunidad de construir conocimiento.<br />

7. Guiado por la plausibilidad más que por la precisión<br />

Necesito saber bastante sobre lo que pienso para continuar con mis proyectos, pero no<br />

demasiado, lo que significa que la suficiencia y la plausibilidad preceden a la precisión.<br />

Aún sin continuar con este punto, vemos que la utilización de esta propiedad en el proceso<br />

de la mediación resulta vital para que las personas se animen a pensar opciones, a imaginar<br />

escenarios posibles, a intentar acuerdos transitorios, reformulables en el tiempo. Lo que es<br />

creído <strong>com</strong>o una consecuencia de la acción es lo que tiene sentido.<br />

La gente que quiere entrar en acción tiende a simplificar más que a elaborar, dado que en<br />

un ambiente cambiante, las percepciones no pueden ser precisas, ya que cuando las<br />

observamos y les queremos prestar atención, ya ha llegado algo nuevo en el continuo fluir<br />

del cambio.<br />

Para el mediador surgen <strong>com</strong>o herramientas en este item las que se relacionan con el<br />

enfoque transformativo, que apunta al reconocimiento y la revalorización, dado que la<br />

confianza que las partes tengan en si mismas, genera la acción entusiasta , basada en<br />

ilusiones positivas, y enactúan un contexto congruente con ello.<br />

Las conclusiones y el <strong>com</strong>promiso ético<br />

En resúmen el objetivo del trabajo a realizar con los grupos de trabajo tiende a :<br />

a) Promover en los participantes la habilidad de identificar los procesos de construcción de<br />

sentido que cada individuo realiza frente a distintas situaciones a las que se enfrenta.<br />

b) Reconocer las propiedades básicas de dicho proceso, a fin de operar sobre ellas para<br />

producir los quiebres que disparen los cambios.<br />

c) Observar las dificultades y resistencias para internalizar y socializar nuevos<br />

conocimientos.<br />

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d)Aplicar técnicas de mediación para escuchar, preguntar, reformular, reflexionar, producir<br />

entendimiento <strong>com</strong>partido , alinear <strong>com</strong>portamientos para coordinar acciones, consensuar,<br />

socializar los cambios que requiere la organización<br />

En este contexto de <strong>com</strong>plejidad la objetividad está concebida no ya <strong>com</strong>o una realidad<br />

indiscutible, sino <strong>com</strong>o un concepto a construir entre todas las subjetividades intervinientes.<br />

La negociación deviene entonces, hoy más que nunca, <strong>com</strong>o pauta necesaria, no solo para<br />

la convivencia de las organizaciones, sino para construir su verdadera existencia e<br />

integrarse con otros . Para construir los objetivos, necesitaremos ensanchar el espacio<br />

propio, para que integre al otro, sólo así podremos contar con su verdadero <strong>com</strong>promiso<br />

En el conocimiento del otro, a fin de satisfacer sus necesidades, a la vez que logro mis<br />

propios objetivos, esta base del ganar-ganar, pero debe asimismo definirse desde una<br />

concepción ética de tomar al otro no solo <strong>com</strong>o medio para lograr objetivos, sino también<br />

<strong>com</strong>o fin en si mismo, reconociendo su propia identidad y respetando sus valores.<br />

Se espera <strong>com</strong>o resultado del trabajo la apertura de perspectivas de salida que permitan un<br />

marco mas amplio para la toma de decisiones, merced a la co-construcción de un nuevo<br />

juego de interacciones , capaces de gestar una organización inteligente con fluidez en sus<br />

redes <strong>com</strong>unicacionales, que permitan socializar los conocimientos requeridos.<br />

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L’Expérience en Médiation - résultats d’une enquête menée auprès<br />

des médiés du Centre de Médiation de Luxembourg<br />

___________________________________________________________________________<br />

Paul Demaret<br />

Coordinateur du Centre de Médiation de Luxembourg<br />

Bien que la médiation soit encore récente au Luxembourg, nous sommes partis de<br />

l’expérience du Centre de Médiation de Luxembourg.<br />

Association qui a été créée en 1998 et qui essaye de rester fidèle au concept de la<br />

médiation : le médiateur est un tiers indépendant ; la médiation est un processus et celui-ci<br />

est accepté librement par les « parties » ; la médiation est un processus confidentiel ; les<br />

solutions émanent de la volonté de tous les « médiés » ; le médiateur doit être formé à la<br />

médiation ; le médiateur n’est soumis qu’à une obligation de moyens.<br />

Si nous nous plaçons du point de vue des parties en conflit, nous pouvons établir l’hypothèse<br />

que la médiation pourrait avoir un triple effet :<br />

• La réappropriation du conflit par les parties<br />

• La responsabilisation des parties<br />

• La transformation des relations entre les parties en conflit<br />

Pour vérifier cette hypothèse, nous avons procédé, à partir d’une enquête par questionnaire,<br />

à une analyse des représentations des parties suite au processus de médiation.<br />

Cette analyse à partir de questionnaire devrait nous permettre de vérifier <strong>com</strong>ment les<br />

parties en conflit ont vécu le processus de médiation : participation ou non aux échanges ;<br />

recherche de solutions ; évolution des représentations ; …<br />

L’étude a été faite par le biais d’un questionnaire envoyé aux personnes ayant participé à<br />

une médiation. Il s’agissait d’un questionnaire sur la pratique de la médiation et nous aurons<br />

donc ici une observation quantitative sur la qualité de la médiation vécue par les personnes.<br />

Pour cette étude, nous sommes partis de l’ensemble des dossiers traités lors de l’année<br />

2002 et des premiers dossiers de 2003.<br />

Il y avait donc 123 dossiers concernés (93 de l’année 2002 et 30 de l’année 2003). Au<br />

niveau de leur répartition suivant le sexe, nous obtenons : 69 % d’hommes et 31 % de<br />

femmes.<br />

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Au niveau de leur répartition suivant le type de médiation, nous arrivons au résultat suivant :<br />

6 dossiers (4,9 %) dans le cadre de relations de couples, 7 dossiers (5,7 %) pour des<br />

divorces, 20 dossiers (16,3 %) pour des relations enfants/parents, 66 dossiers (53,6 %)<br />

provenant du Parquet Mineur, 22 dossiers (17,9%) provenant du Parquet Majeur et enfin 2<br />

dossiers (1,6 %) « autre ».<br />

De ces 261 questionnaires envoyés, 94 questionnaires nous sont revenus <strong>com</strong>plétés (36 %)<br />

suivant la répartition suivante 56,2% d’hommes et 43,8 % de femmes et par rapport au type<br />

de médiation, nous obtenons la répartition suivante : 6,2 % médiation familiale « couple » ;<br />

24,7 % médiation familiale « parents-enfants » ; 14,7 % médiation pénale « majeur » ; 47,4<br />

% médiation « mineur » et 7 % dans le cadre de médiation « autre ».<br />

Les éléments récoltés nous ont permis, tout d’abord, d’avancer que les médiés ont la volonté<br />

de se réapproprier le conflit. Cette réappropriation leur semble possible par le processus de<br />

médiation. En effet, pour les médiés l’avantage le plus cité est le fait de se parler en face à<br />

face et l’autre raison est la rapidité de la procédure de médiation.<br />

Tableau 1 : avis des médiés sur les avantages de la médiation<br />

Avantages de<br />

Réponses<br />

classées<br />

Réponses<br />

classées<br />

Réponses<br />

classées<br />

la médiation en 1er rang en 2e rang en 3e rang<br />

Coût plus faible de la médiation 10,87% 15,28% 57,38%<br />

Rapidité de la procédure de la<br />

médiation 19,57% 62,50%<br />

11,48%<br />

Le fait de se parler face à face 61,96% 19,44% 26,23%<br />

Autre 7,61% 2,78% 4,92%<br />

TOTAL % 100,00% 100,00% 100,00%<br />

TOTAL N 92 72 61<br />

Pour les parties en conflit, nous avons pu mettre en évidence que dans une majorité de cas<br />

le médié se sent libre de venir en médiation et que donc il se responsabilise par rapport au<br />

conflit qu’il vit.<br />

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Tableau 2 : médié libre de venir en médiation selon les médiés et par type de médiation<br />

Libre en médiation<br />

oui non TOTAL<br />

Type de médiation N % N % N %<br />

familiale (parents/enfants) 17 89,47% 2 10,53% 19 100,00%<br />

familiale (couple) 10 100,00% 0 0,00% 10 100,00%<br />

pénale mineur 29 70,73% 12 29,27% 41 100,00%<br />

pénale majeur 4 100,00% 0 0,00% 4 100,00%<br />

autre 16 88,89% 2 11,11% 18 100,00%<br />

TOTAL 76 82,61% 16 17,39% 92 100,00%<br />

Cette responsabilisation est également teintée d’une amorce d’un changement de position.<br />

Si un peu moins de la moitié des médiés avaient fait des tentatives de négociation avant la<br />

médiation, il y a une grosse majorité qui avant la rencontre en médiation avait pris la décision<br />

d’accepter une solution amiable ou du moins d’écouter le point de vue de l’autre partie avant<br />

de prendre une quelconque décision.<br />

Tableau 3 : tentative de négociation préalable à la médiation selon le sexe<br />

sexe<br />

femme homme TOTAL<br />

négociation avant N % N % N<br />

oui 18 51,43% 18 37,50% 36 43,37%<br />

non 17 48,57% 30 62,50% 47 56,63%<br />

TOTAL 35 100% 48 100% 83 100%<br />

Tableau 4 : intentions avant la rencontre en médiation<br />

avant décision<br />

type de<br />

médiation<br />

familiale<br />

vous aviez vous vouliez vous ne autre<br />

pris la<br />

décision<br />

connaître le<br />

point de vue<br />

vouliez aucun<br />

arrangement<br />

d'accepter un de l'autre<br />

arrangement partie avant<br />

amiable de prendre<br />

votre décision<br />

TOTAL<br />

% N<br />

(parents/enfants) 75,00% 20,00% 0,00% 5,00% 100,00% 20<br />

familiale (couple) 63,64% 27,27% 0,00% 9,09% 100,00% 11<br />

pénale mineur 66,67% 28,89% 2,22% 2,22% 100,00% 45<br />

pénale majeur 100,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 100,00% 4<br />

autre 62,50% 25,00% 6,25% 6,25% 100,00% 16<br />

TOTAL % 68,75% 25,00% 2,08% 4,17% 100,00%<br />

TOTAL N 66 24 2 4 96<br />

159


En ce qui concerne le processus de la résolution de conflit, nous avons pu observer que 46<br />

% des médiés ont déclaré que leur position a modifié au cours de la médiation.<br />

Tableau 5 : position des médiés au cours de la médiation selon le type de médiation<br />

type de médiation<br />

position au cours de la<br />

médiation<br />

familiale<br />

(par/enf)<br />

Familiale<br />

(couple)<br />

pénale<br />

mineur<br />

pénale<br />

majeur<br />

autre<br />

TOTAL<br />

N %<br />

changé de position 11.76% 0.00% 20.00% 0.00% 21.05% 14 15.91%<br />

modifié en partie votre 41.18% 66.67% 27.50% 33.33% 10.53% 27 30.68%<br />

position<br />

pas modifié votre position 41.18% 33.33% 37.50% 66.67% 42.11% 35 39.77%<br />

ne sais pas 5.88% 0.00% 15.00% 0.00% 26.32% 12 13.64%<br />

TOTAL % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%<br />

TOTAL N 17 9 40 3 19 88<br />

Il se pourrait que les relations entre les parties et les différences statutaires des parties<br />

jouent également un rôle dans cette modification de position mais cette hypothèse ne put<br />

être vérifiée faute d’instruments adéquats.<br />

L’apport de la médiation peut concerner différents aspects. Il peut amener à <strong>com</strong>prendre<br />

l’autre partie, à calmer le ressentiment vis-à-vis de l’autre, à des aspects plus pragmatiques<br />

(une solution), à réfléchir sur ses actes et sur soi, à se faire écouter.<br />

Tableau 6 : apport de la médiation selon le type de médiation<br />

type de médiation familiale Familiale pénale pénale autre TOTAL<br />

(parents (couple) mineur majeur<br />

% N<br />

apport de la médiation /enfants)<br />

de <strong>com</strong>prendre les 40.00% 13.33% 66.67% 16.67% 26.09% 42.98% 49<br />

raisons de l'attitude de<br />

l'autre<br />

de calmer votre 32.00% 26.67% 20.00% 16.67% 26.09% 24.56% 28<br />

ressentiment à l'égard<br />

de l'autre partie<br />

Autre 28.00% 60.00% 13.33% 66.67% 47.83% 32.46% 37<br />

TOTAL % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%<br />

TOTAL N 25 15 45 6 23 114<br />

Dans quatre observations c’est-à-dire 4,26 % des 94 questionnaires reçus en retour, les<br />

sondés font état que la médiation n’a rien changé pour eux. La possibilité de <strong>com</strong>prendre<br />

l’autre partie fut quant à elle citée à raison de 43 %.<br />

160


La résolution de conflit passe par la recherche de solution et un des arguments prioritaires<br />

est la perspective d’une meilleure relation future.<br />

La médiation pourrait permettre donc une responsabilisation de ses usagers.<br />

Au niveau de la recherche de la solution cela semble effectivement se vérifier, étant donné<br />

que seulement 12 % des médiés ont déclaré avoir subi que l’autre partie ou même le<br />

médiateur ait imposé son point de vue.<br />

Tableau 7 : la recherche de solution par type de médiation<br />

impressions médiation<br />

d'avoir été<br />

associé à<br />

la<br />

recherche<br />

d'une<br />

solution<br />

Que vous<br />

avez<br />

imposé<br />

votre point<br />

de vue<br />

que l'autre que le<br />

partie a médiateur a<br />

imposé son imposé son<br />

point de<br />

vue<br />

point de<br />

vue<br />

ne sais<br />

pas<br />

TOTAL<br />

type de médiation<br />

% N<br />

familiale (parents/enfants)81,25% 12,50% 6,25% 0,00% 0,00% 100% 16<br />

familiale (couple) 60,00% 10,00% 10,00% 10,00% 10,00% 100% 10<br />

pénale mineur 70,73% 9,76% 9,76% 4,88% 4,88% 100% 41<br />

pénale majeur 50,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 50,00% 100% 4<br />

autre 60,00% 10,00% 10,00% 0,00% 20,00% 100% 20<br />

TOTAL N 62 9 8 3 9 91<br />

TOTAL % 68,13% 9,89% 8,79% 3,30% 9,89% 100%<br />

Et dans 62 % des cas, la solution trouvée a respecté les intérêts des deux parties.<br />

Cette responsabilisation pourrait également se concrétiser vis-à-vis du médiateur où 72 %<br />

des médiés déclarent ne pas subir d’influence du médiateur et seulement 7,5 % des usagers<br />

auraient souhaité que le médiateur tranche le litige.<br />

Tableau 8 : apport de la médiation selon le type de médiation<br />

type de médiation familiale Familiale pénale pénale autre TOTAL<br />

(parents/ (couple) mineur majeur<br />

% N<br />

apport de la médiation enfants)<br />

de <strong>com</strong>prendre les raisons 40.00% 13.33% 66.67% 16.67% 26.09% 42.98% 49<br />

de l'attitude de l'autre<br />

de calmer votre<br />

32.00% 26.67% 20.00% 16.67% 26.09% 24.56% 28<br />

ressentiment à l'égard de<br />

l'autre partie<br />

Autre 28.00% 60.00% 13.33% 66.67% 47.83% 32.46% 37<br />

TOTAL % 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%<br />

TOTAL N 25 15 45 6 23 114<br />

161


Cette responsabilisation des médiés fait en sorte qu’au niveau de la satisfaction des accords<br />

seulement 1,3 % des médiés ne s’estiment pas du tout satisfait de l’accord conclu en<br />

médiation.<br />

Tableau 9 : satisfaction de l'accord par type de médiation<br />

Satisfaction de l'accord<br />

partielle-<br />

TOTAL<br />

totalement ment pas du tout autre<br />

type de médiation<br />

% N<br />

familiale (parents/enfants) 61,54% 38,46% 0,00% 0,00% 100% 13<br />

familiale (couple) 60,00% 40,00% 0,00% 0,00% 100% 5<br />

pénale mineur 61,54% 33,33% 2,56% 2,56% 100% 39<br />

pénale majeur 50,00% 50,00% 0,00% 0,00% 100% 4<br />

Autre 56,25% 43,75% 0,00% 0,00% 100% 16<br />

TOTAL N 46 29 1 1 77<br />

TOTAL % 59,74% 37,66% 1,30% 1,30% 100%<br />

Par contre en cas d’absence d’accord : il y a 20 % des usagers qui estiment que l’absence<br />

d’accord est imputable aux torts partagés, 6,7 % estiment que le tort revient au médiateur,<br />

73,3 % estiment que le tort revient à l’autre partie et aucun n’estime que cela est uniquement<br />

de sa faute.<br />

Tableau 10 : absence d'accord à qui la faute selon le type de médiation<br />

Absence accord à qui<br />

à vous<br />

même<br />

à l'autre<br />

partie<br />

au(x)<br />

médiate<br />

ur(s)<br />

TOTAL<br />

aux torts<br />

partagés<br />

% N<br />

type de médiation<br />

familiale (parents/enfants) 0,00% 75,00% 0,00% 25,00% 100% 4<br />

familiale (couple) 0,00% 80,00% 0,00% 20,00% 100% 5<br />

pénale mineur 0,00% 50,00% 0,00% 50,00% 100% 2<br />

pénale majeur 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0% 0<br />

Autre 0,00% 75,00% 25,00% 0,00% 100% 4<br />

TOTAL N 0 11 1 3 15<br />

TOTAL % 0,00% 73,33% 6,67% 20,00% 100%<br />

Mais l’absence d’accord n’a pas empêché 60 % de ces médiés de tirer quelque chose de<br />

positif de leur expérience en médiation.<br />

162


Tableau 11 : point positif malgré l'absence d'accord<br />

Point positif malgré tout<br />

de faire<br />

connaître<br />

votre point<br />

de vue à<br />

l'autre<br />

partie<br />

de<br />

<strong>com</strong>prend<br />

re le point<br />

de vue<br />

l'autre<br />

partie<br />

d'améliore<br />

r vos<br />

relations<br />

avec<br />

l'autre<br />

partie Rien autre<br />

TOTAL<br />

type de médiation<br />

% N<br />

familiale (parents/enfants) 50,00% 25,00% 0,00% 25,00% 0,00% 100% 4<br />

familiale (couple) 40,00% 0,00% 0,00% 20,00% 40,00% 100% 5<br />

pénale mineur 100% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 0,00% 100% 1<br />

Autre 20,00% 0,00% 40,00% 20,00% 20,00% 100% 5<br />

TOTAL N 6 1 2 3 3 15<br />

TOTAL % 40,00% 6,67% 13,33% 20,00% 20,00% 100%<br />

Conclusions<br />

Du point de vue de la satisfaction des médiés, nous sommes arrivés à la conclusion que<br />

l’obtention d’un accord en médiation pouvait avoir un lien avec la satisfaction du médié. Mais<br />

le non accord quant à lui n’engendrait pas l’insatisfaction du médié.<br />

Cette étude a laissé une grande place aux médiés et à leur expérience en médiation. Nous<br />

tenons à rappeler que les résultats n’indiquent que des tendances des représentations des<br />

parties suite au processus de médiation. Les résultats récoltés tendraient donc à vérifier la<br />

triple effet de la médiation de notre hypothèse.<br />

Nous pensons qu’une telle évaluation permet une collaboration entre chercheurs et<br />

praticiens. Et ces outils développés peuvent être utilisés en tant qu’auto évaluation ou dans<br />

le cadre d’études européennes à condition que nous travaillions sur des questionnaires<br />

<strong>com</strong>parables, d’où l’importance d’une concertation pour l’élaboration d’un questionnaire qui<br />

servirait de modèle.<br />

Les résultats d’évaluation et leur publication pourront permettre de faire connaître la<br />

médiation à un plus grand public, car n’oublions pas que la médiation est toujours fort<br />

méconnue et que le libre choix n’est possible qu’avec la connaissance des différentes<br />

possibilités existantes dans la résolution de conflits.<br />

163


Technologies de la Spirale,<br />

modélisation des différences ethiques et culturelles<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Bernard Duclos 115<br />

Voxis<br />

Dans sa définition la plus large, la médiation est le processus qui consiste à rapprocher et à<br />

permettre une action <strong>com</strong>mune : élever des enfants à la suite d'un divorce, mais aussi<br />

obtenir une <strong>com</strong>munication téléphonique. Elle s'applique dès lors, aussi bien aux êtres<br />

humains qu'à l'interface entre humains et machines. Dans ce dernier domaine, il s'agit bien<br />

souvent de permettre à un être humain d'obtenir un service qui nécessite de se confronter à<br />

un ou plusieurs systèmes <strong>com</strong>plexes bien souvent interconnectés. Ainsi, dans certains pays<br />

européens, il faut encore plusieurs mois quand on change d'opérateur mais que l'on souhaite<br />

conserver son numéro de téléphone. De même, un changement de service prend plusieurs<br />

jours chez un opérateur Internet.<br />

La médiation peut se définir <strong>com</strong>me le système qui gère une <strong>com</strong>plexité plus grande, au<br />

bénéfice <strong>com</strong>mun des participants à la médiation. Ceci peut être vérifié dans chaque<br />

domaine de la médiation. Ainsi en gestion des conflits, le conflit est l'élément <strong>com</strong>plexe, le<br />

facilitateur/médiateur gère la <strong>com</strong>plexité. Dans un divorce, la situation du couple, son<br />

histoire, les besoins des enfants définissent la <strong>com</strong>plexité. L'accord trouvé, fruit d'une<br />

médiation, traduit une simplification salutaire de la situation initiale.<br />

La globalisation, l'amplification des phénomènes migratoires, favorisent la confrontation de<br />

cultures et d'ethnies différentes. S'ajoute donc à la <strong>com</strong>plexité de la différence culturelle, la<br />

multiplication des occasions permettant de se confronter à ces différences. L'expression de<br />

ces différences se manifeste tant dans le cercle familial, le voisinage, que dans l'entreprise<br />

globale, les ONG…<br />

Dans le cadre d'un conflit où les éléments culturels et ethniques semblent jouer un rôle<br />

majeur, peut-on modéliser ces différences culturelles afin de faciliter les médiations ? Peuton<br />

prendre en <strong>com</strong>pte les aspects culturels d'un conflit <strong>com</strong>me une clé, un point d'accès<br />

115 http://www.voxis.net/fr/BDU.htm<br />

164


permettant de recadrer le conflit ? Ou plus simplement, de <strong>com</strong>prendre, pour le médiateur,<br />

<strong>com</strong>ment sa propre culture définit son système de valeurs ?<br />

Les technologies de la Spirale de leur nom original Spiral Dynamics 116 , développées par<br />

Don Beck 117 et Chris Cowan 118 sur la base de 30 ans de recherches menées par le Dr. Clare<br />

Graves 119 , apportent des avancées majeures pour identifier les différences culturelles<br />

et transformer les conflits qui pourraient naître des différences ethniques par<br />

l'acceptation de systèmes de valeurs différents.<br />

Don Beck a particulièrement développé ces applications dans le cadre de l'abandon de<br />

l'apartheid en Afrique du Sud. Il publiera The Crucible: Forging South Africa’s Future en 1991<br />

avec Graham Linscott basé sur plus de 60 interventions locales et travaux avec Frederik<br />

Willem de Klerk 120 et Nelson Mandela 121 .<br />

Quelle est donc cette carte des systèmes de valeurs et <strong>com</strong>ment les cultures émergentelles<br />

?<br />

Comment ce modèle permet-il de contenir les conflits potentiels et/ou avérés et facilite-t-il la<br />

création de Win:Win:Win ?<br />

Huit niveaux de développement social<br />

L'apartheid, installé en 1948 en Afrique du Sud, prétendait assurer le "développement<br />

séparé" de <strong>com</strong>munautés dont chaque individu était catégorisé sur la base de son<br />

appartenance à un "groupe racial" ou ethnique : Blanc, Zoulou, Métis etc…L'apartheid sera<br />

aboli en 1991 par le gouvernement de Frederik de Klerk.<br />

En 1998, en Australie, le gouvernement de John Howard 122 est confronté à un problème de<br />

reconnaissance des droits et des terres aborigènes.<br />

Dans ces deux cas, caractérisés par de multiples <strong>com</strong>munautés extrêmement polarisées, où<br />

le discours faisait référence en permanence à des notions de supériorité raciale, le modèle<br />

116 http://www.spiraldynamics.<strong>com</strong>/book/book.htm<br />

117 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Beck<br />

118 http://www.spiraldynamics.org/info_pages/cowan.htm<br />

119 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clare_W._Graves<br />

120 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F.W._de_Klerk<br />

121 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandela<br />

122 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Howard<br />

165


de Graves, Levels of Human Existence 123 , a été utilisé pour recadrer l'aspect dit Racial<br />

(structure de surface) vers une perception des systèmes de valeurs (structure de profondeur)<br />

. Aujourd'hui, plusieurs synonymes sont utilisés pour traduire les systèmes de valeurs :<br />

"étapes sociales," "vagues culturelles" et " V Mème" 124 . Ce modèle, capable de gérer des<br />

conflits d'une telle ampleur (Macro) offre un outil de médiation pour des conflits de moindre<br />

taille : mezo pour un groupe social et micro pour un individu.<br />

Emergence<br />

Les cultures sont formées par l'émergence de Systèmes de Valeurs qui répondent aux<br />

conditions de vies. Les principaux éléments de ces systèmes sont définis dans le schéma<br />

suivant :<br />

Vision<br />

du monde<br />

Peur<br />

État d’esprit<br />

VMème<br />

Icônes<br />

Objectifs<br />

Faire<br />

Motivations<br />

Face<br />

Cette forme d'intelligence adaptative permet à<br />

chacun, à chaque groupe humain, de filtrer et<br />

d'évaluer l'information culturelle (Mème 125 ) afin d'y<br />

apporter une réponse :<br />

• Soit dans un niveau de développement social<br />

connu.<br />

• Soit dans un nouveau niveau de<br />

développement , si la <strong>com</strong>plexité du problème posé ne peut être gérée par les systèmes<br />

existants.<br />

L'apparition d'un nouveau système ne signifie en rien la<br />

disparition des systèmes précédents. Ainsi Internet et la<br />

Cyberculture n'ont pas fait disparaître les contes de fées. Au<br />

contraire, telles des poupées russes, les systèmes s'intègrent<br />

les uns dans les autres et chacune des vagues culturelles loin<br />

d'être rigide, permet une vision plus large de monde, la<br />

définition de nouvelles priorités, un état d'esprit particulier, de<br />

123 http://www.clarewgraves.<strong>com</strong>/articles_content/1964-5/1964-5_1.html<br />

124 Stages of Social Development Don Beck Octobre 2000 -<br />

http://www.humanemergence.org/essays/stages_of_social_development.htm<br />

125 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meme<br />

166


nouvelles icônes : manifestations du système de valeur/niveau de développement.<br />

Une fois émergé, chaque système va, tel un virus, un prion, diffuser son "code génétique" à<br />

travers des expressions de surfaces, idéologies, religions, économie, organisation sociale.<br />

L'art, le sport sont influencés par ces systèmes de valeurs.<br />

Le calcul a montré que ces émergences formaient une double hélice. C'est ainsi qu'est né le<br />

modèle de la Spirale. En effet, il y a un effet de balancier entre les Même orienté "JE" et les<br />

Même orientés "NOUS".<br />

Spirale<br />

VMEME Emergence VISION DU MONDE<br />

Holistique 40 ans Un système élégament équilibré<br />

Systémique 60 ans Un Système Complexe,Chaotique<br />

Consensuel 150 ans Une <strong>com</strong>munauté où on peut et on doit partager<br />

Stratègique 1 000 ans Un marché plein d'opportunités<br />

Loyaliste 5 000 ans Une existance ordonnée par une vérité vraie<br />

Égocentrique 10 000 ans Une jungle ou seul les plus forts survivent<br />

Animiste 50 000 ans Un monde magique, entouré d'esprits<br />

Instinctif 100 000 ans Un milieu naturel où il faut survivre<br />

VMEME FOCUS ETAT D'ESPRIT<br />

Holistique NOUS Expérimenter l'intégralité de l'existance<br />

Systémique JE Flexible, Fonctionnel, Responsable<br />

Consensuel NOUS Rechercher la paix intérieure et les consensus<br />

Stratègique JE Jouer pour gagner, cultiver l'optimisme<br />

Loyaliste NOUS La vie a un sens, une direction, il faut en suivre les règl<br />

Égocentrique JE Obtenir le respect et faire ce qu'on veut<br />

Animiste NOUS Garder le clan sous la protection des bons esprits<br />

Instinctif JE Rester en vie et en sécurité<br />

VMEME CULTURE<br />

Holistique Spiritualité cosmique<br />

Systémique Réalités multiples<br />

Consensuel Authenticité, Partage<br />

Stratègique Matérialisme, Image, Status<br />

Loyaliste Tradition et Discipline<br />

ÉgocentriqueImplussivité, Action, Gratification<br />

Animiste Rituelle faite de tabous<br />

Instinctif Liée à la nature, à la procréation<br />

167


Différentes cultures, sous cultures, de même que les nations sont à des niveaux différents, il<br />

n'en reste pas moins que les couleurs plus anciennes persistent. Ceci définit la<br />

caractéristique d'un conflit "culturel" dont l'expression, en surface, prendra généralement un<br />

aspect ethnique.<br />

Conflits<br />

Si un conflit "traditionnel" oppose A à B ou les A<br />

aux B, le conflit culturel mettra en jeu<br />

Conflit<br />

simultanément plusieurs niveaux de la spirale.<br />

Ainsi, Bleu_Loyaliste, au nom de la tradition<br />

s'oppose à Orange_Stratège lui-même en conflit<br />

Conflit<br />

Conflit<br />

Conflit<br />

avec Vert_Consensuel qui prône le partage.<br />

Tant en Afrique du Sud, qu'en Australie, c'est à ce<br />

type de conflit auquel on a assisté. Le<br />

Rouge_Egocentrique, confiant de sa force se<br />

Conflit<br />

battait contre la déchéance. Le Bleu_Loyaliste demandait que la tradition, la place de chacun<br />

dans la société soit respectée. L'Orange_Stratège pensait aux coûts de l'apartheid, aux<br />

conséquences internationales (embargo), alors que le Vert_Consensuel était à la recherche<br />

d'un moyen de partager au sein d'une <strong>com</strong>munauté nationale.<br />

Ainsi, on a "transformé" un conflit qui apparaissait initialement <strong>com</strong>me un conflit racial et/ou<br />

ethnique en un conflit culturel basé sur des systèmes de valeurs identifiés, quantifiés,<br />

raisonnablement acceptable offrant des ouvertures pour permettre une médiation.<br />

D'autres lieux de conflits persistent-ils aujourd'hui ? Sans nul doute. Les entreprises<br />

multinationales où chaque représentation locale est marquée par sa culture propre est un<br />

exemple que nous explorerons plus loin. Mais il est sans doute envisageable que de tels<br />

conflits existent dans les organisations internationales, les ONG, l'école devenue<br />

multiculturelle, et plus près de chacun dans certaines familles biculturelles.<br />

168


Win:Win:Win<br />

WIN:WIN la gestion des conflits traditionnelle, répond parfaitement à un conflit entre A et B.<br />

WIN:WIN est par contre l'équation impossible d'un conflit culturel. En effet, "Racistes" et<br />

"Antiracistes" ne peuvent gagner en même temps. Dans la structure de profondeur, chacune<br />

des couleurs peut gagner : considération et respect du Rouge_Egocentrique, création d'une<br />

loi satisfaisant Bleu_Loyaliste, développement économique pour Orange_Stratège, enfin<br />

apparition d'une véritable <strong>com</strong>munauté nationale souhaitée par le Vert_Consensuel. Cette<br />

dernière solution entraîne, de plus, un troisième WIN, celui de la Spirale. Le WIN qui permet à<br />

chaque culture de continuer à évoluer, celui de la Dynamique.<br />

Médiation dans une <strong>com</strong>pagnie Globale<br />

Participer, être le médiateur d'un conflit national est limité par le petit nombre de pays. Les<br />

entreprises globales sont un terrain propice à de multiples médiations multiculturelles.<br />

Prenons le cas de cette entreprise leader dans les télé<strong>com</strong>s et Internet : 37 000 personnes<br />

dans le monde, pratiquement implantée dans tous les pays.<br />

Afin d'augmenter les ventes en Europe (Orange_Stratège), Afrique, et Moyen-orient (EMEA)<br />

il est mis en place un vaste programme de voyages d'études destinés aux dirigeants<br />

d'entreprise, recteurs d'université, ministres, directeurs d'hôpitaux, bref, dans ce monde là,<br />

ce que l'on appelle "level C", CEO, CTO,CFO…<br />

Plusieurs éléments caractérisent la <strong>com</strong>plexité du système :<br />

1. Le nombre de places par voyage est limité (120 à 350) aussi chaque candidature doitelle<br />

être analysée en fonction du potentiel économique qu'elle représente. Ex. la<br />

candidature de tel ministre d'un petit pays pauvre peut apparaître moins intéressante que<br />

celle du recteur d'une université d'un pays riche.<br />

2. Le voyage d'étude <strong>com</strong>prend généralement plusieurs déplacements à travers un<br />

continent : Ex. La première partie se fera à la Nouvelle Orléans, la seconde à San<br />

Francisco. Toute la logistique doit être organisée en conséquence : transports locaux,<br />

sécurité et visas, hébergement, repas (en tenant <strong>com</strong>pte des particularités culturelles et<br />

des régimes spéciaux nécessaires à certains), protocole, gestion des agendas<br />

particuliers (visite d'un des participants à son ambassade, à une autorité du pays<br />

d'accueil), gestion des aléas (2 guerres, un tremblement de terre, 11/9, SRAS…).<br />

169


3. Pour gérer ce projet, trois équipes sont mises en place :<br />

a. Une équipe décisionnaire en Europe<br />

dont la tâche est de définir qui, parmi les<br />

candidats, sera retenu pour le voyage.<br />

b. Une équipe logistique et d'accueil sur le<br />

continent où se passe le voyage<br />

d'étude.<br />

Décisionnaires<br />

Logistique<br />

Médiation<br />

c. Une équipe chargée de la médiation entre le participant potentiel et les équipes<br />

décisionnaires ou logistiques. Cette équipe est également chargée de la médiation<br />

avec les forces de ventes concernées dans chacun des pays.<br />

4. Afin de promouvoir les nouvelles technologies <strong>com</strong>mercialisées par l'organisateur, il est<br />

décidé que la seule interface <strong>com</strong>mune à cette <strong>com</strong>munauté naissante<br />

(Vert_Consensuel) sera une solution informatique (Jaune_Systémique) faisant appel à<br />

Internet pour tenir <strong>com</strong>pte des décalages horaires et de la répartition géographique des<br />

différents intervenants dans le processus.<br />

L'enjeu de la médiation est de faire en sorte que quelque soit la culture, l'origine du<br />

participant, du vendeur dans un pays, les informations nécessaires aux décisionnaires et à<br />

l'équipe logistique soient transmises à des dates précises (Jour/heure).<br />

La Spirale en Action<br />

La différence entre "faire" et "ne pas faire" est…"faire". Comment amener un vendeur russe,<br />

français, anglais, allemand, portugais, ou encore sud africain, albanais, palestinien à passer<br />

sous les fourches caudines d'un système <strong>com</strong>plexe taillé sur mesure pour des équipes<br />

californiennes ou londoniennes ? Quelles pouvaient être les raisons de non faire ? Elles<br />

seront perçues <strong>com</strong>me agressions par les promoteurs du projet. Comment les recadrer pour<br />

obtenir le résultat souhaité ?<br />

‣ Dans le Pourpre_Animiste : la raison de non faire tient à la position du futur<br />

participant : C'est de notre ministre, notre recteur dont il s'agit. Le recadrage a été : il<br />

s'agit d'assurer sa sécurité, son confort.<br />

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‣ Dans le Rouge_Egocentrique : les raisons de non faire pouvaient être : je me<br />

débrouille seul". Il est inacceptable que quelqu'un d'autre fasse à ma place. Les<br />

recadrages ont pu être : vos chefs en ont décidé autrement, d'autres se battent avec<br />

nous et non contre nous pour avoir des places, vous serez le seul à avoir les lauriers<br />

quand tout se sera bien passé.<br />

‣ Dans le Bleu_Loyaliste : les raisons de non faire tournaient essentiellement autour de<br />

: ce n'est pas <strong>com</strong>me ça qu'on fait d'habitude, nos règles locales sont différentes, il<br />

me faut des autorisations locales. Le recadrage est passé par le rappel de l'existence<br />

d'une autorité supérieure à l'autorité locale : VP Europe, Marketing du siège, d'une<br />

tradition d'innovations rapides dans la <strong>com</strong>pagnie, qu'il y a un sens à visiter la Silicon<br />

Valley quand on s'occupe de télé<strong>com</strong>s<br />

‣ Dans l'Orange_Stratège : les raisons de non faire tournaient essentiellement autour<br />

de : ça prend trop de temps, et pendant ce temps je ne m'occupe pas de mes clients.<br />

Le recadrage était : essaye une fois, ça rapporte, voici les résultats des opérations<br />

précédentes. Une autre possibilité était : c'est nouveau et ça peut rapporter gros.<br />

‣ Peu ou pas de raisons de non faire sont apparues dans le Vert_Consensuel soit<br />

parce que la population concernée n'avait pas activé beaucoup de vert soit parce que<br />

le projet était <strong>com</strong>muniqué dans le sens de la création de nouvelles <strong>com</strong>munautés de<br />

réflexion.<br />

Il est arrivé rarement qu'un seul système culturel s'exprime, plus fréquente était l'expression<br />

de deux systèmes simultanément. Dans le "pire" des cas, l'expression se faisait dans deux<br />

systèmes ν nos règles locales sont différentes ν ça prend trop de temps; suivi d'une<br />

intervention de la hiérarchie locale ν C'est à moi seul de prendre ces décisions.<br />

L'expérience a appris de plus, que chaque pays pouvait être caractérisé par une couleur<br />

dominante qui revenait systématiquement. Ainsi les vendeurs anglais activaient de l'Orange<br />

et les vendeurs russes du Bleu.<br />

On retient alors que chaque Système de valeurs recevait une réponse dans son V Mème afin<br />

d'accepter de nourrir le système informatique de médiation. Ceci correspond au WIN:WIN.<br />

171


Sur une durée de 4 ans, après de 30 voyages d'études et 8500+ participants venant de 60<br />

pays, on a assisté à une disparition des conflits dans le Rouge_Egocentrique et a une large<br />

diminution du nombre des interpellations dans le Bleu_Loyaliste . C'est le troisième WIN.<br />

De l'apartheid à la réalisation d'un projet multinational au sein d'une entreprise globale, la<br />

Spirale a montré son intérêt en tant que modèle explicatif et outil d'intervention dans les<br />

conflits multiculturels et ethniques.<br />

Le principal apport a été de permettre une clarification des arguments conflictuels de<br />

surface par une révélation des enjeux en profondeur. C'est à ce niveau, qu'ont été<br />

satisfaits chacuns des V Mème. C'est là le rôle de la médiation.<br />

Au-delà, la médiation doit permettre l'évolution des vagues culturelles permettant<br />

ainsi une expansion vers les systèmes les moins agressifs.<br />

N'est-il pas envisageable alors, de penser que l'émergence de la médiation, en tant<br />

qu'élément culturel soit la traduction de la diffusion de nouvelles valeurs ? Du passage d'une<br />

résolution des conflits basé sur un système Bleu_loyaliste où la loi est le seul moyen de<br />

régler un conflit à un système Orange_Stratège ? Dans cette affirmative, la médiation<br />

marque une nouvelle vague culturelle.<br />

172


Podemos hablas acerca de la interdisciplina en la mediación ?<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Dr. Luis Carlos Escarrá<br />

Dr. en Ciencias Económicas, Negociador, Mediador, Arbitro<br />

Dra. María del Carmen Nadal<br />

Contadora Pública, Negociadora, Mediadora, Arbitro.(Argentina)<br />

1. INTRODUCTORIO<br />

1.1 El ecumenicismo en la Mediación<br />

Como toda tarea humana que pretende ser beneficiosa para la Humanidad en general, el<br />

desarrollo de la Mediación <strong>com</strong>o uno de los mecanismos utilizables para la convivencia<br />

pacífica debe llevar sus beneficios a todos los rincones del orbe, y en su difusión debemos<br />

<strong>com</strong>prometernos los Mediadores que abrazamos la Mediación <strong>com</strong>o vocación, sin distinción<br />

de sexo, edad, nacionalidad, profesión, religión u otras circunstancias.<br />

Esta tarea deberíamos auto imponérnosla <strong>com</strong>o uno de nuestros propósitos fundamentales,<br />

si aceptamos que nuestra vocación vale este esfuerzo adicional y permanente en búsqueda<br />

de esa paz tan ansiada <strong>com</strong>o lejana .<br />

El presente trabajo se ha efectuado en función de estas premisas de promoción en cuanto<br />

ámbito humano actuemos y pretende hacer un modesto aporte al tema. Es que <strong>com</strong>o toda<br />

construcción social, para que la Mediación se inserte en el tejido social debe hacerlo en todo<br />

el orden mundial, ya que de otra manera si solamente penetra en una sola o varias partes<br />

del mundo, dejando afuera del sistema culturas que no conozcan sus bondades, éstas las<br />

rechazarán.<br />

Es la cultura de los pueblos, la que al decir de Fredy Kofman " podría considerar la cultura<br />

<strong>com</strong>o un modelo mental colectivo" , el contexto que rodea a los individuos en el ámbito<br />

social al que pertenece, y esa distinción de pertenencia los hace en general adoptar sus<br />

motivaciones, sus principios, sus hábitos, sus costumbres, sus definiciones, en fin todo<br />

aquello que los ubica <strong>com</strong>o ciudadanos de determinado país o región.<br />

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Si en esa cultura no está aceptado,asentado y arraigado en el modelo mental individual que<br />

la Mediación es una de las soluciones aptas para resolver sus conflictos, dificilmente<br />

podremos expandirla, y en estos casos y dentro del mapa mundial la Mediación será<br />

solamente una serie de manchas regionales de aceptación , que es lo que debemos revertir.<br />

La ecumenicidad en la Mediación es el gran reto al que nos enfrentamos, y el que debemos<br />

cumplir si queremos que se instale en este mundo tan conflictivo en el que vivimos.<br />

1.2. La construcción de la realidad<br />

Como construye el individuo su realidad ? Siguiendo a Fredy Kofman, mediante dos<br />

contextos : El contexto que lo rodea y su propio modelo mental.<br />

El primero podemos decir que es el que lo va influenciando permanentemente en la<br />

construcción de su propia historia. El individuo es lo que él va construyendo de sí mismo,<br />

desde que tiene uso de razón y puede ejercer tanto su libre albedrío <strong>com</strong>o su autonomía de<br />

la voluntad , dentro del marco político, económico, social, cultural y familiar que lo contiene<br />

" El contexto del mundo es el conjunto de objetos físicos, interpretaciones generalmente<br />

aceptadas y prácticas sociales que rodean al elemento en cuestión ".<br />

En cuanto al modelo mental nos habla que el "contexto mental es el conjunto de sentidos,<br />

supuestos, reglas de razonamiento, inferencias, etc. que nos llevan a hacer determinada<br />

interpretación".<br />

Si a ello agregamos toda la gama de percepciones sensoriales , la <strong>com</strong>unicación a través<br />

del lenguaje ( palabra, gestualidad, emocionalidad) propias de cada individuo, tendremos a<br />

alguien que está inserto en la sociedad, participa de ellas, y si bien tiene concepciones<br />

diferentes que son las semillas de la conflictividad entre los seres humanos, ya que cada<br />

persona es única e irrepetible, y se diferencia de otras , también lleva en su propia historia la<br />

posibilidad tácita o expresa de la aceptación pacífica de los valores y verdades que la<br />

cultura del pueblo al que pertenece reconoce <strong>com</strong>o válidos.<br />

Y es así <strong>com</strong>o el individuo construye su propia realidad, y al <strong>com</strong>unicarse con los demás<br />

individuos que forman parte de su sociedad de pertenencia y aceptan determinados valores<br />

culturales <strong>com</strong>o verdaderos, construyen entre todos una conciencia colectiva que fija valores<br />

positivos ( o a veces negativos) sobre determinadas pautas culturales, especialmente<br />

aquellas que tienden a brindarle solución a sus problemas cotidianos, y entre estas pautas<br />

174


es donde debe insertarse la Mediación, tratando de ser una construcción social de la<br />

realidad.<br />

1.3. La construcción social de la realidad<br />

Como llegamos a que algo sea verdad en el concierto social ? Cuando los individuos de<br />

una sociedad en su conjunto aceptan normas, reglas, convenciones, asertos o cualquier<br />

otra forma de definición de algo que la gran mayoría incorpora a su propia historia<br />

aceptándolo tal <strong>com</strong>o se lo define, sea ello construcción de algo físico o mental.<br />

Y la construcción social de la realidad, independientemente de los códigos con que<br />

definamos eso que para todos nosotros es verdadero, es justamente el acuerdo de la mayor<br />

parte de los habitantes del mundo de que eso que definimos es la verdad y es una realidad<br />

aceptada por nosotros.<br />

Y por más <strong>com</strong>pleja que sea una definición, siempre será verdad por cuanto todos la<br />

aceptamos, y así, entre todos, construimos la realidad social. Y <strong>com</strong>o surge esta<br />

construcción social ? Por la inter<strong>com</strong>unicación y el consenso de la mayoría que la convierte<br />

en verdades, y que es en general la forma <strong>com</strong>o la Humanidad se ha ido formando a través<br />

de permanentes y sucesivos cambios que producen el devenir de nuestra raza.<br />

Lamentablemente el transcurrir de la humanidad nos ha mostrado por un lado una enorme<br />

evolución tecnológica , y por el otro, una involución de los más nobles sentimientos<br />

humanitarios y valores y verdades espirituales, y la actual destrucción del hombre por el<br />

hombre , muchas veces con pretextos fútiles , nos está señalando que un cambio de rumbo<br />

en pos de la preservación de nuestra especie y una consiguiente mejor convivencia pacífica<br />

es totalmente deseable.<br />

1.4. La Mediación <strong>com</strong>o construcción de la realidad<br />

Esta convivencia pacífica puede ser ayudada por la Mediación, si logramos que en el<br />

entretejido social podamos insertarnos los Mediadores, y seamos aceptados, <strong>com</strong>o agentes<br />

de paz a través de la posibilidad de la resolución de los conflictos que efectuemos a través<br />

de nuestra intervención.<br />

Y <strong>com</strong>o podremos lograr esto ? Es solamente a través de la difusión de los beneficios que<br />

aporta a las personas el resolver sus conflictos mediante métodos no adversariales <strong>com</strong>o<br />

son los de la Mediación.<br />

175


En la medida que todos los Mediadores nos impongamos la tarea apostolar de ir<br />

difundiendo, aún con la metodología simple y efectiva de Teresa de Calcuta, la que,<br />

preguntada <strong>com</strong>o había hecho para ayudar a tantos niños en el mundo, respondió con la<br />

simpleza de los grandes del alma : " de a uno ", apuntaremos a nuestro objetivo.<br />

Y en esa difusión lo que evidentemente vale es el tratar de lograr una proyección geométrica<br />

que permita multiplicar por miles y millones los adeptos a utilizar la Mediación <strong>com</strong>o el<br />

método pacífico de solución de sus disputas y norma de acercamiento efectivo.<br />

Y esta posibilidad de inserción en el tejido social mundial será tanto más efectiva cuantos<br />

más Mediadores seamos, y ello nos lleva indefectiblemente a reflexionar sobre la<br />

interdisciplina en Mediación.<br />

2. LOS PORQUE DE LA INTERDISCIPLINA<br />

Comenzando esta parte del trabajo debemos señalar que el mismo está referido a la<br />

interdisciplina emanada de los Mediadores con título profesional universitario, que es en el<br />

ámbito de nuestro país, por razones legales, no significando esto discriminación alguna con<br />

quienes no lo poseen, sino que simplemente es una cuestión de metodología y de<br />

interdisciplina profesional.<br />

Reconocemos que fuera de él la Mediación es asimismo desarrollada con niveles de<br />

excelencia ,y sumaríamos a la problemática de la difusión de la Mediación a todas aquellas<br />

personas cuya vocación de servicio y experiencia en Mediación contribuyen a que la misma<br />

vaya siendo cada vez más reconocida.<br />

Hecha esta aclaración, pasemos a analizar los porque pensamos en la interdisciplina.<br />

2.1 Por la difusión a través de redes<br />

Porque pensamos que la interdisciplina en Mediación es la respuesta adecuada a gran parte<br />

de la problemática que hoy rodea a la Mediación <strong>com</strong>o disciplina mundial ? Porque<br />

responde a muchos de los requerimientos necesarios para avanzar en su expansión.<br />

Si queremos que el pueblo tenga el conocimiento de la Mediación debemos difundirla por<br />

todas partes, y es conveniente el crear redes inter<strong>com</strong>unicacionales de diversa índole, las<br />

que deben ser construídas por Mediadores, y para que haya más redes se necesitan más<br />

Mediadores, y esto se logra teniéndolos de todas las disciplinas científicas.<br />

176


Si solo una disciplina científica , representada por profesionales de su rama, es la única apta<br />

para ejercer la Mediación, cerraríamos un universo pequeño en relación con la totalidad del<br />

universo profesional , y ello nos llevaría a un menor número de redes.<br />

DETERMINAMOS UNA VENTAJA EN LA INTERDISCIPLINA POR EL HECHO DE PODER<br />

CONSTRUIR MUCHAS MAS REDES DE MEDIACION A TRAVES DE MEDIADORES DE<br />

TODAS LAS PROFESIONES.<br />

2.2 Por la eficacia, eficiencia y efectividad en una red interdisciplinaria<br />

Una red interdisciplinaria tiene enormes ventaja respecto de una red monodisciplinaria.<br />

ya que es mucho más eficaz en virtud de que su magnitud es mayor y por ende puede llegar<br />

a mas personas; al mismo tiempo produce una actividad y fuerza operacional emanada de<br />

diferentes contextos y por ello puede ser mas eficiente por contactar con muy distintos<br />

modelos mentales individuales que pueden procesar con mayor amplitud ests diferentes<br />

concepciones que si se tratara de un solo modelo conceptual que emanara de unala<br />

profesión, y ello conduce a que la internalización sea mas efectiva. DE ESTO SURGE LA<br />

EFECTIVIDAD DE UNA RED INTERDISCIPLINARIA.<br />

2.3. Por la co-mediación consecuencial<br />

Llamamos co- mediación consecuencial a aquella que ocurre <strong>com</strong>o consecuencia de una<br />

necesidad de amplitud de captación de información en temas específicos de cada una de las<br />

profesiones, cuando el Mediador seleccionado no pertenece a dicha profesión y prefiere<br />

realizar una co- mediación con un Mediador especialista en la temática de la que trate la<br />

Mediación, ya que éste reuniría las dos condiciones que sinergizarían la Mediación: conocer<br />

el tema y ser Mediador. SI NO HUBIERAN MEDIADORES DE OTRAS PROFESIONES EL<br />

MEDIADOR UNIPROFESIONAL DEBERIA LIDIAR CON SU IGNORANCIA O TRAER A LA<br />

MESA DE MEDIACION ALGUN ESPECIALISTA. ES MAS VENTAJOSO QUE HAYA<br />

MEDIADORES DE TODAS LAS DISCIPLINAS<br />

2.4 Por la apertura ecuménica hacia todos los conflictos.<br />

La interdisciplina en la Mediación realiza una apertura hacia la conflictividad que es<br />

abarcativa de la gran cantidad de temas, materias, clases, metodologías y demás<br />

<strong>com</strong>ponentes del desarrollo de la Mediación; ello significa que, sin tener necesidad de<br />

recurrir permanentemente a la co - mediación, existe en la población usuaria el poder utilizar<br />

los servicios de Mediadores especialistas en muy distintos temas.<br />

177


Esto trrae aparejada una mejor ubicación situacional del Mediador especialista en el tema a<br />

abordarse. La población usuaria ha de estar en lamejopr disposición para elegirá cual<br />

Mediador va a recurrir en función de su particular conflicto ; en una monodisciplina no<br />

tendría la libertad de elegir, lo que equivale a una restricción de sus derechos humanos, al<br />

tener que elegir a un Mediador de una sola profesión. LA INTERDISCIPLINA ABRE UN<br />

ABANICO DE POSIBILIDADES A TODO EL PUBLICO USUARIO.<br />

2.5. Por la respuesta a la <strong>com</strong>plejidad.<br />

El mundo actual es un mundo <strong>com</strong>plejo, uy una de las principales características de la<br />

<strong>com</strong>plejidad es la evidencia de las incapacidades para poder <strong>com</strong>prender la realidad <strong>com</strong>o<br />

unidimensional. Estamos contemplando un mundo, fenoménico que es un tejido de<br />

constituyentes heterogéneos inseparablemente asociados que contienen la paradoja de lo<br />

uno y lo múltiple.<br />

Es un mundo en el que la relación de simplicidad causa- efecto ya no tiene un mayor<br />

sentido, ya que un efecto puede seré productor de nuevas causas, y así sucesivamente.<br />

Es este mundo en que sus constituyentes están entramados asociativamente, y para poder<br />

resolver los problemas que plantea la <strong>com</strong>plejidad debemos asimismo entramarnos<br />

profesionalmente, ya que la contemplación a través de una disciplina unicista no resuelve<br />

los problemas y conflictos que se suscitan, lo que es posible solamente mediante el<br />

concurso interdisciplinario.<br />

Esto también ocurren en el plano de la conflictividad que se torna cada vez más <strong>com</strong>pleja y<br />

debe operarse en una Mediación en diversos sentidos, y para ello el concurso de varias<br />

disciplinas es más apto para <strong>com</strong>prender a las partes y así ayudarlas. SOLO LA<br />

INTERDISCIPLINA ES POSIBLEMENTE APTA PARA SOLUCIONAR LA COMPLEJIDAD.<br />

2.6 Por la <strong>com</strong>unidad de intereses profesionales a través de la interdisciplina<br />

El trato frecuente a través de redes de Mediadores que funcionen interconectadas formará<br />

entre ellos una relación en torno a una vocación y un objetivo <strong>com</strong>ún, y Este es el primer<br />

paso para que se unan y creen las conexiones interdisciplinarias que puedan llegar <strong>com</strong>o<br />

una solución viable de los <strong>com</strong>,plejos problemas que los conflictos presentan.<br />

Richard Benjamin ha sostenido que en todo conflicto hay presentes tres elementos: el<br />

económico, el legal y el emocional, por lo que una sola disciplina no es suficiente para<br />

<strong>com</strong>prenderlo.<br />

178


La <strong>com</strong>unidad de intereses profesionales en torno a la Mediación ha de reunir a todas las<br />

disciplinas, <strong>com</strong>o de hecho ya lo están haciendo en la discusión y desarrollo de doctrinas y<br />

al trabajo en talleres produciendo así un intercambio benéfico de conocimientos. LA<br />

INTERDISCIPLINA BRINDA A LOS PROFESIONALES MEDIADORES UNA MAYOR Y<br />

MEJOR CAPACITACION PARA PODER PRESTAR MEJORES SERVICIOS EN<br />

MEDIACION.<br />

2.7 Por la formación y desarrollo de Agentes de la Paz en el orden mundial.<br />

Todo lo dicho anteriormente nos llevan inexorablemente a defender la causa de la<br />

interdisciplinariedad en la Mediación, ya que habrá mayor cantidad de Mediadores en todo el<br />

orbe y por ende una mayor cantidad de Agentes de la Paz, a través de la Mediación.<br />

LA INTERDISCIPLINARIEDAD EN MEDIACION FORJARÁ MAYOR CANTIDAD DE<br />

AGENTES DE LA PAZ EN EL ORDEN MUNDIAL.<br />

3. EL ESTADO ACTUAL DE SITUACION<br />

Hubiéramos deseado que sobre estos temas prácticos realizar un Taller, por la oportunidad<br />

única de estar reunidos Mediadores de muchos países, ocasión propicia para analizar la<br />

posibilidad de que cuaje la idea de organizar un sistema a través del Foro Mundial que nos<br />

allegue toda la información posible a nivel mundial para elaborar estrategias de desarrollo.<br />

Expondremos muy brevemente la situación al presente de nuestro país, con algunos<br />

agregados de otras regiones.<br />

3.1. La situación en el orden privado<br />

En la República Argentina hay una mayoría de Mediadores Abogados, especialmente en la<br />

capital de la República, la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Esto ha surgido <strong>com</strong>o<br />

corolario que la única Ley Nacional sobre la materia, fué proyectada primigeniamente <strong>com</strong>o<br />

interdisciplinaria, por decisión de la Legislatura (con mayoría de diputados y Senadores<br />

Abogados)se transformó en una Ley de concurrencia obligatoria a una sesión de Mediación<br />

previa a instaurar un juicio en los Tribunales.<br />

Esta Ley está vigente hasta la fecha con casi 10 años y que ha regido solamente para la<br />

Capital Federal y Juzgados Federales, y los Mediadores deben ser obligadamente<br />

Abogados, y cada una de las partes deben concurrir a la Mediación cada una con su<br />

Abogado.<br />

179


Las provincias han dictado leyes de Mediación en la que hay favorables a la interdisciplina<br />

(provincia de Chaco, Córdoba, Santa Fé) y otras con leyes, o proyectos de leyes <strong>com</strong>o el<br />

caso de la provincia de Buenos Aires, interdisciplinarias en su decir pero con articulados<br />

favorables a la obligatoriedad que para asuntos específicos los Mediadores deben ser<br />

Abogados (los poderes públicos provinciales están formados por una mayoría de abogados<br />

respecto de otras profesiones).<br />

Como consecuencia de ello la <strong>com</strong>posición es la siguiente: Concentración notable de<br />

Mediadores, con una mayoría de Abogados en la Capital Federal, con pocos Mediadores de<br />

algunas otras profesiones (Arquitectos, Escribanos, Contadores Públicos y algunos - muy<br />

pocos - de otras profesiones universitarias. En las provincias se repite esta <strong>com</strong>posición, con<br />

mucha menor cantidad de Mediadores y en realidad, con poca penetración en sus<br />

poblaciones, predominando el concepto que la Mediación es materia de Abogados.<br />

Pocos Centros de Mediación privados ( la mayoría de Abogados en Capital Federal) y<br />

realmente poco asentamiento de la Mediación privada en el <strong>com</strong>ún y en estamentos en los<br />

que realmente esta herramienta sería de utilización masiva <strong>com</strong>o el sector organizacional.<br />

Una modesta investigación en Chicago, E.E.U.U. con una población de 13 millones de<br />

personas, ha dado <strong>com</strong>o panorama que la Mediación está asimismo mayoritariamente en<br />

manos de Abogados, aunque en el país no se requiera titulo universitario para ser Mediador<br />

Otra investigación realizada en Barcelona,provincia de Cataluña, España, ha dado<br />

resultados similares , aunque hay esfuerzos por parte de alguna profesión de marcar nuevos<br />

rumbos en materia empresarial..<br />

3.2 La Mediación institucionalizada<br />

Llamamos Mediación institucionalizada a aquella que se realiza tanto en el orden privado<br />

<strong>com</strong>o en el orden oficial ( a través de organismos del Estado) mediante instituciones que<br />

tienen <strong>com</strong>o principal objetivo la práctica y la difusión de la Mediación.<br />

En este aspecto, en Capital Federal hay muchas instituciones privadas de vieja raigambre<br />

en la temática, a las que se agregan nuevas, que en su gran mayoría son Entidades<br />

Formadoras de Mediadores ( hay más de 170 registradas en el Ministerio de Justicia de la<br />

Nación) y que se ocupan de la difusión de la Mediación; en ellas una gran parte son<br />

interdisciplinarias, pero por la preeminencia del número, su <strong>com</strong>posición es<br />

mayoritariamente de Abogados.<br />

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Asimismo estas organizaciones, <strong>com</strong>o así también muchos Consejos y Colegios<br />

Profesionales, tienen en su seno formados Centros de Mediación, para atención de sus<br />

matriculados y del público en general, pero no le son requeridas prestaciones masivas de<br />

servicios.<br />

Por otra parte, varios organismos de Gobierno Nacionales, provinciales y aún municipales<br />

tienen asimismo Centros en donde se atienden demandas de la población ( p.E. Defensa del<br />

Consumidor ) que cumplen un rol de atención de conflictos.<br />

Esto, en muy apretada síntesis, es lo que ocurre con la Mediación en Argentina, en donde<br />

se nota la falta de una inserción de tipo popular, base de un asentamiento positivo en su<br />

cultura .<br />

4. LA PROYECCION FUTURA DE LA MEDIACION<br />

4.1. El desarrollo de la Mediación en el orden privado.<br />

Es a todas luces evidente que no hay, (por lo menos no es notable) la necesaria e<br />

imprescindible penetración en el tejido social de la Mediación y de sus beneficios, y esto es<br />

lo que conspira contra su crecimiento y desarrollo sostenido en el orden mundial.<br />

En la realidad social hay consolidados valores difíciles de reemplazar, <strong>com</strong>o el aceptar que<br />

los conflictos se resuelven en la Justicia, y esta es- <strong>com</strong>o señaláramos anteriormente - la<br />

principal tarea que los Mediadores del mundo debemos cargar sobre nuestra espaldas y<br />

resolverlo.<br />

Debemos lograr desplazar la concepción señalada por otra que esté al tope de las mentes<br />

de los ciudadanos que les indique que, antes de recurrir a la Justicia, hay otros métodos no<br />

adversariales más convenientes y disponibles en todo momento, cuya celeridad, bajo costo<br />

y gran posibilidad de re<strong>com</strong>posición de relaciones rotas por los conflictos los hacen<br />

sumamente atractivos <strong>com</strong>o una solución viable a sus disputas.<br />

De lograrse estola Mediación privada crecerá con ritmo sostenido y obtendrá el<br />

posicionamiento deseado.<br />

4.2. El desarrollo de la Mediación en las Organizaciones<br />

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Lo mismo que en el orden privado, todas las Organizaciones privadas dedicadas a la<br />

Mediación deberían concertar un plan de acción conjunta para llevar adelante la difusión de<br />

la Mediación, apoyando y fomentando la difusión a través de los Mediadores que están<br />

insertos en sus propias Organizaciones.<br />

Si bien esta concepción es posible, sabemos que posiblemente andemos por caminos<br />

espinosos, ya que cada Organización tiene sus propias metas que son <strong>com</strong>petitivas unas<br />

con otras, y ello ha de conspirar evidentemente contra el desarrollo de una actividad<br />

conjunta.<br />

Pero las Organizaciones deben <strong>com</strong>prender que si este árbol de la Mediación no crece y se<br />

reproduce, quedará en soledad y muy posiblemente muera por falta de nutrientes.<br />

Si la regla es, Crezcamos o Desaparecemos, no creemos que haya mayores alternativas<br />

que ponerse de acuerdo, y el acuerdo es justamente uno de los fines de la Mediación.<br />

Por otra parte, la incentivación de la utilización de la Mediación dentro de las Organizaciones<br />

de toda clase deberá ser otro punto de atención de las organizaciones dedicadas a la<br />

Mediación.<br />

4.3 El aporte de los Estados<br />

En este aspecto, aquellos Estados que están apoyando la institucionalización de la<br />

Mediación, deberían redoblar sus esfuerzos para que, en todos los estamentos de Gobierno,<br />

se desarrolle <strong>com</strong>o una práctica constante el ejercicio de la Mediación, llevando desde el<br />

ámbito escolar, lugar primigenio de inserción mental en los futuros ciudadanos , hasta todos<br />

los ámbitos en los que el Estado tenga presencia o influencia .<br />

4.4. Hacia la implantación de la Mediación en el orden mundial.<br />

Es necesario un concierto de voluntades decididas a proyectar, primero en donde estén<br />

asentados los Mediadores , en una técnica de difusión inicial boca a boca, en donde ellos<br />

hablen a sus amistades, conocidos, colegas, gente de su relación, etc. y vayan<br />

convenciendo para que acepten la Mediación, especialmente tratando de lograr que no solo<br />

la adopten sino que a su vez la difundan.<br />

Al mismo tiempo, y en la medida de las posibilidades de las Organizaciones privadas y<br />

públicas dedicadas a la Mediación, se debería elaborar un plan de difusión masivo en apoyo<br />

de la campaña unipersonal de los Mediadores.<br />

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Con<strong>com</strong>itantemente se debería intensificar la práctica de la Mediación, ya sea mediante la<br />

realización de mediaciones gratuitas a los estamentos de menores recursos, para así<br />

asentarlas en la población.<br />

Asimismo es necesario relacionarse con todas las organizaciones públicas o privadas que<br />

trabajan en favor de la Paz, para que también ellas sean vehículo de llevar la Mediación a<br />

todos los sectores del orbe.<br />

El desafío está planteado; solamente falta el ánimo y la decisión de convocarnos para la<br />

gran tarea de ubicar la Mediación <strong>com</strong>o una de las posibles soluciones de los conflictos que<br />

hoy agobian al mundo que habitamos.<br />

NOTA AL PIE<br />

Si fuera el Foro Mundial de Mediación el vehículo utilizable para la realización de un Plan<br />

General de Información Situacional, y posteriormente una Plan Estratégico de Inserción<br />

Mundial, es viable la confección de una serie de pautas programática a seguir , habida<br />

cuenta que en varios países, y regiones de esos países, se cuenta con Representantes del<br />

Foro Mundial que serían los agentes a cargo, en el Plan General de Información Situacional,<br />

de obtener la información necesaria para saber todo cuanto sea pertinente a los<br />

lineamientos del Plan.<br />

Por ello el Foro Mundial debería desarrollar en primer lugar los lineamientos del Plan que se<br />

deberá ejecutar; en segundo lugar se iría preparando la forma en la que se realizará un<br />

censo de todos los Mediadores, tanto los asociados al Foro <strong>com</strong>o los que no lo sean , a fin<br />

de contar con información fidedigna de la cantidad y calidad de Mediadores que hay en cada<br />

país, y en tercer lugar, el censo de todas las organizaciones que tengan relación con la<br />

Mediación.<br />

Para <strong>com</strong>enzar, esta tarea sería más que suficiente.<br />

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Milan Mediation Model<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Dr. L. Fong<br />

C. Psych, Registered Family Mediator. Chartered Mediator Calgary, Alberta<br />

If you did nothing more when you have a family together than to make it possible for<br />

them to really look at each other, really touch each other, and listen to each other, you<br />

would have swung the pendulum in the direction of a new start<br />

Virginia Satir<br />

1. The Milan systemic model of thinking, sometimes called the Milan model or Milan<br />

method, refers to a clinical practice that was first developed by 4<br />

psychiatrists/psychoanalysts in Milan, Italy. They were Dr’s Palazzoli, Luigi Boscolo,<br />

Ginfrenco Checchin, and Gullina Prata. They collaborated and developed many new<br />

systemic concepts and innovative interventions with families who were in distress.<br />

2. Many people find the model straightforward and simple, but it is quite <strong>com</strong>plex in nature<br />

as are human <strong>com</strong>munications.<br />

3. While the Milan model had 3 basic concepts, the Calgary model added an important 4 th<br />

concept. The Milan model used hypothesizing, circular questions, and neutrality as the 3<br />

pillars of the model, while the Calgary model incorporated the fourth pillar, strategizing.<br />

The 4 th concept was demonstrated at the AFCC Annual Conference in June of 2002 in<br />

Hawaii, and has been used world wide in other international trainings.<br />

4. Although the Milan approach first <strong>com</strong>menced in 1967, it wasn’t until 1971 that the Milan<br />

model took shape, adopting the Mental Research Institute (MRI), so called Palo Alto<br />

model. They drew heavily from such luminaries in the field, as Jackson, Watzlawick and<br />

Haley, all prominent authors in the 1960's.<br />

5. The Milan team soon thereafter isolated themselves as a group to avoid direct contact<br />

with other therapists in an effort to create a model consistent with their own needs. The<br />

Milan Model has been adapted so that its frame of reference can be related to mediation.<br />

6. This particular Milan model has been adapted for use in mediation and it has been used<br />

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in at least twenty different countries throughout the world in a formal way since the mid-<br />

1980's. Both Dr. Haynes and Dr. Fong have incorporated this type of “thinking about your<br />

thinking” model in their training methods.<br />

7. In this mediation model, the mediator sees behaviour in a very <strong>com</strong>plex manner, and<br />

entertains many different hypothesis at any given time.<br />

8. The mediator is seen as assisting in the catalyst for change in the clients thinking about<br />

their thinking.<br />

9. Indeed, the interview with the clients is the intervention. It involves everything that is<br />

said/not said, everything that is done/not done.<br />

Hypothesizing<br />

10. Hypotheses, are neither true nor false, they are simply useful or not useful to the clients<br />

understanding of their mutual problem. Thus, multiple hypotheses are not considered to<br />

be facts or truths, but simply perceptions at a particular time.<br />

11. Mediators who have hypotheses use the information provided by the clients to find<br />

hypotheses that best meet the needs of the clients explanation of the problem and<br />

solution.<br />

12. The hypothesis is really the working thoughts of the mediator, and changes over time.<br />

13. Hypothesizing is simply a point for investigation that is based on information that the<br />

clients provide to the mediator. It is much different than a bias, which is a preconceived<br />

idea about what is happening, which is quite different than hypothesizing which is based<br />

on much more curiosity.<br />

14. This tentative hunch on why the problem occurs is formulated through receipt of<br />

information from the clients. Confirmation of a hypothesis is conducted through<br />

questioning.<br />

15. Hypothesizing allows for the mediator to conduct the session and obtain information in a<br />

systematic way so that there is less chance for “flying by the seat of your pants” in the<br />

session. Hypothesizing provides form and function to the mediation session.<br />

16. Hypotheses are confirmed as useful to the clients when they accept an idea or<br />

explanation of their difficulties.<br />

17. The mediation model sees relationships, reflexive and reflective and does not attempt to<br />

put emphasis on any one particular person having more influence than another.<br />

18. The Milan model places great emphasis upon the interview itself. Indeed, the interview<br />

was the intervention.<br />

19. The interview style of the Milan method is basically premised on a search for differences<br />

in events, circumstances, behaviours or relationships.<br />

20. As in much of the literature by author Peggy Papp on future focus and mapping,<br />

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mediators using the systemic approach attempt to paint a picture for the clients that is<br />

ultimately more acceptable to them than what they had prior to <strong>com</strong>ing to the session.<br />

21. In the mediation model, the mediator, through questioning, explores differences in<br />

relationships and behaviours throughout time so that new information can be released to<br />

the clients, and they can see a connection between events, behaviours, or relationships.<br />

22. Secondary, the mediator explores differences in an effort to gather information to ensure<br />

that the hypothesis meet the clients needs, and thus gives form and function to the<br />

session through the questions that the mediator asks.<br />

Neutrality<br />

23. In the Milan model neutrality is one of the tenets of mediation. The mediator attempts to<br />

remain on a level to the parties that are in front of them. Indeed, neutrality is more<br />

defined as multi-positional versus positional.<br />

24. Neutrality in mediation allows mediators to be free of the clients notion of “good or bad”<br />

and thus the mediator, through naive and respectful curiosity, be<strong>com</strong>es less moral and<br />

less judgemental.<br />

25. Neutrality is all about being aligned to everyone and no one at the same time. Neutrality<br />

is about being multi-positional.<br />

26. In neutrality, the mediator does not claim to know what is accurate or true, or what might<br />

be useful or not useful. The mediator attempts to align with any of the clients and<br />

attempts to accept everything as taking place in the present.<br />

27. Neutrality is enhanced by reflective and future oriented questions. Many decisions in the<br />

Court are determined by an investigation of the past. Mediators help clients with<br />

reflection about the future by talking about the future.<br />

Questioning<br />

28. Questions in essence, how much more circular than linear. Linear questions are much<br />

more oriented toward fault and do not provide provocative information to the clients.<br />

29. Linear questioning follows one unidirection. Reflective and reflexive questions are those<br />

that make clients think about their thinking and as well create change in the clients.<br />

30. Strategic questions are those that are purposeful. Many lawyers use these types of<br />

questions. Lawyers are trained never to ask questions that they do not already have an<br />

answer to.<br />

31. The most inviting and provocative questions to change are those that are reflective and<br />

likewise promote a sense of difference. Questions that are relational (those that show a<br />

difference between two of something) invite difference and change.<br />

32. One of the most important <strong>com</strong>ponents of the Milan method is the use of circular<br />

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questioning. Sometimes know as reflective or reflects of question, this general theme of<br />

questioning results as the type of question where the mediator conducts their<br />

investigation on the basis of feedback from the clients, and solicits ideas and perceptions<br />

they have about relationships, and thus a difference and change (see the inserts for<br />

types of questions).<br />

33. Questions about the future put families in a “metaposition” to their own difficulties.<br />

Changes for the clients tend to be facilitated by creating new solutions for old problems.<br />

34. Questions in itself were further addressed by Gregory Bateson, who stated “Always the<br />

most beautiful answer, who asked the more difficult question. You see, I am not asking<br />

another question each time. I am making the same question bigger.”<br />

35. All future oriented questions which are hypothetical in nature assist clients with new<br />

solutions with different behavioural actions. Future focused questions foster critical<br />

thinking and make direct <strong>com</strong>parisons and differences that clients can understand.<br />

36. Thus, when questions are given to clients in a hypothetical manner, the event has not yet<br />

occurred and therefore, the discussion occurs with a high degree of safety. Many clients<br />

can feel more safe talking about the future than the past.<br />

37. When clients consider themselves in their own future, the future clothes them in their<br />

present.<br />

38. Clients who focus in the past are frozen in their alternatives for change. Even their future<br />

thoughts are frozen. Mediators help keep their alternatives fluid.<br />

39. Indeed, future oriented thoughts and questions include hopes, values, fantasies, and<br />

wishes, which provide clients with the ability and capacity to discuss difficulties that again<br />

have not yet occurred. Although integral to finding out information about the clients,<br />

questions from the past are deemed as problematic, and future oriented questions, those<br />

that provide hope.<br />

40. The Milan model is a “learning to learn” modality of understanding and learning about<br />

change. Change and stability are the same side of a recursive coin.<br />

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SYSTEMIC MODEL FOR QUESTIONING<br />

Lineal Questions:<br />

Relational or “Circular” Questions:<br />

These are questions that are anecdotal in<br />

nature. They can be informative<br />

(demographics) but are not meant to be<br />

stimulating or provocative. Problem<br />

definition/explanation questions are good<br />

examples.<br />

These are questions about a difference that<br />

makes a difference. A question of a<br />

difference is a “circular or relational” question<br />

when the question asks a difference between<br />

two of something. Behavioural effect<br />

questions are an example of relationship<br />

questions.<br />

Strategic questions:<br />

Reflective Questions:<br />

These are questions that lawyers might use.<br />

They are meant to elicit one type of a<br />

response, such as “Yes or no”. The asker of<br />

the question might already know what the<br />

answer might be. These can be confrontive<br />

questions or leading questions.<br />

Questions that ask clients to ponder or<br />

reflect. They are meant to be provocative<br />

but are not meant to be judgemental like<br />

strategic questions. Hypothetical future<br />

questions are examples.<br />

Temporal Difference Questions (Time)<br />

Past<br />

Past<br />

Past<br />

Present<br />

Future<br />

1.Past to Present to the Future<br />

2.Two or more Future events<br />

Past<br />

Present<br />

Future<br />

Future<br />

Future<br />

1.Two past events leading to future<br />

2.Present events that emulate past<br />

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Questions Between the Past & Future<br />

Past<br />

Future<br />

1. Things that cannot and do not work Things that can and may work<br />

2. Being stuck, static, unchangeable More fluid, dynamic & changeable<br />

3. Problem talk, more talk about the same<br />

that has brought them to the mediator<br />

Solution talk, more talk about how things<br />

will be different vs. the same<br />

4. Complaints about the past Goals about the future<br />

5. Complaints about things being the same,<br />

unchangeable and frustrating<br />

Ideas about things being different, and the<br />

idea that the future exists without the same<br />

problem<br />

6. Feelings of hopelessness Feelings of hope<br />

7. Feelings Thinking<br />

8. Things I do not want Things I do want<br />

9. Resistance Openness<br />

10. Unchangeable Changing all the time<br />

A mediator uses future focussed questions to initiate change. There respect for the past but<br />

only change can occur in the future. It is hard to help a client with what they do not want.<br />

Most clients will tell you accurately what they do not want vs. what they do want. What they<br />

don’t want is to be entrenched in the past. What they do want is a future without the same<br />

problem that brought them to the mediation. A future with hope and less problems is more<br />

inviting than a past with existing problems. More discussions should be oriented towards<br />

“solution talk” versus “problem talk”. Solution talk is more in the future. Problem talk is<br />

more in the past.<br />

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Consultora en prevencion, administración y resolucion de<br />

conflictos equipo IMCA<br />

__________________________________________________________<br />

Nora M. Franco, Alicia B. Garayo, Mario De Almeida,<br />

Alba Aiello de Almeida<br />

LA SITUACION<br />

La situación más grave de la crisis que atraviesa la humanidad es moral y educacional. La<br />

carencia en la sociedad de valores <strong>com</strong>partidos coloca a al a familia, a la escuela y a la<br />

sociedad toda ante la dificultad de haber perdido jerarquía, autoridad y liderazgo. La<br />

demagogia, la falta de límites y el individualismo han dado paso a las expresiones de<br />

violencia y a la anomia social.<br />

La humanidad es derrotada permanentemente por guerras crueles cuyas consecuencias<br />

mantiene una vigencia aterradora. Familias destruidas, proyectos de vida personal y<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitarios frustrados, perspectivas de futuro incierto, pérdida de la identidad de miles de<br />

niños sobrevivientes que nunca sabrán cuál ha sido el destino de sus padres.<br />

Todo ello, con las secuelas psíquicas que se originan en las situaciones de terror, angustia y<br />

estrés que padecen todos los acores, los vencidos y los vencedores. Pero este no es el<br />

único flagelo que provoca la pérdida de la autoestima, la insatisfacción, la desazón y<br />

también la violencia.<br />

Otro signo de nuestro tiempo es el alarmante crecimiento de la pobreza y de la enorme<br />

brecha que se abre entre ricos y pobres. Esta realidad de enormes carencias da <strong>com</strong>o<br />

resultado la intensificación del analfabetismo y la imposibilidad de acceso a sistemas de<br />

protección de la salud de enormes sectores de la población mundial; fomentadas por el<br />

desempleo y la proliferación de sistemas económicos de exclusión social. Sin embargo,<br />

desde que hemos entrado en el fascinante mundo de la prevención, administración y<br />

resolución pacífica de los conflictos, hemos descubierto que también es nuestra<br />

responsabilidad procurar el bienestar de la humanidad, asegurando que el hombre, que<br />

todos los hombres, posean lo indispensable para su realización personal.<br />

190


LA PROPUESTA<br />

En este convencimiento <strong>com</strong>enzamos nuestro trabajo para elaborar un proyecto que<br />

contribuya a instaurar la Paz en la sociedad, porque entendemos que esta situación puede y<br />

debe ser revertida poniendo en práctica una actitud de resistencia activa, que significa no<br />

proteger, ni admitir el manto de amoralidad e inmoralidad que aqueja a nuestra sociedad y,<br />

al mismo tiempo trabajar con inteligencia a fin de promover una transformación cultural que<br />

debe <strong>com</strong>enzar, ineludiblemente, por lo personal y familiar e incluir luego el ámbito<br />

educacional y social.<br />

Revitalizar los valores significa repolitizar la sociedad, es decir, generar el entusiasmo de los<br />

ciudadanos por <strong>com</strong>prender los problemas del hombre, del país y del mundo; por participar<br />

activamente en la formación de opinión y en las decisiones concretas. Es menester,<br />

entonces, idear modos de movilizar la <strong>com</strong>unidad entera para que pueda recuperar sus<br />

valores y sea capaz de resolver sus conflictos y construir un mundo mejor.<br />

Entendemos por Paz el estado de convivencia mediante el cual los seres humanos<br />

<strong>com</strong>parten la posibilidad de obtener la satisfacción de sus necesidades básicas, de<br />

desarrollar sus potencialidades y lograr realizarse <strong>com</strong>o personas. Para alcanzar este<br />

estado de convivencia es imprescindible que el hombre se sirva de los bienes que le brinda<br />

la naturaleza protegiendo el medio ambiente y evitando que, por intereses mezquinos, se lo<br />

destruya y degrade en perjuicio de las futuras generaciones.<br />

Es necesario que <strong>com</strong>parta con su prójimo los bienes materiales, culturales y espirituales<br />

que la humanidad ha logrado, aportando a través de la cooperación y la participación activa<br />

y genuina sus propias capacidades para que aquellos fructifiquen en bien de todos. Estamos<br />

acostumbrados a referirnos a la paz <strong>com</strong>o la situación que se da frente a la ausencia de una<br />

guerra, de agresiones físicas, de terrorismo, de tortura. Esta postura nos obliga a centrar la<br />

atención en el conflicto mismo, aspirando a la paz <strong>com</strong>o ausencia de esas manifestaciones<br />

Definimos así la Paz en un sentido negativo.<br />

Sin embargo, hoy nuestra atención se centra en la necesidad de desplazarla preocupación<br />

desde aquellas manifestaciones hacia otras situaciones que padece la humanidad <strong>com</strong>o<br />

resultado de la aplicación de sistemas económicos, políticos y sociales que desencadenan<br />

tanto <strong>com</strong>o aquellas otras, resultados de muerte, hambre, pobreza, analfabetismo,<br />

enfermedad, discriminación y denegación de los derechos humanos.<br />

191


Todos ellos, constituyen lo que ha dado en llamarse violencia esructural o vilencia indirecta.<br />

Superar estas miserias importa alcanzar la Paz en su verdadera dimensión, en una 0<br />

valores, los derechos humanos, la creación de vínculos transversales.<br />

OBJETIVOS COMUNES DESDE LA DIVERSIDAD<br />

Una de las cuestiones que consideramos prioritarias para el análisis crítico de las<br />

situaciones que impiden la convivencia en paz es la dificultad que presentan los grupos<br />

humanos para trabajar juntos a partir de la diversidad de criterios y convicciones sobre una<br />

misma realidad. Cuando cada protagonista se empecina en imponer sus ideas por encima<br />

de las de los demás, en ganar espacios de poder a fin de destacarse y en prefijar un<br />

objetivo personal sin considerar el bien <strong>com</strong>ún –es decir, el bien de todos, que incluye el<br />

propio- se frustra la posibilidad de vivir en paz.<br />

La convivencia en paz está directamente relacionada con la <strong>com</strong>unicación humana, con la<br />

calidad y profundidad de ésta; nos atrevemos a afirmar que la calidad de la <strong>com</strong>unicación es<br />

un presupuesto de la Paz. El propósito de trasladar a la <strong>com</strong>unidad los instrumentos de la<br />

paz, contempla la posibilidad de entregar a los ciudadanos herramientas que les permitan<br />

mejorar esa <strong>com</strong>unicación benefaciente de unos con otros.<br />

En esta expectativa es donde se concentran los objetivos de ayudar a madurar y crecer en<br />

el conocimiento propio y el respeto por las ideas ajenas, aprendiendo a escuchar, a pensar<br />

críticamente y a resolver problemas; incentivar el conocimiento propio y el respeto por el otro<br />

y por la naturaleza, provocando el análisis crítico de las situaciones de violencia estructural,<br />

desarrollando la autoestima, descubriendo la importancia del diálogo y la participación<br />

ciudadana.<br />

VINCULO TRANSVERSALES<br />

Para ello partimos de una premisa: Los conflictos se instalan allí donde no existe<br />

<strong>com</strong>unicación, ni confianza, donde las relaciones mutuas son escasas o nulas. El vínculo<br />

transversal consiste en una relación que atraviesa una línea de las tensiones. La<br />

confraternidad entre niños blancos y negros, entre jóvenes y ancianos, entre ricos y pobres<br />

logra que los estereotipos sean reemplazados por una <strong>com</strong>presión auténtica.<br />

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Eso mismo puede ser trabajado en el ámbito de las relaciones empresarias, aquellas que<br />

involucran a los socios entre sí, a los empleados <strong>com</strong>o equipo de trabajo o en sus<br />

vinculaciones jerárquicas; realidades todas ellas que pueden encontrar un objetivo <strong>com</strong>ún<br />

en la optimización del rendimiento, el aprovechamiento de las fortalezas particulares de la<br />

dinámica grupal, la elevación de la calidad de vida en el lugar de trabajo.<br />

No es ajena a esta preocupación, la necesidad de prevenir conflictos en las relaciones inter<br />

empresarias privilegiando la negociación. Para ello, también es necesario conciliar<br />

aspiraciones personales, expectativas del grupo de referencia y los factores del entorno,<br />

buscando un objetivo <strong>com</strong>ún a todos los involucrados, el cual debe alcanzarse desde la<br />

diversidad de cada uno.<br />

Desde este punto de vista es menester trabajar en : la promoción del diálogo genuino: entre<br />

pares, entre diferentes estamentos y el sentido del diálogo; los aspectos de la <strong>com</strong>unicación<br />

humana y las interferencias en la <strong>com</strong>unicación; el valor del trabajo en equipo y de las<br />

intervenciones interdisciplinarias; el valor del desarrollo de proyectos conjuntos desde la<br />

diversidad; el estudio de las condiciones necesarias para democratizar el poder y reparar las<br />

relaciones dañadas.<br />

METODOLOGIA DE TRABAJO<br />

Si buscamos desarrollar destrezas tales <strong>com</strong>o: reflexión crítica, espíritu de cooperación,<br />

capacidad para <strong>com</strong>prender al otro, creatividad para solucionar conflictos y actitudes tales<br />

<strong>com</strong>o: auto-estima, respeto por el otro, mentalidad abierta, no podemos descuidar la<br />

metodología que empleamos para obtener esos resultados.<br />

Diverso será el abordaje según las áreas que se decida trabajar y la cantidad de las<br />

personas involucradas <strong>com</strong>o la relación entre ellas, incluyendo la diversidad de roles. Sin<br />

embargo, tenemos claro que los instrumentos al alcance de los mediadores resultan idóneos<br />

para alcanzar los objetivos propuestos y desarrollar en los distintos protagonistas las<br />

destrezas y actitudes necesarias para generar una <strong>com</strong>unicación óptima y la posibilidad de<br />

establecer consensos. Esos instrumentos son muy variados, pero, entre todos ellos hemos<br />

privilegiado dos que consideramos más apropiados, los diálogos participativos y la escucha<br />

generativa.<br />

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DIALOGOS PARTICIPATIVOS<br />

Consisten en un diseño de trabajo que <strong>com</strong>ienza por grupos de dos personas, las cuales<br />

deben trabajar en base a dos preguntas clave, propuestas de forma creativa, que deben<br />

apuntar a revalorizar las propias experiencias positivas y a generar futuros posibles. Las<br />

preguntas deben provocar el descubrimiento de valores y cualidades escondidas en los<br />

participantes y abrir camino al sueño (dream) de futuros posibles. Luego, el grupo se amplía<br />

a cuatro personas que <strong>com</strong>parten el trabajo de la dupla y rescatan la auto estima. Ya en esa<br />

instancia y mucho más en la posterior, donde se reúne el plenario de los participantes, se<br />

trabaja sobre el diseño de la actividad posible para cambiar la realidad y llegar al destino<br />

propuesto.<br />

Las preguntas claves que se formulen deben permitir a los participantes recuperar la visión,<br />

es decir, entender qué aspiran lograr, y descubrir las capacidades del grupo traduciéndolas<br />

en energía para la acción.<br />

ESCUCHA GENERATIVA<br />

Este método implica la posibilidad de aprender a escuchar, a valorar las manifestaciones y<br />

puntos de vista del otro, a reflexionar e investigar sobre las posturas propias y las ajenas,<br />

<strong>com</strong>parándolas y mejorándolas, para obtener una nueva versión consensuada por todos.<br />

Comienza con el alegato, es decir, la defensa de cada uno de su opinión y su postura frente<br />

al tema en cuestión, con la condición de no atacar la postura de los otros.<br />

La segunda etapa consiste en la indagación de cada una de las posturas formuladas,<br />

investigando sobre las razones científicas, ideológicas, técnicas, afectivas y de todo tipo,<br />

que fundamentan cada una de aquellas; para pasar en una tercera etapa a la reformulación<br />

del tema, conclusión que se realizará con el aporte de todos, intentando expresarlo de tal<br />

manera que todos los participantes <strong>com</strong>partan las conclusiones.<br />

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The intercultural mediator: personal qualities and <strong>com</strong>municative<br />

skills<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Sara Greco 126<br />

PhD student, University of Lugano, Faculty of Communication sciences<br />

Secretary of the Associazione Ticinese per la Mediazione (ATME)<br />

1. Introduction<br />

When talking of intercultural mediation, a problem of semantic ambiguity must be faced<br />

concerning both the term mediation and the term culture in their everyday use 127 . Since the<br />

expression “intercultural mediation” itself can turn out in a source of misunderstandings and<br />

conflicts, the first necessary step in our examination consists in clarifying these notions.<br />

Firstly, it is necessary to single out the essential features of mediation, considered as a<br />

particular Communicative practice, whereby a third party intervenes in a conflict to help<br />

disputants discuss in a reasonable fashion, with the aim of finding a possible solution.<br />

Secondly, the notion of culture must be deepened, in order to elucidate in what sense(s) a<br />

conflict can be considered intercultural. Finally, within this framework, some fundamental<br />

personal qualities and <strong>com</strong>municative skills of the mediator involved in the resolution of<br />

intercultural conflicts can be sketched.<br />

2. Mediation<br />

126 sara.greco@lu.unisi.ch<br />

127 Concerning culture, a brief survey of the dictionary definitions of this term is significant in order to get in touch<br />

with the various meanings that are associated to it in everyday language. Sometimes, it is used to indicate the<br />

general acquisitions (“arts and other manifestations”) of the human kind as such (The Oxford American Dictionary<br />

of Current English, Oxford Reference Online); sometimes, culture is defined as knowledge acquired and shared<br />

by individuals of a particular group or society (World Encyclopedia, Oxford Reference Online). Some definitions<br />

tend to describe culture as a <strong>com</strong>mon way of living of a certain group ( The Oxford American Dictionary of Current<br />

English and A Dictionary of Geography, Oxford Reference Online), whereas other definitions consider culture as<br />

a set of “socially constructed and historically transmitted network of symbol systems” ( The Concise Oxford<br />

Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford Reference Online).<br />

About mediation, Guillaume-Hofnung (1995:69), after having described some practices developed on the French<br />

territory, which have been referred to with the label of “mediation”, observes that the large majority of those<br />

experiences have nothing to do with a practice of conflict resolution; in many uses, the word mediation does not<br />

presuppose at all the presence of a conflict. Therefore, a theoretical clarification of this concept is required.<br />

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Mediation is a type of <strong>com</strong>municative intervention which aims at promoting the settlement of<br />

conflicts between individuals, groups, or institutions, by promoting a critical and reasonable<br />

attitude of the parties. The claim of mediation, thus, is solving conflicts by applying the use<br />

of reason to the discussion. For its <strong>com</strong>mitment to reasonableness, mediation is a kind of<br />

<strong>com</strong>municative intervention whose argumentation rate is very high; the argumentative<br />

discussion, in fact, presupposes the <strong>com</strong>mitment of the interlocutors to giving reasons of<br />

their beliefs and proposals. Thus, deepening the notion of reasonableness 128 appears crucial<br />

in order to understand mediation. Reasonableness presupposes rationality, conceived as the<br />

logical consistency of the discourse; but it also requires a more <strong>com</strong>prehensive and<br />

articulated attitude of the human reason, involving several <strong>com</strong>ponents: taking into account<br />

all the relevant factors in a certain situation; respecting the teleological hierarchy, i.e. the<br />

hierarchy of goals of the subjects involved; a certain categorial adequacy in defining the<br />

given aspects of reality; and the adherence to the actual circumstances where the<br />

<strong>com</strong>municative interaction takes place. Reasonableness is typically reached through a<br />

dialogical argumentative interaction, which involves the respect of the others’ freedom and<br />

reason. In an argumentative discussion, both parties are <strong>com</strong>mitted together to<br />

reasonableness; they do not try to gain the other’s assent at any cost through the use of<br />

physical violence or manipulation; rather, they try to build up a reasonable consensus, based<br />

on the critical testing of both parties’ reasons (see van Eemeren & Grootendorst 2004). The<br />

mediator, as it will be shown below, is in charge of guaranteeing this standard of<br />

reasonableness.<br />

Mediation, in particular, is a type of Communicative practice that can be activated in a<br />

context of interaction (Interaction field) in the presence of a conflict. This Communicative<br />

practice can be applied, and in fact is normally applied, to a variety of Interaction fields: from<br />

families, to schools, health organizations and other institutions, business enterprises, and so<br />

on 129 . In all these contexts, mediation has a kernel of <strong>com</strong>mon features, which depend on its<br />

nature of Communicative practice. The notion of Communicative practice, thus, is worth<br />

analyzing more closely (see Rigotti & Greco in press b):<br />

(1) A <strong>com</strong>municative practice is defined by the fact that two or more interagents share a<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon goal, or joint goal 130 , beyond their individual goals:<br />

128 For a systematic expounding of this concept, see Rigotti & Greco (in press a).<br />

129 For a survey of cases of mediation in different Interaction fields, see for instance Kolb (1994), and Haynes,<br />

Haynes & Fong (2004).<br />

130 Under this respect, the notion of Communicative practice turns out to be very similar to that of dialogue game,<br />

or dialogue type. Walton (1998) provides a typology of dialogue games such as negotiation, deliberation, inquiry,<br />

persuasion, information-seeking, etc, each characterized on the basis of the joint goals shared by the participants.<br />

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Shared goal (joint goal)<br />

Interagent A<br />

Interagent B<br />

Individual goal<br />

Individual goal<br />

Figure 1: Individual goals and joint goal<br />

Going into detail in the definition of the shared goal, one can distinguish between different<br />

<strong>com</strong>municative practices. For instance, in the practice of deliberation, the joint goal of a<br />

certain group of people is making a <strong>com</strong>mon decision as a public institutionalized subject<br />

(such as deliberation in a City Counsel). As we have seen, in mediation, the goal is allowing<br />

parties to find a reasonable solution to a conflict, through the help of a third party (the<br />

mediator), who conducts the discussion. Thus, mediation presupposes the presence of a<br />

conflict between (at least) two parties who share the will of settling the conflict. The conflict<br />

itself must be, at least in the parties’ perception, no longer manageable by direct<br />

negotiations 131 ; therefore, the parties themselves decide to entrust to a third interagent the<br />

task of helping them conduct a reasonable discussion, in order to reach a solution which<br />

might be advantageous for both of them 132 . The mediator has not direct power to impose a<br />

final binding decision, which must be made by the parties. The mediator, thus, is involved in<br />

the argumentative discussion, but he/she must not support a personal standpoint; his/her<br />

role is mainly that to guarantee the reasonableness of the parties’ negotiations.<br />

(2) A second essential feature of a Communicative practice is the presence of tools<br />

consolidated along the evolutionary path of the practice itself. Among the <strong>com</strong>municative<br />

tools, for instance, it is worth mentioning questions and reformulations, exploited as a mean<br />

to help parties conduct a fruitful discussion, without making explicit assertions or supporting<br />

precise standpoints, which would be out of the mediator’s role (see Jacobs 2002).<br />

131 In other words, parties must perceive that the conflict has escalated too much to be directly handled<br />

by them.<br />

132 The relationship between the parties and the mediator can be described in terms of an Agency<br />

relationship (see Mann 2005).<br />

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3. Culture<br />

Concerning the notion of culture, the Tartu-Moscow school of semiotics 133 (Lotman &<br />

Uspenskij 1975) defines culture as “the non-genetic information that is transmitted across<br />

generations” 134 . In this perspective, culture is, on the one hand, an ‘hypertext’, constituted by<br />

a set of shared experiences, which are interrelated in the memory of those who belong to<br />

that culture: myths, constitutions, laws, <strong>com</strong>mon history, rituals, narrations, festivities,<br />

culinary traditions, sayings, monuments, literary texts, etc. Some of these texts can be said<br />

to be foundational for a certain culture, insofar referring to them is considered as an<br />

unquestionable argument for supporting a certain claim; other texts, whose authority can be<br />

discussed, but which are nonetheless used as a <strong>com</strong>mon point of reference for members of<br />

a certain culture, can be defined reference texts (see Rigotti 2005). On the other hand,<br />

culture also includes a set of systems, which the members of a <strong>com</strong>munity share and which<br />

constitute the “grammar” of that <strong>com</strong>munity. In this second sense, culture is a language, a<br />

system of shared codes that shape a <strong>com</strong>munity’s way of living and thinking: for instance,<br />

the verbal language (with its cultural categories), visual and art codes, and music. The notion<br />

of culture as a system implies the acknowledgment of the differences between cultures: if<br />

culture is partly defined by a code, different cultures may have different codes, such as<br />

languages, systems of visual representation, musical codes… etc.<br />

In cases of intercultural mediation, it is often necessary to ask whether the mediator herself<br />

and the parties share the same system of categories 135 .<br />

One might be tempted to think that each person exclusively belongs to one cultural<br />

<strong>com</strong>munity, as if each person could be exhaustively defined by his belonging to a single<br />

identity. But, as a matter of fact, each human being belongs to a multiplicity of cultural<br />

<strong>com</strong>munities: one could, for instance, belong to the <strong>com</strong>munity of the Swedes, to the<br />

Lutheran religion, to the Swedish language <strong>com</strong>munity, to the <strong>com</strong>munity of the IBM<br />

workers… etc 136 . Such different but <strong>com</strong>plementary identities are not simply “piled up”, but<br />

they are rather disposed in a hierarchy where some identities are more crucial than others for<br />

the individual (Rigotti 2005). Moreover, it must be observed that even those cultural<br />

133 For a detailed discussion of this approach to culture see Gatti (2003).<br />

134 See Lotman & Uspenskij (1973:75). In this sense, culture can be considered as a “cradle”, which<br />

wel<strong>com</strong>es the baby human into the world, and teaches him/her the categories to understand reality.<br />

135 Not coincidentally, analyzing the presuppositions for a process of reconciliation between the Israeli<br />

and the Palestinians, Mayer (2004) notices that a first essential step is that to ask whether both parties<br />

share a <strong>com</strong>mon meaning for the notion of reconciliation, i.e. if their categories are <strong>com</strong>patible on this<br />

point.<br />

136 See Clark (1996:104). The Swiss case is particularly representative of the crossing and overlapping of different<br />

cultural identities (different Cantons, languages, religions…) for each individual.<br />

198


differences which can be found between individuals are often <strong>com</strong>plementary rather than<br />

contradictory, i.e. they offer <strong>com</strong>plementary perspectives on reality. So, mediation has often<br />

to do with the discovery of <strong>com</strong>plementarities and of their value for a richer <strong>com</strong>prehension of<br />

reality.<br />

4. Types of conflicts and types of mediation<br />

Thus, intercultural conflicts do not normally originate from the in<strong>com</strong>patibility of cultures;<br />

indeed, they have other possible sources:<br />

A. In a first sense, an intercultural conflict may arise from the inability to manage a specific<br />

cultural difference. It is the case, for instance, of many international conflicts.<br />

B. In a second sense, simple cultural misunderstandings may arise 137 , which on their turn<br />

can give rise to conflicts, if they are not correctly managed.<br />

C. Thirdly, conflicts can be generated from sources that are not directly bound to culture, but<br />

involve interagents with significantly different cultural identities. For instance, a financial<br />

conflict can arise between two business partners <strong>com</strong>ing from different countries.<br />

At this point, we could hypothesize a typology of possible conflicts, whereby the different<br />

cultural influences can be identified:<br />

Intercultural dimension (C)<br />

Family level<br />

Group level<br />

Community level<br />

International level<br />

Conflicts bound to social<br />

relationships<br />

Labor grievances<br />

Political issues<br />

Social relationships<br />

Economic-financial issues<br />

Intercultural differences<br />

(type A)<br />

and misunderstandings<br />

(type B)<br />

Figure 2: Typology of conflicts<br />

On the vertical axis, the number of interagents involved in the mediation process (a single<br />

family, or a group, a <strong>com</strong>munity, or more <strong>com</strong>munities 138 ) is represented; on the horizontal<br />

137 Think, for instance, to different time management styles, different culinary traditions, different rituals, etc.<br />

199


axis, the possible conflict sources are identified (labour grievances, political issues, social<br />

relationships, economic or financial issues, intercultural differences or misunderstandings…).<br />

The intercultural dimension may concern the very issue of the conflict (directly, as in type A,<br />

or indirectly, as in type B), or might affect the relationship between the parties, or between<br />

them and the mediator (type C). In the latter sense, the intercultural difference can be<br />

considered as an autonomous axis, which may potentially concern each conflict. Of course,<br />

the mediator should be capable of identifying what role culture plays in the conflict he/she is<br />

facing.<br />

5. The intercultural mediator<br />

Waas (2005:26) notices that, in order to speak of intercultural mediation properly, not only<br />

parties must be involved in an intercultural conflict, but the mediator must also be trained to<br />

solve this kind of conflicts. Having analyzed the possible influences that cultural differences<br />

can have on conflicts, now we can turn to examine the specific features that characterize a<br />

mediator prepared to face such conflicts 139 . We distinguish between personal qualities, which<br />

concern more directly the mediator’s attitude towards the process of intercultural conflict<br />

resolution, and <strong>com</strong>municative skills, which depend on his/her management of the<br />

<strong>com</strong>municative interaction.<br />

Personal qualities<br />

1a Respect of one’s own – and, therefore, of the others’ – cultural identities<br />

Sometimes, the notion of neutrality is misinterpreted as <strong>com</strong>plete absence or deny of the<br />

mediator’s personal identity. On the contrary, the mediator must not deny him/herself to be<br />

reliable in an intercultural conflict 140 . Indeed, who overtly shows not to respect his/her own<br />

cultural identity cannot be trusted as authoritative in mediating cultural issues 141 .<br />

1b Empathy<br />

The quality of the mediator’s intervention significantly depends on a relational dimension,<br />

and, in particular, on his/her capacity of understanding the relevance of the parties’ deep<br />

138 We use here the term “international level” to refer to a typical example of inter-<strong>com</strong>munity conflict. It must be<br />

noticed, however, that from the definition of culture we have adopted it follows that there is no bijective mapping<br />

between <strong>com</strong>munities and nations.<br />

139 Each feature is analyzed on the basis of evidence of actual cases, taken both from the literature and from the<br />

professionals’ direct experience. Concerning the latter source, a series of interviews has been conducted to<br />

practitioners of mediation operating in different fields on the Swiss territory in order to single out the best<br />

practices.<br />

140 See Princen (1992:208-210) about the Quakers’ mediation in the Nigeria-Biafra conflict of 1967-1970.<br />

141 Haynes (1999) suggests that mediators should not give up their value system, but rather be aware of it when<br />

meeting somebody who refers to a different system.<br />

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desires, including implicit desires, beyond the specific problem at issue. Evidence from<br />

different cases shows that the “climate” of a mediation session may change significantly if the<br />

mediator leaves room to the parties’ feelings that demonstrate their deeper concerns:<br />

1b.1 While describing a session of family mediation conducted by Frances Butler, Kenneth<br />

Kressel notices that the mediator, at a certain point, declares that she shares with the couple<br />

the involvement in the role of parent; and this has an immediate empathy effect, which<br />

changes the relationship between the parties and the mediator herself: “As the argument<br />

proceeds it emerges that, in her exasperation with their unruly behaviour, Barbara may have<br />

frightened the children by threatening that she would stop taking them. She plaintively notes<br />

that they are always embroiled with one another. By way of response, Butler reflects<br />

humorously on her own parental trials. As she talks, Robert and Barbara are agreeing and<br />

laughing. For an instant, the room contains three parents contemplating the joy and<br />

puzzlement of raising children” (Kolb 1994:50). The interaction changes when the most<br />

important concerns of the parties and of the mediator herself emerge: taking care of their<br />

children.<br />

1b.2 Similarly, in a business mediation between two partners who originally where good<br />

friends, a crucial change takes place when the mediator helps the parties express their<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon desire not to loose their friendship (see Haynes, Haynes & Fong 2004):<br />

Mediator: So you’ve got a double issue here.<br />

Ross: Oh yeah.<br />

Mediator: You want to keep the good social relationship as well as keep a good business<br />

relationship.<br />

Dan: Yes.<br />

Ross: Well certainly. Yes, we recognize that. That’s why we’ve <strong>com</strong>e to see somebody like<br />

yourself.<br />

Dan: We were friends before we were partners.<br />

Communicative skills<br />

2a Respect of the level of <strong>com</strong>mon ground<br />

One of the fundamental <strong>com</strong>municative principles to be applied in intercultural mediation is<br />

that the mediator must respect the parties’ level of <strong>com</strong>mon ground (see Stalnaker 2001 and<br />

Clark 1996 on this notion), i.e. he/she must build his/her intervention on the basis of the set<br />

201


of knowledge, beliefs, desires and values actually shared (known and taken for granted) by<br />

the parties at the moment of the <strong>com</strong>municative interaction. Only starting from this shared<br />

basis parties can <strong>com</strong>e to a solution 142 . Not coincidentally, when starting a difficult mediation,<br />

mediators often seek for points of agreement first, even if these might be only indirectly<br />

related to the main issue of the conflict 143 .<br />

The parties are not necessarily aware of their <strong>com</strong>mon ground, or they may be not willing to<br />

acknowledge it. Here, the task of the mediator is that of “listening for, identifying, and<br />

reintroducing agreements in principle. […]. Because the mediator is keenly aware of each of<br />

the parties’ interests, he or she can sometimes spot opportunities for agreement that elude<br />

the parties’ attention” (Gray 1989:175). In the following excerpt of a mediation session (see<br />

Haynes, Haynes & Fong 2004:228), two parties – a school teacher, Carol, and a mother,<br />

Maria – are quarrelling on the behaviour of Maria’s son, and <strong>com</strong>plaining respectively about<br />

the child’s and the teacher’s faults:<br />

Carol: You have to see your children’s faults as well.<br />

Maria: And I think you have to see your faults, too, as a teacher towards the way you treat<br />

children.<br />

Mediator: It seems to me that since none of us is perfect, we all need some extra love, right?<br />

Some extra care and concern.<br />

The mediator (John Haynes) introduces a new premise (“None of us is perfect”), which is<br />

already part of the parties’ <strong>com</strong>mon ground, and can therefore be easily accepted by them;<br />

then, from this premise, he reasons to the conclusion that everyone needs to be understood<br />

and forgiven. From this, it follows (even if it is left implicit in this reasoning) that the parties’<br />

<strong>com</strong>plaints are inappropriate. By this move, the mediator provides parties with a new<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon basis on which the discussion can be developed.<br />

The mediator’s task of helping parties identify <strong>com</strong>mon ground is strictly bound to<br />

guaranteeing the reasonableness of the parties’ discussion, since it is a condition for a<br />

reasonable discussion to be developed on the basis of shared premises. On the contrary,<br />

142 For this reason, the opening stage of critical discussion (van Eemeren & Grootendorst 2004) is particularly<br />

relevant in mediation processes.<br />

143 On this point, see Benadava (1989:41-42) about a quite famous case of successful international mediation<br />

conducted by the Vatican on the Beagle Channel dispute between Argentina and Chile: “En la primera fase el<br />

Representante del Mediator se propuso rescatar y buscar aproximaciones y convergencias sobre temas<br />

‘colaterales’ que, sin constituir el objeto fundamental de la controversia, estaban relacionados con ella […]. El<br />

examen de estos temas – estimó el Cardenal Samoré – permitiría definir criterios generales aceptables que,<br />

llegado el momento, pudieran ser utilizados por el Mediator para sugerir, con posibilidades de éxito, ‘líneas<br />

maestras’ para la solución del diferendo”.<br />

202


taking for granted what is actually not shared by the interlocutors can only generate<br />

diffidence and hostility.<br />

2b Multilingualism<br />

Lotman & Uspenskij (1975) notice that the monolingual person cannot distinguish language<br />

from reality. In fact, who only speaks one language, i.e. who is only acquainted with one<br />

system of cultural codes cannot understand that this system is a perspective on reality, but it<br />

does not coincide with it. Therefore, he/she might not be open to find possible<br />

<strong>com</strong>plementarities and zones of agreement between individuals with alternative cultural<br />

identities.<br />

2c Employment of relevant keywords<br />

Rigotti & Rocci (2003) propose to consider as cultural keywords 144 those terms that, from a<br />

logical point of view, are employed as terminus medius in enthymematic reasoning.<br />

Enthymeme has the same logical structure as syllogism, but it shows important differences.<br />

Firstly, the nature of premises of enthymematic reasoning is that of culturally shared beliefs<br />

or values (éndoxa, in the Aristotelian terminology). Moreover, part of the enthymematic<br />

reasoning normally remains implicit: on the one hand, those premises that are already in the<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon ground of the interlocutors need not to be stated again; on the other hand, even<br />

conclusions can be left unsaid, because the trust in the interlocutor’s ability of making<br />

inferences allows conveying part of the meaning indirectly. Otherwise, exceeding in explicit<br />

<strong>com</strong>munication would turn out to be pedantic. We have mentioned above (see 1b.2) a case<br />

where the mediator prefers to make explicit only a part of his reasoning, and not to say, also<br />

on courtesy grounds, that the parties’ <strong>com</strong>plaints are of no use.<br />

In enthymematic reasoning, a keyword plays the role of terminus medius, i.e. it recalls an<br />

unstated premise which is already in the parties’ <strong>com</strong>mon ground (ibid., p. 905). The<br />

identification and wise employment of cultural keywords by the intercultural mediator, thus,<br />

can activate shared values or beliefs (éndoxa), which, on their turn, can be the basis for<br />

further reasoning.<br />

An interesting case has been described about a mediation conducted in South Wales<br />

(Australia), in the Gumbaynggirr territory, between an Aboriginal man, Alfred, and his non-<br />

Aboriginal neighbour, Alicia (Honeyman, Goh & Kelly 2004). The case has been co-mediated<br />

by a non-Aboriginal mediator and by an Aboriginal mediator (Loretta Kelly). Alfred was<br />

144 For an analysis of theoretical approaches to the topic of cultural keywords, see Bigi (in press).<br />

203


accused of jumping Alicia’s fence, entering her territory, eating from her fruit trees, and – in<br />

general – provoking damages. The mediator describes her discovering of one clue to the<br />

conflict resolution in an apparently unresponsive statement of Alfred, which indeed contained<br />

a keyword: “But I am Gumbaynggirri”. Here, the simple term Gumbaynggirri recalled for<br />

Alfred and her a set of premises that were undisclosed for the other two participants to the<br />

discussion: “A Gumbaynggirri person has the right to eat the produce from his land” (ibid., p.<br />

495), and the identification of the land is related to traditional criteria not overlapping, at least<br />

in this case, with private ownership. In this case, the mediator was able to bring to light the<br />

unstated premises that could explain Alfred’s behaviour; this move was the beginning of “a<br />

profound realignment of the parties’ relationship” (ibid., p. 496). The role of the mediator as<br />

facilitator of reasonableness, in this case, is quite evident, since Kelly’s role consisted in<br />

helping Alfred express his reasons, and to find thus new agreement possibilities.<br />

6. Final remarks<br />

The paper presented a theoretical analysis of the notions of mediation and culture, on which<br />

a typology of conflicts where culture plays a role has been elaborated. Within this framework,<br />

some essential features of the mediator who faces the resolution of intercultural conflicts<br />

have been analyzed, with particular reference to personal qualities and <strong>com</strong>municative skills.<br />

Further research needs to be done on the analysis of these features in further sessions of<br />

intercultural mediation, in order to test them on a wider range of cases.<br />

References<br />

ARISTOTLE, On Rhetoric (G. A. KENNEDY ed., New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press,<br />

1991).<br />

ABATE, F. (1999, ed.), The Oxford American Dictionary of Current English, Oxford: Oxford<br />

University Press. Oxford Reference Online, http://www.oxfordreference.<strong>com</strong>, Last<br />

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BENADAVA, S. (1989), “La mediación de la Santa Sede en el diferendo chileno-argentino<br />

sobre la zona Austral”, in: DINSTEIN, Y. & TABORY, M. (eds.), International law at a time of<br />

perplexity, Dordrecht/Boston/London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.<br />

BIGI, S. (in press), “Towards a definition of cultural keywords”, Studies in Communication<br />

sciences 5(1).<br />

BOWKER, J. (2000, ed.), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford: Oxford<br />

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CLARK, H. (1996), Using Language, Cambridge: Cambridge university press.<br />

FISHER, R. & AND URY, W. (1991), Getting to yes. Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In,<br />

Sabon: Penguin Books.<br />

GATTI, M.C. (2003), “Pratiche di analisi semiotica”, in Jurij M. Lotman e Boris A. Uspenskij”,<br />

in: BETTETINI, G., CIGADA, S., RAYNAUD, S. & RIGOTTI, E. (eds.), Semiotica II. Configurazione<br />

disciplinare e questioni contemporanee, Brescia: La scuola, pp. 141-165.<br />

GRAY, B. (1989), Collaborating. Finding <strong>com</strong>mon ground for multiparty problems, San<br />

Francisco/London: Jossey-Bass.<br />

GUILLAUME-HOFNUNG, M. (1995), La médiation, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.<br />

HAYNES, J.M., HAYNES, G.L. & FONG, L.S. (2004), Mediation: positive conflict management,<br />

Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.<br />

HAYNES, J.M. (1999), “Support for human and social growth”, in: HAYNES, J.M., HAYNES, G.L.<br />

& FONG, L.S. (2004), Mediation: positive conflict management, cit.<br />

HONEYMAN, C., GOH, B.C. & KELLY, L. (2004), “Skill is not enough: seeking connectedness<br />

and authority in mediation”, Negotiation Journal 20(4): 489-511.<br />

JACOBS, S. (2002), “Maintaining neutrality in dispute mediation: managing disagreement<br />

while managing not to disagree”, Journal of Pragmatics 34: 1403-1426.<br />

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LEDERACH, J.P. (1995), Preparing for peace. Conflict transformation across cultures,<br />

Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press.<br />

LOTMAN, J.M. & USPENSKIJ, B.A. (1975), “Sul meccanismo semiotico della cultura”, in:<br />

LOTMAN, J.M. & USPENSKIJ, B.A. Tipologia della cultura, Milano: Bompiani.<br />

MANN, S.V. (2005), “Agency theory”, in: GARRET, I. (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopedia of<br />

management, Malden/Oxford/Carlton: Blackwell Publishing.<br />

MAYHEW, S. (2004, ed.), A Dictionary of Geography, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Oxford<br />

Reference Online, cit.<br />

MEYER, R. (2004), Ein Friedensprozess ohne Versöhnung, Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.<br />

PRINCEN, T. (1992), Intermediaries in international conflicts, Princeton: Princeton University<br />

Press.<br />

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RIGOTTI E. (2005), “Plurilinguismo e unità culturale in Europa”, in: CAMBIAGHI, B., MILANI, C. &<br />

PONTANI, P., Europa plurilingue: <strong>com</strong>unicazione e didattica, Milano: Vita e Pensiero.<br />

RIGOTTI E., ROCCI A., & GRECO S., (2004), Intercultural <strong>com</strong>munication: a linguistic and<br />

argumentative approach, Working Paper dell’ILS n.5, USI, Lugano.<br />

RIGOTTI, E. & GRECO, S. (2005), Introducing Argumentation, ARGUMENTUM eLearning<br />

Module, www.argumentum.ch<br />

RIGOTTI, E. & GRECO, S. (in press a), “Argumentation as object of interest and as social and<br />

cultural resource”, in: PERRET-CLERMONT, A.N. & MÜLLER, N. (eds.), Argumentation in<br />

teaching and learning.<br />

RIGOTTI, E. & GRECO, S. (in press b), “The argumentative strength of mediation as a<br />

Communicative practice”, Proceedings of the X Conference of the International Association<br />

for Dialogue Analysis, Bucharest, May 26-29 2005.<br />

RIGOTTI, E. & ROCCI A. (2003), “From argument analysis to cultural keywords (and Back<br />

Again)”, in: VAN EEMEREN, F.H.; BLAIR, J.A.; WILLARD, C.A. et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the<br />

fifth conference of the International Society for the Study of Argumentation, Amsterdam: Sic<br />

Sat.<br />

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VAN EEMEREN, F. & GROOTENDORST, R. (2004), A systematic theory of argumentation. The<br />

pragma-dialectical approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />

WAAS, L. (2005), “Interkulturelle Mediation – Mediation im interkulturellen Kontext”, Forum<br />

Mediation 8(1) - Mediationskultur: 26-32.<br />

WALTON, D.N. (1998), The new dialectic, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.<br />

World Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference Online, cit.<br />

206


La obra construida<br />

_________________________________________________________________________<br />

Arq. Haydee Silveyra<br />

Mediadora, integrante del equipo interdisciplinario del Servicio Universitario de Resolución<br />

de Conflictos (SURCO),<br />

1. INTRODUCCIÓN<br />

El arquitecto ha construido en todas las épocas, pero a la vez no se detiene en la única<br />

operación de construir, es el creador del espacio y del hábitat de la gente, pero en Argentina<br />

es también mediador y es así que poco a poco ha <strong>com</strong>enzado a desarrollar una nueva<br />

manera de trabajar los conflictos vinculados con el “hábitat”. Para el mediador arquitecto, la<br />

mediación “es <strong>com</strong>o un color”, se apropia de él, lo matiza y lo mezcla para generar nuevos<br />

espacios a recorrer. Al principio, sus colegas mediadores no <strong>com</strong>prendían su quehacer,<br />

desde el ámbito de la especialidad y “recién hoy” tiene un lugar en los MRAD, por sus<br />

aportes novedosos, creativos y diferentes. El mediador arquitecto no avanza con grandes<br />

pasos, su voluntad ingenua imagina nuevas utopías capaces de dar respuesta a los<br />

“ajenos”, que desbordan actualmente la ciudad de Buenos Aires en diferentes locaciones,<br />

<strong>com</strong>o inquilinatos, casas y edificios tomados, conventillos, asentamientos precarios,<br />

conjuntos urbanos pauperizados, hoteles de tránsito, entre otras modalidades deficitarias,<br />

las que están invadiendo en los últimos años el hábitat de Buenos Aires. Esta demanda<br />

social fragmentada, aporta nuevas formas de conocimiento, en la puja entre la fusión de las<br />

diferencias, y así los conflictos locacionales son un paradigma <strong>com</strong>plejo 145 , y resultan un<br />

<strong>com</strong>bustible político y social, lleno de magia y tragedia. La mediación en esta temática,<br />

aporta herramientas fundamentales para promover una cultura de la paz, y su aplicación<br />

tiene carácter formativo y preventivo. Sólo es eficaz, cuando se la aborda a través de<br />

equipos interdisciplinarios, con el objeto de co-construir la convivencia y trabajando en el<br />

145<br />

“Las personas hemos tratado siempre de entender el mundo, la realidad, el universo,<br />

des<strong>com</strong>poniéndolo en elementos manejables. Desde los griegos hemos estado bajo el mismo farol, el<br />

paradigma de la simplicidad, que nos permitirá encontrar lo que buscamos. El paradigma de la<br />

<strong>com</strong>plejidad es el nuevo farol”. Un “cana” ve a un muchacho arrodillado revolviendo todo bajo la luz<br />

de un farol.<br />

-¿Usted perdió las llaves acá en la vereda? -pregunta el cana. -No por allá. -¿Entonces porque esta<br />

buscando acá?. Aquí es donde esta la luz-dice el muchacho. Mediando en sistemas familiares.<br />

Marines Suárez. Parte 6-Teoría cibernética y teoría general de los sistemas. Pág.137. Paidos<br />

Mediación 11-2002<br />

207


necesario mejoramiento del “hábitat”. Esta problemática, es atendida entre otras, por el<br />

Servicio Universitario de Resolución de Conflictos (SURCO), que depende funcionalmente<br />

del Instituto Universitario de la Policía Federal Argentina (IUPFA), el que da apoyo a las<br />

seccionales de la zona, cuando los conflictos no constituyen delito y necesitan contención,<br />

ya que desde ámbito de la seccional no son posibles canalizar. El servicio integra varias<br />

disciplinas <strong>com</strong>o abogacía, psicología, asistencia social, arquitectura, química y seguridad,<br />

las que interactúan para el diseño de estrategias y propuestas viables en el abordaje de los<br />

conflictos <strong>com</strong>unitarios. “La obra construida”, quiere reflejar los resultados y repercusiones<br />

obtenidas en SURCO, sobre la resolución de “conflictos en locaciones urbanas deficitarias,”<br />

<strong>com</strong>o una ventana de posibilidades y alternativa autentica 146 para quienes trabajan,<br />

estudian y reflexionan sobre los “conflictos del hábitat”, desde un enfoque interdisciplinario<br />

que partiendo del itinerario de las patologías constructivas (mapas y recorridos), en un<br />

proceso de construcción de diálogos generativos 147 , los protagonistas fortalecen el camino<br />

de la participación y co-construyen un proceso de convivencia urbana.<br />

2.CONTEXTO<br />

Entre los 150.000 vecinos que habitan casas, departamentos y edificios en malas<br />

condiciones, en la ciudad de Buenos Aires, (edificios sin consorcio con falta de<br />

mantenimiento; casas donde jamás se realizaron trabajos preventivos; unidades con<br />

filtraciones por humedades en muros y/o cimientos; viviendas con instalaciones obsoletas y<br />

peligrosas; ascensores que no funcionan; muros con fisuras pasantes, unidades con<br />

revoques deteriorados, pinturas englobadas, desprendimientos en balcones y de<br />

ornamentos de fachada, además de hogares hacinados), están los “ajenos”, con mayor<br />

visibilidad por su condición transitoria, los que conviven con el desarraigo, los desajustes<br />

emocionales (lucha por la subsistencia), y las dificultades de integración. La falta de<br />

vivienda, los empuja a estar dispuestos a aceptar cualquier condición de habilitabilidad que<br />

los cobije, <strong>com</strong>o viviendas localizadas en inaceptables zonas degradadas y discontinuas<br />

dentro del tejido urbano de la ciudad. La convivencia con otros semejantes supone<br />

condicionamientos, postergaciones, restricciones, e incluso renuncias a las propias<br />

146 “¿Cuánto tiempo se requerirá en nuestro país para abandonar esta etapa de desorientación y<br />

frustraciones y tomar la buena senda por donde arribar a una sociedad que realmente sienta <strong>com</strong>o<br />

alternativa autentica frente al proceso judicial otro no signado por el poder o por el uso legitimo de<br />

la violencia, y que tenga conciencia de que existe un mundo de conflictos respecto de los cuales la<br />

mediación no <strong>com</strong>pite con el sistema judicial, porque éste se desentiende de ellos?”-Mediación<br />

Estratégica Rubén A. Calcaterra Pág. 23-Gedisa Editorial- 2002<br />

147 “Quién utiliza una perspectiva generativa para el manejo del conflicto se apoya en tramas y<br />

enlaces novedosos que le permiten trabajar en la construcción de diálogos mediadores y<br />

posibilitadores”. -Nuevos paradigmas en la resolución de conflictos- perspectivas y practicas de<br />

Dora Freíd Schnitman (<strong>com</strong>p.).Pag138.-Ed. Granica-2000<br />

208


satisfacciones. La pobreza puertas adentro, no hace mas que confirmar la realidad de una<br />

profunda crisis económica que sufrió el país en su distrito más rico, la ciudad capital 148 ,<br />

donde el 28,4% de las viviendas deterioradas, están ubicadas en los barrios de Almagro,<br />

Caballito, Villa Crespo, Villa Devoto y Paternal; el 27% se encuentran en Mataderos, Villa<br />

Soldati, Lugano y Flores, el 17,1% en la Boca, Barracas, Pompeya y San Cristóbal. Los<br />

barrios menos afectados son Palermo, Recoleta y Retiro con el 11,5% y Belgrano Núñez,<br />

Saavedra y Villa Pueyrredon con un 15,9%. En la ciudad el 74,6% de las viviendas son<br />

departamentos, y el 19,7% casas. El 5% restante cae en el rubro “otros” que incluye villas y<br />

asentamientos (2,3%), hoteles y pensiones (1,8%), inquilinatos y conventillos (1,2%). Claro<br />

que el “otros” llega al 23,7% en el área Soldati, Lugano y Villa Riachuelo y apenas alcanza al<br />

0,3% en Recoleta. Los indicadores de pobreza del segundo semestre del 2004, que alcanza<br />

al 14,7%, esto quiere decir que más de 400 mil porteños viven por debajo de la línea de la<br />

pobreza y en cuanto a la desocupación esta alcanzo al 11,6% en la medición del primer<br />

trimestre del 2005. Estos indicadores económicos y sociales de la ciudad, muestran huellas<br />

profundas que alientan la insatisfacción. En este contexto, los “conflictos en locaciones<br />

urbanas deficitarias”, son abordados desde SURCO, en la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, aplicando<br />

un sistema generativo de posibilidades 149 , centrado en las ligazones de los protagonistas<br />

que habitan las locaciones deficitarias, donde la fuente de cooperación reside en la<br />

semejanza de intereses y a través del desarrollo de “diseños conversacionales” se motiva a<br />

la co-creación de diálogos, reflexiones, experiencias y acciones, que llevan a promover el<br />

“aprende a aprender” las “patologías constructivas” 150 en la búsqueda de nuevas formas de<br />

hacer, sentir, pensar y entender sobre esta temática, que no tiene fronteras ni obstáculos<br />

por su lenguaje universal.<br />

148 Datos del Arq. Claudio Freidin (IVC) que condujo una investigación sobre el estado de las<br />

viviendas con titularidad dominial registradas de la Capital, Publicado en el Diario Clarín-Pág. 34-La<br />

Ciudad-Problemas Sociales- Un fenómeno que recrudeció con la crisis del 2001- Pobreza Oculta- de<br />

fecha 1/07/05<br />

149 Sistemas generativos, en los que personas, grupos o equipos incluyen en su dinámica y sus objetivos la conformación de<br />

sistemas mediadores y espacios intermedios <strong>com</strong>o vehículos para la creación de posibilidades y enlaces inéditos. La trama de<br />

papel- Ed. Galerna Pág. 44 Cáp. 3 -Nuevos paradigmas, <strong>com</strong>unicación y resolución de conflictos de Dora Fried Schnitman y<br />

Jorge Schnitman-2005<br />

150 La Arq. Olga Knaibl especialista en patología de la construcción, la define <strong>com</strong>o él diagnostico de la etiología de los<br />

problemas y la búsqueda de su terapia. Él termino “patología” proviene del griego: PATHOS: enfermedad y LOGOS: ciencia,<br />

tratado. Significa “tratamiento de las enfermedades”. Publicación de la SCA-2003<br />

209


3. CONSTRUCCIÓN DEL PROCESO<br />

En SURCO los “conflictos en locaciones urbanas deficitarias”, son focalizados desde la<br />

práctica <strong>com</strong>unicativa 151 , y es la que crea las reales oportunidades para deliberar sobre el<br />

hábitat mismo, con el objeto de <strong>com</strong>prender las deficiencias, con una actitud abierta (con<br />

reflexión, tolerancia, diálogo). Las patologías constituyen un conjunto de aspectos de un<br />

mismo problema, que normalmente tiene una secuencia temporal que se inicia en “la<br />

causa” que da origen al problema, la “evolución”, los “síntomas”, y las “lesiones” que<br />

presenta el hábitat, para llegar al “estado actual” del problema. El proceso de negociación<br />

para la resolución de éste tipo de conflicto, se inicia a través de un proceso temporal<br />

inverso, donde los mediadores a<strong>com</strong>pasan a los participantes para bosquejar él “estado<br />

actual” del hábitat deficitario, explorar las “lesiones” manifiestas, y a través de la evolución<br />

de estas lesiones se despeja la “causa” que les da origen. Los participantes, <strong>com</strong>prenden la<br />

evolución de las patologías y trabajan preventivamente sobre las necesarias acciones que<br />

“juntos” necesitan poner en marcha, para alcanzar la resolución del conflicto que los aqueja.<br />

Los mediadores hacen circular el diálogo entre los participantes, y simultáneamente<br />

bosquejan el mapa del terreno y el plano de sus propias intervenciones, donde los<br />

participantes se hacen cargo del conflicto, el que se juega en el discurso, la palabra, el<br />

reconocimiento y la legitimación, para la co-creación de soluciones posibles (que será hacer<br />

menos de aquello que no hace bien) para una convivencia en paz.<br />

4. LA OBRA CONSTRUIDA<br />

Los conflictos que surgen en las locaciones urbanas deficitarias, tienen “nubes” o patrones<br />

de conducta que se caracterizan por la falta de datos sobre la situación patológica que los<br />

aqueja, la presencia de información in<strong>com</strong>pleta o de carácter pertinente, la existencia de<br />

obsesiones ante una realidad concreta que los apremia en el tiempo, además del temor a<br />

modificar las propias conductas o privilegios, y en donde flotan <strong>com</strong>o el “aisber” las<br />

relaciones de poder. Parafraseando a Karl Popper las “nubes generan señales, alusiones,<br />

151 Cuando se considera a la resolución de conflictos <strong>com</strong>o una practica <strong>com</strong>unicativa, el énfasis se ubica en las <strong>com</strong>petencias<br />

y destrezas del profesional <strong>com</strong>o artífice de la conversación entre los participantes. Así, la conversación fluye atravesando<br />

diversas etapas que incluyen escuchar los aspectos particulares del conflicto desde cada parte involucrada-incrementando la<br />

<strong>com</strong>prensión, el reconocimiento, el respeto y la concientización–; encuadrar colaborativamente el problema, facilitar la creación<br />

de nuevas perspectivas y posibilidades para avanzar el proceso, trabajar en una resolución adecuada para los participantes,<br />

promover las oportunidades para deliberar acerca de la misma, especificarla, decidir y resolver. Aréchaga-Brandoni y Risolía<br />

(<strong>com</strong>ps.)-La trama de papel- Ed. Galerna Pág. 48 Cáp. 3 -Nuevos paradigmas, <strong>com</strong>unicación y resolución de conflictos de Dora<br />

Fried Schnitman y Jorge Schnitman-2005.<br />

210


aproximaciones al tiempo que vendrá, a las lluvias posibles o a las eventuales tempestades,<br />

o al sol que podrá imperar posiblemente mañana 152 .<br />

El tema “la obra construida” es una “alternativa autentica”, para “disparar” un tratamiento<br />

para los conflictos del hábitat deficitario, sin pretender la unanimidad de criterios, confiamos<br />

que este aporte desde la experiencia practica de SURCO, promueva el “diálogo generativo”<br />

<strong>com</strong>o herramienta básica para lograr la convivencia en las locaciones urbanas deficitarias,<br />

en el hábitat urbano.<br />

5. BIBLIOGRAFÍA<br />

• La Trama de papel- Sobre el proceso de mediación, los conflictos y la mediación penal-<br />

Patricia Aréchaga, Florencia Brandoni y Matilde Risolía(<strong>com</strong>ps.)Ed. Galerna (2005).<br />

• Acerca de la Clínica de Mediación –Relato de Casos- de Patricia Aréchaga, Florencia<br />

Brandoni y Andrea Finkelstein- Colección Visión Compartida –Librería Histórica Emilio J.<br />

Perrot (2004)<br />

• Mediando en sistemas familiares. De Marines Suárez- Paidos Mediación 11-(2002)<br />

• Mediación Estratégica – De Rubén A. Calcaterra Pág. 23-Gedisa Editorial- (2002)<br />

• La vivienda posible. De la Arq. Carola Kappelmacher- Nuevohacer-Grupo Editor<br />

Latinoamericano(2001).<br />

• Nuevas Direcciones en mediación- Investigación y perspectivas <strong>com</strong>unicacionales-<br />

Joseph P. Folger y Tricia S. Jones- Paidos Mediación 7 (1997).<br />

• El Lenguaje del cambio- Nueva Técnica de la <strong>com</strong>unicación terapéutica de Paúl<br />

Watzlawick- Biblioteca de Psicología- Textos Universitarios.(1994)<br />

• La Promesa de Mediación-Como afrontar el conflicto a través del fortalecimiento propio y<br />

el reconocimiento de los otros. De Robert A Baruch Bush y Joseph P. Folger – Granica<br />

(1994)<br />

152<br />

El filósofo Karl Popper se preguntaba con agudeza en un texto llamado “Conjeturas y<br />

Refutaciones”, si el universo es mas parecido a las nubes o a los relojes, y dice “Las nubes orientan<br />

sobre el tiempo, pero no permiten sancionar silogismos lógicos sobre el tiempo que vendrá.<br />

Mirando las nubes, las incógnitas sobre el porvenir sobreviven. Los relojes en cambio permiten<br />

predecirlo todo con exactitud. Los relojes son exactos y se basan en la perfección. Sesenta<br />

segundos exactos <strong>com</strong>ponen un minuto exacto. Y es así, y en ese nivel no existe discusión posible.<br />

Las nubes, en cambio, generan señales, alusiones, aproximaciones al tiempo que vendrá, a las<br />

lluvias posibles o a las eventuales tempestades. O al sol que podrá imperar posiblemente mañana.<br />

Pero observando las nubes los minutos y los segundos ya no son exactos. A veces, si está nublado<br />

son más extensos, o más tristes, o de pronto son instantes brillantes que resplandecen por sí<br />

mismos. Y las mediciones exactas entonces, se vuelven existencialmente imprecisas. Radicalmente<br />

imprecisas. (21 de diciembre de 2004 fuente diario Clarín).<br />

211


Cognitive vs. Emotional focus in mediation<br />

Comparing two different styles of mediation<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Drs. Sjoerd Homminga<br />

Dr. Larry Fong<br />

In this workshop, the style of two renowned mediators Dr. Larry Fong (Milan Systemic) and<br />

Dr. Donald Mac Gillavry (conflict emotional model) are being <strong>com</strong>pared. Dr. Fong is a<br />

leading international trainer of mediation and Dr. Mac Gillavry a renowned mediator in the<br />

Netherlands, otherwise known as the grandfather of mediation in the Netherlands.<br />

Both mediators styles are very different in the use of emotions and thinking in mediation and<br />

the effects with their clients in this work place mediation problem. Dr. Sjoerd Homminga,<br />

mediator, international trainer and producer of training videotapes will show these differences<br />

on tape. Dr. Fong will analyse the videotapes with Dr. Homminga to invite discussion with all<br />

participants about mediator style differences. See the differences between the two<br />

mediators and their clients, and how the clients <strong>com</strong>e to similar path for resolving their<br />

problems and conflicts. The videotapes will be shown to invite professional differences and<br />

consensus from the audience of mediators about mediator differences and clients<br />

preferences.<br />

Dr. Homminga interviewed both parties and will give their reactions on the style differences<br />

between the mediators. Their reactions will be <strong>com</strong>pared with the reactions of the audience.<br />

Information concerning the theoretical backgrounds.<br />

212


A dynamic approach to mediation and training of Roma leaders<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Vladimir Labath<br />

PhD, Associate Professor, ARK, Bratislava, Slovakia<br />

Slovakia is a central European, post <strong>com</strong>munist country, within which there are several<br />

ethnic groups. The second largest is the Roma group. Estimates on the number of Romas<br />

in Slovakia vary from 5 – 10 % of the total population of the country. In general, Romas’<br />

economic and social situation is substantially weak: a large number is on the brink of poverty<br />

with unemployment sometimes reaching a level of 100%. The coexistence of the majority<br />

and this minority is marked by a high degree of prejudice, intolerance, xenophobia, obstacles<br />

and apathy on both sides. The situation thus arising creates ideal conditions for the outbreak<br />

of conflicts, both within the minority and between the majority and minority populations.<br />

Since 1996 Slovakia has witnessed a project of reconciliation councils, whose task is<br />

improvement of mutual information between majority and minority, as well as education,<br />

consulting and mediation. Altogether, mediation has resolved a considerable number of<br />

disputes, several of which concerned intercultural (or interethnic) conflicts. In reconciliation<br />

councils, representatives of the majority and of numerous minorities have been cooperating.<br />

In 2004 there was initiated another project, Mediation – alternative conflict resolution, whose<br />

goal is to prepare two groups of informal Roma <strong>com</strong>munity leaders to make use of mediation<br />

in practice.<br />

The project is shaped by the reality that the sum total of the past of our country (the second<br />

world war and the period of the <strong>com</strong>munist regime) has shattered traditional Roma society.<br />

The traditional Roma <strong>com</strong>munity had certain rules, structures, respected leaders, customs,<br />

and established means of resolving disputes. All this disappeared without any substitute by<br />

the 1950s. Many Romas do not understand nor identify with the values, standards and<br />

structure of majority society. Their own lifestyle was prohibited and not tolerated, and<br />

majority society at present does not accept it. Their traditions have been aggressively<br />

breached, and new customs have not taken root. In many regions this situation has be<strong>com</strong>e<br />

critical. The project implicitly supports the renaissance of some elements of Roma<br />

<strong>com</strong>munities by the work of trained mediators from among the Romas.<br />

213


The project has two basic goals – to create a basis for acceptance of Roma mediators in<br />

their own cultural environment, and to provide an opportunity for new mediators in the labour<br />

market even outside the Roma <strong>com</strong>munity, possibly in interethnic conflicts. A new law on<br />

mediation became valid in Slovakia in September 2004, creating the context for the new<br />

profession of mediator (as a business activity). A year earlier a law was passed on mediation<br />

and probation services.<br />

The mediation projects has several stages. Its fundamental elements are training and<br />

implementation in mediation. In this piece, we will focus on the specifics of the training<br />

program we have chosen.<br />

Mediation as practised in the project has a traditional character. It is structured with several<br />

phases. We have divided it into the present (introductory phase), the past (description,<br />

analysis and problem definition) and the future (proposed solutions, creation and signing of<br />

agreements). We have named the model a dynamic approach to mediation, for two reasons:<br />

• conflict is not a static manifestation, but rather a dynamic process, and so its resolution<br />

requires a dynamic and flexible approach.<br />

• the mediation process develops and changes. The interactive behaviour of parties in<br />

dispute changes during mediation, on the axes of cooperation-<strong>com</strong>petition, trustsuspicion<br />

and willingness-blocking. If we hope to succeed, the approach of the mediator<br />

must also change. We have identified four possible interventions, to be utilised adaptably:<br />

support and observation of constructive negotiation of those in dispute, facilitated<br />

discussion, managed <strong>com</strong>munication by means of mediator, and separate meetings with<br />

the parties.<br />

From the perspective of strategy and interventions applied, we can designate this approach<br />

as cognitive-behavioural, in the psychological vernacular. Primarily we work with cognitive<br />

functions (analysis, understanding, thought, logical argumentation and the like); secondarily<br />

we focus on the behavioural framework, i.e. on acceptance of new behaviour patterns<br />

(teaching by emulation, conditioning, positive exercises and the like).<br />

Training in mediation also draws on the aforementioned theoretical framework. We are<br />

convinced that mediators must understand the conflicts, and must acquire certain social<br />

skills. The extent of training is a minimum of 80 training hours in two week-long blocks.<br />

214


A specific feature of training thus designed is cognitive shortcut. We can facilitate this by<br />

various means – through stories, riddles, jokes and drawing. Cognitive shortcut is<br />

<strong>com</strong>munication which is brief in form, has clearly identifiable message, is understandable, is<br />

expressive of core problems, and is attractive to the audience. Drawing as a shortcut has<br />

proven itself to be very sustaining in a number of programs. Like a cartoon, it makes<br />

accessible very simple key information which often needs no further <strong>com</strong>ment. It is in itself<br />

dependable, and is also a very effective teaching tool. The following drawings illustrate how<br />

they can be productively utilised in training.<br />

Implementation of mediation is supported by the law valid in the Slovak Republic since 1<br />

September 2004. This defines mediation possibilities, creates a legislative framework for<br />

mediation and supports its acceptance by the public at large. On the other hand it<br />

<strong>com</strong>plicates the situation, because in the form of a business activity it sets university<br />

education as a condition. In the non-<strong>com</strong>mercial sphere, although it does not rule out the use<br />

of mediation, it discriminates against a significant portion of the population. Despite this,<br />

analysis of the project’ s first phases have made a very promising impression. The project<br />

builds on a number of non-governmental activities. It seems that it will be<strong>com</strong>e an effective<br />

investment in the resolution of problems of coexistence between minority and majority. One<br />

reason for guarded optimism is the fact that Roma leaders regard mediation as meaningful<br />

and in particular usable in their own culture.<br />

215


Nouvelle pratique de la médiation dans la juridiction pénale des<br />

mineurs dans le canton de Fribourg/SUISSE<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Michel Lachat<br />

Président de la Chambre Pénale des Mineurs du canton de Fribourg/CH<br />

Mon cher et éminent collègue Jean Zermatten, ancien collègue, devrais-je dire, vient de vous<br />

parler de la place de la médiation dans la nouvelle loi suisse sur les jeunes délinquants. Il<br />

m’échoit le plaisir et l’honneur de vous apporter un éclairage sur la pratique en la matière<br />

dans le canton de Fribourg, région qui se situe entre Berne et Lausanne, qui forme ainsi le<br />

lien entre la Suisse francophone et germanophone, et qui <strong>com</strong>pte environ 250.000 habitants.<br />

Mesdames et Messieurs,<br />

Si le processus de la médiation pour régler les différents autrement que par la méthode<br />

traditionnelle de règlement judiciaire est utilisé depuis quelques décennies déjà dans<br />

différentes disciplines juridiques, force est de reconnaître que la médiation en matière pénale<br />

est assez récente. La Re<strong>com</strong>mandation R (99) 19 du Comité des Ministres du Conseil de<br />

l’Europe en vue de développer la médiation pénale ne date en effet que de la fin 1999. C’est<br />

pourquoi, la médiation pénale, <strong>com</strong>me tout ce qui est nouveau, suscite de l’engouement<br />

chez certains, du scepticisme, voire de l’opposition chez d’autres, parmi lesquels on y trouve<br />

même quelques magistrats, qui peut-être par souci de voir leur autorité diminuer, ont<br />

quelques méfiances envers ce nouveau modèle consensuel de règlement des conflits.<br />

Personnellement, convaincu du bien-fondé de la médiation pénale, je parie sur cette pratique<br />

plus douce et porteuse d’espoir qui deviendra à brève échéance et sur tout le territoire<br />

suisse une alternative intéressante aux différentes peines, notamment à la peine privative de<br />

liberté, et ceci aussi bien dans le droit des mineurs que dans celui des adultes.<br />

En effet, en ce début du 3 ème millénaire, siècle des TIC (nouvelles technologies de<br />

l’information et de la <strong>com</strong>munication), dont le Sommet Mondial aura lieu à Tunis en<br />

novembre 2005, il m’apparaît primordial :<br />

216


- d’une part, de reconnaître l’intérêt légitime des victimes à faire entendre leur voix , à<br />

<strong>com</strong>muniquer avec le délinquant et à obtenir des excuses et une réparation ou tout<br />

simplement à <strong>com</strong>prendre les motifs qui ont poussé l’auteur à agir de la sorte. Je viens<br />

de vivre très récemment (au début juillet de cette année) un moment très fort avec deux<br />

victimes adultes, qui m’ont abordé pour obtenir des renseignements sur les deux jeunes<br />

enfants de 13 et 14 ans qui avaient, en janvier 1988, tué à coups de couteau leur père<br />

âgé de 80 ans. Ecartés de la procédure par le principe du huis clos chez les mineurs, ils<br />

voulaient, 17 ans plus tard, échanger leurs impressions et leurs <strong>com</strong>mentaires à propos<br />

du drame qu’ils avaient vécu. Ils voulaient également exprimer leurs sentiments par<br />

rapport à leur vécu et souligné la souffrance de toute leur famille victime d’un acte<br />

horrible. Cette rencontre, qui a duré deux bonnes heures, m’a confirmé que les victimes<br />

avaient besoin de tout savoir pour pouvoir peut-être pardonner un jour.<br />

- d’autre part, de renforcer chez les délinquants le sens de leurs responsabilités et de leur<br />

offrir l’occasion de s’amender, ce qui facilitera réinsertion et réhabilitation.<br />

Fort de ces constats, les autorités fribourgeoises ont réagi avec à propos et célérité en<br />

introduisant, en octobre 2001 déjà, dans le code de procédure cantonal (LJPM : Loi sur la<br />

juridiction pénale de mineurs) la possibilité de recourir à la médiation.<br />

Ainsi, Fribourg devenait le premier canton suisse à inscrire dans son code de procédure la<br />

possibilité pour le juge des mineurs de recourir à la médiation.<br />

Bien plus, Fribourg innovait encore en adoptant, le 16 décembre 2003, l’ordonnance sur la<br />

médiation dans la juridiction pénale des mineurs, loi qui est entrée en vigueur le 1.1.2004.<br />

Enfin, Fribourg agissait en pionnier en instituant un Bureau de la médiation avec trois<br />

médiateur/trices élu(e)s par l’Etat, qui fonctionne effectivement depuis novembre 2004.<br />

Contenu de l’ordonnance du 16 décembre 2003<br />

Il s’agit d’une loi très concise, qui ne <strong>com</strong>porte que 21 articles. En cela, d’une part, elle<br />

correspond au caractère spécifique de la médiation moins formel que la procédure pénale et<br />

qui ne peut pas et ne doit pas faire l’objet d’une réglementation détaillée et, d’autre part, elle<br />

217


satisfait au sacro-saint principe de Napoléon, qui prétendait qu’une « loi doit être courte et<br />

obscure, justement pour ouvrir des champs d’application au juge » !<br />

Néanmoins, elle consacre tous les grands principes du droit des enfants et respecte ceux de<br />

la procédure.<br />

1. Participation volontaire des parties<br />

- art. 2 le médiateur/la médiatrice est chargé-e de conduire les entretiens en vue de la<br />

recherche d’une solution librement négociée entre personnes lésées et<br />

auteurs ;<br />

- art. 10 le médiateur/la médiatrice donne connaissance aux parties de leurs droits en<br />

relation avec ce processus, de la nature volontaire…de la démarche ;<br />

- art. 13 A tout moment, chacune des parties est libre de mettre fin au processus.<br />

2. Confidentialité<br />

- art.7 al. 1 « Le médiateur ou la médiatrice est tenu-e de garder le secret sur les faits<br />

dont il ou elle a acquis la connaissance dans l’exercice de ses fonctions et sur<br />

les opérations auxquelles il ou elle a procédé, participé ou assisté ».<br />

- art 7 al. 2 « Aucune information confidentielle ne peut être <strong>com</strong>muniquée à des<br />

tiers, à moins que l’ensemble des parties à la médiation n’y consente ou que le<br />

but de cette <strong>com</strong>munication ne soit scientifique ou statistique ».<br />

- art. 7 al. 3 « Le dossier constitué par le médiateur ou la médiatrice est intransmissible<br />

et insaisissable ».<br />

3. Service accessible à tous<br />

- art. 20 « la procédure de médiation est gratuite »<br />

218


4. Utilisation de la médiation dans toutes les phases de la procédure pénale<br />

- art. 8 « Le processus de médiation peut être déclenché par le ou la juge à tout stade<br />

de la procédure, soit au cours de l’instruction, dans la phase du jugement ou<br />

dans le cadre de l’exécution du jugement prononcé ».<br />

5. Autonomie des services de médiation<br />

- art. 5 Le médiateur ou la médiatrice exerce ses fonctions en toute indépendance ;<br />

- art. 3 la médiation est exercée par le Bureau de la médiation… Les locaux de ce<br />

Bureau sont distincts et séparés du lieu d’exercice de la juridiction pénale des<br />

mineurs.<br />

6. Impartialité<br />

- art. 6 Le médiateur ou la médiatrice ne favorise ni l’une ni l’autre des parties en<br />

litige. Il ou elle n’exerce aucune pression sur les parties pour obtenir<br />

l’adhésion à un accord.<br />

7. Discrétion<br />

- art. 13 Les séances ont lieu à huis clos.<br />

Ce projet-pilote répond donc entièrement aux critères que la Commission constituée par le<br />

Conseil d’Etat s’était fixée, soit :<br />

• reconstruire des modes de règlement des différends tombés en désuétude<br />

• renforcer la position des victimes<br />

• imaginer d’autres solutions que la peine<br />

• réduire le coût et la charge de travail du système de justice pénale et en améliorer<br />

• son efficacité.<br />

219


La pratique<br />

A. Critères de délégation<br />

Un rapport de dénonciation contre un auteur mineur (âgé de 7 à 18 ans) est déposé par la<br />

police cantonale sur le bureau du juge des mineurs. Celui-ci examine si les infractions<br />

retenues sont <strong>com</strong>patibles avec une procédure de médiation (par. ex. infractions à la LStup<br />

ne sont pas <strong>com</strong>patibles) et si les critères de délégation sont réalisées, à savoir :<br />

1. le lésé est identifié<br />

2. les faits sont pour l’essentiel établis<br />

3. l’auteur a reconnu globalement les faits<br />

4. l’accord du Ministère public (pour des faits très graves) est réservé.<br />

B. Transmission du dossier<br />

Dès que le juge estime qu’une procédure de médiation peut être engagée, il informe les<br />

parties concernées par une lettre écrite dans laquelle il les invite à saisir l’occasion qui leur<br />

est offerte de régler cette affaire de façon extrajudiciaire. En même temps, il transmet le<br />

dossier pénal au Bureau de la médiation (actuellement, c’est un médiateur qui passe au<br />

greffe du tribunal chercher les dossiers).<br />

C. Qualifications des médiateurs<br />

1. être au bénéfice d’un diplôme universitaire ou d’une formation jugée équivalente<br />

2. avoir des connaissances en droit pénal<br />

3. avoir suivi une formation en médiation<br />

4. avoir un casier judiciaire sans infraction contre l’honneur<br />

D. Processus de médiation<br />

Dans un premier temps, le médiateur ou la médiatrice invite séparément les parties et leurs<br />

représentants légaux en vue d’une prise de contact individuelle. Parfois, un entretien de<br />

groupe peut avoir lieu, notamment en cas de pluralité d’auteurs. Les parties peuvent se faire<br />

assister d’un défenseur ou d’une personne de confiance.<br />

Ensuite, la démarche de la médiation se poursuit par des entretiens mettant en présence les<br />

parties en litige.<br />

Enfin, le médiateur ou la médiatrice <strong>com</strong>munique immédiatement au juge le résultat de la<br />

médiation. Aucun délai formel n’est imparti au médiateur ou à la médiatrice, mais la loi parle<br />

d’un délai raisonnable pour conduire la médiation (trois mois).<br />

220


E. Conséquences<br />

En cas d’échec, la procédure est reprise ou bien par le juge informateur, si le dossier a été<br />

transmis au stade de l’enquête, ou bien par le Président de la Chambre, si le dossier a été<br />

transmis au stade du jugement. Une décision sera rendu à l’issue des débats.<br />

En cas d’aboutissement, ou bien le Juge informateur prononce un non-lieu (art. 162 du<br />

code de procédure pénale) si le dossier a été transmis au stade de l’enquête, ou bien le<br />

Président de la Chambre renonce à toute sanction (art. 88 et 98 du code pénal suisse), si le<br />

dossier a été transmis au stade du jugement.<br />

Les parties sont responsables de l’exécution de l’accord qu’elles ont passé.<br />

Conclusion<br />

Il ressort de ce premier tour de chauffe de sept mois que les objectifs ont été atteints, de<br />

sorte que la Chambre Pénale des Mineurs du canton de Fribourg a été soulagée de<br />

plusieurs dossiers qui ont été traités avec diligence par le Bureau de la médiation et qui ont<br />

abouti à une issue heureuse.<br />

Statistiques au 12 juillet 2005 :<br />

Affaires transmises au Bureau de la médiation 42 concernant 74 mineurs<br />

Affaires terminées par un accord 10 16<br />

Affaires terminées par un échec 4 9<br />

Affaires en cours 28 49<br />

Reste donc aujourd’hui à diffuser et à faire connaître ce nouveau mode de règlement des<br />

conflits. La médiation, c’est aussi un état d’esprit et le message doit passer dans la<br />

population. Il en prend le chemin, notamment grâce aux initiateurs de ce Forum.<br />

221


Conflitto e Mediazione. Dalla “soluzione” disfunzionale alla<br />

dissipazione del conflitto<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Michele Lanna<br />

Introduzione<br />

La presente relazione rappresenta un abstract del saggio, in corso di pubblicazione,<br />

“Conflitto e Mediazione: dalla soluzione disfunzionale alla dissipazione del conflitto”. Oggetto<br />

del lavoro è il conflitto nella sua oggettività ed autonomia: il conflitto <strong>com</strong>e sistema. Un<br />

sistema, secondo la definizione proposta da Hall e Fagen è "un insieme di oggetti e di<br />

relazioni tra gli oggetti e tra i loro attributi".<br />

E’ opportuno, però, tener presente che parlare di sistema rappresenta pur sempre<br />

un’astrazione: il sistema è nella mente di chi guarda. Parlare di sistemi, quindi, significa<br />

<strong>com</strong>piere un’operazione di tipo cognitivo: il sistema che osserviamo dipende dal “livello di<br />

astrazione” che abbiamo scelto.<br />

Il principio essenziale di un sistema è l’organizzazione che, per utilizzare le parole di Morin:<br />

“trasforma, produce, connette, mantiene” . Il conflitto, pertanto, <strong>com</strong>e tutti i sistemi per<br />

“vivere” ha bisogno di energia è, cioè, un “sistema dissipativo”. Un intervento sul conflitto, in<br />

funzione della dissoluzione del sistema, impone, a parere di chi scrive, la necessità<br />

d’individuare le sue “fonti di approvvigionamento”, la “benzina” che il conflitto brucia per poter<br />

vivere; col fine, evidentemente, d’interrompere il flusso di alimentazione: di “tagliare i viveri”<br />

al conflitto.<br />

Sono proprio i confliggenti a fornire energia al sistema: essi immettono energia nel sistema<br />

conflittuale, di cui fanno parte, attraverso l’elementare dinamica relazionale propria di ogni<br />

conflitto, caratterizzata da una sequenza di reciproci “attacchi e difese”. I continui attacchi e<br />

le continue difese forniscono l’energia necessaria a mantenere in vita il conflitto e ne<br />

costituiscono l’essenza. Un intervento capace di bloccare tale dinamica priverebbe, quindi, il<br />

conflitto dell’energia necessaria per vivere determinandone progressivamente l’atrofia.<br />

222


Tentativi di agire direttamente sul conflitto, ossia sulla dinamica attacco/difesa, si rivelano,<br />

però, molto spesso fallaci. Ciò è determinato dalla grande capacità attrattiva del sistema<br />

conflittuale che finisce col fagocitare tutta l’energia proveniente dall’esterno, dai terzi attori in<br />

funzione di “pacieri”. Il semplice “accettare” il conflitto e la sua dinamica, la sua logica, può<br />

significare fornirgli energia, rimanere ingabbiati in tale dinamica: occorre, invece, non<br />

occuparsi del conflitto.<br />

L’approccio più indicato sarebbe, infatti, a parere di chi scrive, quello di eludere il conflitto e<br />

bloccare la dinamica attacco/difesa, non intervenendo, però, in maniera diretta; ma<br />

inducendo le parti confliggenti ad utilizzare in altro modo l’energia che investono nel conflitto.<br />

In tale prospettiva la mediazione potrebbe consentire tutto questo e, modificare, quindi, il<br />

funzionamento del sistema conflitto.<br />

L’approccio utilizzato, si sottrae, evidentemente, ad una prospettiva etica, morale,<br />

pacifista o ideologica tout court: non affronta il problema di ciò che è “bene” e ciò che<br />

è “male”. Non si sostiene, quindi, che il conflitto generi, sofferenza, violenza e,<br />

talvolta, morte e disperazione né che esso sia non-morale e/o non-etico; né che<br />

rappresenti il male in sé, anche se queste affermazioni sono probabilmente tutte<br />

vere. Non si sostiene, nemmeno, <strong>com</strong>e pure oggi molti fanno, che il conflitto sia un<br />

qualcosa, addirittura di positivo, foriero di cambiamento, di miglioramento che conterebbe in<br />

sé qualcosa di straordinario: farebbe “crescere” ! Tali teorie se da una parte recuperano la<br />

dimensione del conflitto, dall’altra cadono nell’errore opposto in quanto lo trasformano da<br />

qualcosa di negativo in qualcosa di positivo, conferendogli, <strong>com</strong>unque, un valore “aggiunto”.<br />

a) Il funzionamento del conflitto<br />

L’elaborazione teorica, ac<strong>com</strong>pagnata dagli insostituibili contributi provenienti dalla pratica<br />

clinica, ha consentito di selezionare una serie di caratteristiche e peculiarità del conflitto che,<br />

in estrema sintesi, si possono così schematizzare:<br />

- nel conflitto è osservabile una grande velocità dell’interazione e dello scambio tra i<br />

confliggenti;<br />

- il conflitto tende progressivamente ad aumentare d’intensità e di velocità (escalation);<br />

- il conflitto possiede una grande capacità di replicazione: ripropone sempre se stesso; si<br />

manifesta nelle forme più diverse, ma sempre, però, con la stessa dinamica;<br />

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- il conflitto produce un progressivo impoverimento della relazione tra le parti fino alla<br />

s<strong>com</strong>parsa dell’altro <strong>com</strong>e “<strong>com</strong>plessità”, <strong>com</strong>e sistema <strong>com</strong>plesso;<br />

- il ciclo vitale del conflitto, descritto dai teorici dell’escalation ed in particolare da Glasl,<br />

evidenzia la modalità e la linearità del suo svolgimento: la sua prevedibilità;<br />

- i confliggenti non sono affetti da alcuna patologia; è la loro relazione ad essere<br />

disfunzionale, non evolutiva;<br />

- nel conflitto si verifica un effetto paradossale: quanto più si perde la percezione dell’altro<br />

<strong>com</strong>e “persona” tanto più si rimane indissolubilmente legati a quest’ultimo;<br />

- il conflitto non solo non è né “bene” né “male”, ma, soprattutto non è qualcosa di<br />

disordinato, di caotico: il conflitto è un sistema che funziona, anzi, che funziona bene.<br />

b) Il conflitto <strong>com</strong>e “soluzione disfunzionale”<br />

Paradossalmente il conflitto rappresenta, nella prospettiva considerata, la “soluzione” che le<br />

parti hanno trovato per gestire le loro divergenze, gli interessi contrastanti, i differenti bisogni,<br />

le inconciliabili aspettative. Concettualmente, la soluzione mira a “solvere”, a sciogliere, a<br />

liberare energia, a svincolare le parti, ed a sbloccare una certa situazione.<br />

La “soluzione” conflittuale, invece, è una soluzione che lega profondamente le parti, è la<br />

soluzione totale: l’“accordo a non prendere accordi” con chi minaccia (o crediamo che<br />

minacci) la nostra identità ed il nostro equilibrio di persone, di gruppi o di stati. E’ la soluzione<br />

che nega se stessa in quanto non ri-solve, non scioglie, assolutamente nulla; anzi, lega le<br />

parti e lo fa anche in maniera molto profonda.<br />

Tale soluzione è disfunzionale nella misura in cui è involutiva: le parti restano<br />

irrimediabilmente invischiate l’una all’altra, sviluppando una reciproca e profondissima<br />

dipendenza. Il confliggente, quindi, solo apparentemente perde il contatto con l’altro; a ben<br />

vedere, invece, la sua relazione con “l’altro” tende a diventare progressivamente più intensa<br />

fino a divenire totale ed esclusiva. Quello che noi chiamiamo conflitto è, quindi, il disperato<br />

ed inconsapevole tentativo dei confliggenti di tener fede a quell’accordo “a non accordarsi”<br />

riaffermando la “soluzione”. Il conflitto esplica una forza centripeta, attira tutto ciò che lo<br />

circonda verso il suo centro; ha un’attitudine ipnotica: chi confligge non sceglie o, per lo<br />

meno non sceglie più, non agit sed agitur.<br />

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La peculiarità della “soluzione” conflittuale consiste, pertanto, nel fatto che, anziché liberare<br />

energia <strong>com</strong>e avviene per le soluzioni; quest’ultima, al contrario, richiede energia dalle parti<br />

per poter vivere: è una “soluzione” parassitaria.<br />

c) Ciclo vitale del conflitto: la dinamica attacco difesa<br />

L’essenza del conflitto risiede, quindi, nella dinamica ipnotica ed esclusiva attacco/difesa: le<br />

parti si attaccano e si difendono in un’escalation che le porterà fino alla distruzione reciproca:<br />

“insieme nell’abisso”. Non ci sono vincitori né vinti: perdono tutti, perlomeno, in termini di<br />

autonomia e di libertà e, soprattutto, consumano energia che potrebbero spendere<br />

diversamente…<br />

Il conflitto non è utile: non consente alle parti coinvolte di crescere, di cambiare, di evolvere.<br />

La relazione conflittuale è sostanzialmente statica e ripetitiva: le parti in conflitto<br />

ripropongono sempre l’immagine ridotta e parziale di se stesse, <strong>com</strong>e confliggenti. Il sistema<br />

conflitto, così descritto, è un sistema che “funziona” (anzi, che funziona bene) in maniera<br />

estremamente ordinata, logica, lineare, prevedibile, coerente: è un motore quasi perfetto.<br />

Bloccare la replicazione del conflitto, il suo riproporre in maniera ossessiva ed esclusiva<br />

(seppur nelle forme più diverse) la dinamica attacco/difesa, significa, anzitutto, “perturbare” il<br />

conflitto. L’ipotesi sviluppata nel saggio è, quindi, che la mediazione possa essere uno degli<br />

strumenti migliori per bloccare la capacità di replicazione del conflitto, attraverso la<br />

sottrazione di energia; agendo allo stesso modo di quei farmaci antitumorali di nuova<br />

generazione, cosiddetti “anti-angiogenetici” che non attaccano direttamente la neoplasia, ma<br />

che agiscono sulla vascolarizzazione della stessa (angiogenesi), impedendo la formazione<br />

dei nuovi vasi sanguigni che hanno il <strong>com</strong>pito di nutrire il tumore.<br />

La mediazione rappresenta un luogo e uno spazio, sia fisico che psichico, all’interno del<br />

quale si rallenta la capacità di replicazione del conflitto, eludendo la dinamica attacco/difesa<br />

ed incanalando l’energia dei confliggenti su altri aspetti della relazione che non rientrano<br />

nella “soluzione” conflittuale. La mediazione, quindi, <strong>com</strong>e meta-sistema in grado di<br />

modificare il sistema conflittuale sottraendogli energia.<br />

Il mediatore agisce <strong>com</strong>e “ingresso perturbante”, <strong>com</strong>plessifica il sistema conflitto,<br />

modificandone inizialmente la struttura e alterandone il funzionamento: le risposte dei<br />

confliggenti progressivamente si “sottraggono” alla logica “attacco/difesa” e la “soluzione”<br />

conflittuale pian piano si dissolve.<br />

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Il mediatore blocca il meccanismo di alimentazione del conflitto, “costringendo” le parti<br />

coinvolte a dirottare l’energia che spendevano nella dinamica attacco/difesa su altri piani.<br />

Poiché, il conflitto determina una polarizzazione della relazione su una gamma ridotta di<br />

emozioni e contenuti (impoverendo la relazione tra le parti dal punto di vista qualitativo ed<br />

allo stesso tempo rafforzandola dal punto di vista dell’intensità del legame) sostenuta dalla<br />

modalità attacco/difesa; il mediatore dovrebbe disorganizzare tale unica, sterile ed arida (per<br />

quanto granitica) modalità collegando le parti in maniera più ampia e <strong>com</strong>plessa. Tale<br />

<strong>com</strong>plessificazione ridurrebbe la quantità di energia “a disposizione” del conflitto e<br />

disarticolerebbe la struttura interna del sistema stesso che risulterebbe “gravato” da una fitta<br />

rete di interconnessioni in grado di alterarne la semplice ed efficace struttura interna.<br />

Ciò che rende il conflitto inattaccabile e granitico, in sintesi, è la sua assoluta<br />

semplicità ! Tale sistema, quindi, a causa dell’iper-<strong>com</strong>plessificazione cui lo<br />

sottopone la mediazione (determinata dalla rete di ulteriori collegamenti che il<br />

mediatore struttura tra i confliggenti) entra in crisi in quanto non è più in grado di<br />

ricevere energia. Secondo la nostra ipotesi, pertanto, quando il “conflitto” (attraverso,<br />

evidentemente, i confliggenti) entra in contatto con il mediatore patisce una drastica<br />

riduzione dell’energia ed una serie di alterazioni sia strutturali che funzionali, che ne<br />

determinano la progressiva atrofia.<br />

d) Le alterazioni del conflitto “in mediazione”<br />

Le alterazioni del conflitto prodotte dall’intervento del mediatore si possono, cosi,<br />

sinteticamente schematizzare:<br />

- il funzionamento del conflitto si altera, le risposte dei confliggenti pian piano si<br />

sottraggono alla “logica del conflitto”; divengono incoerenti rispetto ad esso, il piano<br />

emotivo si <strong>com</strong>plessifica;<br />

- si osserva, allora, un rallentamento della velocità di replicazione del conflitto (determinata<br />

dal minor apporto energetico), un suo indebolimento ed una progressiva<br />

disorganizzazione;<br />

- la disorganizzazione del sistema conflitto ha effetti “benefici” e consente un’evoluzione<br />

della relazione tra le parti, che possono ricercare nuove soluzioni e nuove “connessioni”;<br />

- le interazioni tra il sistema conflitto ed il sistema mediazione sono di tipo relazionale,<br />

ossia, si fondano su feedbacks <strong>com</strong>unicazionali;<br />

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- l’alterazione dei feedbacks relazionali, prodotta dal mediatore, fa si che il sistema conflitto<br />

(che è di tipo dissipativo) non riceva, più, nutrimento (energia) dai sottosistemi da cui è<br />

costituito (confliggenti);<br />

- I confliggenti abbandonano la dinamica attacco/difesa che è la fonte energetica,<br />

“l’alimentatore” del conflitto;<br />

- consumando energia e non ricevendone altra, progressivamente il conflitto si inaridisce;<br />

- questo lento collasso del conflitto libera energia e determina inevitabilmente un<br />

cambiamento nell’interazione tra i confliggenti;<br />

- la Mediazione determina, una <strong>com</strong>plessificazione del sistema conflitto e, quindi, una sua<br />

progressiva disorganizzazione che lo condurrà alla disgregazione.<br />

Per semplificare ulteriormente la <strong>com</strong>prensione del modello, ed evitare che lo stesso<br />

risulti arido ed estremamente teorico, quest’ultimo è stato, inoltre, rappresentato<br />

attraverso un caso “concreto” di mediazione familiare, di seguito sintetizzato.<br />

e) Esempio di conflitto di coppia ed ipotesi di mediazione familiare<br />

Ci sono coniugi che confliggono per una vita, con grande regolarità, oserei dire in maniera<br />

“ordinata”. Se ci poniamo su di un livello di astrazione che ci faccia vedere solo il loro<br />

conflitto e, non il loro dolore, le loro vite bloccate, la sofferenza che determinano negli altri<br />

etc., vediamo che il conflitto rappresenta un qualcosa di assolutamente stabile ed ordinato<br />

nelle loro esistenze.<br />

Il sistema conflitto funziona bene: i coniugi confliggono sempre, “s’impegnano” nel conflitto;<br />

sono disposti a cambiare tutto nelle loro vite ma non “il conflitto”. Il conflitto li ac<strong>com</strong>pagna<br />

nelle loro esistenze, invecchia con loro, se li dovesse abbandonare per un istante ne<br />

risulterebbero disorientati: il conflitto è una loro certezza. La stessa escalation descritta da<br />

Glasl conferma <strong>com</strong>e la “scala” sulla quale esso si muove sia assolutamente prevedibile e<br />

coerente. Un esempio di conflitto familiare e di relativo intervento di mediazione potrebbe,<br />

così, sintetizzarsi:<br />

Moglie: è gelosa del marito che è sempre fuori per lavoro e sospetta che abbia una relazione<br />

con la giovane segretaria; ha un atteggiamento di ostilità nei confronti del marito: lo “attacca”<br />

e, quando lui reagisce arrabbiato, lei si “difende”.<br />

Man mano che il conflitto cresce la moglie si allontana sempre più dal marito, l’immagine<br />

della persona <strong>com</strong>plessa che ha di fronte diviene sempre più sfuocata; paradossalmente,<br />

però, il conflitto la lega sempre di più al marito, se pur solo nella sua nuova veste di<br />

confliggente.<br />

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Marito: …tu sei pazza ! (si difende ed attacca). Anche per lui l’immagine della moglie diviene<br />

sempre più sbiadita; la vede nella sua nuova veste di “nemica” che assomiglia molto<br />

lontanamente alla donna di cui si è innamorato. Pensa che si sia verificato un cambiamento<br />

nella sua personalità …non la riconosce più.<br />

Sentimenti prevalenti: rabbia, ostilità, odio, antipatia, insofferenza, frustrazione…<br />

Modalità relazionale: attacco/difesa; entrambi i coniugi hanno perso una visione <strong>com</strong>plessiva<br />

e globale "dell'altro" con tutti i suoi sentimenti e le sue emozioni: vedono soltanto il “nemico”.<br />

Con il passare del tempo il sistema conflittuale, strutturato sulle poche emozioni descritte, si<br />

rafforza e si “ordina” in maniera sempre più rigida: cambiano le situazioni, i contesti, i fatti, le<br />

circostanze; la struttura e la dinamica del conflitto, però, resta la stessa.<br />

Il (sistema) conflitto sovradescritto raggiunge una certa stabilità (omeostasi): si alternano fasi<br />

più o meno importanti di escalation e descalation (litigi più o meno frequenti ed intensi<br />

alternati a riappacificazioni o, <strong>com</strong>unque, a momenti di minore conflittualità) ma il<br />

<strong>com</strong>portamento del conflitto è, dal punto di vista funzionale, estremamente lineare e<br />

prevedibile. I confliggenti restano, così, “imprigionati” nel conflitto che è diventato qualcosa<br />

che li lega ed allo stesso tempo li trascende impedendo loro di andare “oltre”; non sono più in<br />

grado di sottrarsi all’attrazione del conflitto, non agiscono più …sono agìti; possono, al<br />

massimo, re-agire. Se un sistema esterno (un parente, un amico, un “paciere”) cercasse<br />

d’intervenire (e, quindi, d’interagire) in maniera classica, ossia andando direttamente sul<br />

conflitto (accettandone, quindi, l’ordine e la struttura) non avrebbe grandi possibilità di<br />

successo.<br />

Tale nuovo “ingresso” (il paciere, l’amico), infatti, sarebbe funzionale alla logica del conflitto<br />

e, paradossalmente, finirebbe con il fornirgli energia.<br />

Il mediatore, invece, non agisce direttamente sul conflitto, ma sulle altre parti del sè dei<br />

confliggenti che il conflitto “ignora”; favorisce una <strong>com</strong>unicazione su piani ed oggetti diversi<br />

da quelli “presi di mira” dal conflitto <strong>com</strong>plessificando la relazione.<br />

Durante la mediazione le parti vengono “impegnate” e sollecitate dal mediatore ad agire su<br />

piani differenti da quelli soliti del conflitto; il mediatore riesce ad operare dei collegamenti tra<br />

“parti non manifeste” dei confliggenti che solitamente nel conflitto non vengono sollecitate.<br />

Così, nello stesso tempo e per lo stesso motivo, i confliggenti inconsapevolmente finiscono<br />

con l’abbandonare la dinamica classica (attacco/difesa) tipica del conflitto.<br />

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Il Mediatore raggiunge tale risultato operando nel modo seguente:<br />

- articola la rete delle connessioni all’interno dei due sottosistemi del conflitto (i<br />

confliggenti) restituendo a queste ultime parti di sé, emozioni, stati d’animo etc., che il<br />

conflitto aveva sommerso;<br />

- articola la rete delle connessioni tra i due sottosistemi del conflitto (i confliggenti),<br />

cercando di portarli ad un maggiore livello di <strong>com</strong>plessità e di consapevolezza reciproca:<br />

l’altro non è solo “il nemico”, ma è una persona che ha dei bisogni, prova emozioni,<br />

sensazioni etc.;<br />

- tale nuova articolazione è, evidentemente, di tipo emotivo e relazionale, si fonda sulla<br />

modificazione dei feedbacks <strong>com</strong>unicazionali;<br />

- <strong>com</strong>plessifica la gamma di emozioni presenti.<br />

Da un punto di vista concreto, quindi, ritornando all’esempio del conflitto di coppia<br />

sovradescritto, alla moglie che manifesta sentimenti di ostilità, di rabbia, d’irritazione, di odio<br />

il mediatore potrebbe chiedere, mettendo “in gioco” altri aspetti che non rientrano nella logica<br />

del conflitto:<br />

…Io sento che lei è una donna sola …<br />

…Vuole provare a far sentire a suo marito la sua solitudine ?…<br />

Potrebbe chiedere al marito:<br />

…di quale tipo di uomo potrebbe innamorarsi sua moglie ? …Cosa chiederebbe, sotto il<br />

profilo affettivo, sua moglie a quest’ultimo ?<br />

…sua moglie è una donna felice … sola …triste…annoiata…<br />

Con tale modalità il mediatore “elude” il conflitto, fa uscire le parti dai rigidi “ruoli” in cui sono<br />

ingabbiate e favorisce tra le due “persone”, coinvolte nel conflitto, tutta una serie di scambi<br />

su piani emotivi e relazionali che il conflitto non andava a “toccare”; fa in modo che i<br />

confliggenti riescano a vedere parti dell’altro che il conflitto non consentiva di vedere.<br />

f) l’intervento del mediatore<br />

Nel caso del conflitto di coppia nella posizione iniziale (conflitto) :<br />

- I due attori del conflitto (i due sottosistemi: marito e moglie) <strong>com</strong>unicano, in maniera<br />

ridotta e povera, una ristrettissima gamma di emozioni e di contenuti e sempre con la<br />

stessa modalità “attacco / difesa”;<br />

- ogni attore del conflitto (sottosistema-marito o sottostistema-moglie) non <strong>com</strong>unica con<br />

l’altro attore del conflitto (sottosistema-marito o sottosistema-moglie) in tutta la sua<br />

interezza e <strong>com</strong>plessità;<br />

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- Entrambi i coniugi non vedono nell’altro una donna, una moglie, una madre (un uomo, un<br />

marito un padre) una “<strong>com</strong>plessità” che prova emozioni e che ha dei bisogni: l’altro viene<br />

percepito in maniera stereotipata, <strong>com</strong>e nel teatro di Plauto, “una volta per sempre”.<br />

Si verifica, invece, dopo l’ “intervento” del mediatore, una condizione per cui:<br />

- aumentano le connessioni e gli scambi tra i confliggenti soprattutto su piani del sé prima<br />

ignorati;<br />

- la mediazione “perturba” il conflitto, ne altera il funzionamento e, soprattutto, fa si che<br />

l’energia (che i confliggenti impiegano per confliggere) sia utilizzata in maniera differente<br />

e dirottata su altri piani;<br />

- tale situazione determina un impoverimento energetico del conflitto il quale non riceve più<br />

nutrimento dai confliggenti, con la conseguente progressiva atrofia della dinamica<br />

attacco/difesa.<br />

L’attività del mediatore sarà rivolta, quindi, non al conflitto ed alla sua dinamica ma<br />

solleciterà tutte le parti della relazione e dei confliggenti che il conflitto “ignora”.<br />

In definitiva, l’impressione è che il mediatore riesca a creare un tempo ed un luogo, sia fisico<br />

che psichico, al quale i confliggenti hanno la possibilità di accedere, attraverso una porta<br />

reale ed una porta psichica.<br />

E’il luogo del non giudizio e della presenza al tempo stesso: è il luogo in cui il conflitto<br />

s’inaridisce.<br />

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Development of Commercial Mediation in Singapore<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Loong Seng Onn<br />

Executive Director, Singapore Mediation Centre 153<br />

1. Introduction<br />

This paper traces the development of <strong>com</strong>mercial mediation in Singapore. The focus is<br />

on the setting up of Singapore’s flagship private mediation centre, the Singapore<br />

Mediation Centre (“SMC”), the types of cases for mediation, and its mediation process.<br />

This paper will also examine some of the factors affecting the mediation process in a<br />

survey of disputants and lawyers of the SMC. In conclusion, the paper will examine the<br />

future of <strong>com</strong>mercial mediation in Singapore.<br />

2. Mediation in Singapore<br />

The mediation movement in Singapore began in the mid 1990s and is enjoying growing<br />

popularity. Today’s mediation movement can be divided into 3 broad categories,<br />

153 Mr Loong Seng Onn is the Executive Director of the Singapore Mediation Centre and holds concurrent<br />

appointments as Assistant Director of the Singapore Academy of Law. He also sits on the Board of<br />

Commissioners for Oaths and Notaries Public. Mr Loong has mediated and resolved a great diversity of<br />

disputes. He is an Accredited Mediator of the SMC and the Centre for Dispute Resolution in the United<br />

Kingdom. He has also been gazetted as a mediator for the Tribunal for the Maintenance of Parents. Mr Loong is<br />

an experienced trainer and has been involved as the lead instructor for many conflict management workshops<br />

and has delivered talks and conducted workshops in Austria, Cambodia, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico and the<br />

Philippines. Mr Loong continues to act as a consultant for mediation programmes run by the Malta Institute of<br />

Management. Mr Loong graduated from the National University of Singapore with a bachelor’s degree in law in<br />

1988. In 1989, he was admitted as an Advocate and Solicitor of the Supreme Court of Singapore. Mr Loong has<br />

also <strong>com</strong>pleted the Advanced Negotiation Workshop organised by Harvard Law School.<br />

231


namely, court-connected mediation, mediation in tribunals, government departments<br />

and agencies and private mediation.<br />

2.1 Court-connected Mediation<br />

2.1.1 In Singapore the majority of court-connected mediations are court-based, in that they<br />

take place in the Subordinate Courts and are part of the Primary Dispute Resolution<br />

Centre. However, the courts may refer cases to external mediation centres like SMC<br />

and the Community Mediation Centres, in appropriate cases. In such a situation, the<br />

court, on its own initiative, suggests or re<strong>com</strong>mends that the parties proceed to<br />

mediation or encourages the parties to consider mediation. 154<br />

2.1.2 The court may also refer cases to mediation with the consent of parties. In Singapore,<br />

the mediations conducted in the Family Court are examples of this category of courtconnected<br />

mediation. The Women’s Charter (Cap 353) imposes a duty to consider the<br />

possibility of reconciliation for parties to divorce or judicial separation proceedings.<br />

Under the Community Mediation Centres Act (Cap 49A), a magistrate, upon receiving a<br />

<strong>com</strong>plaint, may refer the <strong>com</strong>plaint to a Community Mediation Centre if he or she is of<br />

the opinion that the matter may be more appropriately resolved by mediation and if the<br />

parties are agreeable to such a referral. 155<br />

2.1.3 Court-based mediation is practised in the Subordinate Courts in Singapore. In fact, a<br />

‘Singapore Courts Mediation Model’ has been developed. The model was created with<br />

the diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds of Singaporeans, and present day social<br />

conditions, in mind. The model involves a Settlement Conference presided over by a<br />

Settlement Judge. The Settlement Judge plays a pro-active role in guiding the parties<br />

and offering advice and suggestions on possible solutions. The directive and<br />

evaluative approach was adopted as it is believed that Singaporeans are less vocal in a<br />

formal setting. Given the foregoing, a greater degree of intervention is required in order<br />

to facilitate negotiations. 156<br />

154 L.Boulle & HH.Teh Mediation : Principles Process Practice (Singapore Edition) 2000, p.216<br />

155 ibid, p.217<br />

156 ibid, p.221<br />

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2.2 Mediation in tribunals, government departments and agencies and other<br />

professional and trade bodies.<br />

2.2.1 The Insolvency and Public Trustee’s Office maintains a Bankruptcy Mediation Unit<br />

where post-bankruptcy mediation is provided to resolve differences concerning the<br />

nature and quantum of debt between bankrupts and their creditors. The Community<br />

Mediation Centres assist in the resolution of neighbour and <strong>com</strong>munity disputes. The<br />

Ministry of Manpower provides conciliation services to employer-employee disputes.<br />

Mediation is also an integral part of the process at the Tribunal for Maintenance of<br />

Parents.<br />

2.2.2 Several professional associations and trade and industry bodies have set up their own<br />

mediation services. These include the Singapore Institute of Surveyors and Valuers,<br />

the Singapore Institute of Architects, the Consumers’ Association of Singapore, the<br />

Institute of Estate Agents, the National Association of Travel Agents Singapore, the<br />

Renovation and Decoration Advisory Committee and the Real Estate Developers’<br />

Association of Singapore. These organizations usually maintain their own panel of<br />

mediators and some institutional ties with SMC for the promotion of the proper use of<br />

mediation.<br />

2.3 Private Mediation<br />

Mediation has yet to be established as a full-time career in Singapore. Most mediators<br />

mediate only on an ad-hoc basis and rely on their full time professions for an in<strong>com</strong>e.<br />

Furthermore, there is little record of private mediations conducted in Singapore.<br />

However, this paper will primarily focus on the development of <strong>com</strong>mercial mediation in<br />

private institutions like the SMC.<br />

3. Background of the Singapore Mediation Centre<br />

SMC is the flagship mediation centre of Singapore. It was incorporated on 8 August<br />

1997, and officially launched by the Honourable Chief Justice Yong Pung How on 16<br />

August 1997. The SMC is a non-profit organisation guaranteed by the Singapore<br />

Academy of Law. It is linked institutionally with many professional and trade<br />

associations and receives the support of the Supreme Court of Singapore, the<br />

Subordinate Courts of Singapore and the Singapore Academy of Law. The SMC has<br />

successfully spearheaded the mediation movement in Singapore and is dedicated to<br />

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the promotion of amicable and efficient settlement of disputes. It aims to create an<br />

environment in which people can work together to find enduring solutions to conflicts<br />

and tensions created by human interactions. It contributes to the building of a<br />

harmonious society, and a thriving business <strong>com</strong>munity, by broadening awareness of,<br />

and providing access to, constructive means of dispute resolution and conflict<br />

management.<br />

4. Cases for Mediation<br />

4.1 The types of cases mediated at SMC include (but are not limited to) banking disputes,<br />

construction disputes, contractual disputes, corporate disputes, contested divorces and<br />

divorce ancillary matters, employment disputes, family disputes, information technology<br />

disputes, insurance disputes, negligence claims, partnership disputes, personal injury<br />

claims, shipping disputes and tenancy disputes. SMC has handled cases where the<br />

quantum of dispute exceeds S$90 million. As at 31 July 2005, 1,290 matters were<br />

referred to SMC. About 75% of the cases that are mediated at SMC are successfully<br />

settled. Of those successfully resolved, more than 90% were settled within 1 working<br />

day. Todate, the total quantum of disputes handled by SMC is in excess of S$1.19<br />

billion.<br />

4.2 As of 31 August 2004, disputants who participated in the mediations and provided<br />

feedback, 83% reported cost savings, 87% reported time savings and 94% would<br />

re<strong>com</strong>mend the process to other persons in the same situation. Also the SMC’s<br />

institutional partners and supporters report tremendous cost savings. It is estimated<br />

that as at 31 July 2005, the Supreme Court alone recorded a savings of about S$18<br />

million and 2,764 court days.<br />

5. Panel of Principal Mediators<br />

5.1 SMC maintains its own panel of trained and experienced Mediators and Neutrals<br />

<strong>com</strong>prised of the most distinguished members of different professions and fields. They<br />

include Members of Parliament, former High Court Judges, Senior Counsel, architects,<br />

doctors, engineers, IT specialists, project managers, psychologists and university<br />

professors. All SMC Principal Mediators have undergone formal mediation and conflict<br />

management training and a strict evaluation before being appointed to the panel. For<br />

international clients, there is also an International Panel consisting of internationally<br />

renowned neutrals. If disputes require technical expert knowledge, the SMC usually<br />

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appoints two mediators to the case to co-mediate the dispute. One of these mediators<br />

will be a professional of the industry concerned who is familiar with the subject matter<br />

to which the dispute relates. The other mediator is generally a lawyer who would be<br />

familiar with the legal issues.<br />

5.2 The SMC will match the language abilities of the mediators to the disputants to facilitate<br />

the free flow of conversation between the parties and to avoid the mediation of cases<br />

through translators who may hinder rapport building. So far, besides English, cases<br />

have been successfully mediated in Mandarin and other Chinese dialects as well as<br />

Tamil and Malay.<br />

5.3 There is no national system or law to regulate the accreditation, the quality or standards<br />

of mediators nor is there a law regulating the practice of mediation as such in<br />

Singapore. Therefore, the SMC has developed its own system of mediator training and<br />

accreditation. The number of Principal Mediators accredited by SMC is limited by the<br />

demand for mediation services in order to ensure that all mediators on the Panel of<br />

Principal Mediators (currently 106) are regularly mediating.<br />

5.4 The majority of mediators on the SMC Panel are nominated by their peers in their<br />

professional or trade organizations. These nominees attend a mediation workshop at<br />

the SMC and are assessed at the end of the workshop. Those assessed to be suitable<br />

for mediation and with the right temperament are accredited and appointed to the<br />

Panel. The SMC’s accreditation is limited for a period of one year and is subject to<br />

renewal. Re-accreditation will be granted if the mediator engages in at least 4 hours of<br />

annual continuing education in mediation and is available to conduct at least 5<br />

mediations per year if requested to do so in order to ensure the maintenance of his<br />

skills.<br />

5.5 The SMC’s Mediation Procedure ensures that mediations under the SMC’s auspices<br />

are to be governed by the provisions in the Mediation Procedure. Clause 4 of this<br />

Procedure provides that a mediator has to subscribe to the SMC’s Code of Conduct.<br />

These provisions are binding upon all mediators appointed by the SMC to mediate.<br />

They direct and guide the mediator through the mediation process with regard to issues<br />

such as confidentiality, neutrality and impartiality.<br />

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6. The Mediation Process<br />

6.1 The SMC’s mediation process is set out in the Agreement to <strong>Mediate</strong>. The Agreement<br />

to <strong>Mediate</strong> requires the parties to abide by the SMC’s mediation procedure and to give<br />

effect to the terms of any settlement reached.<br />

6.2 The parties contact the SMC with a request for mediation. Where only one of the<br />

parties makes the initial request, the Centre will contact all the other parties to<br />

persuade them to attempt mediation. When all the parties agree to mediate their<br />

dispute, the SMC arranges for the Mediation Agreement to be signed, designates a<br />

date, time and place for mediation, appoints a mediator and attends to all other<br />

administrative details.<br />

6.3 On the day of the mediation, the mediator will lead and guide the parties through a<br />

problem-solving process. The lawyers of the parties will attend to play the important<br />

role of assisting the mediator and advising the parties throughout the settlement<br />

process. When a settlement is reached, the terms or main points of the settlement will<br />

be reduced to writing and signed by or on behalf of the parties.<br />

6.4 Parties requesting mediation at the SMC are required to pay for the services rendered.<br />

An administrative fee of S$250 per party is charged. Thereafter, parties are charged<br />

mediation fees starting from S$900 per party per day. Mediation fees are charged on a<br />

sliding scale depending on the quantum of claim submitted for mediation. SMC<br />

includes in its services administrative and secretarial support, setting up of and<br />

arranging for the mediation session, pre-mediation conferencing (where necessary),<br />

meals and refreshments.<br />

7. Factors Affecting the Mediation Process : A Survey of Disputants and Lawyers<br />

This segment will focus on the impact of mediation in terms of end-user satisfaction and<br />

the effect of mediator intervention in relation to substantive matters. 157<br />

7.1 All preparations in advance aside, the final out<strong>com</strong>e of the mediation process is<br />

determined by the disputants’ and their lawyers’ behaviour. They ultimately determine<br />

157 All statistics obtained from SMC data collected from surveys of disputants and lawyers from SMC cases,<br />

collated since January 1998 to August 2004.<br />

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whether a mediation process is perceived as efficient and successful or inefficient and<br />

unsuccessful. Their behaviour as such is influenced by different factors such as their<br />

surroundings and their perception of the mediator’s neutrality. This segment will focus<br />

on the impact of mediation in terms of end-user satisfaction and the effect of mediator<br />

intervention in relation to substantive matters according to surveys of the SMC. The<br />

SMC has been consolidating feedback from their disputants and their lawyers by<br />

requesting that they <strong>com</strong>plete survey forms at the end of each mediation process at the<br />

SMC regardless of the out<strong>com</strong>e of the mediation. The object is to contribute to the<br />

development of theoretical models that are based on practice, and that reflect the<br />

needs of modern Singaporeans.<br />

7.2 There are different survey forms for lawyers and parties. The study is based on 1,177<br />

<strong>com</strong>pleted forms of lawyers and 1,343 <strong>com</strong>pleted forms of parties from January 1998 to<br />

August 2004. Unless otherwise stated, all figures are rounded to the nearest whole<br />

number. The respondents were asked to rate their answers on a scale of 1 to 5; 1 and<br />

2 meaning ‘not at all’, 3 ‘somewhat’ and 4 and 5 ‘a great deal’.<br />

7.3 Efficiency in mediation was measured in terms of savings in time as well as tangible<br />

and intangible costs. The survey showed that overall (parties who settled and parties<br />

who did not settle) 83% reported cost savings and 87% reported time savings. 82% of<br />

the lawyers reported cost savings and 81% reported time savings. The number of<br />

parties that believed to have saved time is greater than the number of parties thought<br />

that they saved costs. The converse is true for lawyers. It is to be noted that even<br />

parties and lawyers who did not reach a settlement reported time and cost savings.<br />

7.4 Effectiveness of the mediation process was measured with reference to the nature of<br />

the out<strong>com</strong>e in terms of the impact on relationship. 71% of all parties reported<br />

improvements in party relationships whereas 81% of all lawyers perceived that the<br />

relationships improved through the mediation. 87% of all lawyers found that their own<br />

relationship with the opposing counsel improved. This proves that mediation is an<br />

effective tool to improve party and counsel relationships.<br />

7.5 Effectiveness was also measured through other factors including fairness, opportunity<br />

for meaningful participation and control over the out<strong>com</strong>e. The findings show that the<br />

mediation process provided the parties for meaningful participation and control over the<br />

out<strong>com</strong>e of their disputes. 97% of the parties indicated that they had a chance to<br />

<strong>com</strong>municate their views about the disputes, 91% said that they had an opportunity to<br />

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speak, 90% felt that they had a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses<br />

of their own case as a result of mediation, 98% felt that they had their views understood<br />

by the mediators and 92% believed that their inputs had determined the mediated<br />

out<strong>com</strong>e. 158 It is further noteworthy that for cases which did not reach settlement, 84%<br />

of parties and 95% of lawyers would be willing to re<strong>com</strong>mend mediation to others. It<br />

would thus appear that mediation was still considered effective even if the case was not<br />

settled.<br />

7.6 In this segment, the factors contributing to satisfaction with the mediated out<strong>com</strong>e were<br />

explored. 87% of parties rated the overall satisfaction of the final out<strong>com</strong>e of the<br />

mediation as ‘a great deal’. It is further to be noted that they also rated the following<br />

features of mediation as ‘a great deal’ or when asked ‘yes’ or ‘no’ gave their answer in<br />

the affirmative.<br />

Table 1 : Common features associated with parties’ satisfaction in relation<br />

to the out<strong>com</strong>e of mediation<br />

Conducive environment 98%<br />

Impartiality of mediators 91%<br />

Chance to tell their views 85%<br />

Fairness of process 90%<br />

Mediators who understood their views 90%<br />

87% of lawyers rated overall satisfaction as ‘a great deal’. Out of these, the following<br />

features, inter alia, were rated ‘a great deal’<br />

Table 2 : Common features associated with lawyers’ satisfaction in<br />

relation to the out<strong>com</strong>e of mediation<br />

Effectiveness of mediator 96%<br />

Impartiality of mediator 95%<br />

Productivity of process 91%<br />

Fairness of process 89%<br />

Conducive environment 87%<br />

From the above results, it would seem that the most important factors, <strong>com</strong>mon to both<br />

parties and lawyers, influencing satisfaction of the overall out<strong>com</strong>e would be a<br />

158 Respondents with ratings of 3 and above were considered in this part of the survey results.<br />

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conducive environment, mediator impartiality and fairness in the process. The results<br />

are in tandem with the interest-based approach to mediation taken by SMC mediators,<br />

where the emphasis is on party control over the process, where parties and lawyers are<br />

given the opportunity to express their views. In the same vein, mediators are required<br />

to be impartial and fair, ensuring that they do not favour one party over the other during<br />

the process. Further, SMC services include administrative support, specially<br />

customised mediation chambers as well as refreshments which contribute to the<br />

conduciveness of the mediation environment.<br />

7.7 Finally, satisfaction of parties and lawyers was closely related to actions and abilities of<br />

the mediator. As such, the impact of different degrees of mediator intervention in the<br />

substantive out<strong>com</strong>e of the case was measured. The following table shows the<br />

percentage of parties and lawyers, who rated satisfaction highly 159 , who also rated the<br />

following features of mediator intervention ‘a great deal’.<br />

Table 3 : Common Features associated with Mediator Intervention in<br />

relation to Satisfaction<br />

Parties<br />

Lawyers<br />

Evaluated merits of the case 83% 55%<br />

Assisted in evaluation of case 89% 77%<br />

Re<strong>com</strong>mended particular<br />

68% 57%<br />

settlement<br />

Suggested possible options for 85% 86%<br />

settlement<br />

Kept silent about their views 35% 46%<br />

7.8 The same set of features of mediator intervention were measured against 2 of the<br />

factors which parties and lawyers regarded as important factors contributing to overall<br />

satisfaction of the mediation namely, fairness and mediator impartiality. The following<br />

table sets out the <strong>com</strong>parison of mediator intervention against parties and lawyers who<br />

rated fairness of process ‘a great deal’ 160 .<br />

159 See paragraph 7.6 above for the number of respondents who rated overall satisfaction as ‘a great deal’.<br />

160 97% of parties and 99% of lawyers rated fairness of the process as ‘a great deal’.<br />

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Table 4 : Common Features associated with Mediator Intervention in<br />

relation to Fairness of Process<br />

Parties<br />

Lawyers<br />

Evaluated merits of the case 81% 57%<br />

Assisted in evaluation of case 87% 78%<br />

Re<strong>com</strong>mended particular<br />

67% 58%<br />

settlement<br />

Suggested possible options for 85% 88%<br />

settlement<br />

Kept silent about their views 34% 45%<br />

Similar results were obtained when the same set of factors were measured against<br />

parties and lawyers who rated mediator impartiality ‘a great deal’. 161<br />

Table 5 : Common Features associated with Mediator Intervention in<br />

relation to Mediator Impartiality<br />

Parties<br />

Lawyers<br />

Evaluated merits of the case 80% 56%<br />

Assisted in evaluation of case 86% 78%<br />

Re<strong>com</strong>mended particular<br />

66% 57%<br />

settlement<br />

Suggested possible options for 84% 87%<br />

settlement<br />

Kept silent about their views 35% 45%<br />

7.9 The above results in paragraphs 7.7 and 7.8 reveal that parties and lawyers who found<br />

mediation to be satisfactory overall, the process to be fair and the mediator impartial, a<br />

high percentage also rated mediator intervention highly. This can be seen from the<br />

high percentage who rate evaluation of a case 162 , assistance in evaluation of the merits<br />

of the case, suggestions for possible options of settlement highly. Conversely the<br />

same conclusion can be reached by the low percentage of those who found the<br />

process satisfactory, fair and the mediator impartial where mediators kept silent about<br />

their views. It would seem that in the Singapore context, a higher degree of mediator<br />

intervention is valued in order for parties to find mediation to be satisfactory.<br />

161 96% of parties and 98% of lawyers rated mediator impartiality as ‘a great deal’<br />

162 Parties and lawyers are divergent on this point as it would seem that a lower percentage of lawyers prefer the<br />

mediator to evaluate a case as <strong>com</strong>pared to parties.<br />

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8. Future of Commercial Mediation in Singapore<br />

8.1 Developing a Culture-Based Model for Asia<br />

8.1.1 Mediation as it is practiced now in Singapore is mostly institutionalized and influenced<br />

by Alternative Dispute Resolution (“ADR”) movements and practices from countries like<br />

the United States and Australia. One of the questions which this paper will address is<br />

whether the influence of western practices on today’s mediation movement is desirable.<br />

8.1.2 Mediation in Singapore today is determined by ADR movements and practices from<br />

Western countries such as USA, Canada and Australia. This is because the mediation<br />

movement in Singapore only started approximately 10 years ago whereas the US<br />

mediation movement started in the 1970s. Singapore has been and is still looking to<br />

these countries for ideas and to learn from their experience. In particular ADR training<br />

was often conducted in association with foreign ADR organisations in order to expose<br />

Singapore ADR practitioners to foreign ADR ideologies and methodologies. However,<br />

the direct application of these Western Style mediation models, especially the<br />

facilitative mediation model poses certain challenges in the Asian context. In a speech<br />

by the Honourable the Chief Justice of Singapore, Yong Pung How, 163 he pointed out<br />

the following of the “facilitative model of mediation”, “there is much to <strong>com</strong>mend in the<br />

facilitative model of mediation............. However, as a transplanted generic model of<br />

mediation, its use in an Asian context may benefit from an infusion of Asian<br />

perspectives.” In identifying Asian traits, the Honourable the Chief Justice highlighted<br />

the concept of “face” in that in an Asian context, the fear of losing face can be a major<br />

obstacle to the settlement of a dispute. Another useful perspective is the high value<br />

that Asian cultures place on the interests of the <strong>com</strong>munity. For instance,<br />

Confucianism teaches that to be a good person, one has to think of one's country and<br />

<strong>com</strong>munity before oneself. This cultural emphasis on achieving collective good may be<br />

capitalised on in a mediation involving parties who belong to a defined group (such as a<br />

family, an association or a <strong>com</strong>munity). The third perspective has to do with<br />

intervention by the mediator in substantive matters of a case. From SMC surveys as<br />

highlighted above, it would seem that parties are more satisfied with the mediation<br />

process when there was a high degree of mediator intervention. 164<br />

163 Speech given by the Hourable the Chief Justice of Singapore Yong Pung How on 31 July 2002 at the Launch<br />

of ‘Disputemanager.<strong>com</strong>’ at the City Hall Chambers, City Hall<br />

164 Refer to paragraph 7 above for detailed discussion.<br />

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8.1.3 The SMC is currently undertaking research into this area to understand which and in<br />

how far these cultural differences and Asian Values affect the Western mediation<br />

model. This is done to develop a mediation model that takes into account the current<br />

socio-economic and culture of Singaporeans and other Asians in the region. Such a<br />

model would assist mediators in understanding and conducting effective mediation in<br />

Asia.<br />

8.2 Training and Education<br />

Apart from helping individuals and organisations to resolve disputes in an amicable manner,<br />

the SMC has also established its training arm in the fields of negotiation, mediation and<br />

conflict management in Singapore and the region. In initiating training and education,<br />

SMC aims to promote mediation and raise awareness even before conflict arises. The<br />

other main challenge awaiting the <strong>com</strong>mercial mediation movement in Singapore<br />

concerns the training and education of Mediators. Lacking a national system of<br />

mediator training, regulation or accreditation, the SMC has established its own training<br />

and accreditation system for mediators, negotiators and conflict management.<br />

8.2.1 Mediator Training<br />

As already elaborated above, the SMC Panel of Principal Mediators are put through a<br />

rigorous mediation workshop. The focus is on teaching participants the process of<br />

mediation as members of the SMC Panel of Principal Mediators are likely to be experts<br />

in their respective fields. The aim of the SMC mediation workshop is thus to produce<br />

facilitative, interest-based mediators. Those assessed to be suitable for mediation and<br />

with the right temperament at the end of the workshop are accredited and appointed to<br />

the Panel. SMC mediators are also offered opportunities to improve their skills in<br />

mediation when advance courses are offered. Roundtable discussions are also held to<br />

facilitate discussion between the mediators on handling mediation cases.<br />

8.2.2 Negotiation and Conflict Resolution Education<br />

Apart from providing mediator training and education for its own Panel of Principal<br />

Mediators, the SMC also trains other entities in Negotiation and Conflict Management<br />

Skills. As part of its role in the promotion and raising of awareness of alternative<br />

dispute resolution in Singapore, SMC offers courses in alternative dispute resolution.<br />

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In particular, SMC has been engaged by the Singapore Management University and<br />

the Nanyang Technological University MBA programme to offer its training courses to<br />

students. It is believed that through these courses, students who will graduate and<br />

ultimately influence the <strong>com</strong>mercial world will be able to advise and engage their<br />

businesses and corporate entities in resolving conflicts by mediation. SMC’s other<br />

clients include Government Ministries and Departments, tertiary education institutions,<br />

professional and trade associations and business organisations. SMC continues to<br />

identify and target specific industry groups which have to deal with disputes and/or<br />

claims on a regular basis. These include litigation lawyers, medical practitioners facing<br />

the increasing pressure of medical negligence suits, the construction industry, the<br />

insurance industry and various other service related industries. SMC also continues to<br />

actively extend its training programmes in Asia and around the world and has<br />

conducted training in Austria, Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Malta, Mexico,<br />

Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam.<br />

9. Conclusion<br />

In conclusion, <strong>com</strong>mercial mediation in Singapore has been accepted as part of the<br />

dispute resolution process. Much can be attributed to the role of the Singapore<br />

Judiciary and Government in promoting the use of mediation in resolving disputes.<br />

Further, the developments observed at SMC show that institutional <strong>com</strong>mercial<br />

mediation has also <strong>com</strong>e of age with the growing awareness and favourable feedback<br />

received by users of SMC services. Further with the development of its training and<br />

education arm, SMC hopes to continue to raise the standards of mediator skills and<br />

promote the use of and participation in mediation in Singapore and elsewhere.<br />

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Implementing Victim/Offender Mediation nationally in Sweden<br />

___________________________________________________________________________<br />

Lind<br />

Since January 2003 The National Council of Crime Prevention has the governments<br />

<strong>com</strong>mission to implement victim offender mediation in Sweden. This workshop will present<br />

the facts surrounding the implementation, what we have done so far and the future.<br />

The National Council of Crime Prevention received the government’s <strong>com</strong>mission to<br />

implement Victim/Offender Mediation in Sweden in January 2003. This was after the law for<br />

Victim/Offender Mediation for Young Offenders was passed in July 2002. The law states the<br />

purpose of mediation, who can mediate and how the process is done. The Governments<br />

intention is to make it available all over Sweden and to give it a larger place within the<br />

traditional judicial system. The main target is a young offender between 15 and 17 years of<br />

age, but mediation is often done under the age of 15 down to the age of 12 (only in special<br />

circumstance is mediation done with even younger children). Adults are not excluded from<br />

mediation. And we now see a growing interest from prison inmates and staff for mediation<br />

within institutions. The government has given The National Council of Crime Prevention<br />

subsidies to distribute among the town and county councils to start and develop mediation<br />

services.<br />

An important task of the <strong>com</strong>mission is to inform and anchor the <strong>com</strong>mission with our cooperation<br />

partners in central government; the national police board, the prosecutor-general,<br />

the national board of health and welfare, the victim support organisations, the bar association<br />

and other relevant partners (the latest being the national prisons and probation<br />

administration). Then to inform the relevant authorities around the country of the service.<br />

Another emphasized task is designing mediation training for would be mediators. Mediation<br />

services are often a part of the social services and social service workers often the ones<br />

being trained as mediators. This pose special training circumstances for the Swedish<br />

conditions. The teaching program is free of charge for all new mediators working for the<br />

municipalities. It follows international training standards and has been tailor-made for the<br />

Swedish judicial system with the new law in focus.<br />

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Victim offender mediation is a co-operation between the mediation services, the police and<br />

the public prosecutor. Much work has been needed to form effective alliances between these<br />

organisations on a local plane. Traditionally these organisations are based on different<br />

cultures that have been difficult to bridge. But we are seeing more and more services<br />

succeeding with an increase of mediated cases.<br />

Why victim offender mediation?<br />

The population in Sweden is about nine million and rising. About 12 % of our population is<br />

born in another country. In Sweden as in the rest of Europe we are seeing an increase in<br />

serious crime and here as elsewhere the government is looking for alternative ways of<br />

decrease this trend. The different restorative approaches are high on the agenda, with victim<br />

offender mediation being one of them.<br />

So far mediation is available in about 150 of a total of 280 municipalities. In these<br />

municipalities we find more then 75 % of the population, which is a great achievement in just<br />

two years of work.<br />

The first experimental period with victim offender mediation took place in 1998-1999. At this<br />

time many of the services did a lot mediations with shoplifters. Although we still see many of<br />

the services from this period still doing a large percentage of shoplifting cases the transition<br />

to minor as well as major crimes is noticeable. Many of the newly started services do no<br />

shoplifting cases at all but are focused on more severe crimes. Many services find that even<br />

those crimes that they first thought too severe are now being successfully mediated. We are<br />

also seeing a marked increase in the interest from prison inmates and staff for mediation.<br />

To successfully implement victim offender mediation, it is imperative to find good working<br />

partners on all levels of society. On the national level the organisation need to support the<br />

regional level. Nationally we made use of the experience from 1998-1999 by appointing<br />

some local mediation services that had operated since then, to be<strong>com</strong>e Model Mediation<br />

Services on a regional level. The Model Mediation Services have gained in depth experience<br />

over time. This information is valuable, and their task is to share their knowledge with newly<br />

started services - to be<strong>com</strong>e a useful resource to them. This level is responsible for a larger<br />

part of the country down to the local level. The local level is supported both nationally and<br />

regionally.<br />

To do this well you have to remember why mediation is successful, it is founded on dialogue<br />

- talk instead of fists. Organisatorically we have to remember this and also remember to<br />

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talk with our partners. To form alliances where perhaps we are not used to. We need to form<br />

steering groups where a cross section of societies professions that deals with young<br />

offenders are represented; like social services, police, prosecutors, school, victim support<br />

organisations, local crime prevention agencies etc. All working-partners need to have a<br />

positive attitude to victim offender mediation.<br />

Our work at the moment is to continue the implementing process and finding ways of training<br />

prosecutors and the police so that they be<strong>com</strong>e more familiar with mediation and can use it<br />

more freely. We support the network for mediation services and co-operation partners on a<br />

regional and national level. We also stimulate neighbourhood co-operation to establish a<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon practice between mediation services.<br />

We have in Sweden a very active victim support movement with a governmental victim<br />

support organisation and laws that give the victim rights in the criminal process. This is very<br />

different from other European countries. There are many stakeholders in victim offender<br />

mediation that we at the Mediation secretariat have to take into consideration in our work.<br />

This makes it very special but also very interesting.<br />

This workshop will present the successful approach of the Swedish government in<br />

implementing victim offender mediation on a national scale. What to do, what not to do and<br />

pitfalls to avoid.<br />

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Position face au conflit et médiation - Les résistances<br />

à la médiation<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Jacqueline Lurin<br />

Médiatrice, psychologue FSP, collaboratrice scientifique<br />

au Service de la recherche en éducation, Genève, Suisse<br />

Ce texte rend <strong>com</strong>pte d’une partie d’une recherche exploratoire 165 sur les attitudes face au<br />

conflit et les résistances individuelles à la médiation, réalisée auprès d’un panel d’adultes<br />

résidant dans le canton de Genève.<br />

Position du problème<br />

Depuis environ 20 ans, l'intérêt s'est porté sur ce qu'on appelle la justice informelle et les<br />

modes alternatifs de résolution de conflit ou de litige, désignés respectivement sous<br />

l'acronyme MARC ou MARL ou encore ADR pour signifier Alternative Dispute Resolution.<br />

L'un de ces modes alternatifs, la médiation, s'est développé progressivement dans un<br />

ensemble de domaines tels que la famille, le voisinage, les relations <strong>com</strong>merciales, le travail,<br />

l'école, etc.<br />

Assiste-on à un engouement passager ou à l'émergence d'un nouvel outil créatif et<br />

performant, une pratique qui pénètre et s'installe dans le champ social ?<br />

Médiation et médiateur 166<br />

sont ainsi des vocables de plus en plus répandus dans les<br />

discours depuis une dizaine d'années en Suisse. On est également en droit de se demander<br />

si cet usage, voire cette prolifération, sont le reflet d'une nouvelle pratique sociale largement<br />

ancrée ou simplement un effet de mode. Il est difficile d'évaluer précisément le degré réel<br />

d'implantation de la pratique de la médiation en l'absence de données précises qui<br />

pourraient provenir par exemple de recensions des différents médiateurs 167<br />

et des<br />

médiations réalisées, d'évaluations, d'études ou de travaux de recherche. A en croire les<br />

165 Lurin J., (2004). Les résistances face à la médiation. Styles de réaction face au conflit. Perception de la<br />

médiation. Mémoire de fin de formation à la médiation générale ASI – CEFOC, Genève.<br />

166 L'unique usage du masculin n'est utilisé que dans le but d'alléger le texte.<br />

167 Signalons que le Conseil d'Etat du canton de Genève tient un tableau des médiateurs pénaux en vertu de la loi<br />

modifiant la loi sur l'organisation judiciaire (médiation pénale) du 16 février 2001 et que le projet de loi du 12<br />

février 2003, modifiant la loi de procédure civile, prévoit également que le Conseil d'Etat dresse un tableau des<br />

médiateurs civils.<br />

247


avis des différentes professionnels de la médiation rencontrés jusqu'à ce jour, il existe une<br />

différence notoire entre l'offre et la demande de médiation. En résumé, alors que l'on parle<br />

de plus en plus de médiation, peu de médiations formelles seraient effectivement réalisées.<br />

D'où provient donc ce hiatus entre discours et réalité?<br />

Des résistances à la médiation peuvent provenir d'un ensemble de facteurs. Certaines<br />

pourraient être liées, au plan collectif, à des habitudes, à des mentalités voire à des aspects<br />

historiques, variables selon les pays et les cultures. D'autres résistances pourraient provenir,<br />

au plan individuel, de la réaction de l'individu face au conflit.<br />

Les attitudes face au conflit et les résistances à la médiation<br />

Le conflit : <strong>com</strong>ment le définir ?<br />

Il existe une vaste littérature sur le conflit, sa définition, ses origines, ses caractéristiques,<br />

ses effets, ses conséquences, les attitudes adoptées pour sa gestion et sa résolution, les<br />

possibilités de prévention, etc. Le conflit fait partie de la vie. Il peut prendre racine au niveau<br />

personnel et se développer au plan interne selon l'état de la personne, ce qu'elle vit. Il naît<br />

des confrontations quotidiennes d'intérêts et de valeurs; l'origine est ici dans l'interpersonnel.<br />

Toute situation dans laquelle les aspirations de deux personnes ou de deux groupes se<br />

révèlent in<strong>com</strong>patibles peut être considérée conflictuelle.<br />

Bazier 168 (2002) insiste sur le fait que "le groupe, qu'il soit une équipe, un service, un atelier,<br />

une classe ou une famille, génère, de par le système particulier qu'il constitue, des conflits<br />

spécifiques". Le type d'organisation peut également générer des conflits. Verret 169 (1997)<br />

estime que toute frustration est susceptible d'engendrer un conflit. Une des parties en cause<br />

qui se sent frustrée peut utiliser des tactiques de négociation reposant sur des stratégies de<br />

pouvoir ou des tactiques de collaboration. Selon elle, "au-delà des conditionnements sociaux<br />

(<strong>com</strong>pétition) et des contraintes organisationnelles (hiérarchie de type dominant/dominé), ce<br />

qui explique l'ensemble du développement d'un cycle de conflit, c'est l'évolution des<br />

perceptions (de l'enjeu, des stratégies et des résultats anticipés, etc.) au cours du conflit".<br />

De manière générale, on résout le conflit le plus souvent par le dialogue et la négociation<br />

mais il peut aussi dégénérer en violence, exclusion et rupture.<br />

168 Bazier F. Gestion des conflits: les racines du conflit in Trimestriel n° 78. Université de Paix. Mars 2002.<br />

http://www.universitedepaix.org/publications/Trimestriel/Racines_conflit_78.htm<br />

169 Verret C. (1997) Le confort psychologique au travail. Vol. 20, n°5. ASSTSAS. Canada.<br />

http://www.asstsas.qc.ca/documentation/op/205021.htm<br />

248


Les types de résolution de conflit<br />

L'un des modèles les plus utilisés pour décrire les stratégies possibles de résolution de<br />

conflit est celui de Thomas 170 (1992, 1995). Selon ce modèle, le <strong>com</strong>portement en situation<br />

de conflit serait sous-tendu par deux dimensions, d'une part l'affirmation de soi (attitude<br />

active ou passive, détermination) ou la tendance à satisfaire ses propres besoins ou attentes<br />

et d'autre part la coopération (souplesse) ou la tendance à satisfaire les besoins ou les<br />

attentes de l'autre. En se basant sur le modèle de Thomas, Le Flao 171 (2003) décrit 5<br />

stratégies de résolution de conflit :<br />

• l'évitement: les parties ou l'une d'entre elles considèrent que le conflit est peu important<br />

et elles négligent de le résoudre. La personne, en se dérobant devant le conflit, ne<br />

satisfait ni ses propres exigences ni celles de l'autre. Les conséquences de la résolution<br />

du conflit tout <strong>com</strong>me sa résolution ou sa non-résolution « indiffèrent » la personne.<br />

• l'ac<strong>com</strong>modation: l'une des parties se voit plus touchée que l'autre par le conflit et elle<br />

doit négocier en position de faiblesse. Cette stratégie représente la satisfaction des<br />

intérêts d'autrui aux dépens des siens, souvent dans un souci d'apaisement de la partie<br />

adverse. Selon cette approche, une partie croit (à tort ou à raison) qu'il est avantageux<br />

de laisser tomber ses prérogatives et de satisfaire celles d'autrui.<br />

• le <strong>com</strong>promis: les parties cherchent à parvenir à une solution à tout prix en étant<br />

conscientes qu'on ne peut satisfaire tous les antagonismes. Cette stratégie représente<br />

un souci d'entente où les intérêts de chacune des parties ne seront que partiellement<br />

satisfaits selon une forme d'équilibre entre les pertes et les gains respectifs.<br />

• la <strong>com</strong>pétition: l'une des parties domine et impose parfois une solution. Une personne<br />

cherche à satisfaire ses propres exigences aux dépens de celles de l'autre personne. Il<br />

s'agit d'une attitude de force et d'autorité. Ce type de gestion génère facilement un<br />

affrontement puisque le conflit est défini selon la perspective gagnant/perdant.<br />

• la collaboration ou la résolution de problème: les parties cherchent une solution<br />

satisfaisante pour tous. Ni l'une, ni l'autre des parties ne veut tirer avantage de la<br />

situation. Il s'agit d'un effort concerté pour trouver une solution propre à satisfaire<br />

pleinement ses propres aspirations et celles de l'autre.<br />

Les cinq attitudes de résolution de conflit peuvent être utiles, selon les circonstances. Par<br />

exemple, la fuite est quelquefois la seule issue pour sa survie. Les travaux de Thomas<br />

170 Thomas K. W. (1992). "Conflict and Negociation Processes in Organizations" in Dunnette M. D. & Hought<br />

L. M. (Eds) Handbook of Industrial and Organizationnal Psychology. Second Edition, vol.3, California:<br />

Consulting Psychologists Press.<br />

171 Le Flao C. (2003). La gestion des conflits: étude exploratoire du <strong>com</strong>portement de directeurs<br />

d'établissements scolaires. Psychologie Sciences de l'Education. Collection "Savoirs en partage". Institut<br />

d'Administration Scolaire, Mons (pp. 25-47).<br />

249


ont montré que les individus ont une attitude dominante parmi les cinq décrites ci-dessus<br />

mais ont également à disposition d'autres modes de faire.<br />

Recherche exploratoire<br />

L’observation des résistances individuelles à la médiation a été réalisée dans le cadre d’une<br />

recherche qualitative auprès d'un petit groupe d'adultes résidant dans le canton de Genève.<br />

Il leur a été proposé de remplir le questionnaire de Thomas-Kilmann, pour identifier leur<br />

<strong>com</strong>portement dans une situation conflictuelle, puis ils ont été interviewés quelques temps<br />

plus tard à propos de la médiation.<br />

Notre objectif était de répondre à la question suivante : les adultes ont-il plus de propension<br />

à se tourner vers la médiation <strong>com</strong>me mode alternatif de résolution de conflit selon qu'ils ont<br />

tendance à éviter le conflit, à s'ac<strong>com</strong>moder, à trouver un <strong>com</strong>promis, à se mettre en<br />

<strong>com</strong>pétition ou à collaborer avec l'autre partie ?<br />

Echantillon<br />

Dans le cadre de cette enquête prospective, le petit échantillon constitué n'a évidemment<br />

pas pour visée de représenter la population du canton de Genève. Cependant, nous nous<br />

sommes efforcés de réunir un panel <strong>com</strong>posé de 10 adultes d'âges différents, provenant de<br />

milieux professionnels contrastés, employés ou indépendants pour certain(e)s d'entre eux,<br />

ayant des parcours de formation relativement différents et des situations familiales variées,<br />

<strong>com</strong>me présenté ci-dessous.<br />

250


Prénom Âge Profession Statut Formation Formation Situation<br />

professionnel professionnelle continue familiale<br />

Capucine 41<br />

Victor 53<br />

Valentine 35<br />

Faustine 60<br />

Cédric 50<br />

Eglantine<br />

25<br />

Clémentine31<br />

Luc 30<br />

Amandine 33<br />

Damien 51<br />

Architecte +<br />

assistante à<br />

l'École<br />

Polytechnique<br />

Fédérale<br />

Lausanne<br />

Indépendante<br />

+ employée<br />

Diplôme fédéral<br />

d'architecture<br />

Non Mariée + 1<br />

enfant<br />

Responsable de Employé CFC et maîtrise Cours de Marié + 2<br />

fabrication dans le (cadre) chocolatier confiseur management et enfants<br />

domaine agroalimentaire<br />

développement<br />

personnel<br />

Enseignante dans Employée Licence en lettres + En didactique et Mariée + 3<br />

l'enseignement<br />

post-obligatoire<br />

études<br />

pédagogiques<br />

secondaires à<br />

l'IFMES<br />

en assemblée de enfants<br />

classe<br />

Sociologue + Employée +<br />

thérapeute indépendante<br />

Diplôme en soins Thérapeute Divorcée<br />

infirmiers + licence<br />

en sociologie<br />

Avocat Indépendant Brevet d'avocat Non Divorcé +<br />

2 enfants<br />

Employée de Employée CFC employée de<br />

<strong>com</strong>merce<br />

<strong>com</strong>merce dans le<br />

domaine bancaire<br />

Vendeuse en prêt Employée BEP + maîtrise en<br />

à porter<br />

soins esthétiques<br />

Infirmier Employé CFC employé de<br />

<strong>com</strong>merce dans<br />

l'import-export +<br />

diplôme en soins<br />

infirmiers<br />

Psychologue<br />

chargée des<br />

ressources<br />

Employée Diplôme de<br />

psychologue;<br />

spécialisation en<br />

humaines dans un<br />

DRH<br />

ressources<br />

humaines<br />

Expert <strong>com</strong>ptable Indépendant Licence HEC +<br />

Associé dans une<br />

brevet d'expert<br />

société fiduciaire<br />

<strong>com</strong>ptable<br />

Cours dans le Célibataire<br />

domaine<br />

fiduciaire<br />

Cours de gestion Mariée + 1<br />

enfant<br />

Non<br />

Célibataire<br />

Analyse Mariée + 1<br />

systémique enfant<br />

Cours dans le Marié + 3<br />

domaine enfants<br />

fiduciaire<br />

251


Modalités de la recherche<br />

Elle s'est structurée autour de deux étapes distinctes pour le recueil des données : une<br />

enquête par questionnaire et un entretien individuel.<br />

L'enquête par questionnaire a été effectuée au moyen du test Thomas-Kilmann Conflict<br />

MODE 172 . Cet instrument a été adressé aux dix adultes, ac<strong>com</strong>pagné de la grille de<br />

correction ainsi que des éléments permettant l'interprétation des résultats. Ainsi, les<br />

répondants ont pu déterminer leurs styles personnels de résolution de conflit, après avoir<br />

rempli le questionnaire.<br />

Cet instrument développé dans les années 70' permet d'identifier le <strong>com</strong>portement d'une<br />

personne dans une situation conflictuelle. Il se <strong>com</strong>pose de 60 questions et nécessite<br />

environ 30 minutes pour être <strong>com</strong>plété. Chacune des questions décrit une situation<br />

conflictuelle telle qu'elle pourrait se présenter dans la vie quotidienne et propose de choisir à<br />

chaque fois entre deux types de <strong>com</strong>portement. La grille de dépouillement permet de classer<br />

les réponses choisies dans un tableau et de dresser ainsi le profil du répondant en<br />

additionnant le nombre de points obtenus pour chacune des cinq catégories de<br />

<strong>com</strong>portement face au conflit: l'évitement, l'ac<strong>com</strong>modation, le <strong>com</strong>promis, la <strong>com</strong>pétition et<br />

la collaboration. Chaque catégorie <strong>com</strong>pte un maximum de 12 points.<br />

L'entretien individuel semi-directif s'est déroulé le plus souvent au domicile des<br />

répondants. Il a eu lieu généralement une semaine après l'envoi du questionnaire, de<br />

manière à ce que les répondants aient eu suffisamment de temps pour <strong>com</strong>pléter ce dernier,<br />

le corriger et consulter les indications pour l'interprétation des résultats.<br />

Dans le cadre de cet entretien, les adultes interrogés ont répondu à une série de questions<br />

ouvertes suivant un canevas prédéterminé que nous avons mis au point pour la<br />

circonstance. Ce guide d'entretien <strong>com</strong>porte 11 questions articulées autour de trois<br />

thématiques :<br />

• la gestion du conflit (validation des réponses au questionnaire de Thomas-Killmann et<br />

positionnement face à la résolution de conflit),<br />

• l'usage et les représentations individuelles de la médiation (connaissance et expérience<br />

de la médiation),<br />

172 Kilmann R. H. & Thomas K. W. (1977) "Developing a Forced-Choice Measure of Conflict-Handling<br />

Behavior: The mode Instrument", Educational and Psychological Measurement.<br />

252


• la promotion de la médiation (représentations et opinions quant à l'utilité générale de la<br />

médiation, son impact, son adéquation, ses modalités de mise en oeuvre, etc.), thème<br />

présenté partiellement dans ce texte.<br />

Les entretiens ont duré entre 35 et 50 minutes selon les cas. Ils ont été menés de<br />

manière aussi standardisée que possible tout en respectant une certaine souplesse<br />

indispensable à l'expression des opinions et des représentations des répondants.<br />

Tous les entretiens ont été enregistrés avec l'accord des répondants puis entièrement<br />

retranscrits sous forme de protocoles. Une analyse thématique a été effectuée sur<br />

l'ensemble des discours produits au cours de ces interviews. Les réponses ont été<br />

catégorisées sans qu'il soit toujours possible de les quantifier au sens strict car certains<br />

aspects ont été différemment développés selon les répondants.<br />

2.4. Résultats et analyses<br />

Le graphique ci-après montre la répartition individuelle des 10 adultes de notre échantillon<br />

pour chacun des cinq types de <strong>com</strong>portement face au conflit. Les résultats sont répartis sur<br />

une échelle de 0 à 12 points. Ils permettent de repérer différents profils, des particularités et<br />

des similitudes chez les adultes interrogés.<br />

Rappelons que ces différentes approches du conflit ont toutes leurs avantages, leurs<br />

inconvénients et leur utilité.<br />

• Profils des répondants<br />

Répartition individuelle des styles de gestion de conflit<br />

Moyenne groupe<br />

Damien<br />

Amandine<br />

Luc<br />

Clémentine<br />

Eglantine<br />

Cédric<br />

Faustine<br />

Valentine<br />

Victor<br />

Capucine<br />

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12<br />

Evitement Acc<strong>com</strong>odation Compromis Compétition Collaboration<br />

253


Si l'on considère la moyenne des résultats pour l'ensemble du groupe, on peut constater que<br />

les styles de gestion de conflit se répartissent de la manière suivante, du score le plus élevé<br />

au plus faible: 1. <strong>com</strong>promis; 2. évitement; 3. ac<strong>com</strong>modation; 4. collaboration; 5.<br />

<strong>com</strong>pétition.<br />

• Comparaison des résultats aux scores normalisés<br />

Les profils obtenus pour chacun des adultes ont été ajustés en fonction de scores<br />

normalisés 173 et étalonnés en centiles à partir des résultats du groupe "original" <strong>com</strong>posé de<br />

400 managers travaillant dans différentes sociétés et organisations aux Etats-Unis.<br />

Il est possible ainsi d’observer les différents styles de gestion de conflit à disposition des<br />

adultes interrogés, en distinguant ceux qui sont dominants (score élevé), ceux qui sont plus<br />

rarement utilisés.<br />

La répartition fait clairement apparaître que l'évitement est une attitude fréquente face au<br />

conflit chez une majorité des adultes interviewés (6 sur 10 ont un score élevé).<br />

L'ac<strong>com</strong>modation est le style qui vient en seconde position (5 adultes sur 10 ont un score<br />

élevé pour ce style). Le <strong>com</strong>promis est une attitude présente chez 9 des 10 adultes<br />

interrogés soit avec un score élevé soit avec un score moyen. Le mode collaboration semble<br />

vraiment peu disponible pour l'ensemble du panel (6 scores faibles sur 10). Seule Amandine<br />

obtient un score élevé pour la collaboration et en cela elle se distingue nettement de la<br />

majorité du groupe. La <strong>com</strong>pétition n'est définitivement pas un mode de résolution de conflit<br />

utilisé par les répondants (6 ont un score faible, les 4 autres, moyen).<br />

Recours à la médiation et style de <strong>com</strong>portement face au conflit<br />

Les attitudes face au conflit des adultes interviewés ont été mises en perspectives avec leurs<br />

réponses à la question " Auriez-vous recours à la médiation ? Pensez-vous que la médiation<br />

vous serait utile ?" Ces réponses ont été regroupées en 4 catégories <strong>com</strong>me indiqué dans le<br />

tableau ci-après.<br />

173 Woosley Elsa R. (2001) "A look at the relationships between MBTI psychological types and mode conflict<br />

styles" A research paper. University of Wisconsin (pp. 46-48).<br />

www.uwstout.edu/lib/thesis/2001/2001woosleye.pdf<br />

Thomas K. W. & Kilmann R. H. (2001) Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument. Profile and interpretive<br />

report. Consulting psychologists press, INC. http://www.career-lifeskills.<strong>com</strong>/pdf/cpp-so248148.pdf<br />

254


Réponse positive<br />

inconditionnelle<br />

Réponse positive<br />

conditionnelle<br />

Réponse négative<br />

conditionnelle<br />

Réponse négative<br />

inconditionnelle<br />

Répartition des<br />

répondants<br />

Luc, Victor,<br />

Amandine, Capucine,<br />

Eglantine, Faustine,<br />

Valentine,<br />

Clémentine<br />

Cédric, Damien.<br />

Formalisation<br />

des réponses<br />

"Oui" ou "Oui, tout<br />

à fait"<br />

"Oui, mais…" ou<br />

"Oui, si…"<br />

"Non, mais…"<br />

"Non"<br />

Ainsi, la majorité des adultes interrogés disent qu'ils iraient en médiation (7 sur 10). Il faut<br />

souligner ici que Luc et Victor sont des "inconditionnels" de la médiation et qu'ils y auraient<br />

recours sans hésitation en cas de besoin, alors que les deux autres hommes du groupe<br />

semblent tout aussi catégoriques dans leur réponse estimant, quant à eux, qu'ils n'y auraient<br />

pas recours. Clémentine reste sceptique et ne serait pas prête à demander une médiation<br />

tout en ponctuant sa réponse d'un "mais" qui laisse malgré tout entrevoir une ouverture.<br />

Les cinq autres personnes déclarent qu'elles feraient appel à un médiateur mais sous<br />

certaines conditions. Ainsi elles expliquent par exemple:<br />

"Oui, j'irais en médiation si vraiment j'étais dans une situation où le conflit était tel qu'on ne<br />

peut plus se parler et que néanmoins on doit se parler pour résoudre des trucs."<br />

"J'essaierais d'abord de résoudre le problème par moi-même."<br />

"J'utiliserais la médiation là où j'ai obligation de poursuivre une relation avec la personne;<br />

parce qu'autrement, je me dirais, voilà on n'a pas d'affinité et on peut ne pas se revoir. Cela<br />

ne dérange pas si la relation s'arrête, s'il s'agit de copains ou de voisins. Par contre, j'irai en<br />

médiation si j'ai un conflit avec un collègue que je dois continuer à côtoyer, mais l'expérience<br />

me montre que je ne le ferais pas avec un supérieur."<br />

"J'irais en médiation dans le cadre d'un conflit professionnel avec un collègue, si les choses<br />

s'enveniment vraiment. Mais, ça demande du courage d'entrer en médiation. D'être le plus<br />

honnête possible par rapport à la situation et donc de se remettre en question rien que dans<br />

l'exposition du conflit. De reconnaître assez rapidement que dans un conflit on est deux et<br />

qu'il n'y a pas un coupable et l'autre qui est tout blanc."<br />

255


En résumé, les opinions des répondants mises en perspective avec leurs profils font<br />

apparaître les éléments ci-dessous.<br />

Le style évitement est très présent pour Damien, Cédric et Victor alors que ces personnes<br />

sont un peu aux antipodes par rapport à la médiation. En effet, les deux premiers restent très<br />

sceptiques alors que Victor irait en médiation sans hésitation. Cédric et Damien, les<br />

"sceptiques" ont des résultats similaires dans trois domaines: des scores élevés pour<br />

évitement et ac<strong>com</strong>modation, des scores faibles pour collaboration. Ils ont des points<br />

<strong>com</strong>muns. Ils ont un âge équivalent et sont tous les deux indépendants.<br />

Clémentine, qui déclare qu'elle n'irait pas spontanément en médiation pour continuer à se<br />

battre pour défendre une idée qu'elle estime indiscutable, imagine cependant qu'elle aurait<br />

recours à ce mode de résolution de conflit si on le lui suggérait. Etonnement, elle obtient un<br />

score élevé dans l'évitement.<br />

Ainsi, les trois adultes plus ou moins sceptiques ont en <strong>com</strong>mun le recours à l'évitement<br />

<strong>com</strong>me attitude dominante face au conflit. Victor et Luc, les "pro-médiation", ne sont<br />

absolument pas dans la <strong>com</strong>pétition. Ils obtiennent tous les deux des scores moyens pour<br />

l'ac<strong>com</strong>modation. Cependant, ils diffèrent pour ce qui concerne les autres modes de<br />

résolution du conflit. Ainsi, Luc a un score faible pour l'évitement alors que Victor a un score<br />

élevé. De son côté, Luc a vécu une médiation formelle alors que Victor connaît la médiation<br />

sans l'avoir jamais expérimentée.<br />

Les cinq personnes favorables à la médiation sous certaines conditions ont des profils<br />

sensiblement différents. Par contre, elles ont toutes des scores relativement élevés pour le<br />

<strong>com</strong>promis à l'exception de Capucine dont l'attitude dominante est l'ac<strong>com</strong>modation.<br />

Ainsi, Eglantine obtient un score moyen pour la collaboration et son attitude dominante est<br />

véritablement le <strong>com</strong>promis. Elle a une connaissance assez approximative de la médiation.<br />

Elle est favorable à cette démarche et déclare qu'elle y aurait peut-être recours mais<br />

essentiellement dans le cadre professionnel en cas de conflit avec un collègue.<br />

Le mode de résolution de conflit dominant chez Amandine est la collaboration. Elle est la<br />

seule dans ce cas au sein du groupe et est favorable à la médiation qu'elle connaît bien. Elle<br />

y aurait recours mais émet des réserves quant à de possibles conséquences négatives en<br />

cas de conflit avec un supérieur hiérarchique dans le cadre professionnel.<br />

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Valentine dont les deux attitudes dominantes semblent être le <strong>com</strong>promis et l'évitement irait<br />

également en médiation. Elle connaît bien ce processus qu'elle a eu l'occasion d'observer à<br />

plusieurs reprises dans le cadre scolaire. Elle estime cependant qu'il faut certainement du<br />

courage pour entrer en médiation, pour prendre du recul et se remettre en question.<br />

Pour sa part, Faustine qui considère qu'elle aurait recours à la médiation si elle se trouvait<br />

dans un conflit prenant des proportions inacceptables ou dans une situation où la<br />

<strong>com</strong>munication est totalement impossible, obtient un score élevé pour l'évitement.<br />

Globalement, la dispersion des résultats montre qu'il est difficile de mettre en évidence un<br />

lien précis entre un mode spécifique de résolution de conflit et une attitude particulière face à<br />

la médiation. Des différences existent indéniablement mais elles pourraient être dues<br />

également à des caractéristiques de la personnalité des individus ou à des représentations<br />

et opinions liées à l'expérience vécue, par exemple.<br />

Rappelons que tous les adultes interviewés déclarent être favorables à la médiation et que<br />

les réactions décrites ci-dessus sont des représentations ou des projections du recours à ce<br />

mode de résolution de conflit pour eux-mêmes. En effet, il y a souvent une marge entre un<br />

discours général et des applications concrètes. Les multiples informations réunies autour de<br />

ce panel d'adultes mériteraient d'être vérifiées dans le cadre d'une étude plus vaste<br />

<strong>com</strong>portant un assez grand nombre de sujets.<br />

Les représentations de la médiation<br />

La médiation : pour quel type de conflit ?<br />

Quelques adultes du groupe estiment que la médiation devrait convenir à tous les types de<br />

conflits. Cependant, une majorité des répondants estiment que ce mode alternatif de<br />

résolution de conflit convient plus particulièrement à certaines situations dont: les conflits de<br />

voisinage, les conflits entre groupes ethniques, les conflits dans le domaine médical, les<br />

petits conflits de tous les jours, les conflits familiaux ou de couple, les conflits du travail ou<br />

les conflits interpersonnels dans le cadre de l'entreprise. La médiation victime-agresseur est<br />

également mentionnée. Il faut souligner que les réponses indiquent en particulier la<br />

médiation <strong>com</strong>me recours possible en cas de conflit avec des personnes avec qui on a<br />

encore à faire et que l'on continue à côtoyer par la suite.<br />

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Le besoin d'avoir recours à la justice et aux tribunaux diffère selon les interviewés et<br />

quelques personnes perçoivent la médiation et le recours aux tribunaux <strong>com</strong>me deux choses<br />

<strong>com</strong>plémentaires.<br />

"La médiation ne doit pas prendre la place de la justice. Elle peut être un appui à la justice,<br />

… une aide pour dépasser le conflit, pour mieux <strong>com</strong>prendre pourquoi on en est arrivé à des<br />

sanctions et dans l'idéal pour reprendre le dialogue."<br />

"…Parfois il faut peut-être passer par la justice pour que les choses puissent aller jusqu'au<br />

bout. Le jugement statue pour certaines choses mais ça n'aide pas les gens à se parler. En<br />

plus de la justice, c'est bien si un autre lien se fait. La médiation et la justice ne sont pas<br />

mutuellement exclusives."<br />

Toutefois, quelques situations particulières sont évoquées <strong>com</strong>me ne pouvant relever de la<br />

médiation:<br />

"Pour des choses graves, des meurtres, le recours à la justice est nécessaire. Tout ce qui<br />

concerne les abus sexuels, c'est la justice et non la médiation qu'il faut."<br />

"Des litiges financiers ou <strong>com</strong>merciaux qui sont strictement d'ordre juridique."<br />

"Dans certains conflits, on arrive à un stade ou personne ne veut plus rien entendre. Là,<br />

malheureusement, le seul moyen de se faire reconnaître c'est d'intenter un procès, même si<br />

ce n'est pas toujours très gai d'avoir recours à ce genre de chose."<br />

"Il y a des limites à la médiation. Il faut porter plainte quand il y atteinte à l'intégrité de la<br />

personne. Mais, je trouve un peu dommage d'aller systématiquement en justice. Ça coûte de<br />

l'argent."<br />

"Pour moi, la justice c'est le stade ultime… Il y a aussi un côté très passif lorsqu'on a recours<br />

à la justice. C'est quelqu'un d'autre qui décide pour vous parce qu'on n'a pas été assez<br />

adulte pour pouvoir le gérer."<br />

"S'il n'y a aucune possibilité de régler un conflit à l'amiable, on est obligé d'avoir recours à la<br />

justice… La justice, c'est le couperet qui va donner une décision qui sera juste ou pas juste<br />

mais les gens seront contraints et forcés de s'y plier. C'est l'état d'esprit des personnes qui<br />

est important."<br />

Quelques constats<br />

Toute personne est généralement capable d'adopter chacun des cinq styles de<br />

<strong>com</strong>portement face aux conflits décrits précédemment et personne ne s'en tient à un seul<br />

pour le résoudre. Les individus ont tendance à privilégier certaines attitudes en raison de leur<br />

expérience ou de leur personnalité. On a vu qu'une majorité d'entre eux souhaite gérer le<br />

conflit par eux-mêmes dans un premier temps, avant d'envisager toute forme de recours à<br />

un tiers. Une partie importante des personnes interrogées semblent privilégier le <strong>com</strong>promis,<br />

l'évitement voir l'ac<strong>com</strong>modation, attitudes qui ne conduisent pas à la résolution du conflit en<br />

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termes de gagnant-gagnant. Elles en sont souvent conscientes et expliquent clairement,<br />

voire reconnaissent qu'elles ne souhaitent pas ou ne peuvent pas toujours résoudre un<br />

conflit qui les concerne. Elles relèvent cependant la nécessité de le faire et ceci avec l'aide<br />

de la médiation, lorsque les circonstances font qu'elles auront à côtoyer l'autre partie par la<br />

suite. On voit bien ici apparaître tout ce qui concerne la question de la motivation, de l'intérêt<br />

à résoudre un conflit, à trouver une solution satisfaisante et en particulier à maintenir une<br />

relation avec l'autre partie.<br />

Finalement, la majorité des adultes interviewés dans le cadre de cette étude déclarent qu'ils<br />

auraient recours à la médiation sous certaines conditions, lesquelles mettent bien en<br />

évidence des craintes qui pourraient être atténuées, si ce n'est supprimées, au moyen d'une<br />

information substantielle sur le processus de médiation et ses champs d'application.<br />

L'information devrait concerner en priorité le cadre dans lequel la médiation se déroule, le<br />

professionnalisme du médiateur -son impartialité et sa neutralité-, la garantie de<br />

confidentialité et les conditions de la recherche de solution.<br />

La médiation ne saurait être l'unique solution pour résoudre les conflits. Elle doit<br />

certainement conserver ses spécificités pour donner toute la mesure de son efficacité. Le<br />

domaine des résistances à la médiation mériterait cependant d'être approfondi. Un manque<br />

d'information précise et un certain flou autour de la diversité des pratiques (formelles et<br />

informelles) peut rendre la médiation difficilement repérable et de ce fait contribuer à ce<br />

qu'elle demeure un mode de résolution de conflit idéalisé mais si peu utilisé.<br />

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La médiation, valeur ajoutée de l’entreprise<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Patricia Malbosc<br />

Présidente de la « Consulte des Médiateurs d’Entreprise », médiatrice d’entreprise<br />

Philippe Lemoult<br />

Président du groupe MEDIATION-NET, médiateur d’entreprise<br />

Dans un monde économique confronté à la mondialisation, à une concurrence féroce et où<br />

tout va de plus en plus vite, la médiation représente une voie utile et moderne d’anticipation,<br />

de prévention et de résolution des conflits, tout en participant pleinement au mouvement de<br />

Responsabilisation Sociale des Entreprises.<br />

Elle amène en effet les entreprises à prendre conscience qu’elles sont capables de trouver<br />

elles-mêmes une solution au conflit qui les oppose.<br />

Au travers d’un cas concret réel et chiffré d’un litige <strong>com</strong>mercial survenu entre deux<br />

entreprises françaises, nous démontrons les avantages directs de la médiation, tant en<br />

terme de durée que de coûts, ainsi que de tous les avantages indirects qu’elle génère par<br />

rapport aux autres modes de règlement des conflits que sont le procès et l’arbitrage, en<br />

évitant notamment tous les effets négatifs d’un procès sur l’activité de l’Entreprise.<br />

I. LITIGE COMMERCIAL ENTRE DEUX ENTREPRISES<br />

Quatre séquences structurent ce cas pratique :<br />

• La présentation du contexte : secteur d’activité, taille des entreprises, montant du<br />

litige,<br />

• Le rappel des modes de résolutions qui s’offraient aux deux entreprises : procès,<br />

arbitrage, médiation,<br />

• L’analyse des procédures et processus,<br />

• L’appréciation des résultats.<br />

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A. Présentation du contexte<br />

Le litige concerne deux entreprises françaises, des PME, qui travaillent ensemble depuis de<br />

nombreuses années et s’apprécient.<br />

- Client : Société A spécialisée dans le secteur de la haute technologie, chiffre d’affaires<br />

annuel de 7 Millions d’euros, effectif de 200 salariés,<br />

- Fournisseur : Société B spécialisée dans le négoce de brides industrielles (1), chiffre<br />

d’affaires annuel de 1,5 Millions d’euros, effectif de 50 salariés.<br />

Le litige porte sur un million d’euros et concerne la défectuosité d’un certain nombre de<br />

brides livrées. Elles souhaitent le régler rapidement pour conserver leur relation<br />

<strong>com</strong>merciale.<br />

B. Rappel des modes de résolution<br />

Trois modes de résolution s’offrent aux deux entreprises<br />

a. Le procès<br />

Procédure par laquelle deux ou plusieurs parties en litige confient à un tiers le Juge le<br />

soin de trancher le conflit qui les oppose. Le Juge dit le droit « juridictio » et a le pouvoir<br />

de faire exécuter sa sentence. « Imperium ».<br />

b. L’arbitrage<br />

Institution par laquelle un tiers dénommé « arbitre » règle le différend qui oppose deux ou<br />

plusieurs parties en exerçant la mission juridictionnelle qui lui a été confiée par celles-ci.<br />

L’arbitre tranche le litige et dit le droit « juridictio » (symbolisé par la balance), <strong>com</strong>me le<br />

Juge, mais le fondement de son pouvoir est conventionnel. C’est ce qui le distingue du<br />

Juge, seul à posséder « l’imperium » (symbolisé par le glaive) qui représente le pouvoir<br />

de contraindre à l’exécution de la sentence en recourant à la force publique.<br />

c. La médiation<br />

« La médiation d’entreprise est un processus confidentiel de prévention et de résolution<br />

des tensions, différends, conflits et crises. Elle relève d’une démarche volontaire et fait<br />

appel à un tiers médiateur indépendant et impartial, pour permettre aux parties de trouver<br />

elles-mêmes une solution équitable et durable préservant les relations tant humaines que<br />

<strong>com</strong>merciales. »<br />

Définition du groupe MEDIATION-NET<br />

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(1) Une bride est un collier de serrage qui, en l’espèce, permet la jointure des différents<br />

étages d’une cheminée. Ce type de cheminée destiné à une centrale nucléaire présente bien<br />

évidemment des caractéristiques d’étanchéité et de solidité qui en font une des pièces<br />

essentielles quant à la fiabilité de ladite cheminée ».<br />

C. Analyse des procédures et processus<br />

1. Le procès<br />

Dans le procès les parties s’en remettent à un tiers, le juge, pour trancher le litige. Celuici<br />

dit le droit, tranche et rend une sentence qu’il fait exécuter. Pendant toute la durée de<br />

la procédure, les relations contractuelles entre les entreprises en conflit sont gelées<br />

souvent au détriment des deux parties.<br />

Les litiges qui opposent les parties et qu’elles soumettent aux Tribunaux risquent de ne<br />

trouver une solution judiciaire qu’au bout de plusieurs années, sans que celle-ci soit<br />

considérée satisfaisante. En effet, un procès <strong>com</strong>me celui qui oppose les entreprises A et<br />

B, dure en moyenne 43 mois, soit plus de trois ans, sans <strong>com</strong>pter le pourvoi en<br />

cassation.<br />

Dans notre cas et <strong>com</strong>pte tenu de la nature du litige et du montant des sommes en jeu, il<br />

y aura une première instance avec une expertise judiciaire et forcément une procédure<br />

en appel. De plus, les coûts d’un procès qu’ils soient directs (honoraires des avocats, de<br />

l’expert, des frais d’instances, des éventuels dommages et intérêts…) ou indirects<br />

(contrats suspendus ou annulés, problèmes de trésorerie, de personnel, perte d’image,<br />

dépôt de bilan…), même s’ils sont étalés dans le temps représentent une lourde charge<br />

pour les entreprises et risquent de grever fortement leur avenir, notamment en terme<br />

d’image.<br />

2. L’arbitrage<br />

L’arbitrage est lui aussi souvent utilisé dans les litiges entre entreprises. Il résulte<br />

toujours de la volonté des parties, soit par l’inclusion dans le contrat d’une clause<br />

d’arbitrage appelée clause <strong>com</strong>promissoire ou lorsque le litige est né et que les parties<br />

décident d’y recourir.<br />

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La durée de l’arbitrage, si elle n’est pas fixée dans la convention d’arbitrage, ne peut<br />

excéder six mois. Dans le litige qui oppose les sociétés A et B, <strong>com</strong>pte tenu de la nature<br />

et du montant de litige, il y aurait trois arbitres se réunissant en Tribunal arbitral. En effet,<br />

les arbitres sont toujours en nombre impair. Les honoraires des arbitres peuvent être très<br />

élevés. Ils varient en fonction de leur notoriété et du montant du litige. Ils sont réglés,<br />

sauf accord contraire, par les parties à part égale. A ces honoraires, il faut rajouter les<br />

frais administratifs des Instituts d’arbitrage.<br />

Dans le cas des sociétés A et B, l’arbitrage aurait duré six mois. Il représente un mode<br />

de résolution plus rapide que la voie judiciaire, mais là encore l’arbitre dit le droit, tranche<br />

le litige et rend une sentence de telle sorte que, l’une des entreprises élaborant sa<br />

victoire par la défaite de l’autre, la partie perdante est forcément déçue par la décision.<br />

3. La médiation d’entreprise<br />

Elle résulte d’une démarche volontaire des parties en conflit qui décident d’un <strong>com</strong>mun<br />

accord de faire appel à un tiers indépendant et impartial pour les aider à trouver ellesmêmes<br />

et à construire une solution à leur litige. Le ou les médiateurs et les parties sont<br />

soumis au devoir de confidentialité, tant en ce qui concerne ce qui est dit au cours de la<br />

médiation, que les documents transmis encours de médiation.<br />

A tout moment les parties peuvent renoncer au processus de médiation et recourir à<br />

l’arbitrage ou au procès. En raison de la <strong>com</strong>plexité et du montant du litige, les<br />

entreprises A et B ont décidé de faire appel à deux médiateurs agissant en co-médiation.<br />

La durée de la médiation est fixée dans le protocole de médiation à 3 mois renouvelable<br />

une fois. Les frais de dossier, de même que les frais et honoraires du médiateur ou des<br />

médiateurs sont fixés dans le protocole de médiation et, sauf accord contraire, réglés à<br />

part égale par les parties. Ces frais et honoraires sont libres et varient en fonction de la<br />

notoriété des médiateurs. Dans le cas des entreprises A et B, la médiation est le mode<br />

de résolution qui a été choisi. La médiation a duré 4 mois. A l’issue de la médiation, les<br />

parties ont trouvé une solution équitable et durable.<br />

4. L’appréciation des résultats<br />

Parmi les 3 scenarii qui s’offraient à elles, les entreprises A et B ont choisi la médiation,<br />

car elle présentait des avantages certains.<br />

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En ce qui concerne l’avantage par rapport au procès, il est évident. Aussi nous nous<br />

attachons à démontrer l’avantage de la médiation par rapport à l’arbitrage, autre mode de<br />

résolution amiable des conflits.<br />

Le choix entre l’arbitrage et la médiation s’opère selon différents critères :<br />

Rapidité<br />

Même si dans ce cas précis, l’avantage est à la médiation, les deux modes ne dépassent<br />

pas six mois.<br />

Economie<br />

La médiation est moins onéreuse que l’arbitrage, même si dans le cas des sociétés A et<br />

B, il a été fait appel à deux médiateurs. Les arbitres sont toujours en nombre impair et<br />

dans des affaires <strong>com</strong>plexes, il y a trois arbitres qui siègent en tribunal arbitral.<br />

Discrétion et confidentialité<br />

Arbitrage et médiation présentent les mêmes garanties et évitent toute médiatisation du<br />

litige.<br />

Neutralité et impartialité<br />

Les parties choisissent d’un <strong>com</strong>mun accord les arbitres et les médiateurs qui s’engagent<br />

à respecter un code déontologique.<br />

Maîtrise totale du processus<br />

La médiation suit une méthode et est dotée de principes intangibles. On ne parle pas de<br />

procédure, mais de processus pour évoquer sa souplesse et son adaptabilité en fonction<br />

des parties et du litige. De plus, les parties peuvent décider à tout moment d’arrêter la<br />

médiation.<br />

Les parties dans la médiation sont acteurs et participent à toutes la étapes du processus.<br />

En cela, contrairement à l’arbitrage, elles ne sont pas dessaisies de leur affaire.<br />

Efficacité<br />

Arbitrage et médiation sont deux modes particulièrement efficaces, sauf que dans<br />

l’arbitrage, l’arbitre dit le droit et tranche. Il y a un gagnant et un perdant. Alors que dans<br />

la médiation, le médiateur n’intervient que <strong>com</strong>me facilitateur, catalyseur et<br />

« gynécologue » pour aider les parties à trouver leur propre solution.<br />

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Dans la médiation, les parties trouvent elles-mêmes leur solution en se mettant autour de<br />

la table et en faisant émerger leur intérêt <strong>com</strong>mun. Les relations sont préservées C’est la<br />

solution gagnant/gagnant.<br />

Cadre Juridique<br />

Quatre références importantes :<br />

• Article 1134 du Code Civil. Il stipule que : « Les conventions légalement formées<br />

tiennent lieu de loi à ceux qui les ont faites. Elles ne peuvent être révoquées que de<br />

leur consentement mutuel ou pour les causes que la loi autorisent. Elles doivent être<br />

exécutées de bonne foi ».<br />

• art 2044 du Code Civil : « La transaction est un contrat par lequel les parties<br />

terminent une contestation née ou préviennent une contestation à naître. Ce contrat<br />

doit être rédigé par écrit ».<br />

• L’accord signé sous forme de transaction, présente une sécurité juridique indéniable,<br />

puisque aux termes de l’article 2052 du Code Civil : « Les transactions ont entre les<br />

parties l’autorité de la chose jugée en dernier ressort. Elles ne peuvent être attaquées<br />

pour cause d’erreurs de droit, ni pour cause de lésion ».<br />

• Un arrêt de la Chambre mixte de la Cour de Cassation du 14 Février 2003 illustre son<br />

utilité en précisant :<br />

Tout tribunal saisi d’une action en justice, alors qu’un contrat contient une clause<br />

préalable de médiation, doit déclarer l’action irrecevable tant que les parties ne sont<br />

pas allées en médiation.<br />

La médiation d’entreprise, parce qu’elle pacifie les relations, responsabilise les parties et les<br />

rend acteurs représente aujourd’hui un atout concurrentiel majeur.<br />

II. DES ACTIONS EN FAVEUR DE LA MEDIATION D’ENTREPRISE<br />

La médiation d’entreprise, utilisée depuis de nombreuses années dans les pays de<br />

« <strong>com</strong>mon law », est aujourd’hui de plus en plus utilisée en Europe et notamment en France.<br />

En France, de nombreuses actions contribuent à son développement, même si sa montée<br />

en puissance est encore lente.<br />

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Le groupe MEDIATION-NET possède une expertise qui lui permet d’intervenir dans plusieurs<br />

domaines innovants de l’ingénierie en médiation d’entreprise dans le cadre de projets et de<br />

chantiers, en partenariat avec des entreprises.<br />

1. Un premier chantier, initié depuis plus de deux ans, concerne la conception et la<br />

réalisation du concept « Espace Médiation » d’entreprise, couvrant à la fois les champs de la<br />

médiation en entreprise et de la médiation <strong>com</strong>merciale ou d’affaires.<br />

Un « Espace Médiation » répond à plusieurs besoins génériques relevant de quatre constats<br />

clairement identifiés:<br />

• Un contexte concurrentiel particulièrement tendu,<br />

• Une croissance des <strong>com</strong>plexités et rigidités de fonctionnement, tout particulièrement<br />

dans le secteur des services à la suite de la période de certification et de<br />

l’instrumentalisation excessive qui en résulte,<br />

• Un déficit de <strong>com</strong>munication relationnelle ressenti par le salarié/citoyen,<br />

• Une augmentation des frustrations, tensions et conflits.<br />

Le but d’un « Espace Médiation » est de faciliter la prévention et la gestion des situations<br />

conflictuelles, par la pratique d’une culture médiation adaptée à l’entreprise concernée.<br />

Cette dernière est intéressée par la création d’un « Espace Médiation » pour développer<br />

utilement et préventivement sa relation client, externe et interne, dès qu’un blocage survient<br />

(réclamation, contestation, recours…).<br />

Plusieurs avantages reconnus caractérisent un « Espace Médiation » :<br />

Renforcement de la cohésion de l’entreprise,<br />

Enrichissement du management de proximité,<br />

Gain d’efficacité,<br />

Gain d’image et de notoriété,<br />

Attractivité et fidélisation,<br />

Retour aux sources et modernité.<br />

La médiation d’entreprise, parallèlement à son efficacité ponctuelle, peut aussi, via un<br />

« Espace médiation », s’inscrire durablement <strong>com</strong>me un mode managérial caractérisé et une<br />

politique de la relation <strong>com</strong>merciale renforçant la fidélisation. Cet « Espace Médiation »<br />

devient alors un atout concurrentiel.<br />

Un « Espace Médiation » ancre la médiation dans la culture de l’entreprise par la<br />

sensibilisation à la médiation des parties prenantes concernées (Clients, Direction, salariés,<br />

syndicats et partenaires/sous-traitants éventuels…).<br />

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Il mobilise des relais actifs appelés « correspondants médiation », préalablement formés,<br />

traitant la prévention des conflits et les situations de blocage. Les médiations<br />

incontournables sont alors externalisées, via ces « correspondants médiation », vers des<br />

médiateurs qualifiés, extérieurs à l’entreprise.<br />

Un « Espace Médiation », initié par la Direction Générale de l’entreprise, n’est pas un palliatif<br />

aux déficiences managériales ou un remède miracle de promotion. Il engage l’entreprise tant<br />

vis-à-vis de ses clients que de ses salariés. Il représente donc une des expressions de la<br />

qualité de son image et de celle du lien qui l’unit à son environnement.<br />

2. Un deuxième chantier initié par le groupe MEDIATION-NET concerne le concept de<br />

« médiation d’urgence », appliqué au monde de l’entreprise.<br />

Les conflits collectifs du travail illustrent classiquement ces situations d’urgence ; la demande<br />

de médiation émanant le plus souvent des autorités administratives ou quelquefois<br />

judiciaires.<br />

Ces situations d’urgence se diversifient aujourd’hui, souvent, avant même une saisine<br />

officielle. Elles émanent d’entreprises confrontées à plusieurs besoins sensibles, simultanés<br />

et urgents :<br />

• Un marché concurrentiel particulièrement tendu,<br />

• Une situation de blocage de fonctionnement,<br />

• Des enjeux vitaux remis en cause,<br />

• Une problématique devenue <strong>com</strong>plexe,<br />

• Un risque d’implosion à court terme.<br />

La durée moyenne d’un processus de médiation se satisfait difficilement de celle de<br />

l’urgence. La médiation d’urgence, dont les enjeux sont souvent importants pour l’entreprise,<br />

nécessite une réflexion spécifique pour mieux en finaliser les principes et les modes de<br />

gestion.<br />

Récemment encore, pour un Comité de Direction de 7 membres relevant d’un groupe<br />

industriel de plus de 30.000 salariés, le groupe MEDIATION-NET, grâce à sa réactivité et à<br />

sa connaissance du secteur d’activité, a permis dans un délai très bref de surmonter une<br />

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grave crise survenue, avec, en final, la signature d’un accord équitable entre les 7<br />

protagonistes.<br />

L’évaluation qui en a résulté confirme l’utilité d’une approche spécifique de la médiation<br />

d’urgence pour éviter toute dérive. Car en effet en pareil cas, la supervision du médiateur<br />

d’entreprise, normalement préconisée, n’est plus techniquement possible de par le facteur<br />

temps.. Dans d’autres cas la qualité du montage d’un dispositif spécifique de <strong>com</strong>munication<br />

et de médiation pour la phase préalable est presque aussi déterminante, sinon plus, que la<br />

suite du processus de médiation.<br />

La médiation d’entreprise en situation d’urgence ne dispose pas toujours des moyens<br />

assurant la confidentialité et la réactivité nécessaires. Les conditions de la signature de la<br />

convention d’entrée en médiation en sont d’ailleurs une bonne illustration. La créativité<br />

d’organisation du médiateur est soumise à rude épreuve. D’où l’intérêt de partager ses<br />

expériences et son diagnostic avant les préconisations efficientes.<br />

3. Un dernier chantier prolonge un Benchmarking international réalisé par le groupe<br />

MEDIATION-NET en 2004 sur la médiation d’entreprise. La médiation d’entreprise en France<br />

s’inspire largement des réussites anglo-saxonnes et de Singapour dont le système de<br />

médiation en ligne est particulièrement performant.<br />

Ces chantiers, <strong>com</strong>plétés par ceux des autres participants présents au Forum, ajoutent un<br />

dernier atout décisif au choix de la médiation en raison de sa créativité et de son non<br />

conformisme.<br />

La médiation transforme une résolution de crise en vecteur de développement. Nos blocages<br />

institutionnels, freins et résistances au changement pourraient paradoxalement accélérer le<br />

recours à la médiation d’entreprise, alliant la tradition à la modernité.<br />

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Collaborative Conversations: the story of the Scottish Mediation<br />

Network<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Ewan Malcolm<br />

Mediation Development Officer for Scotland<br />

Objectives<br />

• To describe the role of the Scottish Mediation Network in moving mediation into the<br />

mainstream as a widely available option for resolving disputes of all kinds in Scotland<br />

• To demonstrate collaborative processes used in Scotland to promote constructive<br />

conversations in the mediation <strong>com</strong>munity<br />

• To explore possibilities for continuing this story internationally in the area of quality<br />

assurance<br />

Summary:<br />

In September 2005, the full time office of Scottish Mediation Network<br />

(www.scottishmediation.org.uk ) will have <strong>com</strong>pleted its first three-year project phase. It will<br />

have delivers on all of its five goals:<br />

Contact Point<br />

• To establish an accessible and well-known single additional contact point for mediators<br />

and the public.<br />

Awareness and Understanding<br />

• To assist policy makers, the public, funders, and the media to be<strong>com</strong>e better informed<br />

about mediation and its benefits.<br />

Links<br />

• To promote stronger links among different fields of mediation in Scotland.<br />

Membership<br />

• To provide excellent and sustainable services to the diverse membership of the Network.<br />

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Initiatives<br />

• To encourage and assist mediation initiates such as the development of programmes for<br />

young people and build consensus on quality standards for mediators and mediation<br />

services.<br />

As Mediation Development Officer, Ewan Malcolm is responsible for delivering on these<br />

goals. The operational work of this project has been guided by the constant desire to<br />

convene collaborative conversations. He was inspired by the work of Maryland’s Mediation<br />

and Conflict Resolution Office (MACRO) and believes that mediation development needs to<br />

be consistent with the co-operative approach of the mediation process.<br />

This workshop will explain how the Scottish Mediation Network has brought together diverse<br />

spheres of mediation to work together on issues of <strong>com</strong>mon interest, show how small<br />

changes to meeting formats have improved discussions and ask how conversations already<br />

begun with colleagues in a number of countries might be expanded.<br />

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------<br />

The role of the SMN in moving mediation into the mainstream<br />

The Scottish Mediation Network exists to promote mediation of all forms in Scotland. We<br />

believe that mediation is an underused option and our strategic aim since 2002 was to put<br />

mediation into the mainstream by 2005. The Network’s longer term vision is to embed<br />

mediation into the way conflict is resolved in Scotland.<br />

Acting as a focal point for mediators and organisations from all sectors offering mediation<br />

services in Scotland, the Network aims to link mediators to fellow mediators in order to<br />

encourage collaborative and best-practice working. We also link mediators to the public to<br />

help disseminate the benefits of a mediation-based approach to conflicts.<br />

SMN is a membership based organisation and seeks to develop services to assist its<br />

members as they develop mediation solutions to conflict.<br />

Strong links have been developed with existing mediation services to drive awareness of<br />

their activities. We have creating a map of mediation services across Scotland.<br />

(www.scottishmediation.org.uk)<br />

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Achievements since 1st September 2002—Mediation into the Mainstream<br />

The key features are:<br />

Membership increase from 11 organisations and 24 individuals to 45+<br />

organisations and 110+ individuals.<br />

<br />

‘Mediation into the Mainstream’ roadshows—eight facilitated workshops to build<br />

consensus on developing mediation.<br />

The First Scottish Mediation Conference in September 2003 attracting 200<br />

mediators, influencers and decision makers over in Stirling and the Second<br />

Scottish Mediation Conference in March 2005 attracting 300 delegates over two<br />

days in Glasgow along with a 80 students and teachers in a parallel conference<br />

on Peer Mediation.<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

<br />

Awareness-raising sessions on mediation with business people, educators,<br />

health professionals, government, homelessness workers, lawyers and law<br />

students.<br />

Participating in consultations on bills, papers, and <strong>com</strong>plaint processes for<br />

several organisations including the Scottish Executive and NHS.<br />

Working regularly with organisations and individuals active in the fields of<br />

Family, Neighbour, Business, Court, Workplace, Employment, Commercial,<br />

Environment, Young People, Health, Planning and Housing mediation.<br />

Building consensus across all strands of mediation on SMN’s ‘Guidelines on the<br />

Practice of Mediation’. See below. These Guidelines are intended to form a<br />

baseline for the conduct of all forms of mediation in Scotland.<br />

Published nineteen editions of our bulletin Collaborate now circulated by request<br />

to nearly 400 email addresses<br />

Regular enquiries for information about mediation and SMN services from: the<br />

public, media, members, potential members, government, other organisations.<br />

Recruited well known Scottish journalist Ruth Wishart to be SMN’s first Patron.<br />

Capacity Building<br />

The establishment of the Scottish Mediation Network’s office in September 2002 was<br />

motivated by the need to accelerate the considerable work already underway in developing<br />

mediation for Scotland, mostly undertaken by volunteer and low paid workers. This potential<br />

has begun to flourish supported by a tiny Edinburgh based office, set up with “pump priming”<br />

money from the Community Fund (UK lottery money). Significant further need for capacity<br />

building has been identified. There is a realistic prospect that mediation and mediatory<br />

approaches can be integrated into our Scottish way of resolving disputes<br />

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The collaborative processes used to promote constructive conversations in the<br />

mediation <strong>com</strong>munity<br />

The programme shown below demonstrates one of the methods we have used to convene<br />

collaborative conversions:<br />

Mediation into the Mainstream Programme<br />

AIMS<br />

• To engage local key contacts and potential champions of mediation.<br />

• To find ways in which the attention of the target groups might be caught.<br />

• To generate further momentum behind ideas for appropriate local use of mediation.<br />

Workshop Timetable<br />

2.30pm Refreshments and Handouts (Including ‘What is Mediation?’)<br />

3.00pm Introduction and purpose of event<br />

3.15pm Explanation of format and discussion questions<br />

3.30pm Café format discussions including introductions<br />

4.00pm Change tables<br />

4.30pm Change tables<br />

5.00pm Report back on essence of conversations<br />

5.45pm Summary and Action Plan –<br />

What do you need now from the Scottish Mediation Network?<br />

6.00pm End plus wine and cheese<br />

Facilitated Questions for the Workshop<br />

• What issues could mediation address in your area?<br />

• How can mediation best be moved forward in your area?<br />

• What can be done to assist you to develop the use of mediation locally?<br />

Outputs<br />

• Local action to develop the appropriate use of mediation, supported by SMN<br />

• Circular to all those attending with list of action points and evaluation questionnaire<br />

• Add email address to distribution list for free bulletin Collaborate<br />

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During the workshops we used graphic recording which we described as follows:<br />

GRAPHIC RECORDING<br />

This afternoon, we will be using graphic recording to reflect your discussions and plans.<br />

Graphic recording is a process designed to encourage ‘out of the box’ thinking and it is done<br />

in ‘real time’ in front of everyone on large sheets of paper. The record belongs to the group<br />

and everyone has a right and a responsibility to ensure it is a true record of what the group<br />

means, says and feels about each of the topics up for discussion.<br />

Our graphic record will build up a vibrant and colourful picture of the thought processes,<br />

priorities and action plans of everyone involved today. Seeing your ideas recorded live can<br />

lead to making new connections, inspirations and choices often not discovered or created<br />

during conventional minute-taking.<br />

The possibilities for continuing this story internationally in the area of quality<br />

assurance<br />

Since the beginning of 2005, there have been a number of further discussions that<br />

suggest that the time is ripe for progress to a specifically Scottish solution to the quality<br />

assurance issue.<br />

The fields of family and neighbour mediation have well established accreditation systems<br />

mainly with the UK College of Family Mediators (UKCFM) and Mediation UK (MUK).<br />

However, both organisations have to respond to the very different environments in<br />

England and Wales. Additionally, the distance to these organisations’ offices in Bristol<br />

make them even less accessible to those in Scotland, especially for those outside the<br />

Central Belt. Many Scottish services and mediators have indicated a desire to have a<br />

Scottish bases regulatory organisation.<br />

The Executive Directors of MUK and UKCFM have recently begun discussions with the<br />

SMN about the possibility of a <strong>com</strong>mon standards framework across different spheres of<br />

mediation. The understanding is that any Scottish solution needs to sit within both a UK<br />

and a European context. Additionally, the SMN, along with SACRO, is in discussions with<br />

Mediation Northern Ireland about the Scottish/National Vocational Qualification (S/NVQ<br />

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Level 4) in Mediation. A meeting in Belfast is scheduled this June with them and the<br />

Director of the Mediators Institute Ireland from the Republic of Ireland.<br />

The areas of Commercial and court-annexed mediation has developed on the American<br />

free enterprise model with accreditation mostly granted by training providers. The SMN is<br />

in dialogue with the recently formed Civil Mediation Council based in England and chaired<br />

by Sir Brian Neil. There is a clear need for practice standards, especially if mediation is to<br />

spread across our Sheriff Courts.<br />

The Education (Additional Support for Learning) (Scotland) Act 2004 provides that “Every<br />

education authority must make such arrangements as they consider appropriate for the<br />

provision of independent mediation services” to handle disputes under the Act. Local<br />

Authorities are grappling with the selection of mediation services and are looking for<br />

assurance of excellence.<br />

Mediation has potential application to disputes in any part of Scottish society. It is<br />

essential that this emerging body of important mediation work is of the highest possible<br />

quality.<br />

Colleagues at Maryland’s Mediation and Dispute Resolution Office (MACRO) are willingly<br />

sharing information about the development of Maryland’s Mediator Excellence program.<br />

Along with our links with the well resourced Netherlands’s Mediation Institute (NMI), who<br />

have Europe’s most advanced mediator registration and certification scheme, we are well<br />

placed to collaborate internationally.<br />

It is clear that Scottish Executive Ministers require clarity on mediation quality assurance<br />

before they feel <strong>com</strong>fortable about moving from support to active leadership in the<br />

promotion of mediation in Scotland. We believe that the SMN is ideally placed to host a<br />

rigorous process of consensus building which has the potential to shape a quality<br />

assurance system for all forms of mediation in Scotland. Our expectation is that this<br />

process and system will be<strong>com</strong>e an example for the rest of the world.<br />

Plans<br />

The project will include:<br />

• Engaging with all the key interest groups and identifying appropriate<br />

representatives. A detailed stakeholder survey will be required – the list is likely to<br />

include:<br />

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o National mediation organisations like Family Mediation Scotland, SACRO,<br />

CALM (the Law Society of Scotland)<br />

o Regulating bodies like, Mediation UK, the Civil Mediation Council, CEDR,<br />

the UK College of Family Mediators, the Academy of Experts, the<br />

Chartered Institute of Arbitrators<br />

o Mediation service providers, like FMS affiliated services, SACRO services,<br />

Local Authority in-house mediation services Govan Law Centre ASL<br />

service, ASL:Resolve, Edinburgh Sheriff Court In-Court mediation service,<br />

Core Mediation Ltd, Catalyst Mediation Ltd.<br />

o Mediation training providers, like SACRO mediation training and<br />

Consultancy service, FMS, Core Coaching Ltd, CEDR, ADR Group<br />

o Freelance individuals who mediate and train in mediation<br />

o Also, consumers of mediation and referrers to mediation are stakeholders.<br />

• Negotiating timescales and <strong>com</strong>mitments<br />

• Building on existing work<br />

• Addressing the rigours of independent regulation<br />

Within the first two months of the project, a detailed work plan would be devised and<br />

agreed with the SE.<br />

Out<strong>com</strong>es and End Products<br />

A Scottish “credentialing” (qualification, accreditation and quality assurance) system will<br />

need to be:<br />

• Easy to explain without jargon<br />

• Straight forward to demonstrate and implement<br />

• Respecting of other quality standards<br />

• Inclusive and incremental<br />

• Administered by a credible regulatory body*<br />

*There is no single regulatory body for all forms of mediation in Scotland. Regulation of<br />

training is not standard. Nor is there a standard set of qualifications for be<strong>com</strong>ing and<br />

continuing to practice as a mediator. Unsurprisingly, this is confusing for people. If a<br />

Scottish mediation regulatory body were to be created and work, it would need to be<br />

credible, first in the eyes of the mediation <strong>com</strong>munity, then before the scrutiny of the<br />

outside world. It would need to measure up to modern tenets of independent regulation.<br />

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This is a sensitive area, so the work requires careful planning, skilful execution and<br />

constant <strong>com</strong>munication. The amount of resource available will influence heavily the rate<br />

at which progress in the project is made.<br />

The Scottish Mediation Network has built trust with virtually all mediation organisations in<br />

Scotland. It is in a unique position, if appropriately resourced, to create the space to host<br />

the discussions about building a regulatory structure of mediation in Scotland. There is a<br />

real opportunity to develop a solution for Scotland which could lead the way for the rest of<br />

the world.<br />

GUIDELINES ON THE PRACTICE OF MEDIATION<br />

Adopted by the Policy Committee of the Scottish Mediation Network on 26.5.04<br />

Preamble<br />

These Guidelines are intended to form a baseline for the conduct of all forms of mediation in<br />

Scotland. It is expected that the different strands of mediation will, if they have not already<br />

done so, develop <strong>com</strong>plimentary and more detailed guidance.<br />

Mediation is a process in which disputing parties seek to resolve their differences with the<br />

assistance of a trained mediator acting as an impartial third party. Mediation is voluntary and<br />

aims to offer the disputing parties the opportunity to be fully heard, to hear each other’s<br />

perspectives and to decide how to resolve their dispute themselves.<br />

Voluntary participation and self determination<br />

A mediator shall recognise that mediation is based on the principle of voluntary participation<br />

and un-coerced self-determination by the parties.<br />

Impartiality, independence and neutrality<br />

A mediator shall remain impartial, independent and neutral. If a mediator be<strong>com</strong>es aware of<br />

any reason which may diminish her/his impartiality, independence or neutrality, he/she shall<br />

disclose this to the parties at the earliest opportunity and withdraw from the mediation unless<br />

the parties do not wish her/him to do so.<br />

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Conflicts of Interest<br />

A mediator shall disclose all actual and potential conflicts of interest reasonably known to the<br />

mediator whether before or during a mediation and shall withdraw from the mediation unless<br />

the parties do not wish him/her to do so.<br />

Competence<br />

A mediator shall be responsible for undertaking sufficient training, supervision and continuing<br />

professional development to maintain necessary mediation skills. A mediator shall mediate<br />

only when she/he believes that he/she has the necessary skills to carry out the mediation.<br />

Confidentiality<br />

Confidentiality in mediation is important to encourage all participants to speak truthfully and<br />

candidly, and to enable a full exploration of issues in dispute. Unless <strong>com</strong>pelled by law, a<br />

mediator shall not disclose any of the information given during the mediation process.<br />

Understanding of mediation<br />

A mediator shall ensure that the parties understand:<br />

• the purpose and procedure of the mediation;<br />

• the role of the parties and the mediator;<br />

• any fee arrangement;<br />

• the obligation of confidentiality.<br />

Advertising and solicitation<br />

In advertising or offering services, mediators shall not guarantee settlement or promise<br />

specific results. All information provided by mediators about their education, background,<br />

mediation training and experience shall be accurate.<br />

Gifts and favours<br />

A mediator must not accept from or exchange any gift or favour with any party in any<br />

mediation. A mediator must use judgement that reflects the high ethical standards which<br />

mediation requires.<br />

Discrimination<br />

People should always be treated with respect and without discrimination.<br />

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Complaints and Professional Indemnity Insurance<br />

A mediator shall provide information about the process for handling any <strong>com</strong>plaint made<br />

about their conduct or service, and about any professional indemnity insurance cover they<br />

may have.<br />

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Un cambio de paradigma en la gestión de conflictos vecinales en el<br />

Municipio de Morón, Buenos Aires – Argentina<br />

___________________________________________________________________________<br />

Carmen Mc Cormack<br />

Municipio de Morón, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina<br />

Resumen<br />

1. EL MUNICIPIO DE MORÓN<br />

Morón es un Municipio ubicado en el centro del Área Metropolitana de Buenos Aires, al<br />

oeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires. Por su cercanía con la Capital Federal y su alto grado<br />

de concentración de habitantes y recursos económicos, constituye uno de los principales<br />

centros urbanos del país, con un importante potencial de desarrollo social, <strong>com</strong>ercial y<br />

productivo.<br />

La <strong>com</strong>una está <strong>com</strong>puesta por cinco localidades: Haedo, Villa Sarmiento, El Palomar,<br />

Morón y Castelar y cuenta con más de 1200 instituciones intermedias (organizaciones de<br />

base, clubes, ONGs, escuelas, iglesias, etc.)<br />

Su población es de 400.000 habitantes, que representan el 2,5% de la cantidad de<br />

habitantes de toda la provincia de Buenos Aires que está conformada por 134 municipios.<br />

Su superficie es de 55,6 kilómetros cuadrados. Se encuentra ubicada a 20 km del centro de<br />

la Ciudad de Buenos Aires (Capital Federal) y a 88 km de La Plata (Capital provincial).<br />

El Intendente de Morón es Don Martín Sabbatella, quien fue reelecto en el año 2003.<br />

En la actualidad el Municipio se encuentra en un proceso de descentralización en siete<br />

Unidades de Gestión Comunitaria (UGC), que se encuentran diseminadas en lugares clave<br />

del territorio con la finalidad de promover procesos participativos en la gestión territorial de<br />

las necesidades zonales.<br />

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2. EL PROYECTO<br />

Breve reseña<br />

En el año 2001 se implementó en el Municipio de Morón un Proyecto de Apertura de un<br />

Centro de Resolución Alternativa de Conflictos mediante un convenio con Mediando<br />

Metálogos Asociación Civil, institución de trayectoria y prestigio de la zona, dedicada a la<br />

formación de mediadores, y con tres Centros de Mediación Comunitaria gratuitos<br />

funcionando en la zona desde 1996.<br />

El Centro, desde su apertura, funciona <strong>com</strong>o un área del Programa de Resolución<br />

Alternativa de Conflictos, que depende de la Secretaría de Relaciones con la Comunidad y<br />

Descentralización. Hasta diciembre del año 2003, la institución fue la responsable de llevar<br />

adelante el proyecto. A partir de enero de 2004 hasta la fecha, el municipio contrató en<br />

forma directa a los profesionales a cargo.<br />

Actualmente se han abierto 4 Centros en Unidades de Gestión Comunitaria (UGC), teniendo<br />

previsto para el año 2006 la apertura de 2 Centros más.<br />

Antecedentes<br />

Mediando Metálogos llevaba varios años trabajando en el campo, y a partir de este<br />

conocimiento trabajó sobre la hipótesis de que en los organismos oficiales, la utilización de<br />

los propios recursos suele estar sumamente desaprovechada. En los municipios las<br />

diferentes áreas que conforman las distintas secretarías se <strong>com</strong>portan habitualmente <strong>com</strong>o<br />

si fueran “islas”, generando el desconocimiento mutuo, superponiendo acciones y operando<br />

en forma desarticulada. En la resolución de los conflictos este es un punto clave, ya que en<br />

su abordaje, las acciones coordinadas y centralizadas a partir de una estrategia<br />

cuidadosamente diseñada, suele ser un aspecto fundamental.<br />

Por otra parte, la experiencia de los Centros de Mediación Comunitaria de Mediando<br />

Metálogos en casos derivados de los Tribunales, Defensorías, o en los casos de<br />

presentación espontánea en los que ya estaba actuando o había actuado algunos de estos<br />

organismos o el municipio, indicaba que estas actuaciones podían, en ocasiones, empeorar<br />

la situación.<br />

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El objetivo general del Proyecto fue instalar la resolución alternativa de conflictos <strong>com</strong>o una<br />

herramienta de gestión en el municipio, y fue diseñado en 3 etapas:.<br />

I. Análisis institucional y diseño y ejecución del plan estratégico<br />

II. Apertura del Centro<br />

III. Funcionamiento del Centro<br />

Propósito de este trabajo<br />

En este trabajo nos interesa destacar dos aspectos que consideramos innovadores en<br />

varios sentidos:<br />

• Un aspecto se relaciona con el enfoque inicial que se le dio al Proyecto, que consistió en<br />

otorgar suma importancia al hecho de que el Centro debería ser visualizado por las<br />

diversas áreas del Municipio <strong>com</strong>o un recurso que podría cooperar con ellas en las<br />

respuestas a los reclamos y denuncias presentadas por los vecinos. Esta primera etapa<br />

consistió en un trabajo planificado y sistemático con las áreas involucradas del<br />

municipio, que fue clave para la derivación interna de casos. Lo consideramos innovador<br />

porque, al contrario, otros Centros de Mediación Comunitaria conocidos en el país<br />

habían dirigido su enfoque hacia la <strong>com</strong>unidad, para que la <strong>com</strong>unidad visualice a la<br />

mediación <strong>com</strong>o un recurso alternativo para resolver conflictos.<br />

• El otro aspecto, que fue hipótesis de trabajo desde el diseño del Proyecto, consistió en el<br />

análisis de los circuitos administrativos que seguían los reclamos y denuncias<br />

ingresados al municipio, con el fin de evaluar la posibilidad de crear nuevos circuitos<br />

para que el Centro de Resolución Alternativa de Conflictos intervenga en estos reclamos<br />

y denuncias antes de que lo hagan las áreas tradicionales a través de sus inspectores.<br />

Consideramos a este aspecto innovador porque usualmente los casos que nos<br />

derivaban las áreas, eran considerados casi <strong>com</strong>o casos “perdidos”, con meses o años<br />

de estar circulando por diversas dependencias sin lograr respuesta desde el organismo.<br />

En el mes de abril de 2003 se inició un Nuevo Circuito administrativo que contempla la<br />

intervención del Centro <strong>com</strong>o primera instancia en reclamos y denuncias referidos a<br />

ciertas temáticas.<br />

De todos modos, los Centros están abiertos a la <strong>com</strong>unidad y aproximadamente el 40% de<br />

los casos ingresan por solicitud de los vecinos, aun cuando no se han realizado campañas<br />

de difusión de este servicio.<br />

Además queremos destacar que en el año 2004 se presentó la experiencia de trabajo del<br />

Centro de Resolución Alternativa de Conflictos del Municipio de Morón, a la convocatoria de<br />

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la Subsecretaría de la Gestión Pública del Gobierno de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, para<br />

seleccionar y premiar experiencias, ideas y/o proyectos innovadores en la Administración<br />

Pública Provincial, obteniendo el Primer Premio Innovación 2004 en la Gestión Pública,<br />

categoría Experiencias.<br />

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Epistemological analysis and <strong>com</strong>parison of legal process and<br />

mediation process. Pursuing and achieving justice<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Tanja Metelko Lisec<br />

Professional Director of the Concordia Mediation Institute (graduate in law, mediator)<br />

1. Introduction<br />

In the last few years, especially in legal circles, alternative dispute resolution, such as<br />

arbitration, mediation, resolution and conciliation, is be<strong>com</strong>ing more and more present. The<br />

most frequently used dispute resolution techniques are mediation and arbitration.<br />

Statistical data showing court arrears, high legal fees and expenses, unpredictability of legal<br />

practice, and poor access to legal protection, raise a question whether the traditional<br />

litigation process is really the only legitimate dispute resolution method. As a consequence,<br />

more friendly ways of dispute resolution are increasingly searched for. The new value is<br />

faster, cheaper, and more efficient ways of dispute resolution among parties in a dispute,<br />

further cooperation of parties after the dispute has been resolved and satisfaction of both<br />

parties, which all speaks in favour of the mediation process, a method of dispute resolution<br />

where a neutral party – a mediator helps the parties in a dispute to reach an agreement<br />

leading to dispute resolution and redefinition of their relationship. The highest legal act in the<br />

state, the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, grants everybody the right to legal<br />

protection; judges, however, as well as legal theorists and parties themselves are aware that<br />

the legal procedure is not always the most appropriate way of resolving disputes and<br />

conflicts.<br />

As a consequence, alternative methods of dispute resolution are being introduced in courts<br />

all over the world and in the last four years also in Slovenia, where the parties in a dispute<br />

can decide for the mediation procedure ac<strong>com</strong>panying the legal procedure. This gives the<br />

parties the opportunity to choose the method, course and out<strong>com</strong>e of dispute resolution with<br />

the primary goal to reach an agreement which is be<strong>com</strong>ing one of the most important legal<br />

values. Dispute resolution is left to people in a dispute, who best know their own problems.<br />

Since mediation is a flexible procedure granting the parties a full autonomy, it is often<br />

referred to as the truth with a human face. Legal procedure and dispute resolution process in<br />

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mediation can be <strong>com</strong>pared by considering several factors: justice is one of them and we<br />

have chosen it as the subject of our study. Pursuing and achieving justice in the mentioned<br />

dispute resolution procedures and epistemological analysis of both processes is the main<br />

topic of this article.<br />

2. Pursuing truth and achieving justice<br />

2.1. Concept of justice in law science<br />

People have been trying to answer the question of justice and (its) fairness since the<br />

beginning of mankind or at least since two people appeared on the Earth, who, in their<br />

mutual relationship, distribution of work and resources, almost certainly came across the<br />

question justice. Antiquity philosophers, obviously anxious about the meaning of justice, first<br />

began to publicly raise questions about justice and acknowledged its actual existence within<br />

social reality.<br />

In one of his last works, Nomoi, Plato discussed the problem of equality and developed a<br />

theory that justice should be understood not only as numerical but also a proportional<br />

equality. This theory was further developed by his pupil Aristotle in his fifth book with the title<br />

Ni<strong>com</strong>achaean Ethics. In his opinion, the essence of justice is equality. »Equal is the middle<br />

between too much and too little…, since equal is a middle, also fair is a middle… Fair exists<br />

in a certain proportion …, for proportional is in the middle, and fair is what is proportional<br />

(Aristotle, Ni<strong>com</strong>achaean Ethics, book V., 1131 a - 1131 b and V, 7, 1131 b, in Pavčnik,<br />

1999, p. 448). Proportionality, as he sees it, needs a criterion (tertium <strong>com</strong>parationis), and<br />

the criterion of proportionality is what one deserves. Aristotle distinguishes two types of<br />

justice (adopted by many legal theories) – balancing and distributive justice. Balancing<br />

justice is the justice among persons who are not equal by nature but equal in front of the the<br />

law. Distributive justice is a proportional equality among several persons considering a<br />

corresponding distinguishing criterion (allocation of rights and responsibilities by considering<br />

value, ability, necessity...).<br />

Hugo Grotius, the founder of rationalistic natural law (Pavčnik, 1999, p. 425), refers to<br />

fairness in his work On law of war and peace, where he talks about natural law founded on<br />

the man’s social nature and his ability to act rationally. In his opinion, the principles of natural<br />

law are based on the corresponding supreme guidance. The supreme guidance is justice<br />

which he defines negatively: »Just is what is not unjust, and unjust is everything that is in<br />

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contradiction with the <strong>com</strong>munity of beings using their intellect« (Grotius: De iure, 1950, p.<br />

11, in ibid).<br />

And what do law and justice have in <strong>com</strong>mon? The term law <strong>com</strong>es from the Latin word<br />

iusticia, meaning justice. The term justice is frequently referred to in the science of law. From<br />

the legal point of view it is a value according to which everybody should to get what belongs<br />

to him/her. In the contemporary legal science it is formally accepted that legal subjects<br />

should be treated equally in general legal acts (for example in laws) and that the acts should<br />

always be used in the same manner. According to Pavčnik (Pavčnik, 2001), justice is the<br />

criterion for behaving and acting in legal relations; he is referring to the relation among legal<br />

subjects who have rights and responsibilities one to another, meaning that there is a certain<br />

distribution or balancing of resources and burdens among legal subjects. Distribution and<br />

balancing of resources and burdens depends on the criterion of justice. If we look at the<br />

primary aims of law or fundamental legal values, we also <strong>com</strong>e across justice. According to<br />

Pavčnik (ibid), justice (or humanity) is the first, and legal safety the second fundamental legal<br />

value.<br />

There are different criterions of justice in law, if we consider its effort to give justice its<br />

essential position. Let us only list some of them: to everyone what belongs to him/her, to<br />

everyone equal, to everyone what he/she deserves, to everyone according to the principle of<br />

equality; to everyone according to the work he has done; to everyone according to his needs;<br />

to everyone according to evil; to everyone according to law. These principles show that the<br />

law, in his wish and effort to assure justice, is based on three main principles: assuring<br />

equality, considering needs, and giving by considering what one deserves.<br />

2.2. Comprehension and understanding of truth and truthfulness<br />

When talking about justice in law, we also have to mention the related term truth or<br />

truthfulness, respectively, since law , in many of its branches, deals precisely with the truth.<br />

Criminal process law, for example, deals with determining the truth when the court tries to<br />

discover the course of events which led to a certain prohibited action, and through this action<br />

the actual circumstances in the criminal matter. The major part of criminal process in the<br />

previous procedure and in the main trial is dedicated to determining the actual course of<br />

events described by the parties in the process, their witnesses, experts and all other persons<br />

who are warned that they are obliged to tell the truth and that that there are certain<br />

consequences if they <strong>com</strong>mit perjury. In the legal process we are therefore usually talking<br />

about the empirical or authentic truth.<br />

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Some authors are also convinced that we can agree on truth and truthfulness, i.e. on what is<br />

the truth and what is true. The truth can therefore be or is the matter of agreement. Von<br />

Foerster (Barnes, 1994, p. 4, in Šugman Bohinc 1997, p. 301) describes the truth as a<br />

»consistent reference framework of at least two observes«. According to this definition,<br />

truthfulness (and truth) is not something given beforehand but always a matter of agreement<br />

between at least two observers or participants in the system, i.e. the result of their agreement<br />

or consensus that something is true. Von Foerster does not believe in the objective<br />

truthfulness and talks about the interpretability of our mental activity. If his definition is<br />

translated into a mathematical equation showing the <strong>com</strong>prehension of truthfulness in a more<br />

detailed way, we can write down the following formula:<br />

truth = f (agreement).<br />

Here, achieving truthfulness in the legal process is being questioned, since a judge is the<br />

person who tries to determine and in the end determines whether something is true or not.<br />

Truth and truthfulness are also defined in detail by Pask (1992, p. 58, in Šugman Bohinc,<br />

1996). In his opinion, truth is hermeneutic (not objective), since it represents something that<br />

two or more participants agree on it is true – this is the whole truth and the only true value of<br />

the agreement. The agreement and thereby the truth is reached by clarifying the meaning<br />

(personal meaning of each participant) through conversation which stops at the point when<br />

one or more participants are satisfied with the interpretation of the other regarding their own<br />

interpretation. The result is a cross-section of the interpretations exchanged between and<br />

developed by the participants through conversation which represents a mutual or agreed<br />

understanding of a certain concept or event.<br />

2.3. Deciding or agreeing – what is true and what is just<br />

Let us first tell an anecdote which was once told by Hans C. Kruger before we continue to<br />

talk about justice. Oliver Wendel Holmes jr. was leaving Boston and was departing for<br />

Washington where he was to be appointed a judge at the US Supreme Court, so he<br />

organized a farewell party. When his colleagues were taking their leave they said to him:<br />

»Goodbye, judge, and judge fairly!« After a short consideration he answered: »I'm not going<br />

to Washington to judge fairly. I’m going there with the aim to use law!« (Kreger, 2000, in<br />

Pavčnik, 2001 a).<br />

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What does a fair judgement mean? Is fairness achieved by judging, i.e. decision-making of<br />

an individual or individuals, or is a mutual agreement between the parties a better assurance<br />

of fairness and even exceeds it?<br />

Oliver W. Holmes jr. was obviously aware of this dilemma when he did not want to say that<br />

he would judge fairly and that he would rather use law. Pavčnik (2001, b, p. 1152) says that<br />

»…it is in the nature of justice to be fragile. There is no dilemma whether to avoid or exceed<br />

justice; it is a challenge to be aware of this fragility and to respond to it by acting in the<br />

manner that does not increase unfairness of unfair justice«. However, justice should not be<br />

absolutized »Absolutizing the contents of fairness is its immediate negation. There is no such<br />

thing as supreme, the highest, fundamental or any similar justice« (ibid, p. 1163). Pavčnik is<br />

also convinced that a man stands behind every criterion of fairness (or unfairness). A man<br />

who takes legal decisions. In his opinion, the final source of law is very or exclusively human.<br />

In each (legal) decision we have to find a balance between the extremes which limit to<br />

unfairness. »Regardless of the starting-point of decision-making process and regardless of<br />

the normative starting-point of decision-making process, the connection between them and<br />

the legal decision itself is always a responsible action. Only such an action creates law.«<br />

(Pavčnik, 1991, p. 91, v ibid).<br />

Judge's conscience and the way he uses law is the criterion for achieving fairness in the<br />

legal procedure. When a third person decides on the issue of other two persons involved,<br />

this represents the highest level of interest protection of both parties and pursuance of<br />

justice. The question is, however, whether this is (still) a good enough method of dispute<br />

resolution that enables achieving of justice.<br />

Zalar is convinced (Zalar, 2004, p. 10) that »a traditional lawsuit which is similar to a football<br />

game where the aim of both parties in a dispute is to score as many goals as possible cannot<br />

satisfy the interests of the persons involved«. The procedures and the roles of the persons<br />

involved are changing: the role of a judge is solving problems and offering the parties control<br />

over the out<strong>com</strong>e of the procedure instead of judging from a background; the aim of dispute<br />

resolution process is changing – the aim is not to pass a verdict but to reach an agreement,<br />

which is be<strong>com</strong>ing the most important legal value; the role of the parties in the procedure is<br />

not stating their own facts and proofs and disproving the opponent's but finding a mutual<br />

solution and accepting responsibility for dispute out<strong>com</strong>e. The parties are given freedom to<br />

decide how they are going to resolve their dispute, which is not possible in the legal process.<br />

They are trying to reach a mutual agreement on an issue which means that there are several<br />

ways of resolving a dispute and that there is no such thing as only one accurate or suitable<br />

way.<br />

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Heinz von Foerster (Foerster, 1993, in Šugman Bohinc, 1996) mentions two main groups of<br />

questions: the first group are solvable and definable questions that can be answered and the<br />

second group are in principle unsolvable and indefinable questions that cannot be answered.<br />

Solvable questions are the questions that have only one correct answer; they are part of<br />

general science and of the reference framework with clearly defined rules of operation,<br />

formalism, and algorithm prescribing the procedures for crossing the way from a given<br />

starting-point to the final goal. In principle unsolvable questions are questions without a<br />

single reference field of rules with precisely defined procedures according to which there is<br />

one or several answers to each question. When answering such questions we have all the<br />

freedom of choice. If we apply this freedom of choice to the field of dispute resolution in the<br />

legal and mediation processes, we can learn that it is carried out differently in each of them.<br />

In the legal process, the judge himself answers the questions, and in mediation the parties<br />

answer the question on the basis of a consensus. In the legal process a question who is right<br />

is posed, which, according to Foerster’s theory, is in principle an unsolvable question. It<br />

refers to the past event which we cannot witness to check its course and be able to assert<br />

with certainty what happened. Since there is more than one correct or verifiable answer to it,<br />

this is an unsolvable question. Legal process excludes the latter but mediation process offers<br />

such possibilities.<br />

In mediation, the parties have a full autonomy to make a decision how they are going to<br />

resolve their dispute and all (in the principle unsolvable) questions connected to it. They<br />

discuss all open questions and dilemmas and continually agree on their resolution. In<br />

mediation, the concepts are continually exchanged and shared with other participants (by<br />

considering mutual differences), what Pask calls conversation. In his opinion (Šugman<br />

Bohinc, 1998), concepts are the main subject of conversation. Each concept is created by at<br />

least two other concepts which means that each concept is included in other concept and<br />

that each concept includes an endless number of concepts. The parties involved in the<br />

mediation process search for and create by means of clarification a new, <strong>com</strong>mon concept<br />

which they can both agree on. A true value of conversation lies in the consensus (Pask,<br />

1992, in Šugman Bohinc, 1996, p.115) which means agreement or a consensus on<br />

disagreement regarding a specific issue or event. The truth is therefore hermeneutic - it is the<br />

function of agreement among at least two persons that something is true.<br />

Such truth or agreement can be reached by agreeing on a certain issue by clarifying its<br />

meaning in the development of conversation (Šugman Bohinc, ibid). The meaning is clarified<br />

in the process of spiral circularity where the out<strong>com</strong>e of one process (level) be<strong>com</strong>es the<br />

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starting-point of the other process (level) of interpretation. The process of clarifying meaning<br />

stops at the point when both participants agree on the interpretation of the other regarding<br />

his/her own interpretation and can form a mutual concept and reach an agreement. When<br />

the agreement is reached, the range of personal concepts of each person involved in<br />

conversation is richer for the experience of the <strong>com</strong>plete conversation. The result is a crosssection<br />

of all interpretations exchanged and developed through conversation which became<br />

their agreed understanding of their <strong>com</strong>mon concept.<br />

3. Comparative epistemological analysis of legal process and mediation process<br />

3.1. Epistemological analysis of legal process<br />

In this chapter we are going to make a short epistemological analysis of legal and mediation<br />

processes and <strong>com</strong>pare them. Epistemology is a science (Barnes, 1994, p. 86-87, in<br />

Šugman Bohinc, 1996, p. 62) which studies structurally dependent and defined content and<br />

the way of perception, thinking and decision making of a living organism. It introduces all the<br />

basic suppositions on the basis of which we cognize (through action) and act (through<br />

cognition). Epistemological analysis is the analysis of the process with which we ascertain<br />

which suppositions determine an individual process, how a process functions and how the<br />

participants in the process <strong>com</strong>municate. All this will be defined on the basis of two different<br />

views – objectivistic and hermeneutic, i.e. constructivistic. Objectivistic theory understands<br />

the world as linear and causal, without prejudice; it sees events as predictable; objectivistic<br />

theory is static, classic and based on the logical and scientific model.<br />

Hermeneutics emphasizes interpretation and explicative method which creates, and<br />

functions circularly; on the basis of understanding and cognition it creates new and believes<br />

in uniqueness and unpredictability, it is dynamic and open, it invents and constructs meaning<br />

and believes in consensus and agreement.<br />

First we will focus on the legal process – what is the role and <strong>com</strong>petence of parties involved<br />

in it and what kind of interpersonal relationship they have. The parties involved in the legal<br />

process are opposite parties – their relationship is <strong>com</strong>petitive (not cooperative); they do not<br />

cooperate in decision-making, they only present proofs and give information to the judge;<br />

their participation is often forced (for example forced conveyance, participation is not<br />

voluntary); there is no balance of power between them (one party holds superiority over the<br />

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other party); parties are in a dispute (in the beginning of the process as well as in the end,<br />

when dispute be<strong>com</strong>es even sharper).<br />

In a dispute and in the decision-making process connected to it we can notice that all the<br />

events are linearly connected; the subject of a dispute is solvable questions (questions which<br />

can be answered accurately); even a concrete example is definable – there is a concrete<br />

legal act and legal consequence; a judge decides on a dispute and makes a decision about it<br />

– according to the pre-existing legal act; parties do not cooperate in the decision-making<br />

process; the content of a dispute is only transmitted through information (does not create<br />

itself); focus is on a dispute or a problem; there is no freedom of choice in the decisionmaking<br />

process since it is governed by norms; final decision is one-sided; execution of a<br />

sentence is forced.<br />

In <strong>com</strong>munication the information is transmitted through a channel from a transmitter to the<br />

receiver; conversation is mainly connected with the past. Problem solving is static – rules<br />

and procedure are predetermined; the model of problem-solving process is logical and<br />

scientific; the subject of assessment is often »why«; the truth should be determined; justice is<br />

determined by considering <strong>com</strong>mon moral.<br />

3.2. Epistemological analysis of the mediation process and <strong>com</strong>parison of both<br />

analyses<br />

Mediation process is grounded on other suppositions which are entirely different; the rules<br />

applied are diametrically opposed.<br />

Participation of parties is voluntary; parties make decisions themselves; they cooperate in the<br />

problem-solving process (do not <strong>com</strong>pete); a mediator does not try to discover but helps to<br />

find a mutual solution; distribution of power between the parties is balanced – this is one of<br />

the tasks a mediator has to fulfil; when an agreement is reached and the process is<br />

<strong>com</strong>pleted, parties are reconciled with each other and with themselves.<br />

Events, arising from a dispute, are circularly connected (not separated and linear); the<br />

questions addressed are in principle unsolvable questions, meaning that there is no<br />

prescribed answer or only one possible answer to them – parties try to find a mutual answer<br />

to the matter in dispute; controversial case is not typical, it is special, in<strong>com</strong>parable and<br />

unrepeatable.<br />

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Parties themselves make a decision on the out<strong>com</strong>e of a dispute – they have all the freedom<br />

to do it and also accept all the responsibility for it themselves; the content of a dispute is<br />

simultaneously created and agreed upon (not only transmission of information); focus is on<br />

the solution (not so much on the past); decision is mutual, agreed upon and equivalent;<br />

realization of the agreement is voluntary and agreed upon.<br />

Communication level in the mediation process is relational and connected with the content; it<br />

effects changes in the concepts, which means that we are talking about conversation;<br />

information is not merely a transmitted message, since it represents the difference which<br />

leads to a new differentiation by the participants; conversation is focused on the future (not<br />

focused on analyzing the past).<br />

Problem solving is dynamic and allows simultaneous changes and novelties; model of<br />

problem solving is narrative and flexible; the subject of assessment is more often »how« than<br />

»why«; ethics of the individual prevail over the <strong>com</strong>mon morality; truth and justice are the<br />

subject of mutual defining and agreeing.<br />

There are considerable differences between the legal process and the mediation process.<br />

We will get a clearer picture about the objectivistic and hermeneutic elements involved in<br />

each of the processes if we show the results of the analysis in a table.<br />

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SUBJECT OF<br />

OBSERVATION<br />

LEGAL PROCESS<br />

MEDIATION PROCESS<br />

Relationship between<br />

parties<br />

<strong>com</strong>petitive – O<br />

cooperative – H<br />

Third party judge – discovers – O mediator –<br />

invents/creates – H<br />

Events linearly connected – O circularly dependent – H<br />

Subject (nature) of dispute solvable questions – O unsolvable questions – H<br />

Responsible for dispute<br />

resolution<br />

judge – O<br />

parties themselves – H<br />

(self-responsibility)<br />

Decision-making<br />

according to pre-existing<br />

legal act – O<br />

freedom of decision-making<br />

– H<br />

Ethics, morality<br />

certain morality (outwards)<br />

– O<br />

ethics (inwards) – H<br />

Concrete example<br />

predictable, can be<br />

determined, general (legal<br />

act or precedent)<br />

– O<br />

special, unique,<br />

unrepeatable – H<br />

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Participation of parties in<br />

the decision-making<br />

process<br />

parties do not cooperate in<br />

the decision-making<br />

process – O<br />

decision is made by parties<br />

themselves – H<br />

Content is transmitted – O is created – H<br />

Communication level<br />

connected to the content,<br />

transmission of information<br />

– O<br />

connected with the content<br />

and relational, causing a<br />

change – H<br />

Communication mode <strong>com</strong>munication – O conversation – H<br />

Information<br />

transmission through<br />

information channel from<br />

the transmitter to the<br />

receiver – O<br />

information is a difference,<br />

causing a difference at<br />

participants – H<br />

Problem-solving<br />

static, rules and procedure<br />

are predetermined – O<br />

dynamic, simultaneously<br />

created – H<br />

Model of problem-solving<br />

logical and scientific – O<br />

narrative, flexible – H<br />

Subject of assessment »Why?« – O »How?« – H<br />

Focus on problem – O solution – H<br />

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Subject of conversation,<br />

focus<br />

past – O<br />

future – H<br />

Problem defining – O restructuring – H<br />

Out<strong>com</strong>e of dispute<br />

resolution<br />

win / loose– O<br />

win / win – H<br />

Truthfulness is being assessed – O is being agreed upon – H<br />

Relationship between<br />

parties after the process<br />

parties are in a dispute – O<br />

parties are reconciled – H<br />

Freedom of choice no (determination) – O yes – H<br />

Participation of parties forced – O voluntary – H<br />

Distribution of power no balance – O balance of power - H<br />

Decision one-sided – O agreed upon, based on<br />

consensus, equal – H<br />

Execution of a sentence forced – O voluntary – H<br />

Epistemological analysis and <strong>com</strong>parison of dispute resolution in the legal process and in the<br />

mediation process (O = objectivistic, H = hermeneutic)<br />

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In the first column typical items of the process (the subject of our observation) are analyzed.<br />

Each of the items was classified according to the concept to which it belongs –objectivistic or<br />

hermeneutic (O – objectivistic, H – hermeneutic). The result shows a classification without<br />

any deviations in both processes – all the items within the legal process belong to the<br />

objectivistic concept and all the items within the mediation process belong to the hermeneutic<br />

concept. There is, however, a possibility of deviations in both processes in individual<br />

segments from one epistemology to the other. The legal process needs an opportunity to<br />

adopt individual constructivistic elements which will make it less rigid, more open for the<br />

cooperation of parties in the process of dispute resolution and <strong>com</strong>munication (and even<br />

conversation) etc. However, the mediation process, which is still in its early stages, contains<br />

objectivistic models in certain cases, but more unconsciously than deliberately.<br />

Recent trends in the field of dispute resolution in the European Union and also in Slovenia<br />

lay great emphasis on hermeneutics and mediation.<br />

4. Conclusion – Ethics of cognition binds us all<br />

Everyone, including judges, prosecutors and lawyers, have the freedom and responsibility to<br />

decide in what way they want to help people resolve their disputes. Pavčnik (Pavčnik, 2001,<br />

b, p. 1155) is convinced that a lawyer is always faced with fairness in law and fairness in<br />

front of the law. He is not responsible for fairness in law, since it is already given and<br />

represents the integral part of the world we are living in. If a lawyer disagrees with this kind of<br />

fairness he can act as moral person and makes effort to supplement or change it. In each<br />

case he also has to decide whether he really wants to work as a judge, lawyer or prosecutor.<br />

If he accepts his legal profession, he deals with fairness in front of the law. His task is to find<br />

out which criteria of fairness stand behind the rights and duties of legal subjects in order to<br />

be able to define them normatively and to apply them in the same way in the concrete cases.<br />

A lawyer can choose to work as a judge but he (and in the future also other professionals<br />

who work in the field of social care, sociology and psychology) also has the possibility to<br />

decide for mediation if he thinks that the way of dispute resolution in the mediation procedure<br />

is more constructive, more successful and more friendly to the parties involved in the<br />

procedure.<br />

The parties involved in a dispute are the first who decide how they are going to resolve their<br />

dispute. Since the year 2001, the mediation process ac<strong>com</strong>panying the legal process has<br />

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een carried out as a pilot project in three district courts in Slovenia. When this possibility will<br />

be offered in all judicial districts and also outside courts, everyone (but not always in each<br />

case) will be able to decide how he/she is going to resolve his/her dispute. People won’t<br />

have to go to courts as often as they do nowadays and the aim of going to court won’t be to<br />

sue with the aim to win instead of trying to resolve a dispute.<br />

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Menkel-Meadow, C. (2001). Mediation: Theory, Policy and Practice. Hants GU113HR,<br />

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Shuker, N. R. (2002). Zmanjševanje sodnih zaostankov v civilnopravnih zadevah v ZDA.<br />

Pravna praksa, 1, 36-43.<br />

Simič, V. (2001). Pravo in vrednote: Vrednostni temelji najstarejših zapisov prava. Pravna<br />

praksa, 6, 1073.<br />

Šugman Bohinc, L. (1996). Razgovor o razgovoru, Od spoznavanja spoznanja k<br />

razumevanju razumevanja v jeziku kibernetike drugega reda. Ljubljana : interno gradivo –<br />

magistrsko delo.<br />

Šugman Bohinc, L. (1997). Epistemologija socialnega dela. Socialno delo, 36 (4), 289-308.<br />

Šugman Bohinc, L. (1998). Epistemologija socialnega dela II. Socialno delo, 37 (6), 417-440.<br />

Zalar, A. (2000). Tožiti ali ne tožiti?. Pravna praksa, 36, 3.<br />

Zalar, A. (2004). Pravda in mediacija. Pravna praksa, 38, 10.<br />

297


Dra. Alicia Millán<br />

El conflicto es parte innegable de la interacción humana, podemos afirmar que nos afecta en<br />

nuestro diario vivir, forma parte insoslayable de nuestra dinámica social.<br />

Este trabajo se propone focalizar en los posibles modos constructivos de prevención y<br />

abordaje de los conflictos sociales.<br />

Sabemos que Conflicto y Cambio suelen transitar sendas paralelas, por ende es<br />

imprescindible identificar cuáles son los conflictos de nuestro tiempo, pero ¿cuál es el<br />

tiempo que nos toca vivir?, ¿en qué etapa histórica estamos inmersos?<br />

Según Toffler la historia de la humanidad ha atravesado tres olas, a saber:<br />

La primera: duró nueve mil (9.000) años y se relaciona con la alimentación.<br />

La segunda: tiene que ver con la energía y el proceso de industrialización iniciado en el<br />

siglo XVI.<br />

La tercera: la de la información, una ola absolutamente paradojal, pero sobre este aspecto<br />

volveremos más adelante. (1)<br />

Para Morin vivimos en la era planetaria y ubica su nacimiento entre el descubrimiento de<br />

que la tierra es un planeta y la posibilidad de <strong>com</strong>unicación entre las diversas partes de ese<br />

planeta.<br />

“Entre la conquista de las Américas y la revolución copernicana surge un planeta y se<br />

desploma un cosmos. Las concepciones del mundo más seguras y evidentes se dan vuelta.<br />

La tierra deja de estar en el centro del Universo, se instala <strong>com</strong>o satélite del Sol y la<br />

humanidad pierde su lugar privilegiado”. (2)<br />

La etapa contemporánea de la era planetaria es para Levy la Mundializacion, concebida<br />

<strong>com</strong>o “el surgimiento de un objeto nuevo: el mundo <strong>com</strong>o tal”. (3)<br />

298


Para Forster “pensar los acontecimientos del presente significa poner en discusión algunos<br />

de los núcleos principales alrededor de los cuales se configuraron las perspectivas<br />

contemporáneas. Sobre todo será necesario iniciar una indagación que nos conduzca a<br />

pensar el sentido de los cambios que se están produciendo en la idea misma de la historia.”<br />

Señalamos <strong>com</strong>o rasgo distintivo de la tercera ola su carácter paradojal, volviendo al<br />

pensamiento de Forster nos encontramos con que “la idea tan manoseada del fin de la<br />

historia tal vez radique no en el apoteótico triunfo de la democracia liberal asociada con la<br />

economía de mercado anunciada por Fukuyama, si no en esa fluidez insustancial que va<br />

reduciendo cualquier movimiento de protesta, cualquier gesto de multitudes en imágenes<br />

evanescentes devoradas, una tras otra, por la maquinaria audiovisual.<br />

La imposibilidad de permanecer, la disgregación continua, la fluidez, son formas del flujo<br />

actual en el que la durabilidad no puede reconocerse mas que en el instante”. (4)<br />

Coincidentemente con la paradoja tribal-global, Naisbitt resalta que <strong>com</strong>o consecuencia de<br />

la globalización ha caído el mito de que Estados Unidos encarna un crisol cultural, pues la<br />

tensión entre los distintos grupos étnicos crece día a día, el mercado global por otro lado,<br />

obliga a las empresas a abandonar las practicas del <strong>com</strong>ercio dirigido a mercados masivos,<br />

pues sus políticas deben orientarse a encaminar en forma mucho más sutil sus productos o<br />

servicios para lograr acceder a las preferencias de los consumidores que forman este<br />

universo atomizado. (5)<br />

Por su parte Robertson propone referirse a glocalización en lugar de globalización atento a<br />

la <strong>com</strong>plejidad de este fenómeno que incluye tanto presiones globalizadoras <strong>com</strong>o<br />

localizadoras. (6)<br />

Resulta evidente que los procesos de globalización o glocalización <strong>com</strong>prenden tendencias<br />

de mercado y de medios de <strong>com</strong>unicación, que por un lado traen consigo al homo iconis que<br />

está determinado por sus entornos simbólicos, goza de tecnología avanzada, incorpora la<br />

cibernética a su cotidianeidad, aunque ello profundiza las diferencias entre los seres<br />

humanos, pues hay millones de analfabetos que no pueden gozar de estos adelantos.<br />

No debemos perder de vista que la exclusión económica deriva, casi siempre, en exclusión<br />

física y cultural. (7)<br />

En síntesis, desde la perspectiva de los Derechos Humanos los procesos glocalizadores no<br />

han logrado sustraerse del rasgo paradojal que destacamos previamente, ya que existe<br />

299


in<strong>com</strong>patibilidad entre la concepción de los Derechos Humanos <strong>com</strong>o sistema de un<br />

discurso emancipatorio y reivindicatorio real y el contexto globalizador que solo entiende<br />

tales derechos en términos liberales, individuales y universales. (8)<br />

En el marco de la realidad de la que formamos parte, <strong>com</strong>o consecuencia del proceso de<br />

ordenamiento descripto todos los días hay personas que son excluidas, los conflictos<br />

sociales son crecientes, ya no podemos escondernos debajo la alfombra.<br />

El fortalecimiento de estructuras de convivencia armoniosas constituyen tarea ineludible de<br />

toda sociedad que aspira a mantener la racionalidad por sobre la violencia, este es el<br />

sentido de un programa de consolidación de métodos apropiados de regulación de conflictos<br />

y es suficiente razón de acudir a la Ética en demanda de sostén para forjar en las<br />

instituciones y las personas que las conforman actitudes acordes con dichos procesos.<br />

Tal <strong>com</strong>o señala Amartya Sen (9), "la importancia de la ética no sólo es instrumental, sino<br />

que puede cambiar aquello que tenemos razones para valorar... ver a una persona <strong>com</strong>o<br />

ciudadana es adoptar una visión particular de la humanidad, no es sólo verla <strong>com</strong>o a una<br />

criatura cuyo bienestar es importante, sino también considerarla <strong>com</strong>o un ser racional que<br />

piensa y valora y decide y actúa".<br />

“La ética no es una disciplina filosófica de abordaje y entendimiento <strong>com</strong>plejo, es una<br />

exhortación a mejorar nuestra calidad de vida y nuestro modo de actuar en sociedad”<br />

“Pese a que en el lenguaje corriente ética y moral se emplean casi indistintamente, ello no<br />

es tan así.<br />

El vocablo ética se asocia con la reflexión filosófica que se esboza sobre la moral o más aún<br />

sobre el HECHO MORAL en sí mismo.” (10)<br />

La filosofía ha brindado múltiples respuestas sobre las reflexiones aludidas, recuperaré tal<br />

<strong>com</strong>o lo hiciera en el 12 Congreso Nacional de Profesionales de Ciencias Económicas, dos<br />

de las tradiciones más significativas del pensamiento ético antiguo y moderno, para<br />

proceder luego a resaltar los ejes fundamentales del debate ético contemporáneo.<br />

Ética de Aristóteles: se inscribe dentro de la llamada ética material o de bienes.<br />

300


La felicidad (eudaimonia) es el bien supremo, es decir, el ejercicio de la actividad<br />

específicamente humana, la razón, su virtud radica en pensar.<br />

El propio Aristóteles señala “el más deleitoso de todos los actos conformes con la virtud es<br />

el ejercicio de la sabiduría” (Sophia)<br />

Ética de Kant: también denominada formal o del deber, el acento está colocado en la<br />

obligación, más allá de todo contenido, la tarea de la filosofía es la búsqueda del carácter de<br />

nuestros preceptos y conceptos morales.<br />

Según la concepción kantiana, lo moral está afuera de la naturaleza (es independiente del<br />

mundo) da por supuesta la existencia de una conciencia moral ordinaria.<br />

Ética del debate contemporáneo: Cullen reconoce que sus ejes refieren una doble<br />

preocupación relativa al avance y extensión de dos tipos de pensamiento, a saber:<br />

• escepticismo: “no podemos fundamentar racionalmente ningún valor, ninguna norma,<br />

ningún derecho, ningún deber”<br />

• fundamentalismo: “podemos fundamentar valores, normas, derechos, deberes, pero<br />

solamente por la fuerza de las creencias, de los dogmas, de los prejuicios, o en el poder<br />

de las armas, la riqueza, la impunidad: cualquier cosa vale, <strong>com</strong>o no vale, con tal de<br />

mantener el dogma o el poder o ambas cosas.” (11)<br />

En definitiva, Cullen, sostiene que el desafío de la ética contemporánea se basa en el<br />

cuidado de la salud del alma, la búsqueda de la sabiduría y la defensa de la dignidad.<br />

Los Centros de Mediación Institucionales constituyen la base para ofrecer a la <strong>com</strong>unidad<br />

mecanismos ágiles, pacíficos y efectivos para la prevención y tratamiento de sus disputas,<br />

contribuyendo a robustecer de este modo la “cultura de la paz”.<br />

“La prevención, transformación y gestión de conflictos por medios colaborativos y pacíficos<br />

coadyuvan al fortalecimiento del capital social entendido <strong>com</strong>o el conjunto de normas de<br />

confianza, valores, actitudes y redes entre personas e instituciones en una sociedad, que<br />

define el grado de Asociatividad entre los diferentes actores sociales y facilita acciones<br />

colectivas de cooperación. (12)<br />

301


El Consejo Profesional de Ciencias Económicas de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires<br />

(Argentina) no eludió el <strong>com</strong>promiso que implica promover y poner a disposición de la<br />

sociedad métodos constructivos para la solución de sus problemas, propiciando la<br />

resolución cooperativa de los mismos.<br />

Bibliografía<br />

(1) Toffler A. La Tercera Ola. Barcelona Plaza-Janés 1990<br />

(2) Morín E. Tierra Patria. Kairos – Barcelona 1993<br />

(3) Lèvy J. Géographie et <strong>com</strong>plexité, Le Monde pour cité, debate con Alfred<br />

Valladao. L´Harmattan 1999.<br />

(4) Foster R. La Guerra. Art. de Revista.<br />

(5) Naisbitt J. Megatendencias. Panamá, Printer Internacional, 1984.<br />

(6) Robertson R. Glocalización: tiempo - espacio y homogeneidad –<br />

heterogeneidad. Revista Zona Abierta 92/93, Madrid 2000.<br />

(7) Giddens. A La terza vía. Milán, 1999. Editorial II Saggiatore<br />

(8) Fariñas M. Globalización, ciudadanía y derechos humanos. Ed. Dykinson.<br />

Madrid 2000.<br />

(9) Sen A. Discurso Inaugural Día de la Ética y el Desarrollo en el Banco<br />

Interamericano de Desarrollo, Washington D.C.<br />

(10) Millán A. Ética de la Mediación. 12 Congreso Nacional de Profesionales en<br />

Ciencias Económicas. Buenos Aires. Septiembre 1998.<br />

(11) Cullen C. El debate ético contemporáneo. Facultad Ciencias Económicas VI<br />

Nº 13. Página 26<br />

(12) Millán A. Mediación e Interdisciplina. 15º Congreso Nacional de<br />

Profesionales en Ciencias Económicas. Salta. Octubre 2004.<br />

302


The Importance of Co-Mediation in matters brought to family 174<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Eliana Riberti Nazareth<br />

Psychoanalyst, Family and Couple Therapist, Mediator,<br />

Vice-president of CEREMA<br />

Lia Justiniano Dos Santos<br />

Lawyer and mediator. President of CEREMA<br />

“Three simple passions, irresistibly rooted in me, governed my life: the necessity of love, the<br />

desire of knowledge and a painful union with all those who suffer”.<br />

Bertrand Russell, Autobiography<br />

INTRODUCTION<br />

In this brief discourse we will deal with the advantages of applying interdisciplinary <strong>com</strong>ediation<br />

and the particulars of this model, which presupposes joint action of professionals<br />

of the juridical and mental health areas, specially the psychoanalyst, both with background in<br />

mediation, when dealing with conflicts which Family Law handles.<br />

WHY A NEW MODEL FOR MEDIATION?<br />

The first big difficulty we encounter in the execution of this proposition is to achieve a<br />

<strong>com</strong>mon understanding in relation to the use of terminology and basic concepts, i.e. a<br />

suitable and adequate formulation. It is in the theoretical elaboration that we encounter the<br />

great difficulty in interdisciplinary formulation.<br />

174 Based on the paper presented at the IVB Brazilian Congress of the Brazilian Institute of Family Rights<br />

303


Let us establish the issue: Concerning interdisciplinary methodology it is said that it<br />

corresponds to the cohabitation of different sciences or disciplines in diverse fields with<br />

specific characteristic, objectives and methods. We point out that the various areas which<br />

take part in this interdisciplinary work, in this case, co-mediation, converge in the object of<br />

joint study represented by conflict, by the “concrete case”. 175<br />

Rather than a theoretical concept, we consider interdisciplinarity individual practice, and as<br />

such it cannot be learnt, only exercised. It is the result of continuous training, of a systematic<br />

refinement of mental structures 176, which can be illustrated by describing the work carried out<br />

in a mediation case in which, during the whole time the two sides, the emotional and the<br />

juridical, are considered by the integrated intervention of both mediators.<br />

The object of our <strong>com</strong>munication is difficult to situate, if not within the concrete, in a historical<br />

perspective taking measures of time and space into account – a contribution of professionals<br />

of the juridical and psychoanalytical areas.<br />

Among the main MESCs – Extra judicial Methods of Solution of Controversies (Métodos<br />

Extrajudiciais de Solução de Controvérsias), - Mediation is the one to offer the least<br />

interference. Unlike the other two main institutes, Conciliation and Arbitration, Mediation is<br />

the method that requires most ability and dexterity from the practicing professional, since in<br />

conflicts, above all those that involve family matters, the material and the emotional levels<br />

are invariable present and carry the same degree of importance.<br />

The interchange between the professionals of the Law and the professionals of Mental<br />

Health, especially those with psychoanalytical background, furthers not only a deeper<br />

understanding of two different levels of conflict, but also promotes an approximation between<br />

affection and reason, inner world and outer world, psychic reality and material reality,<br />

concepts which are usually thought of dichotomically.<br />

FOR PONDERING<br />

175 Terminology of the juridical area<br />

176 Hilton Jupiassu - Interdisciplinaridade e patologia do saber, (Interdisciplinarity and pathology of knowledge)<br />

Imago Editora, São Paulo, 1976<br />

304


The demand that reaches the Judiciary, is not only for regulation and disciplining of rights,<br />

and therefore, of social relations, but also for protection and recognition of the individuals<br />

behind these judicial actions.<br />

The “Legal State” has been called upon to regulate the existence and coexistence of<br />

individuals in a manner that transcends its not only material quantitative capacity, but also<br />

qualitative, because mitigation of conflict demands reach it, which should not need to get<br />

there, since they are part of inner moves of modification and reorganization of individuals and<br />

of social structures. In the exercise of its functions, the Juridical State replies with normative<br />

responses, which in those cases, are felt by those who receive them as distant from their<br />

narratives.<br />

As Antonio Cezar Peluso rightly shows,<br />

“nevertheless, because normative science or practice, which represents one of several<br />

processes of social adaptation, the Law performs the duty of guaranteeing basic conditions<br />

of social coexistence and of carrying out the historical project of ethical coexistence,<br />

regulating human action through precepts (norms) inspired in the observation of experience<br />

(social acts), according to a certain order of valid conclusions in a certain society (values).<br />

Therefore, the project of making <strong>com</strong>patible, within ethical ideals, the exercise of liberties,<br />

works with data that reflect all the important experiences of the human being, but which are<br />

also the object of study in their own space and with their own methods, the so-called<br />

empirical sciences.<br />

However, Positive Justice is not theological revelation, but semantic reconstruction to the<br />

extent that the norms, contained virtually and basically in the legislative texts (graphic<br />

expression of messages) only establish themselves as such when they be<strong>com</strong>e, due to their<br />

interpretation, meaningful elements recognized by the thinking spirit of the addressee<br />

(interpreter), confronting the physical reality they tend to rule.<br />

And this task, the rendering of significance, as a necessary condition to the normative<br />

application, which is no more and no less than the <strong>com</strong>pliance of the physical world with the<br />

juridical prescriptions, involves the whole person of the interpreter and so, his culture, his<br />

economic condition, his passions, his deep inclinations, in short, his ways. This is the reason<br />

why the results of the hermeneutic experiments don’t always coincide with the sustainable<br />

inductions that start from the scientific observation of people and social relations”. 177<br />

177 Antonio Cezar Peluso, Apresentação, em Direito de Família e Ciências Humanas, Cadernos de estudos nº 1,<br />

Eliana Riberti Nazareth, org. Editora Jurídica Brasileira, São Paulo, 1997.<br />

305


.<br />

The people who seek the Judiciary are usually in deep anguish. If on the one hand, the<br />

State as judge, is of primordial importance to give parameters to the claims of people,<br />

because as Sidnei Beneti points out “through the jurisdictional process, the access to just<br />

juridical order is ac<strong>com</strong>plished by means of the guarantee of presenting the case in Court<br />

and obtaining in a short time the jurisdictional judgment in favour of whoever was right” 178, on<br />

the other hand, as has been pointed out, the emotional outbreak of troubled people is not<br />

taken into account.<br />

“Nobody has the monopoly of absolute truths regarding MAN any more, even if such<br />

absolute truths were possible. So that to try and understand the state of distress he was led<br />

to by family conflicts, as he faces the professionals of the Law, is a hard task, and to use a<br />

paradox, almost inhumane, because it presupposes not only susceptibility and disposition of<br />

the spirit, but also such vast intellectual and technical qualifications, which no solitary jurist<br />

can <strong>com</strong>ply with.<br />

What practice has proved, with certain coherence, is that juridical operators (lawyers, judges<br />

and prosecutors), not for lack of interest, but rather because of the disproportion of the<br />

endeavour in contrast to the narrowness of academic background do not manageto attain, in<br />

their profession, the more intimate motives of family conflicts and therefore cannot discover<br />

or attribute, forensic normative solutions to <strong>com</strong>ply with the <strong>com</strong>plex nature of the<br />

demands. It does not go too far to assert that, due to the multiplicity of their analytic<br />

perspectives family matters can no longer obtain adequate responses within the narrow<br />

technical limits of juridical dogma” (PELUSO, Idem)<br />

We might perhaps say that, in family questions, the performance of the Judiciary is distant<br />

because in its logic it is removed from the narratives of individuals entangled in conflicts.<br />

According to the Theory of Logical Types proposed by Russel and Whitehead in the<br />

introduction to Principia Mathematica, “a class (entity) should be distinguished from the<br />

elements of that class. An enunciation referred to a class expresses a higher degree of<br />

abstraction – in other words, it belongs to a higher level of logic – than an enunciation<br />

referred to the elements of a class or entity”. (Simon, 1996: 419) 1796 .The lack of<br />

178 Sidnei Beneti, Constituição federal, 10 anos, São Paulo, Juarez de Oliveira, 1999.<br />

179 Stierlin Simon, Vocabulário de terapia familiar, (Family Therapy Vocabulary) Tipos Lógicos, Ed. Gedisa,<br />

Buenos Aires, 1996<br />

306


differentiation of logical types in discourse or handling of phenomena is at the basis of the<br />

generation of misunderstandings.<br />

This implies that generic juridical norms do not always consider specific interests, because<br />

they belong to a higher logical type, i.e. are of a different level of abstraction, and maybe it is<br />

not totally inaccurate to say that even Family Law being the Law of specific human relations<br />

has the contingency of not reaching, or scarcely reaching, exclusive needs and cravings.<br />

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PSYCHOANALYSIS<br />

Psychoanalysis allows us to understand the symbolic place each of the social<br />

representatives, among them the professionals of the juridical area, occupy in human<br />

relations.<br />

One of the main difficulties for any professional who deals with people in crisis – and those<br />

who appeal to the Judiciary to settle their conflicts are, above all, facing a crisis of greater or<br />

lesser extent -, is to take adequate position.<br />

Such difficulty springs above all from two factors. The first one is due to the fact that<br />

individuals in crisis are psychologically in a state of regress, behaving in an irrational,<br />

immature and apparently in<strong>com</strong>prehensible manner, calling upon the professionals who<br />

attend to them to exercise egoic functions of reflection, pondering, consideration, prudence<br />

and good sense, which they feel they are prevented from exercising. This <strong>com</strong>monly<br />

generates expectations of performances beyond the convenient and the suitable. The<br />

second factor, derived from the first, is due to the repercussions in the inner world, the mind,<br />

the subjectivity of the professional, the expectations projected onto them by those ministered<br />

to.<br />

Due to the <strong>com</strong>plex and deep mechanisms of psychological workings the professionals who<br />

are propelled by these pressures may, and not rarely, feel <strong>com</strong>pelled to take decisions and<br />

give suggestions which are not always the mere result of exposed needs. There are<br />

innumerable subjective factors, veritable “interior clamours” which, stimulated by these<br />

projections may lead them, though not totally conscious of their hidden motives, to act. Here<br />

there is a subtle slip, which can materialize in, for example, petitions and pleas based more<br />

on an apparently accepted social habit and less on the needs and possibilities of the case.<br />

307


Psychoanalysis also allows us to understand how human <strong>com</strong>munication is given in a<br />

context of latent emotional meanings, only just glimpsed and intuitively perceived by<br />

objective thought. It is within the subjectivity of human relations that conveyed messages<br />

acquire sense.<br />

Human <strong>com</strong>munication consists of verbal and non-verbal features. Both are important for<br />

<strong>com</strong>munication to unfold adequately and efficiently. However, the non-verbal aspect is<br />

dominant, and frequently decisive for the way the message is assimilated and re-acted to.<br />

Research shows that 93% of <strong>com</strong>munication is made up of the non-verbal aspect and only<br />

7% of words. Thereof 58% are related to facial expressions and 35% to gestures and<br />

orthoepy, that is, intonation, rhythm, articulation of words, etc. The importance of the nonverbal<br />

aspect of <strong>com</strong>munication is larger in emotional and social crises. Individuals in crisis<br />

are more susceptible to how words are said, rather than to what is said.<br />

In order to understand and to be able to intervene efficiently, the mediator can benefit greatly<br />

from the <strong>com</strong>prehension of non-verbal language, the adequate use of various types of<br />

questions and from dynamic listening techniques.<br />

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE PROFESSIONAL OF THE JURIDICAL AREA<br />

This contribution of the professional of the juridical area is at this moment in history, linked to<br />

the conciliatory model and to its introduction for the solution of conflicts. Conciliatory model<br />

with the meaning of harmonization, of pacification of contestants, in which the MESCs are<br />

included and among these, Mediation.<br />

Up to now, the western world in which we are included, has known and applied the<br />

“adversarial” model. Herein, the resolution of conflicts is given by the Judiciary, by means of<br />

applying the Law to the concrete case. It is in the hands of the judge to interpret 180 and to<br />

apply the law.<br />

180 Interpreting Law, is without failing to respect juridical order, to apply law with wisdom, justice and<br />

efficiency, heeding the aim of justice and liberty which the judicial process encloses. Luiz Fux, Curso de Direito<br />

Processual, Editora Forense, Rio de Janeiro, 2001, 2nd edition<br />

308


By favouring the conciliatory model, the professional of the juridical área widens his space of<br />

action. There is a change of focus. And the loneliness, which has always been at his side in<br />

the exercise of his profession, has no longer any reason to exist.<br />

The adoption of the conciliatory model, is based upon the principle always quoted by Prof.<br />

Kazuo Watanabe, according to which access to justice, which is a constitutional right, differs<br />

from access to jurisdiction and should mean access to a just juridical order, the objective of<br />

which is the pacification of litigants.<br />

In this sense we wish to transpose into practice, the change of focus which the conciliatory<br />

model introduces in the handling of a conflict which would generate a litigation of judicial<br />

separation (divorce) or consensual.<br />

Summing up:<br />

Cancellation of the Adversarial Model and option for Conciliatory Model:<br />

Adversarial Model<br />

Separation under dispute<br />

I – focus<br />

- winning the cause<br />

- framing the causeshaping the conviction of the judge sanction as determinant of<br />

execution of decision<br />

Let us examine the conflict, which has been transformed into judicial dispute.<br />

We obtain different viewpoints when we consider whether the conflict has been directed to<br />

the Judiciary as a judicial litigious separation case or a judicial consensual case.<br />

When the judicial separation is litigious, both parties place themselves in opposite fields, are<br />

represented, and talk through their respective lawyers; the objective of each one being to<br />

obtain a favourable judicial decision to their own claim and winning the cause.<br />

The lawyer ac<strong>com</strong>modates his client’s claim to the law. This is the legal fitting of the<br />

petitioner’s claim. After this legal fitting, the claimant’s version is submitted to the technical<br />

editorship and tendered to the Judiciary through what is known as initial petition.<br />

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The request formulated by the author, as well as the defendant’s reply which opposes the<br />

author’s request, has to present documentary evidence.<br />

Apart from these, the sides must apply for, and produce all necessary evidence in order to<br />

persuade the magistrate, that is, persuade the judge of who is right and should win the case.<br />

The sentence, when judging the lawsuit, must impose sanctions to the loser in order to oblige<br />

him to <strong>com</strong>ply with the judicial decision.<br />

Let us now consider aspects, which characterize the adversarial model in the conduction of<br />

the judicial process. Summarizing, we have:<br />

II – What it consists of<br />

- the deposition of the litigant is taken as truthful<br />

- the use of processual writs<br />

- the use of processual writs (???) to gain advantage in the conduction of the legal action<br />

- selection of juridical choices dissociated from the perspective of aggravation of conflict<br />

- the perspective the part holds of the conflict remains in the background<br />

- the parts <strong>com</strong>municate through their respective legal representatives<br />

- increase of conflict determined by the terminology used in the process, the addressee of<br />

which being the judge, and the object of which is to have the version of one of the parts<br />

of the conflict, which has be<strong>com</strong>e judicial litigation, prevail.<br />

- psychosocial probe<br />

The account of one of the parts is taken as truthful, disregarding the other.<br />

The use of measures which may hasten a decision in favour of one of the parts by obtaining<br />

partial victories.<br />

Whithin this model, to characterize it and to differentiate it from the conciliatory model, we<br />

include<br />

- the use of formal matters in relation to the process and not to the conflict itself, in order to<br />

obtain advantages in the handling of the judicial action<br />

- the selection of juridical choices does not take into account the possibility of its<br />

aggraviation<br />

- the conflict as such is not presented to the judge for decision, but only that which can be<br />

fitted into legal norms<br />

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- the parties always <strong>com</strong>municate through their respective lawyers<br />

- the sharpening of the conflict, determined by the terminology used in the process and the<br />

addressee of which is the judge, aiming at the prevalence of the version of one of the<br />

parts of the conflict, which has been turned into judicial litigation<br />

- the psychosocial probe which is being taken up as a technical subsidy for the judge to<br />

shape his understanding regarding the case, and not as a factor and motive for the<br />

decision of the conflict.<br />

A) consensual separation<br />

I - Focus<br />

- the search for their rights of each of the parties<br />

- prevalence of objectivity in detriment to subjectivity<br />

The judicial consensual separation case, under the adversarial model differs from the<br />

agreement or from the resolution of the conflict through mediation. As has been emphasized,<br />

the parties seek for their rights and do not focus on their interests. Objectivity prevails in<br />

detriment to subjectivity. Therefore, it is not un<strong>com</strong>mon for new, or even the same conflict to<br />

take up new aspects and to reappear between the parties.<br />

II – How it is established<br />

- one lawyer to represent both parties or two lawyers who speak for their clients<br />

- the choice of only one lawyer is usually made by the party who is going to pay fees and<br />

expenses<br />

- possible unbalance of power between parties is not worked upon and may increase<br />

- a hidden third party that advises the other two<br />

- legal adjustment to conflict<br />

- the agreement is drawn up by the lawyer and submitted, usually separately, for approval<br />

to each party<br />

- use of personal criteria and of juridical patterns in the solutions proposed by the lawyer<br />

Innumerable characteristics pointed out above, repeat the same faults of the litigious<br />

process, in the consensual process, raising difficulties, and even preventing the resolution of<br />

conflict and the voluntary heeding of the agreement ratified judicially.<br />

The participation of the parties in the resolution of the conflict and the elaboration of an<br />

agreement is not always wide, and is usually subordinated to the advice and directives of the<br />

lawyer. The conflict remains connected to its legal adjustment. As the lawyers have to<br />

represent and defend their respective client, or even both clients, there is no space and<br />

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means left to re<strong>com</strong>pose the <strong>com</strong>munication and the balance between the couple that is<br />

separating.<br />

2. Conciliatory Model<br />

A – Focus<br />

- consensus based upon the interests of each of the parties, focusing on a possible<br />

solution<br />

- en<strong>com</strong>passing the whole conflict in its objectivity and subjectivity<br />

- responsibility of each party in the fulfillment of the agreement<br />

In contrast, the agreement obtained through the conciliatory model, namely through<br />

mediation, is more likely to be fulfilled spontaneously, because it expresses the<br />

understanding and the consensus reached by the parties themselves, based upon their<br />

interests and focusing what is possible. The conflict can be totally worked out, including<br />

latent conflicts. There is time, means and disposition for this.<br />

B – How it is established<br />

- the mediator be<strong>com</strong>es acquainted with the conflict through the account of both parties<br />

- juridical advice is substituted by elucidation of the juridical consequences<br />

- proposed solutions are tested and discussed together by the couple with the help of the<br />

mediator<br />

- confidence is stimulated<br />

- the balance of power between the parties can be worked out<br />

- sanctions as determinant for fulfillment of the clauses of the agreement remain in the<br />

background<br />

- the responsibility of the parties and the voluntary fulfillment of the agreement are<br />

stimulated<br />

- the agreement is formulated by the parties, according to their personal criteria<br />

Similarly, the methods and the instruments used are entirely adequate to the resolution of the<br />

conflict and project the inefficiency of the means used in the adversarial method. The items<br />

listed in the summary table above, evidence on their own, the degree of efficiency of<br />

mediation in the elaboration of an agreement proposal and in the consequent resolution of<br />

conflicts deriving from the separation of couples.<br />

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FINAL CONSIDERATIONS<br />

As has been seen, the isolated judicial response is inadequate for the matters presented to<br />

Family Rights.<br />

As Wittgenstein advices in proposition number 7 of his principal propositions of Tractatus<br />

lógico-philophicus, 1921 181 , “what cannot be said, should not be spoken of”. The tending of<br />

the observed conflict in the juridical adversarial discourse, in reality not rarely increases<br />

litigation.<br />

If the sociological contest which sustains the family justice contest is not correctly undone, it<br />

be<strong>com</strong>es contained litigation. The adaptation of psychosocial conflicts into legal conflicts<br />

does not attend, nor could it attend to the basic human needs of acknowledgement and<br />

protection because they belong, as we have seen, to a different logical kind.<br />

The same does not happen with Interdisciplinary Mediation. As a peaceful method of solving<br />

conflicts, it allows for close and individualized attention to family litigation, even being able to<br />

prevent them. They are the out<strong>com</strong>e of the same type of logical phenomena, because the<br />

resulting participative agreements derive from the will of the participants. “The deep<br />

research of civil jurisdictional solutions carried out by the Canadian Bar Association pointed it<br />

out as pattern to be emphasized to gain access to Justice, next to access to Justice by<br />

means of access to the proceedings”. 182<br />

8 Denis Huisman, Dictionary of Philosphers, Martins Fontes, Sao Paulo, 2001, page 1009.<br />

182 Sidnei Agostinho Beneti, idem<br />

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Modelo global de convivencia escolar: Programas de intervención y<br />

experiencias de aplicación en el País Vasco<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Alberto Olalde<br />

Spain<br />

Summary / Resumen<br />

El desarrollo de programas para la mejora de la convivencia en los centros educativos se<br />

plantea, hoy en día y mayoritariamente, desde un enfoque global que considera los múltiples<br />

factores y agentes involucrados. Para este fin, se articulan y se integran en la organización<br />

escolar diversas estructuras, programas y protocolos de actuación, y los programas de<br />

mediación escolar son una de ellas.<br />

El fin último de un programa de mediación escolar es proporcionar una estructura que<br />

permita dar cauce a la resolución pacífica de un tipo de conflicto que encontramos en el día<br />

a día de las escuelas. Sin embargo, la mediación no responde a otras muchas situaciones<br />

para las que se articulan diferentes mecanismos basados también en el diálogo, el respeto y<br />

la participación.<br />

Uno de los factores clave del sostenimiento y buen funcionamiento de un programa de<br />

mediación escolar es su adecuada integración con otros procesos y otras estructuras que<br />

existen para la resolución de los conflictos y la regulación de la convivencia en las escuelas,<br />

<strong>com</strong>o son: la normativa, las asambleas de clase, la negociación formal a nivel de aula<br />

(“rincón del diálogo”), etc.<br />

El avance en los últimos diez años en la implementación del Modelo Global en las aulas del<br />

País Vasco, denota la importancia y el éxito en impregnar a toda la <strong>com</strong>unidad escolar con<br />

los principios de la convivencia democrática y la transformación pacífica de los conflictos y<br />

diferencias.<br />

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Contenidos<br />

1. Fundamentos generales del Modelo Global de Convivencia Escolar<br />

2. Los programas del Modelo Global:<br />

• Programa Curriculum de Resolución de Conflictos<br />

• Programa Mediación Escolar y otros procesos colaborativos de Resolución de<br />

Conflictos<br />

• Programa de Disciplina Positiva.<br />

• Programa Currículum Familiar<br />

3. Fases de desarrollo y aplicación.<br />

4. Experiencias y prácticas en el País Vasco.<br />

• Análisis de casos prácticos<br />

5. Evaluación y cierre.<br />

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Los vecinos de Buenos Aires<br />

Algunas reflexiones acerca de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria<br />

____________________________________________________________________<br />

Silvia Susana Olmedo<br />

Mediadora del Centro de Medición de la Defensoría del Pueblo de la Ciudad de Buenos<br />

Aires<br />

Mi propia historia <strong>com</strong>o mediadora está ligada a la vida de una institución: la Defensoría del<br />

Pueblo de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Para ubicar el contexto de su nacimiento,<br />

hay que tener en cuenta un cambio importante en la estructura política de la ciudad de<br />

Buenos Aires. Deja de ser un Municipio, cuyo intendente dependía de las autoridades<br />

nacionales, para tener gobierno propio, elegido por el voto ciudadano.<br />

Es en esas circunstancias que se produce la institucionalización de la figura del Defensor del<br />

Pueblo( Ombudsman), con la creación de la Defensoría del Pueblo, cuyo objetivo es tutelar<br />

los derechos difusos de los vecinos, y al mismo tiempo controlar al gobierno. Se entienden<br />

<strong>com</strong>o derechos difusos, los que incorporó la legislación internacional <strong>com</strong>o derechos<br />

humanos, aceptados en nuestra Constitución. Son estos vecinos quienes <strong>com</strong>enzaron a<br />

generar una demanda espontánea, no ya de reclamos o denuncias al ente gubernamental,<br />

sino acudiendo a ser “defendidos” de sus conflictos con otros vecinos. La concepción de los<br />

modos Alternativos de Resolución de Disputas, tomaba forma en Buenos Aires. Ana<br />

Uzqueda, abogada, hoy mediadora en Italia, integrante de la institución propone la creación<br />

de un Centro de Mediación Comunitaria.<br />

Los vecinos son convocados a un nuevo espacio: Encontrarse con el otro del conflicto e<br />

intentar hallar conjuntamente alguna manera de resolución. Es una apuesta que trastoca la<br />

atribución imaginaria adjudicada inicialmente ( ser defendidos).<br />

Es una apuesta a la participación, a la autonomía, al reconocimiento de capacidades<br />

invisibilizadas. Desde entonces han pasado diez años, mi intención hoy es transmitir<br />

algunas reflexiones sobre la práctica. En primer lugar quiero situar algunas preguntas: ¿A<br />

que llamamos <strong>com</strong>unidad?<br />

¿Cómo podemos caracterizar las relaciones de vecindad?<br />

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¿Cuales son las formas predominantes de la existencia en una gran ciudad? ¿Y <strong>com</strong>o<br />

vemos desplegarse las relaciones de vecindad en ella?<br />

Abrevaré en los aportes de la Psicología Social y Comunitaria, rama que ha adquirido un<br />

desarrollo importante. Maritza Montero define <strong>com</strong>unidad <strong>com</strong>o “un grupo en constante<br />

transformación y evolución( su tamaño puede variar), que en su interrelación genera un<br />

sentido de pertenencia e identidad social, tomando sus integrantes conciencia de sí <strong>com</strong>o<br />

grupo y fortaleciéndose <strong>com</strong>o unidad y potencialidad social”.<br />

“La <strong>com</strong>unidad además es un grupo social histórico, que refleja una cultura, que posee<br />

cierta organización, cuyos grados varían según el caso; con intereses y necesidades<br />

<strong>com</strong>partidos, que tiene su propia vida, en la cual concurre una pluralidad de vidas<br />

provenientes de sus miembros que desarrolla formas de interrelación frecuentes marcadas<br />

por la acción, la afectividad, el conocimiento y la información.”<br />

Como parte de su dinámica, en esas relaciones internas puede también llegar a situaciones<br />

conflictivas conducentes a su división, disgregación y pérdida de identidad. Desde el punto<br />

de vista de la sociología Enrique del Acebo Ibáñez plantea que “ En casi la totalidad de las<br />

teorías de la ciudad que hemos analizado subyace un paradigma de análisis de la evolución<br />

histórica del mundo sociocultural occidental, según el cual se produciría el paso de<br />

estructuras <strong>com</strong>unitarias, cohesivas, tradicionales y raigales a estructuras más<br />

individualistas, modernas y desarraigantes, citando a Nisbet nos dice que “hoy somos<br />

urbanos, democráticos, industriales, burocráticos, racionalizados” “seres que viven en ‘ gran<br />

escala`, formales, seculares y tecnológicos”.<br />

En el paso de la sociedad tradicional a la moderna, estamos en presencia del pasaje de<br />

ciertas formas predominantes a otras, no es una relación tajante de opuestos.<br />

La existencia de estructura <strong>com</strong>unitaria y de ámbito de arraigo, está ligada a la necesidad<br />

humana de estructuras raigales para poder desarrollarse, desde el Neolítico hasta el<br />

habitante metropolitano. Si bien en las grandes metrópolis ya no predomina la <strong>com</strong>unidad<br />

global en cuanto fenómeno globalizante o totalizador, si continúa la vecindad en forma de<br />

barrio, existen variadas microculturas, grupos formales e informales de adscripción, perviven<br />

la amistad y la familia, fenómenos que nutren el campo de lo raigal y nutren lo humano.<br />

Considera distintos niveles de inclusividad en el arraigo:<br />

• Arraigo <strong>com</strong>o fruto de la <strong>com</strong>unidad de parentesco<br />

• Arraigo doméstico( una vez sedentarizado), hogar, familia.<br />

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• Arraigo local inmediato, vecindario, municipio, <strong>com</strong>unidad local propiamente dicha<br />

• Arraigo urbano, la ciudad <strong>com</strong>o ámbito de convivencia<br />

• Arraigo regional<br />

• Arraigo nacional<br />

• Arraigo a la cultura, en nuestro caso en la cultura de Occidente<br />

Los sistemas socioeconómicos pueden cambiar, pero el hombre siempre habita y lo hace<br />

desde su especificidad existencial. Al habitar el hombre abreva y se nutre en un espacio de<br />

sentido. Habitar supone habitar-se. Al morar necesitamos muros, acotamiento del entorno<br />

más íntimamente propio.<br />

Si hablamos del “arraigo <strong>com</strong>o modo de vida humano”, el habitar urbano es una<br />

especificación de dicho arraigo y la crisis de la ciudad tiene que ver con la pérdida de las<br />

raíces, ya que al perderlas el hombre se pierde a sí mismo y se transforma más fácilmente<br />

en sujeto-objeto manipulable heterónomamente. G. Simmel destaca la puerta <strong>com</strong>o frontera<br />

hacia fuera y hacia dentro, <strong>com</strong>o cierre de un espacio en torno de lo íntimo, y a la vez<br />

remite a “lo otro” a lo público. Pero tanto hacia adentro <strong>com</strong>o hacia fuera, refiere a la<br />

libertad, <strong>com</strong>o límite espacial y social creado por el hombre a quien define <strong>com</strong>o “animal<br />

fronterizo”.<br />

La casa entonces <strong>com</strong>o espacio vivenciado, <strong>com</strong>o un límite que ampara, pero proyecta más<br />

allá de él. Alfred Schutz distingue entre morada, lugar en que me encuentro, residencia,<br />

lugar donde puedo permanecer, y hogar que es a la vez punto de partida y punto terminal,<br />

origen del sistema de coordenadas que aplicamos al mundo para orientarnos en él.<br />

Podemos decir que la ciudad engloba distintas <strong>com</strong>unidades y teniendo en cuenta el eje del<br />

arraigo, está en un nivel inclusivo con respecto a las mismas. Georg Simmmel destaca de<br />

un modo nítido ciertas características: “El fundamento psicológico sobre el que se alza el<br />

tipo de individualidades urbanitas es el acrecentamiento de la vida nerviosa....... Las<br />

expresiones persistentes... consumen por así decirlo, menos conciencia que la rápida<br />

aglomeración de imágenes cambiantes, menos que el brusco distanciamiento en cuyo<br />

interior lo que se abarca con la mirada es la imprevisibilidad de impresiones que se<br />

imponen”.l<br />

Nos trasladamos entre extraños y en ciertos ámbitos delimitados nos sentimos nativos,<br />

Aceptamos el anonimato y la distracción cortés que predominan en el exterior, pretendemos<br />

un espacio propio en nuestros hogares. ¿Cómo se explican entonces los lazos de vecindad<br />

en este contexto? En los enormes bloques donde anidamos subsisten algunos<br />

318


<strong>com</strong>portamientos “antiguos”, arraigantes, junto con otros de desconocimiento y aislamiento<br />

similares a lo que nos ocurre en las calles.<br />

Es fácil deducir que estando tan arracimados y a la misma vez aislados, los ruidos,<br />

humedades, olores, se constituyen en la prueba de que hay intrusos en nuestra casa. En<br />

ese espacio delimitado que necesitamos para que la vida sea habitable, las puertas ya no<br />

son suficientes para demarcar fronteras. Hay demasiadas ventanas. Leyendo una novela*<br />

encuentro una descripción de una escena de la vida cotidiana que me parece ejemplar:<br />

Al protagonista Marcelo, que acaba de separarse le retumba una exclamación: “-¡Quién<br />

abandona la casa es!-“........... Tantas veces la ha escuchado, en un programa de televisión,<br />

no en la suya, sino en la siempre encendida del 7º piso.<br />

Cuantas veces pidió que bajaran el volumen, que estaba prendido <strong>com</strong>o en su propio<br />

cuarto, que no podía mantener la atención en su trabajo. Su vecina le contesta que quien la<br />

ve es su hija de catorce años y que tenga paciencia porque no va a durar toda la vida.<br />

-“¡Que no va a durar para siempre! Yo lo escucho en todos los horarios del día!”-<br />

El programa televisivo era un juego de nominaciones, votaciones y salvoconductos. Se<br />

trataba de un grupo de personas que aceptaban convivir en una casa con personas que no<br />

conocían, que también participaban del juego. La regla principal consistía en que se<br />

nominaran y se echaran unos a otros hasta que el último se convertía en ganador de una<br />

interesante suma. Lo que no estaba escrito era el verdadero juego: Quién se adaptaba<br />

mejor a la situación de permanecer encerrado con extraños, con cámaras en todos los<br />

rincones e imaginando que millones de personas estarían observándolo. Marcelo escucha (y<br />

esto retumba en su dolor de separación) mientras la chica de 14 convertida en fan, <strong>com</strong>parte<br />

la vida cotidiana de los integrantes de la casa televisada.<br />

Esta intrusión provoca la aparición de ese otro desconocido, <strong>com</strong>o efecto de un conflicto, y<br />

cobra desde allí una presencia antes inexistente. Ese es el estado de situación de muchos<br />

casos que llegan al centro de mediación. Podríamos hacer una divisoria de aguas, con otros<br />

donde habiendo un reconocimiento previo, este se ve quebrado, entorpecido y por lo tanto<br />

se trata de una necesidad de re-anudar de salir del malentendido, de recuperar la confianza.<br />

En la práctica observamos algunos resultados interesantes. No hay garantías de que los que<br />

supuestamente han roto sus conversaciones quieran reanudarlas, por otro lado<br />

encontramos el hecho de que la aparición de otro del conflicto <strong>com</strong>o única posibilidad de<br />

reconocimiento de su existencia, paradójicamente puede generar una demanda. Esa<br />

319


demanda a un tercero (Centro de mediación, mediador), puede propiciar la construcción de<br />

una trama de historias <strong>com</strong>partidas. Se trata de la apelación a un tercero, que rompa con el<br />

juego dual de espejos, se trata de poner límites a los espacios, hacer cesar la mutua<br />

intrusión.<br />

* Smud, Martín; Era ella, Editorial Letra viva, Bs. As. 2005<br />

Como mediadores sostenemos el principio de autonomía de las partes y no se trata sólo de<br />

no sentir coerción, sino de poder tomar decisiones de hacer un reconocimiento de los<br />

recursos con que se cuenta y fundamentalmente de reconocer la autonomía del otro. En ese<br />

camino algunos pueden llegar a un acuerdo que resuelva una situación puntual sin que se<br />

modifique sustancialmente la relación, se van distanciados. Otros, los que se acercan, han<br />

encontrado otras distancias, han acordado otros límites, que prometen intercambios<br />

discriminados, una vecindad menos intrusiva y más solidaria. Hay mediaciones que<br />

recortan estas diferentes modalidades, ilustraré brevemente dos de ellas:<br />

En el primer caso se presenta una señora mayor, un poco rígida, su queja con respecto al<br />

vecino del piso superior es que escucha incesantemente el correr del agua del depósito del<br />

baño y que cuando eso ocurre de noche, no puede dormir, suena <strong>com</strong>o una catarata. Es<br />

soltera, sin hijos, vivió hasta hace poco en la que fuera la casa paterna. El reclamado es un<br />

señor muy elegante, explica que para concurrir a la mediación ha tomado tiempo de su<br />

trabajo en una empresa muy importante, se lo ve muy fastidiado, manifiesta que en su<br />

departamento todo está en orden. Ella lo acusa de mentiroso, él, de que en una oportunidad<br />

era la única que le sentía olor a pescado al agua (o sea la trataba de delirante).<br />

Pienso que hay que operar en terreno, buscar un tercero que haga un diagnóstico, llamo al<br />

administrador, quien opina que el señor es intachable, vecino de muchos años y ella está<br />

hace poco y es algo rara. Les pregunto entonces si pueden ponerse de acuerdo para que<br />

un plomero aceptable para ambos revise el depósito, deciden tomar ese <strong>com</strong>promiso.<br />

En el siguiente encuentro él relata que el plomero no había encontrado nada roto, que él le<br />

había pedido que igual cambiara todo. Al terminar el trabajo el plomero, escucha ruido de<br />

agua y le pregunta: -“ Ud. ¿no lo escucha?-.” En ese instante lo miro y le hago la misma<br />

pregunta.<br />

“- Lo que pasa- responde -es que por un accidente de trabajo tengo un 40% menos de<br />

audición”. Se percibe que no está a gusto por haber quedado al descubierto con respecto a<br />

su sordera. Ya no puede negar que hay un ruido y al encontrarse con una inquilina muy<br />

joven que vive un piso más arriba le <strong>com</strong>enta lo sucedido, es así <strong>com</strong>o se devela el misterio.<br />

La muchacha aduce que no teniendo dinero para arreglar el depósito, cuando sale, cierra la<br />

llave de paso, y a veces se olvida.<br />

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Él me dice que está dispuesto a pagar de su bolsillo la reparación con tal de terminar con la<br />

situación, la señora insiste en que no ha sido escuchada por el administrador y acuerdan<br />

pedirle que supervise la ejecución del trabajo. A pesar del acuerdo se los ve en una posición<br />

similar a aquella con la cual llegaron, él fastidiado y ella rígida, en sus relatos describen<br />

mutuas ofensas, ella porque él le habló en forma muy amenazante cuando se encontraron<br />

en la P. B. del edificio en el que viven, él porque ella se negó a subir a su departamento el<br />

día que vino el plomero, aduciendo que “-cuando se esta <strong>com</strong>iendo una no se levanta de la<br />

mesa.-“<br />

Se despidieron sin ningún signo amistoso y el se fue muy apurado a su trabajo. Ella quedó<br />

rezagada y muy tímidamente me mostró un recorte de diario amarillento, donde se ve un<br />

conferenciante y en primera fila escuchando me señala dos figuras femeninas, ella y su<br />

madre. El médico famoso, en la tarima, es su padre. Cuanto desamparo en su rigidez,<br />

cuanta sordera oculta lo limita a él. Hemos conseguido el cese de una atribución al otro, en<br />

cuanto a una cuestión particular, estas dos historias no podían cruzarse de otra manera.<br />

La segunda mediación se realiza entre una señora joven, Alicia, a<strong>com</strong>pañada por el<br />

propietario del departamento que alquila y un muchacho con look adolescente que vive en el<br />

piso superior ( Nicolás).<br />

El reclamo tiene dos aspectos: 1) Poder entrar al departamento de arriba para realizar<br />

arreglos en relación a un deterioro importante ocasionado por filtraciones. 2) El cese de<br />

actividades y ruidos nocturnos que no dejan dormir a Alicia. Nicolás viene muy tarde, previo<br />

llamado avisando “que esta llegando”. Ella está cursando una reciente separación, tiene dos<br />

niños pequeños, y ya no está su marido para subir a gritarle a Nicolás. El propietario del<br />

departamento busca solución para efectuar las reparaciones.<br />

Nicolás <strong>com</strong>enta que su padre le ha aconsejado que hable “con esa mujer”. Alicia hace un<br />

relato dramático de sus noches de insomnio, de <strong>com</strong>o la despiertan los ruidos, de cómo<br />

toma pastillas para dormir. Nicolás que se ha presentado a sí mismo <strong>com</strong>o hijo único, muy<br />

mañero y criado en el campo, de pronto dice: -“ No sabía que te hacía sufrir”-<br />

A partir de allí, reconoce, que cuando han ido a su departamento por los arreglos, él no<br />

escuchaba el timbre, tiene horarios nocturnos- es cantante lírico- y un sueño muy pesado,<br />

también reconoce que no se ubica muy bien en una vivienda urbana por sus raíces rurales y<br />

que si nunca se ocupó del cantero del balcón ( que es el que provoca las filtraciones), fue<br />

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porque así estaba cuando él se mudó, que allí residía su mamá hasta que murió. El<br />

propietario se muestra asombrado de lo que está ocurriendo y me dice- “Ud. Con esto va a<br />

escribir un libro”-<br />

Acuerdan revisar la situación para operativizar los arreglos y los horarios en los que Nicolás<br />

será cuidadoso con los ruidos y volver a la semana siguiente, para ver <strong>com</strong>o funcionaron<br />

los <strong>com</strong>promisos y cerrar un acuerdo definitivo. En la siguiente reunión Alicia llega primera,<br />

ante la demora de Nicolás nos dice que seguro vendrá y nos cuenta con una semisonrisa<br />

divertida, que había pasado a pedirle que lo llamara para despertarlo por si se quedaba<br />

dormido, Se la ve más tranquila.<br />

Nicolás manifiesta en cuanto a los acuerdos que van cerrando, que no le gusta que estén<br />

escritos en un estilo jurídico, que es importante la palabra que uno da, también que lo que le<br />

gustaría dejar por escrito es que estos espacios( refiriéndose a la mediación) son muy<br />

importantes. En este proceso Alicia ha dejado de ser para Nicolás “esa mujer”, hay un<br />

reconocimiento de los propios actos. Para Alicia, Nicolás un insoportable inmanejable, se<br />

transforma en un muchacho capaz de manifestar un afecto y de dar su palabra.<br />

La broma del propietario allí presente es elocuente, le dice a Alicia –“Me parece que lo<br />

adoptaste”-<br />

Historias que se cruzaron de un modo tal que las necesidades de a<strong>com</strong>pañamiento y afecto<br />

se pusieron en juego, cada uno es para el otro alguien a quien se le puede pedir una taza de<br />

azúcar. Jean François Six considera que a la mediación se la invoca <strong>com</strong>o figura social<br />

innovadora por necesidad, da dos razones para esa necesidad, la inmediatez e<br />

incertidumbre de nuestra era. Hay que resolver urgencias, el proyecto entonces aparece<br />

desvalorizado, <strong>com</strong>o una visión abstracta. Cada uno sabe que tendrá que contar consigo<br />

mismo para construir con otros que sufran los mismos males una nueva red de solidaridad.<br />

Propone a la mediación <strong>com</strong>o una nueva forma, ya no se trata de una protección<br />

institucional que establece un terreno de coexistencia, en el que cada uno se mantiene en<br />

sus posiciones, sino de paridad, en la que admitirse cercanos y diferentes, semejantes y<br />

distintos, y es allí donde aparece el valor de la terceridad <strong>com</strong>o fuente de reconocimiento, si<br />

dos pueden reconocerse el uno al otro es porque un tercero los reconoce.<br />

Frente al mundo de la <strong>com</strong>unicación unidireccional que funciona <strong>com</strong>o “sopa instantánea”<br />

propone el trabajo de la mediación <strong>com</strong>o la posibilidad de la distinción de aquello que es<br />

único, <strong>com</strong>o una invitación al contacto, al lazo, al rescate del sentido del misterio y del<br />

secreto; y apuesta a la salida a espacios tridimensionales.<br />

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Cornelius Castoriadis nos insta en el “Avance de la insignificancia” a estar advertidos de las<br />

inmensas dificultades que el mundo contemporáneo ofrece para la apertura de un nuevo<br />

proyecto de autonomía. Al finalizar la entrevista Olivier Morel le pregunta “¿Cómo y quién<br />

instrumentará lo que usted llama ‘concebir otra cosa, crear otra cosa’?”<br />

A lo que responde “ Lo que es seguro es que los que tienen conciencia de la gravedad de la<br />

situación deben hacer todo lo que esté al alcance de su mano ‘ya sea con la palabra, con lo<br />

escrito o simplemente con la actitud en el lugar que ocupan’, para que la gente despierte de<br />

su letargo contemporáneo y empiece a actuar en el sentido de la libertad ”.<br />

Dedico entonces este trabajo a los vecinos de Buenos Aires- con los que he aprendido<br />

durante estos años- que apostaron a construir lugares donde habitar es habitar-se y habitar<br />

con el otro.<br />

BIBLIOGRAFÍA<br />

Castoriadis, Cornelius: El avance de la insignificancia, EUDEBA, Bs. As., 1997 Cap. VI<br />

Del Acebo Ibáñez, Enrique: Sociología del arraigo, una lectura crítica de la teoría de la<br />

ciudad, Editorial Claridad, Bs. As., 1996, Capítulo X.<br />

Montero, Maritza: Introducción a la Psicología <strong>com</strong>unitaria. Desarrollo, conceptos y<br />

procesos, Paidos, Bs. As. 2004 Capítulo VII.<br />

Six, Jean Francois: Dinámica de la mediación, Paidos, Barcelona 1997<br />

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El apoyo a la creación de servicios de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria<br />

municipal. La experiencia de la Diputación de Barcelona<br />

_______________________________________________________________<br />

Carme Padilla<br />

Centro para la Participación Ciudadana, Diputación de Barcelona<br />

Introducción<br />

Desde el año 2002, el Centro para la Participación Ciudadana y el Centro para la Innovación<br />

Local, de la Diputación de Barcelona, con la colaboración de los coordinadores del Master<br />

de Resolución de Conflictos de la Universidad de Barcelona, hemos trabajado en el ámbito<br />

de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, que no sólo consideramos un derecho de ciudadanía, el<br />

derecho de las personas a participar en la resolución de sus conflictos, sino que además es<br />

uno de los mecanismos de garantía establecidos en la Carta Europea de Salvaguarda de los<br />

Derechos Humanos en la Ciudad, cuya difusión y aplicación fomentamos mediante la Red<br />

de Pueblos y Ciudades por los Derechos Humanos, creada por la Diputación en marzo de<br />

2003.<br />

Esta red, cuya secretaría técnica es responsabilidad del Centro para la Participación<br />

Ciudadana, tiene por objetivos fundamentales fomentar la adhesión de los municipios de la<br />

provincia de Barcelona a la Carta, ampliar la cultura de los derechos humanos <strong>com</strong>o forma<br />

de convivencia y organización política, incorporar el discurso y la lógica de los derechos<br />

humanos en los programas de actuación municipal, asesorar y dotar de instrumentos a los<br />

municipios para la aplicación de los principios de la Carta, así <strong>com</strong>o ser un marco de debate<br />

e intercambio de experiencias.<br />

El trabajo realizado en el ámbito de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria que aquí exponemos es un<br />

ejemplo de las actuaciones dirigidas a favorecer y facilitar la aplicación efectiva de los<br />

derechos recogidos en la Carta Europea de Salvaguarda de los Derechos Humanos en la<br />

Ciudad por parte de la Administración local<br />

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• Resumen de actuaciones<br />

1. Grupos de trabajo<br />

Se constituyeron dos grupos de trabajo , en 2002 y 2004, formados por cargos electos de<br />

diferentes municipios de Barcelona, bajo la dirección académica de los coordinadores del<br />

Master de Resolución de Conflictos de la Universidad de Barcelona.<br />

• Los objetivos principales eran dos:<br />

‣ Construir una propuesta de intervención para abordar los conflictos desde la<br />

perspectiva de la mediación, a partir de la experiencia de los participantes y de la<br />

realidad de los municipios barceloneses.<br />

‣ Construcción de un programa para elaborar propuestas de actuación para la<br />

implantación de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, dirigidas a los ayuntamientos de los<br />

municipios de la provincia de Barcelona.<br />

• Participantes<br />

Han participado activamente representantes electos de 22 municipios de Barcelona, que<br />

ya estaban desarrollando alguna experiencia en su municipio, que tenían previsto<br />

hacerlo a corto plazo, o bien querían profundizar en la materia para programar<br />

actuaciones en el futuro.<br />

• Metodología de les sesiones<br />

Básicamente participativa. Tras una formación inicial que posibilitó unos conocimientos<br />

generales sobre mediación, el primer grupo se centró en la definición de los criterios y<br />

características que debían orientar las actuaciones de la administración local en materia<br />

de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria.<br />

El segundo grupo partió del trabajo y las conclusiones a las que llegó el anterior. Así al<br />

objetivo genérico de construir una propuesta de intervención, se sumó el de facilitar<br />

asesoramiento y asistencia técnica a los ayuntamiento participantes en el diseño, puesta<br />

en marcha y evaluación de proyectos de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria.<br />

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2. Asesoramiento y asistencia técnica<br />

Como ya se ha <strong>com</strong>entado, en la segunda edición del grupo de trabajo se amplió el proyecto<br />

con la realización de asesoramientos técnicos a aquellos ayuntamientos, participantes en el<br />

grupo, interesados en desarrollar un proyecto de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria. Se realizaron cinco<br />

asesoramientos, sufragados por la Diputación de Barcelona.<br />

La metodología de trabajo utilizada, en consonancia con las conclusiones a las que se había<br />

llegado, pretendió implicar a les áreas de gobierno municipal implicadas, tanto en la<br />

prestación del servicio <strong>com</strong>o en la provisión de los medios necesarios para su puesta en<br />

marcha.<br />

3. Difusión<br />

Si tenemos en cuenta que el objetivo de esta actuación era la construcción de propuestas<br />

que sirvieran de referente, de herramienta para aquellos ayuntamientos interesados en<br />

introducir la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria en sus municipios, es evidente que recoger y difundir los<br />

resultados de los grupos de trabajo era el otro elemento básico del proyecto. Para ello, la<br />

Diputación de Barcelona editó dos publicaciones que dio a conocer en otras tantas jornadas,<br />

una por cada grupo de trabajo, en febrero de 2004 y 2005 respectivamente.<br />

‣ La mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria: cómo implantarla en los ayuntamientos, con las<br />

principales aportaciones del primer grupo de trabajo.<br />

‣ Los servicios de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, propuestas de actuación. Consta de dos<br />

partes:<br />

.- Elementos conceptuales elaborados por el primer grupo de trabajo y recogidos en el<br />

documento anterior<br />

.- Propuestas de actuación para la implantación de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria en los<br />

municipios.<br />

Esta publicación se ha traducido al inglés y francés con motivo del actual congreso con<br />

la intención de repartirla entre los participantes. También está disponible, en castellano<br />

y catalán, en nuestra página web: http://www.diba.es/dretshumans/<br />

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• Resultados y conclusiones de los grupos de trabajo<br />

Presentamos a continuación un resumen de aquellos aspectos que consideramos más<br />

interesantes para ser <strong>com</strong>entados en el marco en el que nos encontramos. El trabajo<br />

<strong>com</strong>pleto, tal y <strong>com</strong>o se ha dicho, se encuentra recogido en la publicación: Los servicios de<br />

mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, propuestas de actuación<br />

1. Elementos conceptuales<br />

• ¿Qué puede aportar la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria a la ciudadanía?<br />

‣ Un sistema de gestión de los conflictos que facilita la negociación de las<br />

contradicciones. La mediación ayuda a no dicotomizar el conflicto y a asumir que las<br />

dos partes pueden tener visiones diferentes, pero no por ello el conflicto es irresoluble.<br />

‣ Visión positiva del conflicto. El conflicto no es un peligro, sino que tiene una función<br />

social positiva que permite el desarrollo de intercambios, la posibilidad de que la<br />

diversidad se exprese<br />

‣ Ayuda a crear una cultura de participación, de corresponsabilización, respeto y<br />

tolerancia. Se inscribe en una relación horizontal, de relación entre ciudadanía, donde<br />

la solución se construye de forma autónoma y participativa<br />

• ¿Qué debe garantizar la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria?<br />

‣ Facilitar el reconocimiento mutuo de las partes en conflicto y la legitimidad de todos<br />

los intereses y de todas las aportaciones<br />

‣ Garantizar y respetar la voluntariedad de las partes, tanto en la aceptación <strong>com</strong>o en<br />

la continuidad del proceso<br />

‣ Velar por la horizontalidad del proceso, que se basa en la absoluta igualdad de todas<br />

personas que participan en la mediación, incluyendo los mediadores.<br />

‣ Utilizar los recursos de forma sostenible. Los acuerdos se basan en las posibilidades<br />

reales de las personas de llevarlos a cabo.<br />

‣ Asegurar la legitimidad y la <strong>com</strong>petencia de los mediadores<br />

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2. Propuestas de actuación para la implantación de la mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria en los<br />

municipios<br />

El punto de partida de las siguientes propuestas es la aceptación de que existe la necesidad<br />

social de nuevas formas de resolver los conflictos y, mediante un servicio de mediación<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitaria, el ayuntamiento ofrece un proceso de resolución que favorece el entendimiento<br />

y la garantía de un marco institucional.<br />

• Elementos que integran el modelo del servicio de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria a nivel<br />

municipal<br />

‣ Debe ser de titularidad pública y acceso universal, con gestión municipal,<br />

man<strong>com</strong>unada o supramunicipal, según el territorio sobre el que actúa el servicio.<br />

‣ La provisión del servicio debe ser pública y recogida en los presupuestos ordinarios<br />

anuales municipales, independientemente de la gratuidad, o no del servicio.<br />

‣ El sistema de prestación se debe decidir en función de los objetivos fijados por el<br />

ayuntamiento. Puede ser interna, externa o mixta.<br />

‣ La admisión de conflictos en mediación depende del marco jurídico y de la voluntad<br />

política del equipo de gobierno, y siempre deben de contar con la autonomía y<br />

responsabilidad de sus participantes. Cuando el ayuntamiento es parte del conflicto,<br />

el servicio de mediación municipal no puede actuar.<br />

‣ La dependencia orgánica del servicio puede marcar su carácter y objetivos<br />

principales<br />

• Organización<br />

‣ El equipo debe estar formado por más de un mediador profesional, con la formación,<br />

conocimientos y <strong>com</strong>petencias necesarios para desarrollar su función.<br />

‣ La supervisión técnica del equipo de mediación será ajena a la estructura municipal o<br />

entidad prestadora del servicio.<br />

‣ Un servicio municipal de mediación necesita de la interrelación y coordinación con<br />

los diversos servicios implicados, sean municipales o no, favoreciendo un trabajo en<br />

red que garantice la confidencialidad entre los servicios.<br />

‣ La ubicación del servicio puede ser fija o itinerante – es el equipo quien se desplaza -<br />

, pero siempre debe ser singular, específica y accesible.<br />

‣ Se debe hacer difusión del servicio, informando sobre las nociones básicas para<br />

hacerlo accesible a todas las personas.<br />

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• Acciones para la puesta en marcha<br />

‣ Periodificación de las acciones indicadas a continuación.<br />

‣ Dotación de los recursos humanos y materiales necesarios: equipo de mediadores,<br />

soporte administrativo, espacio físico, material ofimático, etc.<br />

‣ Provisión presupuestaria del servicio.<br />

‣ Elaboración de los indicadores que se necesitarán para evaluar si se han conseguido<br />

los objetivos fijados.<br />

‣ Formación del personal municipal implicado en la red del servicio. Se considera<br />

re<strong>com</strong>endable extenderla a los políticos.<br />

‣ Información y formación a la ciudadanía: difusión del servicio entre la ciudadanía y<br />

formación sobre esta nueva forma de solucionar los conflictos. Es importante realizar<br />

una tarea pedagógica que facilite la responsabilización ciudadana.<br />

‣ Evaluación del cumplimiento de los objetivos, elemento clave para decidir si se<br />

continua con el servicio o qué cambios deben introducirse en el modelo inicial para<br />

ajustarlo a las necesidades reales de la población. En este momento, la evaluación<br />

sólo podrá ser cuantitativa (número de casos entrados y mediados, resultados,<br />

actividades de difusión, etc.) ya que hacerla cualitativa y <strong>com</strong>parativa exige un cierto<br />

desarrollo de la mediación actualmente inexistente en nuestro territorio.<br />

Todas estas acciones deberán ajustarse al tipo de proyecto: prueba piloto, creación de<br />

un nuevo servicio o ampliación de uno ya existente. El iniciar un proyecto <strong>com</strong>o prueba<br />

piloto permite su flexibilidad y adaptabilidad en función de los resultados y valoraciones<br />

obtenidas al final de la misma.<br />

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Different Applications of Family Mediation including Mediations<br />

with family members who have never lived together<br />

______________________________________________________________<br />

Lisa Parkinson U.K.<br />

Family mediation<br />

Traditionally, mediation on family matters developed in the context of separation and divorce,<br />

primarily to help separating or divorcing couples to reach agreements on residence and<br />

contact arrangements for their children and to settle related issues of finance and property in<br />

divorce<br />

Divorce mediation is the term <strong>com</strong>monly used in the United States. However, divorce<br />

mediation is not relevant to the increasingly large numbers of couples who live together<br />

without marrying. Divorce mediation may also suggest a bias towards achieving divorce<br />

settlements and thus assisting the partner who is seeking divorce. This could alienate the<br />

other partner who may not have accepted the need for divorce. The traditional process of<br />

divorce mediation developed by John Haynes and other well-known American mediators<br />

consists of a process of settlement-oriented fact-gathering, option development and<br />

negotiation. It is a process for adults. Other family members, notably children, whose lives<br />

are directly affected by the out<strong>com</strong>e of the negotiations, are generally excluded from<br />

settlement-directed divorce mediation. Family members who may be involved in looking after<br />

the children - step-parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles - may also be excluded.<br />

Grandparents may need mediation to maintain their relationship and contact with their<br />

grandchildren, following the death or divorce of a son or daughter. Other couples whose<br />

needs are not met by divorce mediation are couples who decide for religious reasons to<br />

separate, without divorcing, and significantly, homosexual couples who may now enter into<br />

legally recognised unions under legislation introduced in certain countries and States.<br />

A further limitation of the term divorce mediation is that family members may need mediation<br />

to resolve other kinds of family dispute, apart from separation and divorce – for example,<br />

disputes between parents and adolescents, between siblings over the care of an elderly<br />

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parent or relative, inheritance disputes, disputes over post-adoption contact or between<br />

adoptive children and parents, disputes over a child conceived through IVF treatment and<br />

many other situations involving family members.<br />

The term family mediation has been used in the UK for over 25 years : it is the term used in<br />

English family law and the same term is used in many other European countries. The Council<br />

of Europe’s Re<strong>com</strong>mendation on family mediation (Re<strong>com</strong>mendation No. R (98) 1, 21<br />

January 1998, par. 7) recognised that family disputes have special characteristics that need<br />

to be taken into account in mediation.<br />

1. There are usually continuing and interdependent relationships. The dispute settlement<br />

process should facilitate constructive relationships for the future in addition to enabling the<br />

resolution of current disputes.<br />

2. Family disputes usually involve emotional and personal relationships in which feelings can<br />

exacerbate the difficulties, or disguise the true nature of the conflicts and disagreements.<br />

It is usually considered appropriate for these feelings to be acknowledged and understood<br />

by parties and by the mediator.<br />

3. Disputes which arise in the process of separation and divorce have an impact on other<br />

family members, notably children who may not be included directly in the mediation<br />

process, but whose interests may be considered paramount and therefore relevant to the<br />

process.<br />

The Council of Europe’s Re<strong>com</strong>mendation on Family Mediation also recognised the<br />

increasing number of disputes involving children in which there is an international element.<br />

International mediation is re<strong>com</strong>mended as an appropriate process to help parents resolve<br />

disputes and reach agreements concerning their children’s residence and relationships with<br />

both parents and other family members. These arrangements are more difficult to work out<br />

because of the trans-frontier nature and distances involved and where there is more than<br />

one judicial or <strong>com</strong>petent authority (Hutchinson, 2005) International mediators need to work<br />

flexibly, using a variety of models, for example shuttle mediation and teleconferencing. They<br />

need knowledge of different languages or <strong>com</strong>petency and training in the appropriate use of<br />

interpreters. Mediation in international cases not only helps families who risk being divided. It<br />

also encourages co-operation between mediators in different States and between States<br />

themselves.<br />

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Many family mediators are now expanding the range of their family mediation practice to help<br />

resolve conflicts at other stages of family life and in relationships outside the sphere of the<br />

nuclear family. We need to broaden our practice to recognise the social reality that nuclear<br />

families are now a minority. Nearly half the children in Britain are brought up in “nontraditional<br />

households”. British researchers have asked children about their ideas of what a<br />

family means and who belongs to their family. A research study with children aged between<br />

eight and fourteen found that children of different ages defined “family” in different ways.<br />

Nuclear family and genetic relationships were not crucial to their definitions. From the<br />

children’s perspectives, the key defining characteristics of “family” were love, care, mutual<br />

support and respect (Morrow, 1998). Children shared this concept of “family”, irrespective of<br />

differences in their gender, ethnic background and where they lived. Some children included<br />

in their list of family members an adult such as a next-door neighbour to whom they felt<br />

attached emotionally but who was not a blood relative. They also included the family’s pets.<br />

Older children were less likely to define family in terms of formal contractual relationships<br />

and more likely to see the nature or quality of relationships as the defining feature. “A family<br />

is a group of people which all care about each other. They can all cry together, laugh<br />

together, argue together, and go through all the emotions together. Some live together as<br />

well. Families are for helping each other through life” (Tara, aged 13). “My next door<br />

neighbour is important to me because if I can’t tell my mum something I can always tell her.<br />

She is like my second mum” (Janine, 13). “My grandma and granddad are important to me<br />

because they are very good at listening, which I like” (Dougie, 12). “My godparents are<br />

important too as they are the ones who have to take responsibility for me if my parents die …<br />

My nephew is very important to me as well as now I am an auntie and I help to look after<br />

him” (Sophie, 13).<br />

Families are for helping each other through life – whether they live together or not.<br />

In this paper I shall refer to my experience of mediating in three different situations involving<br />

family members who had never lived together and, in the first case, had not even got to know<br />

each other.<br />

The first of these involved two middle-aged women who had each been appointed legal<br />

representative for an elderly parent – one was responsible for her father’s affairs and the<br />

other for her mother’s affairs. Neither of these middle-aged women was the daughter of both<br />

parents – they were children from previous marriages of each parent. Their parents were an<br />

elderly couple who had remarried late in life. The marriage had only lasted a few years. Both<br />

in their 80s, the old couple had be<strong>com</strong>e frail and unwell. Their relationship broke down<br />

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<strong>com</strong>pletely. They were now living separately in different care homes for the elderly, without<br />

any contact with each other. One or both of them were suffering from senile dementia. In this<br />

sad situation, disagreements arose in the extended family as to what should happen to the<br />

old couple’s former home and its contents. To cut this story short, it was possible to offer<br />

mediation to the two middle-aged women who were legally empowered under a power of<br />

attorney to take charge of their respective parent’s affairs. Each of them accepted shuttle<br />

mediation to negotiate the sale of their parents’ home to help fund their parents’ residential<br />

care in nursing homes. The mediation also included negotiations and agreements about the<br />

ownership, collection and disposal of furniture and personal possessions in the home. The<br />

two women were unwilling to meet each other face-to-face, as bitter feelings had been stirred<br />

up in the disputes before the mediation began. They found shuttle mediation more<br />

acceptable. Their aim was to reach legally enforceable agreements and they saw no need for<br />

further contact with each other, once their agreements had been formalised.<br />

The second mediation involved a young couple called Marie and Mark (not their real names)<br />

who had never lived together and who had one child of their relationship, a boy aged six<br />

called Paul. Marie and Paul and Marie’s older son, Bruno, aged seven, lived with Marie’s<br />

parents – their grandparents. At the outset of the mediation both boys thought that Mark was<br />

their father. Although Mark, had never lived with them, both boys were very attached to him<br />

and both of them called him “Dad”. They used to see him regularly and he would take them<br />

to his home, where he lived with his parents. Bruno was particularly attached to Mark’s<br />

grandmother. The bys’ mother, Marie, was adamantly opposed to telling Bruno that Mark<br />

was not his father, because she thought he would be very badly upset and damaged by this<br />

discovery. Mark accepted parental and financial responsibility for supporting his own son,<br />

Paul, but he did not accept that he should give Bruno the same level of support, because he<br />

was not his son – in his view, Bruno’s father, whose identity he knew, should accept this<br />

responsibility. Mark was willing to continue to take both boys out together and give them<br />

treats, on condition that Marie would tell Bruno about his real father. Marie refused to do so,<br />

saying she would tell Bruno when he was older and only when she felt he was ready to cope<br />

with it. There was extremely high conflict between Mark and Marie on this issue and between<br />

the extended families on both sides. A further <strong>com</strong>plication was that Mark himself had<br />

believed his own stepfather to be his father and he had only found out when he was ten that<br />

he had a natural father he did not know. Mark had found this discovery deeply distressing<br />

and said it had affected him very badly. He wanted Bruno to learn about his father at an<br />

earlier age and in a much more supportive way. It would take too long to describe the<br />

process of this highly emotional mediation. It involved a <strong>com</strong>bination of shuttle mediation and<br />

face-to-face mediation, with interim agreements and positive progress frequently disrupted<br />

333


y further raging disputes breaking out between the couple – outside the door of one or other<br />

family home or in abusive text messages on their mobile phones. Eventually, Marie reached<br />

her own decision – encouraged, I believe, by her own parents – to sit down with Bruno and<br />

tell him about his father. Having braced herself for a major reaction from Bruno, she was<br />

surprised and reassured to find that he took the news very calmly and appeared relieved –<br />

“almost as though he knew already”. Mark’s view of the matter was that Bruno had actually<br />

known about his father for a long time, having overheard many arguments on this subject,<br />

and that he was simply waiting for his mother to bring this family secret into the open.<br />

Marie and Mark had never lived together and they had never brought up the boys together.<br />

The mediation process with them and the techniques that helped them move forwards<br />

differed from the more <strong>com</strong>mon process of face-to-face meetings with parents who have<br />

lived and brought up their children together.<br />

The third mediation involved a lesbian couple with a property dispute that was heavily<br />

charged with emotional issues. These two women in their late 30s had lived together for<br />

some years in a close relationship. One of them had then formed a new partnership with<br />

another woman, to the immense anger and distress of the rejected partner. Financial and<br />

property issues were entangled with <strong>com</strong>plex and ambivalent emotions that made<br />

negotiations very difficult. However, initial separate meetings with each partner enabled them<br />

to reach a full agreement on property and financial issues. Their emotional issues were not<br />

addressed in any depth or resolved in mediation. The more distressed partner was already in<br />

counselling when she came to mediation.<br />

Ecosystemic family mediation<br />

Family mediators need to develop theoretical models and a flexible range of techniques to<br />

help family members in very diverse situations who may be only loosely connected with each<br />

other, but who have issues they need to resolve.<br />

Ecosystemic family mediation (Bérubé 2002, Parkinson 2002) offers a theoretical framework<br />

based on systems theory. Systems theory offers helpful ways of understanding family<br />

structures, relationships, patterns of <strong>com</strong>munication and behaviour. Fragmented or<br />

dysfunctional <strong>com</strong>munications between family members may be<strong>com</strong>e coherent and can be<br />

seen to have a positive function if these <strong>com</strong>munications are understood in the context in<br />

which they occur. Looking at interactions and patterns of <strong>com</strong>munication helps mediators<br />

334


move away from linear cause-and-effect explanations that encourage blaming and tunnel<br />

vision. When couples <strong>com</strong>ing to mediation are seen as interconnected and interacting, rather<br />

than as detached individuals moving in different directions, the difficulties they bring to<br />

mediation are easier to understand. A systems framework also helps mediators to take<br />

account of the extended family and external factors that may be very relevant in a particular<br />

situation. If negotiations take place in mediation without reference to these factors and the<br />

wider family system, existing power imbalances may be accentuated.<br />

One of the family mediator’s first tasks in engaging with family members in all the different<br />

cultural contexts and <strong>com</strong>plexities of modern family life is to “map” the immediate family, as<br />

seen by each parent/party. This may be done verbally with the both, but it is greatly<br />

facilitated by drawing an “ecogram” - a modified version of a geneogram. The geneogram is<br />

a classic tool in family therapy which may be used in different ways in family mediation and<br />

for different purposes. Geneograms, as the term implies, are family trees that show family<br />

structures and relationships on generational lines. The term “ecogram” is used by some<br />

family mediators instead of “geneogram”. Separated families tend to grow outwards on a<br />

horizontal axis, not just downwards. To understand the ecology of the evolving family<br />

structure and system, mediators draw an ecogram to depict the family’s landscape, (using<br />

<strong>com</strong>puter terminology to mean a wider picture) rather than the family in portrait format (i.e. a<br />

narrower, linear format).<br />

Another helpful feature of the ecogram is to show two horizontal lines connecting the<br />

parents, instead of the usual single line. The top line represents the marital or cohabiting<br />

relationship which may be ended through separation or divorce. The lower line represents<br />

the co-parenting relationship that usually needs to continue, for the benefit of the children<br />

and the parents themselves. It is extraordinarily difficult for most parents to deal with the<br />

ending of their marital relationship while continuing to co-parent. The threads often be<strong>com</strong>e<br />

entangled. Separating them out visually may help parents to feel more aware and better<br />

understood. This awareness may also help them to take the first steps towards disentangling<br />

these threads themselves.<br />

Some family mediators draw an ecogram on the flip-chart at the start of the mediation, as a<br />

means of gathering information from both parents as the picture of their family emerges. This<br />

needs to be done with great care and skill and only when appropriate. There could be risks of<br />

one or both parties feeling that the mediator is imposing an agenda on them, instead of<br />

seeking to understand their priorities first of all. Mediators may find it very useful to keep an<br />

ecogram in their case notes as an easily grasped record and as a way of thinking about<br />

335


family structure and functioning, possibly for discussion with a consultant or supervisor.<br />

Ecograms are particularly helpful when the family system includes children from one or both<br />

parents’ previous relationships. They include step-parents, step-children, grandparents and<br />

step-grandparents and any other adult or child whom either parent/party considers an<br />

important member of their family, whether defined genetically, contractually and/or in terms<br />

of emotional ties.<br />

As an example, the ecogram below shows an imaginary mediation with a recently separated<br />

couple called Carol and Hugh who have <strong>com</strong>e to mediation concerning their arrangements<br />

for their children, Ian aged 12 and Jess aged 10. Hugh left Carol 4 months ago to live with<br />

his new partner, Pam, and her daughter, Meg, aged 5. Pam is divorced from her ex-husband.<br />

He lives with a new partner who has children of her own as well – but this part of the<br />

extended family is not shown as I would need a larger sheet of paper !<br />

There is dispute between Carol and Hugh because Ian says that he does not want to see his<br />

father at present. There are also questions about parental responsibilities, parent-child<br />

relationships and <strong>com</strong>munications between “old” and “new” family systems. The ecogram<br />

makes it easier to get a picture of the family situation. It is also useful in considering possible<br />

reasons for Ian’s reluctance to visit his father and Pam, apart from the mutually blaming<br />

reasons put forward by each of his parents.<br />

The ecogram shows by dotted lines (i.e. permeable boundaries) who lives in each household<br />

and who is in contact with whom. It provides a visual picture and a useful aide-mémoire for<br />

mediators to bring the family alive and to record further information in an easily read way. It<br />

may be used directly in mediation with some parents as a<br />

336


Paul<br />

Ros<br />

Ted<br />

Sue<br />

Jill<br />

Separated 4 mths<br />

living with<br />

Carol Hugh Pam<br />

PARENTING<br />

Ian<br />

12<br />

Jess<br />

10<br />

Meg<br />

5<br />

focus for discussions about their children’s relationships, <strong>com</strong>munications and contacts with<br />

parents and other family members.<br />

Many more families would seek mediation if they understood its potential as a non-directive,<br />

non-stigmatising and low-cost means of exploring options and working out their own<br />

solutions to the wide range of difficulties that occur at different stages of family life.<br />

337


References<br />

Bérubé, Linda Workshop given at the International Family Mediation Trainers Conference<br />

Edinburgh, April 2002<br />

Hutchinson Anne-Marie, paper given at the Conference on Family Mediation, European<br />

Academy of Law, Trier, Germany, March 2005<br />

Parkinson, Lisa<br />

Separation, Divorce and Families BASW/Macmillan London, 1987<br />

Separazione, divorzio e mediazione familiare Edizioni Erickson, 1995<br />

Family Mediation Sweet and Maxwell, London 1997<br />

A family systems approach to mediation with families in transition, Context, the magazine for<br />

family therapy and systemic practice, October 2002<br />

La médiation familiale en Europe – divisés ou unis ? Séminaire pour les étudiants en Master<br />

Européen, Institut Universitaire Kurt Boesch, Sion, Suisse, mars 2003<br />

La mediazione familiare –Modelli e strategie operative –Edizione italiana a cura di C.<br />

Marzotto Edizioni Erickson, 2003<br />

L’esperienza inglese dei servizi di mediazione familiare in Rigenerare i Legami : la<br />

mediazione nelle relazioni familiari e <strong>com</strong>unitarie Studi Interdisciplinari sulla Famiglia, Milano<br />

2003<br />

Family Mediation in Practice in Family Mediation – Past, Present and Future, Family Law<br />

Bristol 2004<br />

Mediación Familiar. Teoría y Práctica: Principios y Estrategias Operativas<br />

Translated by Ana Sanchez Duran Gedisa Editorial, Barcelona, 2005<br />

338


Política familiar no es lo mismo que Medicación familiar : el peso<br />

del familiarismo<br />

________________________________________________________________<br />

Beatriz Pérez González<br />

Universidad de Cádiz (Spagna)<br />

Resumen<br />

En España, la visión sobre la familia de cada partido político, ha configurado a saltos su<br />

regulación. Se han tratado algunas medidas económicas, por otro lado muy efectistas, pero<br />

no se ha entrado de lleno en el aspecto económico de sostenimiento real. No hay que<br />

olvidar que las redes económicas actúan conjuntamente con las redes sociales. No se han<br />

regulado tampoco aspectos sociales o conflictuales que confluyen en el seno de las familias,<br />

quizá por el temor a ser excesivamente intervencionistas, o a la crítica de familiarismo. Sin<br />

embargo de forma indirecta se ha promovido la participación, a través de redes sociales y de<br />

asociaciones. El peso de la historia española, ha evitado tratar ciertas políticas, impidiendo<br />

así su regulación. Aspectos que influyen en el mantenimiento de las familias, <strong>com</strong>o redes de<br />

relaciones, resolución de conflictos y medidas económicas integradas, no han entrado aún<br />

en la agenda política.<br />

Palabras Claves<br />

Grupos familiares, políticas familiares, grupos económicos, redes económicas y sociales,<br />

asociaciones y familia, políticas sociales familiares, mediación familiar.<br />

Abstract<br />

Political concepts of every political party regarding family, have configured Spanish<br />

regulations, being limited to some economic measures, on the other hand populist, but not<br />

directly related with the economic aspects of actual support. Social and conflict Family<br />

groups, family policies, economic groups, economic and social nets, associations and family,<br />

family and social policies, family mediation aspects wich concurrently influence families have<br />

been hardly regulated, maybe due to the fear of being too interventionists, to the critic of<br />

being too familial protective . However, they have been promoted in an indirect way. So,<br />

participation has been done (trough social nets and partneship. History regarding certain<br />

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policies teachs that to anyway other positive effects. Economical nets jointly contribute to<br />

social nets. Maintaining and consolidating familiar groups, depends on this other policies<br />

wich are ignored.<br />

1. ECONOMÍA, POLÍTICAS Y FAMILIAS<br />

Es un hecho constatable que Sociedad y Derecho, funcionan a ritmos diferentes, siendo la<br />

sociedad la que produce situaciones que más tarde se trasladan al ordenamiento jurídico 183 ,<br />

pues la normativa legal se adapta con dificultad a las situaciones de cambio social.<br />

Política familiar no es lo mismo que mediación, pero quizá debiera serlo, o al menos debería<br />

ser abordada abierta y decididamente en las políticas sociales. La mediación, (<strong>com</strong>o<br />

recurso, vía y posibilidad), incluye otras muchas acciones que desarrollan el sentido<br />

<strong>com</strong>unitario, social y relacional de los grupos familiares 184 .<br />

No obstante en España, <strong>com</strong>o en otros países de nuestro entorno, el trabajo sobre<br />

mediación va ligado (aunque no es la causa) a la regulación normativa de las separaciones.<br />

Así, no se puede empezar a hablar de mediación familiar desde un punto de vista social o<br />

incluso institucional hasta que no se aprueba legítimamente mediante norma el divorcio.<br />

Hasta ese momento no hay en España, reconocimiento expreso (ni social, ni legal) de la<br />

posibilidad de conflicto en el seno del matrimonio, y no existe por tanto una necesidad de<br />

mediar a través de alternativas a la ley. No existe posibilidad tampoco institucional, de<br />

trabajar realmente mientras no existe norma de actuación. Esto ocurre en España 185 durante<br />

1981, en un partido, que <strong>com</strong>o el resto tiene su concepción particular de lo que es la familia<br />

y de su papel, así <strong>com</strong>o de las ayudas que puede recibir del gobierno 186 . El partido<br />

<strong>com</strong>unista, durante este tiempo, resaltaba una política sectorial y rechazaba planteamientos<br />

de una política directamente familiarista. 187 Pero han transcurrido muchos años y se han<br />

puesto en práctica diversas políticas.<br />

La Constitución de 1978 abre en España el espacio democrático, en ella se reconocen los<br />

derechos fundamentales de los españoles. Se llega así, a una sensibilización por los<br />

183 Referente a normalización, véase JANET WALKER (2003), donde dice que la mediación será siempre un<br />

servicio necesario y que un país cree un sistema de mediadores, no debe ser el resultado de la promulgación de<br />

una Ley de divorcio.<br />

184 Se hace referencia al grupo familiar y no a la familia, porque esto supone incluir en el discurso todo tipo de<br />

relaciones y agentes en el seno de la familia y entre distintos tipos de familias. Esta visión hace posible además<br />

considerar a la familia desde la perspectiva de grupo humano y social, y observar así las relaciones y procesos<br />

que concurren en el interior de dichos grupos. La familia <strong>com</strong>o ente aislado social y económicamente no existe.<br />

185 PSOE: Partido Socialista; P.C: Partido Comunista (después agrupado en Izquierda Unida); P.P.: Partido<br />

Popular, antes Alianza Popular) ; C.U: Convergencia i Uniò Partido catalán con tendencia centro derecha.<br />

186 En 1998 J. BORRELL, candidato entonces a la presidencia del Gobierno apoyaba medidas instituciones en su<br />

favor, en base a la importancia de la familia, argumentando que era la institución más solidaria, que existía por<br />

encima de los esquemas de protección social.<br />

187 GERARDO FERNÁNDEZ (2000)<br />

340


problemas sociales, antes no reconocidos, y el <strong>com</strong>promiso de favorecer el ordenamiento<br />

jurídico y legitimar instituciones que hagan cumplir realmente los derechos fundamentales.<br />

Este es un momento clave para la regulación, y aunque en 1981 se implanta la UNAF,<br />

Servicio de Mediación Familiar tras un proyecto del Ministerio de Asuntos Sociales, para<br />

buscar formas de gestionar conflictos familiares, aún queda tiempo de facto para que se<br />

produzca equiparación entre regulación y actuación.<br />

En 1983 con la Ley 16 se crea el Instituto de la Mujer, adscrito al Ministerio de Cultura, <strong>com</strong>o<br />

organismo autónomo, subvencionado por los Presupuestos Generales del Estado. Es desde<br />

el inicio un organismo muy activo que atiende casos de violencia de género, acogida en<br />

casas a mujeres con hijos, para facilitarles la integración, tras rupturas familiares, etc. 188 Ello<br />

impulsa entidades diversas en cada Comunidad Autónoma, al amparo de las Consejerías<br />

correspondientes de Igualdad, Bienestar Social, con sensibilización en temas de familia y<br />

rupturas familiares. Se produce por tanto un revulsivo en este campo. Todo ello en<strong>com</strong>iable,<br />

un trabajo laborioso, pero hecho desde la sombra, en un segundo plano.<br />

En 1995, a propuesta de la III Conferencia Europea de Derechos de la Familia 189 , el Comité<br />

Europeo de Cooperación Jurídica elabora un informe relativo a la mediación y los modos,<br />

con el objeto de trabajar sobre un instrumento internacional en mediación (luego volveremos<br />

sobre el caso de Europa).<br />

La mediación, en todo este tiempo se produce y se impulsa a través de otros espacios (y no<br />

abiertamente). Hasta aquí un esbozo general de lo más destacable en el transcurso de la<br />

mediación en España, pero hay otras cuestiones sobre las que reflexionar.<br />

Hay que subrayar que las diferentes visiones políticas han atendido a la regulación de<br />

ciertos temas y espacios de las familias. Las políticas familiares se han centrado<br />

principalmente en ciertas mediadas económicas, <strong>com</strong>o piedra angular de la regulación 190 .<br />

La política familiar, ha resultado políticamente incorrecta a los partidos de izquierdas, y esto<br />

principalmente se ha debido al peso de la historia, insuperable hasta la fecha: la brecha<br />

familiarista que supuso la dictadura franquista. Lo que en realidad tenía que superar la<br />

sociedad española y sus representantes políticos, era un tipo de política familiar dirigista o<br />

paternalista. Hoy día sin embargo, en la mayoría de los programas políticos existe una<br />

atención a aspectos tales <strong>com</strong>o el trabajo de la mujer, la atención a la primera infancia o la<br />

188 Pero no es hasta el 2005 cuando el Defensor del Pueblo pide crear una nueva jurisdicción que englobe<br />

conflictos de familia y violencia de género, 7 de abril, Madrid Europa Press, Red Estatal de Organizaciones<br />

Feministas contra la Violencia de Género.<br />

189 Celebrada en España (Cádiz)<br />

190 Han desestimado no obstante aspectos <strong>com</strong>o el de la cacareada Renta Básica, ayudas para equilibrar los<br />

ingresos, subsidios, etc. Para ver casos concretos de actuación de los partidos en este sentido: IGLESIAS<br />

FERNÁNDEZ, JOSÉ (2002)<br />

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vejez, además de nuevas regulaciones en torno a la legitimación de nueva2s formas de<br />

matrimonio 191 .<br />

Los partidos políticos han considerado la familia desde diferentes puntos de vista, y de ello<br />

se han desprendido también las políticas aplicadas durante cada gobierno.<br />

La familia, apenas ha entrado en la agenda de los políticos 192 , o bien ha sido insuficiente el<br />

apoyo que las políticas públicas hacen a las familiares. 193<br />

La consideración y el cambio respecto a la denominación de familias numerosas, las ayudas<br />

económicas a los grupos familiares, son ejemplos de la regulación, tan solo a nivel<br />

económico; ejemplo muy efectista, de la regulación al respecto, llevada a cabo durante la<br />

primera legislatura del Partido Popular. 194<br />

Estamos en el momento de plantear los cambios en la política familiar. La sociedad<br />

española necesita una moderna política de familia, basada en planteamientos nuevos, pues<br />

existen multiplicidad de formas familiares, y la gestión social debiera redefinirse. La política<br />

familiar debe modernizarse 195 . Ésta se basa en deducciones fiscales que ni siquiera llega a<br />

suponer un sostenimiento económico de los que más lo necesitan; se debería invertir en<br />

empleo femenino, armonizar empleo e hijos 196 . Aspectos de interés son los de carácter<br />

socioconflictual, que se producen también en las familias. Así, entre la ayuda económica y la<br />

regulación de procesos conflictuales y divergentes en el seno de las familias, existe una<br />

variada gama de situaciones, eludidas frecuentemente por las políticas sociales promovidas.<br />

2. AUMENTO DE LAS REDES SOCIALES E INSTITUCIONALES<br />

En ciertos ámbitos las interacciones familiares disminuyen, e incluso se pierden, mientras<br />

que en otros aspectos o ámbitos, aumentan y surgen otras nuevas, según afirma Donati. 197<br />

La mediación encuentra su espacio, <strong>com</strong>o las interacciones y las relaciones lo hacen a su<br />

vez.<br />

Aunque hay relación entre los términos mediación y política familiar, no existe una<br />

equivalencia. Primero, en su sentido estricto, toda política social debería ser una política de<br />

191 Ultimas modificaciones, con el mandato socialista respecto a uniones de homosexuales, y aspectos<br />

relacionados con estas uniones.<br />

192 IGLESIAS DE USSEL J. Y MEIL LANDWERLIN, GERARDO (2001)<br />

193 NAVARRO, VICENÇ (2002), en el sentido del trabajo de la mujer en España no equiparado al del resto de<br />

Europa. El autor se basa en la inexistencia de servicio de ayudas a las familias, o bien sus costes económicos<br />

(que repercuten en cada unidad).Dice que la pobreza relativa de España respecto a la UE es el bajo porcentaje<br />

de mujeres en el mercado de trabajo<br />

194 Familias numerosas a partir de los tres hijos. En España ya se había consolidado hace tiempo el número de<br />

hijos por unidad familiar.<br />

195 En el sentido de GERARDO MEIL (2001)<br />

196 GOSTA ESPING-ANDERSEN (2001)<br />

197 DONATI, P (1993)<br />

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mediación. De otro lado, las administraciones públicas 198 no son los únicos actores<br />

intervinientes en cuanto al desarrollo de las políticas públicas, sino que en la misma medida<br />

intervienen hoy las asociaciones o agencias privadas. Y es que en la sociedad española se<br />

ha producido un cambio de facto en cuanto a la participación social.<br />

Con un trabajo casi titánico, asociaciones, instituciones y otras entidades, han sacado<br />

adelante estos temas, sin apenas un apoyo directo de las políticas sociales.<br />

La política social de los últimos años pretendía desvincularse institucionalmente del personal<br />

que desempeña las labores de mediación y por tanto, todos los programas se hacían a<br />

través de asociaciones y por concurso público, con las evidentes objeciones que ello<br />

supone. Se han generado en el ámbito concreto de la mediación ciertos problemas, porque<br />

si bien es verdad que la mediación en el campo civil puede realizarse mediante<br />

organizaciones privadas, los riesgos para las partes implicadas son enormes.<br />

En España hay muchas organizaciones privadas que están trabajando en mediación y<br />

sobre todo funcionan los puntos de encuentro, pero si no hay una ley <strong>com</strong>o la catalana o la<br />

valenciana, es difícil que se obligue a cumplir en los acuerdos. 199<br />

Hoy en día el número de organizaciones que ofrecen la mediación en España, es muy alto.<br />

Es cierto que existe (<strong>com</strong>o ya se ha señalado) un desequilibrio espacial, pero al menos<br />

existen 105 entidades repartidas a lo largo del territorio nacional, dedicadas exclusivamente<br />

a la mediación familiar.<br />

3. IMPORTANCIA DE OTROS FACTORES ECONÓMICOS Y RELACIONALES EN LA<br />

FAMILIA<br />

El modo de observar la familia, define sus necesidades y sus demandas. 200<br />

La interacción y la interrelación, la cercanía, la autoayuda, son por ejemplo rasgos<br />

definidores del grupo familiar.<br />

Existe gran variedad de interpretaciones, en cuanto a las relaciones entre estas esferas, que<br />

van desde la visión de que toda política pública es política familiar, hasta que la política<br />

familiar es precisamente el objeto de la política social.<br />

No es posible la no influencia entre política, poderes públicos y familia.<br />

Lo que ocurre con las políticas familiares es que si por un lado se sectorializan en exceso,<br />

tienden a la desacreditación, y si se generalizan, terminan no siendo eficaces. Además las<br />

políticas sociales, tienden a la instrumentalización y en realidad se basan en la intervención<br />

198 FANTOVA AZCOAGA, FERNANDO (2004: 123)<br />

199 En cuanto a los puntos de encuentro citar por ejemplo en el caso de España, Málaga<br />

200 Para DONATI (1999:93) y Ussel y Meil (2001), que se basan en la visión de Donati, la observan <strong>com</strong>o<br />

fenómeno generativo distinto a cualquier otro tipo de relación social, existen otras posibilidades.<br />

343


en vez de la mediación. 201 Parece que la intervención es instrumento de la política familiar,<br />

pero la intervención que se produce es solo una de las facetas de la política familiar.<br />

Los aspectos económicos son la base en torno a los cuales giran las actuaciones de los<br />

grupos familiares, pero aún siendo algo central, no son lo único a tratar en política social<br />

dirigida a las familias, pues existen otros de carácter relacional y conflictual de gran<br />

importancia<br />

La Familia, en su versión actual, puede ser considerada tanto <strong>com</strong>o unidad, <strong>com</strong>o grupo.<br />

Como unidad porque es un grupo primario de afectos y con efectos. En principio la familia es<br />

una unidad de producción y de consumo, esto ocurre en la sociedad protoindustrial y<br />

también en sociedades en vías de desarrollo o entre grupos con dificultades económicas, y<br />

cuyo objeto es la reproducción de las condiciones de subsistencia. Pero cuando los<br />

procesos económicos y sociales y la propia sociedad se va haciendo más <strong>com</strong>pleja (durante<br />

la transición de la sociedad industrial a la postindustrial), la familia se transforma. Debido al<br />

efecto de la economía neoliberal y principalmente a la globalización de los mercados, la<br />

familia se transforma y pierde su sentido de productora, para centrarse sobre todo en el de<br />

consumidora. Debemos hablar más que de producción (pues siempre hay un espacio<br />

económico), de trabajo en sus diferentes facetas. Así, el factor económico (una de las<br />

funciones de la familia), tiene que ver con la transformación de las propias familias, pero hay<br />

otros aspectos, de la familia <strong>com</strong>o grupo, que irremediablemente la definen.<br />

En la agenda política se da mucha importancia a la búsqueda de ayudas-escaparate de<br />

carácter general (parte de los aspectos económicos del grupo familiar, y no otros <strong>com</strong>o lo<br />

conflictual o social).<br />

La familia es <strong>com</strong>unidad también 202 , y <strong>com</strong>o cualquier grupo social, podemos entenderlo<br />

desde el punto de vista de su cultura e identidad. Cada familia tiene sus valores, creencias y<br />

normas, resultado de una acción directa de la cultura dominante en la cual se inserta, pero<br />

en principio existen rasgos específicos y diferenciadores de cada grupo. Una o varias<br />

culturas familiares, entran en conflicto principalmente cuando se produce una unión entre<br />

ellas, (por unión, convivencia u otros). Con la creación de una <strong>com</strong>unidad familiar y la prole,<br />

se exacerban las diferencias (formas de observar el mundo, la vida, etc.), tener que elegir<br />

claramente los principios culturales a transmitir. Los diferentes matices (en cuanto a valores<br />

y normas) hacen entrar en confrontación de forma permanente o coyuntural.<br />

201 FANTOVCA AZCOAGA, F. (2004)<br />

202 TONNÏES, F. (1979), y más recientemente DONATI, P. ( 1999)<br />

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Así, no se puede relegar solo la mediación a temáticas exclusivamente económicas, sino<br />

que hay otras muchas cuestiones de interés. Esto también es un factor diferencial entre<br />

sociedades más tradicionales o más modernas.<br />

En España existe una brecha, un <strong>com</strong>plejo en cuanto a la adopción de políticas familiaristas.<br />

Se regulan políticas sociales, que excluyen de facto, situaciones diversas que hoy se dan en<br />

la sociedad española: procesos de interacción familiar, conflictos, violencia, diferencias<br />

culturales, etc. Se precisaría una visión política diversa de las redes económicas y sociales.<br />

Además de las redes tecnológicas, de las que nos habla Castells (ya desde 1997), existen<br />

otro tipo de redes sociales de carácter económico, enraizadas en los grupos familiares, que<br />

necesariamente tienen relación con las políticas sociales y familiares. Ignorar cómo influyen<br />

las redes sociales en el mantenimiento de los grupos familiares, o la importancia que tienen<br />

en las políticas sociales, es negar la importancia del grupo familiar. Así, no se trata de<br />

medidas efectistas, algunas de las cuales desde hace ya tiempo eran necesarias. Se trata<br />

más bien de un plan genérico de acción. La dificultad estriba desde mi punto de vista, en<br />

que seguimos pensando la familia <strong>com</strong>o unidad productora, y no <strong>com</strong>o unidad de trabajo.<br />

Conviene entender los procesos económicos de las familias desde otra perspectiva y<br />

atender a los procesos sociales que se mencionan. Las redes sociales de autoayuda y las<br />

redes económicas son las que sufren más en la actualidad, en sociedades desarrolladas y<br />

más <strong>com</strong>plejas 203 , aspectos de otro lado, esenciales en las familias. Es preferible hablar de<br />

grupos familiares y es necesario buscar alternativas a los conflictos en el seno de estos<br />

procesos que acontecen en dichos grupos familiares. Como cualquier grupo humano, en las<br />

familias se producen transformaciones socioeconómicas. Nos encontramos en una<br />

circunstancia, de transición en la postindustrialización. 204 Si desaparece una concepción<br />

moral o legal, la importancia se adscribe a otras fuentes de poder (por ejemplo al dinero); y<br />

esta se convierte en la causa de la jerarquización de las sociedades.<br />

La familia tiene un carácter social y por ello <strong>com</strong>unitario 205 . En ella se llevan a cabo procesos<br />

de integración social y socialización, intercambio afectivo, de prácticas de ayuda mutua y<br />

solidaridad, por eso su carácter <strong>com</strong>unitario<br />

203 En relación a la pobreza y las redes económicas, BEATRIZ PÉREZ (2003) Congreso<br />

Internacional Eumed<br />

204 MORIN (2002) y el trabajo de ULRICH, los tiempos actuales son difíciles para la ética<br />

y para las relaciones interpersonales, aunque Morin no hable realmente de transición,<br />

sino de tiempos difíciles para la cultura de la ética<br />

205 TÖNNIES así <strong>com</strong>o otras obras <strong>com</strong>plementarias de autores <strong>com</strong>o DURKHEIM, o<br />

SIMMEL enriquecen el concepto de <strong>com</strong>unidad podría relacionarse con el ámbito de las<br />

familias.<br />

345


La familia se asienta sobre un entramado de redes y de relaciones interpersonales, debido a<br />

su carácter social.<br />

Cuando los lazos de solidaridad se han roto, cuando el propio Estado no puede soportar los<br />

gastos que derivan de una política familiar propia de un Estado del Bienestar, cuando la<br />

ética se distiende en economía, en una sociedad que ponen en boga concepciones<br />

neoliberales de corte utilitarista, surgen otros lazos y otras redes en el entorno familiar.<br />

Surgen así asociaciones, agrupaciones que definen las prestaciones de los grupos<br />

familiares y desarrollan este concepto desde visiones diferentes.<br />

Los gobiernos <strong>com</strong>unitarios, han adoptado en la medida en que sus propias estructuras<br />

espaciales se los permiten, ciertas medidas políticas que manifiestan la preocupación por la<br />

situación de las familias, por la diversidad de fenómenos y cambios sociales que<br />

experimentan y que repercuten en la dinámica familiar. Las políticas no siempre han sido<br />

homogéneas ni oportunas (en el sentido del momento en que se producen los cambios) 206<br />

La Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas, a través de su Consejo Económico y Social<br />

expresaba la importancia de que los gobiernos desarrollasen políticas más integradas sobre<br />

familia más integrada (A/RES/59/11,6.XII.2004). Se han producido no obstante cierta<br />

sensibilidad hacia las circunstancias familiares que verdaderamente importan.<br />

La Comunidad Europea 207 , a través del libro verde, expone los cambios demográficos<br />

europeos desde los 70’, e insta al desarrollo de políticas sociales y económicas en materia<br />

familiar.<br />

En el contexto de una sociedad cambiante y <strong>com</strong>pleja, donde los vínculos y las<br />

oportunidades se entrecruzan, los grupos con dificultad, aquellos que no tienen recursos<br />

tienen que ser atendidos por políticas y redes de protección social si de lo que estamos<br />

hablando es que el único medio que armoniza las redes económicas y sociales es la familia.<br />

208<br />

En los últimos años se han construido redes de ayuda a las familias (a las que antes<br />

hacíamos referencia), impulsadas indirectamente por organismos públicos sensibles a estas<br />

temáticas y por asociaciones. Crecen redes de autoayuda y se fortalecen los lazos entre<br />

entidades preocupadas por las realidades familiares en la actualidad. Son redes que ofrecen<br />

diversos servicios, asesoramiento, que no hacen sino extenderse y prolongarse en un<br />

momento en que se piensa que el grupo familiar está condenado a la desaparición.<br />

206 El pasado año 2004 Naciones Unidas celebró el décimo aniversario de la declaración del Año Internacional de<br />

la familia. Así, se desarrollaron los fines del año Internacional (1994) y que basaban en impulsar a los gobiernos<br />

para que desde sus políticas sociales reforzaran a la familia<br />

207 Commissions de Communautés Européennes, Bruxelles 2005 (pp. 2, 9,12)<br />

208 SARACENO, CHIARA (2005), Cuando habla de la permanencia de los jóvenes en las familias y la importancia<br />

de políticas que armonicen la integración social, ante la existencia de dificultades económicas en las propias<br />

familias. Lo mismo cabría decir de la protección al trabajo de la mujer, entre otras. Las políticas familiares y las<br />

redes económicas, sociales y conflictuales, <strong>com</strong>o se defiende aquí, van también en este sentido.<br />

346


En los últimos años, se ha tomado conciencia de las dificultades de la familia actual ante los<br />

cambios. 209 La idea de trabajar en la igualdad a través de diferentes programas europeos, y<br />

por tanto elaborar políticas sociales y familiares constata la importancia del tema y la<br />

preocupación por la coordinación así <strong>com</strong>o el intento de elaborar normativas de<br />

confluencia. 210<br />

Realmente se ha producido un avance en materia de atención, extensión y coordinación de<br />

políticas nacionales, pero solo recientemente se está trabajando en algo que desde mi punto<br />

de vista es esencial: el fortalecimiento y la relación entre redes económicas y sociales, junto<br />

a las medidas de política social y económica.<br />

La familia ha pasado de ser una unidad de producción, a una agrupación de trabajo y de<br />

consumo. Esa ha sido la radical transformación de las unidades familiares en las modernas<br />

sociedades. La vida familiar está constituida por personas que se relacionan<br />

interpersonalmente. Estas relaciones propician y fundamentan el bienestar material y<br />

afectivo, así <strong>com</strong>o son un medio para desarrollar, mantener y mejorar las condiciones de<br />

vida, materiales y sociales. Pero en el sostenimiento de tales estructuras con estos fines,<br />

influyen hoy otros muchos procesos. Las células de convivencia familiar, están adoptando<br />

estructuras y relaciones variadas, que en algunos casos se observan <strong>com</strong>o cambios<br />

materiales y afectivos; formulando arriesgados mensajes de disolución. Las redes que se<br />

disuelven o parecen disolverse, dan lugar a otras redes con iguales intereses o con la<br />

reformulación de objetivos desde visiones actuales y enriquecedoras. El tratamiento de los<br />

problemas reales, su interconexión, es el reto y el actual debate.<br />

5. CONCLUSIONES<br />

Una de las tareas más importantes del grupo familiar es el sostenimiento económico<br />

configurado entorno al trabajo. La familia proporciona junto al grupo de cercanos, conocidos,<br />

amigos y contemporáneos redes de información y vías para que sea factible esta tarea de<br />

mantenimiento del grupo. 211<br />

Ello no significa que las políticas puedan estar al margen de procesos que ya de hecho se<br />

producen. Tampoco que desde la perspectiva política se focalicen las mediadas en un<br />

sentido económico, olvidando aspectos sociales y relacionales que hacen posible el<br />

sostenimiento del grupo familiar en sí y sus posibilidad para establecer redes de<br />

209 Consejo Europeo, Barcelona, 2002, ponía atención sobre la creación y desarrollo de estructuras, para el<br />

cuidado de la infancia, el trabajo y los tiempos <strong>com</strong>partidos, el acceso al empleo de calidad de las mujeres, etc.<br />

Es decir desarrollar estrategias para la lucha contra la pobreza, la atención a la infancia, ciertas orientaciones de<br />

política social y económica. Livre Vert, p. 12<br />

210 INSA MÉRIDA, FRENDESVINDA (2004)<br />

211 BEATRIZ PÉREZ (2005): “Dejar correr, dejar hacer”,Nómadas, nº 13, U.C.M, en prensa.<br />

347


mantenimiento económico. Es decir la política social no se basa en la efectista política<br />

económica, y no debe olvidar la eficacia del carácter social y relacional del grupo en sí.<br />

La importancia de <strong>com</strong>unidades de cercanos, cohesionadas a la familia, el debate continuo<br />

sobre los problemas que afectan a los grupos familiares, la sensibilidad de los educadores<br />

por los espacios educativos de la infancia y las familias actuales, los especialistas,<br />

investigadores, terapeutas sicólogos y sociólogos que se implican cada vez más en estas<br />

temáticas; su participación y debate, aportarán a este trabajo un impulso renovador.<br />

Tampoco el sentido o la visión <strong>com</strong>unitaria y democratizadora de las familias y de sus<br />

circunstancias tienen porqué aportar inconvenientes, sino más bien lo contrario, alicientes<br />

para un trabajo en grupo y sobre otros principios éticos. Los grupos humanos, entrelazados<br />

entre sí conforman <strong>com</strong>unidades de intereses y varios grupos, trabajando conjuntamente<br />

proyectan realidades sociales de convivencia.<br />

No es una visión utópica, simplemente hay que trabajar sobre una ética económica, no<br />

llamativa, programática o circunstancial y efectista; sino planificada que construya el<br />

sostenimiento real de las redes sociales y del sostenimiento económico de las familias.<br />

348


REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS<br />

FANTOVA AZCOAGA, FERNANDO (2004): “Política familiar e intervención familiar: una<br />

aproximación”, Revista del Ministerio de Trabajo y Asuntos Sociales, nº 50 (pp.121 a<br />

133)<br />

FLAQUEL LLUIS: “Las políticas familiares en una perspectiva <strong>com</strong>paradas” Colec Estudios<br />

Sociales, nº 3, Fundación la Caixa.<br />

BELLOSO MARTÍN, NURIA: “La mediación familiar: experiencias en latino América” en:<br />

Congreso Internacional de Mediación Familiar, Junta de Castilla y León, 31 de mayo de<br />

2004<br />

BECK-GERNSHEIM, E. (2003) La reinvención de la familia: en busca de nuevas formas de<br />

convivencia. Paidós, Barcelona.<br />

CASTELLS, M. (1997): La era de la información. Economía, sociedad y cultura. Vol. II. El<br />

poder de la identidad, Alianza Editorial, Madrid.<br />

DONATI, P. (1993): Terzo Rapporto Sulla Famiglia in Italia , CISF<br />

DONATI, P. (1999): Manuale de Sociología della famiglia, Laterza, Roma<br />

FERNÁNDEZ, GERARDO (2000):”Familia y programas políticos” revista Crítica<br />

GARRIDO GÓMEZ, M.ª I. (2000) : La política social de la familia en la Unión Europea, Ed.<br />

Dykinson, Madrid<br />

GASTON ABARCA: “La mediación familiar no debe estar supeditada a una ley de divorcio”<br />

WALKER, JANET (2003): noviembre-diciembre, 2003 Boletín de la Universidad de Chile, en<br />

http//: www.med.uchil.cle/boletin /edicion/2003/nov_dic.pdf (Consulta 06/06/05)<br />

GOSTA ESPING-ANDERSEN: “la necesidad de una nueva política de familia”, el Pais,<br />

/2001<br />

HONNETH, A. (1999) “Comunidad. Esbozo de una historia conceptual”, Isegoría (20) 5 a 15.<br />

349


IGLESIAS FERNÁNDEZ, JOSÉ(2002): “La Renta Básica contra la Renta Básica. El<br />

Impuesto Negativo y otras prestaciones sociales”, El laberinto, nº 8, Febrero, 2002<br />

Número de Divorcios en la Unión Europea, según país y tipo de indicador, Divorcios por<br />

cada 100 matrimonios, Indicadores Sociales, INE<br />

INSA MÉRIDA, FRENDESVINDA (2004): “Procesos De cooperación entre el Consejo de<br />

Europa y la Unión Europea: algunos programas <strong>com</strong>unitarios”, Universidad de Barcelona,<br />

2003/2004<br />

LIVRE VERT : « Face aux changements démographiques, une nouvelle solidarité entre<br />

générations » , Commissions des <strong>com</strong>munautés européennes, Bruxelles, 2005-07-03<br />

MORIN EDGAR, “Ética y Globalización”, Conferencia Plenaria en el Seminario Internacional:<br />

“Los desafíos éticos del desarrollo”, Argentina, Septiembre 2002<br />

NAVARRO, VICENÇ: “La familia en España”, el País, 19 de enero, 2002<br />

BEATRIZ PÉREZ GONZÁLEZ: “Reflexiones en torno a la aplicación del término economía<br />

Sumergida” Ponencia, Congreso Internacional Economía y Sociedad, Eumed, Universidad<br />

de Málaga, 2003<br />

BEATRIZ PÉREZ GONZÁLEZ: “Dejar correr, dejar hacer” Nómadas, nº 13 de 2005, en<br />

prensa.<br />

IGLESIAS DE USSEL, J. Y MEIL, G. (2001): La política familiar en España, Ariel, Barcelona<br />

SEAMAN, P.-SWEETING, H. (2004) “Assisting young people's access to social capital in<br />

contemporary families: a qualitative study”, Journal of Youth Studies. 7(2) 173 a 190.<br />

SARACENO CHIARA: "Foto di giovani in famiglia", Lavoce.info, 06.06.2005<br />

TÖNNIES, F. (1979) Comunidad y asociación: el <strong>com</strong>unismo y el socialismo <strong>com</strong>o formas de<br />

vida social, Península, Barcelona.<br />

350


The Verwall Natura 2000 mediation procedure<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

Wolfgang Pfefferkorn<br />

The Verwall mediation procedure formed part of a highly controversial planning process<br />

aimed at the creation of a Natura 2000 conservation area in the alpine region. The procedure<br />

took place between January 2001 and December 2002. Implementation of the out<strong>com</strong>es is<br />

currently under way.<br />

The Verwall is a mountain massif in Hinteres Montafon, Vorarlberg. It extends across parts of<br />

the parishes of Klösterle, Silbertal, St. Gallenkirch and Gaschurn. The man source of in<strong>com</strong>e<br />

for the population is tourism. Other important economic sectors are agriculture and forestry,<br />

and small-scale industry. The four <strong>com</strong>munities have about 5,500 inhabitants, many of whom<br />

<strong>com</strong>mute to the district capital, Bludenz, The Natura 2000 site has an area of about 12,000<br />

hectares, at altitudes of between 1,500 and 2,700 metres above sea level.<br />

Initial situation and previous history<br />

Following Austria’s accession to the EU in 1995 part of the Verwall was nominated for Natura<br />

2000 (the EU network of conservation areas). This was mostly on the basis of the Birds<br />

Directive, but a small part of the area was nominated under the Natural Habitats Directive.<br />

With the exception of Silbertal the Verwall Natura 2000 area was also designated a Special<br />

Area of Conservation, but for a limited period ending in 2003.<br />

There are three predominant land uses in the designated Natura 2000 area: alpine farming,<br />

forestry and hunting. Tourism plays a smaller part in the Natura 2000 area than elsewhere.<br />

Alpine farming has been present for almost 1,000 years, but the number of animals driven up<br />

to high pastures has been in steady decline since the 1950s. At the same time, however,<br />

farming methods have been intensified on the more suitable land, .<br />

The forests in the Natura 2000 area are mostly jointly owned. Some areas have been used<br />

intensively in the past few years while others have been designated as natural forest<br />

reserves. Hunting rights in the Natura 2000 area have been in the hands of Alpine cooperatives<br />

since the Middle Ages. Since the second half of the 20 th century, the leasing of<br />

hunting rights has occasionally provided a vital source of in<strong>com</strong>e. Wild game is intensively<br />

managed.<br />

351


The area is primarily frequented by hikers, and to a lesser extent by mountain bikers,<br />

extreme skiers and ramblers as well as paragliders. Tourism is much less prevalent than in<br />

the popular neighbouring areas of Montafon and Arlberg because of the long access routes.<br />

These land uses were in constant conflict with one another, quite apart from any nature<br />

conservancy concerns, and this emerged and had to be dealt with during the mediation<br />

procedure.<br />

The prior, <strong>com</strong>paratively extensive land use in Verwall means that it is of high ecological<br />

value as one of the last great Alpine retreats in western Austria. This was the scientific<br />

reason for designating it a Natura 2000 area.<br />

Background to the mediation procedure<br />

The nomination of the Verwall Natura 2000 area, and in particular its designation as a<br />

Special Area of Conservation, led to widespread worries and strong opposition on the part of<br />

landowners in the affected <strong>com</strong>munities. They felt that they had been passed over and were<br />

suddenly confronted with the fact that their land was part of a protected area. It was<br />

in<strong>com</strong>prehensible for them that they could suddenly be hit by restrictions on their freedom to<br />

use the land they had tended for the last few decades, particularly as it was precisely this<br />

type of land management which had helped create and maintain the area’s ecological value.<br />

Many land users saw the decision to designate the area, which had been taken over their<br />

heads, as a hostile act by the local and regional authorities. Communication between the<br />

authorities and those affected increasingly broke down until the provincial government<br />

decided to conduct a mediation procedure at the instigation of the provincial environmental<br />

legal officer. The Vorarlberg provincial environment directorate engaged the Viennese<br />

planning consultancy Rosinak&Partner to conduct the procedure.<br />

Aim of the procedure<br />

The aim was to reach agreements between landowners, land users, various other interest<br />

groups and the authorities on the future use of the area.<br />

Participants and their interests<br />

The following interest groups were represented in the negotiating team: agriculture, forestry,<br />

hunting, tourism, nature conservation, the mayors of the four villages, officers of the Bludenz<br />

district <strong>com</strong>mission and the Vorarlberg provincial government, the provincial environmental<br />

legal officer, as well as a representative of BirdLife to provide an expert opinion. Other<br />

outside experts were called in as required. The procedure was supported by two mediators<br />

from Rosinak&Partner.<br />

352


Fig. 1: The procedure<br />

Mediation team<br />

Rosinak & Partner<br />

2 people<br />

Client<br />

Office of the Vorarlberg<br />

provincial government<br />

Negotiation team<br />

33 delegates<br />

Working parties<br />

Agriculture<br />

Hunting<br />

Forestry<br />

Tourism<br />

Experts called on a<br />

case-by-case basis<br />

Interest group representatives<br />

Provincial government departments,<br />

district agricultural authority<br />

Landowners<br />

Alpine co-operatives<br />

Environmental legal service and BirdLife<br />

District <strong>com</strong>mission<br />

Forest owners<br />

Senior gamekeepers (hunting)<br />

Mayors<br />

Tourist association<br />

Source: Hiess and Pfefferkorn<br />

Some 31 men and only two women attended the procedure; their ages ranged from 25 to 75<br />

years. Of the 33 participants, the 15 representatives of the alpine co-operatives formed the<br />

largest group. Negotiations were for the most part carried out in the local Montafon dialect.<br />

353


Main conflicts<br />

There were a number of tensions and conflicts of differing magnitudes between the various<br />

interests arising from different land uses, some of which had their roots far back in history.<br />

Among these were:<br />

• Agriculture and forestry versus nature conservation: land use restrictions, <strong>com</strong>pensation<br />

payments, maintenance of land management practices, intensive versus extensive<br />

methods;<br />

• Tourism versus conservation: restrictions on tourist uses (extreme skiing, paragliding and<br />

mountain biking);<br />

• Hunting versus nature conservation: wildlife populations hunting restrictions;<br />

• Forestry versus hunting: wildlife populations and animal browsing damage;<br />

• Hunting versus tourism: disturbance to wildlife through tourist uses (extreme skiing,<br />

paragliding and mountain biking);<br />

• Tourism versus forestry: illegal use of forest paths by mountain bikers; and<br />

• Agriculture versus forestry and hunting: woodland pasture.<br />

Tools and methods used<br />

A number methodological <strong>com</strong>ponents were <strong>com</strong>bined in the procedure. To begin with,<br />

information events were held in the parishes, and there were one to one meetings with<br />

individual parties. The most important instrument was the mediation procedure, for which the<br />

participants were separated into working parties.<br />

Process stages<br />

The mediation procedure was divided into the following seven phases.<br />

Table 1: Summary of process phases<br />

Phase Activities Duration<br />

Preparatory activities Conflict analysis, public information<br />

events and determination of<br />

Jan.–March<br />

01<br />

participants<br />

Launch phase Agreeing ground rules, procedure<br />

structure, information exchanges<br />

March– May<br />

01<br />

and methodology<br />

First round of<br />

negotiations<br />

Working through current and past<br />

conflicts, positions and interests;<br />

field trip<br />

May–Oct. 01<br />

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Second round of Drawing up draft agreements on Oct.–May 02<br />

negotiations agriculture, forestry, hunting and<br />

tourism<br />

Third round of Discussion of draft agreements, May–Oct. 02<br />

negotiations monitoring issues and field trips;<br />

reporting back to groups<br />

represented<br />

Agreements Finalisation of agreements Oct. 02–Dec.<br />

02<br />

Implementation New District Order based on the<br />

agreements; <strong>com</strong>mencement of the<br />

Oct. 03–<br />

Ongoing<br />

advisory council’s activities (from<br />

2004), implementation of agreed<br />

measures<br />

Source: Hiess and Pfefferkorn<br />

Preparatory activities<br />

In preparation for the mediation procedure, the mediation team held preliminary discussions<br />

with the Mayors in the affected parishes and staged information events in order to gain a<br />

better insight into the situation and finalise the provisional list of participants. It was not<br />

possible to <strong>com</strong>plete the selection of participants at this stage as some of the alpine cooperatives<br />

refused to be represented by others. In consequence the negotiating team<br />

ultimately had to be made up of 33 people, which was a considerable obstacle to the<br />

procedure.<br />

Launch phase<br />

At the outset of the procedure it was important to clarify the ground rules for the mediation<br />

process, and lay the groundwork for constructive collaboration. The negotiating team<br />

adopted rules of procedure establishing the stages of the procedure, the participants’ roles,<br />

and related rights and duties, the way decisions would be made, and the rules of behaviour<br />

for participants towards one another.<br />

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Excerpts from the rules of procedure:<br />

• Participation in the mediation process is voluntary for all parties.<br />

• Negotiating team members shall be nominated in person. Regular attendance is<br />

vitally important to the success of the mediation process. Represented by other persons shall<br />

thus only be possible in exceptional circumstances.<br />

• All information relevant to the procedure shall be disclosed, and must be accessible<br />

to all parties.<br />

• The parties accept and respect the positions and interests of the other parties. All<br />

parties undertake to collaborate constructively in pursuit of the objectives of the procedure.<br />

Participants shall work together continuously, openly and fairly.<br />

• The representatives of each party shall ensure that <strong>com</strong>munications with their interest<br />

groups are maintained.<br />

• The procedure shall be consensual, and no provision is made for voting on<br />

substantive issues.<br />

After the rules of procedure had been agreed information exchanges were the main priority.<br />

All of the participants received an information kit containing background on Natura 2000 and<br />

the relevant EU legislation (directives and regulations), as well as expert opinions and<br />

studies of relevance to the procedure. The documents were discussed in depth and any<br />

queries answered. Collective discussion helped the participants to gain a broad<br />

understanding of the legal and administrative <strong>com</strong>plexities surrounding Natura 2000.<br />

Setting the ground rules and ensuring that everyone had at least a similar level of<br />

background information were crucial to the participants’ confidence in the process and<br />

readiness to negotiate.<br />

First round of negotiations<br />

During the first round of negotiations, current conflicts were very much in the foreground. The<br />

members of the negotiating team expressed fears about protected area status, criticised<br />

other interest groups and put forward their own positions and demands. There was also<br />

discussion of previous decisions such as selection of the area and the way in which the<br />

boundaries were drawn, as well as the expert opinion from BirdLife. Many of the participants<br />

only then became aware of the full implications of the decisions. This resulted in severe<br />

criticism of the authorities and the BirdLife report. Many past and present land use<br />

disagreements which had nothing to do with Natura 2000 but significantly affected the<br />

relationships between the interest groups in the negotiating team were also raised. Step by<br />

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step, after many difficult discussions, a degree of trust was built up between the participants.<br />

Almost one third of the time was devoted to getting to grips with the <strong>com</strong>plexities of the<br />

subject and previous developments, so as to reach a point at which the participants could<br />

continue working together.<br />

In substantive terms, four main issues (agriculture, forestry, hunting and tourism) emerged<br />

during the first round of negotiations. A field trip to Silbertal took place in the summer of 2001<br />

to clarify matters on site.<br />

Second round of negotiations<br />

These four core issues were subsequently discussed in detail in smaller working parties.<br />

There was opposition to the use of working parties at first, but it soon became apparent that<br />

it would be impossible to discuss detailed questions sensibly and work through texts in a<br />

group of more than 30 people. By spring 2002 the four working parties had produced draft<br />

agreements designed to reconcile the various uses with the requirements of the Habitats<br />

Directive. The draft texts were drawn up members of the working parties and discussed by<br />

the latter.<br />

Third round of negotiations<br />

During the third round of negotiations, the draft texts on the four issues were discussed in<br />

plenary sessions in order to iron out any conflicts between them. These discussions led to a<br />

final overall draft agreement which served as a basis for discussion by various interest<br />

groups, i.e. local councillors, alpine co-operatives, hunting clubs and the tourist board. This<br />

consolidated draft also contained a proposal for future monitoring and implementation of the<br />

results of the negotiations. Thereafter inspections of the Natura 2000 area were carried out in<br />

order to clear up some detailed issues.<br />

Out<strong>com</strong>es and follow-up actions<br />

Seven negotiating team meetings and many working party sessions, over a period of about<br />

one-and-a-half years, resulted in the following out<strong>com</strong>es of the procedure:<br />

• The final agreement document: this contains decisions on future uses and area<br />

monitoring.<br />

• A draft of the Natura 2000 District Order, referring directly to the agreement. The order<br />

came into force on 1 October 2003 and replaced the previous temporary conservation<br />

order.<br />

• A separate record of all opinions and proposals on which no agreement was reached<br />

during the procedure. These matters are to be dealt with by an advisory council.<br />

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• An advisory council <strong>com</strong>prising 18 persons and including representatives of all the interest<br />

groups concerned was set up to permit continued collaboration between the authorities<br />

and those concerned. In 2004, the council has started to implement the agreed measures.<br />

Key success factors and lessons for similar projects<br />

The initial position was very fraught due to affected parties’ deep mistrust of the authorities.<br />

Throughout process the fear constantly resurfaced that the provincial government would not<br />

honour the agreements. The negotiating climate in the larger group was often very tense.<br />

Without the use of working parties it would not have been possible to make any substantive<br />

progress or reach any agreements. A number of factors contributed to the success of the<br />

mediation procedure. These were:<br />

• The inclusion of all interested parties;<br />

• Clear rules of procedure as a basis for building confidence between participants;<br />

• Same information for all;<br />

• Clear roles in the procedure;<br />

• Intensive preparation for and follow-up to individual negotiation rounds (agendas,<br />

preparation of materials, <strong>com</strong>prehensive minute taking, draft texts, and text editing, and<br />

ongoing <strong>com</strong>munication between the members of the negotiating team);<br />

• Sufficient time for the negotiation procedure (one-and-a-half years);<br />

• Field trips and on-the-spot inspections: these helped resolve conflicts;<br />

• Sufficient expertise and local knowledge (dialect) on the part of the mediators;<br />

• An open and respectful attitude to other participants — which the mediators often had to<br />

work to restore;<br />

• Sufficient flexibility in the procedure: only separate minuting of all the issues on which no<br />

consensus was possible enabled the procedure to be concluded by reaching the<br />

agreements;<br />

• Binding nature of the out<strong>com</strong>es: the parties initially wished to conclude agreements in the<br />

form of contracts with the authorities, but it soon became clear that an administrative order<br />

applicable to all concerned would bring more certain results;<br />

• Continued involvement of all participants in implementation: this is to be assured by<br />

establishing an advisory council on which all interest groups involved in the mediation<br />

process are represented;<br />

• In questions of distributive justice it is not always possible to find a win-win solution;<br />

instead, the aim should be to reach fair agreements on the distribution of public and private<br />

costs and benefits.<br />

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Difficulties encountered and solutions found<br />

Table 2: Problems and solutions<br />

Problems<br />

Solutions<br />

Severe conflicts at the One to one discussions, information events, and<br />

beginning<br />

sufficient time to work through the past.<br />

Large negotiating team Only partly over<strong>com</strong>e, e.g. through working in<br />

(33 people)<br />

smaller working parties.<br />

Lack of trust of the Only partly over<strong>com</strong>e, by ensuring that all<br />

afflicted parties in the information and documentation was made from<br />

authorities and each the beginning, and by a <strong>com</strong>mitment from the<br />

other<br />

provincial government to implement any<br />

out<strong>com</strong>es of the negotiations.<br />

Lack of trust between Open and fair dealings during the procedure,<br />

the parties to conflicts clear ground rules, and an active role on the part<br />

of the mediators.<br />

Limited scope of the Certain issues were no longer subject to<br />

negotiations<br />

negotiation, e.g. boundary lines. Therefore it was<br />

essential to use the available scope as much as<br />

possible.<br />

Open questions Some issues could not be resolved at once, e.g.<br />

the question as to how high the deer population<br />

in the Natura 2000 area should be: a “deer plan”<br />

is to be drawn up to solve this issue.<br />

Dissenters<br />

The mediation procedure participants were not<br />

able to agree on all points. Separate minutes<br />

were kept of discussions in which there were<br />

dissenting opinions..<br />

Doubts about the Additional expertise, inspections and discussion<br />

reliability of the expert of individual crticisms.<br />

opinions<br />

Distribution of costs Agreement on equalisation payments and<br />

and benefits between <strong>com</strong>pensation in the case of restrictions on use;<br />

conservation areas and more responsiveness to the concerns of<br />

non-conservation areas landowners.<br />

General problem: The general problem can only be partly resolved.<br />

social and spatial Those areas which are prospering economically<br />

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distribution of costs and no longer have much biodiversiity worth<br />

beneits<br />

conserving. The areas that do have only very<br />

limited opportunities for economic development.<br />

There are general disagreements on the extent<br />

of the transfer payments.<br />

There are also conflcits of interest between<br />

landowners and users. In the past these were<br />

often the same, but this is less so today, and this<br />

leads to additional tensions.<br />

Source: Hies and Pfefferkorn<br />

Excerpts from the agreements made<br />

From the agriculture chapter: alpine cultivation<br />

Spreading of liquid manure not originating from the alps and of liquid<br />

manure from home farms in the valley floors is forbidden. Spreading of<br />

liquid manure arising from indoor stock keeping at the alps must not<br />

endanger any water bodies and must be restricted to suitable land (not<br />

too steep or too flat, not too wet, and not too stony). Pastures can only<br />

be fertilized with dung and liquid manure from the alps.<br />

From the forestry chapter: wood uses<br />

Wood felling in the habitats of Annex 1 species (Fig. 3, page 11) may<br />

not be carried out during breeding periods between 1 April and 10<br />

July. An exception is partcularly urgent work (e.g..wWhen there is a<br />

threat from bark beetlessubject to permission from the area<br />

supervisor.<br />

From the hunting chapter: regulation of wildlife populations<br />

Deer culling has been resumed in the Silbertal area. The Vorarlberg<br />

provincial government, in conjunction with landowners,hunting clubs<br />

and the Montafon municipal association, will produce a predator and<br />

deer management plan for Hinteres Silbertal, based on preferential<br />

use of alpine land, in order determine the sizes of wildlife populations,<br />

to control their distribution in their winter habitats and to maintain their<br />

summer choice of habitats.<br />

From the tourism chapter. Paragliding<br />

Expansion of aerial sport in the Natura 2000 Verwall area is<br />

prohibited. This will be ensured by the following measures:<br />

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No applications for paragliding in the Natura 2000 area from tourist<br />

associations, other institutions or individuals to be accepted;<br />

No public aerial sports events and <strong>com</strong>petitions to be held in the<br />

Natura 2000 area,<br />

No official designation of take-off points in the Natura 2000 area.<br />

Excerpts from the separate minutes<br />

Boundary delineation in the parish of Gaschurn<br />

The afftected parishes, landowners and land users were not consulted<br />

on the drawing up of boundary lines for the Natura 2000 area.<br />

Negotiating team members from Gaschurn demanded changes to the<br />

Natura 2000 delineation in the vicinity of the parish of Gaschurn in<br />

order to prevent the construction of a ski lift in the Versalspitze area,<br />

Alpe Gibau being obstructed or prevented by additional impact<br />

assessments required by the Natural Habitats Directive. In the view of<br />

those affected, this is one of the last chances to open up a ski resort in<br />

this area. They believe this option should be kept open for future<br />

generations for whom tourism will be a main source of in<strong>com</strong>e.<br />

Related plans and projects were drawn up in the 1970s.<br />

This is in direct conflict with the Vorarlberg tourism plan, which does<br />

not foresee any new lifts in this area. At the same time the provincial<br />

government is facing a breach of contract suit from the<br />

EuropeanCommission. It is accused of designating too small an area<br />

for the Verwall Natura 2000 project. Any alterations to boundary lines<br />

would have to be based on scientific arguments and would require a<br />

political decision. The negotiating team members are unable to put<br />

forward a unanimous re<strong>com</strong>mendation on this score. A possible<br />

<strong>com</strong>promise would be a boundary review at the first monitoring<br />

session or a temporary limitation on the effect of the Natura 2000<br />

District Order until the first monitoring session.<br />

Paths ban<br />

The hunting representatives proposed incorporating the imposition of<br />

a paths ban for particularly sensitive bird habitats in the agreements.<br />

They argued that this option should be kept open to preserve the<br />

peacefulness of the area, and would only be brought into effect if the<br />

need arose. This idea was wel<strong>com</strong>ed by the district <strong>com</strong>mission as<br />

means of reducing pressures on the natural habitat of hoofed game<br />

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and thus minimising the damage caused by game elsewhere. This<br />

would also be advantageous from a forestry point of view.<br />

However this proposal was received with much scepticism from some<br />

parties, as they fear the creation of exclusion zones similar to the<br />

hunting ban zones, and believe that it would not be understood by the<br />

local population. Paths bans are undeniably useful fom a forestry<br />

perspective but not in connection with bird protection agreements.<br />

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Sistemas de gerenciamiento de conflictos. Una herramienta para<br />

resolver conflictos por sectores de interés<br />

_______________________________________________________________<br />

Lic Nora Potegui<br />

Coordinadora del Comite Científico de la Fundación Equilibrium<br />

Dr Santiago J. de Arizabalo<br />

Director académico Fundación Equilibrium<br />

INTRODUCCION<br />

El contexto histórico social de fines del SXX, facilitó la aparición de nuevas herramientas<br />

para resolver los conflictos.<br />

A medida que éstas iban arraigando en nuestro país, su utilización fue creciendo,<br />

transformándose en instrumentos de uso cotidiano.<br />

Queremos enfocarnos en el estudio de sus transformaciones, centrándonos en los distintos<br />

estadios de evolución .Podemos pensar en tres momentos, que generan marcos que<br />

resignifican estas herramientas.<br />

• El primer marco las encuadra en su condición de alternativas. Fueron pensadas<br />

<strong>com</strong>o procesos paliativos, paralelos al sistema judicial, ante la imposibilidad del<br />

mismo de atender en tiempo y con costos razonables las demandas de los<br />

ciudadanos. Surgen <strong>com</strong>o alternativa de emergencia y frente al colapso de la justicia.<br />

Entre sus bondades se contaba la posibilidad de devolver a los ciudadanos el poder<br />

de influir en las decisiones que los obligaban. En definitiva, la palabra alternativas en<br />

su definición habla claramente del lugar que se esperaba que ellas ocupasen y de la<br />

ideología de quienes las diseñaron. A esto denominamos. Primer Estadío Evolutivo .<br />

• El segundo marco encuadra estas herramientas en lo que podríamos definir <strong>com</strong>o<br />

cotidianeidad. Pierden el lugar de “alternativas”(respecto al pleito judicial),<br />

<strong>com</strong>enzando a instalarse en esta etapa en el “imaginario social”. El ciudadano ya no<br />

solamente conoce el recurso sino que lo implementa voluntariamente para resolver<br />

su conflicto, aun en ocasiones donde no recurriría a una posterior instancia judicial.<br />

A esto denominamos Segundo Estadío de Evolución.<br />

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• El tercer marco encuadra estas herramientas en el diseño de sistemas.<br />

Consideramos en esta etapa , la existencia de un salto cualitativo, que se<br />

produce al desplazarse el foco desde el proceso hacia el diseño. A esto<br />

denominamos Tercer Estadío Evolutivo.<br />

SISTEMA DE GERENCIAMIENTO DE CONFLICTOS<br />

Los cambios abruptos de contexto, generan la pérdida de referentes <strong>com</strong>unes. Las<br />

crisis obligan a rediseñar los recursos que posee la sociedad en cualquier área<br />

determinada, haciéndolos útiles en marcos impensados. Grandes segmentos de la<br />

población son atravesados por la misma conflictiva. Tomando la frase de R Kaes podemos<br />

decir ….:“Una de las características de la crisis es aparecer, imprevistamente y en la<br />

masividad de lo único”.<br />

La gran posibilidad que brinda encontrarnos en un tercer estadío de evolución es<br />

enfocarnos en el diseño de sistemas. Proponemos la construcción del concepto de<br />

Sistemas de Gerenciamiento de Conflictos, <strong>com</strong>o una alternativa flexible en el diseño de<br />

sistemas de resolución. El cambio del contexto del que hablamos genera la necesidad de<br />

trasladar el foco desde el proceso al diseño de los sistemas. Ante la <strong>com</strong>plejización de la<br />

realidad, el centrarse en el diseño nos brinda riqueza de recursos y flexibilidad en la<br />

diagramación<br />

Marco Conceptual del “Sistema de Gerenciamiento de Conflictos” SGC:<br />

Es una herramienta enfocada en el diseño de un instrumento, que permite coordinar<br />

distintos procesos de resolución. Cuando hablamos de Sistema lo entendemos <strong>com</strong>o<br />

conjunto organizado por la interrelación de sus elementos. Cuando hablamos de<br />

Gerenciamiento: lo entendemos <strong>com</strong>o sinónimo de una adecuada gestión de los diferentes<br />

procesos de resolución de conflictos que integrarán el diseño del sistema.<br />

Por último, en referencia a la conceptualización de Conflicto, en la actualidad parece más<br />

adecuado pensar en manejarlos que en resolverlos. Esto nos ubicaría en la situación de una<br />

convivencia en equilibrio inestable y donde el paradigma no es el no conflicto, sino por el<br />

contrario el fluir en las diferencias. El SGC está gestionado por un operador cuya función se<br />

centra tanto en el diseño <strong>com</strong>o en la coordinación de los distintos procesos.<br />

364


Campos de aplicación del SGC<br />

El ámbito de aplicación de los SGC son los conflictos por sector de interés. Llamamos<br />

Sector de Interés, a un corte de la realidad que hacemos a los efectos de trabajar la solución<br />

de los conflictos, en virtud de <strong>com</strong>partir sus integrantes, determinada problemática. Su<br />

característica reside en un entramado de alta <strong>com</strong>plejidad. Implica la presencia de múltiples<br />

actores, enfrentados entre sí y agrupados por intereses y necesidades relativamente<br />

<strong>com</strong>partidas.<br />

Estructura del sistema<br />

El SGC tiene una estructura flexible y dinámica. Cuenta con algunos elementos fundantes<br />

cuya presencia lo definen:<br />

Diseño de intervención:<br />

Lo definimos <strong>com</strong>o un modo pautado de intervenir en la co-construcción del problema. La<br />

tarea del Operador se centra en el análisis de la situación, conjugando las distintas visiones,<br />

los diversos intereses y necesidades, <strong>com</strong>o expectativas. El contexto socio cultural se<br />

convertirá en el fondo que dará forma al diseño del proyecto.<br />

El Operador asimilado a su rol de observador conforma parte de ese sistema. Sus cortes, su<br />

particular mirada, sus intervenciones, dan paso a la construcción de la problemática.<br />

Desarrollo y Operación:<br />

En esta segunda instancia el operador se centra en dos tareas:<br />

1) El Desarrollo de un esquema de intervención<br />

Por ser la característica esencial de esta herramienta la flexibilidad, no podemos atarnos a<br />

un esquema rígido, pero sí consideramos importantes la presencia de las siguientes<br />

etapas:<br />

Etapa I Generación de Consenso.<br />

El mismo contará con una instancia de creación de consenso interna en los distintos<br />

subgrupos de actores. Utilización de facilitadores.<br />

Etapa II - Negociación. Utilización de negociadores que representen los distintos<br />

intereses.<br />

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Etapa III- Utilización de la Mediación .Generación de Alternativas. La misma<br />

permitirá ampliar las áreas de acuerdo al conocer el Mediador información<br />

confidencial de los actores.<br />

Etapa IV Anclaje. Convalidación del Acuerdo por parte de la multiplicidad de actores<br />

de cada sector. Posterior seguimiento.<br />

2) Operación. Puesta en práctica<br />

La elaboración de esta estructura demanda la presencia de un profesional que se ocupe<br />

de la gestión de una herramienta de alta <strong>com</strong>plejidad. Esta nueva herramienta, enfocada<br />

en el diseño, nos permite en su cualidad de plástica, una riqueza de recursos<br />

importantes para enfrentar la <strong>com</strong>plejidad de la trama del conflicto por sector de interés.<br />

BIBLIOGRAFIA<br />

- Mediación Resolución de Conflictos sin Litigio.-Jay Folberg. Alison Taylor Limusa –<br />

Grupo Noriega Editores, México 1996<br />

- Cómo utilizar la mediación para resolver conflictos en las organizaciones.- Andrew Floyer<br />

Acland- Ediciones Paidos-Barcelona 1993<br />

- Obtenga el Sí El arte de negociar sin ceder- Roger Fisher, Willim Ury, Bruce Patton Cecsa<br />

Mexico 1995<br />

- Supere el NO .Como negociar con personas que adoptan posiciones obstinadas.- William<br />

Ury Del programa de negociación de la escuela de Harvard-Grupo editorial -Norma-<br />

Colombia Mayo 1995.<br />

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Public Mediation - Just Another Way Of Business Mediation?<br />

________________________________________________________________<br />

Andreas Rapp 212<br />

Stadtamtsdirektor (town manager),<br />

Stadtgemeinde (municipality of) Voecklabruck, Austria 213 ,<br />

Abstract<br />

Mediation has already found its place in all kinds of social and business issues. The public<br />

sector is still a field that is only slightly touched. One reason for this could be the <strong>com</strong>plexity of<br />

administration, another one also the fact that the majority of trained mediators is not very<br />

familiar with its special needs. On the one hand, the public sector as a whole is not believed to<br />

be very innovative, on the other hand the challenge of E-Government will lead to revolutionary<br />

changes inside administration and in relation to citizens. So the relationships b2b (business)<br />

and b2c (consumers) will have to be adapted to a2a (administration) a2b and a2c (citizens).<br />

None of these relationships have to be underestimated, but a2a, the inside changes, will be<br />

most critical.<br />

Mediation will support the management in order to successfully reach a really new public<br />

administration. Buying <strong>com</strong>puters and implementing software will not be sufficient. To gain<br />

acceptance, a structured approach and a good knowledge of conflict-management will be of<br />

utmost importance. A mediative approach should lead to stronger motivation and so be a key<br />

feature for today’s leaders. As an example, a BPO (business process optimization) project will<br />

be explored and thus demonstrated, how mediative management in the public sector could<br />

support the way to a successful modernization.<br />

212 The chapter on BPO was co-authored by Silke Palkovits, many thanks to her!<br />

213 http://www.voecklabruck.at<br />

367


1. Why mediate the public sector?<br />

Still being a <strong>com</strong>paratively new or newly re-introduced technique of conflict resolution,<br />

mediation can provide acceptable solutions where the quantum jumps of re-engineering fail.<br />

However, it is not only the technique that brings about success but rather the mediative<br />

attitude. The definition of mediation lies in being neutral to help all parties involved in a<br />

conflict, or on a wider scale, a process.<br />

Strict neutrality is not always too helpful since it implies that mediation would be mainly<br />

passive. So a good mediator is not really an impartial but an "all-partial" professional who<br />

actively works for the process and the people, respectively “all the parties” involved.<br />

So mediation offers a rather different way to deal with conflicts. Mediation is a structured<br />

method of dispute resolution for helping the parties to arrive at a solution, which is beneficial<br />

to all of them. It is based on the conviction that such a solution can and should be found by<br />

the persons involved. Thus, if a dispute is settled through mediation, there are no winners<br />

and losers – but ways out of a crisis everybody should be able to accept. Great additional<br />

benefits lie in the speed at which problems are solved using this concept. This method is<br />

more and more appreciated throughout Europe and the whole world.<br />

As a matter of fact, mediation can be widely used, so most certainly not only in social or in<br />

business conflicts. Speaking of business: it is quite <strong>com</strong>mon to mark a thick line between the<br />

private and the public sector and even though more and more politicians and fewer officials<br />

tend to adept the public sector to the rules of free enterprise some fundamental differences<br />

cannot be neglected.<br />

Roughly, two main branches of public administration are defined. One deals with fields<br />

closely related to private business e.g. water supply, the other is “core” or sovereign<br />

administration. A closer look to the latter unveils one of the most interesting challenges of<br />

this still new millennium, a concept currently known as E-Government or E-Gov.<br />

1.1 The file system<br />

All tasks of public administration are grounded on the law. Whenever a new task is started a<br />

new file has to be created. The file has to be single and unique. This file system has not<br />

really changed in the last centuries. Whenever a new file is created data are collected and<br />

traditionally written on paper. Only until a few decades ago all files were even hand written.<br />

Typewriters were a symbol of progress as well as copy machines. But the invention of book<br />

printing did not really affect the system very much – not more than wars or changing of<br />

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political systems did. New case, new file – ground rules applied were more or less the same.<br />

Today’s laws grant the right of looking at personal files; take an application for building a new<br />

house as an example.<br />

If a given citizen wants to see a file s/he will have to go to the town hall and ask the<br />

responsible official for it. The clerk will hand it and add some oral information (or not). In any<br />

way, when the citizen leaves again, the file rests with the official. Even if s/he gets copies of<br />

the whole file this copied file can only be a flash of the very moment but never show the<br />

whole picture, which could change only an hour later. Officials are used to this system and it<br />

seems to be part of their authority. If a co-worker or the boss wants to have a look at a file<br />

the only possible way is to go to the responsible clerk and get the file. So the situation is not<br />

very different as long as we are dealing with – single and unique – paper files<br />

But by use of information technology - IT and a network environment to create files, the<br />

situation changes rapidly. Suddenly, depending on the rights in the network, files are getting<br />

more and more public. If a given citizen will have the right to log in his or her file seven days/<br />

24 hours – and this is one of the main aspects of true E-Gov – officials could easily believe<br />

that some of their power or, even worse, self understanding is lost to machines.<br />

1.2 Turning <strong>com</strong>plaints into issues<br />

The focus is to be set on the acceptance of 21 st century needs. An adapted concept of<br />

mediation could be invaluable to reach this goal. Disputes over public issues <strong>com</strong>e in all<br />

sizes and shapes. They occur between <strong>com</strong>munities and their decision makers, between<br />

factions in government, between organizations, and between organizations and the public.<br />

Some conflicts erupt into bitter confrontation and rapidly grow worse. Others are chronic<br />

disagreements that flare up periodically, then die down and be<strong>com</strong>e dormant for a time.<br />

Many disputes are predictable; others catch us by surprise. 214<br />

So: the gap is also one between the internal and the external perspective of e-government.<br />

Since public discussion is concentrating on external perspective, the internal adaptations are<br />

the obstacles and challenges to meet before.<br />

214 Carpenter/Kennedy: Managing Public Disputes, San Francisco 1988 and 2001<br />

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The Oesterreichischer Staedtebund 215 (Austrian Association of Cities and Towns) is aware of<br />

this problem and published the results of a questionnaire dealing with the problems of the<br />

introduction of E-Gov 216 .<br />

The questions were asked<br />

twice, in 2001 and 2003. The<br />

fact that the big problem of<br />

citizens’ acceptance (8 th<br />

column) was growing from<br />

24% to 27 % is clearly<br />

remarkable. But also the<br />

acceptance by the staff was<br />

sinking (11 th column). While in<br />

2001 16% believed this to be<br />

a problem, it was 18% in<br />

2003.<br />

Recently, in summer 2005 the<br />

same questions were asked<br />

again – with alarming results.<br />

Now in both the columns the<br />

results were 48.2 %!<br />

2. A modified approach: modernization by use of Business Process Management and<br />

Optimization (BPO)<br />

Technical progress is quite impressive and there is no lack of political will to use all kinds of<br />

modern technical devices. But it seems that almost everyone who works for the development<br />

of e-government is mainly or even only looking at the technical aspects.<br />

215 http://www.staedtebund.at<br />

216 Sallmann: E-Government – Chance für Österreichs Städte und Gemeinden, Vienna, 2003<br />

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For sure, everything should be very user friendly and above all, secure, which in some cases<br />

is impossible since it is “either – or”. As a matter of fact, financial aspects are seen and a<br />

really good research might even bring to the surface some roots of marketing.<br />

One of the prioritized objectives in Voecklabruck is the shift to a modern, innovative, and<br />

efficient administration. Of course, several steps towards this direction were done before<br />

thinking on process management, but this IT based management approach was seen as to<br />

be most supportive and innovative.<br />

The vision and mission of the project was to support the city management in structured<br />

management of processes within the organization to increase efficiency and to enhance<br />

transparency internally to achieve optimal customer / citizen orientation and satisfaction<br />

externally. As an additional benefit a blueprint of the E-Gov software suite yet to be decided<br />

will be gained!<br />

The initial project phase lasted four months and was finished by the end of June 2004. The<br />

first project step was to define a process map containing ten core processes that should be<br />

identified, described, reorganized and documented. The ten processes covering all<br />

organizational units within the city management were selected during a brain storming by all<br />

project participants. The process map was depicted accordingly.<br />

The second project step was the description of the organizational structure. In the first phase,<br />

an organizational chart was modelled. This organizational chart describes the hierarchical<br />

structure of the administration on a high level. The working environment, as the breakdown<br />

of the organizational chart, is the detailed description of the organizational structure on the<br />

level of performers (employees) and their roles.<br />

The third and most important project phase was the organization of workshops where the<br />

persons responsible for a given process – the so-called process owners – and the process<br />

participants, the employees who are directly involved in executing a process, should describe<br />

the process flow with all its decisions, paths and sub processes. The persons responsible for<br />

the project conducted one half-day workshop per core process.<br />

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The input <strong>com</strong>ing from the participants were modelled “online” in ADOegov® 217 according to<br />

the statements and opinions given. The advantage of this procedure is that the employees,<br />

who are not familiar with process modelling, can see the result of their input immediately on<br />

the video projection, and are able to directly <strong>com</strong>ment on it.<br />

Step four included the quality assurance of the depicted processes according to content and<br />

modelling guidelines. This procedure directly led to the next project phase. After the quality<br />

assurance phase, a second round of workshops was organized. There the persons<br />

responsible for a given process should revise the changes of the processes and give further<br />

feedback.<br />

At the end of the project, a final presentation<br />

of the project results was made to the city<br />

<strong>com</strong>mittee (mayor and representatives of<br />

political parties) as well as invited<br />

representatives of neighbouring <strong>com</strong>munities.<br />

The aim of the up<strong>com</strong>ing second phase is to<br />

reorganize the depicted as-is models and<br />

depict additional core processes within the<br />

city administration.<br />

2.1 Example Process: EDP Helpdesk<br />

The EDP Helpdesk, one of the core<br />

departments within the organization was said<br />

to be very efficient and running well. The<br />

process of the reorganization of this core<br />

process should be briefly described within<br />

this section.<br />

The first question to be asked is how the<br />

EDP Helpdesk is informed about a problem<br />

within the organization. This could be done<br />

either by telephone, personally or (most<br />

preferred) via electronic mail. The problem<br />

217 A software tool developed by BOC, Vienna, Austria, http://www.boc-eu.<strong>com</strong><br />

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has to be verified in the next step where the path is two-folded dependent on the <strong>com</strong>plexity<br />

of the problem occurring. If the solution can be found immediately the employee is advised<br />

by a technician (online or on the phone) to solve the problem by her- or himself, respectively.<br />

In case the problem is more <strong>com</strong>plex the decision whether the problem is software or<br />

hardware related triggers two new paths. Here the process gets a bit unclear and will be<br />

subject for reengineering. A most interesting side effect was the “oohs and aahs” of the other<br />

colleagues – “so this is the way you are working, quite impressive…”<br />

3. Conclusions – Mediative Management<br />

A closer look at the public sector shows the fundamental difference to all other business<br />

sectors. Inside a public authority two widely used instruments of leadership are rather<br />

inefficient - one is offering a significant rise in salary the other is possible unemployment. The<br />

public sector is quite often described as conservative in the most basic sense. While on the<br />

one hand estimating their work as inefficient most regularly mistreats employees, the<br />

introduction of fundamental changes on the other hand is not an easy job for public<br />

employers and their representatives respectively. Generally, conviction is more promising<br />

than persuasion or even direct orders. By identifying business processes alone, persons<br />

concerned get a better view of their own and their co-workers’ work. This should be<br />

motivating in any direction; either the given process is already done in the best possible way,<br />

alas, but let us be proud. If the process can be done better and more efficiently, then we<br />

should go for it - and put an emphasis on the “we”!<br />

The “administration troika” already mentioned (working for politicians, caring for single and<br />

unique files, grounded on the law) has lasted for centuries, is still working and quite possibly<br />

will continue to do so in up<strong>com</strong>ing times of E-Government.<br />

Forcing the revolutionary shift could bring the whole project to fail. If the call for dispute<br />

resolution is heard then the time factor is already on the loss. A mediative attitude should<br />

rather be applied earlier to prevent disputes and gain a critical mass in favor of new ways of<br />

government. Only if many people realize that E-Government is not about replacing humans<br />

by <strong>com</strong>puters but a quantum jump in quality this project can be a real success.<br />

So (not only) for the public sector the concept of a “mediative manager” is proposed.<br />

Connected with the marketing-rule 80:20 the idea is to deal with about 80% of all tasks in a<br />

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meditative way, the rest could then be dealt with e.g. in a directive manner. Mediation offers<br />

itself as a very good attitude to increase the level of motivation.<br />

The use of mediation in its two ways, as a toolbox and as an attitude should on the other<br />

hand not be seen as a universal remedy for all professional topics, not even for all disputes<br />

to be solved. The danger lying behind the use of mediation techniques by a manager, be<br />

s/he in economic business or in the public sector, must not be underestimated. This danger<br />

mainly lies in situations that cannot be resolved in a mediative manner but were started this<br />

way. When reaching a dead end a manager has other possibilities than a mediator. The task<br />

could well be to switch to being directive. Since this switch probably lacks acceptance,<br />

another choice would be manipulation, a way the author feels is not worth further<br />

discussions.<br />

The greatest responsibility of knowledge, especially of knowledge giving one person the<br />

power to act in a way others are not capable of, is to use this knowledge in a clear,<br />

honorable and respectful manner. A mediative manager is therefore mainly a person<br />

cultivating a spirit, an attitude of mediation and only secondly someone utilizing the mediation<br />

toolbox.<br />

The time to introduce PublicMediation has <strong>com</strong>e – now !<br />

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Racisme et médiation, l’action restauratrice d’ACOR SOS-Racisme<br />

__________________________________________________________________________<br />

Anne Catherine Salberg<br />

Juriste et médiatrice, ACOR SOS-Racisme, Genève, Suisse<br />

Résumé<br />

L’auteure, titulaire du master européen de médiation IUKB, médiatrice et formatrice en<br />

médiation, a été engagée en 1995 par ACOR SOS-Racisme pour concevoir et mettre sur pied<br />

un service d’aide aux victimes du racisme, orienté sur la justice restauratrice et la médiation.<br />

Dans cette <strong>com</strong>munication, elle se propose de décrire très brièvement les principes de la justice<br />

restauratrice et de la médiation et de relater pourquoi, en matière de discrimination raciale, la<br />

voie pénale est rarement satisfaisante. Elle illustrera ses propos par 3 cas récents qui montrent<br />

<strong>com</strong>ment, grâce à la culture de la médiation, on peut construire des réponses restauratrices<br />

dans les cas de violence raciste.<br />

Médiation et justice restauratrice<br />

La médiation prend depuis 20 ans une ampleur remarquable. L’intérêt que lui porte le monde<br />

économique, politique et social interroge plus d’un chercheur et philosophe 218 . Nombre<br />

d’acteurs professionnels, institutionnels ou associatifs préconisent cette approche face aux<br />

profondes mutations que traverse notre société et aux conflits qui en résultent.<br />

Les criminologues ont développé depuis les années 70, le concept de la justice restauratrice.<br />

Ce mouvement propose un changement du modèle de la justice pénale en considérant qu’un<br />

crime porterait atteinte aux relations plutôt qu’à l’Etat. Il conviendrait dès lors de ne plus<br />

seulement considérer le couple Etat-auteur mais de prendre en <strong>com</strong>pte toutes les personnes<br />

touchées par le délit et en particulier la victime.<br />

Ce nouveau « paradigme » 219 a été développé essentiellement dans les pays anglo-saxons.<br />

Il se décline en différents modèles 220 : la Médiation pénale 221 ; les Cercles de détermination<br />

218 On peut <strong>com</strong>prendre l’essor récent de la médiation en Occident <strong>com</strong>me « symptôme et remède » selon les<br />

termes de Jean De Munck « De la loi à la médiation », in France : les révolutions invisibles, Calmann-Lévy,<br />

Paris 1998, 311-322.<br />

219 Howard ZEHR «Justice Paradigm Shift? Values and Visions in the Reform Process», in Mediation Quarterly,<br />

Volume 12/ 3, San Francisco 1995, p. 207-216.<br />

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de la peine, les Conférences <strong>com</strong>munautaires ou encore les Commissions vérité et<br />

réconciliation. Quel qu’en soit le modèle, l’approche restauratrice définit l'acte délictueux<br />

d’abord <strong>com</strong>me un problème d'ordre interrelationnel contrairement à l'approche pénale qui<br />

met l'accent sur le crime et sa punition.<br />

C’est ainsi que la médiation en matière pénale permet à la victime, qui exprime clairement<br />

son accord, de se réapproprier le conflit et d'en être un acteur à part entière. Entendue et<br />

<strong>com</strong>prise, la victime pourra, grâce à la reconnaissance des faits et à la responsabilisation<br />

pour l’acte <strong>com</strong>mis, voir satisfait son besoin de justice.<br />

La participation volontaire du mis en cause le rend lui aussi acteur du processus. La<br />

médiation en matière pénale participe ainsi à la responsabilisation de l’auteur qui, tout en<br />

offrant le cas échéant une réparation pour les dommages causés, est amené à prendre<br />

concrètement conscience de la dimension affective et sociale de ses actes 222 .<br />

La justice restauratrice cherche à obtenir une satisfaction optimale de toutes les parties<br />

concernées par le préjudice causé par un délit. Or, ce dernier n’implique pas que la victime<br />

et le délinquant, mais aussi la société. Son enjeu va au-delà des pertes encourues par les<br />

victimes, il signifie une menace à la paix sociale et à la qualité de vie en <strong>com</strong>mun 223 . Tant la<br />

médiation que la justice restauratrice ont pour but de créer ou de retisser les liens sociaux<br />

ainsi que de rétablir le sentiment de paix et de justice entre les citoyens.<br />

L’action sociale restauratrice de ACOR SOS-Racisme<br />

Peu connu en Suisse, ce concept de justice restauratrice a fortement influencé l’Association<br />

contre le racisme - SOS-Racisme 224 (ci-après ACOR) quand elle a conçu et mis sur pied son<br />

service d’action sociale en 1995. ACOR a été créée à la suite de l’adoption par le peuple<br />

suisse de la norme pénale réprimant la discrimination raciale. Seule disposition légale<br />

220 Voir le site de l’association européenne pour la justice restauratrice: European Forum for Restorative Justice<br />

http://www.euforumrj.org/html/about.constitution.memorandum.asp<br />

221 Jaccoud M., (Dir.), Justice réparatrice et médiation pénale. Convergences ou divergences ? Paris,<br />

L'Harmattan, 2003.<br />

222 Concernant les risques de la médiation pénale pour les victimes et les mis en cause, voir Anne Catherine<br />

Salberg, « La médiation: réponse novatrice à la discrimination raciale? » in Médiation en Europe : échanges sur<br />

les pratiques/Master européen en médiation, IUKB, Sion 2002, p.228-230).<br />

223 Lode WALGRAVE, « La justice restaurative : à la recherche d’une théorie et d’un programme », in<br />

Criminologie, 32/1,1999, p. 7-29.<br />

224 http://www.sos-racisme.ch/qsLayout/Home.asp?ChapId=2<br />

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existant à ce jour en Suisse en matière de prévention et de traitement du racisme, cette<br />

disposition concrétise l’inadmissibilité de l’atteinte à la dignité humaine.<br />

Si les garde-fous légaux sont indispensables, ils sont néanmoins insuffisants pour<br />

ac<strong>com</strong>pagner au quotidien les consultants qui dénoncent un acte raciste. L’expérience<br />

d’ACOR montre que dans les quelques cas où la justice entre en matière, la victime est<br />

rarement restaurée dans sa dignité par la condamnation de son agresseur. C’est pourquoi<br />

une approche restauratrice du traitement du racisme a été développée, dans laquelle on part<br />

de la parole de la victime pour savoir quand un acte est vécu <strong>com</strong>me raciste 225 .<br />

Le système pénal est fondamentalement conçu pour sanctionner un coupable dans le but de<br />

protéger la société. La victime n’a pas de statut 226 , elle n’a pas une position de sujet. Dans la<br />

logique pénale, la dignité de la victime est restaurée indirectement par la punition de celui qui<br />

a fauté. Toutefois, l’auteur pourra rester dans son déni de l’humanité d’autrui, qu’il considère<br />

<strong>com</strong>me l’objet de sa haine ou de son mépris.<br />

Une victime de racisme a besoin de dépasser son statut de victime en donnant un sens à<br />

son expérience traumatisante. Elle a besoin d’être restaurée dans sa dignité, d’être<br />

considérée <strong>com</strong>me un être humain à part entière. De même, l’auteur d’un acte raciste doit se<br />

voir offrir une possibilité non stigmatisante de s’expliquer, de <strong>com</strong>prendre la portée de ses<br />

actes, de se responsabiliser et de reconnaître à autrui son altérité.<br />

C’est pourquoi le travail d’ACOR avec les victimes et les auteurs est de leur offrir un lieu<br />

d’écoute et de parole, sans jugement ni idée préconçue sur le conflit et sa solution. Ceci se<br />

révèle être un puissant instrument « d’empowerment », de renforcement de leur capacité à<br />

se vivre <strong>com</strong>me des acteurs du changement.<br />

En outre, ACOR s’est activement engagée pour l’institutionnalisation de la médiation<br />

pénale 227 et le développement de centres indépendants de médiation, en collaboration avec<br />

le Groupement Pro Médiation 228 .<br />

225 Pour une étude approfondie du traitement du racisme et de l’action d’ACOR SOS Racisme face aux limites de<br />

la loi pénale, le lecteur intéressé peut se référer à l’ouvrage de Monique Eckmann, Anne Catherine Salberg,<br />

Claudio Bolzman, Karl Grünberg De la parole des victimes à l’action contre le racisme.. Ed. IES, Genève, 2001.<br />

226 Même si depuis 1993, avec l’introduction de la loi fédérale sur l’aide aux victimes d’infraction (LAVI),<br />

certains droits procéduraux lui ont été accordés.<br />

227 Voir Anne Catherine Salberg « Médiation, de la rupture au lien » in AJP/JPA 12/ 2002, p.1401-1409.<br />

228 www.mediations.ch<br />

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Médiation et racisme<br />

La médiation se base sur une approche coopérative de la gestion des conflits. Il s’agit de<br />

reconnaître l’existence d’un problème et d’accepter de nommer les difficultés. Lors de<br />

rencontres en face à face, les personnes en conflit acceptent de reconnaître les points de<br />

vue différents sur une situation et sont prêtes à collaborer pour trouver des solutions<br />

satisfaisantes pour tous.<br />

La démarche peut sembler très simple à première vue, elle demande cependant aux parties<br />

d’adopter une attitude conciliante et exige du médiateur une posture particulière. En effet, ce<br />

dernier doit rester en retrait, ne pas donner son avis, favoriser la <strong>com</strong>munication et laisser<br />

aux personnes concernées – qui sont les experts de leur situation – trouver elles-mêmes<br />

l’accord qui leur conviendra le mieux 229 .<br />

Le racisme est considéré <strong>com</strong>me un fléau à condamner et contre lequel il faut lutter.<br />

Comment dès lors concilier l’approche de la médiation avec le traitement de situations<br />

portant gravement atteinte à la dignité de l’être humain et aux fondements de son identité<br />

propre ? Comment faire pour ne pas porter de jugement sur ce qui est bien ou mal quand on<br />

est confronté au racisme ?<br />

En médiation, on ne cherche pas à établir des fautes, on ne diabolise pas les individus mais<br />

on s’attache à régler les problèmes créés par les conflits sans désigner ni bourreau, ni<br />

victime. La médiation préconise une attitude de non-jugement, d’accueil de chaque personne<br />

dans sa différence et son altérité.<br />

Pour illustrer notre propos, nous allons présenter trois situations traitées par ACOR en 2005<br />

et qui concernent des victimes de racisme. Après une brève description des incidents<br />

racistes, nous allons montrer <strong>com</strong>ment nous construisons une réponse basée sur la justice<br />

restauratrice.<br />

229 Anne Catherine Salberg « Le médiateur, un expert de la famille ? » in Forum Mediation 1/2002, SVM/ASM,<br />

Horw<br />

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Exemples de situations<br />

1. Insultée par un soldat en uniforme<br />

Une jeune femme se fait insulter dans un wagon-restaurant bondé par un militaire en<br />

uniforme qui lui dit « neggerli ».Très choquée, elle le prie en vain de s’excuser. Certes, ce<br />

n’était malheureusement pas la première fois que cette jeune femme subissait ce genre de<br />

remarques, cependant la considération qu'elle a pour les personnes en uniforme, a amplifié<br />

la portée de ces propos. Raison pour laquelle elle a saisi ACOR afin de réagir et de<br />

dénoncer l'attitude du soldat auprès de sa hiérarchie afin qu'elle lui fasse savoir qu'un tel<br />

<strong>com</strong>portement n'est pas admissible de la part d'un militaire.<br />

Après une première série de courriers et de contacts téléphoniques infructueux avec les<br />

services de l’Armée, ACOR décide de saisir les plus hautes instances en adressant une<br />

missive au Conseiller fédéral et au Chef des Armées. Se référant aux dispositions pénales et<br />

réglementaires existantes, ACOR conclut sa lettre par ces mots « X n'avait probablement<br />

pas l'intention de blesser Mme Z. Il nous paraît alors d'autant plus important de lui faire<br />

prendre conscience de la portée de ses mots qui relèvent du racisme ordinaire. Nous<br />

sommes persuadés que vous partagez notre point de vue et vous remercions de bien vouloir<br />

prendre en considération la demande de notre consultante ».<br />

ACOR reçoit une réponse du Chef des armées et du Président de la Confédération déplorant<br />

l’incident et assurant ACOR de la volonté de l’Armée suisse de condamner le racisme. Le<br />

courrier relève l’importance de l’activité de prévention du racisme menée par l’association et<br />

se conclut par ces termes « interrogé sur les faits que vous citez, X nous a immédiatement<br />

contactés par téléphone. Il souhaite s’excuser auprès de Mme Z et regrette son<br />

<strong>com</strong>portement. X nous a également assurés, en exprimant un sincère repentir, que l’incident<br />

était dû à un égarement et que cela ne se reproduirait plus. »<br />

Ce cas éclaire la philosophie restauratrice d’ACOR. Plutôt que de passer par un procès<br />

pénal – où l’on cherche à établir les faits avec objectivité et à désigner un coupable le cas<br />

échéant – ACOR a préféré faire valoir l’importance de reconnaître les problèmes créés par<br />

l’existence de <strong>com</strong>portements racistes. L’Armée a été sensible à la nécessité de favoriser,<br />

tant dans ses rangs que dans la société civile, un climat exempt de racisme. Elle a accepté<br />

de reconnaître le problème sans le banaliser, de prendre des mesures internes adéquates et<br />

a offert à la victime, dans son courrier signé par les plus hautes autorités du pays, une<br />

reconnaissance de la souffrance vécue. Elle a permis à l’agresseur de prendre conscience<br />

de la gravité de son acte et de présenter des excuses. La consultante s’est satisfaite de la<br />

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éponse des autorités et a valorisé le rôle central joué par ACOR dans sa « vision d’une<br />

Suisse meilleure ».<br />

2. Remise à la police lors d’un contrôle de billet<br />

Une jeune femme fait l’objet d’un contrôle dans un bus. Elle assure les contrôleurs qu’elle<br />

avait pris un billet mais qu’elle l’a perdu. Elle accepte le principe de payer une amende.<br />

Toutefois, lorsqu’elle justifie de son identité en présentant une carte d’identité mexicaine 230<br />

et de son adresse en produisant une carte d’assurance-maladie, les contrôleurs estiment ces<br />

documents insuffisants et la remettent à la police.<br />

La jeune femme s’est adressée à ACOR car elle s’est sentie humiliée par le ton des<br />

contrôleurs, le tutoiement inapproprié, le manque total de respect pour sa personne du fait<br />

de sa nationalité latino-américaine et de son statut précaire (clandestine en voie de<br />

régularisation) ainsi que de ses besoins (arriver à l’heure à son travail).<br />

ACOR a contacté la direction de l’entreprise concernée en demandant à connaître les<br />

conditions de contrôle dans un bus. Dans un premier temps, ACOR a rencontré le<br />

Responsable des ressources humaines pour faire valoir ses préoccupations quant au<br />

déroulement du contrôle de cette jeune femme. Tout en reconnaissant la difficulté extrême<br />

de la tâche des contrôleurs et la possible inadéquation des réactions de notre consultante,<br />

l’accent a été mis sur l’importance de créer des espaces de dialogue. Dans un deuxième<br />

temps, ACOR a rencontré le Chef des contrôleurs afin de voir <strong>com</strong>ment concrètement régler<br />

cet incident entre les collaborateurs concernés et la personne offensée. Selon une enquête<br />

interne auprès des contrôleurs, seule notre consultante, qualifiée de menteuse, était en<br />

cause. Il convient de rappeler que pour ACOR aucune enquête n’est faite sur la véracité des<br />

dires de ses consultants, qu’elle accorde toujours du crédit à leur parole et qu’elle ne se<br />

base sur aucune définition préalable du racisme pour entrer en matière. Dans ce cas précis,<br />

ACOR ne cherche pas à obtenir des sanctions contre les contrôleurs, mais préconise de<br />

reconnaître l’existence possible d’un malentendu. Notre consultante estimait avoir<br />

légitimement donné son identité, mais pour les contrôleurs les pièces présentées ne<br />

correspondaient pas aux exigences du règlement interne de l’entreprise.<br />

Idéalement, un espace indépendant de médiation pourrait permettre aux protagonistes de<br />

s’expliquer dans un espace neutre, sans pression de la hiérarchie ni des menaces<br />

d’éventuelles sanctions condamnant une faute professionnelle. Un dispositif formel de<br />

230 Nationalité modifiée pour préserver l’anonymat de la consultante<br />

380


médiation permettrait tant à la personne offensée dans sa dignité humaine qu’aux<br />

contrôleurs soucieux de travailler correctement de trouver une solution satisfaisante dans le<br />

contexte particulier de l’incident.<br />

Comme une telle procédure n’existe pas, une rencontre entre le contrôleur et la consultante<br />

a été organisée dans le bureau du chef des contrôleurs, avec un double rôle pour ACOR, de<br />

soutien de la consultante et de promotion de la médiation auprès des parties en conflit. En<br />

effet, bien que les parties soient « adverses », elles ont pu s’entendre sur le recours à la<br />

médiation en tant qu'outil adéquat pour trouver une solution à ce conflit. Le contrôleur a<br />

présenté des excuses pour la douleur créée par l’appel à la police et l’institution a admis ne<br />

pas avoir reconnu la bonne foi de notre consultante.<br />

3. Brutalisé par la police<br />

Lors d’un contrôle de police, un requérant d’asile a eu une épaule cassée. Ce jeune Africain<br />

est venu à la permanence d’ACOR quand il a été convoqué chez le juge d’instruction car les<br />

policiers avaient déposé plainte contre lui pour résistance à l’autorité. Choqué d’être ainsi<br />

accusé à tort, alors qu’il s’estimait être lui-même victime de violences policières, il a, sur les<br />

conseils d’ACOR, décidé de porter à son tour plainte contre les policiers pour discrimination<br />

raciale, abus d’autorité et lésions corporelles. Le juge d’instruction a rendu un non-lieu, tant<br />

les versions étaient divergentes. Ce résultat était paradoxalement très satisfaisant pour<br />

ACOR, car cela signifiait que la parole d’un requérant d’asile avait le même poids que celui<br />

de policiers assermentés. Cela permettait surtout d’ouvrir le champ de l’approche<br />

restauratrice, puisque aucune vérité judiciaire n’avait été établie par la justice pénale.<br />

ACOR a saisi le Délégué à l’éthique de ce corps de police afin de voir <strong>com</strong>ment notre<br />

consultant pourrait trouver réparation après un contrôle policier de routine dans lequel il<br />

estimait avoir été victime de violence physique et de propos racistes. ACOR a trouvé un<br />

interlocuteur soucieux de définir sa tâche dans l’espace d’une définition partagée – par la<br />

police et la société civile - de la notion de Bien <strong>com</strong>mun. Ce policier, formé à l’éthique, a<br />

proposé d’organiser une médiation informelle, en présence d’ACOR dans son double rôle de<br />

soutien de la victime et de promoteur de la médiation, entre notre consultant et les policiers<br />

impliqués dans le contrôle. L’objectif de cette rencontre, qui obéira aux règles traditionnelles<br />

de la médiation 231 – et dont le principe doit encore être accepté par notre consultant – sera<br />

d’échanger sur les faits tels qu’ils ont été vécus par chacun des protagonistes et de<br />

déterminer une juste solution pour toutes les parties concernées.<br />

231 En particulier la participation volontaire et la stricte confidentialité.<br />

381


Conclusion<br />

Le droit pénal permet de réaffirmer l’interdit social et de faire œuvre de pédagogie pour<br />

affirmer les droits des plus faibles. Mais, la justice pénale n’est, en réalité, pas adaptée pour<br />

lutter avec efficacité contre la violence au quotidien 232 .<br />

L’action de ACOR SOS Racisme est fondée sur le respect de la dignité humaine et sur la<br />

conviction que la philosophie de la justice restauratrice et de la médiation permettent à la fois<br />

de défendre la dignité des victimes et d’offrir à chacun la possibilité de se responsabiliser<br />

pour ses actes.<br />

La douleur d’une victime de racisme, d’être agressée pour ce qu’elle est, en raison de son<br />

appartenance ou de son apparence, n’est pas mesurable. Cette souffrance, si elle n’est pas<br />

prise en <strong>com</strong>pte par la société toute entière, risque de créer des phénomènes de violence<br />

réactionnelle notamment par le renforcement du sentiment identitaire et du<br />

<strong>com</strong>munautarisme.<br />

Le vivre-ensemble dans une société moderne et cosmopolite nécessite un véritable débat<br />

éthique sur la construction de l’idée de Bien <strong>com</strong>mun 233 . Pour promouvoir et concrétiser les<br />

valeurs des droits de l’homme et de la citoyenneté, un dialogue est indispensable dans la<br />

société contemporaine pour éviter la violence et la radicalisation des positions.<br />

Cette vision novatrice du travail social promeut l’approche restauratrice et la médiation tant<br />

auprès des consultants que des institutions dans laquelle s’est produit un incident raciste.<br />

ACOR ne tient pas à l’institutionnalisation des principes de la justice restauratrice, mais<br />

cherche plutôt à diffuser la culture de la médiation au sein des institutions lorsqu’elles sont<br />

confrontées à des actes racistes. Après 10 ans d’action, et <strong>com</strong>me l’auront illustré les trois<br />

cas présentés dans la présente contribution, on peut constater qu’une certaine<br />

reconnaissance existe désormais.<br />

La voie informelle de la médiation et de la justice restauratrice réalise l’exigence de rapports<br />

humains dignes et respectables et favorise le maintien du lien social.<br />

232 Jacques Faget « Médiation et violences conjugales » http://champpenal.revues.org/document50.html (juillet<br />

2004)<br />

233 Denis Müller « Bien <strong>com</strong>mun, conflits d’intérêts et délibération éthique » in Ethique publique 6/1 (Montréal,<br />

2004), p. 100-105<br />

382


Mediation for Mediators?<br />

Basic information of family court and procedure in Japan<br />

_____________________________________________________________________<br />

Satoshi Minamikata<br />

Niigata University<br />

1. Family courts and process for family disputes resolution<br />

2. Family disputes and process of Chotei<br />

383


Determination<br />

A family court judge shall make a determination by his/her own motion on the basis of<br />

information submitted not only by the parties but also by a family court investigation officer.<br />

Determination is classified into two groups: Category A determination for the cases of which<br />

issues should be decided by a judge because the nature of issues is mainly related to the<br />

public interests (such as a declaration of in<strong>com</strong>petent), and Category B determination for the<br />

cases of which issues are allowed to be decided by the parties’ agreement before the<br />

<strong>com</strong>mencement of determination process (such as a decision which parent shall hold<br />

parental rights and duties after divorce).<br />

* The parties must apply for Chotei before they start personal affairs litigation or family court<br />

determination (Family Affairs Proceedings Act sects.17 and 18)<br />

*’Ancillary resolution’ is the procedure for cases such as division of matrimonial property,<br />

which parent shall hold parental rights responsibilities after divorce and the right to access<br />

etc.<br />

* Fee for Chotei is about 10 dollars covering all sessions.<br />

*In some occasions, the parties are encouraged to make efforts for reconciliation at Chotei<br />

sessions as family relationship matter.<br />

384


*’Othre matters’ include family disputes which are not stipulated in the Presonal Affairs<br />

Litigation Act and the Family Affairs Proceedings Act.<br />

3. Structure of Chotei<br />

*Mediation <strong>com</strong>mittee consists of one family court judge and at least two <strong>com</strong>missioners -<br />

one male and female <strong>com</strong>missioner.<br />

*No qualifications required for the appointment of Chotei <strong>com</strong>missioner except the age of 40<br />

years and over and under 71 years. Practicing lawyers and other specialists such as<br />

counsellor can be appointed to assist the parties to reach agreements with their professional<br />

skills and knowledge. In fact, practicing lawyer may be allocated to a legally difficult case.<br />

*An investigation officer and medical staff are the officer attached to family courts. A family<br />

court judge, if s/he thinks necessary, can order a medical staff to provide medical treatment<br />

for the parties in emotional problems.<br />

385


4. Chotei and participants<br />

*The parties can hire a lawyer but not mandate.<br />

*Children/relatives are allowed to attend at Chotei sessions if a judge thinks necessary.<br />

*In practice, a judge is often absent from Chotei sessions but mediators keeps contact with<br />

him/her directly or through exchange of memo.<br />

5. Statistics on Chotei cases and other relevant matters<br />

160,000<br />

140,000<br />

120,000<br />

100,000<br />

80,000<br />

60,000<br />

40,000<br />

20,000<br />

0<br />

Cases<br />

N um ber of C hotei1947-2003<br />

1947<br />

1955<br />

1965<br />

1975<br />

1985<br />

1994<br />

1995<br />

1996<br />

1997<br />

year<br />

1998<br />

1999<br />

2000<br />

2001<br />

2002<br />

2003<br />

*Figures from the Supreme Court Judicial Statistics 2005.<br />

Totalof C hotei<br />

care and control<br />

of children<br />

assingm ent/chan<br />

ge of parent w ith<br />

parentalrights<br />

and duties<br />

marital<br />

conflict/divorce<br />

386


*Most of marital conflict-divorce cases are divorce.<br />

14,000<br />

12,000<br />

10,000<br />

8,000<br />

6,000<br />

4,000<br />

2,000<br />

C ases<br />

0<br />

1947<br />

1955<br />

C ategory B D eterm ination 1947-2003<br />

1965<br />

1975<br />

1985<br />

1994<br />

1995<br />

1996<br />

year<br />

1997<br />

1998<br />

1999<br />

2000<br />

2001<br />

2002<br />

2003<br />

* Figures from the Supreme Court Judicial Statistics 2005.<br />

Totalof<br />

C ategory B<br />

Determinatio<br />

n<br />

care and<br />

controlof<br />

children<br />

assignm ent/<br />

change of<br />

parent w ith<br />

parental<br />

rights and<br />

duties<br />

cases<br />

1,200,000<br />

1,000,000<br />

800,000<br />

600,000<br />

Marriage and divoce 1947-2003<br />

marriage<br />

divorce<br />

400,000<br />

200,000<br />

0<br />

1947<br />

1955<br />

1965<br />

1975<br />

1985<br />

1994<br />

1995<br />

1996<br />

year<br />

1997<br />

1998<br />

1999<br />

2000<br />

2001<br />

2002<br />

2003<br />

*Figures from the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare Summery of Vital Statistics 2003<br />

(http://www.mhlw.go.jp)<br />

387


Contribution à l’histoire de la médiation en entreprise :<br />

<strong>com</strong>paraison franco-américaine et perspectives 234<br />

_____________________________________________________________<br />

Arnaud Stimec 235<br />

Summary<br />

Mediation seems difficult to introduce in French firms. Many reasons are <strong>com</strong>monly invoked :<br />

culture, lack of needs, the existence of other regulations exist… A historical perspective show<br />

that contextual choices have lead to structural barriers and a different path than the North<br />

American one. Mediation as a long history in France and Europe and a different path does not<br />

mean impossibility if actors of the mediation field accept to adapt.<br />

Résumé<br />

La médiation semble difficile à introduire dans les entreprises françaises. Plusieurs raisons sont<br />

couramment invoquées : la culture, l’absence de besoins, l’existences d’autres formes de<br />

régulation… Une mise en perspective historique montre que des choix contextuels ont contribué<br />

à des barrières structurelles et à un chemin différent de celui d’Amérique du nord. La médiation<br />

a un longue histoire en France et en Europe et un chemin différent ne signifie pas impossibilité<br />

si les acteurs du champ de la médiation acceptent de s’adapter.<br />

234 Cette <strong>com</strong>munication reprend et actualise les grandes lignes d’une <strong>com</strong>munication effectuée en novembre<br />

2002 lors du colloque « Histoire et Gestion » de l’Université de Toulouse.<br />

235 Maître de Conférences à l’Université de Nantes (Ecole Polytechnique). Courriel : arnaud.stimec@laposte.net<br />

388


Introduction<br />

La médiation est si peu développée dans les entreprises françaises que beaucoup de ses<br />

acteurs s’imaginent que l’histoire de la médiation se situe dans une autre sphère (le travail<br />

social ou la famille) et que sa place est d’y rester. Plusieurs constats peuvent conduire à<br />

revisiter cette assertion. Il apparaît tout d’abord qu’après un usage ancien chez les chrétiens<br />

(le Christ médiateur) puis en diplomatie, c’est dans l’entreprise et les organisations que la<br />

médiation s’est développée. Les premières expériences remontent au 19 ème siècle mais c’est<br />

pendant la seconde guerre mondiale que la médiation s’institue et se formalise véritablement<br />

pour les conflits collectifs du travail (aux Etats-Unis).<br />

Il apparaît ensuite que la médiation n’est pas spécifiquement une importation américaine -<br />

l’intervention de tiers facilitateurs semble plutôt être un trait universel - même si c’est<br />

d’Amérique du Nord qu’elle est revenue en Europe dans les années 80. Or, c’est à travers<br />

les médiations familiales, judiciaires et <strong>com</strong>munautaires – elles-mêmes inspirées des<br />

expériences en entreprises – que la médiation a été présentée en Europe, rompant avec la<br />

filiation de la vie des entreprises.<br />

Si l’on parle aujourd’hui parfois de médiation en entreprise, c’est avec beaucoup de<br />

confusions sur la nature de la médiation, sa provenance ou ses objectifs. En définissant la<br />

médiation <strong>com</strong>me « un processus de négociation facilité par un tiers » 236 son existence<br />

visible dans les entreprises françaises est quasiment nulle et cela même en assimilant<br />

(temporairement) médiation et conciliation <strong>com</strong>me des processus voisins. Les médiateurs<br />

institutionnels qui ont fleuri au milieu des années 1990 (banques, assurances, SNCF,<br />

RATP…), par exemple, sont en fait des ombudsman (terme employé par la plupart des pays<br />

occidentaux) dont la mission est principalement de rendre un avis sur un litige et<br />

aucunement d’encadrer une négociation. Les procédures prévues par le droit du travail sont<br />

pratiquement en désuétude et <strong>com</strong>portent de nombreuses ambiguïtés sur le rôle du<br />

médiateur. De leur côté, les centres de médiation, notamment issus des Chambres de<br />

Commerce, ont de grandes difficultés à se développer. Si les avantages théoriques de la<br />

médiation dans les organisations sont potentiellement les mêmes en France et aux Etats-<br />

Unis (rapidité, confidentialité, préservation des liens, confidentialité…), qu’est-ce qui explique<br />

236 Le choix d’une telle définition pourrait faire l’objet d’une longue discussion. Elle correspond aussi bien à la<br />

définition nord-américaine qu’à la définition traditionnelle du mot médiation dans la langue française (appliquée<br />

à la gestion des conflits). Ce tiers peut, selon les contextes, être appelé un médiateur ou un conciliateur. La<br />

plupart des chercheurs et observateurs ont renoncé à distinguer le médiateur et le conciliateur d’une manière<br />

absolue mais se concentrent sur les pratiques effectives (voir Stimec, 1999).<br />

389


le développement très limité en France ? S’agit-il vraiment de résistances culturelles,<br />

hypothèse ici tautologique ? Une approche historique <strong>com</strong>parative du développement de la<br />

médiation aux Etats-Unis (I), et en France (II) nous permettra de proposer un modèle<br />

explicatif et des pistes d’action (III).<br />

I - L’émergence de la médiation dans les relations du travail en Amérique du<br />

nord<br />

A. Les relations collectives<br />

• Le War Labor Board<br />

• FMCS (Federation of Mediation and Conciliation Service)<br />

• Les limites de l’arbitrage et l’influence sur le développement de la médiation<br />

B. Les relations individuelles<br />

• Des grivances procedures aux systèmes globaux de gestion des conflits.<br />

• Les médiateurs internes et les managers médiateurs.<br />

C. La médiation dans les relations <strong>com</strong>merciales<br />

• L’engorgement des tribunaux et de l’arbitrage<br />

II - La France : un contexte défavorable pour la mediation dans les relations du travail<br />

A. L’échec des procédure formelles dans les relations professionnelles<br />

• Le contexte syndical français<br />

• L’expérience de 1936 – 1939<br />

• L’échec des autres dispositifs après la guerre<br />

B. Les régulations informelles dans les relations professionnelles<br />

• Les régulations informelles : le cas de l’inspecteur du travail<br />

• Les intervenants extérieurs<br />

390


C. Les relations individuelles du travail : la conciliation prud’homale<br />

• Un cadre favorable : le recours à un arbitrage coercitif en cas d’impasse<br />

• Les fondements et le déclin<br />

• Les obstacles méthodologiques et institutionnels<br />

D. La médiation dans les relations <strong>com</strong>merciales<br />

• La médiation conventionnelle<br />

• La médiation d’origine judiciaire<br />

III - <strong>com</strong>paraison et Enseignements: une exception française ?<br />

A - La pression de l’Etat ou des systèmes antérieurs de régulation<br />

B - Les motivations des parties<br />

La perception d’intérêts à mettre en place et faire fonctionner un système de médiation<br />

peut suffire mais viendra souvent <strong>com</strong>pléter une incitation ou une pression extérieure. Le<br />

tableau suivant résume les principales motivations que nous avons identifiées pour la<br />

médiation dans les relations industrielles. Les signes indiquent si les motivations peuvent<br />

favoriser de manière nette (+), incertaine (+ /- ) ou faible (-) la négociation de procédures de<br />

régulation telles que la médiation.<br />

Motivations des organisations<br />

Motivations des du patronat<br />

syndicales de salariés<br />

• Limiter l’arbitraire du patronat<br />

-<br />

• Avoir des interlocuteurs crédibles<br />

-<br />

• Obtenir de meilleures conditions de<br />

+ / -<br />

• Obtenir une limitation de l’exercice<br />

-<br />

travail pour les salariés<br />

de la grève<br />

• Assurer leur pérennité (de syndicat)<br />

• Obtenir une alternative à la limitation<br />

-<br />

-<br />

• Limiter les effets des crises (autres<br />

que la grève)<br />

+ / -<br />

réglementaire ou contractuelle de la<br />

grève<br />

• Le morcellement syndical<br />

• Des besoins malgré tout<br />

C - Les possibilités juridiques<br />

391


CONCLUSION<br />

Une exploration détaillée de l’histoire de la médiation en France et aux Etats-Unis nous<br />

permis d’identifier plusieurs points majeurs :<br />

• La médiation et la conciliation ont dans les deux pays été très largement confondues<br />

jusqu’à une période tardive (début des années 1980). Au delà des termes, il semble<br />

aujourd’hui plus intéressant de considérer les méthodes et l’éthique des intervenants<br />

pour lesquelles il y a de vraies différences<br />

• La médiation s’est développée aux Etats-Unis à partir des conflits collectifs du<br />

travail puis a gagné les relations <strong>com</strong>merciales et le management interne. Elle s’est<br />

développée ensuite davantage dans d’autres domaines : quartiers, famille... en faisant<br />

parfois croire qu’il serait dangereux d’appliquer aux entreprises ce qui vient du secteur<br />

social<br />

• L’imminence d’un arbitrage ou d’une décision rapide (judiciaire ou privé) s’imposant<br />

à toutes les parties apparaît <strong>com</strong>me une condition majeure du développement de la<br />

médiation. Face à cet arbitrage en suspend, la médiation est une chance d’éviter de subir<br />

une décision extérieure<br />

• Le développement de la médiation était plus avancé en France qu’aux Etats-Unis<br />

jusqu’en 1939 dans les relations du travail. Le changement de cadre législatif et<br />

constitutionnel à l’issue de la seconde guerre mondiale (en France) et l’expérience<br />

accumulée du fait de l’effort de guerre (aux Etats-Unis), avec divers mesures pour éviter<br />

les grèves (dont la médiation et l’arbitrage), a conduit à inverser la situation<br />

Le système Français est un frein majeur au développement de la médiation dans les<br />

négociations collectives du travail 237 . Les principales motivations à l’origine de la création des<br />

procédures de médiation aux Etats-Unis ne sont pas actives en France (par exemple,<br />

l’interdiction de négocier le droit de grève limite la construction de procédure effectives<br />

d’arbitrage et de médiation préalables à tout mouvement).<br />

A l’issue de cette revue il nous semble que sauf impulsion étatique forte, la médiation et la<br />

conciliation ont peu de chances de se développer dans les conflits collectifs du travail<br />

ou bien dans le cadre des litiges concernant le contrat de travail. Il n’est d’ailleurs pas<br />

certain que cela soit utile ou même plus favorable aux uns ou aux autres, la France ayant<br />

finalement développé d’autres modes de régulation. Tout au plus pourrait-on re<strong>com</strong>mander<br />

237 Il ne s’agit pas de préférer le système américain pour autant, mais de <strong>com</strong>prendre ce qui favorise ou non<br />

l’émergence d’un dialogue direct et en particulier de la médiation.<br />

392


de s’interroger sur le renforcement ou l’amélioration de certains dispositifs formels existants<br />

(la conciliation aux Prud’hommes) ou informels (l’intervention des inspecteurs du travail).<br />

L’espace des relations managériales du travail (conflits individuels indépendant du<br />

contrat de travail, problème de management d’équipes…) ainsi que la médiation<br />

interentreprises, qui ont gagné assez récemment les pays anglo-saxons sont en<br />

revanche potentiellement ouverts. Certes, la France ne dispose pas du précédent des<br />

relations professionnelles pour créer un environnement favorable mais rien ne peut<br />

permettre pour le moment d’exclure d’autres modes de développement. Des résultats de<br />

recherche sur l’activité informelle de médiation des cadres en France d’une part, et<br />

concernant la réceptivité à la médiation formelle dans certaines configurations (par exemple<br />

les relations <strong>com</strong>merciales) ouvrent des perspectives. En particulier, il existe d’autres<br />

régulations informelles, notamment de médiation qui peuvent offrir un terrain favorable. Les<br />

cadres semblent très réceptifs à la médiation (par une personne externe) pour les affaires<br />

externes. Il y a à ce sujet un manque important de notoriété des possibilités de médiation.<br />

L’actualité tend par ailleurs périodiquement à envisager la mise en place de procédures<br />

formelles de médiation (question du harcèlement moral, licenciements collectifs chez<br />

Moulinez et Mark & Spencer…). Enfin, l’évolution actuelle nord américaine vers des<br />

systèmes globaux de gestion des conflits dans les organisations reste tout à fait ouverte en<br />

France.<br />

Note<br />

Pour des indications bibliographiques, voir :<br />

STIMEC A., La médiation et l’entreprise : facteurs de développement et réceptivité, Thèse en<br />

Sciences de Gestion, Université Paris I – Panthéon Sorbonne, sous la direction de Jacques<br />

Rojot, Septembre 2001.<br />

Pour des approfondissements pratiques, voir :<br />

STIMEC A., La médiation en entreprise, Dunod, Paris, 2005.<br />

393


Building Trust to Manage Fear of Retaliation in the Workplace<br />

________________________________________________________________<br />

Anne B. Thomas<br />

Executive Secretary, Appeals Committee, World Bank Group<br />

Workshop description<br />

Trust between managers and staff members is important in a healthy, productive workplace.<br />

The use of the term “retaliation” evokes fear. Anti-retaliation policies and practices rarely<br />

make staff feel <strong>com</strong>fortable raising their concerns. Mother Theresa said she was never<br />

against any, she was only for something. Therefore, the World Bank Group (WBG) has<br />

attempted to address fear of retaliation for raising concerns by encouraging behaviors that<br />

increase trust. Staff concerns are more easily addressed and resolved where trust is<br />

present.<br />

This workshop focuses on the efforts of the WBG to address the issue of fear of retaliation<br />

through building trust. The WBG conducted a study of behaviors that create and undermine<br />

trust and the results of high trust versus low trust environments. We have learned that:<br />

• There is a significant difference in the work-life experience of high trust and low trust<br />

workgroups<br />

• Multiple factors contribute to high trust in a work group<br />

o High trust groups tend to be small with relatively stable membership<br />

o Messages from upper management in the form of policies, practices, and behaviors<br />

which support institutional values provide a platform for trust<br />

o An environment of appreciation and high regard for the work of a unit motivates<br />

both performance and trust.<br />

o Transparency and a candid work environment where expectations and decisions<br />

are openly shared, problems and inconsistencies are discussed with the goal of<br />

learning and the processes for arriving at conclusions are known by all was seen as<br />

critical<br />

o Managers skilled both technically and in people management skills (<strong>com</strong>munication,<br />

conflict resolution, effective decision making, concern for staff and “walking the<br />

talk”) were a given in high trust groups.<br />

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o Strong relationships among group members who respect each other, share goals<br />

and take responsibility for achieving those goals was another factor. Working<br />

together was a stronger motivation than <strong>com</strong>peting.<br />

o The group environment is supportive by providing clear roles and responsibilities so<br />

work is ac<strong>com</strong>plished without any need to “pull rank.” In these settings information<br />

is shared with no hidden agendas and do not obstruct group achievements.<br />

• The Manager in both high and low trust groups sets the tone and shapes the trust<br />

environment and is seen as the primary determinant of high and low trust environments.<br />

• There are specific Management behaviors identified as creating and damaging trust.<br />

• Where trust for the manager is high it is also high for workgroup peers and colleagues<br />

across boundaries.<br />

• Where trust is low staff turn first to peers for trusting relationships.<br />

• The study validates that managerial behaviors are key to building high trust.<br />

• Management behaviors/characteristics identified as most important shapers of the trust<br />

environment by both high and low trust groups included:<br />

o Honesty<br />

o Transparent decision making<br />

o Respectfulness<br />

o Consistency<br />

o Walking the talk<br />

• Setting clear expectations and trusting staff to do their job were the second tier<br />

characteristics identified.<br />

• Staff tend to share conflict concerns with peers.<br />

• Many staff issues or conflicts are resolved at the most informal, “grass-roots” level, with<br />

staff using peer assistance or informal third parties within the Bank to help them to<br />

manage and resolve differences.<br />

• Conflicts are more likely to be submerged or badly handled in low trust groups.<br />

• In high trust groups, staff take their concerns first to the manager even when they are<br />

anxious about the out<strong>com</strong>e.<br />

Managerial behavior is the key signal for staff that trust exists. Where the behavior is<br />

supportive and strong, peer relationships and even relationships across boundaries are<br />

strong as well. Conflict is routine and provides learning rather than derailing productivity.<br />

395


Staff are often willing to go directly to their peers or superiors to get disputes resolved, but<br />

only if they believe their manager is capable of handling “people problems,” will listen to<br />

them, will be fair and has not acted in a dictatorial manner in the past.<br />

Trying to address fears of retaliation through anti-retaliation policies often increases staff<br />

fears of raising concerns in the workplace. Working towards building a high trust<br />

environment increases staffs’ <strong>com</strong>fort with raising concerns and raising them early, before<br />

the situation develops a life of its own. Managers’ behaviors are critical in creating that high<br />

trust environment.<br />

396


Delincuencia y mediación Penal<br />

__________________________________________________________________<br />

Maria Evangelina Trebolle,<br />

Coordinadora general, equipo interdisciplinario del Servicio Universitario de Resolución de<br />

Conflictos (SURCO), Buenos Aires<br />

Dr. Luis María Desimoni,<br />

Rector del Instiuto Universitario de la Policia Federal Argentina<br />

Relación entre capital social y delincuencia<br />

Toda forma de desarrollo, indica grados de <strong>com</strong>promiso, asociatividad, colaboración, y<br />

solidaridad, de una determinada <strong>com</strong>unidad en pos de sus objetivos <strong>com</strong>o tal. Las<br />

sociedades latinoamericanas, en su mayoría hoy carentes de esas virtudes, podrían<br />

alcanzar su potencial trabajando sobre sus recursos humanos, altamente capacitados,<br />

algunos, pero tal vez insensibles hacia el otro, o poco permeables a los reclamos populares,<br />

creemos que en esta situación, los métodos de Resolución alternativa de disputas, tienen<br />

una respuesta para dar.<br />

La desconfianza, los manejos pocos claros, la corrupción etc. Son generadores de<br />

violencia, y todo ello de múltiples conflictos, que devienen muchos de ellos en delitos.<br />

“Existe una relación muy estrecha entre el capital social y la delincuencia. Si definimos el<br />

capital social <strong>com</strong>o una norma de cooperación arraigada en los vínculos que unen un grupo<br />

de personas, entonces la delincuencia representa lisa y llanamente ausencia de capital<br />

social, puesto que significa la violación de una norma <strong>com</strong>unitaria” 238 este sentido, los<br />

métodos RAD, constituyen una alternativa pacificadora, integrándose al ciudadano en<br />

procesos cooperativos, que redundaran en beneficios para toda la <strong>com</strong>unidad. El nivel de<br />

vida, en nuestras sociedades, afectado por grandes transformaciones, <strong>com</strong>o el avance<br />

tecnológico, la globalización <strong>com</strong>o fenómeno cultural, social, económico, el aumento de la<br />

238 Fukuyama Francis. La gran Ruptura- Ed. Atlantida- 1999<br />

397


violencia, constituyen un llamado de atención respecto de los mecanismos que adoptamos<br />

para resolver la conflictiva diaria, en nuestro entorno, laboral, social, familiar etc.<br />

A poco que meditemos sobre ello, o investiguemos en la realidad, detectaremos que somos<br />

ineficientes en este sentido, observemos el <strong>com</strong>portamiento de las personas en la vía<br />

publica, cualquier discusión puede transformarse en enfrentamiento, en las escuelas la<br />

violencia va en aumento, en las familias, los casos de abandono y violencia, son harto<br />

frecuentes. Es decir, descubriremos, que nuestra sociedad y casi en toda Latinoamérica se<br />

observa este fenómeno, las personas carecen de recursos para administrar sus conflictos,<br />

para enfrentarlos, para buscar soluciones, que no arrojen perdedores o excluidos del<br />

sistema.<br />

Los <strong>com</strong>plejos cambios, vividos por la humanidad en los últimos cincuenta años, son<br />

factores que originan toda la situación referida, avalada por múltiples investigaciones<br />

sociológicas, amén de las noticias de todos los días recogidas por los medios de<br />

<strong>com</strong>unicación.<br />

En síntesis, conocemos el problema, aumento de la violencia urbana, inseguridad,<br />

prevención ineficiente y la necesidad de brindar mejores servicios a la <strong>com</strong>unidad. “En la<br />

raíz de su éxito está el capital social, nuevo hallazgo de las ciencias del desarrollo.<br />

Detectado en los estudios pioneros de Putman (Harvard), abarca por lo menos cuatro<br />

dimensiones:<br />

• Los valores éticos dominantes en una sociedad,<br />

• Su capacidad de asociatividad,<br />

• El grado de confianza entre sus miembros y<br />

• La conciencia cívica.<br />

Los resultados de las mediciones econométricas son concluyentes. Cuanto más capital<br />

social, más crecimiento económico a largo plazo, menor criminalidad, más salud pública,<br />

más gobernabilidad democrática. La noción no pretende suplantar al peso en el desarrollo<br />

de los factores macroeconómicos, sino que llama la atención sobre que deben sumarse a<br />

ellos estas dimensiones. El mero reduccionismo economicista es una visión estrecha y<br />

lleva a políticas ineficientes.” (Encuentro Ética y desarrollo para América latina 2003-<br />

Montevideo Uruguay)<br />

Actuales tendencias del derecho penal, y los Métodos alternativos de Resolución de<br />

Conflictos<br />

398


El derecho penal tiende hacia la contención de <strong>com</strong>portamientos para los cuales el Estado,<br />

en cuya cabeza ha quedado depositado el ejercicio del control social en el mundo<br />

contemporáneo, amenaza sanciones concretas. Más, frente a cierta deslegitimación de los<br />

sistemas penales, han surgido respuestas político-criminales –o simplemente políticas- de<br />

contracción del derecho penal o de su abolición. Las corrientes y doctrinas son variadas y<br />

tienen matices que las diferencian. No, obstante puede predicarse del abolicionismo que<br />

niega legitimidad a los sistemas penales tal cual operan en la realidad social actual y, <strong>com</strong>o<br />

principio general, de cualquier otro que pudiera proyectarse en el futuro <strong>com</strong>o alternativa<br />

sobre modelos formales y abstractos de solución de conflictos, postulando una abolición<br />

radical de los mismos y la asunción de la solución de los conflictos por instancias o<br />

mecanismos informales; y del minimalismo que, si bien igualmente deslegitimante, propone<br />

una alternativa mínima que considera necesaria <strong>com</strong>o mal menor. 239<br />

Otros autores afirman que hoy en día, las sociedades –por medio de sus órganos- llevan a<br />

cabo una selección de conductas que serán objeto del derecho penal. Dentro de tal<br />

contexto, se ha puesto de manifiesto una tendencia racionalizadora del fenómeno penal que<br />

reserva el derecho criminal para los casos en que el enfrentamiento carece de alternativas<br />

en cuanto a una solución por medias otras herramientas de la política social. Bajo este<br />

marco de derecho penal mínimo que entiende que no siempre se protegen bienes jurídicos<br />

fundamentales por una parte y por la otra que se seleccionan determinados individuos <strong>com</strong>o<br />

destinatarios de la sanción 240 , se inserta la despenalización de hechos de poca<br />

trascendencia social para sustituir el castigo penal por formas más eficaces, menos<br />

costosas y de menores efectos desocializadores. El minimalismo no abarca sólo la fase<br />

jurídica, sino una política criminal de perfiles amplios y que delinea la menor cantidad<br />

posible de intromisión estatal con la mayor cantidad alcanzable de garantías. El minimalismo<br />

reduce las respuestas a los casos más graves y extremos en los cuales la pena podría tener<br />

<strong>com</strong>o finalidad la defensa social.<br />

En este orden de ideas, si trabajamos sobre el crecimiento de la sociedad, y de los<br />

individuos que la <strong>com</strong>ponen, en la ética, la transparencia, la responsabilidad, sostenida por<br />

la auto <strong>com</strong>posición de los conflictos, en un sistema basado en la satisfacción de intereses<br />

<strong>com</strong>unes con respeto hacia el otro, estaremos forjando una sociedad, que en modo<br />

239 (2) Highton, Elena, Alvarez, Gladis y Gregorio; Carlos “Resolución Alternativa de Disputas y Sistema<br />

Penal” Ad. Hoc.<br />

240 Cita al pie (3) Baratta, Alessandro “Problema sociali e percezione della criminalita”.<br />

399


permanente crecerá paulatina, pero firmemente hacia la conformación de sistemas más<br />

justos y mejor administrados.<br />

Así <strong>com</strong>o, dentro del marco del estudio del derecho penal, ciertas escuelas centran sus<br />

esfuerzos en obtener una mayor o menor discriminalización y proponen resolver los casos<br />

penales de escasa cuantía y significación a través de recursos hasta ahora considerados no<br />

penales. Otros autores definitivamente abolicionistas, tratan de desplazar <strong>com</strong>pletamente al<br />

derecho penal por medio del reemplazo de la pena por otros mecanismos culturalmente<br />

distantes de derecho penal, entre ellos, la reparación. Caracterizan <strong>com</strong>o desemejantes a la<br />

pena y a la reparación apartando esta última opción del ámbito del derecho penal.<br />

Los abolicionistas señalan que las normas del sistema de justicia penal no cumplen con la<br />

función esperada, el sistema funciona de manera deficiente y actúa sólo en casos<br />

esporádicos, argumentación que se reafirma con el alto porcentaje de conductas delictivas;<br />

además, el sistema opera con los mismos valores que dice <strong>com</strong>batir, degradando al ser<br />

humano, lo estigmatiza y lo conduce a perder su dignidad. La ejecución de la pena deviene<br />

estéril y sólo contribuye a producir efectos irreparables al sujeto condenado que en forma<br />

alguna la sociedad logra rehabilitar o restaurar. Por otra parte no se tiene en cuenta a la<br />

víctima en el mecanismo sancionatorio expresado.<br />

El abolicionismo hace especial hincapié en la respuesta incapacitadora privativa de la<br />

libertad <strong>com</strong>o el exponente más nocivo del sistema. Partiendo de la base de toda limitación<br />

a la libertad ambulatoria es una pena desde el punto de vista ontológico y de que toda<br />

restricción de la libertad tiene consecuencias negativas, intenta crear soluciones<br />

alternativas.<br />

Surge así la sanción penal <strong>com</strong>o última ratio a la que el régimen legal debe recurrir<br />

solamente a la falta de otro tipo de soluciones frente a <strong>com</strong>portamientos disvaliosos, en<br />

tanto el entorno punitivo no respeta ni responde a las necesidades los penados,<br />

convirtiéndolos en víctimas pasivas y desesperanzadas de muchos de los errores de la<br />

sociedad. Por ello, la mayoría de los estudios criminológicos modernos enfatizan la<br />

ineficacia de la pena privativa de la libertad, debido a que –además de hacer daño al sujeto<br />

que la sufre- agrava o determina estados psicopatológicos y coarta su resocialización.<br />

Se entiende que un Estado de Derecho debe garantizar los derechos humanos y, por tanto,<br />

las medidas coercitivas deberían aplicarse en la menor medida factible, con el intento de<br />

acudir a otras opciones más efectivas –y menos cruentas- que puedan sustituir o disminuir<br />

400


la exigencia de acudir a la medida privativa de la libertad; que no es con mayor represión,<br />

cómo se resuelve el problema de la criminalidad, ya que ésta actúa sobre los efectos y no<br />

sobre las causas de la misma.<br />

Pero estas alternativas deben ir a<strong>com</strong>pañadas de una intensiva preparación para la libertad,<br />

mediante la asistencia psicológica-psiquiátrica, la participación en grupos de terapia y<br />

concientización familiar, la asistencia social, la adecuación de las condiciones socioculturales-laborales<br />

para evitar que –ante causas similares- se produzcan nuevas<br />

reacciones antisociales, por ello es ineludible el trabajo en el desarrollo del capital humano,<br />

incorporando politicas de estado de trascendencia en la ambicion de cualquier sociedad que<br />

pretenda conformarse de individuos capaces de construir un mundo digno para la<br />

humanidad. La tradicional aplicación de la justicia retributiva, basada en la aplicación de la<br />

ley y el castigo <strong>com</strong>o elementos relevantes, nos da cuenta de un estado social violento, de<br />

creciente marginalidad, y de la incesante recreación de la misma, en cárceles no aptas para<br />

la resocialización de los seres humanos allí alojados, que muy por el contrario adquieren<br />

otras habilidades superiores, para aplicar al salir, ya que tampoco se les brindarán muchas<br />

oportunidades de insertarse dentro del conjunto social, por lo cual es muy probable que<br />

reincidan, cayéndose en un circulo vicioso. Además, de no considerar a la victima de un<br />

ilícito, <strong>com</strong>o una parte relevante, o peor aún, cuando es revictimizada por el propio sistema.<br />

Muy por el contrario, la justicia restaurativa o restauradora, parte de principios que tienen por<br />

eje la restauración de la relación humana, entre los protagonistas del conflicto penal y la<br />

participación de una sociedad responsable. Este tipo de propuestas no pretenden, un<br />

cambio <strong>com</strong>o bien lo señalan los autores Highton , Álvarez y Gregorio en su trabajo, ya<br />

citado ut supra, en modo repentino sino gradual, a través de la búsqueda de sistemas más<br />

operativos, y respetuosos de la dignidad humana, en pro de una verdadera paz social<br />

construida por todos.<br />

En este marco de cambios, avances y retrocesos, creemos que, la mediación puede<br />

ser una herramienta que permita abrir estos caminos, y explorar alternativas<br />

diferentes.<br />

401


Conclusiones<br />

En este sentido todo trabajo sobre la búsqueda de un desarrollo sustentable, producirá<br />

efectos notables sobre las tasas de criminalidad, sobre la violencia urbana, y en general<br />

sobre los efectos nocivos que generan los estados corruptos, entendiendo por estos,<br />

prácticas sociales arraigadas y consentidas.<br />

Así, es importante destacar el pensamiento de Kliksberg, quien sostiene que la criminalidad<br />

y sus altos índices se daría por tres variables, altas tasa de desocupación juvenil, en<br />

segundo lugar la desarticulación familiar y en tercer lugar los niveles educativos, y así<br />

sostiene “La clave para atacar este gravísimo problema esta ligada estructuralmente a poner<br />

en marcha políticas que abran oportunidades para los jóvenes, protejan la estructura familiar<br />

y eleven los niveles educativos.” 241<br />

Entendemos que la facilitación del dialogo, a través de los métodos alternativos de disputas,<br />

ofrecen un interesante panorama para promover los cambios que nuestras sociedades<br />

necesitan. La propuesta de un centro de resolución alternativa de disputas, dentro de cada<br />

seccional o circunscripción policial, es la posibilidad de <strong>com</strong>prender las temáticas locales,<br />

aplicar mecanismos prevencionales apropiados a cada lugar, es una actitud proactiva hacia<br />

el vecino, es integración y contención de las distintas situaciones de cada entorno.<br />

Constituye la participación activa en la búsqueda de soluciones, fijación de prioridades, y<br />

correcta toma de decisiones.<br />

241 Klilsberg Bernardo “Mas Ética mas desarrollo” Temas – 3ª Edición oct.2004<br />

402


Bibliografía<br />

Chouke F.H. Garantias constitucionais – na investigacao criminal- Revista Dos Tribunais<br />

San Pablo- Brasil- 1995<br />

Desimoni Luis Maria- “La crisis involutiva alcanza al derecho represivo, los bienes juridicos<br />

que este pretende tutelar y los DDHH, que todo estado debería garantizar”<br />

La ley- 19 de Abril 2005.<br />

Desimoni Luis María “ El nuevo Hombre Delicuente”- La Ley - 2004<br />

Fukuyama Francis- la Gran Ruptura- Ed. Atlantida 1999<br />

Highton- Álvarez- Gregorio, Resolución alternativa de disputas y sistema penal Ed. Ad Hoc<br />

1999<br />

Kemelmajer de Carlucci A. Justicia Restitutiva. Ed. Rubinzal Culzoni- 2004<br />

Klilsberg Bernardo “Mas etica mas desarrollo” Temas- 3 Ed. Oct 2004<br />

Neuman Elias- “Mediación y conciliación Penal”- Depalma 1997<br />

Walter M –“Tratado sobre la tolerancia”- Paidos 1998<br />

Zaffaroni E.R.” En busca de las Penas perdidas”- Ediar 1989<br />

403


Esperienze di Mediazione a Napoli<br />

_____________________________________________________________________<br />

Claudia Troisi, Dottoranda di Ricerca<br />

Maria Ferrara, Dottoranda di Ricerca<br />

Chiara Pucciarelli, Assistente di Cattedra<br />

“Creare un luogo di mediazione non significa creare un luogo di assistenza in più in cui<br />

ciascuno potrà vivere o rovesciare il proprio malessere. Significa, invece, creare un luogo di<br />

apertura, di dialogo, di condivisione, di scambio in cui ognuno possa prendere in carico se<br />

stesso, si apra alla possibilità di un’attenuazione dei propri problemi in un clima di solidarietà”<br />

(J.Morineau , L’esprit de la médiation, Edition Erés, 1988)<br />

Dando uno sguardo alle iniziative di mediazione presenti in Europa si nota <strong>com</strong>e, in ogni<br />

caso, si tratti di interventi strettamente connessi al territorio in cui operano. Al fine di<br />

<strong>com</strong>prendere <strong>com</strong>e la mediazione possa trovare, a Napoli, una reale possibilità di<br />

implementazione diviene, dunque, fondamentale, in primo luogo, procedere ad un’analisi<br />

della città.<br />

Non è semplice descrivere tale realtà; Napoli è un luogo emblematico, incrocio di<br />

problematiche che hanno origine nei secoli, nella sua storia fatta di continue dominazioni e di<br />

amministrazioni poco pulite, nella diffusione di stereotipi e pregiudizi culturali che sembrano<br />

contrassegnare qualsiasi discorso sulla città (camorra, pizza, spaghetti, mandolino...), nella<br />

sua conformazione fisica , nella cultura delle sue “popolazioni”. Tuttavia, la stessa<br />

eterogeneità e <strong>com</strong>plessità che rende quella partenopea una realtà estremamente<br />

<strong>com</strong>plessa, fa di Napoli una città ricca di risorse.<br />

La sua contraddittorietà si palesa subito nella conformazione geografica del territorio<br />

caratterizzato dalla presenza di zone collinari che degradano fino al mare e da un panorama<br />

sovrastato dal Vesuvio. A questo si ac<strong>com</strong>pagna una distribuzione poco omogenea della<br />

popolazione nei quartieri, sia sul piano della densità abitativa, sia su quello della<br />

distribuzione e la fruibilità dei servizi.<br />

La descritta <strong>com</strong>plessità del territorio napoletano rende necessaria la decostruzione degli<br />

stereotipi culturali, spesso condivisi dai suoi stessi abitanti, di Napoli <strong>com</strong>e città a “rischio”,<br />

404


ecuperando il concetto di <strong>com</strong>plessità <strong>com</strong>e coabitazione di “diversità” e “alterità”, dunque,<br />

fucina di conflitti e luogo esemplare di sperimentazione di forme alternative di gestione degli<br />

stessi.<br />

Anche qui, infatti, <strong>com</strong>e in molte realtà mediterranee in cui le condizioni climatiche lo<br />

consentono, la piazza diventa il luogo emblematico della vita sociale, scenario da sempre di<br />

aggregazione e rappresentazione di sé stessi e degli altri. Alla pluralità dei quartieri,<br />

corrispondono le molteplicità delle piazze ed all’antica “agorà” greca si contrappongono le<br />

cento “agorai” napoletane, ciascuna non meno importante, varia, diversa dalle altre.<br />

Tutto questo rappresenta allo stesso tempo la contraddittorietà e la ricchezza partenopea.<br />

La prima, perché la condivisione dello stesso spazio e delle medesime risorse da parte di<br />

una pluralità di individui genera conflittualità e <strong>com</strong>plessità relazionali; la seconda perché,<br />

costretti in uno stesso spazio, si impara a riconoscere l’altro, “diverso” ma <strong>com</strong>unque “vicino”<br />

a noi, destinatario di un codice di <strong>com</strong>unicazione da condividere o quantomeno da imparare<br />

a decifrare.<br />

Questo vivere la strada favorisce forme di mediazione spontanea del tutto inconsapevoli,<br />

lenisce in qualche modo il senso di insicurezza e di abbandono dei cittadini, almeno<br />

all’interno del proprio contesto abitativo.<br />

Sono numerose, infatti, le ricerche antropologiche sulla realtà partenopea in cui vengono<br />

studiate le più emblematiche figure del popolo napoletano, alcune delle quali sembrano<br />

giunte quasi intatte fino ai nostri giorni dalla rivoluzione di Masaniello.<br />

Basti pensare alla celebre figura del cosiddetto ”guardaporta”, ovvero il custode dei palazzi,<br />

da sempre terzo “quasi” imparziale e gestore dei segreti e delle liti dei condomini, ma se ne<br />

potrebbero menzionare ancora numerose.<br />

L’originalità della storia ed il folklore che l’ac<strong>com</strong>pagna non deve, però, farci dimenticare la<br />

carenza quasi totale delle istituzioni, sopperite, da sempre, dall’intraprendenza e dallo spirito<br />

di iniziativa dei suoi abitanti che, nel bene e talvolta nel male, hanno fatto propria ”l’arte di<br />

arrangiarsi”.<br />

Qui, infatti, agiscono, in maniera estremamente fattiva, supplendo in taluni casi alle carenze<br />

strutturali ed organizzative dell’Istituzione Pubblica, molteplici associazioni ed organizzazioni<br />

del terzo settore, il cui lavoro rappresenta certamente la base migliore su cui costruire un<br />

nuovo modello di gestione dei conflitti che si basi essenzialmente sulla relazione con l’altro e<br />

405


con gli altri, quale appunto la mediazione. Un’idea di mediazione che vada oltre il “senso<br />

<strong>com</strong>une”, oltre il “luogo <strong>com</strong>une” e che tragga la sua fonte dall’esaltazione delle diversità,<br />

nella creazione di un luogo dove l’eterogeneità venga valorizzata per dare vita alla nascita di<br />

regole <strong>com</strong>uni di convivenza collettivamente negoziate.<br />

Stiamo assistendo, nonostante tali riflessioni, ad un fenomeno di prepotente ingresso delle<br />

questioni connesse all’insicurezza urbana nel campo delle priorità del dibattito politico e della<br />

emergenza sociale.<br />

La tentazione assai diffusa è di rispondere al disordine con l’affermazione dell’ordine e di<br />

reagire all’insicurezza con l’affermazione e la ricerca di vecchie e nuove forme di<br />

sicurezza 242 .<br />

Il tema dell’insicurezza diventa oggetto essenziale e decisivo nella costruzione delle<br />

emergenze e delle priorità nel dibattito politico, incidendo profondamente, e talvolta in modo<br />

strumentale, nei processi di formazione degli orientamenti politici.<br />

L’insicurezza dei cittadini viene affrontata prevalentemente con istanze riguardanti il controllo<br />

del territorio, l’azione delle forze di polizia 243 , l’efficienza del sistema civile e penale e<br />

interventi locali delle amministrazioni volti a ridurre l’insicurezza soggettiva determinata da<br />

cause urbane e sociali di degrado e disagio. Al centro del dibattito si trova sicuramente la<br />

“città” 244 <strong>com</strong>e scenario da cui ripartire per ristabilire un nuovo patto di convivenza, in cui<br />

siano pienamente affermati i diritti di libertà e sicurezza per tutti gli individui che vivono,<br />

studiano e lavorano nei territori di appartenenza.<br />

Il senso d’insicurezza trova per un verso la sua espressione in occasioni di conflitti collettivi,<br />

di condivisione e sfogo dell’esasperazione, che allontanano l’individuo da qualsiasi rapporto<br />

o legame con l’altro, nonché con il mondo istituzionale.<br />

Quasi sempre di fronte all’onda emotiva spinta dai cittadini e di fronte alle difficoltà connesse<br />

a qualsiasi tentativo di rimodellare e ripensare gli interventi sociali, si preferisce spostare<br />

242 T. Pitch, C.Ventimiglia, Che genere di sicurezza, Franco Angeli, Milano, 2001; A. De Giorgi,<br />

Zero tolleranza. Strategie e pratiche della società di controllo, DeriveApprodi, Roma, 2000.<br />

243 S. Palidda, Polizia postmoderna. Etnografia del nuovo controllo sociale, Feltrinelli, 2000.<br />

244<br />

V. Ruggiero, Movimenti nella città, Bollati Boringhieri, 2000.<br />

406


tutta la questione sicuritaria dentro gli stretti confini dell’ordine pubblico e della<br />

giurisdizione 245 .<br />

Entrati in crisi gli ambiti di regolazione primaria, quegli ambiti cioè di riconoscimento del<br />

singolo che gli consentivano di non sentirsi solo a difendere i propri spazi di vita (il quartiere,<br />

la piazza, la famiglia, l’ambiente di lavoro, sportivo, la parrocchia, il vicinato), il bisogno di<br />

riconoscimento si è riversato altrove, in particolare nell’ambito giudiziario, inidoneo, per<br />

proprio carattere ad accoglierlo nelle sue implicazioni più profonde, relazionali, sociali.<br />

L’infinita solitudine da città 246 , le mille rabbie che esplodono all’improvviso, la violenza, le<br />

chiusure, l’intolleranza e la paura 247 che si moltiplicano negli animi dei cittadini sono tutti<br />

sintomi della stessa malattia presa dallo stesso malato: il “legame sociale”.<br />

Parlare di legame sociale vuol dire richiamare una <strong>com</strong>ponente strutturale dei contesti umani<br />

connessa al modo di vivere in relazione con gli altri. Quando questa <strong>com</strong>ponente si deteriora<br />

si hanno effetti gravi che intaccano la sopravvivenza stessa degli abitanti di quell’ambiente in<br />

cui il guasto si è determinato.<br />

La trasformazione del legame sociale diventa presto visibile e percettibile e da un certo<br />

momento in poi ci si accorge che l’energia, un tempo utilizzata per incrementare diffuse<br />

strategie di convivenza (costruire con l’altro un progetto <strong>com</strong>une sul proprio territorio), non è<br />

più sufficiente per mantenere decenti strategie di coabitazione (stare accanto all’altro nello<br />

stesso spazio).<br />

A quel punto, la vita in città si fa difficile e faticosa: si scopre che la solitudine con cui si paga<br />

la progressiva perdita di legame sociale non è per niente quella sensazione di forza da "eroe<br />

solitario" che può fare a meno di tutto e di tutti. Al contrario, essa “fragilizza”, fa sentire<br />

spaesati e persi e, soprattutto, terribilmente insicuri. I territori rassicuranti si riducono<br />

drasticamente di dimensione, venendo a coincidere con quelli in cui sopravvive<br />

un’esperienza relazionale diretta. Tutto il resto, l’intera città, diventa non-luogo virtuale, non<br />

spazio, cioè percepito solo più attraverso le rappresentazioni che ne sono date.<br />

245 L.Wacquant, Parola d’ordine: tolleranza zero, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2000; L.Pepino,<br />

Tolleranza zero:Strategie non esportabili, in Nar<strong>com</strong>afie, 1999.<br />

246 Z. Bauman, La solitudine del cittadino globale, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2000.<br />

247 A. Dal Lago, La tautologia della paura, in Rassegna Italiana di Sociologia, n. 1 gennaiomarzo,<br />

1999.<br />

407


La coabitazione tra inclusi ed esclusi, tra culture e generazioni diverse, resa obbligatoria da<br />

incontri reciproci sempre più ravvicinati diventa, per molti, guerra, scontro. La vicinanza degli<br />

esclusi per tanti inclusi è sempre stata esperienza difficile e tormentata, ma sino a quando è<br />

esistita una cultura del legame sociale essa, in qualche modo, trovava soluzioni e<br />

motivazioni attraverso il riconoscimento dell’alterità.<br />

Il vuoto culturale lasciato dall’erosione del legame sociale è stato riempito dai principi e dai<br />

valori della cultura del conflitto: uno vince l’altro perde, uno domina l’altro è dominato, le<br />

persone che hai attorno o sono amici o sono nemici, o stanno con te o contro di te.<br />

Il conflitto si colloca allora in questo percorso di risalita, <strong>com</strong>e passaggio obbligato di<br />

dinamiche di coabitazione prima e di convivenza poi, attraverso la ricostruzione di un legame<br />

sociale che non esorcizza né demonizza il conflitto, ma lo assume <strong>com</strong>e dimensione<br />

normale, e quindi vivibile, della vita in <strong>com</strong>unità.<br />

Sembra che il conflitto sia riuscito ad assumere una forma tale da permeare di sé ogni<br />

ambito della vita sociale, ad ogni suo livello: nessun ambiente fisico o metaforico del nostro<br />

quotidiano può dirsi indenne al conflitto ed alle sue conseguenze negative. La spiegazione a<br />

tutto ciò può essere ricercata nella eccessiva <strong>com</strong>plessità dell’epoca in cui viviamo,<br />

intendendo il termine <strong>com</strong>plessità più quale sinonimo di molteplicità che non <strong>com</strong>e sinonimo<br />

di difficoltà, una molteplicità in cui, però, si è giunti ad una valorizzazione estrema del singolo<br />

individuo, delle sue esigenza, delle sue istanze.<br />

Oggi, a fianco di una messa in discussione dei tradizionali sistemi di regolazione sociale del<br />

conflitto, dovuta ad un eccessivo individualismo, anche il sistema di regolazione legislativa<br />

sembra attraversare un momento di crisi 248 .<br />

Rispetto a questa inadeguatezza delle soluzioni offerte dalla giustizia ordinaria e dai<br />

tradizionali sistemi di regolazione la mediazione appare la risposta più idonea, in particolare<br />

perché con la mediazione si sposta l’accento, rispetto al passato, dall’idea di evitamento e<br />

risoluzione del conflitto, all’idea di una gestione del conflitto. Idea quest’ultima che recupera<br />

la validità positiva e pedagogica del conflitto, che vede nel conflitto, non un male in sé, ma<br />

nient’altro che un evento della vita umana, la cui negatività e positività non dipendono da sue<br />

caratteristiche intrinseche e date a priori. Bisognerebbe, quindi, rivisitare la nostra<br />

concezione di “conflitto” abbandonando la sola idea della negatività dell’evento e<br />

considerando, invece, il conflitto <strong>com</strong>e momento costruttivo di confronto e arricchimento.<br />

248 J.Carbonnier, Flessibile diritto, Milano, 1997.<br />

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Ciò che da alcuni anni <strong>com</strong>e gruppo di lavoro dell’Università di Napoli Suor Orsola<br />

Benincasa stiamo tentando, è diffondere iniziative volte all’implementazione della cultura e<br />

della pratica della mediazione.<br />

Le iniziative in tal senso riguardano l’inserimento nei piani di studio di talune facoltà, di<br />

insegnamenti relativi alla mediazione ed alla gestione dei conflitti, la creazione di percorsi<br />

post-lauream in tale ambito, l’organizzazione di eventi culturali, quali giornate di studio,<br />

convegni e pubblicazioni, rivolte anche a soggetti esterni all’Università, l’impostazione di<br />

progetti di ricerca volti a studiare l’andamento del fenomeno della mediazione e la sua<br />

implementabilità nell’area partenopea.<br />

Tra dette iniziative riteniamo utile citare la stipula della convenzione inter-universitaria con<br />

l'Institut Universitaire Kurt Bösch di Sion, già partner di autorevoli università italiane ed<br />

europee, concretizzatosi, tra l’altro, con l’organizzazione del “Master di II livello in<br />

mediazione e gestione dei conflitti”. Tale master ha quale obiettivo finale l’offerta di una<br />

formazione post-universitaria, finalizzata alla creazione di una nuova professionalità nella<br />

figura del “mediatore”. Si tratta di un’iniziativa del tutto nuova nella nostra città, in cui l’offerta<br />

formativa in fatto di mediazione era caratterizzata dal solo proliferare di corsi, più o meno<br />

strutturati, in mediazione familiare. L’idea principale del Master è quella di diffondere in<br />

maniera sempre più organica e capillare la cultura della mediazione, partendo dalla<br />

informazione/formazione. Si propone, pertanto, un Master articolato in più moduli (teorici,<br />

laboratoriali, di stage, conferenze...). Il livello base si pone <strong>com</strong>e obiettivo una<br />

sensibilizzazione, un avvicinamento alla mediazione e gestione dei conflitti.<br />

L’organizzazione a Napoli, presso la sede dell’Università, del Convegno Internazionale di<br />

Studi, il 20-21 Aprile 2004, dal titolo “Mediazione, conflitti e società <strong>com</strong>plesse”. Il convegno<br />

si è proposto quale luogo di scambio ed interazione tra riflessioni teoriche ed esperienze<br />

concrete di mediazione nonché <strong>com</strong>e momento di confronto multidisciplinare. A quest’ultimo<br />

sono intervenuti le personalità più autorevoli che caratterizzano il panorama della<br />

mediazione nella nostra nazione e nel resto d’Europa. Al fine di diffondere nel modo più<br />

capillare possibile le tematiche e gli interventi oggetto del convegno è, inoltre, in corso di<br />

stampa la pubblicazione di un volume, curato dalle sottoscritte, che raccoglie gli interventi del<br />

convegno ed altri saggi sul tema.<br />

L’Università di Napoli Suor Orsola Benincasa, inoltre, ha avviato alcuni Progetti di Ricerca<br />

inerenti ai temi della mediazione. Nel 1999 è stato avviata, in cofinanziamento con il MURST,<br />

una ricerca dal titolo La mediazione penale nelle società <strong>com</strong>plesse. Applicabilità ai reati<br />

409


minorili: il caso della Campania. Obiettivo generale della ricerca era approfondire temi,<br />

culture, modelli e strategie propri dell’istituto della mediazione penale con particolare<br />

riferimento al campo del diritto minorile. Lo scopo di tale ricerca era verificare in concreto la<br />

sperimentabilità nel contesto socio-territoriale e culturale specifico della regione Campania<br />

della mediazione penale minorile.<br />

Nel 2005 l’Università ha avviato, finanziato dalla Regione Campania, un Progetto di Ricerca<br />

dal titolo Sicurezza e territorio. Implementabilità della mediazione sociale sul territorio<br />

partenopeo quale strumento di risposta alle richieste della cittadinanza. Il punto di partenza<br />

della ricerca consiste nell’analisi di alcuni assunti teorici di base cari alla ricerca sociologica,<br />

quali l’insicurezza, il legame sociale e il conflitto. Si tratta di tre concetti strettamente<br />

connessi tra loro la cui analisi non può essere assente in qualsiasi discorso inerente alla<br />

mediazione.<br />

410


Médiation <strong>com</strong>me un instrument qui produit un nouveau paradigme<br />

de justice<br />

___________________________________________________________________<br />

GianPiero Turchi 249<br />

Valeria Gherardini 250<br />

Introduction<br />

Le présente contribution concerne la médiation familiale entendue <strong>com</strong>me un instrument<br />

opérationnel de création et/ou gestion des relations parmi et avec les gens. On soutiendra<br />

que tel instrument implique d'adopter un paradigme 251 de justice défini réparateur,<br />

antinomique 252 au paradigme défini sanctionnateur.<br />

À l'intérieur de ces éléments de cadre et de définition du champ de connaissance il est<br />

délinéé donc le fondement paradigmatique de l'instrument de la médiation. À la lumière de<br />

telle fondation il sera défini et discuté de suite le rôle du médiateur familial, dans ses objectifs<br />

et dans ses <strong>com</strong>pétences spécifiques, ainsi que les rechutes de la réalisation des<br />

interventions de médiation dans le cadre aussi d'un défi culturel.<br />

1. Les définitions de la médiation familiale<br />

La médiation est un instrument opérationnel dans le cadre de la production e/ou gestion de<br />

relations parmi et avec des individus qu'il a une valence plus paradigmatique plutôt que<br />

« seulement » opérationnelle. En effet l'adoption de tel instrument <strong>com</strong>porte un déchet de<br />

connaissance et donc le passage d'une conception de justice "sanctionnatrice" à une<br />

"réparatrice", ainsi qu'un déchet sur l'étage culturel.<br />

249 Professeur Associé, Enseignement de Psychologie de la Santé, Faculté de Psychologie, Université des Études<br />

de Padoue<br />

250 Collaboratrice à l'Enseignement de Psychologie de la Santé, Faculté de Psychologie, Université des Études de<br />

Padoue<br />

251 pour paradigme il s'entend une modalité de connaissance cohérente et intégrée<br />

252<br />

pour antinomiques on entend ce qui se posent pas en opposition en termes sémantiques mais<br />

épistémologiques, c'est-à-dire ce qui déterminent « manières de connaître » différentes.<br />

411


En termes de cadre socio-institutionnel la médiation peut être un support aux demandes<br />

et/ou aux nécessités de justice des citoyens vis-à-vis du système judiciaire quand, parfois,<br />

cela ne réussit pas à satisfaire ceux qui sont définis les droits substantiels; ou il peut devenir<br />

un support au système judiciaire lui même, quand, celui-ci, dans certains cas, procure une<br />

sorte de dommage à celles qui sont les parties intéressées qui devraient tirer, par contre, un<br />

certain bénéfice de l'intervention du système de justice. À front de la controverse en acte à<br />

l'intérieur du noyau élevant sont, en effet, les mineurs, qu'ils peuvent plus que tous souffrir<br />

de l'étoupille de la controverse, mais aussi du <strong>com</strong>mencement et de l'application des<br />

activités qui caractérisent les procédés judiciaires typiques d'un paradigme sanctionnateur.<br />

Devant telles situations, des solutions alternatives à celles que le noyau élevant a produits<br />

jusqu'à ce moment (ainsi pour les procédés judiciaires) doivent être déterminées; voilà que la<br />

médiation, un instrument spécifique simple à l'intérieur du système judiciaire, peut être<br />

considérée <strong>com</strong>me un institut ou une modalité opérationnelle structurée et consolidée en<br />

pratiques institutionnelles à disposition du procédé judiciaire.<br />

Dans la présente contribution nous entendrons la médiation <strong>com</strong>me une modalité de<br />

connaissance apte à engendrer, en termes opérationnels, une réalité troisième à front de<br />

deux ou plus modalités de connaissance (lire « parties »), qu'ils <strong>com</strong>portent conflit ou<br />

controverse.<br />

En conséquence, la présence d'un conflit ou d'une controverse constitue la condition<br />

nécessaire et suffisante parce qu’une intervention de médiation puisse <strong>com</strong>mencer. C’est<br />

pour cette raison que cet instrument vient se rendre spécifique et différent d'autres<br />

instruments opérationnels, tel que la psychothérapie individuelle ou de couple, la<br />

consultation juridique ou l'intervention du juge, interventions qui <strong>com</strong>mencent à partir<br />

d'exigences différentes du conflit ou de la controverse.<br />

Donnés les éléments de cadre et de définition, il devient nécessaire d'aller déterminer qu’estce<br />

que c’est que la controverse et le conflit. On les entend <strong>com</strong>me synonymes dans le sens<br />

que la controverse et le conflit appartiennent au champ dans lequel deux ou plus parties<br />

définissent une propre réalité qui n’accorde pas la possibilité de déterminer des éléments en<br />

<strong>com</strong>mun, c'est-à-dire que les modalités interactives / <strong>com</strong>municatives et les mêmes idées<br />

utilisées <strong>com</strong>portent le maintien de la propre définition de réalité en confirmant la cohérence<br />

en termes d'exclusivité. Les définitions de ces réalités exclusives n'impliquent pas<br />

intrinsèquement la possibilité de déterminer des éléments qui peuvent être considérés en<br />

<strong>com</strong>mun entre eux.<br />

412


Sur la base des éléments esquissés on pourra déterminer quel est l'objectif de la médiation:<br />

rendre aux parties en controverse ou en conflit, avec le support du troisième, le pouvoir de<br />

gouverner de manière autonome la gestion de la controverse ou du conflit. Celui-ci est la<br />

valeur « autre » permise par le secours au troisième: les parties en conflit ou en controverse<br />

s’approprient de nouveau - ou elle est attribuée à eux - de la possibilité autonome de<br />

gouverner le conflit.<br />

Poursuivre cet objectif permet autres rechutes: en termes plus culturels, en effet, l'institut de<br />

la médiation favorise la prise de responsabilité par rapport à l'infraction d'une règle, plutôt<br />

que de délégation pour la solution de la controverse ou du conflit. L'objectif de la médiation<br />

permet ensuite que les parties qui ont engendré un conflit ou une controverse n'attribuissent<br />

pas une délégation à quelqu'un, mais qu’ils maintiennent le gouvernement et la gestion sur<br />

ce que eux mêmes ont créé.<br />

À front de ces aspects, l'institut de la médiation se met <strong>com</strong>plètement en antithèse à celui qui<br />

a été défini le paradigme sanctionnateur de la justice, étant défini <strong>com</strong>me un instrument<br />

opérationnel fondé sur une conception de justice riparatrice.<br />

De suite nous irons déterminer et décrire les catégories qui illustrent les antinomies de telles<br />

conceptions de justice afin de décrire le fondement paradigmatique principal de la médiation.<br />

2. Présentation d'un schéma d'analyse des paradigmes de la justice actuelle: la<br />

fondation paradigmatique principal de la médiation<br />

Les fondements de connaissance des paradigmes de la justice actuelle seront illustrés de<br />

suite: on ira décrire la théorie de justice de chaque paradigme, ou « qu'est-ce qu'il se<br />

connaît », et, en second endroit, les modalités cognitives utilisées pour créer connaissance,<br />

ou « <strong>com</strong>me se connaît ce qu'il se connaît ».<br />

Dans le cadre d'un paradigme sanctionnateur on se trouve en face d’une théorie de la justice<br />

qui implique de rentrer à l'intérieur d'une dimension de sanction par rapport à un ordre violé;<br />

dès qu’on rentre dans le cadre d’un paradigme réparateur, la théorie de justice qui en<br />

constitue le fondement implique l'attribution d'un statut fort au rôle de victime, car la<br />

réparation est réalisée vis-à-vis de la victime qui, dans le milieu familial, est le mineur et, en<br />

second endroit, la <strong>com</strong>munauté entière, quand on suppose que la médiation agisse une<br />

action sur l'étage culturel.<br />

413


Dans le cadre d'un paradigme sanctionnateur on rentre à l'intérieur des mécanismes<br />

causaux, dans lesquels à chaque événement suit un effet, la controverse ou le conflit; le<br />

système de justice se remue pour tâcher d'intervenir sur l'effet afin d'annuler celle qui est la<br />

cause. Par exemple, établir ope legis, « à qui les enfants » appartiennent et « pour <strong>com</strong>bien<br />

jours ils vont vivre avec qui », il constitue une intervention finalisée à la résolution de la<br />

controverse ou du conflit en agissant sur le contenu de la dispute, c'est-à-dire « les enfants<br />

directement à qui et pour <strong>com</strong>bien de jours ». Dans ce sens il s'établit, donc, ce qui<br />

appartient à la sanction.<br />

Le paradigme réparateur ne se remue pas à partir des mécanismes de cause et d'effet, mais<br />

il se remue à partir des processus, c'est-à-dire des modalités de relation que les parties ont<br />

utilisé pour définir une certaine réalité; donc il ne s'agit pas d'intervenir sur l'effet, mais il<br />

s'agit de réussir à engendrer une réalité troisième que les définitions des parties en conflit ou<br />

en controverse n'était pas apte à donner, parce que en n'ayant pas d’éléments en <strong>com</strong>mun<br />

elles maintiennent la propre cohérence.<br />

La médiation ne se pose pas ensuite <strong>com</strong>me mécanisme, mais <strong>com</strong>me processus de<br />

génération d'une réalité autre. La médiation ne s'occupe pas de déterminer autres sanctions,<br />

mais d'engendrer une autre réalité qui n'a pas été anticipée par les définitions des parties en<br />

conflit ou en controverse. Ceci implique que les décisions ou les solutions ne soient jamais et<br />

en aucun cas de <strong>com</strong>pétence du médiateur, mais ils soient de <strong>com</strong>pétence des parties en<br />

controverse; donc, dès le moment que les parties auront engendré une réalité autre, telles<br />

solutions ils les construiront de manière autonome, sans l'exigence du troisième qui sanction<br />

ou qui établisse.<br />

Donnés ces éléments, de suite nous irons déclinées les catégories apte à décrire la manière<br />

d'opérer à l'intérieur des deux paradigmes différents de justice cité, de façon à définir la<br />

fondation paradigmatique principale de la médiation <strong>com</strong>me elle s'est entendue de ce siège,<br />

ainsi que les implications qui assume vis-à-vis du modèle opérationnel.<br />

Catégorie A) Le succès de la résolution de l'iter<br />

Paradigme Sanctionnateur<br />

Le succès de la résolution de l'iter à l'intérieur d'un paradigme sanctionnateur est donné par<br />

l'application « juste » de la loi de la part du juge. Le succès de l'iter de la procédure d'un<br />

paradigme sanctionnateur appartient à la « juridiction » du juge et ensuite à l'application de<br />

414


la loi de sa part. Dans un paradigme sanctionnateur il n’y a pas la possibilité de construire<br />

une réalité « autre » parce que celle qui peut être établie est celle prescrite du code.<br />

Paradigme Réparateur<br />

Le paradigme réparateur pose au centre la victime, mais aussi le coupable, fait qui n’est pas<br />

prévu par le paradigme sanctionnateur, car la sanction s'adresse de toute façon<br />

naturellement au coupable, l'attribution de la peine est ce qui permet de rétablir l'ordre brisé.<br />

À l'intérieur du paradigme réparateur on se trouve face à un panorama <strong>com</strong>plètement<br />

différent. La position centrale est assumée par la victime mais aussi par le coupable, c'est-àdire<br />

par toutes les parties qui ont engendré la controverse ou le conflit, parce que sans la<br />

contribution de chacune de ces parties nous ne réussissons pas à engendrer une réalité<br />

« autre ». Donc il se consacre ensuite que les parties soient autonomes en rétablissant cet<br />

ordre brisé. Le succès n'est pas donné ensuite par l'application juste de la loi de la part du<br />

juge mais le succès est donné par l'application de procédures qui sont <strong>com</strong>plètement<br />

extrajudiciaires.<br />

Implications pour le modèle opérationnel de la médiation familiale<br />

A l'intérieur du paradigme réparateur le succès est donné par les parties, et pas par le juge,<br />

et c’est dans ce sens que le rôle du médiateur assume une grande importance.<br />

Le médiateur est celui qui gère la génération de cette réalité autre, grâce aux parties en<br />

controverse ou en conflit; l'interprétation de ce rôle n'arrive pas pour statut ni pour aspect<br />

moral ou d'ordre ; en outre il doit être un rôle sans pouvoir ni coercitif ni de n'importe quel<br />

autre type, donc un rôle extérieur au système judiciaire.<br />

Le profil du rôle du médiateur doit ensuite être un profil gravé sur <strong>com</strong>pétences de gestion<br />

des dimensions de connaissance des parties intéressées, en spécifique ces dimensions<br />

cognitives qui engendrent et ils maintiennent la controverse ou le conflit pour pouvoir les<br />

considérer ressources de lesquelles partir (et pas des « effets » à effacer), afin de fabriquer<br />

une réalité troisième.<br />

Catégorie B) Les sujets privilégiés dans l'iter<br />

Paradigme Sanctionnateur<br />

La sanction s'adresse naturellement au coupable, l'attribution de la peine est ce qui permet<br />

de rétablir l'ordre brisé. L'application de la loi sous la juridiction du juge est finalisée, dans le<br />

cadre de la résolution de la controverse en acte, à établir « à qui » et « a cause de ». Les<br />

sujets impliqués dans la réalisation de tel iter sont le juge, les avocats et, quand le juge le<br />

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crois nécessaire, le conseiller technique pour recueillir des éléments de support utiles à la<br />

décision finale. Dans le cadre de tel iter les parties qui ont engendré le conflit sont entendues<br />

pour offrir les éléments d'une évaluation qu'il est d'autrui, celle du défenseur, de l’éventuel<br />

conseiller technique, enfin du juge. Donc à l'intérieur d'un système de justice qui se remue<br />

selon une théorie sanctionnatrice, les sujets privilégiés dans l'iter ce sont les professionnels<br />

du système de justice même.<br />

Paradigme Réparateur<br />

Dans le cadre d'un paradigme de justice qui se remue sur une théorie réparatrice la position<br />

centrale est donnée à la victime, ainsi qu'au coupable, c'est-à-dire à toutes les parties qui ont<br />

contribué à la génération de la controverse ou du conflit.<br />

La contribution des parties intéressées est condition suffisant pour engendrer une réalité<br />

« autre » par rapport à celle construite par les parties.<br />

Les sujets privilégiés sont les experts des modalités de génération de la controverse ou du<br />

conflit, c'est-à-dire les parties mêmes qui l'ont engendré; le médiateur devient condition<br />

nécessaire pour gérer les procès qui permettent la génération de la réalité troisième,<br />

pendant que les professionnels de la justice deviennent les experts qui offrent occasions<br />

pour les parties en controverse ou conflit d'engendrer des modalité « autres ».<br />

Implications pour le modèle opérationnel de la médiation familiale<br />

Sur la base des modalités d’émanation opérationnelle du paradigme de justice réparateur les<br />

sujets privilégiés de la médiation sont les mêmes parties qui ont engendré la controverse ou<br />

le conflit. Donc il devient nécessaire que le rôle du médiateur soit centré sur la détermination<br />

des <strong>com</strong>pétences des parties intéressées plutôt que sur ce que « ils ne savent pas faire » ou<br />

ce que « ils ne veulent pas faire » ou ce que « ils n'entendent pas faire ». Le médiateur est<br />

contemplé <strong>com</strong>me un opérateur du changement. Telle condition <strong>com</strong>porte pour le médiateur<br />

la possibilité de toujours agir et d'utiliser chaque situation pour qu'il se forme l'occasion de<br />

construire une réalité « autre » respect à celle qui a été créé.<br />

Catégorie C) Les rôles<br />

Paradigme Sanctionnateur<br />

Quand on se remue dans un paradigme sanctionnateur, à l'intérieur du procédé, les rôles du<br />

début sont les mêmes qu’on retrouve à la fin du procédé même: quelqu'un qui gagne et<br />

quelqu'un qui perd. En effet les rôles qui ont engendré l'iter du procédé judiciaire sont ceux<br />

qui ont permis l'étoupille et l'entretien de la controverse ou du conflit. Il s'agit d'une<br />

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disposition par rapport à l'autre qui peut être exemplifiée avec la préposition « je gagne, tu<br />

perds »; le procédé qui est dirigé pour agir sur la controverse à travers la décision du juge ne<br />

déroule pas aucune action par rapport aux modalités de construction et d’entretien de la<br />

controverse, donc la décision finale ne <strong>com</strong>porte pas automatiquement aucune modification<br />

des mêmes.<br />

Paradigme Réparateur<br />

Dans le cadre du paradigme réparateur la médiation assume une forte valence<br />

transformative par rapport à l'action vis-à-vis des rôles, car l’intervention de médiation<br />

<strong>com</strong>porte que les rôles initiaux ils ne soient pas le mêmes de ceux qui seront à la fin de<br />

l’intervention. En effet les parties ont engendré une autre réalité donc il y n'a plus celui qui<br />

avait raison ou celui qui avait tort, mais on est en présence de parties que sur la base d'une<br />

plateforme <strong>com</strong>mune gèrent les aspects critiques de la relation de manière autonome. En<br />

conséquence à l'intérieur d'un paradigme réparateur pourrait-on dire que «ou tout le monde<br />

gagne ou tout le monde perd». Si une autre réalité a été construite, «tout le monde a<br />

gagné»; si la définition de la réalité des parties reste telle qu’elle était et il n'y a pas eu la<br />

possibilité d'engendrer une réalité absolument troisième, «tout le monde a absolument<br />

perdu».<br />

Implications pour le modèle opérationnel de la médiation familiale<br />

Les actions possibles dans le cadre du paradigme réparateur mettent en évidence que la<br />

médiation, instrument spécifique simple à l'intérieur du système judiciaire, peut être<br />

considérée <strong>com</strong>me un institut ou une modalité opérationnelle structurée et consolidée en<br />

pratiques institutionnelles à disposition du procédé judiciaire. Quand, en effet, le système de<br />

justice est soutenu par l'instrument de la médiation il se donne l'occasion d'interférer avec les<br />

controverses ou les conflits en acte. Tel élément stratégique sera beaucoup plus puissant si<br />

«il sera joué d'avance», c'est-à-dire que plus tôt les parties qui ont engendré la controverse<br />

ou le conflit auront l'occasion de « tomber » sur un médiateur, beaucoup plus avant il sera<br />

possible d'interférer avec tels processus et, ensuite, d'engendrer une réalité définie par une<br />

plateforme <strong>com</strong>mune.<br />

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3. Conclusions<br />

Sur la base des aspects délinéés et discutés, nous allons conclure en déterminant les<br />

éléments qui font de la médiation un modèle opérationnel avec une spécificité principale.<br />

Il surgit surtout <strong>com</strong>me la médiation n'appartienne pas à un domaine clinique, mais à un<br />

domaine de pertinence qu'il est spécifique, lesquels fondements peuvent être retrouvés dans<br />

un paradigme de justice fondé sur une théorie réparatrice. Avec l’utilisation de tel instrument<br />

il s’agit donc de fonder un déchet en termes culturels, c’est à dire d'un paradigme<br />

sanctionnateur à un paradigme réparateur.<br />

L'instrument opérationnel de la médiation <strong>com</strong>porte qu’on se remuer sur la base de<br />

processus générateurs plutôt que de mécanismes causaux; le médiateur est qui réalise la<br />

propre spécificité de rôle à l'intérieur d'un paradigme de justice réparatrice et il est un<br />

opérateur du changement qui a la <strong>com</strong>pétence de déterminer les processus de<br />

connaissance qui font des parties en controverse ou conflit les experts uniques qui peuvent<br />

construire la gestion du même.<br />

Le défi est donc sur un niveau culturel, où le médiateur ne devient pas un expert de<br />

solutions, mais de processus de génération. L'expert expose la possibilité pour le couple de<br />

se mettre dans les conditions de gérer le conflit et ensuite de construire une réalité troisième.<br />

À l'intérieur de la perspective de la théorie réparatrice il n’y a pas de problèmes à résoudre,<br />

mais en les déplaçant sur un autre niveau ne se traitera plus de travailler dans la direction<br />

d'établir « à qui les fils » appartiennent ou « à qui les droits et les devoirs » appartiennent,<br />

mais le focus d'attention sera l'entretien du noyau élevant.<br />

La médiation donc prescrit une sorte de défi culturel sur différents niveaux: par rapport aux<br />

professionnels (médiateurs familiaux) auxquels est exposée une spécificité principale<br />

d'objectifs, de rôle, de <strong>com</strong>pétences et de méthode qui ne permit de confondre pas le<br />

domaine de pertinence de la médiation avec ceux de la psychothérapie de couple, de la<br />

consultation juridique, de l'arbitré ou de l'intervention du juge; par rapport aux parties en<br />

controverse et à la <strong>com</strong>munauté toute, à qui sont exposés paradigmes culturels autres par<br />

rapport à ceux auxquels nous sommes habitués et qui nous donnent la possibilité de nous<br />

mettre à discuter avec qui nous a procuré le dommage, avec qui ne partage pas avec nous<br />

la définition de la réalité.<br />

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La Mediación y el ekeko o la personalización de la mediación<br />

versus la institucionalizacion de sus ideales<br />

____________________________________________________________<br />

Dra. Monica Vazquez Larsson<br />

Mediadora del Centro de Gestión de los Acuerdos<br />

Buenos Aires - Argentina<br />

En las culturas andinas el hombrecito que transita a pie los valles cargando a sus<br />

espaldas toda suerte de bolsitas con pertenencias varias es un EKEKO.<br />

¿Qué se propone el Ekeko?....¿Qué lleva consigo?....¿Adónde va?¿....¿Quién lo espera?<br />

....¿ Qué ofrece?.... ¿Es real o imaginario?<br />

El Ekeko, sin origen definido pero respetado por su cultura, se mune de ciertos elementos<br />

que a él le son vitales para su sustento y para relacionarse con la gente. En preciosas<br />

bolsitas tejidas con brillantes colores lleva sus hojitas de coca ya que “chaccharla” es vital a<br />

su supervivencia en las alturas. Además lleva maíz cocido en sal, “cachaca”, <strong>com</strong>o único<br />

alimento. Porta también yuyitos <strong>com</strong>o hierbas adecuadas para las dolencias del cuerpo y del<br />

alma. Y así anda por los áridos espacios andinos. Alguien lo va a necesitar. Con alguien<br />

<strong>com</strong>partirá su botellita de “chicha morada” - bien ardiente.<br />

¿Quién se convierte en Ekeko? ¿ Qué quiere?. No todos son ekekos en los Andes. ¿Por<br />

qué unos sí se aventuran y otros siguen una rutina esperable?.<br />

Puesta a imaginar, lo avizoro <strong>com</strong>o alguien insatisfecho con su origen, con su entorno y que<br />

dando un brinco (Maturana, 1973) se aventura a lo “por – venir”. Pero no parte sólo. Como<br />

se conoce, se carga, literalmente, de lo que va a necesitar. Elige sus avituallas. No lleva<br />

cualquier cosa. Tampoco deja de pensar en las posibles circunstancias con las que va a<br />

encontrarse y debe estar preparado. Puede que llegue a un valle <strong>com</strong>o el del Colca donde<br />

los cóndores sobrevuelan únicamente al amanecer y cualquier pequeñito de otro pueblo,<br />

llega ser dado en ofrenda a estos buitres para que no rapiñen a los famélicos corderitos de<br />

los paisanos vecinos. Y en tales circunstancias ya sabe que debe llevar mucha chicha para<br />

calmar los llantos de una familia. O bien puede que llegue a la espesura de las selvas PREamazónicas<br />

y tenga que a<strong>com</strong>pañar en el dolor a una jovencita que fue violentada<br />

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sexualmente por su padre cuando ella misma le informó que su paisanito amigo iba a<br />

llevársela en “servinakuy” que es la milenaria costumbre incaica del matrimonio a prueba. El<br />

Ekeko sabe que en esas culturas, es el hombre de la casa el que debe iniciar sexualmente a<br />

sus hijas mujeres. El ekeko sabe cuánto dolor esto trae e intenta juntarlos, al padre y a los<br />

jovencitos casamenteros para hablar de sus penares.<br />

Considero al Ekeko <strong>com</strong>o un Mediador Errante. Personaje que cumple ese delicado<br />

equilibrio entre el conocerse íntimamente sabiéndose bien provisto de herramientas vitales<br />

y el estar humildemente abierto al afuera. A lo que pudieran necesitar de él en su perenne<br />

deambular.<br />

El se ofrece desde allí <strong>com</strong>o un recurso de a<strong>com</strong>pañamiento natural ante los conflictos de<br />

los otros, que pasarán a no serle indiferentes. Alguna vez leí (Gabriella Ferri Bravo, 2003)<br />

que en el arte de la sastrería existen tres diversas maneras de trabajar cuando se rompe<br />

alguna tela o costura. El parche, el remiendo y el zurcido, siendo éste último el arte que sirve<br />

a los arreglos que se necesitaren, ya que el entramado que diseña un zurcido es el que usa<br />

los recursos del mismo material dañado..., re-tomando los hilos rotos, respetándolos en su<br />

diseño y volviéndolos a unir en una trama resistente que no se observe hacia el exterior.<br />

En tanto que si se usara el parche, éste queda burdamente aplicado <strong>com</strong>o algo que no<br />

pertenece a la tela de origen, así <strong>com</strong>o el remiendo que podría tener que ver con ella, pero<br />

al manipulárselo mal, queda <strong>com</strong>o algo externo a la tela misma. Mi ekeko de referencia,<br />

entonces es un mediador errante con artes de buen sastre. No se impone, lo llaman, lo<br />

utilizan, pues es un recurso a mano del necesitado y el hombrecito a cambio, ofrece<br />

a<strong>com</strong>pañarlos con lo que la gente ofrece, necesita y les pertenece.<br />

Un ekeko, no puede ser <strong>com</strong>o fueron los caciques incaicos en esos mismos valles que él<br />

deambula, quienes a fin de conquistar más imperio en nombre de sus soberanos, obligaban<br />

a las distintas poblaciones a trasladarse de valles, perdiendo así su identidad al no tener<br />

contacto con sus olores, colores, sabores, y ruidos de pertenencia original. El imperio<br />

incaico se impuso desde el uso del “ostracismo” griego....donde no había peor castigo para<br />

un ciudadano que la pérdida de su sitio y partir extra-muros, al ostracismo.<br />

El ekeko re<strong>com</strong>pone desde el entramado social que respeta. No coloniza con lo que vio en<br />

otro valle ya que aquello le sirve <strong>com</strong>o experiencia de vida, pero él sabe que debe estar<br />

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atento, humildemente atento, a lo que estos otros seres necesitan. Tal vez sean diferentes.<br />

Hipotetiza. (Cecchin) Y la vida le enseñó que debe respetar las idiosincrasias y<br />

multiposicionarse. Morin y su teoría de la <strong>com</strong>plejidad, nos advierten de la necesidad de<br />

ampliar la mirada, Así <strong>com</strong>o Isaías en la Biblia, pues “haz de moverte en todas direcciones”.<br />

A veces nuestro personaje sólo se sienta en “asamblea campesina” a escuchar junto a los<br />

ancianos de la población. Existen muchos EKEKOS en muchas partes del planeta tierra. En<br />

Nueva Zelanda o en Sud África, las conferencias de familia mitigan las dificultades en su<br />

propio seno, recurriendo esporádicamente, a alguno de otra tribu al reconocerse impotentes<br />

de resolver sus temas.<br />

¡Me es importante recordar aquello del ekeko que más me impresiona!. Se trata de la virtud<br />

que lo sitúa en la posibilidad de seguir su camino sin herir a la gente, sin volverla a violentar.<br />

Actitud que hace que cuando deja un valle el hombrecito parta sabiéndose útil pero no<br />

parcializado ante los reclamos que oyó. El ekeko no pertenece a nadie. Se pertenece a sí<br />

mismo. Se sabe recurso, herramienta útil, pero nada más.<br />

Para darle un nombre de la literatura que nos nutre en esta observación, el Ekeko se<br />

mantiene equidistante de los planteamientos varios, y logra estar en ese rico punto de<br />

encuentro de posiciones desde donde siempre interroga y se interroga sobre lo oído.<br />

Cuestionarse es parte de su arte y cuestionar sobre lo que le cuentan también. Pregunta y<br />

pregunta pues él no sabe lo que le duele a la gente, ¿cómo podría si viene de otro valle?....<br />

Él desea saber, verdaderamente, si lo que tiene en una de sus bolsitas puede servirle a la<br />

gente. O quizás dude en ofrecer entre uno u otro contenido, cuando el discurso de sus<br />

“nuevos conocidos” lo lleve a hacerlo. ¡Y mejor aún cuando se reconozca diciendo... ”No<br />

tengo nada para Ustedes!!!!” O, “Es muy poquito lo que puedo ofrecerles, pero conozco otro<br />

recurso que les será de mejor utilidad”.<br />

Pero.....<br />

”SISTEMA, poeta, sistema.<br />

Empieza por contar las piedras,<br />

Luego contarás las estrellas.”<br />

....dice León Felipe (León Felipe, 1993)<br />

Lo que me lleva a plantear la propuesta de este trabajo.<br />

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Necesitamos hablar de la PERSONA DEL OPERADOR QUE TRABAJA CON LA<br />

COMUNIDAD ya que es esta herramienta, nuestra persona, y no una técnica adquirida, el<br />

recurso que debemos usar en todas las áreas de la Mediación y no sólo en la Comunitaria.<br />

No cerraría el círculo del diseño en resolución de conflictos sociales si no se incorpora este<br />

esencial elemento. Nuestra persona. El ekeko del relato, u otros ekekos y nuestras visiones<br />

incorporadas al sistema que conformamos con nuestros usuarios.<br />

Estoy hablando, evidentemente, desde el pensamiento de sistemas y la segunda<br />

cibernética que nos legó hace años la idea fundante que reconoce al observador <strong>com</strong>o<br />

participante de la creación de lo que le ocurre al sistema en observación.<br />

Ni más ni menos que mi Ekeko.<br />

Salvador Minuchin (Minuchin, 1984)nos dice que hay que leer muchos libros para luego<br />

dejarlos de lado... siendo entonces que las bolsitas del mediador errante, a las que hice<br />

mención, son sólo metáforas de las visiones que aportamos cuando trabajamos en<br />

Mediación, y ¡cuánto más enriquecedor al hacerlo en Mediación Comunitaria!.<br />

Ellas, las bolsitas, nos pertenecen sin siquiera estar advertidos de portarlas y a veces ni<br />

sabemos que no contamos con una u otra muy importante que podrían darnos otra visión<br />

del conflicto o nos serviría para otro dolor. (Packman,1991)(Von Foerster, 1973). Pero nos<br />

sustentan en nuestras elecciones de acción ante los múltiples vericuetos que llegan de la<br />

mano del reclamo de la gente, sean vecinos de una misma <strong>com</strong>unidad o cuanto más al<br />

vernos enfrentados a la diversidad étnica – sociocultural y educacional riquísima que surgen<br />

de la tarea cotidiana en una ciudad cosmopolita. Al menos de la mía al trabajar en un Centro<br />

de Gestión y Participación de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires en Mediación<br />

Comunitaria.<br />

Considero al trabajo <strong>com</strong>unitario <strong>com</strong>o el espacio que permite ofrecer una “isla de<br />

neguentropia” (Guibourg, 1991) a las personas en conflicto. Provocar un espacio que se<br />

inventa en el mismo momento en que mi ekeko y sus nuevos conocidos interactúan desde<br />

sus mensajes dichos <strong>com</strong>o saben decirlo y aportando sus versiones. Allí el mediador facilita<br />

que la gente salga por sí misma, remando, nadando, se arrastre hacia una isla que los<br />

contenga de las corrientes entrópicas del sistema disfuncional que conformaban...<br />

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Esa islita la construyen el ekeko y sus amigos y en ella se instalan para repararse de los<br />

vientos y mareas. De la bolsita del ekeko salieron ingredientes que ayudaron a dibujar esa<br />

isla.<br />

¡No siempre!!!....<br />

Voy a efectuar un relato que <strong>com</strong>partirá ciertos elementos de un caso real y ciertos otros<br />

ingredientes que este ekeko creyó ver y ahora está agregando a fin de cubrir la<br />

confidencialidad.<br />

Con el discurso inicial de la gente un operador puede hacer muchas cosas. Escucharlo<br />

atentamente. Escucharlo pero no oírlo. Desmerecer su entidad. Desecharlo mentalmente,<br />

Creérselo a pies juntillas o sea “<strong>com</strong>prárselo”. Posicionarse en los preconceptos tan<br />

incorporados a nuestra piel.... y en nuestros accionares. Imponerles otra dirección que la<br />

que traen. De todas estas opciones, el parcializar mi escucha fue mi falencia. A mi caso real<br />

lo llamaré “La Dignidad”.<br />

Un día llegó a la consulta previa que realizamos en un servicio de mediación <strong>com</strong>unitaria, en<br />

la Ciudad de Buenos Aires-Argentina, una pareja solicitando nuestra atención a su dificultad.<br />

No sabían bien dónde estaban ya que les habían derivado sin mayor precisión. El servicio<br />

está localizado en el primer piso de un bellísimo edificio que conoció mejores épocas. Tal<br />

<strong>com</strong>o esta pareja.<br />

Ella flaquísima y erguida mujer con un cuello semejante a los de Modigliani. Pelo recogido y<br />

ropa gastada de tanto aseo. Nos miraba desde su altura, sin hablar. El hombre, más joven,<br />

pero no tanto, resultó el hijo de la dama. Porque así la percibí, una dama. Este jovencito<br />

exhalaba enojo contenido que sólo se permitía manifestar desde un castellano muy<br />

rudimentario.<br />

“Mi madre y yo estamos alojados en un Hotel que pertenece al Municipio de la Ciudad<br />

Autónoma de Buenos Aires” dijo enunciando todos esos ingredientes aprendidos desde la<br />

formalidad en la que seguramente se educó... .<br />

“Allí hay vecinos que nos tratan muy mal”.... y en ese mismo momento, la dama le habló en<br />

un idioma que luego supe era el ruso. “Mi madre quiere decirles que siente que no puede<br />

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hablarles directamente, pues ella aún no ha aprendido vuestro idioma”. Más digna me<br />

parecía.<br />

Los requeridos serían unos “vecinos del fondo” con quienes <strong>com</strong>parten baño y cocina. Ellos<br />

son de otra nacionalidad, no la argentina. Cuando se le explicó a ambos, previa traducción<br />

simultánea, ofrecíamos nuestro espacio de trabajo para que conversaran sus diferencias<br />

con aquellos que “ensuciaban mal” el baño y “no dejaban limpia la “batea” de la cocinita” y<br />

además “les amenazaban con deportarlos a su Rusia natal”, según sus dichos, aceptaron<br />

poniéndonos todos en manos a la obra.<br />

Mientras tomaba datos pregunté a ambos dolidos extranjeros de qué parte de Rusia venían<br />

y desde cuándo estaban entre nosotros (“entre nosotros” ¿?). Ella mencionó que donde<br />

había nacido Dovstoievsky.....<br />

Y aquí un elemento de mi realidad. Voy a sincerarme. Mis ganas de tratar temas que no<br />

solamente fueran filtraciones y humedades hizo que mi necesidad se parcializara hacia esta<br />

requirente quien – en mis sueños – le imaginaba vecina del personaje de “Crimen y<br />

Castigo”, el estudiante Raskolnikov.<br />

El elemento que introduzco me resuena permanentemente. ¿Cómo habría reaccionado un<br />

buen ekeko?....¿Existe un ekeko que no se parcialice?... ¿Qué hace mi ekeko cuando se da<br />

cuenta de ello?<br />

Los otros vecinos eran “solamente” de un país limítrofe.... En cambio aquellos eran casi<br />

seres irreales, etéreos en sus maneras y desde mi invención los idealicé....<br />

Tal vez ni habrían leído al mentado autor. Tal vez su cultura real no era tan digna <strong>com</strong>o la<br />

concebida por mis ganas.<br />

Pero ahí estuvimos, al momento de realizarse la audiencia de mediación convocada. Mi<br />

imagen de lo que pasaba y sus realidades. Concurrió uno solo de los vecinos, el paraguayo<br />

-ya que había otros del Perú- quien llegó recién a una segunda audiencia, pues en la<br />

primera convocatoria estuve a solas con los dignos “rusos” mientras los “otros” no se<br />

presentaban.<br />

424


Me quedará siempre la duda de saber qué pasó con estos personajes. Acordaron de palabra<br />

ciertas cosas. Pero el tiempo profesional y los requerimientos de otros muchos vecinos no<br />

dejaron espacio (¿no me lo propuse?, ¿Solución que no corresponde al sistema?) (Locura<br />

de las Instituciones) para que yo hiciera lo que tenía ganas y necesidad de hacer.<br />

Salir al encuentro del conflicto de vecindad, yendo personalmente al Hotel. Y allí construir<br />

junto a ellos ese islote al que pudieran asirse todos los involucrados en contra de la<br />

avasallante corriente que provocan los choques culturales. Sé que una de las sugerencias<br />

que flotaba en el aire era la de cambiar a los vecinos rusos hacia otro Hotel.... adonde<br />

seguramente seguirían mostrando una contracultura que provocaría nuevas escaladas de<br />

conflictos, con otro tinte y nacionalidad, pero siempre un conflicto sin resolver.<br />

De haber concurrido al lugar de la vivienda <strong>com</strong>ún, en dicho lugar, el ekeko hubiera podido<br />

surgir. Junto a ellos y no desde mi silla conocida y mis preferencias literarias o de piel o<br />

imaginarias que me hicieron tener una visión empequeñecida ante el multiverso que estas<br />

gentes proponían. (Maturana)<br />

Al tomar este caso <strong>com</strong>o ejemplo deseo verter ciertas apreciaciones que podrían tornarse<br />

en PROPOSICIONES a fin de que integren el diseño de la Mediación<br />

Comunitaria que ansiamos<br />

a) INCLUIR UN TRABAJO INTENSO SOBRE Y CON LA PERSONA DEL MEDIADOR<br />

COMUNITARIO.<br />

b) EL MEDIADOR ES LA HERRAMIENTA EN SÍ MISMO. Al enfrentar la diversidad cultural<br />

no importan tanto las técnicas que utilice sino que éstas SURJAN CON UN<br />

ECLECTICISMO FUNCIONAL A FIN DE SER LAS SOLUCIONES EFICACES. Solución<br />

entendida <strong>com</strong>o lo que le sirve a los involucrados. Siempre es reparativa y propende al<br />

balance (idea zapoteca –México) que no significa ojo por ojo sino la búsqueda de lo que<br />

restablece el equilibrio entre las relaciones interpersonales.<br />

c) SOLO EL MEDIADOR LAS CONJUGA. (todas las bolsitas son una sola respuesta)<br />

425


d) TRABAJAR MUCHO CON NOSOTROS MISMOS DESDE LA CAPACITACION SIN<br />

LIMITES DISCIPLINARES Y DESDE EL RECONOCIMIENTO DE NUESTROS LIMITES.<br />

ESTAR PERMANENTEMENTE ADVERTIDOS DE NUESTROS SESGOS Y<br />

PROTEGER A LA GENTE DE ELLOS OFRECIENDO NUESTRA NATURAL<br />

PROFESIONALIDAD.<br />

Estar advertido que no veo lo que creo ver. Que no existo neutralmente. Que debo rever<br />

profesionalmente mis parcializaciones. Al respecto dice Kymlicka (Kymlicka, 1996) que<br />

“Cada disputa posee una historia y unas circunstancias únicas e intransferibles que<br />

deben considerarse a la hora de idear una solución justa y viable.”<br />

“El reto del multiculturalismo consiste consecuentemente en hacer frente<br />

cada vez más a grupos minoritarios que exigen el reconocimiento de su<br />

Identidad y la a<strong>com</strong>odación de sus diferencias culturales. De acuerdo a cómo se<br />

incorporan estas minorías a las <strong>com</strong>unidades, sea <strong>com</strong>o conquista o inmigración<br />

voluntaria, se afecta las relaciones entre los miembros a la que forman parte.”<br />

e) IR AL CONFLICTO. Dentro de lo posible, no mediatizarlo con la distancia geográfica y<br />

de sentimientos que desmerece, descolora, desdibuja al accionar conflictivo.<br />

f) PASAR DEL DECIR AL ESCUCHAR ATENTAMENTE. AL RESTAÑAR CON ZURCIDO,<br />

SIN INTROMISIÓN.<br />

g) INSERTAR EL “ACTO MEDIATORIO”, COMO A VECES RESULTA EN LA<br />

ACTUALIDAD UNA AUDIENCIA DE MEDIACION COMUNITARIA, EN UNA RED (que<br />

lo contenga) PARA QUE SE TORNE UN “PROCESO MEDIATORIO” posibilitando así la<br />

incorporación de aquellos elementos válidos a un eficaz desarrollo del conflicto y su<br />

resolución.<br />

h) SENTIRNOS EKEKOS. SER RECURSOS Y NO EXPERTOS. Y en calidad de tales<br />

considerar a la Mediación <strong>com</strong>o un instrumento educativo, PARA LA GENTE COMO<br />

PARA NOSOTROS MISMOS PARA ASI SALIRNOS DE LAS CERTEZAS Y PASAR A<br />

LAS CONJETURAS DE LO MULTIPLE (Italo Calvino)<br />

426


Naissance d’une profession : le médiateur familial<br />

______________________________________________________________<br />

Laura Cardia-Vonèche<br />

Institut de médecine sociale et préventive, Université de Genève<br />

La médiation familiale a connu ces dernières 20 ans un développement peu <strong>com</strong>mun en<br />

France et en Europe. En 1989 un recensement des centres pratiquant la médiation en<br />

France avait déjà mis en évidence l’existence d’une centaine de services 253 . Depuis lors<br />

l’intérêt pour cette pratique n’a fait qu’augmenter grâce à l’effort de mobilisation des<br />

médiateurs.<br />

Comment expliquer ce développement rapide et la reconnaissance qui s’en est suivie ?<br />

Nous voudrions nous interroger ici, en prenant la France <strong>com</strong>me exemple, sur les conditions<br />

qui ont permis à la médiation de se faire une place parmi les modalités reconnues de gestion<br />

des réorganisations familiales et qui sont à l’origine de la création de la profession de<br />

médiateur familial. Nous analyserons les facteurs qui ont permis l’émergence de<br />

l’institutionnalisation de cette nouvelle spécialité professionnelle qui a pu s’imposer <strong>com</strong>me<br />

une pratique légitime auprès des institutions malgré un succès modeste en ce qui concerne<br />

le nombre des médiations effectuées.<br />

Transformation de la question familiale et de sa prise en charge<br />

La question familiale s’est trouvée profondément transformée au début des années 70. Avec<br />

la montée de l’individualisme dont l’un des traits importants est que chacun doit trouver par<br />

lui-même sa place dans l’existence, le couple et la famille ne constituent plus les lieux<br />

essentiels de la réalisation de soi et ont ainsi perdu leur caractère institutionnel. 254 L’idée<br />

s’est imposée qu’une union ne doit être maintenue que si elle donne satisfaction et qu’il vaut<br />

mieux un bon divorce qu’un mauvais mariage. La séparation n’est plus vécue <strong>com</strong>me une<br />

catastrophe, mais au contraire <strong>com</strong>me une réorganisation des liens familiaux.<br />

253 Benoit Bastard, Laura Cardia Vonèche Le divorce autrement, Syros 2000<br />

254 Singly F. de, Le soi, le couple et la famille, Paris, Nathan, 1996.<br />

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Les réformes depuis 1975 engagés dans plusieurs pays européens ont voulu répondre à ces<br />

changements familiaux et simplifier l’accès au divorce et en on profondément modifié le<br />

traitement. La pratique judiciaire est devenu plus incline à faire valoir l’intérêt d’un accord des<br />

conjoints et à travailler à son avènement 255 .<br />

La transformation des attentes à l’égard des divorçants s’est ac<strong>com</strong>pagnée d’une<br />

re<strong>com</strong>position des positions dans le champ des professionnels du droit et de la famille. Les<br />

juges occupent une place centrale dans cette re<strong>com</strong>position : ils ont imposé le modèle de la<br />

négociation des différends <strong>com</strong>me la voie royale de l’accès au divorce et ils ne cessent pas<br />

de mettre en avant l’impératif du maintien des liens enfants-parents. Les autres<br />

professionnels concernés, travailleurs sociaux, avocats, psychologues, experts auprès des<br />

tribunaux, se sont dès lors trouvés conduits à repenser leur pratique en valorisant leur<br />

capacité à contribuer à la construction de tels accords et à soutenir les liens familiaux après<br />

la rupture.<br />

C’est dans ce contexte de rénovation des pratiques juridiques et judiciaires du divorce qu’est<br />

apparue la médiation familiale, dix ans après la réforme de 1975. Elle s’est proposée<br />

<strong>com</strong>me une nouvelle approche pour contribuer à la mise en place des décisions nécessitées<br />

par la séparation.<br />

Il faut dire que ces dix années n’avaient pas donné tous les effets es<strong>com</strong>ptés quant à la<br />

pacification du contentieux familial. Même encouragés par les juges de la famille à s’engager<br />

dans la recherche d’arrangements amiables,. beaucoup de ruptures restaient conflictuelles.<br />

Le niveau des pensions alimentaires demeurait faible et les impayés nombreux. Nombre<br />

d’enfants se trouvaient coupés du parent avec lequel ils ne vivaient pas à la suite de la<br />

séparation. C’est en se profilant <strong>com</strong>me un remède à cette situation qu’en peu d’années, la<br />

médiation est devenue une solution crédible que les Etats et les institutions européennes ont<br />

décidé de soutenir et d’institutionnaliser.<br />

255 Benoit Bastard, Laura Cardia-Vonèche, Jean-François Perrin, Pratiques judiciaires du divorce. Approche<br />

sociologique et perspectives de réforme, Lausanne, Réalités sociales, 1987<br />

Laura Cardia-Vonèche, Sylvie Liziard, Benoit Bastard, « Juge dominant ou juge démuni ? La redéfinition du rôle<br />

du juge en matière de divorce », Droit et Société, n° 33, 1996, pp. 277-298.<br />

428


Un développement rapide<br />

Sans reprendre l’histoire de l’implantation de la médiation rappelons deux moments<br />

importants dans ce développement des 20 dernières anées. On peut distinguer deux<br />

périodes, une initiale brève et intense – en peu d’années entre 1988 et 1992, la médiation se<br />

met en place, développe surtout des formations d’abord courtes et ensuite de plus en plus<br />

importantes et se structure. Puis une longue période de latence qui débouche finalement,<br />

après une nouvelle phase d’intense activité institutionnelle, sur la reconnaissance de cette<br />

pratique par l’Etat.<br />

Dès le début les médiateurs familiaux se sont souciés de créer au niveau européen un<br />

document qui a servi de référence à l’ensemble du milieu de la médiation, Ce travail a<br />

permis, dès 1992, la rédaction de la Charte européenne de la formation des médiateurs<br />

familiaux exerçant dans les situations de divorce et de séparation. Ce document a servi de<br />

référence à l’ensemble du milieu de la médiation et sa mise en œuvre a débouché ensuite<br />

sur la création d’une structure européenne indépendante des organisations nationales<br />

regroupant des médiateurs 256 .<br />

La France a créé récemment un diplôme national élaboré par le Conseil national consultatif<br />

de la médiation familiale, institué par décret en octobre 2001 257 . L’institutionnalisation de la<br />

médiation familiale en France s’est précipitée au cours des années récents aussi grâce aux<br />

travaux de réforme du droit de la famille dont l’objectif était de donner une vision différente<br />

de la question familiale et de moderniser les textes en y intégrant des dispositions capables<br />

de répondre aux transformations des situations familiales.<br />

Le développement institutionnel récent de la médiation a sans doute bénéficié de l’influence<br />

des institutions européennes. Le Comité des Ministres avait adopté en 1998 à Strasbourg un<br />

256 Le Forum européen de formation à la médiation familiale (European Forum on Family Mediation Training)<br />

créé à Londres en juin 1995. Dès 1996, une soixantaine de structures de formation étaient fédérées au sein de<br />

cette association dont l’action se poursuit aujourd’hui.<br />

257 L’une des re<strong>com</strong>mandations issue du groupe de travail réuni en 2001 au ministère délégué à la famille sous la<br />

présidence de Monique Sassier consistait dans la mise en place d’un conseil national consultatif de la médiation<br />

familiale (Sassier, 2001). Cette instance a été créée par un arrêté conjoint du ministère de la Justice et le<br />

ministère délégué à la Famille, en octobre 2001. Ce conseil est constitué de 17 membres représentant les<br />

institutions et les professionnels de la médiation. Il a pour mission de préparer les mesures utiles pour favoriser<br />

l’organisation de cette pratique et promouvoir son développement. Sur son agenda figure la formation des<br />

médiateurs et leur déontologie ainsi que la question de la qualification des centres de médiation.<br />

429


texte qui re<strong>com</strong>mande aux Etats membres « d’instituer ou de promouvoir la médiation<br />

familiale ». 258<br />

Comment rendre <strong>com</strong>pte du succès de la médiation familiale ?<br />

N’y a-t-il pas un paradoxe dans le succès de la médiation familiale et dans le besoin<br />

ressentis par les médiateurs de l’institutionnaliser ? La médiation se voulait une<br />

« alternative » à la justice et elle n’a eu apparemment de cesse que d’être intégrée dans le<br />

giron de la justice. La médiation n’a guère de clients, et cependant elle obtient un<br />

engagement fort de la part d’un État pourtant réticent à s’engager dans la reconnaissance de<br />

toute activité nouvelle. Le caractère surprenant de ce succès, incite à s’interroger sur les<br />

facteurs qui l’expliquent et des conditions qui l’ont rendu possible. Différents éléments sont<br />

en jeu qui tiennent tant à la pertinence actuelle de la vision des problèmes de la famille<br />

qu’elle développe qu’à la capacité stratégique des médiateurs.<br />

Le dynamisme des médiateurs<br />

Au début on a affaire à une poignée d’innovateurs qui étaient eux-mêmes confrontés dans<br />

leur pratique professionnelle aux difficultés des parents divorçants et de leurs enfants.. La<br />

découverte de la médiation et sa promotion ont offert à ces acteurs l’opportunité de mieux<br />

répondre aux situations qu’ils rencontraient, de développer un modèle de travail innovant et<br />

de se valoriser en accédant à des modes d’activité qui les rapprochaient des professionnels<br />

de la psychologie et des avocats.<br />

Cependant si vive et exclusive soit-elle, la conviction des médiateurs n’aurait pas suffit à<br />

déterminer le succès de leur pratique si celle-ci ne s’était pas trouvée en phase avec les<br />

dysfonctionnements qui traversent aujourd’hui les familles.<br />

La médiation, une vision de la famille<br />

Pour rendre <strong>com</strong>pte du succès de la médiation, il faut souligner que celle-ci développe une<br />

vision pertinente par rapport à la question de la séparation et plus généralement par rapport<br />

à la question de la famille.<br />

Dans Le Démariage, Irène Théry reconnaît à la médiation la capacité de gérer de manière<br />

moderne les changements de la famille. « Cette façon de procéder est absolument<br />

258 Re<strong>com</strong>mandation N.R(98) du Comité des Ministres aux Etats membres sur la médiation familiale.<br />

430


indispensable à l’ouverture de ce qui se donne <strong>com</strong>me une conception entièrement nouvelle<br />

et ‘différente’ du conflit familial, de ses enjeux et donc des façons de le régler. » 259<br />

Quelle représentation du couple et de la rupture sous-tend la pratique de la médiation ?<br />

Celle-ci prétend reformuler les problèmes qui se posent lors de la rupture en proposant de<br />

rechercher des accords qui permettront que la situation soit vécue en termes de<br />

réorganisation plutôt qu’en termes de conflit. Elle veut changer les représentations qui<br />

guident les conjoints en les incitant à s’éloigner de la revendication des droits individuels<br />

pour tenter de <strong>com</strong>prendre le point de vue de l’autre et de rendre présent un intérêt<br />

supérieur, celui de la poursuite de relations négociées, notamment dans l’intérêt des enfants<br />

.Bien que se déclarant neutre elle est porteuse d’un modèle particulier des relations<br />

familiales, un modèle de fonctionnement négocié, un modèle de <strong>com</strong>pagnonnage, pour<br />

reprendre une terminologie de sociologue de la famille, un modèle dans lequel le couple que<br />

constitue les parents est invité à continuer à entretenir certaines relations après la rupture.<br />

Ce modèle permet d’assurer l’avenir des enfants.<br />

indépendamment des trajectoires conjugales de leurs parents. C’est qu’il légitime l’idée<br />

qu’avoir une famille ne veut pas dire nécessairement vivre avec son père et sa mère sous le<br />

même toit. Bref, qu’il ‘sauve’ l’institution familiale en montrant qu’elle peut très bien perdurer<br />

autrement que sous sa forme domestique fermée ».<br />

La médiation, expression d’un mouvement plus global<br />

Ce modèle dont la médiation est porteuse, doit encore être resitué dans le mouvement plus<br />

global de transformation des règles d’échange dans la famille.<br />

Le choix de la médiation s’inscrit dans la transformation plus générale des modalités de<br />

gestion des conflits familiaux. La « révolution du divorce » 260 , <strong>com</strong>mencée avec l’introduction<br />

du consentement mutuel s’est poursuivie par l’introduction de l’autorité parentale conjointe et<br />

l’effacement successif des zones de conflits – qu’il s’agisse de la notion de garde, de celle<br />

d’hébergement et, plus récemment, de celle de « droit de visite ». Dans ce sens, le succès<br />

de la médiation n’est pas celui d’une pratique isolée. L’émergence de la nouvelle profession<br />

constitue <strong>com</strong>me le fer de lance de la transformation des régulations qui s’appliquent à la<br />

259 Irène Théry, Le Démariage, Odile Jacob, 1993, p. 308.<br />

260 Lenore Weitzman, Divorce revolution,, 1990<br />

431


sphère privée. Ceci est particulièrement apparent dans le développement de la thématique<br />

de la coparentalité, dont on sait qu’elle est centrale dans les réformes du droit de la<br />

famille 261 .<br />

La médiation soutenue par les défenseurs de la cause des pères<br />

Un autre soutien n’a cessé de peser en faveur de la reconnaissance de la médiation, celui<br />

d’associations qui soutiennent la cause des pères 262 . La reconnaissance de la médiation doit<br />

sans doute quelque chose aux militantisme de leur membres et aux relais dont ils disposent.<br />

La médiation est née dans un contexte de parité en même temps que se développaient des<br />

pratiques de garde alternée, , surtout favorables aux Pères séparés et elle reflète ces<br />

conceptions du partage des responsabilités parentales en même temps qu’elle en traite les<br />

apories.<br />

Conclusion<br />

En définitive, on se trouve aujourd’hui dans la situation curieuse où la médiation a reçu ses<br />

lettres de créances en tant que profession, alors même qu’elle reste faiblement implantée<br />

dans la population à laquelle elle s’adresse, celle des divorçants.<br />

Les raisons pour lesquelles la médiation se trouve ainsi « en avance sur son temps » sont<br />

connues : elle suppose en effet que les couples soient capables d’accéder à un modèle de<br />

fonctionnement négocié auquel ils n’ont pas été préparés, au moment où ils se trouvent dans<br />

un conflit et dans une rupture. Les divorçants restent souvent attachés aux notions de torts<br />

et de faute. La répartition des rôles de parents reste sexuée, ce qui rend difficile la remise en<br />

question des attributions de chacun. S’engager dans des discussions, se préparer à des<br />

concessions est très éloignés des habitudes antérieures des couples. Tout ceci fait que les<br />

principes de médiation, même lorsqu’ils sont connus, relèvent davantage aujourd’hui des<br />

aspirations que des pratiques des couples.<br />

261 Voir les travaux de Jacques Commaille, Misères de la famille. Questions d’Etat, Paris, Presses de la<br />

Fondation nationale des sciences politiques, 1996, Chapitre 6, « L’autonomisation dans l’action sociale », p. 172<br />

et suivantes.<br />

262 Voir par exemple « Les 20 exigences de la Condition Paternelle pour la médiation familiale », document de la<br />

fédération des mouvements de la condition paternelle. On peut y lire : « Pourquoi la médiation familiale ? Parce<br />

que les institutions actuelles n’apportent pas de solutions satisfaisantes aux questions posées par le changement<br />

des mentalités dans la société et dans la famille en particulier. Parce que la fonction parentale ne doit pas être<br />

dévalorisée (au contraire). Elle doit être prolongée par la reconnaissance de la coresponsabilité pour assurer<br />

l’équilibre de l’enfant, quelle que soit la modification de la situation matrimoniale. »<br />

432


Pour dépasser cette situation, les médiateurs et les institutions qui les soutiennent peuvent<br />

avoir pour objectif, de développer ses liens avec les juridictions et d’obtenir que les renvois<br />

vers la médiation soient plus systématiques et plus nombreux recherchant ainsi une<br />

légitimité <strong>com</strong>parable à celle des autres professions du champ légal et familial. La médiation<br />

risquerait alors de devenir une forme de gestion déléguée des conflits familiaux, très loin de<br />

son idéal d’origine axé sur la démarche volontaire des personnes concernées. Elle ne<br />

gagnerait pas nécessairement; en efficacité, tant que les conjoints eux-mêmes n’auront pas<br />

accru leur capacité de s’engager dans un tel processus.<br />

433


¿Es posible mediar conflictos en donde una de las partes es un<br />

niño o un adolescente?<br />

_______________________________________________________________<br />

Vania Curi Yazbek<br />

Coordinación del sector de Mediación del Instituto FAMILIAE – SP Brasil<br />

“Si alguien supiere qué hacer, tendrá un número limitado de caminos para seguir, pero si<br />

supiere muy bien qué no hacer, tendrá una gran cantidad de cosas que podrá hacer.”<br />

Harold Goolishian<br />

El sector de Mediación del Instituto FAMILIAE / San Pablo, Brasil- ONG dirigida a la<br />

formación de mediadores e de terapeutas familiares, y a la atención familiar para la<br />

<strong>com</strong>unidad – presionado por la demanda de atención a las familias en situación de espera,<br />

ha procurado desarrollar posibilidades conversacionales de ayuda a través de la Mediación<br />

entre padres e hijos -niño o adolescente.<br />

El trabajo ha sido realizado en las Oficinas de Práctica de mediación, por un equipo<br />

multidisciplinar de mediadores – supervisores* e alumnos- que, mirando a la Mediación<br />

Familiar aplicable más allá de las situaciones de conflictos ligadas al ámbito legal y a la<br />

separación conyugal, acreditaran importancia a la participación del niño o del adolescente<br />

en la construcción de acuerdos relacionales de convivencia familiar. Esas experiencias de<br />

expansión de la práctica de la Mediación Familiar posibilitaran construcciones relacionales<br />

que pueden ser pensadas <strong>com</strong>o instrumentos de prevención de la violencia social.<br />

¿Qué debería ocurrir en el proceso de Mediación de contextos jerarquicos para que el niño<br />

o el adolescente pudieran participar, <strong>com</strong>o parte, en la construcción de acuerdos para<br />

solucionar sus conflictos familiares?<br />

La ausencia de guiones claros ha posibilitado el desarrollo de una práctica con la libertad de<br />

buscar caminos posibles, a partir de algunas certezas sobre qué no se debería hacer – herir<br />

los principios fundamentales de la Mediación – y sobre qué no se querría hacer – dar un<br />

lugar de desventaja y desprecio al niño y al adolescente con relación al adulto.<br />

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Es importante resaltar que el modo intrdisciplinar del equipo operar en la relación de trabajo<br />

ha favorecido la construcción de herramientas <strong>com</strong>o soluciones transdisciplinares.<br />

Considerando que “...dentro de la postura pos-moderna, creyendo que el conocimiento, las<br />

relaciones y los individuos son productos construidos socialmente, dentro, por lo tanto de<br />

una óptica construccionista social, acordamos que no existe conocimiento útil que sea<br />

genérico y tampoco algo que defina la esencia última del individuo…”. Y además, si no<br />

hubiere universalismos o meta-narrativas amplias, lo que tenemos son acciones locales,<br />

construidas socialmente, en donde cualquier diálogo entre dos personas tendrá implícita una<br />

gama de creencias que cada interlocutor tenga sobre si mismo y sobre el otro”. (Araújo,<br />

Yazbek, 2001, pág. 26).<br />

Por lo tanto, teniendo <strong>com</strong>o criterio posible pensar siempre lo qué resulta útil, para qué y<br />

para quién, ha sido desarrollada algunas herramientas visando:<br />

- respectar el equilibrio de poder en la organización jerárquica de la familia y al mismo<br />

tiempo asegurar a los hijos una participación activa y con autoría en las decisiones;<br />

- alcanzar la adhesión voluntaria y el <strong>com</strong>prometimiento de todos los mediados en el<br />

proceso;<br />

- facilitar una <strong>com</strong>unicación entre individuos con grados diferentes de <strong>com</strong>prensión y<br />

expresión verbal.<br />

La primera herramienta desarrollada ha sido la creación de un contexto conversacional con<br />

funcionamiento no jerárquico para facilitar la participación activa y efectiva de todos en el<br />

proceso de Mediación. El uso de ese concepto ha sido el guión de otras experiencias<br />

anteriores de trabajo docente en la institución.“La vivencia de esa herramienta...valorada<br />

<strong>com</strong>o útil por los participantes, nos lleva a creer que podremos llevar esa experiencia<br />

heterarquica a otros contextos que habitualmente operan <strong>com</strong>o organizaciones<br />

jerárquicamente constituidas.”(Morgado, Araujo, Yazbek 2002. p. 25)<br />

Según Tom Andersen (1995) “La jerarquía gobierna desde arriba hacia abajo, mientras que<br />

la heteraquía lo hace a través (....) de una relación en la que todos los participantes tienen<br />

igual importancia” (p. 16).<br />

Éste concepto de heterarquía - a través e igual importancia – considera las diferencias de<br />

grado de madurez y de poder entre todos los involucrados en la conversación y favorece<br />

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una postura de más grande autoría en la participación de cada uno, que buscaría construir<br />

pro-activamente su punto de conforto en la interacción presente e futura.<br />

Pero para tanto se delimita el contexto de lo que será negociable y de lo que no entrará en<br />

discusión, respectándose las limitaciones legales de ciertos temas y los estándares<br />

singulares de cada familia en el ejercicio de la autoridad. Con ésta claridad, se establece un<br />

funcionamiento heterárquico que posibilita el equilibrio de poder entre las partes,<br />

asegurando el derecho de participación activa a todos y preservando la autoridad de las<br />

figuras responsables – padres, mediadores y Ley.<br />

La <strong>com</strong>unicación ha sido el blanco de la segunda herramienta desarrollada. Kenneth Gergen<br />

(1999) afirma que “un diálogo transformador es toda forma de intercambio capaz de<br />

transformar la relación entre personas <strong>com</strong>prometidas con realidades separadas y<br />

antagónicas, en una relación capaz de construir realidades <strong>com</strong>unes y duraderas” (p.30).<br />

La interacción dialógica con fuerza transformativa demanda la presencia de ciertos recursos<br />

<strong>com</strong>unicacionales que produzcan la legitimación de los interlocutores, el empoderamiento<br />

(empowerment) individual y la responsabilidad relacional.<br />

Los procedimientos de la Mediación que aseguran a todos los participantes el derecho de<br />

hablar y de ser oído, el entendimiento por medio de una escucha activa, la expresión de las<br />

demandas y necesidades individuales, se muestran eficientes para estimular el<br />

<strong>com</strong>prometimiento de todos y el manejo colaborativo en la construcción de nuevas<br />

realidades; y además, el enfoque en las necesidades y responsabilidades en lugar de<br />

marcar culpas y deberes en cada tema discutido, es de gran utilidad para desarrollar el<br />

<strong>com</strong>promiso con el proceso y el cumplimiento de los acuerdos construidos.<br />

Por lo tanto, para que buenas conversaciones ocurran entre niños o adolescentes y los<br />

adultos – familiares y mediadores – es necesario un cuidado especial con el vocabulario y la<br />

forma lingüística empleada en éstas interlocuciones. La referencia a los personajes y juegos<br />

del mundo infantil y juvenil, el empleo de metáforas, la atención a la expresión y al lenguaje<br />

no verbales son los recursos de esa herramienta de <strong>com</strong>unicación para generar una<br />

<strong>com</strong>prensión activa y una inclusión del otro en la conversación.<br />

Una tercera herramienta que se muestra de gran ayuda es el desarrollo de una postura<br />

reflexiva del mediador para ejercer la función de guardián del proceso. Es una manera de<br />

construir un meta-lugar de observación de sí mismo., estableciendo un diálogo interno entre<br />

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diferentes voces, con el objetivo de identificar la propia participación en la relación, de<br />

cuestionarse a sí mismo sobre lo que le sucede frente al otro, de conocer cuales son los<br />

sistemas de creencias presentes en estas interacciones y en su proceso de creación de<br />

realidades.<br />

Dicha postura se muestra extremamente útil para que cada mediador se perciba en la<br />

interacción con los niños, los adolescentes y sus familias, ante cuestiones de conflicto en<br />

familia y qué es el modelo familiar para sí.<br />

La postura reflexiva invita al mediador a preguntarse sobre ¿de cuál familia se habla? ¿Con<br />

quien interactúa? ¿Qué modelos y estándares participan de su construcción de familia? Y<br />

además facilita distinguir sus demandas de las que traen la familia.<br />

Finalizando, es importante resaltar la función socializadora de la familia. A pesar de la gran<br />

diversidad de formatos familiares contemporáneos, es muy <strong>com</strong>ún que estén organizados<br />

para preparar a su hijo para tornarse un ciudadano en el mundo. Incluso, esta funcción de<br />

cuidar a los hijos es regulada por las leys brasileñas – ECA ( Estatuto da Criança e do<br />

Adolescente) e LSB ( Lei de Diretrizes e Bases).<br />

Estas prácticas conversacionales de la Mediación familiar demuestran la ventaja del<br />

aprender a aprender, constituyendose en instrumento para estas funciones familiares.<br />

Según Dora Schnitman (1996) “los mundos son creados en la conversación, se constituyen<br />

en realidades virtuales e, una vez creadas, adquieren existencia e sustentan <strong>com</strong>o<br />

realidades.”<br />

El proceso de construcción conjunta de acuerdos relacionales es lo que propicia el<br />

aprendizaje de maneras preventivas y alternativas a la violencia, facilitando la inserción y el<br />

convivir del individuo en su red social.<br />

Nota: * Celia Bernardes, terapeuta e mediadora; Ernesto Rezende Neto, abogado e<br />

mediador; Márcia Andrade, abogada e mediadora; Mônica Burg, terapeuta e mediadora;<br />

Pedro Toledo Piza, abogado e mediador; Perola Cruz, terapeuta e mediadora.<br />

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Bibliografia<br />

- Araújo, N. B. e Yazbek, V. C. (2001), Ferramentas conversacionais: A práxis no<br />

construcionismo social – Cadernos do Familiae (Edición Comemorativa, Casa do<br />

Psicólogo), 25 – 31.<br />

- Andersen, T. (1995), Reflecting processes: acts of informing and forming, you can borrow<br />

my eyes, but you must not take them away from me!, in S. Friedman (ed). The Reflections<br />

Team in action. New York: Guiford Press, 11-38.<br />

- Gergen, K. (1999), Rumo a Um Vocabulário do Diálogo Transformador en Scnitman,<br />

D.F.(org), Novos Paradigmas em Mediação, Artes Médicas, Porto Alegre, 29-45.<br />

- Morgado,N.,Araújo,N.B.,Yazbek,V.C. (2002) Conversaciones abiertas: herramentas<br />

flexibilizadorasen contextos jerarquicos, en Sistemas Familiares 18 (3), 124-125.<br />

- Schnitman, D.F.(1996),Hacia una terapia de lo emergente : construción, <strong>com</strong>plexidad,<br />

novedad, en S McNamee y K. Gergen (<strong>com</strong>p) La Terapia <strong>com</strong>o construcción social,<br />

barcelona, Paidós.<br />

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