FORENSIC PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY - Bio Medical Forensics

FORENSIC PHYSICAL 

ANTHROPOLOGY 

Proceedings 2002-2011

Forensic 

Physical 

Anthropology 

i 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences 

Proceedings 2002-p1

Forensic 

Physical 

Anthropology 

iii

AMERICAN ACADEMY OF FORENSIC SCIENCES 

410 North 21st Street 

Colorado Springs, CO 80904 

www.aafs.org 

The Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences is an official publication of the American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences (AAFS) and includes various areas of the forensic sciences such as pathology, toxicology, physical anthropology, 

psychiatry, odontology, jurisprudence, criminalistics, questioned documents, digital sciences, engineering sciences and other 

disciplines. The proceedings herein are from the Physical Anthropology section for the years 2002 to 2011. 

As with the Proceedings in which these abstracts were originally published, there is no implication or assertion that the 

AAFS, any of its sections, or any member of the AAFS have verified the statements and/or conclusions of the abstracts. The views 

expressed in this publication are not those of the AAFS or individual members. In short, the data and opinions appearing in the 

abstracts are the responsibility of the individual authors alone. 

All contents copyright 2002-2011 by the AAFS. Unless stated otherwise, noncommercial reproduction of material 

contained herein is permitted by the AAFS provided that the copying is faithful to the original. No other reproduction of any form may 

be done without prior written permission from the AAFS. Printed in the United States of America. 

iv

Preface 

The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) is a multi-disciplinary 

professional organization created and maintained to provide leadership in the 

application of science to the legal system. A premier forensic science organization, its 

specific objectives are to promote professionalism, integrity, competency and education, 

and to foster scientific research, improvements in the practice of forensic science, and 

collaboration within the many fields of forensic science. 

For sixty-three years, since its founding in 1948, the AAFS has served a 

distinguished and diverse membership. It comprises eleven different sections representing 

the broad range of expertise and interest of its members, now numbering over 6200. 

Included among them are physicians, attorneys, dentists, toxicologists, physical 

anthropologists, document examiners, psychiatrists, physicists, engineers, criminalists, 

educators, and digital evidence specialists. Representing all fifty US states, all ten 

Canadian provinces and 61 other countries from all corners of the world, AAFS members 

actively practice forensic science. In many cases, AAFS members also teach and conduct 

research in the field, producing hundreds of refereed publications and books. 

v

The editors express gratitude to the past and present AAFS leadership, to the 

AAFS staff headed by Executive Director Anne Warren, to AAFS Presidents since 1949 

and to our section’s directors and chair persons. 

Robert E. Barsley, DDS, JD 

2012-13 

Academy Presidents 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD 2011-12 Lowell J. Levine, DDS 1980-81 

Joseph P. Bono, MA 2010-11 June K. Jones, MS 1979-80 

Thomas L. Bohan, PhD, JD 2009-10 Kurt M. Dubowski, PhD 1978-79 

Carol E. Henderson, JD 2008-09 B. Edward Whittaker, BS 1977-78 

Bruce A. Goldberger, PhD 2007-08 James T. Weston, MD 1976-77 

James G. Young, MD 2006-07 Robert J. Joling, JD 1975-76 

Edmund R. Donoghue, MD 2005-06 David A. Crown, DCrim 1974-75 

Ronald L. Singer, MS 2004-05 Morton F. Mason, PhD 1973-74 

Kenneth E. Melson, JD 2003-04 Douglas M. Lucas, MSc, DSc 1972-73 

Graham R. Jones, PhD 2002-03 Cyril H. Wecht, MD, JD 1971-72 

Mary Fran Ernst, BLS 2001-02 Edwin C. Conrad, JD, PhD 1970-71 

John D. McDowell, DDS, MS 2000-01 James W. Osterburg, MPA 1969-70 

Patricia J. McFeeley, MD 1999-00 Maier I. Tuchler, MD 1968-69 

Barry A.J. Fisher, MS, MBA. 1998-99 Charles S. Petty 1967-68 

Michael A. Peat, PhD 1997-98 Jack L. Sachs, JD 1966-67 

Richard Rosner, MD 1996-97 Robert B. Forney, PhD 1965-66 

Haskell M. Pitluck, JD 1995-96 Dwight M. Palmer, MD 1964-65 

Steven C. Batterman, PhD 1994-95 Oliver C. Schroeder, Jr., JD 1963-64 

Enrico N. Togneri, BA 1993-94 Milton Helpern, MD 1962-63 

Marina Stajic, PhD. 1992-93 S.R. Gerber, MD, LLB 1961-62 

Homer R. Campbell, Jr., DDS 1991-92 Russel S. Fisher, MD 1960-61 

Ellis R. Kerley, PhD. 1990-91 Ordway Hilton, MA 1959-60 

Richard C. Froede, MD 1989-90 John F. Williams, BS 1958-59 

Richard S. Frank, BS 1988-89 Val B. Satterfield, MD 1957-58 

Yale H. Caplan, PhD 1987-88 Alan R. Moritz 1956-57 

Don Harper Mills, JD, MD 1986-87 Fred E. Inbau, BS, LLB, 1955-56 

Arthur D. Goldman, DMD 1985-86 A.W. Freireich, MD 1954-55 

Maureen Casey Owens, AB 1984-85 Louis P. Regan, MD, LLB 1953-54 

George E. Gantner, MD 1983-84 R.N. Harger, PhD 1952-53 

Anthony Longhetti, BA 1982-83 S.A. Levinson, MD, PhD 1951-52 

Joseph H. Davis, MD 

1981-82 

vi 

R.B.H. Gradwohl, MD 1949-51

Physical Anthropology 

Board of Directors Representatives and Chairs 

Director 

vii 

Chair 

2011-2012 Norman J. Sauer, PhD Susan M.T. Myster, PhD 

2010-2011 Norman J. Sauer, PhD Bradley J. Adams, PhD 

2009-2010 Norman J. Sauer, PhD Thomas D. Holland, PhD 

2008-2009 Norman J. Sauer, PhD Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD 

2007-2008 Norman J. Sauer, PhD Michael W. Warren, PhD 

2006-2007 Douglas H.Ubelaker, PhD Todd W. Fenton, PhD 

2005-2006 Douglas H.Ubelaker, PhD Paul S. Sledzik, MS 

2004-2005 Douglas H.Ubelaker, PhD Marilyn R. London, MA 

2003-2004 Douglas H.Ubelaker, PhD Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD 

2002-2003 Douglas H.Ubelaker, PhD John A. Williams, PhD 

2001-2002 Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD Jerry Melbye, PhD 

2000-2001 Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD 

1999-2000 Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD David M. Glassman, PhD 

1998-1999 Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD Diane L. France, PhD 

1997-1998 Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD Karen Ramey Burns, PhD 

1996-1997 Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD Alison Galloway, PhD 

1995-1996 Michael Finnegan, PhD Kathleen J. Reichs, PhD 

1994-1995 Michael Finnegan, PhD Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD 

1993-1994 Michael Finnegan, PhD Madeleine J. Hinkes, PhD 

1992-1993 William R. Maples, PhD Norman J. Sauer, PhD 

1991-1992 William R. Maples, PhD Ted A. Rathbun, PhD 

1990-1991 William R. Maples, PhD Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD 

1989-1990 William R. Maples, PhD Robert I. Sundick, PhD 

1988-1989 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD J. Michael Hoffman, MD, PhD 

1987-1988 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD George W. Gill, PhD 

1986-1987 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD J. Stanley Rhine, PhD 

1985-1986 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD J. Stanley Rhine, PhD 

1984-1985 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD Judy M. Suchey, PhD 

1983-1984 William R. Maples, PhD Richard L. Jantz, PhD 

1982-1983 William R. Maples, PhD William M. Bass, III, PhD 

1981-1982 William R. Maples, PhD Michael Finnegan, PhD 

1980-1981 Walter H. Birkby, PhD Sheilagh T. Brooks, PhD 

1979-1980 Walter H. Birkby, PhD Martha D. Graham, PhD 

1978-1979 Walter H. Birkby, PhD William R. Maples, phD 

1977-1978 Clyde C. Snow, PhD Rodger Heglar, PhD 

1976-1977 Clyde C. Snow, PhD Walter H. Birkby, PhD 

1975-1976 Clyde C. Snow, PhD Ellis R. Kerley, PhD 

1974-1975 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD William M. Bass, III, PhD

1973-1974 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD Ellis R. Kerley, PhD 

1972-1973 Ellis R. Kerley, PhD Ellis R. Kerley, PhD 

Our heartfelt thanks to the Academy Staff for managing the proceedings process 

that results in the highest standards of quality including Sonya Bynoe, Publications & 

Website Coordinator; Debbie Crockett, Finance Manager; Sondra Doolittle, Meetings & 

Exposition Manager; Phyllis Gilliam, Receptionist; Salena Grant, Assistant Meetings 

Manager; Cheryl Hunter, Membership Coordinator; Nancy Jackson, Director of 

Development & Accreditation; Tracie McCray, Accounting Assistant; Christie Vigil, 

Membership Assistant; and Kimberly Wrasse, Executive Assistant. 

This further acknowledges the excellent work of all our Physical Anthropology 

authors and colleagues worldwide who are willing to share their work for education. 

viii 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD 

Norman J. Sauer, PhD 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD 

Prepared by: 

Laura L. Liptai, PhD 1 

Engineering Sciences 

1 The Executive Committee of The American Academy of Forensic Sciences has directed Laura Liptai, 

Ph.D. of the Engineering Sciences Section to prepare this volume for publication.

Table of Contents 

Index of Title by Year 

2011 .................................................................................................................................................................. Index 1 

2010 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 12 

2009 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 29 

2008 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 41 

2007 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 55 

2006 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 67 

2005 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 76 

2004 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 85 

2003 ............................................................................................................................................................... Index 94 

2002 ............................................................................................................................................................. Index 100 

Index by Presenting Author ............................................................................ Index 107 

Proceedings by Year 

2011 ............................................................................................................................................................................... 1 

2010 ............................................................................................................................................................................ 64 

2009 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 145 

2008 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 216 

2007 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 293 

2006 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 361 

2005 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 410 

2004 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 466 

2003 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 531 

2002 ......................................................................................................................................................................... 574 

ix

Monitoring the Long-Term Applicability of 

Ground-Penetrating Radar Using Proxy 

Cadavers 

Monitoring the Applicability of Ground- 

Penetrating Radar on Detecting Shallow 

Graves Using Proxy Cadavers 

Taphonomy of a Mass Grave in Mid- 

Michigan: The Case of the Missing Cattle 

The Fromelles Project: Organizational and 

Operational Structures of a Large Scale 

Mass Grave Excavation and On-Site 

Anthropological Analysis 

Blast Injury in Skeletal Remains: The Case 

of a Soldier From WWI 

Peri-Mortem Fracture Patterns in South- 

Central Texas: A Preliminary Investigation 

Into the Peri-Mortem Interval 

Index of Title by Year 

2011 

William T. Hawkins, BA*, 10215 Blanchard Park Trail, 

Apartment 2314, Orlando, FL 32817; Joanna M. Fletcher, 

BA, 9941 Timber Oaks Court, Orlando, FL 32817; and 

John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, FL 

32816 

Joanna M. Fletcher, BA*, 9941 Timber Oaks Court, 

Orlando, FL 32817; William T. Hawkins, BA, 10215 

Blanchard Park Trail, Apartment 2314, Orlando, FL 

32817; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, 

Orlando, FL 32816 

Mary S. Megyesi, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Lindsey L. 

Jenny, MA, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

48823; Cate Bird, MA, 2740 Senate Drive, #3E, Lansing, 

MI 48912; Amy Michael, MA, 528 West Lapeer Street, 

Lansing, MI 48933; and Angela Soler, MA, and Jane 

Wankmiller, MA, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Roland Wessling, MSc*, Inforce Foundation, Cranfield 

University, Cranfield Forensic Institute, Shrivenham, SN6 

8LA, UNITED KINGDOM; and Louise Loe, PhD, Oxford 

Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 0ES, 

UNITED KINGDOM 

Martin Smith, PhD, and Marie Christine Dussault, MSc*, 

Bournemouth University, Centre for Forensic Science, 

Christchurch House, Poole, BH12 5BB, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Rebecca E. Shattuck, MA*, 809 Green Meadows Drive, 

Apartment #305, Columbia, MO 65201 

Analysis of Primary Blast Rib Fractures Angi M. Christensen, PhD, FBI Laboratory, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and Victoria 

A. Smith, MA*, ORAU, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Pattern and Distribution of Fractures in 

the William M. Bass and Hamann-Todd 

Osteological Collections 

Quantico, VA 

Shauna McNulty, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Index 1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

5

No Country for Young Pigs: Identifying 

the Use of Captive Bolt Pistols in Non- 

Natural Death Occurrences 

Defining Intimate Partner Violence: New 

Case Studies in IPV 

Skeletal Trauma Patterns in a Vietnam- 

Era Aircraft Loss: Part I - Lower 

Extremities 

The Central Identification Unit (CIU) 

During the Korean War 

Introducing COFFA: An International 

Consortium of Forensic Anthropology 

Programs 

The American Board of Forensic 

Anthropology: Historical Trends in 

Research and Training 

The Scientific Working Group for Forensic 

Anthropology: An Update 

Involvement of Forensic Anthropologists in 

the National Unidentified and Missing 

Persons System (NamUs) 

Diversification: Evolving Professional 

Roles for the Forensic Anthropologist in 

the Medicolegal System 

Scott A. Kirkland, MA*, North Carolina State University, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 

8107, Raleigh, NC 27695; Sarah L. Cunningham, MA, 

Binghamton University, Department of Anthropology, PO 

Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902; Jonathan Cammack, 

MS, North Carolina State University, Department of 

Entomology, Campus Box 7626, Raleigh, NC 27695; Ann 

H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, Department 

of Sociology & Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, 

NC 27695-8107; and D. Wes Watson, PhD, North Carolina 

State University, Department of Entomology, Campus Box 

7626, Raleigh, NC 27612 

Chelsey Juarez, MA*, University of California - Santa 

Cruz, Social Science 1, Department of Anthropology, 1156 

High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; and Cris E. Hughes, 

MA, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802 

Matthew Rhode, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam, AFB, HI 96853 

Kathleen M. Loyd, MA*, Joint POW-MIA Accounting 

Command Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, 

Department of Sociology & Anthropology, Campus Box 

8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and Erin H. Kimmerle, 

PhD*, University of South Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 

33820 

Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, Pellissippi State Community 

College, 10915 Hardin Valley Road, PO Box 22990, 

Knoxville, TN 37933 

Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, DoD JPAC, Central ID Lab, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science Center, Office 

of the Medical Examiner, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, 

AZ 85714; Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD*, College of Mount 

Saint Joseph, Department of Biology, 5701 Delhi Road, 

Cincinnati, OH 45233-1670; Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, 

Hamline University, MB 196, 1536 Hewitt Avenue, Saint 

Paul, MN 55104; and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Harris 

County Institute of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish 

Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Gwendolyn M. Haugen, MA*, Saint Louis County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 6039 Helen Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 

63134; Gina O. Hart, MA, 325 Norfolk Street, Newark, NJ 

07103-2701; and Pamela M. Steger, MS, 934 Sycamore 

Street, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Index 2 

6 

6 

7 

7 

8 

8 

9 

10 

10

Forensic Anthropology and Virtual Human 

Remains: Ethics in Uncharted Territory 

Femmes Fatales: Why Do Women 

Dominate the Discipline of Forensic 

Anthropology? 

Development of the Colombian Skeletal 

Collection 

A Bayesian Approach to Multifactorial 

Age-at-Death Estimation 

The Use of Vertebral Osteoarthritis and 

Osteophytosis in Age Estimation 

Error and Uncertainty in Pelvic Age 

Estimation Part II: Younger vs. Older 

Adult Females 

Assumptions and Bias in Recalibrating Age 

Standards Across Populations 

Sacral Epiphyseal Fusion at S1-S2: 

Classification, Comparability, and Error 

An Evaluation of the Chen et al. Pubic 

Aging Method on a North American 

Sample 

The Accuracy of the Lamendin Method of 

Dental Aging in Teeth With Fillings 

Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, PhD*, Liverpool John Moores 

University, James Parsons Building, Byrom Street, 

Liverpool, L3 3AF, UNITED KINGDOM; Summer J. 

Decker, MS, USF COM Department of Pathology, 12901 

Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 33612; 

and Diane L. France, PhD, Colorado State University, 

Human Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, 

Fort Collins, CO 80523 

Anna Williams, PhD*, Cranfield University, Defense 

Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, 


Cesar Sanabria, MA*, Instituto de Medicina Legal y 

Ciencias Forenses, Calle 7a #12-61, Segundo Piso, Bogota, 

COLOMBIA; and Elizabeth A. DiGangi, PhD*, ICITAP, 

Calle 125 #19-89, Office 401, Bogota, COLOMBIA 

Natalie M. Uhl, MS*, 308 North Orchard Street, Apartment 

7, Urbana, IL 61801; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 1559 

Mount Vernon, East Lansing, MI 48823; and Lyle W. 

Konigsberg, PhD, University of Illinois, 109 Davenport 

Hall, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

Ginesse A. Listi, PhD*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Louisiana State University, Department of Geography & 

Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Allysha P. Winburn, MA*, and Carrie A. Brown, MA, Joint 

POW/MIA Acct Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 


Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD*, University of South Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, 

Tampa, FL 33820; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, 

University of Illinois, Department of Anthropology, 109 

Davenport Hall, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 

61801 

Carrie A. Brown, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command Central Identification Laboratory, JPAC-CIL, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853 

Julie M. Fleischman, BA*, Michigan State University, 560 

Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Kristin E. Horner, MA*, Secchia Center, 15 Michigan 

Street Northeast, Grand Rapids, MI 49503 

Index 3 

11 

11 

12 

13 

13 

14 

15 

16 

16 

17

Three-Dimensional Geometric 

Morphometric Analysis and Multislice 

Computed Tomography: Application for 

Adult Sexual Dimorphism in Human Coxal 

Bone 

Estimation of Stature From Foot and its 

Segments in a Sub-Adult Population of 

North India 

New Linear Measurements for the 

Estimation of Sex From the Human 

Sacrum 

Sex Discrimination Using Patellar 

Measurements: Method and Validation 

Study 

Sex Estimation Using the Petrous Portion 

of the Temporal Bone By Linear 

Regression Anaylsis 

Age Estimation Utilizing Postnatal Dental 

Mineralization: An Exploratory Analysis 

of Molar Development for a Contemporary 

Florida Population. 

A New Method for Height Estimation 

Using Photogrammetry: Reliability and 

Validity 

Fabrice Dedouit, Ph D*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, 

TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; Marie 

Faruch Bifeld, MS, Service de Médecine Légale, CHU 

Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue Professeur Jean Poulhès, 

Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; José Braga, PhD, 

Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie AMIS, FRE 2960 CNRS, 

Université Paul Sabatier, 37 allées Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 

31000, FRANCE; Nicolas Sans, PhD, Service de 

Radiologie, CHU Toulouse-Purpan, Place du Docteur 

Baylac, Toulouse, 31059, FRANCE; Hervé Rousseau, PhD, 

Service de Radiologie, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue 

Professeur Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31059, FRANCE; Eric 

Crubezy, PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie AMIS, FRE 

2960 CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, 37 allées Jules 

Guesde, Toulouse, 31000, FRANCE; Daniel Rouge, PhD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 

Avenue Professeur Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31059, 

FRANCE; and Norbert Telmov, PhD, Service Medico- 

Judiciaire, CHU Rangueil, 1 Avenue Jean Poulhes, 

Toulouse, F-31054, FRANCE 

Kewal Krishan, PhD*, Panjab University, Department of 

Anthropology, Sectoc-14, Chandigarh, 160 014, INDIA; 

Tanuj Kanchan, MD, Kasturba Medical College, 

Department of Forensic Medicine, Light House Hill Road, 

Mangalore, 575 001, INDIA; and Neelam Passi, MSc, 

Panjab University, Department of Anthropology, Sector-14, 

Chandigarh, HI 160 014, INDIA 

Jennifer M. Vollner, MS*, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 1559 Mount 

Vernon, East Lansing, MI 48823; and Christopher W. 

Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 

1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Matthew Rhode, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam, AFB, HI 96853 

Dolly K. Stolze, MA*, 1900 Huntington Lane, Apartment 4, 

Redondo Beach, CA 90278 

Meryle A. Dotson, BA*, University of South Florida, 4202 

East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33620; Erin H. 

Kimmerle, PhD, University of South Florida, Department of 


33820; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of Illinois, 

Department of Anthropology, 109 Davenport Hall, 607 

South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

Antonio De Donno, PhD*, and Bruno Morgese, MD, 

Section of Legal Medicine - University of Bari, Pizza Giulio 

Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; Maurizio Scarpa, MD, 

Pizza G. Cesare 11 University of Bari, Bari, ITALY; and 

Francesco Introna, PhD, Section of Legal Medicine - 

DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY 

Index 4 

17 

18 

19 

19 

20 

20 

21

Contribution of the Maxillary Sinus 

Analysis for Human Identification 

Evaluating the Performance of Population 

Estimation Methods in Commingled 

Skeletal Assemblages 

Revising Revisions: Modification of the 

Measurement of the Sacral Body Height 

for Use in Fully’s (1956) Anatomical 

Method of Stature Estimation 

Investigating Between Group Differences 

in Zygomaxillary Suture Form Using 

Fourier Analysis 

An Investigation and Critique of the 

DiGangi et al. (2009) First Rib Aging 

Method 

Cervical Vertebral Centra Epiphyseal 

Union as an Age Estimation Method in 

Teenage and Young Adult Skeletons 

A Pilot Study in the Forensic Potential of 

the Health Index 

Demographic Differences of Homicide 

Victims Examined by Forensic 

Anthropologists in Comparison to National 

Homicide Victim Trends 

Ancestry Estimation Using Random Forest 

Modeling 

Ancestry Determination From Foramen 

Magnum 

Group Classification Using Traditional 

Craniometrics, Angle Measurements, 

Geometric Morphometric Techniques, and 

the Potential Applications of These 

Methods to Fragmentary Crania 

Jamilly O. Musse, PhD*, Jeidson A.M. Marques, PhD, 

Faculty of Dentistry, Feira de Santana State University 

(UEFS), Fanco Manoel da Silva, 437, Cidade Nova, Feira 

de Santana - Bahia, 44053-060, BRAZIL; and Rogério N. 

Oliveira, PhD, University of São Paulo, Lineu Prestes, 

5081, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, 05508-000, 

BRAZIL 

Bradley I. Lanning, MA*, Jolen Anya Minetz, MA, and 

Jennie J.H. Jin, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96835 

Atsuko Hayashi, BA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853- 

5530 

Sabrina B. Sholts, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210; and Sebastian K.T.S. 

Wärmländer, PhD, Stockholm University, Division of 

Biophysics, Stockholm, 10691, SWEDEN 

Sara M. Getz, BS*, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546 

A. Midori Albert, PhD*, University of North Carolina - 

Wilmington, Department of Anthropology, 601 South 

College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403-5907 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS*, 1559 Mount Vernon, East 

Lansing, MI 48823; Jennifer M. Vollner, MS, 328 Baker 

Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Dominique Semeraro, MS, 

Office of State Medical Examiners, 48 Orms Street, 

Providence, RI 02904; and Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, 

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New 

York, NY 10016 

Alma Koon, BS*, 731 Pond Branch Road, Lexington, SC 

29073; and Katherine E. Weisensee, PhD*, Clemson 

University, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, 132 

Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC 29634 

Joseph T. Hefner, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96583; 

Kate Spradley, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Texas 

State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 

78666; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science 

Center, Office of the Medical Examiner, 2825 East District 

Street, Tucson, AZ 85714 

Stephanie Marie Crider, MA*, Louisiana State University, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe- 

Russell-Kniffen Geosciences Complex, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803; and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of 

Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 

Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Jolen Anya Minetz, MA*, and Jiro Manabe, MA, JPAC- 

CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue Building 45, Hickam AFB, 

Honolulu, HI 96853 

Index 5 

21 

22 

23 

23 

24 

24 

25 

25 

26 

27 

27

Sex and Ancestry Estimation Using the Michael W. Kenyhercz, MS*, 6327 Catawba Drive, 

Olecranon Fossa 

Canfield, OH 44406 

Applicability of Femur Subtrochanteric Sean D. Tallman, MA*, and Allysha P. Winburn, MA, Joint 

Shape to Ancestry Assessment 

POW/MIA Acct Command, Central ID Laboratory, 310 


5530 

Improving Sex Estimation From the Natalie R. Shirley, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 

Cranium Using 3-Dimensional Modeling Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

From CT Scans 

Knoxville, TN 37996; Emam E.A. Fatah, MS, Center for 

Musculoskeletal Research, University of Tennessee, 307 

Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 

Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, 

Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of 

Tennessee, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Dismemberment: Cause of Death in the Isla Y. Campos Varela*, and Maria D. Morcillo, MD, 

Colombian Armed Conflict 

National Institute of Legal Medicine, Calle 7 A Number 12- 

61, Piso 3, Bogota, COLOMBIA 

CPR Fractures in Infants: When Do They Miriam E. Soto, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 250 

Occur? 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

The Relationship Between Directionality of Tammy S. Thomas, BS*, 910 San Jacinto Street, Lockhart, 

Force and the Formation of Butterfly TX 78644; and Tal Simmons, PhD, School of Forensic & 

Fractures 

Investigative Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, 

Preston, PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

Microscopic Analysis of Sharp Force Christopher W. Rainwater, MS*, and Christian Crowder, 

Trauma From Knives: A Validation Study PhD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Jeannette S. Fridie, MA, 

520 First Avenue, Forensic Anthropology Unit, New York, 

NY 10016 

Strontium Particles: Confirmation of Alicja K. Kutyla, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 

Primer Derived Gunshot Residue on Bone University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

in an Experimental Setting 

Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, 

Department Sociology & Anthropology, Middle Tennessee 

State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

Determining the Epidemiology of Hyoid Samantha M. Seasons, BA*, University of South Florida, 

Fractures in Cases of Hanging and 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620; Charles A. 

Strangulation 

Dionne, MA, University of South Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, 

FL 33620-7200; Leszek Chrostowski, MD, Hillsborough 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, 11025 North 46th 

Street, Tampa, FL 33617; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 

University of South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 

4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

Fusion Patterns in Modern Hyoid Bones Charles A. Dionne, MA*, and Samantha M. Seasons, BA, 


4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33620; 

Leszek Chrostowski, MD, Hillsborough County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 11025 North 46th Street, Tampa, FL 

33617; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of South 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, 

Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

The Prosecution of a 28-Year-Old Case of Turhon A. Murad, PhD*, California State University - 

Shaken Baby Syndrome 

Chico, Department of Anthropology, 400 West First Street 

Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Index 6 

28 

29 

29 

30 

31 

31 

32 

32 

33 

33 

34

Infanticide and Unclear Law: The Death of 

Four Infants 

Proficiency and Competency Testing — 

What They Are, What They Are Not 

Errors, Error Rates, and Their Meanings 

in Forensic Science 

A Simulation for Exploring the Effects of 

the “Trait List” Method’s Subjectivity on 

Consistency and Accuracy of Ancestry 

Estimations 

The More the Better?: Evaluating the 

Impact of Fixed Semi-Landmark Number 

in Cranial Shape Variation Analyses 

A Performance Check of Ear Prediction 

Guidelines Used in Facial Approximation 

Based on CT Scans of Living People 

The Importance of Testing and 

Understanding Statistical Methods in the 

Age of Daubert: Can FORDISC Really 

Classify Individuals Correctly Only One 

Percent of the Time? 

Forensic Interviews: Corroborating 

Evidence and Collecting Data for 

Anthropological Field Work 

Archaeological Methodology Used at the 

World Trade Center Site During the 

2006/2007 Recovery Excavation 

William C. Rodriguez III, PhD*, Armed Forces Medical 

Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, 

Rockville, MD 20850; Tasha Z. Greenburg, MD, University 

of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines 

Boulevard, Dallas, TX 7530; and David R. Fowler, MD, 

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 111 Penn Street, 

Baltimore, MD 21201 

Vincent J. Sava, MA*, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 


96853 

Angi M. Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

22135; Christian M. Crowder, PhD*, Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Applied Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA 16546; and Max M. Houck, PhD, West Virginia 

University, 1600 University Avenue, 208 Oglebay Hall, 

Morgantown, WV 26506-6217 

Cris E. Hughes, PhD*, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, 

Urbana, IL 61802; Chelsey A. Juarez, PhD, University of 

California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Social Science 1, 

Department of Anthropology, Santa Cruz, California 

95064; Gillian M. Fowler, MS, Lincoln University, 

Brayford Pool Lincoln, Lincolnshire, LN6 7TS, UNITED 

KINGDOM; Taylor Hughes, PhD, University of Urbana- 

Champaign, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, Urbana, IL 

61802; and Shirley C. Chacon, BA, FAFG, Avenida Simeón 

Cañas 10-64 zona 2, Guatemala, 01002, GUATEMALA 

Shanna E. Williams, PhD*, University of Florida, 

Department of Anatomy, PO Box 100235, Gainesville, FL 

32610-0235 

Pierre Guyomarc’h, MS*, Universite Bordeaux 1, UMR 

5199 PACEA, UMR 5199 PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, 

Av des Facultes, Bat B8, Talence, 33405, FRANCE; Carl N. 

Stephan, PhD, JPAC - CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Nicole D. Siegel, DVM*, Cleveland Museum of Natural 

History, 1 Wade Oval Drive, Cleveland, OH 44106-1767; 

and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Charles J. Massucci, MA*, Tampa Police Department, 411 

North Franklin Avenue, Tampa, FL 33602; and Erin H. 



33820 

Scott C. Warnasch, MA*, New York City Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; 

Christian Crowder, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and 

Kristen Hartnett, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 520 1st Avenue, New 


Index 7 

34 

35 

36 

36 

37 

38 

38 

39 

39

World Trade Center Revisited: A Bayesian 

Approach to Disaster Victim Identification 

New Forensic Archaeological Recovery 

Protocols for Fatal Fire Scenes 

Using Spatial Analysis to Recognize 

Normal and Abnormal Patterns in Burned 

Bodies 

Recovery and Identification of a WWI 

American Doughboy in Rembercourt-sur- 

Mad, France 

The Fromelles Project – The Recovery and 

Identification of British and Australian 

WWI Soldiers From Mass Graves in 

Northern France 

Validation of X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) to 

Determine Osseous or Dental Origin of 

Unknown Material 

The Condyle Connection: Forensic 

Implications for the Association Between 

the Condyles of the Femur and Tibia 

Craniometric Variation in the Caribbean 

and Latin America as Influenced by the 

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade 

Regional Variation of the Proximal Femur 

in the United States: Analysis of Data From 

NHANES III 

Morphometric Evaluation of Nasal 

Characteristics in 20th Century White and 

Black South Africans 

Can Femoral Shape be Used to Estimate 

Weight? 

Benjamin J. Figura, MA*, New York City Office of the 

Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 

10016 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, 

Alexandra R. Klales, MS*, Erin Chapman, MS, and Allison 

M. Nesbitt, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Christina L. Fojas, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 

Binghamton University, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 

13902; Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief 


Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

Denise To, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Carrie A. Brown, 

MA, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 

Hickam AFB, HI 96853 




Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 0ES, 


Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Forensic Anthropology Program (TEU), Quantico, VA 

22135; Michael A. Smith, PhD, Federal Bureau of 


Chemistry Unit, Quantico, VA 22135; and Richard M. 

Thomas, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

Trace Evidence Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Quantico, VA 22135 

Erin B. Waxenbaum, PhD*, 1810 Hinman Avenue, 

Evanston, IL 60208; and Kelsea Linney, BA*, Northwestern 

University, 1810 Hinman Avenue, Evanston, IL 60208 

Ashley L. Humphries, BA*, North Carolina State 


1911 Building, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695 

Richard A. Gonzalez, PhD*, Saint Lawrence University, 

Department of Anthropology, 1 Romoda Drive, Canton, NY 

13617 

Jennifer L. McDowell, BSc, University of Pretoria, 

Department of Anatomy, Basic Medical Sciences Building, 

PO Box 2034, Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA; Ericka N. 

L’Abbe, PhD*, University of Pretoria, PO Box 5023, 

Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA; and Michael W. 

Kenyhercz, MS, 6327 Catawba Drive, Canfield, OH 44406 

Gina M. Agostini, MA*, 83 Newton Street, Greenfield, MA 

01301 

Index 8 

40 

41 

41 

42 

43 

43 

44 

44 

45 

46 

46

Osteometric Analysis of the Vertebral 

Column 

Variation in Browridge and Chin 

Morphologies: Sexual Dimorphism and 

Covariation With Body Size 

Taphonomic Changes Observed on 

Skeletal Remains in Southeast Texas 

Using the Freeze-Thaw Cycle to Determine 

the Postmortem Interval: An Assessment of 

Pig Decomposition in West Central 

Montana 

Animal Scavenging and Taphonomic 

Interpretation: An Evaluation of the Role 

of Scavenger Behavior and Environmental 

Context in Outdoor Forensic Scenes 

A Longitudinal Study on the Outdoor 

Human Decomposition Sequence in 

Central Texas 

Taphonomy Reader Beta-Version: A 

Software to Help in Taphonomic 

Syndromes Diagnosis 

Comparison of Fresh Tissue Autopsy and 

Skeletal Analysis Reports in Colombia 

Conditions for Breaking Down Mummified 

Tissue and the Subsequent Implications for 

Time Since Death 

Comparing Human and Porcine Infant 

Parietal Histomorphology to Facilitate 

Research on Pediatric Cranial Trauma 

Identification vs. Cause of Death in Mass 

Graves Where Individuals are 

Commingled in Colombia 

Positive Identification Through 

Comparative Panoramic Radiography of 

the Maxillary Sinuses: A Validation Study 

Jolen Anya Minetz, MA*, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Bradley I. 

Lanning, MA, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96835; Kylie Puzzuto, West Virginia 

University, PO Box 6201, Morgantown, WV 26506; and 

Elizabeth Okrutny, BS, Central Florida University, 4000 

Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32816 

Heather M. Garvin, MS*, Johns Hopkins University, 1830 

East Monument Street, Room 302, Baltimore, MD 21205 

Charity G. Owings, BS*, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 

77845; Nicole C. Larison, BS*, Sam Houston State 

University, Department of Biological Sciences, Box 2116, 

Huntsville, TX 77341; and Joan A. Bytheway, PhD, Sam 

Houston State University, Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 77341- 

2296 

Beatrix Dudzik, MA*, and Hillary R. Parsons, MA, 508 49 

Chisholm Trail, Knoxville, TN 37919-7050; and Ashley H. 

McKeown, PhD, University of Montana, Department of 

Anthropology, Missoula, MT 59812 

Lisa N. Bright, BS*, 1259 Hobart, Chico, CA 95926 49 

Joanna K. Suckling, BS*, Texas State University, 601 

University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Matteo Borrini, MS*, via del Mattone 17\a, La Spezia, 

19131, ITALY; Maria V. Tumbarello, Via Luigi Calabresi 

14, Montecatini (PT), AE 51016, ITALY 

Karen R. Burns, PhD*, University of Utah, Department of 

Anthropology, 270 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, UT 

84112-0060; and Ana C. Guatame-Garcia, MSc, Calle 

126A #7C-45, Bogota, COLOMBIA 

Kanya Godde, PhD*, Texas State University, San Marcos, 

Department of Anthropology, 601 University Drive, San 

Marcos, TX 78666 

Lindsey L. Jenny, MA, Paige V. Wojcik, BS*, and Todd W. 

Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, Department of 


Maria D. Morcillo, MD*, and Isla Y. Campos Varela, 



Angela Soler, MA*, Michigan State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Index 9 

47 

48 

48 

50 

50 

51 

52 

52 

53 

53

New Method of Identification Based on 

Computer-Assisted Radiograph 

Comparison 

Test of Osteon Circularity as a Method of 

Human/Non-Human Identification 

The Evaluation of Bone Area as a 

Histomorphometric Variable for 

Estimating Age at Death 

Improving Forensic Facial Reproductions 

Using Empirical Modeling 

Prediction of Mouth Shape Using 

Geometric Morphometrics for Facial 

Approximation 

The Effects of Avian and Terrestrial 

Scavenger Activity on Human Remains in 

the Piney Woods of Southeast Texas 

Scavenging Impacts on the Progression of 

Decomposition in Northern New England 

Decomposition Patterns of Human 

Remains Within Enclosed Environments: 

A Comparative Analysis of the Midwest 

and Southeast 

Using Algae to Estimate Postmortem 

Submersion Interval in a Louisiana Bayou 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Harris County Institute of 

Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; John A. Hipp, PhD, Medical Metrics, Incorporated, 

2121 Sage Road, Houston, TX 77056; Jennifer C. Love, 

PhD, and Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, Harris County Institute 

of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; N. Shastry Akella, PhD, Medical Metrics, 

Incorporated, 2121 Sage Road, Houston, TX 77056; and 

Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County Institute of Forensic 

Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant, PhD*, MCG/UGA 

Medical Partnership, 279 Williams Street, Athens, GA 

30602; John E. Byrd, PhD, 95-033 Hokuiwa Street, #51, 

Mililani, HI 96853-5530; and Jiro Manabe, MA, JPAC- 



Janna M. Andronowski, BA*, University of Toronto, 19 

Russell Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S2, CANADA; and 

Christian Crowder, PhD, New York Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Brian Wood, MS*, University of Tennessee, 315 Pasqua 

Engineering Building, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard Jantz, 

PhD, Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 


University of Tennessee, Center for Musculoskeletal 

Research, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Pierre Guyomarc’h, MS*, Bruno Dutailly, MS, Christine 

Couture, PhD, and Helene Coqueugniot, PhD, Universite 

Bordeaux 1 - UMR 5199 PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, 

UMR 5199 PACEA - LAPP, Av des Facultes, Bat B8, 

Talence, 33405, FRANCE 

Kathryn E. Moss, BS*, 4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 

77004; and Angela D. Rippley, BS, and Joan A. Bytheway, 

PhD, Sam Houston State University, Box 2296, Huntsville, 

TX 77341-2296 

Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, University of Maine, Margaret 

Chase Smith Policy Center, 5784 York Complex, Building 

#4, Orono, ME 04469 

Melissa A. Pope, MA*, University of South Florida, 

Anthropology Department, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, 

Tampa, FL 33620 

Sophia G.D. Renke, MA*, Faculty of Law, University of 

Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H5, CANADA; Mary H. 

Manhein, MA, Department of Geography & Anthropology, 

Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and 

Sibel Bargu-Ates, PhD, Department of Oceanography and 

Coastal Sciences, 1235 Energy, Coast and Environment, 

Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Index 10 

54 

55 

55 

56 

57 

57 

58 

59 

59

Profiling of Marine Microbial 

Communities Associated With 

Decomposing Remains Can Indicate 

Postmortem Submersion Interval 

Scavenging and Its Relationship to 

Decomposition in the Northern Rockies 

Anaerobic and Aerobic Decomposition in 

55-gallon Oil Drums: A Two-Year Study 

on the Deliberate Concealment of Remains 

Potential Impact of Regional Ecologies on 

the Estimation of Postmortem Interval: 

Case Comparisons From Northern New 

England 

The Relationship Between Ambient 

Temperature and the Temperature of 

Maggot Masses on Decomposing Pig and 

Rabbit Carcasses 

Gemma C. Dickson, BSc*, and Russell T.M. Poulter, PhD, 

University of Otago, Department of Biochemistry, PO Box 

56, Dunedin, AS 9054, NEW ZEALAND; Jules A. Kieser, 

PhD, University of Otago, Sir John Walsh Research 

Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, PO Box 647, Dunedin, AS 

9054, NEW ZEALAND; Elizabeth W. Maas, PhD, National 

Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Ltd. (NIWA), 

Private Bag 14901, Wellington, AS 9054, NEW ZEALAND; 

and P. Keith Probert, PhD, University of Otago, 

Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, Dunedin, AS 

9054, NEW ZEALAND 

Ashley H. McKeown, PhD*, University of Montana, 

Department of Anthropology, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, 

MT 59812; Walter L. Kemp, MD, Department Of Justice, 

State of Montana, Forensic Science Division, 2679 Palmer, 

Missoula, MT 59808-6010; and Beatrix Dudzik, MA, and 

Hillary R. Parsons, MA, University of Tennessee, 



Lauren R. Pharr, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 


Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Wayne L. 

Kramer, PhD, Louisiana State University, Department of 

Entomology, 404 Life Science Building, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803 

Kerriann Marden, MA*, 3800 New Hampshire Avenue, 

Northwest, Apartment #509, Washington, DC 20011; and 

Marcella H. Sorg, PhD, University of Maine, Margaret 


#4, Orono, ME 04469 

Amanda B. Troy, MSc*, 13 Castlerock, Tulla Road, Ennis, 

IRELAND; and Colin Moffatt, PhD, and Tal Simmons, 

PhD, School of Forensic & Investigative Sciences, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, 


Index 11 

60 

61 

61 

62 

63

Interpretation and Confirmation of 

Patterned Clothing Stains Observed on 

Both Tibiae 

A Preliminary Study of the Timing of 

Specific Characteristics of Copper and 

Iron Discoloration on Bone 

Detecting Various Burial Scenarios in a 

Controlled Setting Using Ground- 

Penetrating Radar 

Precision of Coordinate Landmark Data 

Acquired From the Os Coxa 

The Utility of Cohen’s Kappa for Testing 

Observer Error in Discrete Data and 

Alternatives 

Tags and Spurs: Morphological Features of 

Cranial Blunt Force Trauma Fractures 

Primary and Secondary Skeletal Blast 

Trauma 

Case Studies and Patterns of Postmortem 

Dismemberment 

A SEM-EDS Trace Elemental Analysis of 

Sharp Force Trauma on Bone 

2010 

Danielle A.M. Wieberg, MA*, Knoxville Police Department, 

800 Howard Baker, Jr. Avenue, PO Box 3610, Knoxville, 

TN 37927; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, Florida 

International University, Department of Biological 

Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th Street, Miami, FL 333199 

Cate E. Bird, BA*, Michigan State University, 2740 Senate 

Drive, #3E, Lansing, MI 48912; and Amy R. Michael, BA, 

Michigan State University, 528 West Lapeer Street, 

Lansing, MI 48933 

Michael Martin, BS*, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, 

Phillips Hall, Room 309, Orlando, FL 32816; and John J. 

Schultz, PhD, University of Central Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, FL 32816 

Joan A. Bytheway, PhD*, Sam Houston State University, 

Chemistry & Forensic Science Building, 1003 Bowers 

Boulevard, Box 2525, Huntsville, TX 77340; and Ann H. 

Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, Sociology 

and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 

8107 

Alexandra R. Klales, MS*, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 



Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Lehman College, CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, 

West, Bronx, NY 10468 


Investigation Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit - 

Anthropology, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

22135; Vanessa Ramos, BS, Oak Ridge Associated 

Universities, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA ; 

Rachealle Sanford, BA, Western Kentucky University, 

College Heights Boulevard, Bowling Green, KY 42101; 

Candie Shegogue, BS, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Victoria 

A. Smith, MA*, ORAU, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and W. Mark Whitworth, 

BS, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory Explosives 

Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135 

Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, 1305 Northeast 6th Terrace, 

Gainesville, Florida ; Katherine Skorpinski, MA, 1626 

Southwest 14th Street, Aartment 16, Gainesville, FL 32608; 

Traci L. Van Deest, MA, 121 Southeast 16th Avenue, 

Apartment J201, Gainesville, FL 32601; and Laurel Freas, 

MA, 3425 Southwest 2nd Avenue, #246, Gainesville, FL 

32607 

Shannon E. May, MA*, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 


Index 12 

64 

64 

65 

65 

66 

66 

67 

68 

68

Long Bone Healing Following Trauma Lenore Barbian, PhD*, Department of History & 

Anthropology, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, 

Schmorl’s Nodes in the Skeletal Remains of 

an American Military Population: 

Frequency, Formation, and Etiology 

Protocol for Objective Evidentiary 

Photography in Forensic Anthropology 

Postmortem Interval of Surface Remains 

During Spring in Southeast Texas 

Common Household Rope and an Outdoor 

Hanging: An Investigation Sparked by a 

Skeletal Case Exhibiting Cervical Vertebra 

Entrapment 

Estimating Sex of the Human Skeleton 

Based on Metrics of the Sternum 

Microscopic Markers of Trauma in 

Decomposed Bone and Skin 

Can We Estimate Stature From the 

Scapula? A Test Considering Sex and 

Ancestry 

Edinboro, PA 16444 

Kelly L. Burke, MSc*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Malina L. Reveal, MSc*, PO Box 4493, Chico, CA 95927; 

and Ian Hanson, MSc, Bournemouth University, Room 

C136, Christchurch House, Talbott Campus, Fern Barrow, 

Poole, BH12 5BB, UNITED KINGDOM 

Katelyn A. Stafford*, Sam Houston State Univeristy, 

Department of Chemistry, PO Box 2117, 1003 Bowers 

Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 77341; Kathryn E. Moss, BS*, 

4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 77004; Natalie 

Lindgren, BS, Sam Houston State University, College of 

Criminal Justice, 1300 Bowers Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 

77340; and Joan A. Bytheway, PhD*, Sam Houston State 

University, Chemistry & Forensic Science Building, 1003 

Bowers Boulevard, Box 2525, Huntsville, TX 77340 

Alicja K. Kutyla, MS*, University of Tennessee, Department 

of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996; Rebecca J. Wilson, MA, 3108 Rennoc Road, 

Knoxville, TN 37918; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, 



Rosanne Bongiovanni, BA*, 601 University Drive, ELA 

232, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Anna Taborelli, MD, and Salvatore Andreola, MD, Sezione 

di Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e 

Scienze Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; 

Alessia Di Giancamillo, DVM, Dipartimento di Scienze e 

Tecnologie Veterinarie p, Università degli Studi, Milan, 

ITALY; Guendalina Gentile, BSc, Sezione di Medicina 

Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze 

Biomediche, Via Mangiagalli, 37, Milano, ITALY; Daniele 

Gibelli, MD*, and Marketa Pechnikova, BSc, Laboratorio 

di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e 

Scienze Biomediche, Via Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; 

Cinzia Domeneghini, DVM, Dipartimento di Scienze e 

Tecnologie Veterinarie, Università degli Studi, Milan, 

ITALY; Marco Grandi, MD, Sezione di Medicina Legale e 

delle Assicurazioni di Milano, Dipartimento di Morfologia 

Umana e Scienze Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, 

ITALY; and Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Laboratorio di 

Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Sezione di Medicina 


Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY 

Rachel M. Burke, MA*, 10024 Northeast 120th Sreet #D3, 

Kirkland, WA 

Index 13 

69 

70 

70 

71 

71 

72 

73 

73

A Pilot Study on Nuclear DNA Recovery 

From Charred White-Tailed Deer 

(Odocoileus virginianus) Bone Tissue 

Rolling Bones: A Field “System” for the 

Recovery and Transportation of Fragile 

Skeletal Evidence 

The Effects of Fire Suppression Techniques 

on Burned Bone 

Burned Beyond Recognition: Can the 

Biological Profile Be Estimated From 

Unprocessed Human Cremated Remains? 

Effects of Heat-Modification on Sharp 

Force Trauma in Charred Remains 

Teaching Forensic Field Methods to 

Anthropology Students: The University of 

West Florida Model 

Fatal Fire Modeling: Replicating 

Environmental and Human Factors 

Associated With the Recovery and Analysis 

of Burned Human Remains 

Differentiating Peri- and Postmortem 

Fractures in Burned Postcranial Remains 

Towards a Standardization of Burnt Bone 

Analysis: The Use of Micro-Computed 

Tomography and 3-Dimensional Imaging 

to Assess Morphological Change 

Mama Mia! Murder and Disposal of a 

Corpse in a Pizza Oven 

XRD and FTIR: A Diagnostic Tool to 

Determine Whether or Not a DNA Profile 

Can Be Successfully Generated From Heat 

Treated Bone Prior to DNA Extraction 

Taphonomic Patterns: Can Brush Fires 

Mimic the Natural Decomposition of Heavy 

Muscle Markers on Bone? 

Differential Decomposition Patterns in 

Charred Versus Un-Charred Remains 

Rethinking Bone Trauma: A New 

Biomechanical Continuum Based 

Approach 

Jordan N. Espenshade, BS*, 1420 Centre Avenue, 

Apartment 103, Pittsburgh, PA 15282; and Lisa Ludvico, 

PhD, Duquesne University Department of Biology, 341 

Fisher Hall 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15282 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office 

Forensic Anthropology Lab, 2595 Arlington Avenue, 

Toledo, OH 43614-2674; Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Lucas 

County Coroners Office, US HHS DMORT 5, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; G. Michael 

Pratt, PhD, Heidelberg University, Department of 

Anthropology, 310 East Market Street, Tiffin, OH 44993; 

Richard P. Brownley, BA, Ohio Peace Officers Training 

Academy, 1650 State Route 56, London, OH 43140; and 

Lauri M. Martin, PhD, University of Texas, Austin, 

Department of Anthropology, Campus Mail Code C3200 1 

University Station, Austin, TX 78712 

Briana K. Curtin, BA*, 1901 Elaine Drive, St. Joseph, MO 

64505 

Teresa G. Nugent, BA*, Texas State University, 601 

University Drive, ELA 232, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Daisy D.M. Vincent, MA*, 29 rue des Poudrieres, 

Neuchatel, 2000, SWITZERLAND 

A. Joanne Curtin, PhD*, University of West Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 11000 University Parkway, 

Pensacola, FL 32514 

Elayne J. Pope, PhD*, Anthropology Department, 

University of West Florida, Anthropology Building 13, 

11000 University Parkway, Pensacola, FL 32514 

Elayne J. Pope, PhD, Heidi S. Davis, BA, BS*, and Ashley 

E. Shidner, BA, University of West Florida, Anthropology 

Department,11000 University Parkway, Building 13, 


Patrick Randolph-Quinney, PhD*, Centre for Anatomy & 

Human Identification, College of Life Sciences, University 

of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UNITED KINGDOM 


Examiner’s Office, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, 

Rockville, MD 20850 

Jamie D. Fredericks, MSc*, Cranfield University, SCR 12, 

DASSR, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Tricia A. Fernandes, BSc*, Saint Mary’s University, 923 

Robie Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3C3, CANADA 

Ariel M. Gruenthal, BA*, 2534 E, Eureka, CA 95501 81 

Anne Kroman, PhD*, Lincolm Memorial University- 

DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine, 6965 

Cumberland Gap Parkway, Harrogate, TN 

Index 14 

74 

74 

75 

75 

76 

77 

77 

78 

78 

79 

80 

80 

81

A Forensic Pathology Tool to Predict 

Pediatric Skull Fracture Patterns – Part 2: 

Fracture Quantification and Further 

Investigations on Infant Cranial Bone 

Fracture Properties 

Objective Interpretation of the Striation 

Pattern Observed in Experimentally Cut 

Costal Cartilage 

The Contextual Nature of “Excessive 

Force”: Alcohol-Induced Osteopenia, 

Fracture Prevalence, and Healing Rates 

Among In-Custody and Homicide Deaths 

From the Harris County Medical 

Examiner’s Office 

Patterns of Trauma on the Skeletal 

Remains of U.S. Soldiers in the Battle of 

East Chosin, North Korea 

Peri-Mortem Skeletal Trauma in U.S. 

Korean War Soldiers: An Epidemiological 

and Historical Study of Prisoner-of-War 

and Battlefield Casualties 

Preliminary Studies of the Isolation of 

Drugs From Bone and Bone Marrow: A 

Broadened Role for the Forensic 

Anthropologist 

The Effects of Varying pH on Bone in 

Aquatic Environments 

Taphonomic Processes Involved With the 

Decomposition of Human Remains Within 

the Puget Sound 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS*, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864-4200; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker 

Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Brian J. Powell, BS, and 

Timothy G. Baumer, BS, Orthopaedic Biomechanics 

Laboratories, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

48824; William N. Newberry, MS, Exponent Failure 

Analysis Associates, Inc., Farmington Hills, MI 48331; and 

Roger C. Haut, PhD, A407 East Fee Hall, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

48824 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, and 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, Harris County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; and Heather Backo, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Tulane University, 1326 Audubon Street, 

New Orleans, LA 70118 

Heather Backo, MA*, Tulane University Deaprtment of 

Anthropology, 1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 

70118 

James T. Pokines, PhD*, Kelly L. Burke, MSc, and 

Josephine M. Paolello, MS, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Alexander F. 

Christensen, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Maranda A. Kles, MA*, C.A. Pound Human ID Labortory, 

1376 Mowry Road, Room G17, University of Florida, 

Gainesville, FL 32610; Bruce A. Goldberger, PhD, 

Department of Pathology, University of Florida College of 

Medicine, 4800 Southwest 35th Drive, Gainesville, FL 

32608; Michele Merves, PhD, University of Florida, Rocky 

Point Labs, Toxicology, 4800 Southwest 35th Drive, 

Gainesville, FL 32608; and Michael W. Warren, PhD, C.A. 

Pound Human ID Laboratory, 1376 Mowry Road, Room 

G17, PO Box 113615, Gainesville, FL 32610, and John 

Krigbaum, PhD, University of Florida, College of Liberal 

Arts and Sciences, Department of Anthropology, 1112 

Turlington Hall, Gainsville, FL 32611 

Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, FBI Laboratory, Trace 

Evidence Unit - Anthropology, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Quantico, VA 22135; Kevin J. Horn, JD*, FBI Laboratory, 

Evidence Response Team Unit, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and Sarah W. Myers, BA, 

Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322 

Sarah M. Huntington, MSc*, PO Box 961, Kingston, WA 

98346; and Tal Simmons, PhD, School of Forensic & 


Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

Index 15 

82 

83 

83 

84 

85 

85 

86 

87

Microbial Marine Decomposition: Marine 

Bacteria as an Indicator of Postmortem 

Submersion Interval 

A Study of the Differences Between Fresh 

Water and Salt Water Decomposition: 

Establishing Time Since Death or Time 

Since Submergence 

Decomposition Patterns in Indoor 

Environments: A Comparative Analysis of 

Rodriguez and Bass’s Stages 

Differential Decomposition of Non- 

Traumatized, Blunt Force, and Sharp 

Force-Traumatized Buried Pig Carcasses 

Application of Geopedology to Forensic 

Anthropology: Can Vivianite Be a Marker 

of Burial in Soil? – Three Case Reports 

Biometric Assessment of the Accuracy of a 

Large Sample of Three-Dimensional 

Computerized Facial Approximations 

Results From a Survey on Computerized 

Facial Approximation 

Gemma C. Dickson, BSc*, and Russell T.M. Poulter, PhD, 


56, Dunedin, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND; Jules A. 

Kieser, PhD, University of Otago, Sir John Walsh Research 

Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, PO Box 647, Dunedin, Otago 



Private Bag 14901, Wellington, Otago 9054, NEW 

ZEALAND; and P. Keith Probert, PhD, University of 

Otago, Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, 

Dunedin, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND 

Mallory S. Littman, BS*, and Peter J. Colleran, BS, Boston 

University School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, 

MA 02118; and Tara L. Moore, PhD, Boston University 

School of Medicine, 700 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; 

and Billie L. Seet, MA, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 720 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118 

Melissa A. Pope, BA*, University of South Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, 

Tampa, FL 33612; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University 

of South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East 

Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Lindsay Sliwa, BS, and Cliff Boyd, 

PhD*, Radford University, Anthropological Sciences 

Program, School of Environmental and Physical Sciences, 

Radford, VA 24142 

Stephania Ern, BSc, and Luca Trombino, Dipartimento di 

Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Milano, 

Milan, ITALY; Daniele Gibelli, MD*, Laboratorio di 



Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; and 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Laboratorio di Antropologia e 

Odontologia Forense, Sezione di Medicina Legale, 

Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche, 

V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY 

Terrie L. Simmons, MA*, Counterterrorism and Forensic 

Science Research Unit, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Peter H. Tu, PhD, and 

Jeffrey D. Erno, MS, GE Global Research, One Research 

Circle, Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Philip N. Williams, BS, 

and Keith L. Monson, PhD, Counterterrorism and Forensic 


Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135 

Terrie L. Simmons, MA*, FBI Laboratory Division, 

Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research Unit, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Lisa G. 

Bailey, BA, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

SPU/Room 1115, Quantico, VA 22135; and Melissa A. 

Torpey, MS, Philip N. Williams, BS, and Keith L. Monson, 

PhD, Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research 

Unit, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 


Index 16 

87 

88 

88 

89 

90 

90 

91

Integrative Measurement Protocol 

Incorporating Morphometric and 

Behavioral Research Tools From Forensic 

Anthropology, Human Biology, and 

Primatology 

Evaluation of Bilateral Differences in 

Histomorphometry From the Anterior 

Cortex of the Femur of Korean Adults 

Phoebe R. Stubblefield, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of North Dakota, 236 Centennial 

Drive Stop 8374, Grand Forks, ND 58202; Susan C. Anton, 

PhD*, New York University, Department of Anthropology, 

25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; James J. 

Snodgrass, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University 

of Oregon, 1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405- 

1218; Christian Crowder, PhD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 

520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Anthony Di Fiore, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, New York University, 

25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; Dana L. Duren, 

PhD, Departments of Community Health, Neuroscience, 

Wright State Boonshoft School of Medicine, 3640 Colonel 

Glenn Highway, Dayton, OH 45435; Eduardo Fernandez- 

Duque, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Pennsylvania, 3260 South Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104- 

6398; William R. Leonard, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, Northwestern University, 1810 Hinman 

Avenue, Evanston, IL 60208-1330; Steve Leigh, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, 

Urbana-Champaign, 109 Davenport Hall, 607 South 

Matthews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801; Felicia Madimenos, 

MS, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, 

1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405-1218; Scott 

McGraw, PhD, Department of Anthropology, The Ohio 

State University, 174 West 18th Avenue Columbus, OH 

43210; Emily R. Middleton, MS, and Chris A. Schmitt, MS, 

Department of Anthropology, New York University, 25 

Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; Richard J. Sherwood, 

PhD, Wright State Boonshoft School of Medicine, 3640 

Colonel Glenn Highway, Dayton, OH 45435; Trudy R. 

Turner, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Wisconsin-Milwaukee, PO Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201; 

Claudia R. Valeggia, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Pennsylvania, 3260 South Street, 

Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398; and Francis J. White, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, 1218 

University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405-1218 

Seung Mook Jo, MD, PhD, Gachon University of Medicine 

and Science, Department of Anatomy, 1198, Kuwol-dong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; and Yi-Suk Kim, 

MD, PhD*, Ewha Womans University, Departement of 

Anatomy, School of Medicine, 911-1, Mok6-dong, 

Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158710, KOREA 

Index 17 

92 

93

Forensic Anthropological Consideration of 

Quantification Techniques of Individuals 

From Excavated Human Remains in Case 

of Burial Place at Daehak-Ro, Korea 

Stature Estimation: Are There Any 

Advantages to Using Principal Component 

Analysis? 

An Investigation Into the Rate of 

Decomposition of Decapitated Heads and 

Heads With an Attached Body 

An Assessment of a Simple Model and 

Method for Osteometric Sorting 

Improving Histomorphometric Age 

Estimation: An Application of Osteon 

Population Density on Kerley’s Original 

Sample Data 

Histological Age Estimation: Towards 

Standardizing Definitions of Bone 

Histological Variables 

And Dens There Were Two: The Utility of 

the Second Cervical Vertebra as an 

Indicator of Sex and Age-at-Death 

A Radiographic Assessment of Age Using 

Distal Radius Epiphysis Presence in a 

Modern Subadult Sample 

U-Young Lee, MD*, Department of Anatomy, College of 

Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpodong, 

Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, 

MD, PhD, Soonchunhyang University, College of Medicine, 

Department of Anatomy, 366-1 Ssangyong-dong, Cheonansi, 

Seoul 330946 KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, PhD, Ewha 

Womans University, Department of Anatomy, School of 

Medicine, 911-1, Mok6-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 

158710, KOREA; Sang-Seob Lee, DDS, National Institute 

of Scientific Investigation, Shinwol-7-dong, Yancheon-gu, 

Seoul, 158707, KOREA; Yong-Woo Ahn, DDS, PhD, 

Institute of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan 

National University, 1-10, Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 

602739, KOREA; Nak-Eun Jung, PhD, National Institute of 

Scientific Investigation, Shinwol-7-dong, Yancheon-gu, 

Seoul, 158707, KOREA; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of 

Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, 

KOREA 

Kalan S. Lynn, BSc*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th 

Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic, 

Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Tal Simmons, PhD*, School of Forensic & Investigative 

Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, 

Lancashire PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM; and Elizabeth 

A. Walker, BSc, 3 Ruskin Road, Birtley, Co Durham, DH3 

1AD, UNITED KINGDOM 

Ana Del Alamo, BA*, 4521 Northeast 22 Road, Fort 

Lauderdale, FL 

Merissa Olmer, BA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Maryland, 1111 Woods Hall, College Park, 

MD 20742; Sophia Mavroudas, BA*, Department of 

Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, 

New York, NY; Franklin E. Damann, MA, National Museum 

of Heath and Medicine, AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, 

DC 20012-0685; and Christian Crowder, PhD, Office of 

the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 

10016 

Meghan-Tomasita J. Cosgriff-Hernandez, MS*, The Ohio 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 4034 Smith 

Laboratory, 174 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210; 

and Sam D. Stout, PhD, Ohio State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 4034 Smith Laboratory, Columbus, OH 

43210-1106 

Billie L. Seet, MA*, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 

720 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; and Jonathan D. 

Bethard, MA*, Pellissippi State Community College, 10915 

Hardin Valley Road, PO Box 22990, Knoxville, TN 37933 

Christina L. Fojas, BA*, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Anthropology & Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 


Index 18 

93 

94 

94 

95 

95 

96 

97 

97

New York City Unidentified Decedents 

From 1980 – 2008 

Detecting Individuals With Reduced 

Mobility Using Femoral Morphology 

Sociocultural Factors in the Identification 

of Undocumented Migrants 

What’s in a Number: Statistical Paradigm 

Shifts in Forensic Anthropology 

The Use (and Abuse) of the Sacrum in Sex 

Determination 

Sex and Ancestry Estimation From 

Landmarks of the Cranial Base 

Virtual Sex: Phenice and Metrics of the 

Pelvis From 3D Computed Tomography 

(CT) Models 

Molar Crenulation as an Attribute of 

Ancestry in Forensic Cases: Identification 

and Accuracy 

Benjamin J. Figura, MA*, New York City Office of the 


10016 

Stephanie L. Child, MA*, University of Missouri, 107 

Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211; and Daniel J. 

Wescott, PhD, Florida International University, 

Department Biological Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th 

Street, Miami, FL 333199 

Robin Reineke, MA*, The University of Arizona, School of 

Anthropology, 1009 East South Campus Drive, Tucson, AZ 

85721; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Pima County Office 

of the Medical Examiner, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, 

AZ 85714 

Natalie R. Shirley, PhD*, Alicja K. Kutyla, MS, and 

Richard Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department 


37996 

Elizabeth A. Miller, PhD*, California State University at 

Los Angeles, Department of Anthropology, 5151 State 

University Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90032; and Stephen D. 

Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546 

Ashley H. McKeown, PhD*, University of Montana, 

Department of Anthropology, Missoula, MT 59812; and 

Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, Florida International University, 

Department of Biological Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th 


Summer J. Decker, MA, MS*, University of South Florida 

College of Medicine, Department of Pathology & Cell 

Biology, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, 

Tampa, FL 33612; Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, PhD, School of 

Biological and Earth Sciences, Liverpool John Moores 

University, Liverpool John Moores University, James 

Parsons Building, 236, Byrum Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, 

UNITED KINGDOM; and Jonathan M. Ford, MS, and Don 

R. Hilbelink, PhD, Deptartment of Pathology & Cell 

Biology, University of South Florida College of Medicine, 

12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC11, Tampa, FL 

33612 

Christen E. Herrick, BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 

PhD, Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice 

Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard AB3, Fort Myers, FL 

33965-6565; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, Florida Gulf Coast 

University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU 

Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Marta U. 

Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner’s Office, 3838 

Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; and Margarita 

Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson 

Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206 

Index 19 

98 

99 

99 

100 

100 

101 

101 

102

Subadult Ancestry Determinations Using 

Geometric Morphometrics 

Craniometric Variation in South African 

and American Blacks 

Death on America’s Southern Border: A 

Summary of Five Years of Genetic Data 

Acquisition and Analysis of the Reuniting 

Families Project 


Anthropology 



32610-0235; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State 

University, Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 

8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA 16546; and Ericka N. L’Abbe, PhD*, PO Box 

5023, Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA 

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Baylor University, Forensic Research 

Lab, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798-7388; and 

Yasmine M. Baktash, BA, Baylor University, One Bear 

Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798 

Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, DoD JPAC, Central ID Lab, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Angi M. 

Christensen, PhD*, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Bradley J. Adams, PhD, 

New York Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, 

Forensic Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, 

AZ 85714; Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology 

& Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State University, Box 

89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; John E. Byrd, PhD, 

JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853- 5530; Leslie E. Eisenberg, PhD, 6228 Trail Ridge 

Court, Oregon, WI 53575; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan 


Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Michael Finnegan, PhD, 

Kansas State University, Osteology Lab, 204 Waters Hall, 

Manhattan, KS 66506; Diane L. France, PhD, Colorado 

State University, Human Identification Lab, Department of 

Anthropology, Fort Collins, CO 80523; Lisa M. Leppo, 

PhD, U.S. Army QM Center & School, Joint Mortuary 

Affairs Center, 1201 22nd Street, Fort Lee, VA 23801-1601; 

Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996- 0720; Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command, Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-5000; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Anthropology/Archaeology, 501 East 38th 

Street, Erie, PA 16546; William C. Rodriguez III, PhD, 

Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s Office, 1413 Research 

Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850; Paul S. 

Sledzik, MS, NTSB, Office ofTransportation Disaster 

Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, Southwest Washington, DC 

20594; Richard M. Thomas, PhD, FBI Laboratory, DNA 

Unit II, Room 3220, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, 

VA 22135; Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Douglas H. 

Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH - 

MRC 112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; 

Michael W. Warren, PhD, C.A. Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, 1376 Mowry Road, Room G17, PO Box 

Index 20 

103 

103 

104 

105

Developing a Regional Forensic 

Taphonomy: Environmental and Climatic 

Inputs 

Human Decomposition Ecology at the 

University of Tennessee Anthropology 

Research Facility 

Deep Coastal Marine Taphonomy: Interim 

Results From an Ongoing Experimental 

Investigation of Decomposition in the 

Saanich Inlet, British Columbia 

An Experimental Study of Putrefaction 

and Decomposition in Aqueous 

Environments 

Decomposition in Water: The Effects of 

Climate on the Rate of Decay in New 

England 

Dead on Time? The Repellent Effect of 

Liquid Petroleum Gas on Time Since 

Death Estimation 

Predicting the Postmortem Submersion 

Interval From the Adipocere Formation on 

Rabbits 

Differential Decomposition in Terrestrial, 

Saltwater, and Freshwater Environments: 

A Pilot Study 

Inter- and Intra-Element Variation in 

Carnivore and Rodent Scavenging Patterns 

in Northern California 

113615, Gainesville, FL 32610; and P. Willey, PhD, Chico 

State University, Department of Anthropology, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 

Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, Margaret Chase Smith Policy 

Center, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; William D. 

Haglund, PhD, 20410 25th Avenue, Northwest, Shoreline, 

WA 98177; Edward David, MD, JD, 498 Essex Street, 

Bangor, ME 04401; Sarah A. Kiley, MS, 235 Forest Hill 

Street, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130; William Parker, BS, 

Margaret Chase Smith, Policy Center, University of Maine, 

Orono, ME 04469; Harold W. Borns, PhD, Climate Change 

Institute, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; John 

Burger, PhD, Department of Zoology, University of New 

Hampshire, Durham, NH 03834; John Dearborn, PhD, 

School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, 

ME 04469; Ann Dieffenbacher-Krall, PhD, Climate Change 

Institute, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; Deborah 

Palman, MS, Maine K-9 Services, PO Box 57, Aurora, ME 

04408; and Touradj Solouki, PhD, Department of 

Chemistry, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469 

Franklin E. Damann, MA*, National Museum of Health and 

Medicine, AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, DC 20012- 

0685; and Aphantree Tanittaisong, MS, AFIP Armed 

Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 1413 Research 

Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850 

Gail S. Anderson, PhD*, and Lynne S. Bell, PhD, Simon 

Fraser University, School of Criminology, 8888 University 

Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA 

Kristen E. Greenwald, MA*, 32 10th Street, Hermosa 

Beach, CA 90254 

Peter J. Colleran, BS*, and Mallory S. Littman, BA, Boston 


MA 02118; Billie L. Seet, MA, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Boston, MA 02118; Tara L. Moore, PhD, Boston 

University School of Medicine, 700 Albany St., Boston, MA 

02118; Debra A. Prince, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Boston, MA 02118 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, University of Bradford, 

Bradford, BD7 1DP, UNITED KINGDOM 

Marcella M.C. Widya, BSc*, 14 Stanleyfield Road, Preston, 

Lancashire PR1 1QL, UNITED KINGDOM 

Laura E. Ayers, BA*, 206 B Redbud, New Braunfels, TX 

78130 

Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, 400 West First Street, Department 

of Anthropology, Butte #311, California State University- 

Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0400; and Lisa N. Bright, BS*, 

1259 Hobart, Chico, CA 95926 

Index 21 

106 

106 

107 

108 

108 

109 

110 

110 

111

Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science 

Facility (STAFS) at Sam Houston State 

University: A New Forensic Anthropology 

Human Decomposition Facility 

Establishing a Taphonomic Research 

Facility in the United Kingdom 

Forensic Archaeological Recovery of the 

Victims of the Continental Connection 

Flight 3407 Crash in Clarence Center, New 

York 

Spatial Patterning of Clandestine Graves in 

the Investigation of Large Scale Human 

Rights Violations: The Example of the 

Spanish Civil War Rearguard Repression 

Validity of Portable X-Ray Fluorescence in 

Assistance With Identification of 

Individuals in a Burial Setting by 

Comparison With mtDNA 

The Assessment and Determination of 

Forensic Significance in Forensic 

Anthropology 

A Radiographic Database for Forensic 

Anthropology 

New Scapular Measurements for 

Determining Sex 

Sex Estimation From the Calcaneus Using 

Discriminant Function Analysis 

Sex Determination Using the Calcaneus in 

Koreans 



Boulevard, Box 2525, Huntsville, TX 77340 

Tal Simmons, PhD, Peter A. Cross, MSc*, and Rachel E. 

Cunliffe, MSC, University of Central Lancashire, School of 

Forensic and Investigative Sciences, Preston, AS PR1 2HE, 


Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Applied Forensic Sciences 

Department, Mercyhurst College, Glenwood Hills, Erie, PA 

16546; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological 

Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 

16546-0001; and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst 

College, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 

East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Derek Congram, MSc*, 706-1850 Comox Street, 

Vancouver, BC V6G 1R3, CANADA 

Jennifer F. Byrnes, MA*, SUNY at Buffalo, Department of 

Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 

14261-0026; Peter J. Bush, BS, SUNY at Buffalo, South 

Campus Instrument Center, B1 Squire Hall, South Campus, 

Buffalo, NY 14214; Esther J. Lee, MSc, and D. Andrew 

Merriwether, PhD, Binghamton University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000; 

and Joyce E. Sirianni, PhD, SUNY at Buffalo, Department 

of Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 

14261-0026 

Lelia Watamaniuk, BSc*, University of Toronto, 

Department of Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road, 

North, NB 226, Mississauga, ON M4V 1R6, CANADA 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA 16546; Kyra E. Stull, MS*, Mercyhurst College, 

501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Kathryn L. 

Frazee, MS*, 351 West 22nd Street, Floor 2, Erie, PA 

16502 

Natalie Uhl, MS*, 308 North Orchard Street, Apartment 7, 

Urbana, IL 61801 

Daniel L. DiMichele, BS*, Texas State University, 601 


Deog-Im Kim, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong 

University College of Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, 

Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, PhD, Ewha 



158710, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Department 

of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang 

University, 366-1 Sangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul 

330946, KOREA; and U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung- Ho 

Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of 


Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 

Index 22 

112 

112 

113 

114 

114 

115 

115 

116 

117 

117

Postcranial Sex Estimation of Individuals 

Considered Hispanic 

The Use of Geometric Morphometric 

Analysis for Subadult Sex Estimation 

Utilizing Innominates 

Secular Trends in Cranial Morphological 

Sexing: The Mastoid Process 

Twentieth Century Change in Facial 

Morphology and Its Relationship to Metric 

Sexing 

Foramen Magnum Shape as a Potential 

Indicator of Ancestry 

Prognathism and Prosthion in the 

Evaluation of Ancestry 

Craniometric Variation Within Southeast 

Asia 

Ancestry Trends in Trophy Skulls in 

Northern California 

Ancestry Estimation From the Tibia: Size 

and Shape Differences Between American 

Whites and Blacks 

Recollected Versus Actual Stature: How 

Does the Height Reported by Next of Kin 

Measure Up? 

The Use of Morbidity and Mortality 

Patterns in Transitional Justice Initiatives 

Towards Human Identification 

Meredith L. Tise, BA*, Texas State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 601 University Drive, ELA 232, San 

Marcos, TX 78666; and Kate Spradley, PhD, Texas State 

University, Department of Anthropology, 601 University 

Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Jennifer M. Vollner, MS*, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn 

Road, Okemos, MI 48864-4200; and Stephen D. Ousley, 

PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic 


Angela M. Dautartas, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Kanya 

Godde, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 3904 Lonas Drive, 


Richard Jantz, PhD*, and Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Stephanie M. Crider, BA*, Louisiana State University, 


Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Mary H. Manhein, 

MA, Louisiana State University, Department of Geography 

& Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Rebekah K. Baranoff, BA*, 10 East 34th Street, Apartment 

#1, Erie, PA 16504 

Michael W. Kenyhercz, BA*, 6327 Catawba Drive, 

Canfield, OH 44406; Michael Pietrusewsky, PhD, 

University of Hawaii, Department of Anthropology, 2424 

Maile Way, Saunders 346, Honolulu, HI 96822; Franklin E. 

Damann, MA, NMHM, AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, 

DC 20012-0685; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst 

College, Department of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 

501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Lisa N. Bright, BS*, California State University, Chico, 400 

West First Street, Chico, CA 95928; Ashley E. Kendell, 

BS*, 808 West 2nd Avenue, Apartment 12, Chico, CA 

95926; and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, California State 

University, Chico, Department of Anthropology, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 

Natalie R. Shirley, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Emam ElHak Abdel Fatah, BS, 


Tennessee, Department Mechanical, Aerospace, & 

Biomedical Engineer, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996; and Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, Center for 

Musculoskeletal Research, Department Mechanical, 

Aerospace, & Biomedical Engineer, University of 


Lauren J. Duhaime, BSc*, 1693 Virginia Drive, Sudbury, 

Ontario P3E 4T7, CANADA 

Liotta N. Dowdy,*BS, and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, 

4202 East Fowler Avenue SOC 107, Tampa FL 33620; and 

John O. Obafunwa, MD, JD, Department of Pathology and 

Index 23 

118 

118 

119 

119 

120 

121 

121 

122 

123 

123 

124

Forensic Anthropology and Age-at-Death 

Forensic Medicine, Lagos State University College of 

Medicine, Ikeja, Lagos, NIGERIA 

Heather M. Garvin, MS*, Johns Hopkins University, 1830 125 

Estimation: Current Trends in Adult Age East Monument Street, Room 302, Baltimore, MD 21205; 

Estimation 

and Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864-4200 

Understanding Uncertainty in Age Carrie A. Brown, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 125 

Estimation: Error Associated With the Command Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Mann et al. Maxillary Suture Method Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

X-Ray Diffraction as a Tool for the Teresa V. Wilson, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 126 

Analysis of Age-Related Changes in Teeth Louisiana State University, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, 227 Howe- Russell Building, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803; and Ray E. Ferrell, Jr., PhD, Department of 

Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, E235 

Howe Russell Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Using the Acetabulum to Estimate Age: A Stephanie E. Calce, BSc*, University of Toronto, 

127 

Revised Method 

Department of Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road 

North, Mississauga, ON L5L1C6, CANADA 

Error and Uncertainty in Pelvic Age Allysha P. Winburn, MA, BA*, and Carrie A. Brown, MA, 127 

Estimation Part I: Younger vs. Older Adult Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Males 

Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


The Impact of Obesity on Morphology of Gina M. Agostini, MA*, 205 Middle Street, Hadley, MA 128 

the Femur 

01035 

Mortality Structure and Age Estimation in Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD*, University of South Florida, 129 

Nigerian Populations 


Tampa, FL 33820; and John O. Obafunwa, MD, JD, 

Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, Lagos 

State University College of Medicine, Ikeja, Lagos, 

NIGERIA 

Dead Man’s Curve: How Scoliosis Affects Nicole M. Webb, BS*, 19760 Osprey Cove Boulevard, 129 

Rib Aging 

Apartment 136, Fort Myers, FL 33967; Heather A. Walsh- 

Haney, PhD, Katy L. Shepherd, BS, and Christen E. 

Herrick, BS, Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of 

Justice Studies, 10501 Florida Gulf Coast University 

Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Alyssa 

L. Butler, BA, 9795 Glen Heron Drive, Bonita Springs, FL 

34135; Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 

34104; and Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206 

The Effect of Axial Developmental Defects Katy L. Shepherd, BS*, Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, and 130 

on Forensic Stature Estimates 

Christen E. Herrick, BS, Florida Gulf Coast University, 

Division of Justice Studies, 10501 Florida Gulf Coast 

University Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965- 





Automatic Skull Landmark Determination Jeffrey D. Erno, MS*, and Peter H. Tu, PhD, GE Global 130 

for Facial Reconstruction 

Research, Imaging Technologies, 1 Research Circle, 

Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Terrie Simmons, MA, and Philip 

N. Williams, BS, FBI Laboratory, CFSRU, Building 12, 


In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth Measurements Meaghan A. Huculak, BSc*, Saint Mary’s University, 923 131 

Index 24

of African Nova Scotian Children for 3-D 

Forensic Facial Reconstruction 

Skeletal Identification by Radiographic 

Comparison: Blind Tests of a 

Morphoscopic Method Using Antemortem 

Chest Radiographs 


Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, and Andrew J. Tyrrell, PhD, JPAC- 

CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Index 25 

131

Positive Identification Using Radiographs 

of the Lumbar Spine: A Validation Study 

Hand Comparison: The Potential for 

Accurate Identification/Recognition in 

Cases of Serious Sexual Assault 

Forensic Characteristics of Hand Shape: 

Analysis of Individuation Potential and 

Sexual Dimorphism Using Geometric 

Morphometrics 

Bionic Remains: Positive Identifications 

From Surgical Implants 

Epidemiology of Homicide in the Spanish 

Civil War 

Forensic Anthropology in Colombia: 

Working Amidst Armed Conflict 

Ten Years On: Problems Relating to 

Victim Identification in Timor Leste 

Personal Identification from Skeletal 

Remains in Human Rights Investigations: 

Challenges from the Field 

The International Commission on Missing 

Persons and an Integrated, 

Multidisciplinary Forensic Approach to 

Identification of the Missing From the 1995 

Srebrenica, Bosnia Mass Execution Event 

Jane C. Wankmiller, MA*, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East 


Xanth Mallett, PhD*, University of Dundee, Centre for 

Anatomy & Human Identification, Dow Street, Dundee, UK 

DD1 5EH, SCOTLAND 

Patrick Randolph-Quinney, PhD*, Centre for Anatomy and 



Alison E. Jordan, BS*, Forensic Institute for Research and 

Education, PO Box 89, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, 



Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD*, Binghamton University, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, 

NY 13902-6000; Camila Oliart, MA, Universidad 

Autònoma de Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Edifici 

B, Barcelona, 08193, SPAIN; Elena Garcia-Guixé, MA, 

Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, Laboratori de 

Paleoantropologia i Paleopatologia, Barcelona, SPAIN; 

María Inés Fregeiro, MA, and Elena Sintes, MA, 

Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Department of 

Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 08193, SPAIN; Jennifer 

Bauder, MA, and Aimee E. Huard, MA, Binghamton 

University, Department of Anthropology, Binghamton, NY 

13902; Jorge Jiménez, MA, Universidad Autònoma de 

Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Barcelona, 08193, 

SPAIN; and Carme Boix, PhD, Badley Ashton & Associates 

Ltd., Winceby House, Winceby, Horncastle, Lincolnshire, 

LN9 6PB, UNITED KINGDOM 

Isla Yolima Campos Varela*, Institute of Legal Medicine, 

Calle 7A #12- 61, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Elizabeth A. 

DiGangi, PhD*, ICITAP, Calle 125 #19-89, Of. 401, 

Bogota, COLOMBIA 

Debra Komar, PhD*, United Nations Mission in Timor 

Leste, UN House, Dili, EAST TIMOR 

Luis Fondebrider*, Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EAAF), Rivadavia 2443, 2do piso, dpto.3 y 4, (1034) 

Capital Federal, Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA; and Soren 

Blau, PhD*, Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, 57-83 

Kavanagh Street, Southbank, Melbourne, Victoria 3146, 

AUSTRALIA 

Thomas Parsons, PhD*, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, Andreas 

Kleise, LLM; Adam Boys, MA, and Asta Zinbo, MA; 

Forensic Sciences International Commission on Missing 

Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA- 

HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD, Simon Fraser 

University, Department of Archeology, Burnaby, BC, V5A 

1S6, CANADA; and Kathryne Bomberger, MA, Forensic 

Sciences International Commission on Missing Persons, 

45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 

Index 26 

132 

133 

133 

134 

134 

135 

136 

137 

137

The Work of the ICMP in the Detection, 

Excavation, Documentation, and Analysis 

of Clandestine Graves Relating to the 1995 

Fall of Srebrenica: A Review of Activities 

and Challenges Encountered 

The Podrinje Identification Project: A 

Dedicated Mortuary Facility for the 

Missing From Srebrenica 

The Lukavac Re-Association Center: A 

Model for a Multidisciplinary Approach in 

the Examination of Commingled Remains 

The Use of Population-Specific Standards 

in Anthropological Examination and Their 

Incorporation Into a Multidisciplinary 

Mortuary Database 

High Throughput DNA Typing for 

Degraded Skeletal Remains and Victim 

Reference Samples in a Large Scale 

“DNALed” Missing Persons Identification 

and Re-Association Project: The ICMP 

Work on the Missing Recovered From 

Srebrenica Mass Graves 

The ICMP Identification Coordination 

Center: A Sample Accessioning and Blind 

DNA Matching System for Missing Persons 

Identification on a Regional Scale 

Renée C. Kosalka, MA*, Sharna Daley, MSc, and Jon 

Sterenberg, MSc, Forensic Sciences International 

Commission on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 

71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Rick Harrington, PhD, 

PO Box 40191, Tucson, AZ 85717; Hugh Tuller, MA, JPAC 

CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI; Cecily 

Cropper, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 

Commission on Mission Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 

71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD, 

Simon Fraser University, Department of Archeology, 

Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, CANADA; and Thomas Parsons, 

PhD, Forensic Sciences International Commission on 

Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, 

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 

Rifat Kešetović, MD*, Laura Yazedjian, MSc, Dragana 

Vučetić, MSc, Emina Kurtalić, Zlatan Šabanović, Cheryl 

Katzmarzyk, MA, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, 




Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA*, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Kerry-Ann 

Martin, MSc, Edin Jasaragić, René Huel, BA, Jon 

Sterenberg, MSc, and Adnan Rizvić, BSc, International 


71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD; 






Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA, and Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, 



HERZEGOVINA; Senem Skulj, MSc*, 17 VKB 19/11, 

Sanski Most, 79260, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; and Laura 

Yazedjian, MSc, Dragana Vučetić, MSc, Adnan Rizvić, MA, 

and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 


71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 

Rene Huel, BA*, Ana Miloš-Bilic MSc, Sylvain Amory PhD, 

Stojko Vidović, Tony Donlon, BSc, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and 

Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 



Edin Jasaragic, BA*, Zlatan Bajunovic, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, 

and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 



Index 27 

138 

139 

139 

140 

141 

141

An Innovative Software Solution for Large 

Scale Forensic Identification Efforts 

Mapping Forensic Evidence Onto the Stor 

of Srebrenica: Augmenting the Historical 

Record Through Analysis of Archaeology, 

Anthropology, and DNA 

Identifying the Missing From Srebrenica: 

Family Contact and the Final Identification 

Process 

The Social Effects of Recognizing 

Srebrenica’s Missing 

Lessons and Challenges From Srebrenica: 

A Summary and Future Perspectives 

Adnan Rizvic, MA*; Azra Aljić, MSc; Djordje Badza, BsC; 

Damir Bolić, BsC; Goran Jotanović, BsC; Muris Pucić, 

BsC; Amir Mandzuka, PhD; Zoran Cvijanović, PhD; Edin 

Jasaragić, BA, Zlatan Bajunović, Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA, 

Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, Sharna Daley, MSc, Reneé 

Kosalka, MA, René Huel, BA, Tony Donlon, BSc, and 




Renee Kosalka, MA*, Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA*, Sharna 

Daley, MSc, Jon Sterenberg, MSc, Rifat Kešetović, MD, 

Laura Yazedjian, MSc, René Huel, BSc, Edin Jasaragić, 

Adnan Rizić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic 



Nedim Durakovic, BSc*, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Emina 

Kurtalić, Amir Hasandžiković, BSc, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and 




Sarah Wagner, PhD*, University of North Carolina 

Greensboro, Department of Anthropology, 437 Graham 

Building, Greensboro, North Carolina 27410 

Thomas Parsons, PhD*, Andreas Kleiser LLM, Adnan 

Rizvić BSc, and Kathryne Bomberger MA, Forensic 


45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIAHERZEGOVINA 

Index 28 

142 

142 

143 

143 

144

Assessment of Differences in 

Decomposition Rates of Rabbit Carcasses 

With and Without Insect Access Prior to 

Burial 

2009 

Jutta Bachmann, MSc*, Postweg 2, Fellbach, Baden- 

Wuerttemberg 70736, GERMANY 

Bugs Bunny? No Bugs Bunny Tal Simmons, PhD*, Peter A. Cross, MSc, Rachel Adlam, 

MSc, and Colin Moffatt, PhD, University of Central 

Lancashire, School of Forensic and Investigative Sciences, 

Decomposition of Sharpey’s Fibers in 

Estimating Postmortem Interval 

Year-of-Death Determination Based Upon 

the Measurement of Atomic Bomb-Derived 

Radiocarbon in Human Soft Tissues 

The Effects of Coverings on the Rate of 

Human Decomposition 

Modes of Mutilation in Taphonomic 

Context: Can Sharp Force Trauma 

Decelerate the Decomposition Process? 

Living With Corpses: Case Report of 

Psychological Impairment and Neglect, 

Leading to the Death of Two Women 

Creating an Open-Air Forensic 

Anthropology Human Decomposition 


Metacarpal and Metatarsal Histology of 

Humans and Black Bears 

The Effects of Papain and EDTA on Bone 

in the Processing of Forensic Remains 

Practical Considerations in Trace Element 

Analysis of Bone by Portable X-Ray 

Fluorescence 


Gretchen R. Dabbs, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old 

Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; and Michelle A. Granrud, 

585 North Scottsdale Drive, Apartment 6, Fayetteville, AR 

72701 

Gregory W. Hodgins, PhD*, University of Arizona, 

Department of Physics, 1118 East Fourth Street, Tucson, 

AZ 85721 

Angela M. Dautartas, BS*, University of Tennessee, 250 


Branka Franicevic, MSc*, Department of Archaeology, 

Sheffield University, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UNITED 

KINGDOM 




Jerry Melbye, PhD*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD, 

Texas State University-San Marcos, Department of 

Anthropology, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 

78666-4616 

Brannon I. Hulsey, MA*, Walter E. Klippel, PhD, and Lee 

Meadows Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department 


37966-0720 

Bobbie J. Kemp, MS, Michael I. Siegel, PhD, Margaret A. 

Judd, PhD, and Mark P. Mooney, PhD, University of 

Pittsburgh, Department of Anthropology, 3302 Wesley W. 

Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, and Luis L. Cabo- 

Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 


Jennifer F. Byrnes, BS*, SUNY University at Buffalo, 

Department of Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, 

Buffalo, NY 14261-0026; and Peter J. Bush, BS, SUNY at 

Buffalo, South Campus Instrument Center, B1 Squire Hall, 

South Campus, Buffalo, NY 14214 

Index 29 

145 

145 

146 

147 

147 

148 

149 

149 

150 

150 

151

Field Contamination of Archaeological 

Bone Samples Submitted for 

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Analysis 

Training in Forensic Archaeology and 

Anthropology on a Shoestring: Is It 

Possible? Is It Sensible? 

Ground Penetrating Radar: A New Tool in 

Crime Scene Examination? 

Forensic Field Radiography: In the 

Trenches With MacGyver 

Hispanic: History and Use of a Generic 

Term 

Cephalic Index of Gurung Community of 

Nepal: An Anthropometric Study 

Ancestry Estimation Using the Femur: A 

Pilot Study 

Evaluation of Enamel Short Chemical 

History as a Forensic Tool: A Comparative 

Study of Six Countries 

Differentiating Between Foreign National 

Hispanics and U.S. Hispanics in the 

Southwest: The Influence of Socioeconomic 

Status on Dental Health and Stature 

Past or Present? An Empirical Basis for 

Quantitatively Distinguishing Between 

Prehistoric and Modern Forensic Cases 

Using a California Native American 

Population 

Frequencies of Non-Metric Characteristics 

in Northern California Native Populations: 

Establishing a Foundation for Comparison 

Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Suni M. 

Edson, MS*, Armed Forces DNA ID Lab, 1413 Research 

Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Erica L. 

Chatfield, MFS, AFDIL, 1413 Research Boulevard, 

Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Audrey L. Meehan, 

BGS, JPAC-CIL, 91-1074 Anaunau Street, Ewa Beach, HI 

96706; and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, AFDIL, Armed Forces 

DNA ID Lab, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, 


Roland Wessling, BSc*, and Ambika Flavel, MSc, Inforce 

Foundation, Cranfield University, Cranfield Forensic 

Institute, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

Donna M. MacGregor, MSc*, Queensland Police Service, 

Scientific Section, 200 Roma Street, Brisbane, 4001, 

AUSTRALIA 

Gerald J. Conlogue, MHS*, c/o Diagnostic Imaging 

Program, Quinnipiac University, 275 Mt. Carmel Avenue, 

Hamden, CT 06518; and Mark D. Viner, MSc, Inforce 

Foundation, Forensic Science Institute, Cranfield 

University, Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, 

Wiltshire, UNITED KINGDOM 

Ashley E. Shidner, BA*, and Heidi S. Davis, BA, BS, 

University of West Florida, Department of Anthropology, 


Stany W. Lobo, MSc*, Department of Anatomy, Melaka 

Manipal Medical College, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, 

INDIA 

Sarah E. McManus, BA*, 2019 Stonybrook Road, 

Louisville, TN 37777 

Khudooma S. Al Na’imi, BSc*, University of Central 

Lancashire, United Kingdom, Um Ghafa, Abu Dhabi, Al 

Ain, Box 16584, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 

Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science Center, 2825 

East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Tamela R. Smith, 

BA*, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281; Walter H. 

Birkby, PhD, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East District 

Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan 

State University, 354 Baker Hall, Department of 

Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824; Carolyn V. Hurst, 

BA, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823; 

and Claire C. Gordon, PhD, U.S. Army Natick RD&E 

Center, Kansas Street, Natick, MA 01760-5020 

Cris E. Hughes, MA*, and Chelsey Juarez, MA, Department 

of Anthropology, University of California – Santa Cruz, 

Social Science 1, 1156 High Street Room 435, Santa Cruz, 

CA 95064; and Lauren Zephro, MA, Santa Cruz Sheriff’s 

Office, 701 Ocean Street, Room 340, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 

Cris E. Hughes, MA*, and Chelsey Juarez, MA, Department 

of Anthropology, University of California – Santa Cruz, 

Social Science 1, 1156 High Street Room 435, Santa Cruz, 

CA 95064 

Index 30 

152 

152 

153 

154 

154 

155 

155 

156 

156 

157 

157

A New Metric Procedure for the 

Estimation of Sex and Ancestry From the 

Human Innominate 


Sexing 

Determination of Sex Using Metric Data of 

Greater Sciatic Notch in Koreans 

Sexual Dimorphism of Joint Surface Area 

through 3-D Digital Data Modeling 

Sex-Determination of Koreans Using 

Metric Analysis of Vertebrae 

Tarsal Measurements to Estimate Sex for 

Use in a Forensic Setting 

An Evaluation of Facial Features Used for 

Facial Recognition Applied to Cases of 

Missing Persons 

Alexandra R. Klales, BA*, Jennifer M. Vollner, BS*, and 


of Anthropology & Applied Forensic Science Program, 501 


Kanya Godde, MA*, and Angela M. Dautartas, BS, 



U-Young Lee, MD*, Department of Anatomy, College of 


Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; In-Hyuk Chung, 

PhD, Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of 

Medicine, 134 Sinchon-dong, Seodaemoon-gu, Seoul, 

120752, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 

366-1 Sangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946, 

KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Gachon University of Medicine & Science, 1198 Kuwoldong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Sang-Seob 

Lee, MSD, National Institute of Scientific Investigation, 

Shinwol-7-dong, Yancheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, KOREA; 

Yong-Woo Ahn, PhD, Institute of Forensic Medicine, 

School of Medicine, Pusan National University, 1- 10, Amidong, 

Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University College of 

Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; 

and Je-Hoon Lee, MSc, and Seung-Ho Han, PhD, The 

Catholic University of Korea, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA 

Denise To, MA*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Department of 

Anatomy; U-Young Lee, MD, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 

505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; Yi- 

Suk Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Gachon University 

of Medicine & Science, 1198 Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, 

Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, Department 

of Anatomy, Kwandong University College of Medicine, 

522, Naegok-dong, Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Seung-Ho 

Han, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, 

Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; and In-Hyuk Chung, 



120752, KOREA 

Vanessa L. Aziz, BA*, 11735 Bergamo Court, Las Vegas, 

NV 89183 

Samantha M. Seasons, BA*, and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 


4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

Index 31 

158 

158 

159 

159 

160 

160 

161

The Reliability of Visually Comparing 

Small Frontal Sinuses 

Three-Dimensional Computer Modeling 

and Anthropological Assessment of the 

National Library of Medicine’s Visible 

Human Male 

The Reproducibility of Results From Facial 

Approximation Accuracy Tests That Use 

Face-Arrays 

Cranial Fracture Patterns in Pediatric 

“Crushing” Injuries and Preliminary 

Biomechanical Modeling Using a Simple 

Finite Element Model 

Shark-Inflicted Trauma on Human 

Skeletal Remains 

Patterns of Blunt Force Trauma Induced 

by Motorboat and Ferry Propellers as 

Illustrated by Three Known Cases From 

Rhode Island 

Cervical Vertebrae Entrapment in the 

Noose as Evidence of Cause of Death by 

Hanging in Skeletal Cases: Three 

Remarkable Finds 

Diagnosing Peri-Mortem Blunt Force 

Trauma in Burnt Remains 

Victoria A. Smith, MA*, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory TEU, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Angi M. 

Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation 


22135; and Sarah W. Myers, Emory University, 201 

Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322 

Summer J. Decker, MA*, Jonathan M. Ford, BA*, and Don 

R. Hilbelink, PhD, Department of Pathology and Cell 


12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 

33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department of 

Chemical Engineering, University of South Florida College 

of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612 

Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; Jody 

Cicolini, BSc, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, 

4072 AUSTRALIA 

Marcus B. Nashelsky, MD*, Department of Pathology - 

5244 RCP, University of Iowa Hospitals & Clinics, 200 

Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA 52242; Todd W. Fenton, 

PhD, Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, 

Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864; Carolyn V. Hurst, BA, 3303 Wharton 

Street, East Lansing, MI 48823; and Timothy G. Baumer, 

BS, and Roger C. Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic Biomechanics 


48824 

Maria T. Allaire, MA*, Louisiana State University FACES 

Laboratory, Louisiana State University, 227 Howe-Russell 

Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Mary H. Manhein, 

MA, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana 

State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Dominique S. Semeraro, MS*, Office of State Medical 

Examiners, 48 Orms Street, Providence, RI 02904; 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, Department of Anthropology, 

Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 


38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and Thomas P. Gilson, MD, 


Providence, RI 02904 

Jennifer A. Ledford, BS*, Barrett Gobelet, BS*, and Hugh 

E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, 

Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, 

TN 37132 

Aimee E. Huard, MA*, Binghamton University, Jeremy J. 

Wilson, MA, and Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, Binghamton University, PO Box 6000, 

Binghamton, NY 13902-6000 

Index 32 

162 

162 

163 

164 

164 

165 

166 

166


Pediatric Skull Fracture Patterns - Part 1: 


Fracture Initiation and Interface 

Dependent Fracture Patterns 

Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Michigan State University, 354 

Baker Hall, Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 

48824; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn 

Road, Okemos, MI 48864; and Timothy G. Baumer, BS, 

Brian J. Powell, BS, and Roger C. Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics Laboratories, Michigan State University, 

East Lansing, MI 48824 

And a Little Child Shall Lead Them.... Julie M. Saul, BA*, Forensic Anthropology Lab, Lucas 

County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, 

OH 43614-2674; Frank P. Saul, PhD, U.S. HHS DMORT 5, 

2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614- 2674; and 

Allan J. Warnick, DDS, Wayne & Oakland Counties 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 31632 Schoolcraft Road, 

Callus Treatment: Collaboration Between 

Forensic Anthropology and Forensic 

Pathology to Improve the Recognition and 

Elucidation of Skeletal Fractures in Infants 

and Children 

Eaten or Attacked By His Own Dogs? 

From the Crime Scene to a 

Multidisciplinary Approach 

Solving Medical Examiner Cold Cases: 

Modern Resources in the Reanalysis of 

Human Skeletal Remains 

What Lies Beneath: Re-Examining a Cold 

Case Homicide From a Forensic 

Anthropological Perspective - A Case 

Report 

Livonia, MI 48150 

Julie M. Fleischman, BA*, Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, and 

Jeffrey S. Johnston, MD, Maricopa County Office of the 

Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

João Pinheiro, MD, MSc*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina 

Legal, Instit Nacional Medicina Legal, Delegação do 

Centro, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000, PORTUGAL; 

Eugenia Cunha, PhD, Departamento De Antropologia, 

Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, 

PORTUGAL; Hugo Pissarra, DVM, Faculdade de 

Medicina Veterinária da Univsersidade Técnica da Lisboa, 

Av. da Univsersidade Técnica da Lisboa, Lisbon, AL, 

PORTUGAL; and Francisco Corte Real, PhD, Insituto 

Nacional de Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé Nova, 3000, 

Coimbra, AL, PORTUGAL 

Christen E. Herrick, BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 



33965-6565; Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206; 

Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner, 3838 

Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; E.H. Scheuerman, 

MD, 1856 Colonial Drive, Green Cove Springs, FL 32043; 

Jennifer L. Anderson, BS, BA, 4632 Deleon Street, #129, 

Fort Myers, FL 33907; Jeffrey J. Brokaw, BA, 2100 

Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206; Brian Womble, 

BS, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; Katy L. 

Shepherd, BS, Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of 

Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard, South, Fort 

Myers, FL 33965; Laura E. Gibson, BS, 2040 Larchmont 

Way, Clearwater, FL 33764; and Minas Iliopoulos, BS, 

10501 FGCU Boulevard, South, Division of Justice Studies, 

AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965 


1003 Bowers Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 77340; Kathryn E. 

Moss, BS*, 4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 77004; and 

Stephen M. Pustilnik, MD*, Galveston County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 6607 Highway 1764, Texas City, TX 

77591 

Index 33 

167 

168 

168 

169 

170 

170

Age-Related Change in Adult Orbital 

Shape 

Craniofacial Growth, Maturation, and 

Change: Teens to Mid-Adulthood 

Estimating Advanced Adult Age-at-Death 

in the Pelvis: A Comparison of Techniques 

on Known-Age Samples From Iberia 

The Sacral Auricular Surface: A New 

Approach to Aging the Human Skeleton 

Cranial Suture Closure as a Reflection of 

Somatic Dysfunction: Lessons From 

Osteopathic Medicine Applied to Physical 

Anthropology 

A Multidisciplinary Test of the Lamendin 

Age Estimation Method 

Full Time Employment of Forensic 

Anthropologists in Medical 

Examiner’s/Coroner’s Offices in the 

United States—A History 

Death Investigation for Anthropologists: 

Examining an Alternative Role for 

Forensic Anthropologists in Medical 

Examiner’s and Coroner’s Offices 

Identification of Multiple Cranial Traumas 

in a Recently Closed Homicide 

Investigation 

Anthropologist/Medical Examiner 

Collaboration at Isolated, Inaccessible, or 

Disrupted Crime Scenes 



32610-0235; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Department of Scientific 

Computing, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 

32306; and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, CA Pound Human Id 

Lab, C/O Cancer/Genetics Research, PO Box 103615, 

Gainesville, FL 32610 


Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, 

NC 27695-8107; and Shanna E. Williams, PhD, University 

of Florida, Department of Anatomy, PO Box 100235, 

Gainesville, FL 32610-0235 

Allysha P. Winburn, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam Airforce Base, HI 

96853; and Carme Rissech, PhD, Universitat de Barcelona, 

Avd. Diagonal, 645; 08028, Barcelona, SPAIN 

Alicja K. Kutyla, MS*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 





Anne M. Kroman, PhD*, and Gregory A. Thomspon, DO, 

Lincoln Memorial University, De-Busk College of 

Osteopathic Medicine, 6965 Cumberland Gap Parkway, 

Harrogate, TN 37752 

Ann W. Bunch, PhD*, 164 Albert Brown Building, 

Department of Criminal Justice, SUNY Brockport, 

Brockport, NY 14420; Mary I. Jumbelic, MD, Onondaga 

County Medical Examiners Office, 100 Elizabeth Blackwell 

Street, Syracuse, NY 13210; Robert D. Willis, DDS, 7282 

Oswego Road, Liverpool, NY 13090; Ronald Brunelli, 

Onondaga County Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 

Elizabeth Blackwell Street, Syracuse, NY 13210; and 

Jennifer J. VanWie-Dobson, BA, 403 Robinson Road, 

Durham, NC 27705 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD*, Department Sociology & 

Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, 

Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

Gina O. Hart, MA*, Regional Medical Examiner’s Office, 

325 Norfolk Street, Newark, NJ 07103-2701 

Thomas A. Furgeson, MA*, University of Wyoming, 1002 

South 3rd Street, Laramie, WY 82070; George W. Gill, 

PhD, University of Wyoming, Department of Anthropology, 

Laramie, WY 82071; and Rick L. Weathermon, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, 10 

East University Avenue, Department 3431, Anthropology, 

Laramie, WY 82071 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 

Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY 40601 

Index 34 

171 

171 

172 

173 

173 

174 

175 

175 

176 

177

The Role of Forensic Anthropology in 

Disaster Operations 

The Forensic Anthropologist, the National 

Crime Information Center (N.C.I.C.), and 

National Missing and Unidentified 

Persons\System (NamUs) Databases 

The Role of the Harris County Medical 

Examiner’s Office Forensic Anthropology 

Division in Scientific Identification 

Forensic Anthropology at the Pima County 

(Arizona) Office of the Medical Examiner: 

The Identification of Foreign Nationals 

Forensic Pathology and Anthropology: A 

Collaborative Effort 

Maintaining Custody: A Virtual Method of 

Creating Accurate Reproductions of 

Skeletal Remains for Facial Approximation 

The Role of Adult Age-Related 

Craniofacial Changes and the MORPH 

Database in Computer Automated Face 

Recognition Research and Development 

Skull/ Photo Superimposition Validation 

Study 

The Importance of Morphological Traits in 

Facial Identification 

Christian Crowder, PhD*, Benjamin J. Figura, MA, 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD, and Frank DePaolo, MS, New York 

City, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, 

New York, NY 10016 

Donna A. Fontana, MS*, New Jersey State Police, Office of 

Forensic Sciences, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, 

1200 Negron Drive, Hamilton, NJ 08691 

Jason M. Wiersema, PhD*, Harris County Medical 

Examiner, Anthropology Division, Houston, TX 77054; and 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, and Luis 

A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, and Walter H. Birkby, PhD, 


AZ 85714 

Kathryn H. Haden-Pinneri, MD*, Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, 

Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, and Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, 

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old 

Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Summer J. Decker, MA*, Jonathan M. Ford, BA, BA, and 

Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, Department of Pathology and Cell 



33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department. of 

Chemical & Biomedical Engineering, University of South 

Florida College of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612 

A. Midori Albert, PhD*, University of North Carolina 

Wilmington, Department of Anthropology, 601 South 


Audrey L. Meehan, BGS*, 91-1074 Anaunau Street, Ewa 

Beach, HI 96706; and Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Acct Command, Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5000 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, LABANOF, and Danilo De 

Angelis, DDS*, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia 

Forense, via Mangiagalli 37, Milan, 20133, ITALY; Peter 

Gabriel, MD, Institut für Rechtsmedizin, im Uniklinikum 

Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Arnold-Heller-Str. 12, D- 

24105, Kiel, ITALY; Stefanie Ritz-Timme, MD, Institut für 

Rechtsmedizin, im Uniklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, 

Campus Kiel, Arnold-Heller-Str. 12, D-24105, Kiel, , 

GERMANY; Janine Tutkuviene, MD, Department of 

Anatomy, Histology and Anthropology, Faculty of 

Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, , LITHUANIA; and 

Daniele Gibelli, MD, LABANOF, Laboratorio di 

Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, V. Mangiagalli, 37, 

Milan, ITALY 

Index 35 

177 

178 

178 

179 

179 

180 

181 

181 

182

Fingering a Murderer: A Successful 

Anthropological and Radiological 

Collaboration 

Material Culture Analysis in Forensic 

Cases: A Call for Formal Recognition by 

Forensic Anthropologists 

Training the National Disaster Victim 

Identification Team 

The Need for Holistic Investigations of 

Human Rights Violations: An Example 

From Peru 

Reconciling the Discrepancy in Victim 

Number Between the S-21 Prison and the 

Choeung Ek Killing Fields of Cambodia 

Forensic Findings on Illegal Burials in 

Colombia 

Evolution of Forensic Archaeology and 

Anthropology in Italy: Three Criminal 

Cases 

Sexual Dimorphism of Index to Ring 

Finger Ratio in South Indian Children 

Subadult Sexual Dimorphism in Long Bone 

Dimensions (The Luis Lopes Collection) 

Sex Estimation From the Clavicle in 

Modern Americans: Traditional Versus 

Alternative Approaches 

The Impact of Racial Metric Variation in 

the Pelvis on the Morphological 

Assessment of Sex 

Bilateral Asymmetry in Historic Versus 

Modern Skeletal Remains: Activity and 

Identification 

B.G. Brogdon, MD*, University of South Alabama Medical 

Center, Department of Radiology, 2451 Fillingim Street, 

Mobile, AL 36617; Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, Margaret 

Chase Smith Policy Center, University of Maine, Orono, 

ME 04469; and Kerriann Marden, MA, c/o 23 Flicker 

Drive, Topsham, ME 04086 

Mark Skinner, PhD, Simon Fraser University, Department 

of Archeology, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA; and 

Ariana Fernandez, MPhil, and Derek Congram, MSc*, 706- 

1850 Comox Street, Vancouver, BC V6G 1R3, CANADA 

Lucina Hackman, MSc*, Dundee University, WTB/MSI 

Complex, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 4AH, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Jose P. Baraybar, MSc*, EPAF, Av. Mello Franco 341, 

Jesus Maria, PERU; and Ellen Salter-Pedersen, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, 701 East 

Kirkwood, SB130, Bloomington, IN 47405 

Debra Komar, PhD*, International Criminal Tribunal for 

the Former Yugoslavia, Van der Heimstraat 64, The Hague, 

NETHERLANDS 

Claudia M. Briceno*, Departamento Administrativo de 

Seguridad, Carrera 28 # 17a-00, BOGOTA, COLOMBIA 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Dominic Salsarola, BSc, Davide J. 

Porta, PhD, Pasquale Poppa, BSc, and Daniele Gibelli, 

MD*, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, 

V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; Giovanna Sansoni, BE, 

Laboratorio di Optoelettronica, Via Branze 38, 25123 

Brescia – Italy, Brescia, ITALY; and Enrico Silingardi, 

Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, V. 

Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY 

Tanuj Kanchan, MD*, Kasturba Medical College, 


Mangalore, 575 001, INDIA 

Miriam E. Soto, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, 1425 South Stadium Drive, Knoxville, 

Tennessee 37996 

Natalie R. Shirley, MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Brandon C. Merkl, MS, University of 

Tennessee, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and 

Biomedica, 414 Dougherty Engineering Building, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Richard Jantz, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

37996-0720 

Ginesse A. Listi, PhD*, Louisiana State University, 1723 

Lombard Drive, Baton Rouge, LA 70810 

Shannon E. May, MA*, 250 South Stadium Hall, 



Index 36 

183 

183 

184 

184 

185 

186 

186 

187 

187 

188 

189 

189

Observer Error Analysis Trends in 

Forensic Anthropology 

Prediction of Shoe Size From Tarsals and 

Metatarsals 

Radiography as a Tool for Contemporary 

Anthropological Research 

Can Bilateral Joint Asymmetry Be Used as 

an Estimation of Handedness? 

Forensic Anthropology Academic and 

Employment Trends 

Biology and Culture in the Modern Era: 

How Cultural Evidence Can Conflict With 

Forensic Significance 

Analysis of Thirty-Three Years of Forensic 

Anthropology Casework at California 

State University, Chico (1975-2008) 

Detecting Buried Metallic Weapons in a 

Controlled Setting Using a Conductivity 

Meter 

The Effects of Ethanol Abuse on Bone 

Mineral Density in the Proximal Femur 

Geophysical Remote Sensing Applied to the 

Forensic Search for WWII Graves in 

Guadalcanal 

Megan Ingvoldstad, MA, Ohio State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 244 Lord Hall, 124 West 17th Avenue 

Columbus, OH 43210; and Christian Crowder, PhD*, 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 520 First Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016 

Paul D. Emanovsky, MS*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Melissa A. Pope, BA*, University of South Florida, 


Tampa, Florida 33613; and Liotta N. Dowdy, BA*, 

University of South Florida, 3115 Palmira Street, Tampa, 

Florida 33629 

Kathryn R.D. Driscoll, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 


Gina M. Agostini, BS*, and Emily J. Gomez, BA, 4500 

Manor Village, Apartment 316, Raleigh, NC 27612 

Clarissa R. Dicke, AD*, 1325 East Orange Street, Tempe, 

AZ 85281; Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, Forensic Science 

Center, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; and Mark 

A. Fischione, MD, Maricopa County Office of the Medical 

Examiner, 701 West Jefferson Street, Phoenix, AZ 85003 

Ashley E. Kendell, BS*, 1253 West 5th Street, Apartment 

85, Chico, CA 95928; and Ashley Hutchinson, BA, James 

Brill, BA, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, Turhon A. Murad, PhD, 

and P. Willey, PhD, California State University-Chico, 400 

West First Street, Department of Anthropology, Butte #311, 

Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Charles A. Dionne, BS*, University of Central Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 4000 Central Florida 

Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32816 

Bridget Algee-Hewitt, MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Rebecca J. Wilson, MA*, 3108 

Rennoc Road, Knoxville, TN 37918; and Megan Katrina 

Moore, PhD, University of Tennessee, University of 

Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

Rhett Herman, PhD, Radford University, Department of 

Chemistry and Physics, Radford University, Radford, VA 

24142; Cliff Boyd, PhD, Radford University, Department of 

Sociology and Anthropology, Radford University, Radford, 

VA 24142; Jarrod Burks, PhD, Ohio Valley Archaeological 

Consultants, 4889 Sinclair Road, Suite 210, Columbus, OH 

43229; Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Department Sociology & 

Anthropology, Radford University, Radford, VA 24142; and 

Doug Drumheller, MBA, Greatest Generation MIA 

Recoveries, 2187 Ben Franklin Drive, Pittsburg, PA 15327 

Index 37 

190 

191 

191 

192 

193 

193 

194 

194 

195 

196

Necessary Breaks With Conservator 

Standards: Cranial Reconstruction in 

Forensic Cases 

Anthropology for Breakfast: A Semi- 

Cautionary Tale 

Unusual Skeletal Variations Observed in 

an Adult Aboriginal Male: Case Study 

from Brisbane, Australia 

Estimation of Age at Death From the 

Juvenile Scapula 

Forensic Age Estimation of Living 

Individuals: A Retrospective Case Analysis 

Sealed For Your Protection II: The Effects 

of Corrosive Substances on Human Bone 

and Tissue 

Aquatic Taphonomy in a Lacustrine 

Environment: A Case Study From 

Southeastern Tennessee 

Recovery of Human Remains From 

Vehicles Submerged in Fresh Water 

Decomposition Variables: A Comparison 

of Skeletal Remains Recovered After Long- 

Term Submersion in Florida Aquatic 

Environments 

Laura E. Gibson, BS*, 2040 Larchmont Way, Clearwater, 

FL 33764; Heather A. Walsh-Haney, and Christen E. 


Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, AB3, Fort 

Myers, FL 33965-6565; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, Florida Gulf 

Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU 

Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Gertrude M. 

Juste, MD, District 15 Office of the Medical Examiner, 

3126 Gun Club Road, West Palm Beach, FL 33406; and 

Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 

Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206 

John A. Williams, PhD*, Anthropology & Sociology, 

Western Carolina University, 101 McKee Hall, Cullowhee, 

NC 28723 

Donna M. MacGregor, MSc*, Queensland Police Service, 


AUSTRALIA 

Natalie Uhl, MS*, 308 North Orchard Avenue, Apartment 

7, Urbana, IL 68101 

Antonio De Donno, PhD*, and Valeria Santoro, PhD, 

Section of Legal Medicine - DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare 

n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; Carlo P. Campobasso, PhD, 

University of Molise, via De Sanctis, snc, Campobasso, 

86100, ITALY; Nunzio Di Nunno, PhD, via Guido Dorso 9, 

Bari, 70125, ITALY; and Francesco Introna, PhD, Section 

of Legal Medicine - DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, 

Bari, 70124, ITALY 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, 701 

West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Frank Di Modica, 

Phoenix Police Department, 620 West Washington Street, 

Phoenix, AZ 85003; Kristen Hartnett, PhD, Office of Chief 

Medical Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 520 1st Avenue, 

New York, NY 10016; and Diane Karluk, MD, Maricopa 

County Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson, 

Phoenix, AZ 85007 

Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, Tennessee 37996; and Murray K. Marks, PhD*, 

University of Tennessee, Graduate School of Medicine, 

1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920-6999 

Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD*, and Anthony J. Koehl, BS*, 

University of Indianapolis, Archeology & Forensics 

Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

46227 

Katy L. Shepherd, BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, 

Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 

10501 FGCU Boulevard AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; 

Valerie J. Rao, MD, District 4 Medical Examiner’s Office, 

2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206; Khalil S. 

Wardak, MD, 5301 SW 31st Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, FL 

33312; Predrag Bulic, MD, District 7 Office of the Medical 

Examiner, 1360 Indian Lake Road, Daytona Beach, FL 

32124; and Christena Roberts, MD, Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner of Virginia, Western District, 6600 

Index 38 

196 

197 

198 

198 

199 

199 

200 

200 

201

Taphonomic Degradation to Bone Through 

Scavenging by Marine Mollusks of the 

Class Polyplacophora 

Skeletal Remains in a Fluvial 

Environment: Microscopic Evidence of 

Glycoproteinous Adhesive of Balanus 

Improvisus on the Occlusal Surface of 

Mandibular Teeth 

Cremated Tooth Morphology: A User’s 

Guide to Identification 

Going Green: Environmentally Sound 

Practices in Human Decomposition 

Research and Laboratory Settings 

A Study of the Human Decomposition 

Sequence in Central Texas 

Forensic Osteology Research Station 

(FOREST): The First Donation 

Taphonomic Signatures of Animal 

Scavengers in Northern California 

Raccoon (Protocyon lotor) Soft Tissue 

Modfication of Human Remains 

Estimating Ancestry Through Nonmetric 

Traits of the Skull: A Test of Education 

and Experience 

A Statistical Assessment of Cranial and 

Mandibular Morphoscopic Traits Used in 

the Determination of Ancestry 

Morphological Variations of the Cervical 

Spine as Racial Indicators: A Validation 

and Observer Error Study Using the Terry 

Collection 

Hispanic Affiliation: Definitions, 

Assumptions, and Biological Reality 

Northside High School Road, Roanoke, VA 24019 

Audrey L. Scott, MA*, Simon Fraser University, 

Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, 

Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, CANADA 

Amanda Johnson, MPA*, Sam Houston State University, 

PO Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 77340; Joan A. Bytheway, 

PhD*, 23936 Northcrest Trail, New Caney, TX 77357; and 

Stephen M. Pustilnik, MD, Galveston County Medical 


77591 

Elizabeth M. Danner, BA*, School of Forensic and 



Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD*, and Jerry Melbye, PhD, 


Anthropology, 601 University Drive, ELA 273, San Marcos, 

TX 78666-4616 

Connie L. Parks, BA*, 8802 Featherhill Road, Austin, TX 

78737; Elizabeth T. Brandt, BA, 232 Evans Liberal Arts, 

Anthropology Department 601 University Drive, San 

Marcos, TX 78666; Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD, Texas 

State University-San Marcos, Department of Anthropology, 

601 University Drive, Austin, TX 78666; Jennifer Pechal, 

MS, TAMU 2475, Texas A&M University, College Station, 

TX 77843- 2475; and Jeffery K. Tomberlin, PhD, 

Department of Entomology, TAMU 2475, College Station, 

TX 77843-2475 

Cheryl A. Johnston, PhD*, Western Carolina University, 

Department of Anthropology & Sociology, 101 McKee 

Building, Cullowhee, NC 28723 

Eric J. Bartelink, PhD*, and Lisa N. Bright, BS, California 

State University-Chico, 400 West First Street, Department 

of Anthropology, Butte #311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 

The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 

250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Amber D. Wheat, BS*, 232 Evan Liberal Arts, 601 


Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, University of Florida, CA Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, 1305 NE 6th Terrace, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; and Joseph T. Hefner, PhD, 

Statistical Research, Inc., 6099 East Speedway Boulevard, 

Tucson, AZ 85712 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command Central Identification, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Paul S. Sledzik, 

MS, National Transportation Safety Board, Office of 

Transportation Disaster Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, 

SW, Washington, DC 20594 

Kate Spradley, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Texas 

State University - San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San 

Marcos, TX 78666; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic 

Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 

85714 

Index 39 

202 

202 

203 

203 

204 

205 

205 

206 

206 

207 

207 

208

Morphoscopic Traits: Mixed Ancestry, 

Hispanics, and Biological Variation 

Shifting Morphological Structure: 

Comparing Craniometric Morphology in 

Founding and Descendant Populations 

Non-Metric Trait Expressions Most 

Prevalent in Undocumented Border 

Crossers of Southwest Hispanic Descent 

From the Pima County Office of the 

Medical Examiner 

Skeletal Fracture Patterns in Documented 

Cases of Torture, Assault, Abuse, and 

Accidents 

Assessing Directionality of Low Velocity 

Gunshot Wounds to the Vertebrae: A 

Preliminary Study 

A Radiographic Assessment of Pediatric 

Fracture Healing and Time Since Injury 

Supra-Inion Depressions in a Pediatric 

Medical Examiner Sample: Support for a 

Synergy of Developmental and 

Biomechanical Etiologies 

The Recovery of Human Remains From a 

Fatal Fire Setting Using Archeological 

Methodology 

From Scene to Seen: Post-Fire Taphonomic 

Changes Between the In Situ Context and 

the Medicolegal Examination of Burned 

Bodies 

Human Cremains From a Controlled Car 

Fire 

The Burning Question: A Case Analysis of 

Peri-Mortem Trauma vs. Post Fire 

Damage 

Joseph T. Hefner, PhD*, Statistical Research, Inc., 6099 

East Speedway Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85712 


Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, PO Box 100235, 

Gainesville, FL 32610- 0235; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, North 

Carolina State University, Sociology and Anthropology, 

Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

Carolyn V. Hurst, BA*, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

48824 



Tampa, FL 33820; Matthias I. Okoye, MD, JD, The 

Nebraska Institute of Forensic Sciences, 5925 Adams 

Street, Lincoln, NE 68507; John O. Obafunwa, LLB, 5540 

South 72nd Street, Lincoln, NE 68516; Thomas L. Bennett, 

MD, Yellowstone Pathology Institute, 2900 12th Avenue, 

North, Suite 260W, Billings, MT 59101; and Paul F. 

Mellen, MD, East Central Indiana Pathologists, PC & PA 

Labs, LLC2401 West University Avenue, Muncie, IN 47303 

Julie A. Henderson, BA*, PO Box 125, 130 4th Street, 

Morton, WA 98356 

Christina A. Malone, BHS, BA*, Michigan State University, 

Forensic Anthropology Lab, A-439 East Fee Hall, East 


Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Harris County Medical 


77054 

Gregory O. Olson, MSc*, Office of the Fire Marshal, 2284 

Nursery Road, Midhurst, Ontario L0L 1X0, CANADA 

Elayne J. Pope, PhD*, University of West Florida, 

Anthropology Department, 11000 University Parkway, 

Building 13, Pensacola, FL 72701 

Peer H. Moore-Jansen, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Wichita State University, 114 Neff Hall, Wichita, KS 67260- 

0052; Elayne J. Pope, PhD, University of West Florida, 


Building 13, Pensacola, FL 72701; and Laura B. Bennett, 

BS*, 1013 Wisteria Drive, Derby, KS 67037 

Alison Galloway, PhD, University of California, Social 

Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Elayne J. Pope, 

PhD, University of West Florida, Anthropology Building 

13, 11000 University Parkway, Pensacola, FL 32514; and 

Chelsey Juarez, MA*, Dept of Anthropology, UCSC Social 

Science 1, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Index 40 

208 

209 

210 

210 

211 

211 

212 

212 

213 

214 

215

A Small Plane Crash With (Unforeseen) 

Large Legal Consequences 

An Assessment of Biological Ancestry in an 

Unmarked Cemetery From Nevada: An 

Integrated Approach 

Separately Discovered Skeletal Remains 

and the Path to Reassociation: A Case 

Review 

Surgical Sutures as a Means of Identifying 

Human Remains 

Fractured Frontier: An Analysis of 

Fracture Patterns in a Historic Nevada 

Cemetery 

Homicide by Lapidation in Neolitic Age: 

Results of Two Cases 

2008 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, Frank P. Saul, PhD, and James R. 

Patrick, MD, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2673 

Kyle McCormick, BA*, Kate E. Kolpan, BA, Karen Smith 

Gardner, BA, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, Beth Shook, PhD, and 

Turhon A. Murad, PhD, California State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 400 West First Street, Butte 

#311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Audrey Scott, MA*, Simon Fraser University, Department 

of Archaeology, 8888 University Dr., Burnaby, British 

Columbia V5A 1S6, CANADA; David Sweet, DMD, PhD, 

Bureau of Legal Dentistry Lab, University of British 

Columbia, 6190 Agronomy Road, Suite 202, Vancouver, BC 

V6T 1Z3, CANADA; Derek Congram, MSc, Simon Fraser 

University, Department of Archaeology, 8888 University 

Drive, Vancouver, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA; and Stephen 

Fonseca, Office of the Chief Coroner, Identification and 

Disaster Response Unit, 2035-4720 Kingsway, Burnaby, 

BC V5H 4N2, CANADA 

Katy L. Shepherd, BS*, 10101 Villagio Palms Way, Unit 

201, Estero, FL 33928; Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, 


10501 FGCU Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 

33965-6565; and Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 

Medical Examiner, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 

34104 

Carrie A. Brown, BA*, Nikki A. Willits, BA, Brenna K. 

Blanchard, BA, and Kristin L. Chelotti, BA, California State 

University, Department of Anthropology, 400 West First 

Street, Butte Hall 311, Chico, CA 95929 

Antonio De Donno, PhD*, Section of Legal Medicine - 

DiMIMP - University of Bari, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, 

Bari, 70124, ITALY; Simona Corrado, MD, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale, Bari, 70100, ITALY; Valeria Santoro, 

PhD, Domenico Urso, MD, Piercarlo Lozito, DDS, and 

Francesco Introna, MD, Section of Legal Medicine, 

Department of Internal and Public Medicine (DiMIMP), 

University of Bari, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, 

ITALY; Aldo Di Fazio, MD, Section of legal medicine - 

Matera Hospital, via Montescaglioso n.5, Matera, 75100, 

ITALY; and Rocco Maglietta, MD, Section of Legal 

Medicine - San Carlo Hospital Potenza, via P.Petroni n.6, 

Potenza, 85100, ITALY 

Index 41 

216 

216 

217 

218 

218 

219

Identification by the Numbers: A Case 

Study in Skeletal Trauma Examination and 

Surgical Implant Tracking 

Practical Consideration of the Daubert 

Guidelines on Methods of Identification in 

the Medical Examiner Setting 

Archival Matters: The William R. Maples 

Collection at Florida Gulf Coast University 

A Summary of Trauma Specimens at the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 

National Museum of Health and Medicine 

Taphonomy and Dentition: Understanding 

Postmortem Crack Propagation in Teeth 

Quantitative and Spatial Comparison of 

the Microscopic Bone Structures Of Deer 

(Odocoileus virginianus), Dog (Canis 

familiaris), and Pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) 

Controlled Research Utilizing Geophysical 

Technologies in the Search for Buried 

Firearms and Miscellaneous Weapons 

Accuracy Testing of Computerized Facial 

Approximations by Comparison With 

Antemortem Photographs 

Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry 

(DEXA) Scans for Skeletal Remains 

Identification of Anorexia Nervosa 

Placement of the Human Eyeball and 

Canthi in Craniofacial Identification 

Gwendolyn M. Haugen, MA*, St. Louis County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 6039 Helen Avenue, St. Louis, MO 

63134; Kathleen Diebold, MA*, St. Charles, Jefferson & 

Franklin, Medical Examiner’s Office, 3556 Caroline Street, 

Room C305, St. Louis, MO 63104; Mary E.S. Case, MD, 

Chief Medical Examiner of St. Louis, St. Charles, Jefferson, 

and Franklin Counties in Missouri, 6039 Helen Avenue, St. 

Louis, MO 63134; St. Louis County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 6039 Helen Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63134; and 

Charles W. Subke, Franklin County Sheriff’s Office, #1 

Bruns Drive, Union, MO 63084 


Examiner, Anthropology Division, Houston, TX 77054; 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris 

County, Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old Spanish 


Kevin A. Waters, BS*, Laura Gibson, BS, and Heather A. 

Walsh- Haney, PhD, Florida Gulf Coast University, 

Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, 

AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565 

Brian F. Spatola, MA*, and Franklin E. Damann, MA*, 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, National Museum of 

Health and Medicine, 6825 16th St. NW, Building 54, 

Washington, DC 20306-6000 

Cris E. Hughes, MA*, University of California at Santa 

Cruz, 5405 Prospect Road, #7, San Jose, CA 95129; and 

Crystal A. White*, University of California at Santa Cruz, 

Crown College, 400 McLaughlin Drive, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064 

Zoe Hensley Morris, HBSc, MA*, University Of Western 

Ontario, Department Of Anthropology, Social Sciences 

Centre, London, Ontario N6A 5C2, CANADA; Mary H. 

Manhein, MA, Department Of Geography & Anthropology, 


Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 1723 Lombard Drive, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70810 

Mary M. Rezos, BA*, 12644 Victoria Place Circle, 

Apartment 7216, Orlando, FL 32828; John J. Schultz, PhD, 

University of Central Florida, Department of Anthropology, 

4000 Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32816; and 

Ronald A. Murdock, MFS, and Stephen A. Smith, BS, 

Orange County Sheriff’s Office, 2500 W Colonial Drive, 


Diana K. Moyers, MA*, and Philip N. Williams, BS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 


Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

Bianca Vigil, MFS*, Ismail Sebetan, MD, PhD, and Paul 

Stein, PhD, Forensic Sciences Program, National 

University, 11255 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 

92037 

Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, Anne Huang, and Paavi Davidson, 

School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, 

Otto Hirschfeld Building, Brisbane, 4072, AUSTRALIA 

Index 42 

219 

220 

221 

221 

222 

222 

223 

224 

224 

225

Analysis of the Auricular Surface on Multi- 

Slice Computed Tomography 

Reconstructions for Assessment of Aging: 

A Preliminary Study 

Design Perspectives for Obtaining Facial 

Soft Tissue Depths From Cadavers Using a 

New Approach 

VICTIMS Identification Project: The 

Nation’s Unidentified...Who Are They? 

And What Can We Do? 

Virtual Skull Anatomy: Three-Dimensional 

Computer Modeling and Measurement of 

Human Cranial Anatomy 

What Starts as a Homicide Ends as a 

Forgotten Cemetery: How Medical 

Examiners, Law Enforcement, and State 

Archaeologists Work Together to Protect 

Archaeological Sites 

Towards a Comprehensive Theory in 


Beyond the Fire: Taphonomic Variables of 

Burned Human Remains 

Estimation of Bone Exposure Duration 

Through the Use of Spectrophotometric 

Analysis of Surface Bleaching and its 

Applications in Forensic Taphonomy 

The Taphonomic Effects of Agricultural 

Practices on Bone 

The Reliability of Cadaver Decomposition: 

Can Non-Enteric Microbes Rapidly 

Contribute to Cadaver Breakdown in Soil? 

The Influence of Penetrative Trauma on 

the Rate of Decomposition 

Fabrice Dedouit, MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, 

TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; Pierre 

Barrier, Philippe Otal, PhD, Hervé Rousseau, PhD, and 

Francis Joffre, PhD, Service de Radiologie Générale, 

Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean 

Poulhès,TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; 

and Daniel Rouge, PhD, and Norbert Telmon, PhD, Service 

de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 avenue du 

Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 

31059, FRANCE 

Janene M. Curtis, MS*, and Owen B. Beattie, PhD, 

University of Alberta, Department of Anthropology, 13-15 

HM Tory Building, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H4, CANADA 

Philip N Williams, BS*, and Melissa A Torpey, MS, Federal 

Bureau of Investigation, Counterterrorism and Forensic 

Science Research Unit, Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135; 

and Lisa Bailey, BA, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, SPU/Room 1115, 


Summer J. Decker, MA, MABMH*, and Don R. Hilbelink, 

PhD, Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, University. 

of South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. 

Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 33612; and Eric J. 

Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department. of Chemical Engineering, 

University of South Florida, College of Engineering, 13201 

Bruce B. Downs Boulevard Tampa, FL 33612 

Christen E. Herrick, BS*,and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 


Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard S, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 

33965-6565; and E. Hunt Scheuerman, MD, 1856 Colonial 

Drive, Green Cove Springs, FL 32043 

Cliff Boyd, PhD, and; Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Radford 

University, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, Box 

6948, Russell Hall 228, Radford, VA 24142 

Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, Anthropology 

Department, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 

Mark O. Beary, MS*, University of Missouri at Columbia, 

107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211-1440; and Luis L. 

Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department Applied 


Sarah A. Kiley, MS*, University of Indianapolis, 

Archeology & Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna 

Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227 

David O. Carter, PhD*, University of Nebraska, 

Department of Entomology, 202 Plant Industry Building, 

Lincoln, NE 68583-0816; David Yellowlees, PhD, School of 

Pharmacy and Molecular Sciences, James Cook University, 

Townsville, 4811, AUSTRALIA; and Mark Tibbett, PhD, 

Centre for Land Rehabilitation, University of Western 

Australia, Crawley, 6009, AUSTRALIA 

Peter A. Cross, BSc*, 11 Lower Bank Road, Fulwood, 

Preston, 0 PR2 8NS, UNITED KINGDOM 

Index 43 

225 

226 

226 

227 

228 

228 

229 

230 

230 

231 

232

Debugging Decomposition Data Tal Simmons, PhD*, and Rachel Adlam, MSc, University of 

Central Lancashire, Forensic & Investigative Science, 

Maudland Building, Preston, Lancashire, PR1 2HE, 

Beyond Taphonomy: Craniometric 

Variation Among Anatomical Specimens 

Decomposition and Postmortem Interval: 

A Critical Analysis of British Medico-legal 

Investigation and Trends in South 

Yorkshire, 1995-2002 

Basement Bodies: The Effect of Light on 

Decomposition in Indoor Settings 


Joseph T. Hefner, PhD*, and Natalie Uhl, MS, 1503 North 

Pennsylvania Street, Apartment 21, Indianapolis, IN 46202; 

and Nicholas V. Passalaqua, MS, Michigan State 

University, 203 Berkey Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824-1111 

Brooke L. Magnanti, PhD, Newcastle University, Sir James 

Spence Institute, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle-upon- 

Tyne, Tyne and Wear NE1 4LP, UNITED KINGDOM; and 

Anna Williams, PhD*, Cranfield University, Defence 

Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, Wiltshire 

SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, University of Central 

Lancashire, Department of Forensic and Investigative 

Science, Preston, PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

Taphonomic Effects of Vulture Scavenging Nicole M. Reeves, BA*, Texas State University-San Marcos, 

Anthropology Department, 601 University Drive, San 

Computer Simulation for Drift 

Trajectories of Objects in the Magdalena 

River, Colombia 

Experiential Education: The Use of 

Simulation in Training in Forensic 

Anthropology and Archaeology 

Realism in Simulation Training: Examples 

of Mass Grave Excavation and Mass 

Fatality Incident Mortuary Simulation 

Exercises 

The Effects of Body Mass Index on 

Cremation Weight 

The Influence of Body Fat on the Rate of 

Decomposition in Traumatized Pigs 

Saw Cut Marks in Bone Created by 

Atypical Saws 

DNA Quantification of Burned Skeletal 

Tissue 


Ana C. Guatame-Garcia, BSc*, University of Central 

Lancashire, Calle 9 #0-95, Bogota, COLOMBIA; Luis A. 

Camacho, PhD, Universidad Nacional de Colombia at 

Bogota, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Tal Simmons, PhD, 

Department of Forensic and, Investigative Sciences, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 

2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

Margaret Cox, PhD*, Cranfield University / Inforce 

Foundation, Shrivenham, Swindon, UNITED KINGDOM 


University, Cranfield Forensic Institutde, Shrivenham, 0 


Shannon E. May, BA*, and Richard Jantz, PhD, 


S Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Kavita Novinchandra Chibba, BSc*, 9203 Nile Street, 

Extension 10, Lenasia, Johannesburg, 1820, SOUTH 

AFRICA 

John A. Williams, PhD*, Anthropology & Sociology, 


NC 28723 

Jamie Daniel Fredericks*, Lower Bank Road, Fulwood, 

Preston, Lancashire PR2 8NS, UNITED KINGDOM; and 

Tal Simmons, PhD, Department of Forensic and 



Index 44 

232 

232 

233 

234 

234 

235 

235 

236 

236 

237 

237 

238

Early Diagenesis of Bone and DNA 

Preservation 

The Effect of Carcass Weight on the 

Decomposition of Pigs (Sus scrofa) 

Patterns of Perimortem Fracture From 

Military Aircraft Crashes 

Predicting the Location of Scattered 

Human Remains: When Will Heads Roll 

and Where Will They Go? 

Identifying Sharp Force Trauma on 

Burned Bones 

Fracture Patterns in Fleshed and De- 

Fleshed Pig Femora Inflicted With Various 

Ammunition Types 

Decomposition Scoring as a Method for 

Estimating the Postmortem Submersion 

Interval of Human Remains Recovered 

From United Kingdom Rivers - A 

Comparative Study 

Sealed for Your Protection, Part I: The 

Effects of an Unknown Corrosive Agent on 

Human Bone 

Mummification and Palynology: What We 

Can Learn in Regards to Time and 

Location of Death 


(FOREST): A New Facility for Studies of 


Biomechanics of Blunt Ballistic Impacts to 

the Forehead and Zygoma 

Miranda M.E. Jans, PhD*, Institute for Geology and 

Bioarchaeology, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 

Amsterdam, 1081 HV, NETHERLANDS; Andrew J. Tyrrell, 

PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853; Odile Loreille, PhD, 

Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 1413 

Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850; and Henk Kars, 

PhD, Institute for Geology and Bioarchaeology, Vrije 

Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, 

NETHERLANDS 

Heather J. Brand, BA*, 422 Queen Anne Heights, Victoria, 

British Columbia V8S 4K6, CANADA 

Franklin E. Damann, MA*, National Museum of Health and 

Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 6825 16th 

Street, NW, Bldg 54, Washington, DC 20306-6000; and 

Rebekkah Adler, BS, Derek C. Benedix, PhD, and Elias J. 

Kontanis, PhD Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 

(JPAC), Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853-5530 

Gretchen R. Dabbs, BA, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 

Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 

Daniel W. Jackson, MA*, and Pamela M. Steger, MS*, 

Travis County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1213 Sabine 

Street, PO Box 1748, Austin, TX 78666 

Joanna Yaffa Kay, BA*, 222 South 150th Circle, Omaha, 

NE 68154 

Abigail C. Lagden, BSc*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, 





West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Kristen Hartnett, PhD, 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 

520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Frank Di Modica, 


Phoeniz, AZ 85003; and Diane Karluk, MD, Maircopa 

County Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson, 


Cheslee Cornell*, and Nicole A. Wall, MFS, College of 

Saint Mary, Forensic Science Program 7000 Mercy Road, 

Omaha, NE 68106 

Cheryl A. Johnston, PhD*, Western Carolina University, 



Greg Crawford, MS,; David Raymond, MS*, Chris Van Ee, 

PhD, and Cynthia Bir, PhD, Wayne State University, 818 

West Hancock, Detroit, MI 48201 

Index 45 

239 

239 

240 

240 

241 

241 

242 

243 

243 

243 

244

The Effectiveness of Papain in the 

Processing of Remains 

Beating a Dead Pig to Death: An 

Actualistic Test of Archaeological 

Assumptions 

Gunshot Residue (GSR) on Bone as a 

Potential Indicator of Gunshot Trauma in 

the Absence of a Bullet Wound Defect — A 

Noteworthy Observation 

Use of Facial Indices for Comparative 

Metric Facial Identification After 

Parametrical Superimposition 

Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs) and 

Forensic Anthropologist’s New 

Competition: Understanding the Theories, 

Methods, and Techniques for Allocating 

Ancestry in the Field of Forensic Genetics 

Introduction to the Use and Limits of 

Elemental and Isotopic Analysis for the 

Forensic Provenancing of Unidentified 

Human Remains 

Extending the Biological Profile Using 

Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope 

Analysis: Prospects and Pitfalls 

Studies in Isotopic Variability: 

Investigating Human Tooth Enamel 

X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis of 

Human Cremains and Concrete 

Characterization of Lead, Transition 

Metal, and Rare Earth Element 

Composition of Human Bone by ICP-MS 

and LA-ICP-MS 

Bobbie J. Kemp, MS*, University of Pittsburgh, Department 

of Anthropology, 3302 Wesley W. Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, 

PA 15260; Luis Lorenzo Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst 


East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; John J. Matia, BS, 901 

Jancey Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15206; and Dennis C. 

Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 

Mercyhurst College, Glenwood Hills, Erie, PA 16546 

Kerriann Marden, MA*, Dept of Anthropology, Tulane 

University, 1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD*, Middle Tennessee State 

University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, 

Box 10, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Alicja K Kutyla, 

BS*, Middle Tennessee State University, MTSU Box 60, 


Francesco Introna, MD*, Antonio De Donno, PhD, 

Domenico Urso, PhD, and Valeria Santoro, PhD, Section of 

Legal Medicine, Department of Internal and Public 

Medicine (DiMIMP) - University of Bari, P.zza Giulio 

Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY 

Cris E. Hughes, MA*, University of Californiaat Santa 

Cruz, 5405 Prospect Road, #7, San Jose, CA 95129 

Jurian A. Hoogewerff, PhD*, University of East Anglia, , 

Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UNITED KINGDOM 

Eric J. Bartelink, PhD*, 400 West First Street, Department 

of Anthropology, Butte #311, CSUC, Chico, CA 95929- 

0400; Melanie Beasley, BS, 400 West First Street, Chico, 

CA 95929-0400; Chelsey A. Juarez, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, UCSC Social Science 1, 1156 High Street, 

Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Chelsey A. Juarez, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

UCSC Social Science 1, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064 

Thomas E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical 

Examiner Office, 3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, 

TN 37406; Jonathan W. Mies, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Physics, 

Geology, and Astronomy, Department 6556, Chattanooga, 

TN 37403 

Thomas H. Darrah, MS*, University of Rochester, 227 

Hutchison Hall, University of Rochester, Department of 

Earth & Environmental Sciences, Rochester, NY 14627; 

Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA, University of Rochester 

Medical Center, Autopsy & Neuropathology, 601 Elmwood, 

Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642; and Robert J. Poreda, PhD, 

University of Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, University of 

Rochester, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, 

Rochester, NY 14627 

Index 46 

244 

245 

246 

246 

247 

247 

248 

249 

249 

250

Comparison of Portable X-ray Florescence 

and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass 

Spectroscopy in the Measurement of Lead 

in Human Bone 

Species Identification of Fragmented Bone: 

Evaluation of a New Method of Pyrolysis 

and X-ray Diffraction Analysis 

Estimating Body Mass From Bone Mineral 

Density of Human Skeletal Remains 

Preservation of Skeletal Collections: The 

Viability of DNA Analysis After the 

Application of Chemical Preservative 

Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA*, University of 

Rochester, University of Rochester Medical Center, Autopsy 

& Neuropathology, 601 Elmwood, Box 626, Rochester, NY 

14642; and Thomas H. Darrah, MS, University of 

Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, University of Rochester, 

Department Earth & Environmental Sciences, Rochester, 

NY 14627 

Sophie Beckett, MSc*, and Keith D. Rogers, PhD, Cranfield 

University, Cranfield Forensic Institute, Department of 

Materials and Applied Science, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 

8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

Megan K. Moore, MS*, University of Tennessee, 301 

Perkins Hall, Department of Mech, Aero, & Biomed 

Engineering, Knoxville, TN; and Dixie L. Thompson, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Department of Exercise, 

Sports and Leisure Studies, 340 Health, Physical 

Education, and Recreation Building, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology and Forensic Science, Forensic Research 

Lab, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798-7388; Lee 

Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 37996- 0720; Yasmine M. Baktash, BA, 

Baylor University, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 

76798; and J. Randall Pearce, DDS, 3769 West Andrew 

Johnson Highway, Morristown, TN 37814 

Forensic Bone Toxicology Melinda L. Carter, PhD*, 302 Heritage Drive, De Soto, IL 

62924 

253 

In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth Study of Adult Wing Nam J. Chan, MA*, 4720 210th Street, Bayside, NY 254 

Chinese Americans in New York City 11361; Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of Geography 

& Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803; and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 1723 Lombard Drive, 


Who Is This Person? A Comparison Study Summer J. Decker, MABMH*, and Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, 254 

of Current 3-Dimensional Facial 

Department. of Pathology and Cell Biology, University of 

Approximation Methods 

South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs 

Boulevard, MDC11, Tampa, FL 33612; Eric J. Hoegstrom, 

MSBE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of 

South Florida College of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612; 

Carl K. Adrian, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Attn: Carl Adrian/IPGU Rm. #1170, 

Quantico, VA 22135; and Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, 

Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield, 

Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Advances in Computer Graphic Facial Murray K. Marks, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 

255 

Recognition Software: Matching Facial Department of Anthropology, 252 South Stadium Hall, 

Approximations to Antemortem 

Knoxville, TN 37996; Diana K. Moyers, MA, Visiting 

Photographs 

Scientist, CFSRU, FBI Laboratory, FBI Academy, Building 

12, Quantico, VA 22135; Peter H. Tu, PhD, GE Global 


Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Philip N. Williams, BS, FBI 

Laboratory, CFSRU, Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

Index 47 

251 

252 

252 

253

Accreditation of the Small Skeletal 

Laboratory: It is Easier Than You Think! 

Testing the Demirjian Method and the 

International Demirjian Method on an 

Urban American Sample 

Dental Aging Methods and Population 

Variation as Demonstrated in a Peruvian 

Sample 

Multifactorial Determination of Age at 

Death From the Human Skeleton 

An Evaluation of the Skeletal Aging 

Method Using Adult Male Vertebrae as 

Developed by Drukier, et al. 

Spheno-Occipital Synchondrosis Fusion in 

the American Population 

A Curve Where No Hand Has Touched - 

Vertebral Ageing Method in Females 

Investigation of Second, Fourth, and 

Eighth Sternal Rib End Variation Related 

to Age Estimation 

Age Related Histomorphometric Changes 

in Fetal Long Bones 

Critical Study of Observations of the 

Sternal Extremity of the 4th Rib 

Determination of Sex From Juvenile 

Crania by Means of Discriminant Function 

Analysis: A First Study 

Vincent J. Sava, MA*, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 


96853; and John E. Byrd, PhD, JPAC, Central 

Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853-5530 

Nicole M. Burt, MS*, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, 

Michigan State University, A-439 East Fee Hall, East 


Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

NMNH - MRC 112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 

DC 20560; and Roberto C. Parra, BA, Instituto de 

Medicina Legal del Peru, Av. Abancay 491 6to Piso, Lima, 

PERU 

Natalie Uhl, MS*, 1503 North Pennsylvania Street, 

Apartment 21, Indianapolis, IN 46202 

Nanette Hollands, BSc*, Flat 8, 5 Bryanstone Road, 

Winton, Bournemouth, BH3 7JE, UNITED KINGDOM; and 

Piotr D. Drukier, MSc*, Bournemouth University, C134 

Christchurch House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, 

BH12 5BB, UNITED KINGDOM 

Natalie R. Shirley, MA*, and Richard Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 


Reuben Edwin Leigh Moreton*, Bournemouth University, 

33 Corsair Drive, Dibden, Southampton, Hampshire SO45 

5UF, UNITED KINGDOM; and Piotr D. Drukier, MSc*, 

Bournemouth University, C134 Christchurch House, Talbot 

Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, 0 BH12 5BB, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Kathleen Alsup, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


Courtney D. Eleazer, MA*, 7700 Gleason Drive, Apartment 

39G, Knoxville, TN 37919 

Laurent Fanton, MD*, Institut of Legal Medicine, 12 

Avenue Rockefeller, Lyon, 69008, FRANCE; Marie Paule 

Gustin-Paultre, PhD, Lyon University, Lyon 1 University, 

Laboratory of Biostatistics ISPB, Lyon, F-69008, FRANCE; 

Habdelhamid Grait, MD, Milltary Hospital, Alger, 

ALGERIA; Aissa Boudabba, MD, Military Hospital, Alger, 

ALGERIA; Claire Desbois, MD, Lyon University, Lyon 1 

University, Institut of Forensic Medicine, Lyon, F-69008, 

FRANCE; Patrice Stephane Schoendorff, MD, Institut 

Medico-Legal de Lyon, 12 Avenue Rockfeller, Lyon, 69007, 

FRANCE; Stéphane Tilhet-Coartet, MD, Institut of Legal 

Medicine, 12 avenue Rockefeller, Lyons, 69008, FRANCE; 

Daniel Malicier, MD, Institu Medico Legal, 12 Avenue 

Rockfeller, Lyon, 69007, FRANCE 

Richard A. Gonzalez, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Saint Lawrence University, 23 Romoda Drive, Canton, NY 

13617 

Index 48 

255 

256 

257 

257 

258 

259 

259 

260 

261 

262 

262

Admixture and the Growing List of Racial 

Categories: Clarity or Confusion for Law 

Enforcement (and the Public) 

Racial Admixture: A Test of Non-Metric 

Ancestry Estimation 

Discriminant Function Analysis as Applied 

to Mandibular Metrics to Assess 

Population Affinity 

A Test of Methods: Implications of 

Dimorphism, Population Variation, and 

Secular Change in Estimating Population 

Affinity in the Iberian Peninsula 

Cranial Histomorphology: Species 

Identification and Age Estimation 

Are Cranial Morphological Traits 

Population Specific? A Reevaluation of 

Traditional Sex Estimation Methodology 

A Practical Method for Determining Sex 

From Human Chest Plate Radiographs 

A Test of an Age-at-Death Method Using 

the First Rib 

Classification of Frontal Sinus Patterns in 

Koreans by Three-Dimensional 

Reconstruction Using Computed 

Tomography 

Conrad Bezekiah Quintyn, PhD*, Bloomsburg University, 

Department of Anthropology, 400 East 2nd Street, 

Bloomsburg, PA 17815 

Lindsey L. Caldwell, BA*, 2245 College Drive, Apartment 

178, Baton Rouge, LA 70808; MariaTeresa A. Tersigni, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, Univeristy of 

Cincinnati, Braunstein 481 PO 210380, Cincinnati, OH 




Gregory E. Berg, MA*, US Army Central ID Laboratory, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 



NC 27695-8107; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, NMNH - MRC 112, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and Erin H. Kimmerle, 

PhD, University of South Florida, Department of 


33820 

Lindsay H. Trammell, MA*, Murray K. Marks, PhD, and 

Walter E. Klippel, PhD, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37966-0720; and Darinka Mileusnic- 

Polchan, MD, PhD, UTMCK, Department of Pathology, 

1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920 

Angela M. Dautartas, BS*, and Kanya M Godde, MA*, 



Heather Garvin, MS*, 7471 SE 117th Terrace, Morriston, 

FL 32668; Luis Lorenzo Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst 


East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Kyra Elizabeth Stull, BA, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; 

and Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological 

Institute, Mercyhurst College, Glenwood Hills, Erie, PA 

16546 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA*, Department of Natural and 

Behavioral Sciences, 10541 Hardin Valley Road, Knoxville, 

TN 37933; Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, The University of 

Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 


Deog-Im Kim, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong 

University, College of Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, 

Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic 

University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 




KOREA 

Index 49 

263 

263 

264 

264 

265 

265 

266 

267 

267

Demographic Expression of the Frontal 

Sinuses 

Sex Determination of Talus in Korean 

Using Discrimination Function Analysis 

Morphometrics of the Korean Thyroid 

Cartilage for Determination of Sex 

Sexual Dimorphism of the Humerus in 

Contemporary Cretans 

Evaluating Methods of Age Estimation of 

Fetal/Neonate Remains From Radiographs 

Using a Diverse Autopsy Sample 

The Utility of the Samworth and Gowland 

Age-at-Death “Look-Up” Tables in 


Kathryn Lee Frazee*, 1422 Pearce Park, Apartment # 2, 

Erie, PA 16502-2915 

U-Young Lee, MD*, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, 


University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA; In-Heok Chung, MD, PhD, Department 

of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 

Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of 


120752, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Deptartment 

of Anatomy, Colleege of Medicine, Soonchunhyang Univ, 

Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 Ssangyong-dong, 

Cheonan-si, Seoul 330946 KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, MS, 

Department of Anatomy, Gachon University of Medicine, 

1198 Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, 

KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Kwandong University College of Medicine, 522, Naegokdong, 

Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Je-Hoon Lee, MSc, 


Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

The Catholic University of Korea,, 505 Banpo-dong, Sochogu, 





KOREA 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 

Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946 KOREA; 

Deog-Im Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong 


Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; U-Young Lee, MD, and 

Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpodong, 

Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 

Elena Fotios Kranioti, MD, Mused Nacional de Ciencias 

Naturales, Jose Gutierrez Abascal 2, Madrid, 28006, 

SPAIN; Anastasia Efstratios Kastanaki, MSc*, State Mental 

Health Hospital of Chania, Psychooncology Centre, 38, I. 

Skaltsouni Str., El. Giakoumaki Str., and DaraTso, Chania, 

Crete, 73100, GREECE; M. Yasar Iscan, PhD, Istanbul 

Universitesi, Adli Tip Enstitusu, Cerrahpasa Kampusu, 

PK.10, 34303, Istanbul, 34098, TURKEY; and Manolis N. 

Michalodimitrakis, MD, JD, University of Crete, Medical 

School, Dpt Forensic Sciences, Heraklion, Crete 71110, 

GREECE 

Christopher R. Grivas, MS*, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, Albuquerque, 

NM 87131; Debra Komar, PhD, Office of the Medical 

Investigator, 1 University of New Mexico, MSC11 6030, 

Albuquerque, NM 87131 

Nicholas Vere Passalacqua, MS*, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864 

Index 50 

268 

269 

269 

270 

271 

271

Metric Sex Determination From the 

Mandible 

Microscopic Age Estimation From the 

Anterior Cortex of the Femus in Korean 

Adults 

Sternal Rib Histomorphometry: A Test of 

the Age Estimation Method of Stout, et al. 

(1994) 

Accuracy of Regression Formulae for 

Racing and Sexing the Cranial Base in a 

Forensic Collection 

Deconstructing or Perpetuating Race: The 

Status of Race in Forensic Anthropology 

A Test of the FORDISC Sex Discriminant 

Function on a Korean Cranial Sample 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Juvenile 

Skeleton 

Coming Unglued: The Use of Acrylic Resin 

Adhesives in Forensic Reconstruction 


the Head and Fracture Specific Injury 

Criteria Development 

Nicolette Maria Luney Parr, BA, MS*, 1305 NE 6th 

Terrace, Gainesville, FL 32601-3732; Carlos J. Zambrano, 

MS, 5231 NW 56th Court, Gainesville, FL 32653; and 

Laurel Freas, MA, 3425 SW 2nd Avenue, #246, Gainesville, 

FL 32607 

Yi-Suk Kim, MD, MS*, Department of Anatomy, Gachon 

University of Medicine and Science, Department of 

Anatomy, Gachon University of Medicine, 1198, Kuwoldong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Yong-Woo 

Ahn, DDS, PhD, and Gi-Yeong Huh, MD, PhD, Institute of 

Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan National 

University, 1-10, Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, 

KOREA; Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 


505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Department. of Anatomy, 


Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946 KOREA; and 

U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 




KOREA 

Sam D. Stout, PhD*, and Deborrah C. Pinto, MA*; 

Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, 124 

West 17th Avenue, 244 Lord Hall, Columbus, OH 43210- 

1364; Lara E. McCormick, MA*, The Ohio State 

University, 2894 Neil Avenue, #513A, Columbus, OH 

43202; and Meghan-Tomasita C. Cosgriff-Hernandez, MA, 

and Annamaria C. Crescimanno, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Ohio State University, 124 West 17th 

Avenue, 244 Lord Hall, Columbus, OH 43210-1364 

Maria Allaire, MA*, LSU FACES Laboratory, Louisiana 

State University, 227 Howe-Russell Bldg, Baton Rouge, LA 


Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 


Christina A. Malone, BHS, BA*, Michigan State University, 

Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, A-439 E. Fee Hall, 


Helen Cho, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Davidson 

College, Box 6934, Davidson, NC 28035-6934; and Hee- 

Kyung Park, DDS, PhD, Seoul National University, 275-1 

Yeongeon-dong, Jongno-Gu, Seoul National University, 

School of Dentistry, Seoul, 0 110-768, KOREA 

Kyra Elizabeth Stull, BA*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 


Kate E. Kolpan, BA*, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, and Georgia 

L. Fox, PhD, Department of Anthropology, California State 

University, Chico, 400 West First Street, Chico, CA 95929- 

0400 

David Raymond, MS*, Greg Crawford, MS, Chris Van Ee, 

PhD; and Cynthia Bir, PhD, Wayne State University, 818 


Index 51 

272 

273 

273 

273 

274 

274 

275 

275 

276

Detection of Gunshot Residue (GSR) on 

Bone: Potential for Bullet Direction and 

Range Estimation 

Determination of Low Velocity Bullet 

Trajectory in Long Bones: An 

Experimental Investigation 

Fragmentation Patterns of Victims From a 

Fatal Aviation Accident 

Effect of Loading Environment on the 

Alicja K. Kutyla, BS*, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Department of Biology, Box 60, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; 

and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Middle Tennesee State 


Box 10, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

Regina L. McGowan, BA*, 3841 Branson Road, Victoria, 

BC V9C 4A7, CANADA 

Giovanna M. Vidoli, MSc*, 56 Mitchell Avenue, 

Binghamton, NY 13903 

278 

Tracey Tichnell, BS*, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 279 

Healing of Long Bone Fractures 

48824 

Cranial Bone Trauma: Misleading Injuries João Pinheiro*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, 

Instit Nacional Medicina Legal, Delegação do Centro, 

Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 0 3000, PORTUGAL; 

Andersen Lyrio da Silva, and Eugenia Cunha, PhD, 

Departamento De Antropologia, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, PORTUGAL; and Steven A. Symes, 

PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst 

College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

279 

Recognizing Patterned Fire and Heat Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Mercyhurst Archaeological 280 

Damage to Bone 


16546-0001; Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, Office of the 

Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 

10016; Erin N. Chapman, BA, 216 Maiden Lane, Erie, PA 

16504; Desina R. Gipson, BA, 549 East Grandview 

Boulevard, Erie, PA 16504; and Kyra E. Stull, BA, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Missing in Amazonian Jungle: A Case Tania Delabarde, PhD*, Institut Francais d’Etudes 280 

Study of Suspected Dismemberment Andines, Whymper 442 y Coruna, Quito, ECUADOR; and 

Freddy G.H. Almagro, MD, Departmento Medico Legal de 

la Policia, Judicial de Pichincha Av., Mariana de Jesus s/n 

y Av., Occidental, ECUADOR 

An Epidemiological Study of Trauma in Joan E. Baker, PhD*, and Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, 281 

U.S. Casualties of the Korean War Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air 

Force Base, HI 96853 

The Utility of the Identification Unit Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, Ruth 281 

Concept in the Medical Examiner Setting Mathis, Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, 

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, Anthropology 

Division, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Evidentiary Standards for Forensic Angi M. Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation 282 

Anthropology 


22135; Christian M. Crowder, PhD*, New York City Office 

of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016; and Tracy Rogers, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, 

Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, CANADA 

An Electronic Data Management Tool for Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Morris Tidball-Binz, MD, and 283 

the Search for Missing Persons and Shuala M. Drawdy, MA, International Committee of the 

Forensic Human Identification: The ICRC Red Cross, 19 Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, 1202, 

AM/PM DB 

SWITZERLAND 

Index 52 

277 

277

Elliptic Fourier Analysis of Vertebral 

Outlines for Victim Identification 

Left Hanging in Mandeville: Multiple 

Approaches in Search of a Positive 


The eBay® Mummy: A Case of a Scottish 

Mummy From Maryland for Sale in 

Michigan 

Uncovering the Truth Behind the Killings: 

Predicting Patterns of Perimortem Trauma 

Using Skeletons Exhumed From Ex- 

Military Bases in Guatemala 

Unearthing Peru’s Buried Secrets: La 

Cantuta Revisited 

How Easily Can We Derive Cause and 

Manner of Death on the Basis of Dry 

Bones? Lessons Derived From Coimbra 

Identified Skeletal Collections 

Renewed Search, Recovery, and 

Identification Efforts Related to the 

September 11, 2001 Attacks of the World 

Trade Center 

The Use of Material Culture to Establish 

the Ethnic Identity of Victims in Genocide 

Investigations: A Validation Study From 

the American Southwest 

A Population Approach to the Problem of 

the Missing and Unidentified With 

Emphasis on the Status of Migrant and 

Undocumented Workers 

Establishing a Central Database for the 

Missing and Unidentified of Louisiana 

Resolution of Cold Identity Cases: 

Resources, Methodology, and a Review of 

Some Success Stories 

Identity Crisis: The Number and Quality 

of Unidentified Decedent Data and a New 

Solution 

Josephine M. Paolello, MS*, and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, 

Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic 

Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

John W. Verano, PhD*, Brian Pierson, BA, and Anne 

Titelbaum, MA, Doris Z. Stone Laboratory of Biological 

and Forensic Anthropology, Department of Anthropology, 

Tulane University, 1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 

70118 

Kristin E. Horner, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 


MI 48824 

Shirley C. Chacon, BA*, and Gillian M. Fowler, MA, 

Fundacion de Antropologia Forense de Guatemala, 

Avenida Simeon Cañas, 10-64, Zona 2, Guatemala City, 

01002, GUATEMALA 

Jose P. Baraybar, MSc*, Equipo Peruano de Antropología 

Forense, Toribio Pacheco 216, Lima, Lima 18, PERU; and 

Bertrand Ludes MD, PhD, Institut de Medicine Légale de 

Strasbourg, 11, Rue Humann - 67085 Strasbourg, France 

Eugenia Cunha, PhD*, Joan V. Badal, and Andersen Líryo, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, PORTUGAL; João Pinheiro, Instituto 

Nacional de Medicina Legal, Delegação de Coimbra, 

Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000, PORTUGAL; and 

Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Inst, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD*, Christian Crowder, PhD, and; 

Frank DePaolo, MPAS, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 

520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Debra Komar, PhD*, and Sarah Lathrop, PhD, University 

of New Mexico, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC 11 

6030, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 

87131; and Christopher R. Grivas, MS, University of New 

Mexico, Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 




Tampa, FL 33820; Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human Id Laboratory, C/O Cancer/ Genetics Research, PO 

Box 103615, Gainesville, FL 32610; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, 

North Carolina State University, Sociology and 

Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

Mary H. Manhein, MA*, and Helen B. Mathews, MA, 

Louisiana State University, Department of Geography and 


LA 70803 

Dana Austin, PhD*, and Paul E. Coffman, Tarrant County 

Medical Examiner District, 200 Feliks Gwozdz Place, Fort 

Worth, TX 76104-4919 

Melissa A. Torpey, MS*, and Philip N. Williams, BS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Counterterrorism and, 

Forensic Science Research Unit, FBI Academy, Building 

12, Quantico, VA 22135 

Index 53 

283 

284 

285 

285 

286 

286 

287 

288 

288 

289 

290 

290

Comparison of Two Methods of Age 

Determination Using Histomorphology: 

Periosteal vs. Endosteal Surface Equations 

Osteon Area Measurements - A Validation 

Study 

Osteon Area and Circularity: A Method 

for the Assessment for Human and Non- 

Human Fragmentary Remains 

Andrea Clowes, BA*, Michigan State University, 16789 

Chandler Road, #1422A, East Lansing, MI 48823 

MariaTeresa Tersigni, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Cincinnati, Braunstein 481 PO 210380, 

Cincinnati, OH 45221; Amy Michael, BA*, 416 West 

Genesee, Apartment 1, Lansing, MI 48933; Amber Heard, 

BA, 16789 Chandler Road, #1632, East Lansing, MI 48823; 

Christina Malone, BHS, BA, 180 Arbor Glen Drive, 

Apartment 203, East Lansing, MI 48823; and John E. Byrd, 



Force Base, HI 96853-5530 

MariaTeresa A. Tersigni, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Cincinnati, Braunstein 481, PO 

210380, Cincinnati, OH 45221; Amy Michael, BA, 416 

West Genesee, Apartment 1, Lansing, MI 48933; and John 

E. Byrd, PhD, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 

Air Force Base, HI 96853-5530 

Index 54 

290 

291 

292

A Histological Examination of Odocoileus 

virginianus for Forensic Application 

Identification of the Rib Number by Metric 

Study in Korean 

Pedagogy of Practicing Forensic 

Anthropologists: A Collection of Our 

History 

Forensic Anthropology in the Courtroom: 

Trends in Testimony 

Houston Mass Murder Victims: 33 Years 

Later 

The Bone Histology of Bear Paws and 

Human Hands 

Exhumation of an Historical Gravesite at 

Taos Cemetery 

The Relationship Between Bone Weight 

and Age at Death 

2007 

Lindsay H. Trammell, MA*, University of Tennessee- 

Knoxville, Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Deog-Im Kim*, Seung-Ho Han, PhD, Dai-Soon Kwak, 

PhD, and Je- Hoon Lee, Department of Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpodong, 

Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, 

MD, Department of Anatomy, Gahon University of 

Medicine and Science, 1198 Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, 

Incheon, 405760, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, Ssangyongdong, 

Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, Seoul, 330946, South 

Korea; U-Young Lee, MD, Division of Forensic Medicine, 

National Institute of Scientific Investigation, Sinwol 7dong, 

Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, South Korea; and In-Hyuk 

Chung, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

Yonsei University, 134, Sinchon-dong, Seodaemungu, 

Seoul, 120752, South Korea 

Joseph T. Hefner, MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Natalie M. Uhl, BS, University of 

Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

46227; Stanley Rhine, PhD, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040 Anthropology, 

Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001; and William M. Bass, PhD, 



Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD*, College of Mount St. Joseph, 

5701 Delhi Road, Cincinnati, OH 45233-1670; and Bruce 

E. Anderson, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 

District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Michele Hunt, BS, and Luis A. 

Sanchez, MD, Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 

1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Brannon I. Jones, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

Mary H. Dudley, MD*, Sedgwick County Regional Forensic 

Science Center, 1109 North Minneapolis, Wichita, KS 

67214; Joy Vetters, BS, Wichita State University - 

Department of Anthropology, 1845 Fairmount, Wichita, KS 

67260; and Angela E. Benefiel, BA, Sedgwick County 

Regional Forensic Science Center, 1109 North 

Minneapolis, Wichita, KS 67214 

Emily J. Loucks, BA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


37996; and Brannon I. Jones, MA, University of Tennessee, 

250 South Stadium Hall, Department of Anthropology, 


Index 55 

293 

293 

294 

294 

295 

295 

296 

296

Paleopathological Diagnosis of Leprosy in 

Skeletons From a French Medieval Leper 

Bone Fragmentation Created by a 

Mechanical Wood Chipper 

Microscopic Characteristics of Hacking 

Trauma on Bone: The Potential for 

Interpretation and Identification 

Inter-Tidal Decomposition Patterns in 

Croatia: An Experiment using Sus scrofa 

Pedal Elements 

The Difference Between an Individual’s 

Self-Reported, Perceived, and Actual 

Height and Its Forensic Significance 

Sex and Stature Estimation Based on the 

Calcaneus, Talus, and Metatarsal Length 

Sex Determination of Koreans Through 

Cervical Vertebrae 

Stages of Epiphyseal Union in the Cervical 

Vertebrae of Young Adult Skeletons 

Pauline Saint-Martin, MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital Trousseau, CHRU Tours, Tours, 37044, France; 

Norbert Telmon, MD, PhD, and Henri Dabernat, MD, PhD, 

Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie, UMR 8555, CNRS, 39 

allees Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 31400, France; Christian 

Theureau, Laboratoire d’Archéologie Urbaine, Chateau de 

Tours, 25 quai d’Orleans, Tours, 37000, France; Patrick 

O’Byrne, MD, Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital 

Trousseau, CHRU Tours, Tours, 37044, France; and Eric 

Crubezy, PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie, UMR 

8555, CNRS, 39 allees Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 31400, 

France 

John A. Williams, PhD*, Western Carolina University, 

Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Cullowhee, NC 

28723 

Ariana P. Ridgely, BA*, Department of Anthropology, New 

York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, University of Bradford, 

Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, BD7 

1DP, United Kingdom; and Robert F. Pastor, PhD, 

University of Bradford, Biological Anthropology Research 

Centre, Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, 

BD7 1DP, United Kingdom 

Valerie B. Russell, BA*, 8 Thomas Court, Valley Cottage, 

NY 10989 

Dawn M. Strohmeyer, MS*, 12 Bridge Street, Hitchin, 

Hertfordshire SG5 2DE, United Kingdom; and Tal L. 

Simmons, PhD, Department of Forensic and Investigative 

Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, 

Lancashire PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, Soonchunhyang University, 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 366-1, 

Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 

Choenan-si, Seoul 330946 Korea, Republic of Korea; U- 

Young Lee, MD, National Institute of Scientific 

Investigation, Division of Forensic Medicine, 331-1 Sinwol 

7-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, Seoul 158707 Korea, 

Republic of Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, Gachon University of 

Medicine and Science, Department of Anatomy, 1198 

Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon-si, Seoul 405760 

Korea, Republic of Korea; Deog-Im Kim, BA, and Seung- 

Ho Han, MD, PhD, The Catholic University of Korea, 

College of Medicine, Catholic Institute for Applied 

Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, 505, Banpodong, 

Seocho-gu, Seoul, Seoul 137701 Korea, Republic of Korea; 

and In-Hyuk Chung, MD, PhD, Yonsei University College 

of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, 134, Sinchon-dong, 

Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Seoul 120749 Korea, Republic of 

Korea 

Melissa A. Torpey, MS*, Michigan State University, 7 

Gardenwood Drive, Asheville, NC 28803 

Index 56 

297 

298 

298 

299 

300 

300 

301 

301

New Method of Skeletal Age Estimation 

Based on Progressive Morphological 

Changes in Vertebral Column 

Progression of Intra-Epiphyseal Union and 

its Predictive Capability in Fragmented 

Remains 

Age Determination From the Medial and 

Lateral Clavicle: A Re-Evaluation of 

Present Scoring Systems 

Forensic Age-at-Death Estimation From 

the European American Male Sacrum: A 

New Component System 

Accuracy of Age Estimates Using the Pubic 

Symphysis 

A Reevaluation and Revision of the 

Suchey-Brooks and Loth and Iscan Aging 

Methods 

Age Estimation From the Posterior and 

Middle Part of the Ilium 

Bones in Aid of Forensic Pathology: 

Trauma Isn’t Only Skin Deep 

Propeller Impacts: Injury Mechanics and 

Bone Trauma 

Standardizing Saw and Knife Mark 

Analysis on Bone 

Ballistics-Induced Depressed Skull 

Fractures 

Eva-Elvira Klonowski, PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, MD, 

and Senem Skulj, BSc, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45A, Sarajevo, 71 000, Bosnia 

and Herzegovina 

Maureen Schaefer, MA*, University of Dundee, Anatomy 

and Forensic Anthropology, Faculty of Life Sciences, 

MSI/WTB Complex, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom 

Natalie L. Shirley, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, The 

University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, 250 


Nicholas V. Passalacqua, BA*, Mercyhurst College, 

Department Applied Forensic Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 


Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Kansas State University, 204 

Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-4000 

Kristen M. Hartnett, MA*, Forensic Science Center, 701 

West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

Clotilde Rougé-Maillart, MD*, and Nathalie Jousset, MD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, CHU - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 

49933, France; Bruno Vielle, MD, Departement de 

Statistique, CHU - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 49933, France; 

Eugénia Cunha, MD, PhD, Departamento de Antropologia 

- Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; and Norbert Telmon, MD, 

PhD, Service de Médecine Légale, hôpital de Rangeuil - 1 

Avenue Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31403, France 

Laurent Martrille, MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, CHU 

Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, 

Montpellier cedex 5, 34295, France; Cristina Cattaneo, 

MD, PhD, Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Degli 

Studi, Via Mangiagali 37, Milano, 30133, Italy; Steven A. 

Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 119 Zurn 

Hall, Erie, PA 16546; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service 

Médecine Légale, CHU Lapeyronie, Montpellier, 34295, 

France 

Anne M. Kroman, MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Tyler A. Kress, PhD, BEST 

Engineering, 2312 Craig Cove Road, Knoxville, TN 37919; 

and David J. Porta, PhD, Bellarmine University, 

Department of Biology, 2001 Newburg Road, Louisville, KY 

40205 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, and Christopher W. Rainwater, BA, 


and Susan M. Thurston Myster, PhD, Hamline University, 

PO Box 196, St. Paul, MN 55104 

Kathryn Haden-Pinneri, MD*, Office of the Medical 

Examiner of Harris County, Joseph A. Jachimiczyk 

Forensic Center, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; and Gregory Berg, MS, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Index 57 

302 

302 

303 

304 

305 

305 

306 

307 

307 

308 

309

When the Bullet Hits the Bone: Patterns of 

Gunshot Trauma to the Infracranium 

Controlled Fracture of Bones Before and 

After Degradation Under Different 

Environmental Conditions 

Sources of Error in Genetic and 

Osteological Sex Determination: Lessons 

from Physical Anthropology 

Skeletal Markers of Parturition II: 

Reanalysis of a Modern American Sample 

Geometric Morphometrics of the Scapula: 

An Assessment of Ancestry 

Refining the Isotopic Fingerprint in 

Modern Mexican Populations: Using 

Strontium, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen 

to Determine Region of Origin for 

Deceased Undocumented Border Crossers 

Assessment of Determination of 

Handedness Using Standard Osteological 

Measurements of the Shoulder Girdle and 

Arm Long Bones from Individuals of 

Known Handedness 

Bilateral Asymmetry and Handedness: Are 

they Really Related? 

Katharine A. Chapman, BA*, Texas State University, 



Lori E. Baker, PhD, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology, Forensic Science, and Archaeology, One 

Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798; Carolyn P. Skurla, 

PhD*, Baylor University, Department of Mechanical 

Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, TX 76798; 

Zachary Kelm, BS, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 

1st Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905; Casey Anderson, 

Baylor University, Department of Anthropology, Forensic 

Science, and Archaeology, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, 

TX 76798; David R. Webster, BS, Baylor University, 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, One Bear Place 

#97356, Waco, TX 76798; Kieran P. McNulty, PhD, Baylor 

University, Department of Anthropology, Forensic Science, 

and Archaeology, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 

76798; Kristy Bernard, BS, University of New Haven, 

Department of Forensic Science, 300 Boston Post Road, 

West Haven, CT 06516; and Eric A. Schaefer, and Daniel 

C. Bland, Baylor University, Department of Mechanical 

Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, TX 76798 

Krista E. Latham, MS*, Temple University, Department of 

Anthropology, 1115 West Berks Street, Gladfelter Hall, 2nd 

Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19122; and Luis M. Cabo-Perez, 

MS, Jeremy J. Beach, MS, and Dennis C Dirkmaat, PhD, 



Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA*, Pellissippi State Technical 

Community College, Department of Natural and Behavioral 

Sciences, 10915 Hardin Valley Road, Knoxville, TN 37993; 

and Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, The University of 



Natalie M. Uhl, BS, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Joseph T. Hefner, 

MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University 

of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, 


Chelsey A. Juarez, MA*, 240 River Street, #1, Santa Cruz, 

CA 95060 

Marie Elaine Danforth, PhD*, and Andrew R. Thompson, 

BA, University of Southern Mississippi, Department of 

Anthropology and Sociology, 118 College Drive, #5074, 

Hattiesburg, MS 39406 

Kathryn R.D. Driscoll, MA*, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Index 58 

309 

310 

310 

311 

311 

312 

312 

313

Correlation of Forensic Anthropologic 

Findings With DNA Profiles Obtained 

From Cold Cases 

Ossification of Laryngeal Structures: As 

Indicators of Age 

Age Related Changes of the Distal 

Humerus 

The Determination of Age Using the 

Acetabulum of the Os Coxa 

Matjes River Rockshelter: A Case of 

Commingled Remains 

Differential Wound Healing Patterns in 

Bone: A Case Study Involving Multiple 

Antemortem Injuries 

Hyoid Fusion and the Relationship With 

Fracture: Forensic Anthropological 

Implications 

The Potential Diagnostic Value of Scanning 

Electron Microscopy in the Differential 

Diagnosis of Bone Lesions: A Pilot Study 

Evaluation of the Mandibular Angle as an 

Indicator of Sex 

Test of a Method Regarding Sex Indication 

of the Human Hyoid Body 

Efficient Processing of Human Remains 

Using Dermestid Beetles 

Bodies and Body Parts: When and How to 

Record Them During the Excavation of 

Mass Graves 

Putting It All Together: Recovery, 

Assembly, and Analysis of Multiple Body 

Parts 

Heather Walsh-Haney, MA*, and Sulekha R. Coticone, 

PhD*, Florida Gulf Coast University, 10501 FGCU 

Boulevard, Ft. Myers, FL 33965 

Heather M. Garvin, BA, BS*, 1422 Pearce Park, Apartment 

# 6, Erie, PA 16502 

Emily Jeavons, BS*, Bournemouth University, School of 

Conservation Science, Talbot Campus, Poole, Dorset BH12 

5BB, United Kingdom 

Kyra E. Stull, BA*, 108 Firethorne Drive, Greer, SC 29650; 

Dustin M. James, BA, 7735 Village Drive, Knoxville, TN 

37919; and Joseph T. Hefner, MA, 241 South Stadium Hall, 


Ericka N L’Abbe, PhD*, Marius Loots, BSc, and Natalie 

Keough, BSc, University of Pretoria, Faculty of Health 

Sciences, Department of Anatomy, PO Box 2034, Pretoria, 

0001, South Africa 

Allison Bouwman, BA*, Jessica Dimka, BS, Jennifer 

Halpain, BS, Turhon A. Murad, PhD, and Eric J. Bartelink, 

PhD, California State University, Chico, 400 West First 

Street, Department of Anthropology, Butte #311, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 

Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, and Christine M. Pink, MA, 


250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37916 

Wendy E. Potter, BA, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 

MSC01-1040, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 

NM 87131 

Carlos J. Zambrano, MS, Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, Laurel 

Freas, MA, Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, and Michael W. 

Warren, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, 

FL 32610 

Michelle L. Osborn, BA*, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Howe-Russel 

Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, FACES Lab, 

Louisiana State University, E105 Howe- Russell Building, 

Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Michael Leitner, PhD, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Loiusiana 

State University, E111 Howe-Russell Building, Baton 

Rouge, LA 70803 

Karen R. Cebra, MS, MSFS*, California State University at 

Chico, Anthropology Department, 400 West 1st Street, 

Chico, CA 95929 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, and Joan Baker, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, Hawaii 

96853 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, and Cristin Rolf, MD, Kentucky 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 

202, Frankfort, KY 40601 

Index 59 

314 

314 

315 

315 

316 

316 

317 

317 

318 

319 

319 

320 

320

Percentage of Body Recovered and its 

Effect on Identification Rates and 

Cause/Manner of Death Determination 

The Fourth Era of Forensic Anthropology: 

Examining the Future of the Discipline 

Debra Komar, PhD, Office of the Medical Investigator, 


NM 87131-0001; and Wendy E. Potter, MS*, Department of 

Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of New Mexico, 

Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 

Paul S. Sledzik, MS*, National Transportation Safety 

Board, Office of Transportation Disaster Assistance, 490 

L’Enfant Plaza East, SW, Washington, DC 20594-2000; 

Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 

Baker Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

48824; Michael W. Warren, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, 

Gainesville, FL 32611; John E. Byrd, PhD*, Joint 



96853-5530; Christian Crowder, PhD*, Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; 

Shuala M. Drawdy, MA*, International Committee of the 

Red Cross, 19 Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, 1202, 

Switzerland; Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Department of 

Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Alison Galloway, PhD*, 

Chancellor’s Office, University of California, Santa Cruz, 

1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Michael 

Finnegan, PhD*, Osteology Laboratory, Kansas State 

University, 204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506; Laura 

C. Fulginiti, PhD*, and Kristen Hartnett, MA*, Maricopa 

County Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 

Phoenix, AZ 85007; Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, Joint 



96853-5530; Murray K. Marks, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 225 South Stadium 

Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, 

Repatriation Office, Department of Anthropology, NMNH- 

MRC 138, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013- 

7012; Tracy Rogers, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario 

L5L 1C6, Canada; Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, Michigan State University, 

East Lansing, MI 48824; Tal L. Simmons, PhD*, 

Department of Forensic and Investigative Science, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Preston PR1 

2HE, United Kingdom; Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Department 

of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001; Morris Tidball-Binz, 

MD*, International Committee of the Red Cross, 19 Avenue 

de la Paix, Geneva, 1202, SWITZERLAND; and Douglas 

Ubelaker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, NMNH- 

MRC 112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560 

A New Method for Evaluating Orbit Shape Shanna E. Williams, MA*, University of Florida, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 1376 Mowry 

Road, Gainesville, FL 32610 

Index 60 

321 

322 

325

Morphological Characteristics of Ancestry 

in the Fetal/Newborn Human Skeleton 

The Curse of the Curvaceous Femur, the 

Litigious Line, and the Intrepid 

Investigator 

Isotopic Determination of Region of Origin 

in Modern Peoples: Applications for 

Identification of U.S. War-Dead From the 

Vietnam Conflict II 

Richard Jantz: A Man of Impressive 

Numbers 

Estimating Geographic Ancestry of 

Hispanic Crania Using Geometric 

Morphometrics 

Morphological Variation in the Cranial 

Base: Implications for Sex and Ancestry 

Estimation 

Craniometrics as Jantz Taught Us: 

Multiple Lines of Evidence to Deduce the 

Affiliation of Painted “Aztec” Skulls 

Repeatability and Error of Cranial 

Landmark Coordinates 

Morphological Variation of the Human 

Knee: Implications for Sex and Ancestral 

Designations 

Sex Determination in the Human Sacrum: 

Wing Index and Sacral Curvature 

Lawrence Frelich, DDS, PhD, Department of Peridontics, 

University of Maryland School of Dentistry, 666 West 

Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201; and David R. 

Hunt, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, Department of 

Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, 


Gregory E. Berg, MA*, Sabrina C. Ta’ala, MA, Elias J. 

Kontanis, PhD, and Sardiaa Plaud, BS, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 


Laura A. Regan, PhD*, Armed Forced Medical Examiner 

System, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, 

MD 20850; Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Lab, University of Florida, PO Box 103615, 

1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32601; and Andrew 

Tyrrell, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command- 

Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 



Katherine M. Spradley, PhD*, and Bridget F.B. Algee- 

Hewitt, MA, The University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

Ashley H. McKeown, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812; and Daniel J. 

Wescott, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD*, Hamline University, MB 196, 

1536 Hewitt Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55104; Erin Kimmerle, 

PhD, University of South Florida, Soc 110, 4202 East 

Fowler, Tampa, FL 33620; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, North 

Carolina State University, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 

27695-8107 


Department of Sociology and Anthropology, CB 8107, 

Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and Shanna Williams, MA, 

University of Florida, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Erin B. Waxenbaum, MA*, C.A. Pound Human 


1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32610; Anthony B. 

Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification Lab, 

University of Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; and David R. Hunt, PhD, National 

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 

Department of Anthropology, Washington, DC 20560 

Michaela M. Huffman, BS*, National Museum of Natural 

History, Department of Anthropology, MRC112, 10th & 

Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20560-0112; 

and David R. Hunt, PhD, National Museum of Natural 

History, Department of Anthropology/MRC112, 10th & 

Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20560-0112 

Index 61 

326 

326 

327 

327 

328 

328 

329 

330 

330 

331

New Statistical Approaches to Sex 

Estimation: Multi-Stage Discriminant 

Function Analysis 

The Value of Experience, Education, and 

Methods in Ancestry Prediction 

Using Growth Data to Understand Secular 

Trends in Femur Diaphyseal Size and 

Shape among American Adults 

SIRLI (Sistema de Identificación de Restos 

y Localización de Individuos): A Review of 

the First Year of Mexico’s Database for 


An Argument for the Increased 


Mass Fatality Incidents in the United 

States, United Kingdom and Europe 

Introducing Forensic Anthropology to 

Albania Using the Problem-Based 

Learning Model 

The Importance of Archaeological Site 

Formation Processes and Flexible 

Excavation Strategies to the Development 

of Successful Medicolegal Approaches to 

Mass Graves Excavation: Al Hatra, Iraq 

Creating a Standardized Approach to 

Capacity Building Programs in Forensic 

Anthropology: Human Rights 

Investigations in Colombia 

The Current and Potential Role of Forensic 

Anthropology in Cambodia 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 

37012, NMNH MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013-7012; 

and John E. Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting, 



Joseph T. Hefner, MA*, Forensic Anthropology Center, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Paul D. Emanovsky, MS, and John 

Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 310 


and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012 MRC 138, 

Washington, DC 20013 

Daniel J Wescott, PhD*, University of Missouri-Columbia, 

Department of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, 

MO 65211 

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology, Forensic Science and Archaeology, One 

Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798 

Frank A. Ciaccio, MPA*, Kenyon International Emergency 

Services, Inc., 15180 Grand Point Drive, Houston, TX 

77090; and Nick Haig, BA, Msc*, Kenyon International 

Emergency Services, Inc., 1, The Western Centre, Western 

Road, Bracknell, RG12 1RW, England, United Kingdom 

Thomas A. Crist, PhD*, and John H. Johnsen, PhD, Utica 

College, 1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, NY 13304 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, and Eric B Emery, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853 

Jennifer L. Beatty, JD*, Department of Justice, Criminal 

Division, International Criminal Investigative Training 

Assistance Program, 1331 F Street NW Suite 500, 

Washington, DC 20530; Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, Eric Emery, 

PhD, William R. Belcher, PhD, and Derek C. Benedix, 


Identification Laboratory, Building 45, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-3350; and Liliana del 

Amparo Segura Leal, and Manuel A. Torres Rojas, 

Prosecutor General’s Office, Technical Investigation Corps 

(CTI), Diagonal 22B No. 52-01, Bogota, DC, Colombia 

Sabrina C. Ta’ala, MA*, and Gregory E. Berg, MA, Joint 



96853-5530 

Grave Problems in Iraq Derek R. Congram, BA Honours, MSc, MA*, 393 Pinehurst 

Drive, RR4 Belle River, Ontario N0R 2A0, Canada; and 

Ambika Flavel, BA, MSc Forensic Archaeology, Regime 

Crimes Liaison Office, RCLO/Mass Graves, APO, AE 

09342 

Index 62 

331 

332 

333 

334 

334 

335 

335 

336 

337 

337

Differential Diagnosis of Torture in 


Blasting Injuries in Human Rights Cases 

and Armed Conflicts 

Decomposition in a Mass Grave and the 

Implications for Post Mortem Interval 

Estimates 

The Decomposition of Human Remains 

Recovered From the River Clyde, 

Scotland: A Comparative Study of UK 

Fluvial Systems 

The Boy in the Chimney: A Case Study in 


Patella Sex Determination by 3D Statistical 

Shape Models and Nonlinear Classifiers 

The Problem-Based Learning Approach to 

Forensic Anthropology at Butrint National 

Park, Albania: The International Student 

Perspective 

Long Bone Ratios for the Bosnian Male 

Population 

The Mastoid Sinuses and Their Potential in 

Comparative Radiology for Forensic 

Anthropology 

The Petrous Portion of the Human 

Temporal Bone Revisited: A Bayesian 

Analysis of its Potential Value in the 

Identification of Human Skeletal Remains 

Mandibular Morphology as an Indicator of 

Human Subadult Age: Interlandmark and 

Geometric Morphometric Approaches 

Jose P. Baraybar, BA, MS*, and Carmen R. Cardoza, BA, 

Equipo Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF), Arnaldo 

Marquez 2144-D, Lima, Lima 11, Peru 



SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620- 8100; and Jose Pablo 

Baraybar, MSc, Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EPAF), Toribio Pacheco 216 Lima 18 Peru, Lima, 18, 

Peru 

Rebecca E. White*, 1 Harlestone Court, Harlestone Road, 

Dallington, Northampton, Northamptonshire, NN5 7AP, 

United Kingdom 

Vivienne G. Heaton, MS*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, 



2HE, United Kingdom 

Elizabeth A. Miller, PhD*, Cal State Los Angeles and Los 

Angeles County Coroner, Department of Anthropology, 

5151 State University Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90032 

Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, Ahmed M. Badawi, PhD, 

Brandon C. Merkl, MS, Emam ElHak Ali Abd ElFatah, MS, 

Emily Pritchard, BS, and Katherine R. Kesler, BS, 

Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical 

Engineering, 301 Perkins Hall, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Megan K. Moore, MS*, Richard 

L. Jantz, PhD, and Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Alyson E. Jaagumagi*, University of Toronto, 100 St. 

George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada; Bo 

Yeon Kim*, Bryn Mawr College, 101 North Merion Avenue, 

Bryn Mawr, PA 19010-2899; Danielle Stollak, Haverford 

College, 370 Lancaster Avenue, Haverford, PA 19041- 

1392; and Meisha Bray*, Grand Valley State University, 1 

Campus Drive, Allendale, MI 49401-9401 

Alexandra M. Klonowski, MS*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, 

University of Central Lancashire, Maudland Building, 

Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

Pamela M Steger, BA, MS*, Travis County Medical 

Examiners Office, 934 Sycamore Street, San Marcos, TX 

78666; and Daniel Jackson, BA, MA, Travis County 

Medical Examiners Office, 104 B Ladybird Lane, San 



Examiner, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

Daniel Franklin, PhD*, Centre for Forensic Science, 

School of Anatomy and Human Biology, The University of 

Western Australia, MBDP 420, 35 Stirling Highway, 

Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia; and 

Andrea Cardini, PhD, Functional Morphology and 

Evolution Research Unit, The Hull York Medical School, 

Heslington, York Y010 5DD, United Kingdom 

Index 63 

338 

338 

339 

339 

340 

341 

341 

342 

343 

343 

344

Assessment of Histomorphological 

Features of the Fourth Rib for Age 

Estimation in Koreans 

Age-Related Histomorphometric Changes 

in Fetal and Infant Long Bones 

Utilization of the Iscan Method on Multislice 

Computed Tomography 



Estimating Time Since Death From Human 

Skeletal Remains by Radioisotope and 

Trace Element Analysis 

Even in Alaska! Missing Person or 

Cremains and How to Tell the Difference 

Forensic Anthropology Investigation of 

Human Rights Violations in the Ixil and 

Ixcan areas of Guatemala 

Most Common Variation and Dental 

Anomalies in Skeletons Analyzed in the 

Laboratory of the Guatemalan Forensic 

Anthropology Foundation 

Diverse Stature Estimation Formulae 

Applied to a Bosnian Population 

A Simple Technique for Imaging the 

Human Skeleton: An Application Using the 

Auricular Surface for Aging 

Yi-Suk Kim, MD*, Department of Anatomy, Gahon 

University of Medicine and Science, 1198, Kuwol-dong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon 

Park, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, Ssangyong-dong, 

Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do 330946, South Korea; 

and Deog-Im Kim, Je-Hoon Lee, and Seung-Ho Han, PhD, 



137701, South Korea 

Courtney D. Eleazer, BS*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, 


Knoxville, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Fabrice Dedouit, MD*, Stéphanie Bindel, David Gainza, 

MD, and Anthony Blanc, MD, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, 

TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, France; Francis 

Joffre, PhD, Service de Radiologie Générale, Hôpital de 

Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 

50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, France; and Daniel 

Rouge, PhD, and Norbert Telmon, PhD, Service de 

Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 Avenue du 

Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 

31059, France 

Sheridan J. Howard, BHS*, Centre for Forensic Science, 

The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, 

Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; and Jan Meyer, PhD, School 

of Anatomy & Human Biology, 35 Stirling Highway, 

Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 

Kathleen Day, MS*, State of Alaska Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 4500 South Boniface Parkway, Anchorage, AK 

99507; and David McMahan, MA, Alalska Department of 

Natural Resources, Office of History & Archaelogy, 3601 C 

Street, Suite 1278, Anchorage, AK 99503 

Lourdes A. Penados, MS*, CAFCA, 2a. calle 6-77 zona 1, 

Guatemala, 01001, Guatemala; and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, 

University of Central Lancashire, Department of Forensic 

and Investigative Sciences, Maudland Building 114, 

Preston, Lancashire PR12HE, United Kingdom 

Shirley C. Chacón, BA*, and Leonel E. Paiz, BA, 

Fundación de Antropología Forense de Guatemala 

(FAFG), Avenida Simeón Cañas 10- 64 Zona 2, Guatemala 

City, 01002, Guatemala 

Nermin Sarajlic, MD, PhD*, Eva-Elvira Klonowski, PhD, 

and Senem Skulj, BSc, ICMP, Alipasina 45A, Sarajevo, 

71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Sherry C. Fox, PhD*, Wiener Laboratory, American School 

of Classical Studies at Athens, 54 Souidias Street, Athens, 

Attica GR106-76, Greece; and Sotiris K. Manolis, PhD, and 

Constantinos Eliopoulos, PhD, Department of Animal and 

Human Physiology, Division of Biology, University of 

Athens, Athens, Attica GR106-76, Greece 

Index 64 

345 

345 

346 

347 

347 

347 

348 

348 

349

Analysis of Commingled Remains Using 

Archaeology, Anthropology, and DNA: A 

Case Study from North Korea 

Investigating the Spanish Civil War: 

Forensic Anthropological Investigations in 

Santaella 

Sifting Through the “Ashes”: Age and Sex 

Estimation Based on Cremains Weight 

Burned Human Remains: Myths in 

Forensic Science 

Establishing the Perimortem Interval: 

Correlation Between Bone Moisture 

Content and Blunt Force Trauma 

Characters 

Bone-Breaking Rules: A Report of Six 

Fracture Mechanism-of-Injury Axioms 

Developed From Experimental Impact 

Testing 

Trace Element Analysis of Human Bone 

Using Portable XRF 

Physical Matches of Bone, Tooth, and Shell 

Fragments: A Validation Study 

Three-Dimensional Variation in Face 

Shape in a Large Study Sample 

Facial Soft Tissue Depths in Craniofacial 

Identification: Properties Gleaned From a 

Comparative Bottom-Up Approach 

Alexander F. Christensen, PhD*, and William R. Belcher, 

PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853; and Sarah Bettinger, MSFS, Armed Forces 

DNA Identification Laboratory, 1413 Research Boulevard, 

Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850 

Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD*, Binghamton University, 


NY 13902-6000; Elena Sintes Olives, MA, and Camila 

Oliart Caravatti, MA, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 

Department of Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 08193, 

Spain; and Jennifer M. Bauder, MA, Binghamton 

University, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 6000, 


Traci L Van Deest, BA*, California State University, Chico, 

Department of Anthropology, 311 Butte Hall, Chico, CA 

95929 

Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old 

Main, Anthropology Department, Fayetteville, AR 72701 

Danielle A. Miller Wieberg, MA*, 4107 Meredith Road, 


Tyler A. Kress, PhD*, BEST Engineering, 2312 Craig Cove 

Road, Knoxville, TN 37919; David J. Porta, PhD, 

Bellarmine University, Department of Biology, 2001 

Newburg Road, Louisville, KY 40205; Anne M. Kroman, 

MA, University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Bryce O. Anderson, PhD, BEST 

Engineering, 2312 Craig Cove, Knoxville, TN 37919 

Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA*, University of Rochester 

Medical Center, Autopsy and Neuropathology, 601 

Elmwood Avenue, Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642; and 

Peter J. Bush, BS, South Campus Instrument Center, School 

of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at 

Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214 



Quantico, VA 22135; and Adam D. Sylvester, PhD, The 

University of Tennessee, Department of Mechanical, 

Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, 301 Perkins Hall, 


Martin P. Evison, PhD*, University of Toronto at 

Mississauga, Forensic Science Program, 3359 Mississauga 

Road North, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; and 

Richard W. Vorder Bruegge, PhD, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation, Forensic Audio, Video and Image Analysis 

Unit, Engineering Research Facility, Building 27958A, 


Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, The University of Queensland, 

Anatomy and Developmental Biology, The University of 

Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; and Ellie K. 

Simpson, PhD, Forensic Science South Australia, 21 Divett 

Place, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia 

Index 65 

349 

350 

350 

351 

352 

353 

353 

354 

355 

355

Examination of Identification Methods 

Used by Medical Examiners: A Facility 

Study 

The Technique of Sampling Skeletal 

Remains for Mitochondrial DNA Testing 

DNA Preservation of Skeletal Elements 

From the World Trade Center Disaster: 

Some Recommendations for Mass Disaster 

Management 

Considerations in Differentiating 

Negligence From Deliberate Misconduct — 

Lessons Learned From Tri-State 

Crematorium 

The Donation Dilemma: Academic Ethics 

and Public Participation at the 

Anthropological Research Facility 

Daubert and Kumho: Implications for 

Anthropologists in the Courtroom 

Bones of Contention - The Investigation of 

a Cadaver Dog Handler 

Angela Soler, BS*, and Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan 

State University, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

and Joyce L. deJong, DO, Sparrow Hospital, 1215 East 

Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 48909 

Audrey L. Meehan, BGS*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command/ Central Identification Laboratory, 310 


Amy Z Mundorff, MA*, Simon Fraser University, 

Department of Archaeology, 8888 University Dr, Burnaby, 

BC V5A 1S6, Canada; and Eric J Bartelink, PhD, 

California State University, Chico, Department of 

Anthropology, Butte Hall 311, Chico, CA 95929 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD*, Sociology and Anthropology, 

PO Box 10, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Carrie Anne Berryman, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, 2301 

Vanderbilt Place, Box 356050, Station B, Nashville, TN 

37235 

Bridget Algee-Hewitt, MA*, Rebecca J Wilson, MA, and 

Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 


Christopher R. Grivas, MS*, and Debra Komar, PhD, 

University of New Mexico, Department of Anthropology, 

MSC01 1040, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC11 


87131-0001 

Amy L. Michaud, BS*, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms, and Explosives, National Laboratory Center, 

6000 Ammendale Road, Ammendale, MD 20705; Douglas 

H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH- 

MRC112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, 20560; 

and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 


MI 48824 

Index 66 

356 

356 

357 

357 

358 

359 

359

2006 

Estimating Time Since Injury From Kevin B. Hufnagl, MA*, 601 Lindsay Place, Apartment 361 

Healing Stages Observed in Radiographs B14, Knoxville, TN 37919 

The Human Petrous Temporal Bone: Jason M. Wiersema, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 361 

Potential for Forensic Individuation Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4352 

Results of Forensic Anthropological Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, 362 

Examination in Daegu Subway Disaster College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, 

(2003, Korea) 

Ssangyong-dong, Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si, 

330946, Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, and Nak-Eun Chung, 

MD, PhD, Division of Forensic Medicine National Institute 

of Scientific Investigation, 331-1 Sinwol 7 -dong, 

Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158707 Korea; and Seung-Ho Han, 

MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Catholic Institute for 

Applied Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic 

University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul 

137701 Korea 

Population Variation in the Sacrum Jaime L. Loichinger, BA*, and Cynthia A. Wilczak, PhD, 

University of Maryland, College Park-Dept. of 

Anthropology, 1111 Woods Hall, College Park, MD 20742 

362 

Skull and Photo Superimposition 

Audrey L. Meehan, BGS*, and Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint 363 

Technique Used to Aid in the Identification POW/MIA Accounting Command/Central Identification 

Process 


96853 

Selection of Variables for Discriminant Adam Kolatorowicz, MS*, 4510 Marcy Lane, # 41, 363 

Analysis of Human Crania for Determining 

Ancestry 

Indianapolis, IN 46205 

Age of Closure of the Spheno-Occipital M. Essam E. El-Sheikh, MD, PhD*, and Salwa Ramadan, 364 

Synchondrosis in the Arabian Gulf Region MD, PO Box 1747, Farwaina 1747, Kuwait 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Subadult Daniel Franklin, PhD, and Charles E. Oxnard, MBChB, 364 

Mandible: Quantification Using Geometric PhD, Centre for Forensic Science, School of Anatomy and 

Morphometrics 

Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, 35 

Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, 

Australia; Paul O’Higgins, MBChB, PhD, Functional 

Morphology and Evolution Research Group, The University 

of York, Heslington, York Y010 5DD, United Kingdom; and 

Ian Dadour, PhD*, and Robin Napper, BA, Centre for 

Forensic Science, The University of Western Australia, 35 


Australia 

Forensic GPR: Using Ground-Penetrating Johh J. Schultz, PhD*, University of Central Florida, 365 

Radar to Search for Buried Bodies Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Orlando, FL 

32816-1360 

A Case of Historical Homicide in Northern Ryan W. Schmidt, BS*, 1424 Santa Anita Drive, Apartment 365 

Nevada 

B, Las Vegas, NV 89119; and Jennifer L. Thompson, PhD, 

University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, 

Las Vegas, NV 89154 

Index 67

What Matters - Size or Shape? Three- 

Dimensional Analysis of Craniofacial 

Sexual Variation Among American 

Populations 

Estimation of Living Stature From Selected 

Anthropometric (Soft Tissue) 

Measurements: How do These Compare 

With Osteometric (Skeletal) 

Measurements? 

Morphological, Metric, and Morphometric 

Variation in the Midface 

An Assessment of Non-Metric Traits of the 

Mandible Used in the Determination of 

Ancestry 

Discriminant Function Analysis as Applied 

to Mandibular Morphology to Assess 


Morphoscopic Traits and the Statistical 

Determination of Ancestry II 

Ontogeny of Femur Subtrochanteric 

Shape: Implications for Determining 

Ancestry Using the Platymeric Index 

A New Method for Estimating Age-at- 

Death From the First Rib 

Stature Estimation Based on Dimensions of 

the Bony Pelvis and Proximal Femur 

Evaluation of Three Methods of Age 

Estimation From Human Skeletal Remains 

(Suchey-Brooks, Lamendin, and Two-Step 

Strategy) 



8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 8107; Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 


4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620- 

8100; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Institute for Anthropology, 

University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; and Anthony B. 

Falsetti, PhD, University of Florida, CA Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, Gainesville, FL 

32611 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD*, Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, City of New York, 520 First Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016; and Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD, University of 



Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, NMNH 

MRC 138, PO Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012; 

and Lisa M. Martinez, Department of Anthropology, 

Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 

02138 

Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Gregory E. Berg, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-5530 

Joseph T. Hefner, BA, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Stephen 

D. Ousley, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 20560 

Daniel J. Wescott, PhD*, University of Missouri-Columbia, 


MO 65211 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA*, and Jonathan D. Bethard, MA, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37916; Erin H. 


Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, Tampa, 

FL 33620-8100; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University 

of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 


Carolyn L. Giroux, BA*, 6200 East Richland Road, 

Columbia, MO 65201; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, 

University of Missouri-Columbia, Department of 

Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 

Rika Prodhan, BS*, 547 Cedar Branch Road, League City, 

TX 77573; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, MRC 112, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; 

and Debra A. Prince, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Index 68 

366 

366 

367 

368 

369 

369 

370 

370 

371 

371

Evaluation of Purkait’s Triangle Method 

for Determining Sexual Dimorphism 

Robert P. Brown, MFS*, 22nd Military Police Battalion 

(CID), USACIDC, PO Box 331009, Mailstop #84, Fort 

Lewis, WA 98433; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Smithsonian 

Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, 

Department of Anthropology, 10th and Constitution Avenue 

NW, MRC 112, PO Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013; 

and Moses S. Schanfield, PhD, The George Washington 

University, Department of Forensic Sciences, 2036 H Street 

NW, 102 Samson Hall, Washington, DC 20052 

Sex Determination From the Hyoid Body Jered B. Cornelison, MS*, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 204 Olds Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Wendy L. Lackey- Cornelison, MA, Michigan 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 426 East 

Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 28824; and Brian C. Hunter, 

Forensic Application of Epiphyseal 

Sequencing 

Research Trends During the History of the 

Physical Anthropology Section at the 

AAFS Annual Meetings 

PhD, 1215 East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 48912 

Maureen C. Schaefer, MA*, University of Dundee, Anatomy 


University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH, 

Scotland 

Derek C. Benedix, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and 

William R. Belcher, PhD, JPACCIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Billie L. Seet, MA*, 16 Arcola Street #2, Jamaica Plain, 

Estimating the Postmortem Interval in 

374 

Freshwater Environments 

MA, 02130 

Missing, Present, and Left Behind Julie M. Saul, BA*, and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County 

(Toledo) Coroners Office and Wayne County (Detroit) 

Medical Examiners Office, 3518 East Lincolnshire Blvd, 

Toledo, OH 4360 

374 

Gooney Birds and Rocky Clouds: 

Alexander F. Christensen, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA 

375 

Perimortem Trauma in World War II C-47 Accounting Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 

Crashes From Papua New Guinea 

310 Worchester Ave., Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Of Butterflies and Spirals: Interpretation Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, Kristen M. Hartnett, MA, Kevin 376 

of Fractures in Motor Vehicle vs. 

D. Horn, MD, and Ruth E. Kohlmeier, MD, Forensic 

Pedestrian Accidents 

Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

Orthopedic Devices and the William M. Rebecca J. Wilson, MA*, Jonathan D. Bethard, MA, and 376 

Bass Donated Skeletal Collection: 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA, The University of Tennessee, 

Implications for Forensic Anthropological Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 



The Effects of Household Corrosive Darcy J. Cope*, and Tosha L. Dupras, PhD, University of 377 

Substances on Human Bone and Teeth Central Florida, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology, Orlando, FL 32816 

Artists Contribution to Facial 

Gloria L. Nusse, BFA*, Clay and Bones, 129 Stanford 377 

Reconstruction 

Avenue, Mill Valley, CA 94941; and Alison Galloway, 

PhD*, University of California, Santa Cruz, Anthropolgy 

Department, Social Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Superficial Ancestral Characteristics of the Stephanie M. Crider, BA*, 4525 North Leata Lane, La 378 

Nose 

Canada, CA 91011 

Index 69 

372 

373 

373 

374

Morphometrics Using Radiographic Study 

of Thyroid Cartilage for Age-Estimation in 

Korean Males 

Isotopic Determination of Region of Origin 

in Modern Peoples: Applications for 


Vietnam Conflict 

Non-Destructive Microscopic 

Differentiation of Human From Non- 

Human Fragmentary Burned Bone 

The Detection of Microscopic Markers of 

Haemorrhaging and Wound Age on Dry 

Bone: Beating the Barriers Between 


Pathology 

Differential Diagnosis of Gout in Skeletal 

Remains 

Bevel, Bevel in my Bone, Be it Bullet or Be 

it Stone? Misidentification of Blunt Force 

Trauma as Ballistic Entrance Wounds in 

Burned Cranial Bone 

The Difference Between “Pala” and “Palo” 

is the Instrument of Death 

Scanning Electron Microscopy of Saw 

Marks in Bone: Assessment of Wear- 

Related Features of the Kerf Wall 

Seasonal Variation of Scavenging and 

Associated Faunal Activity on Pig 

Carcasses in South Western Australia 

A Preliminary Investigation of 

Decomposition in Cold Climate 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, and Jeong-Sik Ko, PhD, 



Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si, 330946, Korea; and 

Deog-Im Kim, MA, U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, 



University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Sochogu, Seoul, 

137701, Korea 

Laura A. Regan, MS*, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Lab, Department of 


Building 114, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Andrew Tyrrell, 

PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-CIL, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853 

Elayne J. Pope, MA, Trey Batey, MA*, and Jerome C. Rose, 

PhD, University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, 

AR 72701 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, MD*, and Eloisa Marinelli, MD, 

Istituto di Medicina Legale, via Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 

20133, Italy; Salvatore Andreola, MD, Istituto Nazionale 

per la Cura Dei Tumori, via venezian 1, Milano, 20133, 

Italy; and Pasquale Poppa, BSc, and Marco Grandi, MD, 


20133, Italy 

Christopher R. Grivas, MS*, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, 1 University of New Mexico, 



Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 381 

Cherry Hollow, Cordova, TN 38018; and Kate M. Spradley, 

MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Drive, 


Turhon A. Murad, PhD*, Anthropology Department, 

California State University, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Laurel Freas, MA*, Department of Anthropology, CA 

Pound Human ID Laboratory, University of Florida, PO 

Box 112545, Gainesville, FL 32611 

R. Christopher O’Brien, BA, MFS*, University of Western 

Australia, Centre for Forensic Science, 35 Stirling 

Highway, Mail Bag M420, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; 

Shari L. Forbes, PhD, University of Ontario Institute of 

Technology, Faculty of Science, 2000 Simcoe Street, North, 

Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada; Jan Meyer, PhD, 

University of Western Australia, School of Anatomy and 

Human Biology, 35 Stirling Highway, Mail Bag M360, 

Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; and Ian Dadour, University 

of Western Australia, Centre for Forensic Science, 35 

Stirling Highway, Mail Bag M420, Crawley, WA 6009, 

Australia 

Ann W. Bunch, PhD*, State University of New York at 

Oswego, 310 Mahar Hall, Department of Anthropology, 

Oswego, NY 13126 

Index 70 

378 

379 

380 

380 

381 

382 

382 

383 

384 

384

Assessing the Effect of Repeated Physical 

Disturbance Associated With Data 

Collection in Experimental Decomposition 

Studies 

Beetle Poop: Interpret With Caution in 

Southeast Texas 

Temperature Variability in the Burial 

Environment 

The Shallow Grave as an Option for 

Disposing of the Recently Deceased: Goals 

and Consequences 

How to Look a Gift Corpse in the Mouth: 

Season at Death Determined by Cementum 

Increment Analysis 

Anthropological Saw Mark Analysis on 

Bone: What is the Potential of 

Dismemberment Interpretation? 

Working With Family Members of 

Decedents: A Discussion of Techniques for 

Forensic Scientists 

Anthropologist Directed Triage Teams 

From Three Distinct Mass Fatality Events 

Involving Human Fragmentation 

Rachel E. Adlam, MSc*, and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, 


and Investigative Science, Maudland Building, Preston, 

PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

Dwayne A. Wolf, MD, PhD*, Harris County Medical 

Examiner Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; Harrell Gill-King, PhD, University of North Texas, 

PO Box 305220, Denton, TX 76203; Lee M. Goff, PhD, 

Chaminade University of Honolulu, 3140 Waialae Avenue, 


Misty A. Weitzel, PhD*, Oregon State University, Waldo 

212, Corvallis, OR 97333 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, and Luis L. Cabo, MS, 

Mercyhurst College, Department Applied Forensic 

Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Vicki L. Wedel, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of California, 1156 High Street, SS1 Faculty 

Services, Santa Cruz, CA 95064-1077; Shannon Bowman, 

BA, Texas A&M University, Department of Anthropology, 

College Station, TX 77483 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Department of Applied Forensic 

Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546; Anne M. Kroman, MA, Department of 


Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, 

Hamline University, Department of Anthropology, St. Paul, 

MN 55104; and Christopher W. Rainwater, BA, and John J. 

Matia, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Forensic/Biological Anthropology, Erie, PA 16546 



L’Enfant Plaza East, SW, Washington, DC 20594; Lee 

Meadows Jantz, PhD*, Forensic Anthropology Center, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Simon 

Fraser University, 611-1485 West 6th Avenue, Vancouver, 

BC V6H 4G1, Canada; Giovanna M. Vidoli, MSc*, Office 


NY 10016; Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA 


310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Darinka 

X. Mileusnic- Polchan, MD, PhD*, University of Tennessee 

Medical Center, Department of Pathology/Knox County 

Office of the Medical Examiner, 1924 Alcoa Highway, 

Knoxville, TN 37920; and Mercedes Doretti*, and Luis 

Fondebrider*, Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense, 

Av. Rivadavia 2443, Piso 2 Dep. 4, Buenos Aires, 1034, 

Argentina 

Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Simon Fraser University, 611-1485 

West 6th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V6H4G1, Canada 

Index 71 

385 

385 

386 

386 

387 

388 

388 

389

The Accuracy of Ante-Mortem Data and 

Presumptive Identification: Appropriate 

Procedures, Applications and Ethics 

Tal Simmons, PhD*, Department of Forensic and 

Investigative Science, University of Central Lancashire, 

Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom; and Mark Skinner, 

PhD, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipašina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Anthropological Aspect of Mass Disasters Laurent Martrille, MD*, Service de Medecine Legale, Chu 

Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du doyen Gaston Giraud, 

Montpellier, 34295, France; Cristina Cattaneo, MD, PhD, 

Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università degli Studi di 

Milano, via Mangiagali 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; Yves 

Schuliar, MD, IRCGN, 1 Boulevard Théophile Sueur, Rosny 

Sous Bois, 93111, France; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service 

de Medecine Legale, Chu Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du doyen 

Traumatic Modifications of Human 

Remains of Victims of Mass Disasters and 

Long-Term Abuse 

Anthropology Responds to Hurricane 

Katrina 

To Measure or Not to Measure: An 

Analysis of Maximum Length of the Tibia 

Extensive Rat Modification of a Human 

Skeleton From Central Indiana 

Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 34295, France 

Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD*, Cornell University, 

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 231 

Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, 15015 South 14th Place, 

Phoenix, AZ 85048; Michael W. Warren, PhD, and Joseph 

T. Hefner, MA, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611; Larry R. 

Bedore, MS, District 8 Office of the Medical Examiner, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; Jason H. Byrd, PhD, Department of 

Criminology, Law & Society, University of Florida, PO Box 

115950, Gainesville, FL 32611; Vincent Stefan, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, Lehman College, CUNY, 

Bronx, NY 10468; and Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, 


Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 E 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Erin B. Waxenbaum, MA*, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, PO Box 112545, Building 114, 

Gainesville, FL 32611; David R. Hunt, PhD, Department of 


Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Lab, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, 

PO Box 112545, Building 114, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Sarah A. Kiley, BA*, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Nicolette M. Parr, 

MS, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 

32611; and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, University of 


46227 

Mass Disasters and Non-Human Remains Deborah W. Gray, MA*, Riverside County Sheriff-Coroner, 

800 South Redlands Avenue, Perris, CA 92571; and Judy 

M. Suchey, PhD, Department of Coroner, Los Angeles 

County, 1104 North Mission Road, Los Angeles, CA 90033 

Index 72 

390 

391 

391 

392 

392 

393 

393

Antemortem vs. Perimortem Infant Rib 

Fracture: The Histological Evidence 

Evaluation of the Relationship Between 

Fifth Metatarsal Length and Foot Length/ 

Shoe Size: A Possible Aid in Human 


Nail or Bullet? A Comparison of Typical 

Cranial Gunshot Wounds to a Defect 

Resulting From a Nail Gun 

Observations of Decomposition in 

Southern Coastal North Carolina 

The Differential Diagnosis of Skullbase 

Osteomyelitis Secondary to Necrotizing 

Otitis Externa 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Vertebral 

Column 

Heat Intensity Versus Exposure Duration 

Part I: Macroscopic Influence on Burned 

Bone 

Odd Man Out: Separation and 

Identification of Terrorist Remains in 

Suicidal Bombings 

Evidence vs. Identification: The Role of 

Humanitarian Organizations in the 

Balkans 1992-2002 

Children’s Traumas Caused During the 

Civil War in Guatemala 

Murray K. Marks, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Mariateresa A. 

Tersigni, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 


Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Darinka 

Mileusnic, MD, PhD, Knox County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1924 Alcoa Highway, U-71, Knoxville, TN 37920 

Robert F. Pastor, PhD*, University of Bradford, Biological 

Anthropology Research Centre, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 

1DP, United Kingdom; and Angela J. Reynard, MSc*, 

Bureau of Forensic Science, Ltd, Temple Chambers, 3-7 

Temple Avenue, London, EC4Y OHP, United Kingdom 

Wendy E. Potter, BA, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 


NM 87131-0001; and Russell T. Alexander, MD, Office of 

the Medical Investigator, MSC11-6030, 1 University of New 

Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 

Midori Albert, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 South 

College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403- 5907; Jeffery K. 

Tomberlin, PhD, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M 

University, 1229 North U.S. Highway 281, Stephenville, TX 

76401; and Christina Johnson, BA, Department of 

Sociology and Criminal Justice, University of North 

Carolina Wilmington, 601 S College Road, Wilmington, NC 

28403-5978 

Stephanie L. Child, MA*, The University of Missouri- 

Columbia, 701 Swallow Hall, Columbia, Missouri 65211; 

and Dana E. Austin, PhD, Tarrant County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 200 Felix Gwozdz Place, Forth Worth, 

Texas 76104 

Amanda S. Allbright, BA*, University of Tennessee, 



Joanne B. Delvin, PhD*, and Anne Kroman, MA*, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Steve Symes, 

PhD, Mercyhurst College, Mercyhurst Archaeological 

Institute, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences , Erie, 

PA 16546; and Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD, University of 

Tennessee, 252 South Stadium Hall, Department of 

Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996 

William C. Rodriguez III, PhD*, Office of the Armed Forces 

Medical Examiner, 16465 Old Frederick Road, Building 

102, Rockville, MD 20850 

Abbie K. Cuff, MSc*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, University of 

Central Lancashire, Department of Forensic & 

Investigative Science, Preston, PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

Shirley C. Chacon, BA*, Avenida Simeon Canas 10-64 zona 

2, 2 Avenida 8-28 zona 18 Residenciales Atlantida, 

Guatemala, 01002, Guatemala; and Leonel E. Paiz, BA, 

Avenida Simeon Canas 10-64 zona 2, Guatemala, 01002, 

Guatemala 

Index 73 

394 

394 

395 

396 

396 

397 

397 

398 

398 

399

Burial Patterns of Korean War Casualties 

as an Indicator of the Social Relationships 

Between the Dead and the Living 

Characterizing Primary and Secondary 

Mass Graves and Their Impact on 

Identification Methodology: The 

Experience in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Forensic Anthropology and the Current 

Politics of the US- Mexico Border 

Identification of the Living From Video 

Tape and Photographs: The Dynamic 

Orientation Technique 

Trace Element Analysis of Medical School 

Cadaver Cremains 

Bone Fracture Mechanics: In Vitro Strain 

Gauge Analysis of the Ribs and Mandible 

During Failure 

Evaluation of Date of Death Through 

Analysis of Artificial Radiocarbon in 

Distinct Human Skeletal and Dental 

Tissues 

The Impact of High Speed-High Resolution 

Three Dimensional CT Scans on Forensic 

Anthropology 

Identification of the Living on Video 

Surveillance Systems: A Novel Approach 

Lumbosacral Transitional Vertebrae, 

Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis: 

Prevalence in a Modern Forensic Skeletal 

Population 

“The (Almost) Exhumation of Billy the 

Kid: Why We Aren’t Digging Him up (and 

Why You Shouldn’t Either)” 

William R. Belcher, PhD*, and Derek C. Benedix, PhD, 

JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Ana Boza Arlotti, PhD*, International Commission for 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia 


Chelsey A. Juarez, MA*, University of California, Santa 

Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, 

Michigan State University, Department of Anthropology, 

354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Tom E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner 

Office, 3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37406; 

Timothy Brooks, and Gretchen E. Potts, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Chemistry, 615 

McCallie Avenue, Grote Hall, 4th Floor, Chattanooga, TN 

37403; and Stephanie Smullen, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Computing 

Sciences, 615 McCallie Avenue, Department 2302, 

Chattanooga, TN 37403 

David J. Daegling, PhD*, Jennifer Hotzman, MA, Casey J. 

Self, MA, and Michael W. Warren, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, 1112 

Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

MRC 112, National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; Bruce A. 

Buchholz, PhD, Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, 

Mail Stop L-397, Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, CA 94551; and John 

Stewart, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation, DNA 

Analysis Unit II, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

22135 


Medical Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 


Danilo De Angelis, DDS*, and Pasquale Poppa, BSc, 


20133, Italy; Remo Sala, PhDc, Politecnico di Milano 

Facolta di Ingegneria Industriale Dipartimento di 

Meccanica Sezione di Misure e Tecniche Sperimentali, via 

Magiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; and Cristina 

Cattaneo, PhD, MD, Istituto di Medicina Legale, via 

Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD*, and Laurel E. Freas, MA, 


Laboratory, PO Box 112545, Southwest Radio Road, 


Debra A. Komar, PhD*, Office of the Medical Investigator, 

MSC11 6030, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 

NM 87131-0001 

Index 74 

400 

400 

401 

401 

402 

402 

403 

403 

404 

405 

405

Reducing Observer Error Through Choice 

of Histological Evaluation Technique 

Resolving Extremely Commingled Skeletal 

Remains From the Korean War Through 

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Testing 

Reducing Problems With Osteological and 

Dental Samples Submitted to Missing 

Person DNA Databases 

Is This Bone Human or What? In Pursuit 

of Human vs. Non Human Determinations 

in Small Osseous Fragments 

Applications of DNA Identification to 

Human Rights: Additional Informative 

Sites in the mtDNA Genome 

MtDNA From Degraded Human Skeletal 

Remains: Is Quality Affected by Storage 

Conditions? 

Christian M. Crowder, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command Central ID Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Jennifer O’Callaghan, MFS*, and Jacqueline Raskin- 

Burns, MS, Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 

1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 

20850; Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, Central 

Identification Laboratory, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Audrey Meehan, BGS, 

and Mark Leney, PhD, Central Identification Laboratory, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853; and Suzanne 

M. Barritt, MS, and Brion C. Smith, DDS, Armed Forces 



John E.B. Stewart, PhD*, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis 

Unit I, Quantico, VA 22135; Patricia J. Aagaard, BS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit II, Quantico, VA 

22135; Deborah Polanskey, BS, Federal Bureau of 


DNA Analysis Unit II, Quantico, VA 22135; Eric G. 

Pokorak, BA, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit I, 

Quantico, VA 22135; and Mark R. Ingraham, MS, and H. 

Gill-King, PhD, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology and 

Human Identification, Department of Biological Sciences, 

University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203 

Mark D. Leney, PhD*, Central Identification Laboratory, 



Karen P. Mooder, PhD*, and Mary-Claire King, PhD, 

Division of Medical Genetics, University of Washington, 

Box 357720, Seattle, WA 98195-7720 

Suni M. Edson, MS*, and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, Armed 


Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Mark D. 

Leney, PhD, Central Identification Lab, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air 

Force Base, HI 96853; and Brion C. Smith, DDS, Armed 


Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850 

Index 75 

406 

407 

407 

408 

408 

409

Rodent Modification of Human Skeletal 

Remains: Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) 

vs. Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) 

Postmortem Interval Field Research at 

Three High Elevation Biogeoclimatic Zones 

in Southwest Colorado 

Decomposition in the Santa Monica 

Mountains: A Seasonal Taphonomic 

Analysis of Buried and Exposed Remains 

Escaping Tennessee: Regions for 

Taphonomy Research Beyond Eastern 

Tennessee 

Insect Colonization of Child-Sized 

Remains: Behavioral Analysis of Pig 

Carcasses via 24 Hour, High Resolution 

Video Surveillance 

2005 

Walter E. Klippel, PhD*, and Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA, 



Maria T. Allaire, MA*, 16 Pinedale Lane, Durango, CO 

81303 

Diana A. Dupuis, BA*, 2610 110th Avenue, NE, Bellevue, 

WA 98004 

Tracey A. Tichnell, BS*, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Abigail Gremillian, BA*, 17862 East General Forrest, 

Baton Rouge, LA 70817; and Robert J. Morton, MS, and 

Wayne D. Lord, PhD, FBI NCAVC, FBI Academy, 


Human Decomposition in the Detroit River Paula A. Perry, BA*, Bournemouth University, Talbot 

Campus, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BF, United Kingdom 

413 

Observed Taphonomic Changes and Drift Victoria L. Brewer, BSc*, Bournemouth University, School 414 

Trajectory of Bodies Recovered From the of Conservational Sciences, Talbot Campus, Poole, Doreset 

Tidal Thames, London England: A 15- 

Year Retrospective Study 

BH12 5BB, United Kingdom 

Analysis of Season at Death Using 

Vicki L. Wedel, MA*, and Joshua B. Peabody, MA*, 414 

Cementum Increment Analysis 

University of California, Santa Cruz, Department of 

Anthropology, 1156 High Street, Social Sciences 1 Faculty 

Services, Room 361, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

The Meeting of Old and New: Luminol Thora S. Steffensen, MD*, University Hospital of Iceland, 415 

Application to a Suspected Ritualistic Department of Pathology, Rannsoknastofa H.I. vid 

Heathen Stone From Viking Times Baronsstig, Reykjavik, IS 108, Iceland; and Omar 

Palmason, Reykjavik Police Department, Hverfisgata 115, 

Reykjavik, IS 108, Iceland 

Lifestyles of the Unidentified: Challenges Heather C. Backo, MA*, and John Verano, PhD, Tulane 415 

in Positive Identification 

University Anthropology Department, 1021 Audubon Street, 


Internal Cranial Fractures Alison Galloway, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Social 

Science One FS, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064; and Lauren Zephro, MA, Monterey County Sheriff’s 

Office, 1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, CA 95006 

416 

Perimortem Bone Fracture Distinguished Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department of 416 

From Postmortem Fire Trauma: A Case Forensic/Biological Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 

Study With Mixed Signals 

Erie, PA 16546; James J. Woytash, DDS, MD, Erie County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 462 Grider Street, Buffalo, NY 

14214; Anne M. Kroman, MA, Department of 


Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Andrew C. Wilson, BS, 

Department of Forensic/Biological Anthropology, 

Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA 16509 

Mandible and Cranial Base Fractures in Anne M. Kroman, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 417 

Adults: Experimental Testing 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Tyler Kress, PhD, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

Index 76 

410 

410 

411 

412 

413

Unusual Cranial Base Trauma in Victims 

16546 

Sabrina C. Ta’ala, MA*, and Gregory E. Berg, MA, Joint 418 

of the Khmer Rouge 

POW/MIA Accounting Command Central ID Lab 

(JPAC/CIL), 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-5530 

Microscopic and Cross Section Analysis of Emily A. Craig, PhD*, and Cristin Rolf, MD, State Medical 418 

Occult Intraosseous Fracture (Bone Examiner’s Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, 

Bruise) of the Skull 

Frankfort, KY 40601; and Warren Mitchell, Kentucky State 

Police Laboratory, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, 

Frankfort, KY 40601 

Disappearance, Torture, and Murder of Shirley C. Chacon, BA*, Leonel E. Paiz, BA, and Renaldo 419 

Nine Individuals in a Community of Acevedo, BA, Fundacion de Anthropology Forense de 

Guatemala 

Guatemala, Avenida Simeon Cañas 10-64 Zona 2, 

Guatemala, 01002, Guatemala 

Morphoscopic Traits and the Statistical Stephen D. Ousley, MA, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, 419 

Determination of Ancestry 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 7012, NMNH MRC 

138, Washington, DC 20013- 7012; and Joseph T. Hefner, 

MA, Department of Anthropology, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, 


Forensic Identifications and the 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, 420 

Complexity of Determining Biological Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 

Affinities of “Hispanic” Crania 

8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 8107; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, 

Wake Forest University, School of Medicine, Department of 

Biomedical Engineering, Division of Radiologic Sciences, 

Winston-Salem, NC 27157; and José V. Pachar, MD, 

Morgue Judicial, Instituto de Medicina Legal, Panama- 

Ancon, Panama 

Biological Variation Among Hispanic Martha K. Spradley, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 421 

(Spanish-Speaking) Peoples of the 


Americas 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; David M. 

Glassmann, PhD, University of Southern Indiana, School of 

Liberal Arts, 8600 University Boulevard, Evansville, IN 

47712-3596; and Alan G. Robinson, MSc, Fundacion de 

Antropologia Forense de Guatemala, Avenida Simon Canas 

10-64 Zona 2, Ciudad de Guatemala, Guatemala City, 

01002, Guatemala 

Classification and Evaluation of Unusual Donna Freid, MA*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 421 

Individuals Using FORDISC 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard L. Jantz, 

PhD, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South 


Ur-FORDISC, or Early Statistical Methods Eugene Giles, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 422 

in Forensic Anthropology 

University of Illinois, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, 

IL 61801 

The Next FORDISC: FORDISC 3 Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, NMNH, 

MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013; and Richard L. Jantz, 

MA, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department of 


37996-0720 

422 

Anatomy of a Cauldron: Sociocultural Kerriann Marden, MA, ABD*, and John W. Verano, PhD, 423 

Contributions to Understanding a Forensic Tulane University, Department of Anthropology, 1021 

Case 

Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 

Not for the Passive: The Active Application Hugh Tuller, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 424 

of Electronic Resistivity in the Excavation Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

of a Mass Grave 

Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and Jon Sterenberg, MS, 

Index 77

When Experts Disagree: There May be a 

Rodent Involved – Part I: The Request for 

a New Trial 

An Assessment of Tissue Depth 

Measurement Tables Used for Facial 

Reconstruction/Reproduction 

Blasting Caps: An Alternate Source of 

High Velocity Trauma in Human Skeletal 

Remains 

Modern Day Cranial Trepanation: The 

Ventriculosotomy 

SEM Analysis of Mummified Skin: A 

Preliminary Study of Obsidian and Chert 

Induced Trauma 

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis, 

Pharmacological Treatments, and the 

Potential for Individuation in Forensic 

Anthropology 

International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 

45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County 

Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

43614-2674; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Departments of 

Anthropology and Applied Forensic Science, Mercyhurst 

College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and 

Carl J. Schmidt, MD, Wayne County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1300 East Warren Avenue, Detroit, MI 48207 

Keri Reeves, MS*, and Jill Haslasm, MS, University of New 

Haven, 300 Orange Avenue, West Haven, CT 06516; 

Shannon Butler-Williams, BS, University of California, 

Davis, Department of Anthropology, 1 Shields Avenue, 

Davis, CA 95616; and Brandi J. Schmitt, BS, MS*, 

University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, 

Anatomical Services Division, Davis, CA 95616 

Maria T. Allaire, MA*, 16 Pinedale Lane, Durango, CO 

81303; and Mary H. Manhein, MA, and Ginesse A. Listi, 


and Anthropology, 227 Howe- Russell Building, Baton 


Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, University of Arizona, 

Department of Anthropology, Tucson, AZ 85721; and 

Thomas P. Gilson, MD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Alaina K. Goff, BA*, and Debra Komar, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of New 

Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 

Meghan M. Cotter, MSc*, Burial Sites Preservation 

Program, Wisconsin Historical Society, 816 State Street, 

Madison, WI 53706 

The Lady in the Box Frank P. Saul, PhD*, and Julie M. Saul, BA, Lucas County 


43614-2674; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Departments of 


Forensic Anthropologist and Forensic 

Pathologist: Why Work Together? Some 

Illustrative Cases of Homicide 

Reducing Intra- and Inter-Observer Error 

Through Histomorphometric Variable 

Selection 

Dental Enamel Thickness as a Method of 

Subadult Sex Determination 

College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

Joao Pinheiro, MD, MS*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina 

Legal, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000-213, Portugal; 

Eugénia Cunha, PhD, Departamento De Antropologia, 

Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Università degli Studi di Milano, 

Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia, Università 

degli Studi di Milano, Milano, 3330, Italy; and Francisco 

Corte Real, PhD, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, 

Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000-213, Portugal 

Christian M. Crowder, MA, and Zoe H. Morris, BSc*, 

University of Toronto, Department of Anthropology, 100 St. 

George Street, Toronto, ON M5S3G3, Canada 

Leilani E. Beltran, MFS, Forensic Sciences Program, 

National University, 11355 North Torrey Pines Road, La 

Jolla, CA 92037; and A. Midori Albert, PhD*, 

Anthropology Program, University of North Carolina at 

Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, NC 

28403 

Index 78 

424 

425 

426 

426 

427 

427 

428 

429 

429 

430

Sexual Dimorphism in Vertebral 

Dimensions at the T12/L1 Junction 

Race as a Variable in Dental Health of 

Korean War Military Personnel 

Stable Strontium and Geolocation: The 

Pathway to Identification of Unidentified 

Mexican Aliens 

Stature Estimation of Hispanics: The Most 

Appropriate Stature Regression Equations 

Anatomical Stature Estimation: Why Not 

Fully Accurate? 

The Effects of Skeletal Preparation 

Techniques on DNA From Human and 

Nonhuman Bone 

An Assessment of DNA Degeneration Due 

to Air-Drying Preservation for the 

Remains of the World Trade Center 

Elemental Analysis of Human Cremains 

Using Inductively-Coupled Plasma Optical 

Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) to 

Distinguish Between Legitimate and 

Contaminated Cremains 

Elemental Characterization of Skeletal 

Remains Using Laser-Induced Breakdown 

Spectroscopy (LIBS) 

An Experimental Test of the Accuracy of 

Human Forensic Identification Techniques 

for Analysis of Burn- Damaged Bone and 

Tissue 

Robert F. Pastor, PhD*, University of Bradford, 

Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, West 

Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, and Helen D. Wols, PhD, Joint 


Laboratory (JPAC CIL), 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Chelsey A. Juarez, BA*, UC Santa Cruz, Department of 

Anthropology, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Lehman College - CUNY, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, 


Donna M. McCarthy, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 



Index 79 

430 

431 

432 

432 

433 

Stephanie L. Rennick, BS*, Michigan State University, 434 

Forensic Science Program, School of Criminal Justice, 560 

Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Todd W. Fenton, 

PhD, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology and Forensic Science Program, Baker Hall, 

East Lansing, MI 48824; David R. Foran, PhD, Michigan 

State University, Forensic Science Program, School of 

Criminal Justice and Department of Zoology, 560 Baker 

Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Benjamin J. Figura, MA*, PO Box 538, Empire, MI 49630 434 

Thomas E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical 


TN 37406; and Gretchen E. Potts, PhD, Kira Shurtz, and 

Timothy Brooks, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, 

Department of Chemistry, 404 Grote Hall, Chattanooga, 

TN 37403 

Arpad A. Vass, PhD*, and Madhavi Martin, PhD, Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, 1505, 

MS 6038, Oak Ridge, TN 37831- 6038; Jennifer Synstelien, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Kimberly Collins, BS, 

Maryville College, College Avenue, Maryville, TN 37804 

Michelle Kaye, MA*, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 

Department of Anthropology, 310 Eielson Building, PO Box 

757720, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7720; Elayne J. Pope, MA, 

University of Arkansas, Department of Anthropology, 330 

Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; Frank Cipriano, PhD, 

San Francisco State University, Conservation Genetics 

Laboratory, Hensill Hall 745, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San 

Francisco, CA 94132; and O’Brian C. Smith, MD, UT 

Medical Group, Inc, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 

Madison, Memphis, TN 38104 

435 

435 

436

Semi-Automated Ultrasound Facial Soft 

Tissue Depth Registration: Method and 

Preliminary Results 

Quantification of Commingled Human 

Skeletal Remains: Determining the Most 

Likely Number of Individuals (MLNI) 

Osteometric Sorting of Commingled 

Human Remains 

Resolving Commingling Issues In Mass 

Fatality Incident Investigations 

Methods and Techniques for Sorting 

Commingled Remains: Anthropological 

and Physical Attributes 

The Importance of Using Traditional 

Anthropological Methods in a DNA-Led 

Identification System 

The Importance of Body Deposition 

Recording in Event Reconstruction and the 

Re-Association and Identification of 


Commingled Skeletonized Remains in 

Forensic Cases: Considerations for 

Methodological Treatment 

Exhumation and Identification of a 

Particular Individual in a Mass Grave 

Sven De Greef, DDS*, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven 

Faculty of Medicine, School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology 

and Maxillofacial Surgery, Forensic Odontology, 

Kapucijnenvoer 7, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium; Peter Claes, 

MEng, Wouter Mollemans, MEng, Dirk Vandermeulen, 

PhD, and Paul Suetens, PhD, Katholieke Universiteit 

Leuven, ESAT, Medical Image Computing, Herestraat 49, 

Leuven, B-3000, Belgium; and Guy Willems, DDS, PhD, 

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Medicine, 

School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology and Maxillofacial 

Surgery, Forensic Odontology, Kapucijnenvorer 7, Leuven, 

B-3000, Belgium 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD*, Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and 

Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of Tennessee, 



John E. Byrd, PhD*, JPAC Central Identification 


96853; and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, Office of Chief Medical 



Board, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, DC 20594; 

and Elias J. Kontanis, BS, Oak Ridge Institute for Science 

and Education, Joint POW MIA Accounting Command- 




Medical Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 


Laura N. Yazedjian, MSc*, Rifat Kesetovic, MD, Ana Boza- 

Arlotti, PhD, and Zeljko Karan, MD, International 

Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 

71000, Bosnia-Herzegovina 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; Ute 

Hofmeister, MA, International Commission on Missing 

Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina; and Sharna Daley, MSc, International 



Sofia Egaña*, Silvana Turner, Patricia Bernardi, Mercedes 

Doretti, and Miguel Nieva, Argentine Forensic 

Anthropology Team (EAAF), Avenue Rivadavia 2443, 2nd 

Floor, Office 3-4, Buenos Aires, C1034ACD, Argentina 

Eugénia Cunha, PhD*, Maria Cristina Mendonça, PhD, 

and Duarte Nuno Vieira, PhD, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Departamento Antropologia, Instituto Nacional de 

Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé-Nova, Coimbra, 3000-056, 

Portugal 

Index 80 

437 

437 

438 

439 

440 

440 

441 

441 

442

Separating Commingled Remains Using 

Ancient DNA Analysis 

Marrying of Anthropology and DNA: 

Essential for Solving Complex 

Commingling Problems in Cases of 

Extreme Fragment 

Mass Graves, Human Rights and 

Commingled Remains: Considering the 

Benefits of Forensic Archaeology 

Advances in the Assessment of 

Commingling Within Samples of Human 

Remains 

Closed Case Files: Sequelae of a Case of 

Complex Postmortem Mutilation 

A Tale of Two Bodies: Separating 

Commingled Skeletal Remains With 

Similar Biological Profiles 

Performance of FORDISC 2.0 Using 

Inaccurate Measurements 

Testing Determination of Adult Age at 

Death Using Four Criteria of the 

Acetabulum 

A Potential New Morphological Indicator 

of Biological Affinity in Human Skeletal 

Remains 

An Evaluation of Racial Differences in the 

Human Mandible Using Discriminant 


Evaluation of Regression Equations to 

Estimate Age at Death Using Cranial 

Suture Closure 

Test of an Alternative Method for 

Determining Sex in the Hip: Applications 

for Modern Americans 

Franklin E. Damann, MA*, and Mark D. Leney, PhD, 

JPAC Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and Suni M. Edson, 

MS, Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 1413 

Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850 

Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Robert Shaler, PhD, Erik T. 

Bieschke, MS, and Elaine Mar, MS, Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Luis M. Cabo, MS, and James 

M. Adovasio, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th 

Street, Erie, PA 16546; Vicente C. Rozas, PhD, Centro de 

Investigaciones Forestales y Ambientales de Lourizán, 

Departamento de Ecología, Aptdo. 127, Pontevedra, 

Galicia 36080, Spain 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, 

Department of Anthropology, NMNH, MRC 112, 


Kerriann Marden, MA*, and John W. Verano, PhD, Tulane 

University, Department of Anthropology, 1021 Audubon 

Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 


West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Kristen M. Hartnett, 

MA, Arizona State University, Department of Anthropology, 

PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287; and Philip E. Keen, 

MD, Maricopa County Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 

West Jefferson Street, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

Adam Kolatorowicz, BS*, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, and 

Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, Archeology and Forensics 

Laboratory, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna 


Angela Hampton, BS*, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 



NM 87131 

Marie Danforth, PhD*, University of Southern Mississippi, 

Department of Anthropology and Sociology, 118 College 

Drive, #5074, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 

Carlos J. Zambrano, BA*, Archaeology and Forensics 



Ginesse A. Listi, MA*, Louisiana State University, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803; H. Beth Bassett, MA, Louisiana State University, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803 

Sexing the Zygomatic Bone Rebecca J. Wilson, BS*, University of Tennessee, 



Index 81 

442 

443 

444 

445 

445 

446 

446 

447 

447 

448 

448 

449 

450

The Morphometric Study of the Hyoid 

Bone for Sex Determination of Koreans 

Evaluation of the Sternal Rib End Age 

Estimation Technique Using a Modern 

Medical Examiner Sample 

A Test of Four Macroscopic Methods for 

Age Estimation of Human Skeletal 

Remains (Lamendin, Lovejoy Auricular 

Surface, Iscan, Suchey-Brooks) 

The Application of the Lamendin and 

Prince Dental Aging Methods to a Bosnian 

Population: Formulas for Each Tooth 

Group Challenging One Formula for All 

Teeth 

Age Determination From Adult Human 

Teeth: Interest of Gustafson’s Criteria 

Serial Bone Histology: Interand Intra-Bone 

Age Estimation 

Measure Twice, Cut Once? Measurement 

Error Levels in Histomorphometry 

The Effects of Cerebral Palsy on Age 

Indicators in the Human Skeleton 

The Impact of Age Related Changes in 

Vertebral Column on Age Determination 

for Identification Purposes 

Deog-Im Kim*, U-Young Lee, MD, and Je-Hun Lee, 


Anatomy, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, 

South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, Department of 


646 Eupnae-ri, Shinchang-myun, Cheonan, 330090, South 

Korea; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo- 

dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South Korea 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104; Gina Hart, MA, 

Regional Medical Examiner’s Office, 325 Norfolk Street, 

Newark, NJ 07103; and Brian Spatola, MA, 125 5th Street, 

NE, Washington, DC 20002 

Laurent Martille, MD*, Service de Medecine Legale Chu de 

Montpellier, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen 

Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 34295, France; Douglas H. 

Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560-0112; and 

Fabienne Seguret, MD, and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de 

Médecine Légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen 


Nermin Sarajlic, MD*, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia 

and Herzegovina; Zdenko Cihlarz, PhD, Departmen of 

Forensic Medicine, UKC, Tuzla, 75000, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina; and Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, and Piotr 

Drukier, MS, International Commission on Missing 


Herzegovina 

Clotilde G. Rougé-Maillart, MD*, Nathalie C. Jousset, MD, 

Arnaud P. Gaudin, MD, and Michel P. Penneau, MD, PhD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, Centre Hospitalier 

Universitaire - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 49100 Cedex 01, 

France 

Mariateresa A. Tersigni, MA*, University of Tennessee, 



Christian M. Crowder, MA*, University of Toronto, 

Department of Anthropology, 100 St. George Street, 

Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada 

Mary S. Megyesi, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 354 


48824; and Norman Sauer, PhD, Department of 



Eva E. Klonowski, PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, MD, Piotr 

Drukier, MS, and Alexandra M. Klonowski, International 



Index 82 

450 

451 

451 

452 

452 

453 

453 

454 

454

Finding Clues on the Bony Surface: The 

Use of Markers of Occupational Stresses as 

Aids to Identification and Age 

Determination in Skeletonized Remains 

Cross-Sectional Diaphyseal Geometry, 

Degenerative Joint Disease, and Joint 

Surface Area in Human Limb Bones: A 

Comparison of American Whites & Blacks 

Skeletal Markers of Obesity in the Lower 

Leg 

Serial Murder With Dismemberment of 

Victims in an Attempt to Hinder 

Identification: A Case Resolved Through 

Multidisciplinary Collaboration 

Fifty Years of Questions: The Re- 

Evaluation of a Korean War Soldier 

Buried in the United States 

Diagnosis of Anencephaly, a Common 

Lethal Neural Tube Defect, From 

Taphonomically Altered Fetal or Neonatal 


Utilizing Taphonomy and Context to 

Distinguish Perimortem from Postmortem 

Trauma in Fire Deaths 

Burned Beyond Recognition: Attempts to 

Destroy Evidence of Death 

Dismembered Bodies - Who, How, and 

When 

Differential Human Decomposition in the 

Early Stages: An Experimental Study 

Comparing Sun and Shade 

Raccoon (Protocyon lotor) Foraging as a 

Taphonomic Agent of Soft Tissue 

Modification and Scene Alteration 

J. Marla Toyne, MA*, John W. Verano, PhD, and Laurel S. 

Hamilton, MA, Tulane University, 1021 Audubon Street, 

Department of Anthropology, New Orleans, LA 70118 

Heather A. Walsh-Haney, MA*, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 

112545, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Megan K. Moore, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 250 

South Stadium Hall, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

37996-0720 

John W. Verano, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 


70118 

Mary H. Manhein, MA*, and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 



J. Christopher Dudar, PhD*, and Steve D. Ousley, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012, MRC 138, 



Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 


Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; Alan G. Robinson, MSc, 

Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation, 

Guatemala City, Guatemala City, 01002, Central America; 

Kate Spradley, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and O’Brian C. Smith, 

MD, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison, Memphis, 

TN 38104 

Tzipi Kahana, PhD*, Israel National Police, 67 Ben Zvi 

Street, PO Box 8495, Tel Aviv, 61085, Israel; Inmaculada 

Aleman, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Faculty of 

Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 18012, Spain; 

Miguel C. Botella, MD, PhD, Deptartment of Anthropology, 

Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 

18012, Spain; and Jehuda Hiss, MD, National Centre of 

Forensic Medicine, 67 Ben Zvi, PO Box 8495, Tel Aviv, 

61085, Israel 

Carrie F. Srnka, MA*, 6352 Iradell Road, Trumansburg, 

NY 14886 

Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, and Walter E. Klippel, PhD, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Michelle D. 

Hamilton, PhD, Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Tribal 

Historic Preservation Office, PO Box 455, Cherokee, NC 

28719 

Index 83 

455 

456 

456 

457 

457 

458 

459 

459 

460 

461 

461

Interdisciplinary Forensic Science 

Workshops: A Venue for Data Collection 

Society of Forensic Anthropologists 

(SOFA): An Introduction 

The Forensic Anthropology Society of 

Europe: An Introduction 

The Louisiana Identification Data Analysis 

Project (IDA): A Comprehensive Analysis 

of Missing and Unidentified Cases 

FAD - A Database Application for Forensic 

Anthropology in Human Rights 

New Tools for the Processing of Human 

Remains From Mass Graves: Spatial 

Analysis and Skeletal Inventory Computer 

Programs Developed for an Inter- 

Disciplinary Approach to the Reassociation 

of Commingled, Disarticulated 

and Incomplete Human Remains 

Jeffery K. Tomberlin, PhD*, Texas A&M University, 1229 

North U.S. Highway 281, Stephenville, TX 76401; A. 

Midori Albert, PhD*, University of North Carolina at 


28403; Jason H. Byrd, PhD, Office of the Medical 


32164;and David W. Hall, PhD, David Hall Consultant, 

Inc., 3666 Northwest 13th Place, Gainesville, FL 32605 

Craig H. Lahren, MA*, North Dakota Department of 

Health, Office of the Medical Examiner, PO Box 937, 

Bismarck, ND 58502; and Thomas E. Bodkin, MA, 

Hamilton County Medical Examiner’s Office, 3202 

Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37406 

Eric Baccino, MD*, Service de Medicine Legale, Hopital 

Lapeyronie Chu de Montpellier, Montpellier, 34295 Cedex 

5, France; Christina Cattaneo, Instituto di Medicine 

Legale, Via Mangiagalli, Milano, 20133, Itlay; Yves 

Schuliar, MD, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la 

Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 Boulevard Theophile Sueur, 

Roisny-Sous-Bois, 93110, France; Eugenia Cunha, PhD, 

Departamento da Anthropologia, Universitate de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; Randolph Penning, Institut 

Fur Rechtsmedizin, Frauenlobstrasse 8a, Munchen, 80337, 

Germany; and Jose Luis Prieto, Instituto de Medicina 

Forense, Severo Ochoa s/n, Madrid, 28040, Spain 

H. Beth Bassett, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services 

Laboratory, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 


Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Porzellangasse 48/12a, Alipasina 

45a, Vienna, 1090, Austria; Anahi Ginarte, Lic., EAAF, 

Rivadavia 2443, dpto 3 y 4, Buenos Aires, C1034ACD, 

Argentina 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; Cecily 

Cropper, BSc*, Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Laura Yazedjian, 

MSc, Jon Sterenberg, MSc, and Jon M. Davoren, MA*, 



Index 84 

462 

462 

463 

463 

464 

464

Skeletons in the Medical Examiner’s 

Closet: Realities and Merits of 

Investigating Human Skeletal Remains 

Undergoing Long Term Curation in the 

Medical Examiner’s Office 

Nonmetric Characteristics of the Skull for 

Determining Race in Blacks and Whites 

3-Dimensional Morphometric Analysis of 

the Zygomatic as Used in Ancestral 


Sex Determination of Infants and Juveniles 

From the Clavicle 

2004 

Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Radford University, Box 6948, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Radford, VA 

24142; William Massello III, MD, Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 6600 Northside High School Road, 

Roanoke, VA 24019 

Nicole D. Truesdell, BA*, 1933 South Brightside View 

Drive, Apartment E, Baton Rouge, LA 70820 

Summer J. Decker, BA*, Jennifer L. Thompson, PhD, and 

Bernardo T. Arriaza, PhD, Department of Anthropology & 

Ethnic Studies, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, 4505 

Maryland Parkway, Box 455003, Las Vegas, NV 89154- 

5003 

Natalie R. Langley, MA* and Richard Jantz, PhD, 



Sexual Dimorphism in the Distal Humerus Suzanne S. Ii, BA*, 4198 East Manning Avenue, Fowler, CA 

93625- 9631; David R. Hunt, PhD, National Museum of 

Natural History, Department of Anthropology, Washington, 

DC 21201 

Sex vs. Gender: Does it Really Matter? Frank P. Saul, PhD* and Julie M. Saul, BA, Consultants, 

Lucas County Coroner’s Office and Wayne County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 3518 East Lincolnshire Boulevard, 

Age at Death Determination Using the 

Skeletal Histomorphometry of the Third 

Metacarpal and Third Metatarsal From 

Autopsy and Cadaver Samples 

The Effects of Size in Craniometric 

Discriminant Functions 

A Tale of Two Museums: Available Fetal 

Collections at the National Museum of 

Natural History and the Albert Szent- 

Gyorgi Medical University, Hungary 

Skeletal Markers of Parturition: Analysis 

of a Modern American Sample 

Variation in Cremains Weight: Tennessee 

vs. Florida 

When DNA is Not Available Can We Still 

Identify People? Recommendations for 

Best Practice 

Variation in Size and Dimorphism in 

Eastern European Femora 

Local Standards vs. Informative Priors in 

Applied Forensic Anthropology 

Toledo, OH 43-1203 

Adrienne L. Foose, BA*, Robert R. Paine, PhD, and 

Richard A. Nisbett, PhD, Texas Tech University, 

Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, 

PO Box 1012, Lubbock, TX 79409- 1012; Sridhar 

Natarajan, MD, Texas Tech University Health Sciences 

Center, Department of Pathology, Division of Forensic 

Pathology, 3601 4th Street, Lubbock, TX 79430 

Franklin Damann, MA* and John E. Byrd, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Central Identification Laboratory, 


Angie K. Huxley, MA, PhD*, PO Box 493812, Redding, CA 

96049-3812 

Jonathan D. Bethard, BA*, University of Tennessee, 250 


William M. Bass, PhD*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 



Jose P. Baraybar, BA, MSc*, Office on Missing Persons 

and Forensics (OMPF), United Nations Mission in Kosovo 

(UNMIK), AUCON/KFOR, Kosovo A1503, Austria 

Richard L. Jantz, PhD* and Erin H. Kimmerle, MA, 



Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

250 South Stadium Drive, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Index 85 

466 

466 

467 

468 

468 

469 

470 

470 

471 

471 

472 

472 

473 

474

A Bayesian Approach to Calculating Age 

Using Pubic Symphyseal Data 

Aging the Elderly: A New Look at an Old 

Method 

Model of Age Estimation Based on Dental 

Factors of Unknown Cadavers Among 

Iranians 

New Formulae for Estimating Age in the 

Balkans Utilizing Lamendin’s Dental 

Technique 

Sternal Rib Standards for Age Estimation 

in Balkan Populations: An Evaluation of 

U.S. Standards Using Alternative 

Statistical Methods 

Geometric Morphometric Techniques for 

Ancestry Assessment in Sub-Adults 

Population Affinities of “Hispanic” Crania: 

Implications for Forensic Identification 

International Research in Forensic 

Anthropology 

Preservation in Paradise I: El Marañon 

Cemetery, Isla de Coiba, Republic of 

Panama 

High Velocity Fluvial Transport: A Case 

Study From Tennessee 

Erin H. Kimmerle, MA*, Lyle Konigsberg, PhD, and 

Richard Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc, 

Office of Missing Persons and Forensics, Department of 

Justice, United Nations Mission in Kosovo, Pristina 

Gregory E. Berg, MA*and Erin Kimmerle, MA, University 

of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Way, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Babak Faghih Monzavi, DDS*, No 93351 Sanie Zadeh 

Lane-Chahar Bagh Bala Avenue, Esfahan 81638-93351, 

Iran; Arash Ghodoosi, MD, Fayz Square- Forensic 

Medicine Center of Esfahan Province, Esfahan, Iran; Omid 

Savabi, DDS, MS, Azadi Square- Hezar Jerib Avenue, 

Esfahan University of Medical Science, School of Dentistry, 

Esfahan, Iran; Asghar Karimi, DDS, Fayz Square - 

Forensic Medicine Center of Esfahan Province, Esfahan, 

Iran; Akbar Hasanzadeh, MS, Azadi Square- Hezar Jerib 

Avenue, Esfahan University of Medical Sciences, School of 

Health Sciences, Esfahan, Iran 

Debra A. Prince, BS, MA* and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996- 

0760 

Jaime Stuart, MA* and Lyle Konigsberg, PhD, University 

of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Una Strand Vidarsdottir, BSc, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Durham, 43 Old Elvet, 

Durham, County Durham DH1 3HN, United Kingdom 

Dennis E. Slice, PhD*, Wake Forest University School of 

Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical 

Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157-1022; Ann H. 

Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, Department of 


NC 27695-8107 



Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology, North Carolina State University, Campus 

Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 8107; Loreto S. Silva, 

Director of Anthropology, Comision de la Verdad de 

Panama, Balboa, Republic of Panama; Kathryn M. 

Jemmott, MA, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; Lazaro M. 

Cotes, Comision de la Verdad de Panama, Balboa, 

Republic of Panama 

Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD*, Beth Bassett, MA, and Lee 

M. Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Index 86 

474 

475 

476 

477 

477 

478 

478 

479 

479 

480

Investigation of Nocturnal Oviposition by 

Forensic Flies in Central Texas 

The Ability to Amplify Skeletal DNA After 

Heat Exposure Due to Maceration 

Home is Where the Bones Are: Rat Nesting 

Behavior as a Tool in Forensic 

Investigations 

Anthropological Tissue Depth 

Measurement Standards: A Comparison 

For Accurate Facial Reproduction 

Silent Slaughter in Guatemala: The 

Importance of Sex, Age, and Pathological 

Identification in a Case of Large Scale, 

Deliberate Starvation of Children 

Using Real-Time PCR Quantification of 

Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA to 

Develop Degradation Profiles for Various 

Tissues 

Preservation in Paradise II: A Pre- 

Columbian Burial in a Contemporary 

Cemetery 

Robert S. Baldridge, PhD, Baylor University, PO Box 

97388, Waco, TX 76798; Susan G. Wallace, PhD*, Baylor 

University, PO Box 97370, Waco, TX 76798; Ryan 

Kirkpatrick, BS, Texas A&M University, Department of 

Entomology, College Station, TX 77843 


Anthropology, 1115 West Berks Street, Philadelphia, PA 

19122; Jennifer L. Harms, BS, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, 

Mary K. Ritke, PhD, and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, 

University of Indianapolis, Department of Biology, 1400 

East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227 

Tamara L. Leher, BA* and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, 


Anthropology, Chico, CA 95929-400 

Stacie Terstegge, MS*, University of New Haven, Public 

Safety and Professional Studies, California Campus, 6060 

Sunrise Vista Boulevard, Citrus Heights, CA 95610; Brandi 

Schmitt, MS, University of California, Department of Cell 

Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Davis, 

CA 95616 

Jason M. Wiersema, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840; Mario 

Vasquez, MA, Oficina de Derechos Humanos del 

Arzobizpado de Guatemala, 115 5th Avenue, Guatemala 

City, 33154, Guatemala; Luis Rios, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Universidad Autonima de Madrid, Madrid, 

15404, Spain 

Elias J. Kontanis, BS, BA*, Cornell University, Department 

of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Ithaca, 

NY 14853 

Kathryn M. Jemmott, MA*, CA Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, University of Florida, Building 114 SW Radio 

Road, Gainesville, FL 32611; Ann H. Ross, PhD, North 

Carolina State University, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology, Raleigh, NC 27612; Loreto S. Silva, 

Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama City, Panama; 

Lazaro M. Cotes, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama 

City, Panama; Carlos Fitzgerald, PhD, Patrimonio 

Historico, Panama, Panama City, Panama 

The Archaeology of Tyranny Lazaro M. Cotes, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama 

City, Panama; Kathryn M. Jemmott, MA, CA Pound Human 

ID Laboratory, University of Florida, Building 114 SW 

Radio Road, Gainesville, FL 32611; Loreto S. Silva, 


Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Raleigh, NC 

An Historical Perspective on Nonmetric 

Skeletal Variation: Hooton and the 

Harvard List 

27612 

Joseph T. Hefner, BS*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, 5007 NW 29th Street, Gainesville, FL 

32607; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Smithsonian, NMNH 

MRCI 138, Washington, DC 20560; Michael W. Warren, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, 


Index 87 

480 

481 

481 

482 

482 

483 

484 

484 

485

Nonmetric Trait Frequencies and the 

Attribution of Ancestry 

Non-Metric Indicators of Ancestry: 

Making Non-Metric Traits More User 

Friendly in Racial Assessments 

Playing the “Race” Card Without a 

Complete Deck: The Addition of Missing 

Asian Data to Aid Racial Determinations in 

Forensic Casework 

The Zygomaticomaxillary Suture: A Study 

of Variability Within Homo sapiens 

Racial Variation in Palate Form and the 

Shape of the Transverse Palatine Suture 

Femoral Variation Between Whites and 

American Indians 

Population Variability in the Proximal 

Articulation Surfaces of the Human Femur 

and Humerus 

Racial Assessment Using the Platymeric 

Index 

Steven N. Byers, PhD*, University of New Mexico at 

Valencia, 280 La Entrada Road, Los Lunas, NM 87031 

Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Kansas State University, 

Osteology Laboratory, 204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 

66506 

David R. Rankin, MA*, and C.E. Moore, PhD, U.S. Army 

Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Amy A. Holborow, BS, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Wyoming, PO Box 3431, Laramie, WY 82071 

Kristen J. Rawlings, MA*, University of Wyoming, 

Department of Criminal Justice, A&S 223, PO Box 3197, 


H. Anne Halvorsen, MA* and Rick L. Weathermon, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, 


George W. Gill, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071 

Daniel J. Wescott, PhD*, University of Missouri at 

Columbia, Department of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, 

Columbia, MO 65211; Deepa Srikanta, BA, University of 

Missouri at Columbia, Department of Biology, Columbia, 

MO 65211 

John M. McCullough, PhD*, University of Utah, 270 South 

Race — A New Synthesis for a New 

490 

Century 

1400 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0060 

Forensic Anthropology and the Belief in Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 490 

Human Races 


48824 

The Deconstruction of Race: Its Origins Emilie L. Smith, BA*, 1910 Runaway Bay Lane, Apartment 491 

and Existence 

P, Indianapolis, IN 46224 

Race vs. Ancestry: A Necessary Distinction Vicki L. Wedel, MS, MA*, University of California, Santa 

Cruz, Department of Anthropology, Social Sciences 1 

Faculty Services, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 

492 

Race as a Viable Concept Thomas A. Furgeson, BA, BS*, University of Wyoming, 

2109-C East Hancock Street, Laramie, WY 82072 

492 

Deaths of Undocumented Immigrants in Bruce O. Parks, MD*, Eric Peters, MD, Cynthia 

493 

Southern Arizona 

Porterfield, DO, David Winston, MD, and Diane Karluk, 

MD, Pima County Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 

District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Sam Keim, MD, 

University of Arizona Department of Emergency Medicine, 

University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ; 

Michael Kent, MD, Emergency Department, Northwest 

Hospital, Tucson, AZ 

Metric Description of Hispanic Skeletons: Richard L. Jantz, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 

493 

A Preliminary Analysis 



Ours or Theirs? Walter H. Birkby, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, Office of 

the Medical Examiner, Pima County, 2825 East District 


494 

Skull-Photo Superimposition and Border Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, 494 

Deaths: Identification Through Exclusion Michigan State University, Department of Anthropology, 

and the Failure to Exclude 


Index 88 

485 

486 

486 

487 

488 

488 

489 

489

Reuniting Families: Using Phenotypic and 

Genotypic Forensic Evidence to Identify 

Unknown Immigrant Remains 

Migrant Deaths Along the California- 

Mexico Border: An Anthropological 

Perspective 

Issues Concerning the Skeletal 

Identification of Deceased Illegal Aliens 

Recovered on the Texas Border 

Identifying the Dead: Methods Utilized for 

Undocumented Immigrants, 2001-2003 

Personal Identification and Death 

Investigation of Documented and 

Undocumented Migrant Workers in 

Florida: Demographic, Biographic, and 

Pathologic Factors 

Fatal Footsteps: The Murder of 

Undocumented Border Crossers in 

Maricopa County, Arizona 

Osseous Traumata Caused by a Fall From 

a Height: A Case Study 

Multidisciplinary Efforts in the 

Identification of Three Unidentified 

Females in the State of New Jersey 

Bullet Wipe on Bone: Production and 

Detection 

Skeletal Evidence of Homicidal 

Compression 

Determining Medicolegal Significance: 

Human vs. Selkie 

Assessment of Saw-Blade Wear Patterns 

and Wear-Related Features of the Kerf 

Wall 

Hereditary Multiple Exostoses: An 

Identifying Pathology 

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Baylor 

University, PO Box 97370, Waco, TX 76798; Erich J. 

Baker, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Baylor 

University, Waco, TX 76798 

Madeleine J. Hinkes, PhD*, San Diego Mesa College, 7250 

Mesa College Drive, San Diego, CA 92111 

David M. Glassman, PhD*, Texas State University-San 

Marcos, Department of Anthropology, San Marcos, Texas 

78666 

Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, Pima County Office of the 

Medical Examiner, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 


Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD* and Heather Walsh-Haney, MA, 

C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

32601; Martha J. Burt, MD, Medical Examiner 

Department, Miami-Dade County, Number One on Bob 

Hope Road, Miami, FL 33136 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, A.L. Mosley, MD, V. Shvarts, 

MD, J. Hu, MD, K.D. Horn, MD, P.E. Keen, MD, and R.M. 

Hsu, MD, Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 


Kristen M. Hartnett, MA*, Arizona State University, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 

85287-2402; Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, 701 West Jefferson, 


Donna A. Fontana, MS*, New Jersey State Police, River 

Road, PO Box 7068, West Trenton, NJ 08628; Raafat 

Ahmad, MD, Mercer County Medical Examiner Office, 

Mercer County Airport, Building #31, West Trenton, NJ 

08628; Jay Peacock, MD, Monmouth County Medical 

Examiner Office, Centra State Medical Center, Route 537, 

Freehold, NJ 07728; Ronald Suarez, MD, Morris County 

Medical Examiner Office, PO Box 900, Morristown, NJ 

07963-0900 

David Z.C. Hines, BA*, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, PO Box 112545, University of Florida, 


Alison Galloway, PhD*, University of California, Social 

Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Lauren Zephro, 

MA, Monterey County Sheriff’s Office, 1414 Natividad 

Road, Salinas, CA 93906-3102 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Lehman College, CUNY, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard 


Laurel Freas, BA*, Department of Anthropology, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Laboratory, University of 

Florida, PO Box 112545, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Melissa L. Gold, BS*, Department of Anthropology, C.A. 



Index 89 

495 

495 

496 

497 

497 

498 

498 

499 

500 

500 

501 

501 

502

Empirical Validation and Application of 

the Quality-Control Polymerase Chain 

Reaction (qcPCR) Inhibitor Detection 

System 

Elias J. Kontanis, BS, BA*, Cornell University, Department 

of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Ithaca, 

NY 14853; Krista E. Latham, MS, Temple University, 

Department of Anthropology, 1115 West Berks Street, 

Philadelphia, PA 19122; Mary K. Ritke, PhD, University of 

Indianapolis, Department of Biology, 1400 East Hanna 


Defining Perimortem: Blunt Force Trauma Derinna V. Kopp, MA*, Jacquel Arismendi, MA, and 

Shannon A. Novak, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Utah, 270 South 1400 East, Room 102, Salt 

Footnotes: Diabetic Osteopathy Used in 

Human Identification 

Diagnosing Degenerative Pathologies in an 

Unidentified Skeleton 

Symmetrical Fracturing of the Skull From 

Self-Inflicted Gunshot Wounds: 

Reconstructing Individual Death Histories 

From Skeletonized Human Remains 

In the Name of the Dead: The Panamanian 

Truth Commission’s Search for the 

“Disappeared” 

Truth, Justice, and Forensic Anthropology 

in Latin America 

Perspectives and Recommendations From 

the Field: Forensic Anthropology and 

Human Rights in Argentina 

The Development of Forensic 

Anthropology in Chile 

Lake City, UT 84112 

Heather A. Walsh-Haney, MA*, John J. Schultz, PhD, and 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, University of Florida, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Laboratory, PO Box 112545, 


Sarah A. Kiley, BA*, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Amy Z. Mundorff, 

MA and Thomas Gibson, MD, Office of the Chief Medical 


Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Jered B. Cornelison, MS, and 

Leslie A. Wood, BS, Michigan State University, Department 

of Forensic Science, 560 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

48824 

Loreto Suarez Silva, Director of Anthropology, Comision de 

la Verdad de Panama, Balboa, 27695-8107, Republic of 

Panama; Kathrynn M. Jemmott, MA, University of Florida, 

C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, Gainesville, FL 32611; 



Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

Clyde Snow, PhD*, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street 

#502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

Mercedes C. Doretti*, Argentine Forensic Anthropology 

Team (EAAF), 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201; 

Luis Fondebrider, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, 

Brooklyn, NY 11201 

Isabel Reveco*, Association for Latin American Forensic 

Anthropology, c/o EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 

11201 

Forensic Anthropology in Guatemala Fredy Peccerelli *, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street, 

#502, Brooklyn, NY 11201; José Samuel Suasnavar 

Bolaños, Lourdes Penados, and Mario Vasquez, c/o ALAF 

The Peruvian Forensic Anthropology 

Team (EPAF) and the Memory of the 

Missing 

and EAAF, 10 Jay St #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc*, Aldo Bolanos, Carmen Rosa 

Cardoza, Mellisa Lund, Giovani Macciotta, and Juan 

Carlos Tello, Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EPAF), c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, 


Forensic Anthropology in Colombia Andres Patiño* and Edixon Quinones Reyes, c/o ALAF and 

EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

Postmortem and Perimortem Fracture Bruce P. Wheatley, PhD*, Department of Anthropology and 

Patterns in the Long Bones of Deer Social Work, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 

35294-3350 

Index 90 

502 

503 

504 

504 

505 

506 

506 

507 

507 

508 

508 

509 

509

Healing Following Cranial Trauma Lenore Barbian, PhD*, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National 

Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of 

Pathology, 6825 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20306- 

Burning Observations of Decomposed 

Human Remains: Obscuring the 

Postmortem Interval 

Experimental Study of Fracture 

Propagation in the Human Skull: A Re- 

Testing of Popular Theories 

The Use of Non-Unique Dental Characters 

and Non-Unique DNA Types to Estimate 

Probability of Identity 

Reassociating Commingled Remains 

Separated by Distance and Time: The Tale 

of Simon And Steven 

Temporomandibular Joint Morphology 

and the Assessment of Potential 

Commingling 

Using GIS Technology to Locate 

Clandestine Human Remains 

Anthropological Review of Remains From 

Srebrenica as Part of the Identification 

Process 

Exhumation... and What After? ICMP 

Model in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Air-Drying as a Means of Preservation for 

the Unidentified and Unclaimed Remains 

From the World Trade Center 

Preliminary Results on the Use of Cadaver 

Dogs to Locate Vietnam War-Era Human 

Remains 

Genes, Nerves, and Bones: Neural 

Networks, Genetic Algorithms, and 


U.S. Army Identification Laboratories for 

WWII and Korea and the History of 


The ASCLD-LAB Accreditation of the 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Laboratory 

Outside Traditional Skeletal Casework: A 

Forensic Anthropologist in a Medical 


Forensics and Television: A Learning 

Experience or Beguiling Obsession? 

6000 


Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Regional Forensic Center, University of Tennessee, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104 

Anne M. Kroman, MA*, University of Tennessee, 



Mark D. Leney, PhD* and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, U.S. 

Army Central Identification Laboratory, HI, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 


University of New Mexico, MSC11 6030, Albuquerque, NM 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Lehman College, CUNY, 



Ann Marie W. Mires, PhD*, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 720 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; Alberto 

Giordano, PhD, Department of Geography, University of 

Texas, Austin, TX 77005 

Piotr Drukier, MSc*, Eva Klonowski, PhD, Laura 

Yazedjian, Rifat Kesetovic, and Edwin F. Huffine, MS, 

International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipashina 

45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Eva Klonowski, PhD*, Piotr Drukier, MSc, and Nermin 

Sarajlic, MD, MSc, International Commission on Missing 

Persons, Alipashina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

Benjamin J. Figura, BA*, PO Box 4423, Chico, CA 95927- 

4423 

Paul D. Emanovsky, MS*, U.S. Army Central Identification 


96853 

Suzanne Bell, PhD*, West Virginia University, Department 

of Chemistry, PO Box 6045, Morgantown, WV 26506; 

Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Christopher M. McDermott, MA*, U.S. Army Central 



Vincent J. Sava, BS, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Tom E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner 

Office, 3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37409 

Ellen R. Salter-Pedersen, BA, BSc*, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe-Russell, 


Index 91 

510 

511 

512 

512 

513 

513 

515 

515 

516 

516 

517 

517 

518 

518 

519 

520

Estimation of Living Body Weight Using 

Measurements of Anterior Iliac Spine 

Breadth and Stature 

Preliminary Observations of Vertebral 

Centra Retraction and Its Relationship to 

Age 

Epiphyseal Closure Rates in the Srebrenica 

Youth 

An Evaluation of the Greulich and Pyle 

Skeletal Aging Standards for the Hand and 

Wrist in a Contemporary Multiethnic 

Population 

A Quantitative Study of Morphological 

Variation in the OS Coxa for the Purpose 

of Estimating Sex of Human Skeletal 

Remains 

A Review of Age Estimation Using Rib 

Histology: Its Impact on Evidentiary 

Examination 

Distinguishing Between Human and Non- 

Human Secondary Osteons in Ribs 

Species Identification of Small Skeletal 

Fragments Using Protein 

Radioimmunoassay (pRIA) 

Developing the “Isotope Fingerprint” in 


Skeletal Manifestations of Non-Hodgkin’s 

Lymphoma and Multiple Myeloma: A 

Differential Diagnosis 

Computer Assisted Facial Reconstruction 

Technique 

Testing the Reliability of Frontal Sinuses in 

Positive Identification Using Elliptic 

Fourier Analysis 

Markers of Mechanical Loading in the 

Postcranial Skeleton: Their Relevance to 

Personal Identification of Human Remains 

Jaime A. Suskewicz, BA*, Louisiana State University, 2000 

Brightside Drive, #722, Baton Rouge, LA 70820 

A. Midori Albert, BS, MA, PhD*, Anthropology Program, 

University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 601 South 


Maureen C. Schaefer, BS, MA*, International Commission 

on Missing Persons, Alipashina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, Hamline University, MB 196, 

1536 Hewitt Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55104; Sarah E. Nathan, 

BA*, Department of Forensic Sciences, Nebraska Wesleyan 

University, Lincoln, NE 68503 

Peer H. Moore-Jansen, PhD* and Amber Harrison, BA*, 

Department of Anthropology, Wichita State University, 114 

Neff Hall, Wichita, KS 67260-0052 

Christian M. Crowder, MA*, University of Toronto, 100 St. 

George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada 

Elizabeth J. Whitman, MA*, 1044 Eugenia Drive, Mason, 

MI 48854 



Washington, DC 20560; Jerold M. Lowenstein, MD, 

California Pacific Medical Center, 2333 Buchanan Street, 

San Francisco, CA 94115; Darden G. Hood, BS, 

MicroAnalytica, LLC, 4989 SW 74 Court, Miami, FL 33155 

Benjamin Swift, MB, ChB*, and Guy N. Rutty, MD, 

Division of Forensic Pathology, University of Leicester, 

Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester 

Royal Infirmary, Leicester LE2 7LX, United Kingdom; 

Richard Harrington, PhD, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia 


Alaina K. Goff, BA* and Wendy Potter, MS, University of 

New Mexico, Department of Anthropology, Albuquerque, 


Investigator, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 

87131 

Yves Schuliar, MD* and Pascal Chaudeyrac, MS, Institut 

de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 

Boulevard Theophile Sueur, Rosny-sous-Bois 93110, 

France; Richard Aziza, MD, 13 Avenue Eylau, Paris 75116, 

France; Jean-Noel Vignal, PhD, Institut de Recherche 

Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 Boulevard 

Theophile Sueur, Rosny-sous-Bois 93110, France 

Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, 301 Taliwa Drive, Knoxville, 

TN 37920 

Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD*, Cornell University, 

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Corson 

Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 

Index 92 

520 

521 

522 

523 

524 

524 

525 

525 

526 

526 

527 

527 

528

Rapid Responses to International 

Incidents: To Go or Not to Go (or When to 

Go and How to Go)? 

Tal Simmons, PhD*, School of Conservation Sciences, 

Talbot Campus, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset 

BH12 5BB, United Kingdom Panelists: Alison Galloway, 

PhD*, University of California, Social Science One FS, 

Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Jose Pablo Baraybar, BA, MSc*, 

Office on Missing Persons and Forensics (OMPF), United 

Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), AUCON/KFOR, 

Kosovo A1503, Austria; Laura Bowman, BA*, 3856 Porter 

Street NW, E-371, Washington, DC 20016; Melissa 

Connor, MA, RPA*, 11101 South 98th Street, Lincoln, NE 

68526; Margaret Cox, PhD*; William D. Haglund, PhD*, 

20410 25th Avenue, NW, Shoreline, WA 98177; Sara Kahn, 

MSW, MPH*, 108 West 76th Street, #2A, New York, NY 

10023; Mary Ellen Keough, MPH*, Meyers Primary Care 

Institute, 630 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605 

Index 93 

529

Expressions of Handedness in the 

Vertebral Column 

Skull vs. Postcranial Elements in Sex 

Determination 

Race and Ethnicity in Subadult Crania: 

When Does Differentiation Occur? 

An Examination of the Petrographic 

Technique in the Analysis of Cementum 

Increments for the Determination of Age 

and Seasonality in Human Teeth 

A Test of the Auricular Surface Ageing 

Method Using a Modern Sample: The 

Effect of Observer Experience 

Sex, Size, and Genetic Mistakes: 

Identifying Disorders of Sexual 

Differentiation in Human Skeletal Remains 

2003 

Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, 

MA, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 

250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

M. Katherine Spradley, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD*, Hamilton County Coroner’s 

Office, College of Mount St. Joseph, 5701 Delhi Road, 

Cincinnati, OH 

Tamara L. Leher, BA*, Department of Anthropology, 

California State University-Chico, P.O. Box 4036, Chico, 

CA 


University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM; Tim 

Petersen, MA, Department of Anthropology, University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM; Suzzette Sturtevant, BSc, 

and Britny Moore, BSc, Office of the Medical Investigator, 

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 

Linda O’Connell, BM, MSc*, Joy Steven, MSc*, and 

Margaret Cox, PhD*, School of Conservation Sciences, 

Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, United Kingdom 

The Foot as a Forensic Tool John A. DiMaggio, RPh, DPM*, Forensic Podiatry 

Consulting Services, 2600 East Southern Avenue, Suite I-3, 

Back to the Basics: Anatomical Siding of 

Fragmentary Skeletal Elements From 

Victims of the World Trade Center 

Disaster 

The William M. Bass Donated Collection at 

the University of Tennessee - Knoxville 

Tempe, AZ 

Eric J. Bartelink, MA*, Jason M. Wiersema, MA, and 

Maria Parks, MA, Department of Anthropology, Texas A & 

M University, College Station, TX; Gaille MacKinnon, BA, 

MSc, Department of Conservation Sciences, University of 

Bournemouth, Bournemouth, United Kingdom; and Amy 

Zelson Mundorff, MA, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 

New York City, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 

Helen E. Bassett, MA*, M. Katherine Spradley, MA, and 



Knoxville, TN 

The Hyoid Bone as a Sex Discriminator Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Department of Sociology, 

Anthropology and Social Work, Kansas State University, 

The Estimation of Sex From the Proximal 

Ulna 

The Utility of Nonmetric Cranial Traits in 

Ancestry Determination - Part II 

Forensic Anthropology, Repatriation, and 

the “Mongoloid” Problem 

Manhattan, KS 

William E. Grant, MA*, Holland Community Hospital, 602 

Michigan Avenue, Holland, MI; and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 



Joseph T. Hefner, BS*, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 1898 Seton 

Court, Clearwater, FL 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, 

Repatriation Office, Department of Anthropology, 

Washington, DC; Jessica L. Seebauer, BS, Department of 

Biology, State University of New York-Geneseo, Geneseo, 

NY; and Erica B. Jones, MA, Smithsonian Institution, 


Index 94 

531 

531 

532 

533 

533 

534 

534 

535 

535 

536 

536 

537 

537

A Strategy for Age Determination 

Washington, DC 

Laurnet Martrille*, and Tarek Mbghirbi, Service de 538 

Combining a Dental Method (Lamendin) médecine légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 av, Montpellier, 

and an Anthropological Method (Iscan) France; Alain Zerilli, DDS, Faculté d’odontologie, CHU 

Brest, cedex , France, Brest, France; F. Seguret, 

Département d’information médicale, CHU Montpellier, 

France; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de médecine légale, 

CHU Lapeyronie, 191 av, Montpellier, France, 

Introducing Daubert to the Balkans Richard J. Harrington, PhD*, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo; Benjamin Swift, 

MBChB, Division of Forensic Pathology, Robert Kilpatrick 

Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, 

Leicester, United Kingdom; and Edwin F. Huffine, MS, 


45a, Sarajevo 

538 

Dirty Secrets: Identification of Older Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, International Commission on 539 

Crime Scenes in the Former Yugoslavia 

Through Blood Protein and Volatile Fatty 

Acid Soil Analysis 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, 71000, Sarajevo 

Exhumations in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Eva E. Klonowski, PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Piotr 540 

Unique Challenges in the Recovery From Drukier, MS, International Commission on Missing 

Cavern Sites 

Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Resolution of Large-Scale Commingling John E. Byrd, PhD*, and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, U.S. 540 

Issues: Lessons From CILHI and ICMP Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Hickam AFB, HI; and Lisa M. Leppo, PhD, and Richard J. 

Harrington, PhD, International Commission on Missing 


Reassociation of Skeletal Remains 

Eva E. Klonowski, PhD*, International Commission on 541 

Recovered From Graves in Bosnia and Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Muhamed 

Herzegovina 

Mujkic, MS, Federation Commission on Tracing Missing 

Persons, Sarajevo, and Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Piotr 



The Influence of Large-Scale DNA Testing Ana Boza Arlotti, PhD*, Edwin F. Huffine, MS, and 541 

on the Traditional Anthropological Richard J. Harrington, PhD, International Commission on 

Approach to Human Identification: The Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Experience in Bosnia and Herzegovina Herzegovina 

Age-Related Changes in the Adult Male Piotr Drukier, MS*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Eva E. 541 


Klonowski, PhD, International Commission on Missing 


Lamendin’s and Prince’s Dental Aging Nermin Sarajlic, MD MSc*, Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, Piotr 542 

Methods Applied to a Bosnian Population Drukier, MSc, and Richard J. Harrington, PhD, 


45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Impact of Heat and Chemical Maceration Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD*, Jeremy Wilson, BS, Kevin E. 542 

on DNA Recovery and Cut Mark Analysis Sheridan, MA, and Steven Tammariello, PhD, Department 

of Biology, Binghamton University, P.O. Box 6000, 

Binghamton, NY 

Two Miles and Nine Years From Home: Casey Shamblin, BA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 543 

The Taphonomy of Aqueous Environments Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana 

State University, Baton Rouge, LA 

Dissolving Dentition: The Effects of Joy E. Lang, BSc, BA*, and Tosha L. Dupras, PhD, 543 

Corrosive and Caustic Agents on Teeth Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of 

Central Florida, Orlando, FL 

Index 95

Rituals Among the Santeria: Contextual 

Clues and Forensic Implications 

Frozen Human Bone: A Histological 

Investigation 

The Effect of Heat Associated With 

Maceration on DNA Preservation in 


Using Restriction Enzymes to Reduce the 

Inhibitory Properties of Bacterial DNA on 

PCR Amplification of Human DNA 

Sequences 

Fire Scene Management Strategies for the 

Recovery of Human Remains From Severe 

Vehicle Fires 

Peculiar Marine Taphonomy Findings: 

Preservation of Human Remains as a 

Result of Submersion in Sequestered 

Environments 

The Landscape’s Role in Dumped and 

Scattered Remains 

The Role of Textiles in Determination of 


It Came Out of the Sky: Cremains as an 

Aerial Hazard 

The Effect of Human Body Mass on the 

Rate of Decomposition 

Heather A. Walsh-Haney, MA*, John J. Schultz, MS, and 


Laboratory/Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, P.O. Box 112545, Gainesville, FL; and Reinhard 

W. Motte, MD, Miami-Dade County, District 11 Office of 

the Medical Examiner, Number One on Bob Hope Road, 

Miami, FL 

Mariateresa A. Tersigni, MA*, Department of 


Hall, Knoxville, TN 

Krista E. Latham, BS*, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, and Mary 

Ritke, PhD, Department of Biology, University of 


Janene Curtis, BS*, Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 

and Christine M. Turk, BS, and Mary K. Ritke, PhD, 

Biology Department, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

Alan Price, MA*, Associate Director, Southern Institute of 

Forensic Science, Regional Service Office, 7224 West 

Canberra Street Drive, Greeley, CO; and Michael Britt, BS, 

Supervisor of Investigations, District 20, Medical 


Giancarlo Di Vella, MD*, Carlo Pietro Campobasso, MD, 

PhD, and Francesco Introna, MD, Section of Legal 

Medicine, University of Bari, Policlinico, piazza G. Cesare, 

Bari, Italy 

Mary H. Manhein, MA*, Ginesse Listi, MA, and Michael 

Leitner, PhD, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 

Louisiana State University, 227 Howe-Russell, Baton 

Rouge, LA 

Kellie M. Gordon, BA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana 

State University, 227 Howe Russell Geoscience Complex, 

Baton Rouge, LA 

John A. Williams, PhD*, University of North Dakota, Box 

8374, Grand Forks, ND 

Jaime Stuart, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 

Understanding Rib Fracture Patterns Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, and Steven A. Symes, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Memphis, Regional Forensic 

Center, Memphis, Memphis, TN; and Chantal Ferraro, 

PhD, Long Island University, Long Island University, 

Features of Preexisting Trauma and 


Burning Extremities: Patterns of Arms, 

Legs, and Preexisting Trauma 

Brookville, NY 


Main, Fayetteville, AR; and O’ Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Regional Forensic Center of the University of Tennessee, 

1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

O’ Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic Center of the 

University of Tennessee, 1060 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN; 

and Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old 

Main, Fayetteville, AR 

Index 96 

544 

545 

545 

546 

546 

547 

548 

548 

549 

549 

549 

550 

551

The Influence of Behavior on Free Fall 

Injury Patterns: Possible Implications for 

Forensic Anthropological Investigations 

Numerical Simulation of Fracture 

Propagation in a Test of Cantilevered 

Tubular Bone 

An Evaluation of the Relationship Between 

Human Pelvic Size and Shape and the 

Distribution, Type, and Severity of 

Vertebral Degenerative Disease in 

Archaeological Material 

Assessment of Muscular-Skeletal 

Robusticity in Personal Identification of 

Human Remains 

Body Weight Estimation in Forensic 

Anthropology 

Radiographic Human Identification Using 

Bones of the Hand: A Validation Study 

Using Amplification of Bacteriophage 

Lambda DNA to Detect PCR Inhibitors in 

Skeletal DNA 

Nuclear DNA Preservation in Soft and 

Osseous Tissues 

The University of Tennessee/ FBI Human 

Remains Recovery School 

Presenting Forensic Anthropology 

Training Seminars and Workshops to 

Forensic Science, Medico-Legal, and Law 

Enforcement Professionals: Consequences 

for Death Investigations Involving 

Decomposed, Skeletal, and Burned Human 

Remains 

Fifteen Years of Forensic Anthropology 

Short Courses at the National Museum of 

Health and Medicine/AFIP 

Forensic Anthropology for Sale: A 

Perspective From Law Enforcement 

Supply and Demand: Trends and Training 


Teaching Forensic Archaeology to the 

Masses: The Death Scene Course at 

Mercyhurst College After a Decade 

Angi M. Christensen, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

The University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 

John F. Berryman*, University of Tennessee, Lebanon, TN; 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Metropolitan and Davidson 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, Lebanon, TN; Robert A. 

LeMaster, PhD, PE, Department of Engineering, College of 

Engineering and Natural Science, Martin, TN; and Carrie 

Anne Berryman, MA, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 

Linda O’Connell, BM, MSc*, School of Conservation 

Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, United 

Kingdom 

Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD*, Department of Ecology and 

Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Cornell University, 

Ithaca, NY 

Phoebe R. Stubblefield, MA*, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, P.O. Box 112545, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL 

Michael G. Koot, BA*, Department of Anthropology, 


Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

Krista E. Latham, BS*, Department of Biology, University 

of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Ave, Indianapolis, IN 

Elias J. Kontanis, BS, BA*, Department of Ecology & 

Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Corson Hall, 

Ithaca, NY 

Murray K. Marks, PhD*, The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Hamline University, St. Paul, MN 

Lenore T. Barbian, PhD*, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, 

National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC 

Lauren Rockhold Zephro, MA*, Monterey County Sheriff’s 

Department, 1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, CA 

Joanne L. Devlin, PhD*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, MA, 



Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Departments of Anthropology 

and Applied Forensic Science, Mercyhurst College, Erie, 

PA; and Michael Hochrein, BS, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation, St. Louis, MO 

The National Forensic Academy Arpad A. Vass, PhD*, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

P.O. Box 2008, Oak Ridge, TN 

Index 97 

552 

552 

553 

553 

554 

555 

556 

556 

557 

557 

558 

559 

559 

560 

561

Advances in Surveying and Presenting 

Evidence From Mass Graves, Clandestine 

Graves, and Surface Scatters 

Cervical Smears as an Alternate Source of 

DNA in the Identification of Human 


Unusual Sharp Force/Penetrating Trauma 

Pattern on a Cranium; Cooperative 

Examination and Evaluation by the 

Forensic Pathologist and Forensic 

Anthropologist 

Gunshot Wounds and Other Perimortem 

Trauma to the Sub-Adult Skeleton 

The “Next Utility” in Field Recovery of 

Scattered Human Remains 

Ian Hanson, MSc*, School of Conservation Sciences, 

Bournemouth University, United Kingdom 

Carla R. Torwalt, BSc*, Thambirajah Balachandra, MBBS, 

and Janice Epp, RN, HBScN, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 210-1 Wesley Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 

Canada 

Index 98 

561 

562 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 562 

Lehman College - CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, 

West, Bronx, NY; and Patricia J. McFeeley, MD, Office of 

the Medical Investigator, University of New Mexico School 

of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 

Ambika Flavel, MSc*, 52 Ninth Avenue, Maylands, WA 563 

Ginesse A. Listi, MA*, Mary H. Manhein, MA, and Michael 

Leitner, PhD, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 

Louisiana State University, 227 Howe-Russell, Baton 

Rouge, LA 

Age Progression: How Accurate Is It? Joanne L. Devlin, PhD, and Murray K. Marks, PhD*, 


Three-Dimensional Digital Data 

Acquisition: A Test of Measurement Error 

In Search of Floyd Britton: Investigations 

of Human Rights Issues on the Island of 

Coiba, Republic of Panama 

Reconstructing Facial Freeform Images 

Using FREEFORM Software 

Operacion Eagle: Clandestine Graves and 

a Taphonomy of Tyrants — Part 1: The 

Truth Commission of Panama, Witness 

Testimony, and Searches in Western 

Panama 

Operacion Eagle: Clandestine Graves and 

a Taphonomy of Tyrants — Part 2: 

Searches on Coiba Island, Panama City, 

and Vicinity 

Utilizing Ground Penetrating Radar and 

Three-Dimensional Imagery to Enhance 

Search Strategies of Buried Human 

Remains 

Location, Identification, and Repatriation 

of Remains of Victims of Conflict: 

Implications for Forensic Anthropology 


Denise To, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Arizona 

State University, Box 87-2402, Arizona State University, 

Tempe, AZ 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, P.O. Box 112545, Gainesville, FL; and Bruce 

Broce, MA*, Comision de la Verdad de Panama, Edificio 

No. 37, Panama 

Ann Marie W. Mires, PhD*, Chief Medical Examiner, 720 

Albany Street, Boston, MA; Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Louisiana State University, FACES Laboratory, Baton 

Rouge, LA; Greg Mahoney, Boston Crime Laboratory, 720 

Albany Street, Boston, MA; and Eileen Barrows, Louisiana 

State University, Faces Laboratory, Baton Rouge, LA 

Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH; Sandra Anderson, Canine 

Investigation Consultant, 913 East Price Road, Midland, 

MI; and Julie M. Saul, BA, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 

2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 



MI; and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County Coroner’s 

Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

Michelle L. Miller, BS, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Shuala M. Drawdy, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

563 

564 

564 

565 

565 

566 

567 

568 

568

This Grave Speaks: Forensic Anthropology 

in Guatemala 

The Role of Anthropology During the 

Identification of Victims From the World 

Trade Center Disaster 

Anthropology at Fresh Kills: Recovery and 

Identification of the World Trade Center 

Victims 

Scene Recovery Efforts in Shanksville, 

Pennsylvania: The Role of the Coroner’s 

Office in the Processing of the Crash Site of 

United Airlines Flight 93 

Roles of the Biological Anthropologist in 

the Response to the Crash of United 

Airlines Flight 93 

Attack on the Pentagon: The Role of 

Forensic Anthropology in the Examination 

and Identification of Victims and Remains 

of the ‘9/11’ Terrorist Attack 

Adriana Gabriela Santos Bremme, BS*, Fundación de 

Antropología Forense de Guatemala-Universidad de San 

Carlos de Guatemala, Apartado Postal 01901 1830 correo 

central Guatemala C.A. 

Amy Zelson Mundorff, MA*, Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, New York City, New York, NY 

Michael W. Warren, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; Leslie E. Eisenberg, 

PhD, Wisconsin Historical Society, 816 State Street, 

Madison, WI; Heather Walsh-Haney, MA, University of 

Florida, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; and, Julie Mather 

Saul, BA, Lucas County Medical Coroner’s Office, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Departments of Anthropology 


PA; and Wallace Miller, BS, Somerset County Coroner, 

Somerset, PA 

Marilyn R. London, MA, and Dawn M. Mulhern, PhD, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Lenore T. 

Barbian, PhD, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National Museum 

of Health and Medicine, Armed Forced Institute of 

Pathology, Washington, DC; Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA; Laura Fulginiti, PhD, 

Medical Examiner’s Office, Phoenix, AZ; Joseph T. Hefner, 

BS, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; and Norman J. 

Sauer, PhD, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 


Medical Examiner, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 


Index 99 

569 

569 

570 

571 

571 

572

Falls From Cliffs: Reconstructing 

Individual Death Histories From a 

Perimortem Fracture Pattern 

A Semi-Circular Argument: Patterned 

Injuries Explained by an Unusually Large 

Murder Weapon and Its Method of Use 

Hyperextension Trauma of Upper Cervical 

Vertebrae 

Can Sharp Force Trauma to Bone Be 

Recognized After Fire Modification? An 

Experiment Using Odocoileus virginianus 

(White-Tailed Deer) Ribs 

A Comparison of the Cranial Wounding 

Effects of .22 and .38 Caliber Bullets 

Forensic Anthropology and Fire 

Investigation: Learning About Burning 

Using Non-Human Models 

The Effects of Temperature on the 

Decomposition Rate of Human Remains 

Forensic Applications of Ground 

Penetrating Radar in Florida 

Predicting Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 

Recovery by Skeletal Preservation 

Masking Identity: The Effects of Corrosive 

Household Agents on Soft Tissue, Bone, 

and Dentition 

Excavation and Analysis of Four Homicide 

Victims From Shallow Graves in 

Bartholomew County, IN 

2002 


Baker Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI; 

Walter H. Birkby, PhD, and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, 

Forensic Science Center, Pima County, Tucson, AZ; and 

David R. Rankin, MA, U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, HI 

Christopher M. Casserino, MA*, University of Oregon 

Deptartment of Anthropology, 1650 Arthur Street, Eugene, 

OR 

Amy Zelson Mundorff, MA*, and Corinne Ambrosi, MD, 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New 

York, NY; and Jason Wiersema, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Texas A&M University, 1602 Rock Cliff 

Road, Austin, TX 

Index 100 

574 

574 

575 

Paul D. Emanovsky, BS*, University of Indianapolis 575 

Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna 

Avenue, Indianapolis, IN; Joseph T. Hefner, BS, and Dennis 

C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 58th Street, Erie, PA 

Maureen Schaefer, MA*, 8549 Wuest Road, Cincinnati, OH 576 

Eric J. Bartelink, MA*, 611 Domink, College Station, TX; 

Turhon A. Murad, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

California State University, Chico, CA; and Sarah Collins, 

MSc, 401 San Diego Avenue, Daly City, CA 

Mary S. Megyesi, BA*, University of Indianapolis, East 

Lansing, MI 

John J. Schultz, MS*, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 

University of Florida, PO Box 112545, Gainesville, FL 

Franklin E. Damann, MA*, Mark Leney, PhD, and Ann W. 

Bunch, PhD, U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, 

Hawaii, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, 

Honolulu, HI 

Tosha L. Dupras, PhD*, Joy E. Lang, and Heather L. Reay, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of 

Central Florida, Orlando, FL; John J. Schultz, MS, and 


Laboratory, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; and 

Noel A. Palma, BS, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 

Pinellas-Pasco County, West Palm Beach, FL 

Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD*, Matthew A. Williamson, PhD, 

Christopher W. Schmidt, PhD, Heather A. Thew, MS, and 

Gregory A. Reinhardt, PhD, University of Indianapolis 

Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East, Hanna 

Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

577 

577 

578 

579 

579 

580

Homicide for the Holidays: Linkage 

Through Multidisciplinary Teamwork 

The Impact of Daubert on Testimony and 

Research in Forensic Anthropology 

Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Regional Commander, USPHS 

DMORT 5, and Julie Mather Saul, BA, Lucas County 

Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue Toledo, OH; 

Sandra Anderson, Canine Solutions International, PO Box 

50, Sanford, MI; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Forensic 

Anthropologist, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison 

Avenue Memphis, TN; Cheryl L. Loewe, MD, Wayne 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1300 Warren, Detroit, 

MI; James R. Patrick, MD, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 

2595 Arlington Avenue Toledo, OH; and Steven K. Lorch, 

PhD, Michigan State Police Laboratory, 42145 West Seven 

Mile Road, Northville, MI 

Angi M. Christensen, MA*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, 



Challenges of the Haitian Courtroom Karen Ramey Burns, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Georgia, 105 Tamarack Drive, Athens, GA 

582 

The Effective Forensic Investigation of Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc*, Carlos Bacigalupo, BA, Aldo 582 

Human Rights Violations: A Model for F. Bolanos, Carmen C. Cardoza, BA, and Juan C. Tello, 

Training 

BA, Equipo Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF), 

Calle 2, #369, Monterrico Norte, Lima, Peru, South 

America 

Confronting the Past in Guatemala: A Adriana Gabriela Santos Bremme, BS*, Apartado postal 583 

Challenge for Forensic Science 

01901-1830 Correo Central, Guatemala, Central America 

Human Remains Sold to the Highest Angie Kay Huxley, PhD*, Pima Community College West 583 

Bidder! A Snapshot of the Buying and Campus, Division of Science and Technology, Department 

Selling of Human Skeletal Remains on 

eBay®, an Internet Auction Site 

of Biology, PO Box 1136, Pomona, CA 

Forensic Application for Evaluating Robert R. Paine, PhD*, Physical Anthropology Department 584 

Cranial Trauma Cases From the Iron-Age of Sociology, MS1012, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, 

Site of Alfedena, Italy 

TX; Alfredo Coppa, PhD, Universita La Sapienza di Roma, 

Roma, and Mancinelli Domenico, PhD, Universita de 

L’Aquila, Italy, Roma 

One Unlucky Punch: The Etiology of a Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Joyce 584 

Fatal Depressed Skull Fracture 

L. de Jong, DO, Sparrow Health System, Department of 

Pathology, and Roger Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics Laboratories, 354 Baker Hall, Michigan 

State University, East Lansing, MI 

Fracture Pattern Interpretation in the 

Skull: Differentiating Blunt Force From 

Ballistics Trauma 

Gina O. Hart, BA*, 933 Anchor Lake Road, Carriere, MS 585 

Determining Direction of Fire: An 

Natalie R. Langley, MA*, 357 South Curson Avenue, Los 586 

Anthropological Analysis of Gunshot 

Wounds to the Chest 

Angeles, CA 

Burning Observations of the Head: An Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Tennessee, 252 South 586 

Experimental Model 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN; Steven A. Symes, PhD, and 

O’Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

Index 101 

581 

581

Age Estimation of the Immature 

Individuals Starting From the Ratio 

Epiphysis Width/Diaphysis Width of the 

Bones of the Hand and the Wrist 

Contribution of Numeric Measurements to 

Fetal Sex Determination 

Modern Oral Piercings: The Application of 

Their Dental Wear Patterns for Forensic 

Anthropology 

Robber’s Personal Identification by 

Morphometric Analysis of Recorded 

Images 

Comparison of CT and MR Imaging 

Techniques to Traditional Radiographs in 


A Comparison of Facial Approximation 

Techniques, Part 2 

A Comparative Study of Mammalian 

Cortical Bone 

Ankylosing Spondylitis in Three Forensic 

Cases 

Forensic Anthropology in Portugal: The 

State of Knowledge 

Thousands Dead: The Use of Stature in 

Individual Identification 

Norbert Telmon, MD*, Service de Medecine Legale, CHU 

Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, France; Loic 

Lalys, Pascal Adalian,and Marie D. Piercecchi, Universite 

de la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite d’ 

Anthropologie, UMR 6578, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille 

Cedex 05, France; Olivier Dutour, Universite de la 

Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite d’ 

Anthropologie, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Marseille 

Cedex 05, France; Daniel Rouge, MD, Service de Medecine 

Legale, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, 

France; and Georges Leonetti, MD, PhD, Universite de la 



Cedex 05, France 

Pascal Adalian*, and Marie D. Piercecchi, Universite de la 

Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Service de Medecine 

Legale, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, France; 

Norbert Telmon, MD, Service de Medecine Legale, CHU 

Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, France; and 

Loic Lalys, Yann Ardagna, Michael Signoli, Olivier Dutour, 

and Georges Leonetti, MD, PhD, Universite de la 


Anthropologie, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, 

France 

Kristen M. Hartnett, BA*, and Denise To, MA, Department 

of Anthropology, Arizona State University, PO Box 872402, 

Tempe, AZ 

Francesco Introna, MD, University of Bari, Italy, Istituto di 

Medicina legale, Policlinico., Bari, Italy 

S. Taylor Slemmer, MA*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, 



Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 


MI 

Harald Horni, BA*, and Robert R. Paine, PhD, 112436, 

Texas Tech University Department of Sociology, and Social 

Work, Box 41012, Lubbock, TX 

John J. Schultz, MS, Heather Walsh-Haney, MA*, Suzanne 

Coyle, MA, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human ID Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 

112545, Gainesville, FL 

Eugénia Cunha, PhD*,Universidade de Coimbra, 

Departmento de Anthopologia, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Portugal and Maria Cristina de Mendonça, PhD, 

Departmento de Anthropologia, Universidade de 

Coimbra/Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Coimbra, 

Portugal 

Jose Pablo Baraybar*, MSc, ICTY, Churchillplein 1, Den 

Haag Netherlands, and Erin H. Kimmerle, MA, University 

of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

Index 102 

587 

587 

588 

589 

589 

590 

590 

590 

591 

591

The Analysis of Ancestry From Skeletal 

Remains and the Treatment of the Race 

Concept by British Forensic Scientists 

Differences in the Os Coxa Between Blacks 

and Whites 

An Assessment of Craniofacial Nonmetric 

Traits Currently Used in the Forensic 


Population-Specific Identification Criteria 

for Cuban Americans in South Florida 

Age Estimation by the Examination of the 

Endocranial Sutures Closure: A North- 

African Adult Population Study 

Accuracy of Age at Death Estimates 

Derived From Human Cementum 

Increments 

Age Estimation From Long Bone Lengths 

in Forensic Data Bank Subadults: Evidence 

of Growth Retardation and Implications of 

Under Aging 

Quantitative Analyses of Human Pubic 

Symphyseal Morphology Using Three- 

Dimensional Data: The Potential Utility for 

Aging Adult Human Skeletons 

A Refinement of the Todd Method on a 

Sample of Modern Humans 

Robert F. Pastor, PhD*, The Calvin Wells Laboratory, and 

Jacinta N. Daines, BSc, Department of Archaeological 

Sciences, University of Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, 

Bradford, United Kingdom 

Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

250 South Stadium Hall, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Joseph T. Hefner, BS*, Mercyhurst College, Forensic 

Anthropology Laboratory, 202 Parade Street, Erie, PA 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. 


Florida, Gainesville, FL; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Department 

of Ecology & Evolution, State University of New York, 

Stony Brook, NY; and Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 

Ali Chadly, MD*, Professor in Legal Medicine, Head of 

Department of Legal Medicine, Tarak Mghirbi, Resident, S. 

Krimi, Resident, and M. Ben Aycha, Médical Student, 

Département de Médicine Légale, Hôpital Universitaire “ 

F. Bourguiba”, Monastir, Tunisia 

Index 103 

592 

592 

593 

594 

594 

Carrie Anne Berryman, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 595 

Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; and Jerome C. Rose, 

PhD, University of Arkansas, Department of Anthropology, 

Fayetteville, AR 

Martha Katherine Spradley, MA*, Knoxville, TN 595 

Matthew W. Tocheri, BA*, and Anshuman Razdan, PhD, 

PRISM, Arizona State University, Box 87-5106, Tempe, AZ 

Steven N. Byers, PhD*, and Jennifer L. Brady, BA, 


Albuquerque, NM 

Age Estimation From Pubic Symphysis Alpana Sinha, MBBS, MD*, Assistant Professor, 

Department of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Lady 

Aquatic Decomposition Rates in South 

Central Louisiana 

The Role of Clothing in Estimating Time 

Since Death 

The Effects of Lime on the Decomposition 

Rate of Buried Remains 

Evaluation of Odor as a Time-Since-Death 

Indicator 

Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi, India 

Sherice L. Hurst, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 


Anthropology, 227 Howe- Russell Geoscience Complex, 


Robyn A. Miller, BA*, University of Tennessee Department 


Heather A. Thew, MS*, and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, 

University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue 

Indianapolis, IN 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 


596 

596 

597 

597 

598 

598 

599

Determining Postmortem Interval: A 

Preliminary Examination of Postmortem 

Thorium, Actinium, and Radium Isotopes 

in Bone 

Differentiation of Bone and Tooth From 

Other Materials Using SEM/EDS Analysis 

Factors That Affect mtDNA Recoverability 

From Osseous Remains 

How Not to Stage a Burial: Lessons From 

North Korea 

The Pits: Recovery and Examination of 

Skeletonized Remains From a Concrete 

Filled-Fire Pit 

Of Posteriors, Typicality, and Individuality 


The Validity of Using Unique Biological 

Features as a Method of Identifying 

Victims of War Crimes in the Former 

Yugoslavia 

Testing the Average Methodological 

Approach to Facial Approximation 

Human Skeleton Found in a Chimney: A 

Misidentification Corrected and an 

Opportunity to Reevaluate Methods of 

Superimposition 

Comparative Radiography of the Lateral 

Hyoid: A New Method for Human 


Musculoskeletal Stress Markers: An 

Exploration of Forensic Applicability 

Be Tenacious in Your Searches for 

Clandestine Burials: A Lesson From the 

Field 

Christine N. Rea, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Kent 

State University, 228 Lowry Hall, Kent, OH; and H.O. 

Back, Department of Physics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute 

and State University, Robeson Hall, Blacksburg, VA 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Department, Anthropology, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Dennis C. Ward, 

BS, FBI Laboratory, Washington, DC; Valeria S. Braz, 

MSc, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 

Brazil; and John Stewart, PhD, FBI, Washington, DC 

Mark Leney, PhD*, U.S. Army CILHI, 310 Worchester 

Avenue Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, HI 

James T. Pokines, PhD*, Greg E. Berg, MA, Bradley J. 

Adams, MA, Ann W. Bunch, PhD, John E. Byrd, PhD, and 

Thomas D. Holland, PhD, U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force 

Base, Honolulu, HI 



1413 Research Boulevard. Building 102, Rockville, MD 

Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 


South Stadium Drive, Knoxville, TN 

Debra Komar, PhD*, Director, Laboratory of Human 

Osteology, Maxwell Museum, Department of Anthropology, 


Carl N. Stephan, BHSc, Department of Anatomical 

Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Australia; Ian S. 

Penton-Voak, PhD, Department of Psychology, The 

University of Stirling, Scotland; David Perrett, PhD, and 

Bernard Tiddeman, PhD, School of Psychology, The 

University of St. Andrews, Scotland; John G. Clement, 

PhD*, School of Dental Science, The University of 

Melbourne, Australia; and Maciej Henneberg, DSc, 

Department of Anatomical Sciences, The University of 

Adelaide, Australia 

Edward B. Waldrip, PhD*, Southern Institute of Forensic 

Science, PO Box 15764, Hattiesburg, MS; Ted A. Rathbun, 

PhD, University of South Carolina, Department of 

Anthropology, Columbia, SC; Steven A. Symes, PhD, 

Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, 

Memphis, TN; and James E. Lee, Adams County, 112 South 

Wall Street, Natchez, MS 

Jered B. Cornelison, MS*, Todd W. Fenton, PhD, and 

Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Michigan State University, 446 East Fee Hall, East 

Lansing, MI; Joyce L. de Jong, DO; and Brian C. Hunter, 

MD, Sparrow Hospital, Forensic Pathology Services, 1215 

East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 

Brian F. Spatola, MA*, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 

Ann W. Bunch, PhD*, and Calvin Y. Shiroma, DMD, U.S. 

CILHI, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, 

Honolulu, HI 

Index 104 

599 

600 

600 

600 

601 

602 

602 

603 

603 

604 

604 

605

The Importance of Recovered Life-Support 

Equipment In the Resolution of MIA Cases 

Recovery and Identification Challenges in 

a Case of Suicidal Self-Cremation 

Accident, Suicide, or Homicide: A Case 

Study Involving the Investigation of 

Skeletonized and Bear-Scavenged Remains 

From Caffey (1946) to Kempe (1962): 

Historical Perspectives of the Recognition 

of Child Abuse 

Fracture Patterns in Abused Children: A 

Study of Skeletal Trauma Among Battered 

Children in a Clinical Cohort From the 

Leeds (UK) Metropolitan Area 

Diagnostic Imaging of Child Abuse: A 

Comparison of Radiographic Views to 

Detect Rib Fracture 

Recognizing Child Abuse in the Thoracic 

Region Through a Multidisciplinary 

Approach 

A Multidisciplinary Approach to Evaluate 

Chronic Malnutrition During Childhood in 

a Case of Suspected Fatal Child Abuse 

Chester E. Moore, II, PhD*, U.S. Army Central 


Air Force Base, Honolulu, HI 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, Medical Examiner's Office, 100 

Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY; and Corky 

Deaton, DMD, Consulting Forensic Odontologist, 359-C 

South Fourth Street, Danville, KY 



1413 Research Boulevard. Building 102, Rockville, MD 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Department of Forensic Pathology, 

University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, 

Memphis, TN; C. Ferraro, PhD, Long Island University, 

Long Island University, Brookville, NY, Susan B. Patton, 

MNSc, and O’Brian C. Smith, MD, Department of Forensic 

Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; and A.M. Kroman, BA, 


Knoxville, 252 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

Saskia M. de Jager Burford, BA, MSc*, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, 

United Kingdom; Robert F. Pastor, PhD, The Calvin Wells 

Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Sciences, 

University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom; and 

Christopher J. Hobbs, BSc, MB, BS, MRCP, Department of 

Community Pediatrics, Saint James University Hospital, 

Leeds, United Kingdom 

Susan B. Patton, MNSc*, Steven A. Symes, PhD, O’Brian C. 

Smith, MD, T.A. Campbell, MD, and Cynthia D. Gardner, 

MD, Department of Forensic Pathology, University of 

Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA; Steven A. Symes, PhD, University of 

Tennessee Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison 

Avenue, Memphis, TN; Erik Vey, MD, Erie County 

Coroner’s Office, Erie County Courthouse, Erie, PA; and 

O’Brian C. Smith, MD, University of Tennessee Regional 

Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD*, Hamline University, Department 

of Anthropology, Saint Paul, MN; Susan J. Roe, MD, 

Ramsey County Medical Examiner’s Office, 300 East 

University Avenue, Saint Paul, MN; Barbara H. O’Connell, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, Hamline University, 

Saint Paul, MN; Janice J. Ophoven, MD, The Children’s 

Hospital, 345 North Smith Avenue, Saint Paul, MN; and 

Ann L. Norrlander, DDS, 1553 Medical Arts Building, 825 

Nicollet Mall, Minneapolis, MN 

Index 105 

605 

606 

606 

607 

608 

608 

609 

610

The Hidden Truth: Mandibular Condyle 

Fractures in Child Abuse 

A.M. Kroman, BA*, Department of Anthropology, 


Hall, Knoxville, TN; Steven A. Symes, PhD, O’Brian C. 

Smith, MD, and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Department of 

Forensic Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 

1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; Harry H. Mincer, 

DDS, PhD, Division of Oral Pathology, Dunn Dental 

Building, Memphis, TN; and J.W. Lemmon, BS, Department 

of Forensic Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 


Child Abuse Case: Multiple Forensic Issues Murray K. Marks, PhD*, and Kathryn H. Haden, MD, 

Department of Pathology, The University of Tennessee 

Medical Center, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

Child Abuse: It’s All in the Recognition Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Susan B. Patton, MNSc*, T.D. 

Campbell, MD, Cynthia D. Gardner, MD, O’Brian C. 

Smith, MD, T. Paulette Sutton, MS, MT, and Craig T. 

Mallak, JD, MD, Department of Forensic Pathology, 


Memphis, TN; and A.M. Kroman, BA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 252 


Index 106 

611 

611 

612

Index by Presenting Author 

Author by Last Name Title Page 

Adalian*, Pascal and Marie D. Piercecchi, Universite de Contribution of Numeric Measurements to 587 

la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Service de 

Medecine Legale, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, 

France; Norbert Telmon, MD, Service de Medecine 

Legale, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, 

France; and Loic Lalys, Yann Ardagna, Michael Signoli, 

Olivier Dutour, and Georges Leonetti, MD, PhD, 

Universite de la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite 

d’ Anthropologie, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, 

France 

Fetal Sex Determination 

Adams, Bradley J. PhD*, Christian Crowder, PhD, and; Renewed Search, Recovery, and 

287 

Frank DePaolo, MPAS, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, Identification Efforts Related to the 

520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

September 11, 2001 Attacks of the World 

Trade Center 

Adams, Bradley J. PhD*, Office of Chief Medical 

Quantification of Commingled Human 437 

Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Skeletal Remains: Determining the Most 

Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of Tennessee, 



Likely Number of Individuals (MLNI) 

Adams, Bradley J. PhD*, Office of Chief Medical 

Estimation of Living Stature From Selected 366 

Examiner, City of New York, 520 First Avenue, New York, Anthropometric (Soft Tissue) Measurements: 

NY 10016; and Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD, University of How do These Compare With Osteometric 



(Skeletal) Measurements? 

Adlam, Rachel E. MSc*, and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, Assessing the Effect of Repeated Physical 385 

University of Central Lancashire, Department of Forensic Disturbance Associated With Data Collection 

and Investigative Science, Maudland Building, Preston, 


in Experimental Decomposition Studies 

Agostini, Gina M. BS*, and Emily J. Gomez, BA, 4500 Forensic Anthropology Academic and 193 

Manor Village, Apartment 316, Raleigh, NC 27612 Employment Trends 

Agostini, Gina M. MA*, 205 Middle Street, Hadley, MA The Impact of Obesity on Morphology of the 128 

01035 

Femur 

Agostini, Gina M. MA*, 83 Newton Street, Greenfield, MA Can Femoral Shape be Used to Estimate 46 

01301 

Weight? 

Al Na’imi, Khudooma S. BSc*, University of Central Evaluation of Enamel Short Chemical History 156 

Lancashire, United Kingdom, Um Ghafa, Abu Dhabi, Al as a Forensic Tool: A Comparative Study of 

Ain, Box 16584, UNITED ARAB EMIRATES 

Six Countries 

Alamo, Ana Del BA*, 4521 Northeast 22 Road, Fort An Assessment of a Simple Model and 95 

Lauderdale, FL 


Albert, A. Midori BS, MA, PhD*, Anthropology Program, Preliminary Observations of Vertebral Centra 521 

University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 601 South 


Retraction and Its Relationship to Age 

Albert, A. Midori PhD*, University of North Carolina - Cervical Vertebral Centra Epiphyseal Union 24 

Wilmington, Department of Anthropology, 601 South as an Age Estimation Method in Teenage and 


Young Adult Skeletons 

Albert, A. Midori PhD*, University of North Carolina The Role of Adult Age-Related Craniofacial 181 

Wilmington, Department of Anthropology, 601 South Changes and the MORPH Database in 


Computer Automated Face Recognition 

Research and Development 

Index 107

Albert, Midori PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 South 

College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403- 5907; Jeffery K. 

Tomberlin, PhD, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M 

University, 1229 North U.S. Highway 281, Stephenville, TX 

76401; and Christina Johnson, BA, Department of 

Sociology and Criminal Justice, University of North 

Carolina Wilmington, 601 S College Road, Wilmington, 

NC 28403-5978 

Algee-Hewitt, Bridget MA*, Rebecca J Wilson, MA, and 

Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 


Algee-Hewitt, Bridget MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Rebecca J. Wilson, MA*, 3108 

Rennoc Road, Knoxville, TN 37918; and Megan Katrina 

Moore, PhD, University of Tennessee, University of 

Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

Allaire, Maria MA*, LSU FACES Laboratory, Louisiana 

State University, 227 Howe-Russell Bldg, Baton Rouge, LA 


Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 


Allaire, Maria T. MA*, 16 Pinedale Lane, Durango, CO 

81303 

Allaire, Maria T. MA*, 16 Pinedale Lane, Durango, CO 

81303; and Mary H. Manhein, MA, and Ginesse A. Listi, 


and Anthropology, 227 Howe- Russell Building, Baton 


Allaire, Maria T. MA*, Louisiana State University FACES 

Laboratory, Louisiana State University, 227 Howe-Russell 

Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Mary H. Manhein, 

MA, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana 


Allbright, Amanda S. BA*, University of Tennessee, 



Alsup, Kathleen MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


Anderson, Bruce E. PhD*, and Walter H. Birkby, PhD, 


AZ 85714 

Anderson, Bruce E. PhD*, Pima County Office of the 

Medical Examiner, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 


Anderson, Bruce E. PhD*, University of Arizona, 

Department of Anthropology, Tucson, AZ 85721; and 

Thomas P. Gilson, MD, Office of the Chief Medical 


Index 108 

Observations of Decomposition in Southern 

Coastal North Carolina 

The Donation Dilemma: Academic Ethics 



The Effects of Ethanol Abuse on Bone 

Mineral Density in the Proximal Femur 

Accuracy of Regression Formulae for Racing 

and Sexing the Cranial Base in a Forensic 

Collection 

Postmortem Interval Field Research at Three 

High Elevation Biogeoclimatic Zones in 

Southwest Colorado 

Blasting Caps: An Alternate Source of High 

Velocity Trauma in Human Skeletal Remains 

Shark-Inflicted Trauma on Human Skeletal 

Remains 

396 

358 

195 

273 

410 

426 

164 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Vertebral Column 397 

Investigation of Second, Fourth, and Eighth 

Sternal Rib End Variation Related to Age 

Estimation 

Forensic Anthropology at the Pima County 



Identifying the Dead: Methods Utilized for 


Modern Day Cranial Trepanation: The 

Ventriculosotomy 

260 

179 

497 

426

Anderson, Bruce E. PhD, Forensic Science Center, 2825 

East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Tamela R. Smith, 

BA*, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281; Walter 

H. Birkby, PhD, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 

District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, 

Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, Department of 

Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824; Carolyn V. Hurst, 

BA, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823; 

and Claire C. Gordon, PhD, U.S. Army Natick RD&E 

Center, Kansas Street, Natick, MA 01760-5020 

Anderson, Bruce E. PhD, Forensic Science Center, Office 

of the Medical Examiner, 2825 East District Street, 

Tucson, AZ 85714; Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD*, College of 

Mount Saint Joseph, Department of Biology, 5701 Delhi 

Road, Cincinnati, OH 45233-1670; Susan M.T. Myster, 

PhD, Hamline University, MB 196, 1536 Hewitt Avenue, 

Saint Paul, MN 55104; and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Harris 

County Institute of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish 


Anderson, Gail S. PhD*, and Lynne S. Bell, PhD, Simon 

Fraser University, School of Criminology, 8888 University 

Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA 

Andronowski, Janna M. BA*, University of Toronto, 19 

Russell Street, Toronto, ON M5S 2S2, CANADA; and 

Christian Crowder, PhD, New York Office of the Chief 


Angelis, Danilo De DDS*, and Pasquale Poppa, BSc, 


20133, Italy; Remo Sala, PhDc, Politecnico di Milano 

Facolta di Ingegneria Industriale Dipartimento di 

Meccanica Sezione di Misure e Tecniche Sperimentali, via 

Magiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; and Cristina 

Cattaneo, PhD, MD, Istituto di Medicina Legale, via 

Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy 

Arlotti, Ana Boza PhD*, Edwin F. Huffine, MS, and 

Richard J. Harrington, PhD, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

Arlotti, Ana Boza PhD*, International Commission for 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia 


Austin, Dana PhD*, and Paul E. Coffman, Tarrant County 

Medical Examiner District, 200 Feliks Gwozdz Place, Fort 

Worth, TX 76104-4919 

Ayers, Laura E. BA*, 206 B Redbud, New Braunfels, TX 

78130 

Aziz, Vanessa L. BA*, 11735 Bergamo Court, Las Vegas, 

NV 89183 

Index 109 

Differentiating Between Foreign National 

Hispanics and U.S. Hispanics in the 

Southwest: The Influence of Socioeconomic 

Status on Dental Health and Stature 




Deep Coastal Marine Taphonomy: Interim 




The Evaluation of Bone Area as a 

Histomorphometric Variable for Estimating 

Age at Death 

Identification of the Living on Video 


The Influence of Large-Scale DNA Testing 

on the Traditional Anthropological Approach 

to Human Identification: The Experience in 


Characterizing Primary and Secondary Mass 

Graves and Their Impact on Identification 

Methodology: The Experience in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

Resolution of Cold Identity Cases: Resources, 

Methodology, and a Review of Some Success 

Stories 

Differential Decomposition in Terrestrial, 

Saltwater, and Freshwater Environments: A 

Pilot Study 

Tarsal Measurements to Estimate Sex for Use 

in a Forensic Setting 

156 

10 

107 

55 

404 

541 

400 

290 

110 

160

Baccino, Eric MD*, Service de Medicine Legale, Hopital 

Lapeyronie Chu de Montpellier, Montpellier, 34295 Cedex 

5, France; Christina Cattaneo, Instituto di Medicine 

Legale, Via Mangiagalli, Milano, 20133, Itlay; Yves 

Schuliar, MD, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la 

Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 Boulevard Theophile Sueur, 

Roisny-Sous-Bois, 93110, France; Eugenia Cunha, PhD, 

Departamento da Anthropologia, Universitate de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; Randolph Penning, Institut 

Fur Rechtsmedizin, Frauenlobstrasse 8a, Munchen, 80337, 

Germany; and Jose Luis Prieto, Instituto de Medicina 

Forense, Severo Ochoa s/n, Madrid, 28040, Spain 

Bachmann, Jutta MSc*, Postweg 2, Fellbach, Baden- 

Wuerttemberg 70736, GERMANY 

Backo, Heather C. MA*, and John Verano, PhD, Tulane 

University Anthropology Department, 1021 Audubon 


Backo, Heather MA*, Tulane University Deaprtment of 

Anthropology, 1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 

70118 

Baker, Joan E. PhD*, and Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


Force Base, HI 96853 

Baker, Joan E. PhD*, and Eric B Emery, PhD, Joint 


Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853 

Baker, Joan E. PhD*, and Helen D. Wols, PhD, Joint 


Laboratory (JPAC CIL), 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Baker, Joan E. PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command Central Identification, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Paul S. Sledzik, 

MS, National Transportation Safety Board, Office of 

Transportation Disaster Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, 

SW, Washington, DC 20594 

Baker, Joan E. PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Alexander F. 

Christensen, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Index 110 

The Forensic Anthropology Society of 

Europe: An Introduction 

Assessment of Differences in Decomposition 

Rates of Rabbit Carcasses With and Without 

Insect Access Prior to Burial 

Lifestyles of the Unidentified: Challenges in 

Positive Identification 

The Contextual Nature of “Excessive Force”: 

Alcohol-Induced Osteopenia, Fracture 

Prevalence, and Healing Rates Among In- 

Custody and Homicide Deaths From the 

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office 

An Epidemiological Study of Trauma in U.S. 

Casualties of the Korean War 

The Importance of Archaeological Site 

Formation Processes and Flexible Excavation 

Strategies to the Development of Successful 

Medicolegal Approaches to Mass Graves 

Excavation: Al Hatra, Iraq 

Race as a Variable in Dental Health of 

Korean War Military Personnel 

Morphological Variations of the Cervical 

Spine as Racial Indicators: A Validation and 

Observer Error Study Using the Terry 

Collection 

Peri-Mortem Skeletal Trauma in U.S. Korean 

War Soldiers: An Epidemiological and 

Historical Study of Prisoner-of-War and 

Battlefield Casualties 

463 

145 

415 

83 

281 

335 

431 

207 

85

Baker, Lori E. PhD*, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology and Forensic Science, Forensic Research 

Lab, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798-7388; Lee 

Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 37996- 0720; Yasmine M. Baktash, BA, 

Baylor University, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 

76798; and J. Randall Pearce, DDS, 3769 West Andrew 

Johnson Highway, Morristown, TN 37814 

Baker, Lori E. PhD*, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology, Forensic Science and Archaeology, One 

Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798 

Baker, Lori E. PhD*, Baylor University, Forensic 

Research Lab, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798- 

7388; and Yasmine M. Baktash, BA, Baylor University, 

One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798 

Baker, Lori E. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Baylor 

University, PO Box 97370, Waco, TX 76798; Erich J. 

Baker, PhD, Department of Computer Science, Baylor 

University, Waco, TX 76798 

Baker, Lori E. PhD, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology, Forensic Science, and Archaeology, One 

Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798; Carolyn P. Skurla, 

PhD*, Baylor University, Department of Mechanical 

Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, TX 76798; 

Zachary Kelm, BS, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 

1st Street SW, Rochester, MN 55905; Casey Anderson, 

Baylor University, Department of Anthropology, Forensic 

Science, and Archaeology, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, 

TX 76798; David R. Webster, BS, Baylor University, 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, One Bear Place 

#97356, Waco, TX 76798; Kieran P. McNulty, PhD, Baylor 

University, Department of Anthropology, Forensic Science, 

and Archaeology, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 

76798; Kristy Bernard, BS, University of New Haven, 

Department of Forensic Science, 300 Boston Post Road, 

West Haven, CT 06516; and Eric A. Schaefer, and Daniel 

C. Bland, Baylor University, Department of Mechanical 

Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, TX 76798 

Baldridge, Robert S. PhD, Baylor University, PO Box 

97388, Waco, TX 76798; Susan G. Wallace, PhD*, Baylor 

University, PO Box 97370, Waco, TX 76798; Ryan 

Kirkpatrick, BS, Texas A&M University, Department of 

Entomology, College Station, TX 77843 

Baranoff, Rebekah K. BA*, 10 East 34th Street, Apartment 

#1, Erie, PA 16504 

Baraybar*, Jose Pablo MSc, ICTY, Churchillplein 1, Den 

Haag Netherlands, and Erin H. Kimmerle, MA, University 

of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

Baraybar, Jose P. BA, MS*, and Carmen R. Cardoza, BA, 

Equipo Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF), 

Arnaldo Marquez 2144-D, Lima, Lima 11, Peru 

Index 111 

Preservation of Skeletal Collections: The 

Viability of DNA Analysis After the 

Application of Chemical Preservative 

SIRLI (Sistema de Identificación de Restos y 

Localización de Individuos): A Review of the 

First Year of Mexico’s Database for Missing 

Persons 

Death on America’s Southern Border: A 

Summary of Five Years of Genetic Data 



Reuniting Families: Using Phenotypic and 

Genotypic Forensic Evidence to Identify 

Unknown Immigrant Remains 

Controlled Fracture of Bones Before and 

After Degradation Under Different 

Environmental Conditions 

Investigation of Nocturnal Oviposition by 

Forensic Flies in Central Texas 

Prognathism and Prosthion in the Evaluation 

of Ancestry 

Thousands Dead: The Use of Stature in 

Individual Identification 

Differential Diagnosis of Torture in Skeletal 

Remains 

253 

334 

104 

495 

310 

480 

121 

591 

338

Baraybar, Jose P. BA, MSc*, Office on Missing Persons 

and Forensics (OMPF), United Nations Mission in Kosovo 

(UNMIK), AUCON/KFOR, Kosovo A1503, Austria 

Baraybar, Jose P. MSc*, EPAF, Av. Mello Franco 341, 

Jesus Maria, PERU; and Ellen Salter-Pedersen, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, 701 East 

Kirkwood, SB130, Bloomington, IN 47405 

Baraybar, Jose P. MSc*, Equipo Peruano de Antropología 

Forense, Toribio Pacheco 216, Lima, Lima 18, PERU; and 

Bertrand Ludes MD, PhD, Institut de Medicine Légale de 

Strasbourg, 11, Rue Humann - 67085 Strasbourg, France 

Baraybar, Jose Pablo MSc*, Aldo Bolanos, Carmen Rosa 

Cardoza, Mellisa Lund, Giovani Macciotta, and Juan 

Carlos Tello, Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EPAF), c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, 


Baraybar, Jose Pablo MSc*, Carlos Bacigalupo, BA, Aldo 

F. Bolanos, Carmen C. Cardoza, BA, and Juan C. Tello, 

BA, Equipo Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF), 

Calle 2, #369, Monterrico Norte, Lima, Peru, South 

America 

Barbian, Lenore PhD*, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National 

Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of 

Pathology, 6825 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20306- 

6000 

Barbian, Lenore PhD*, Department of History & 

Anthropology, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, 

Edinboro, PA 16444 

Barbian, Lenore T. PhD*, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, 

National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC 

Bartelink, Eric J. MA*, 611 Domink, College Station, TX; 

Turhon A. Murad, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

California State University, Chico, CA; and Sarah Collins, 

MSc, 401 San Diego Avenue, Daly City, CA 

Bartelink, Eric J. MA*, Jason M. Wiersema, MA, and 

Maria Parks, MA, Department of Anthropology, Texas A & 

M University, College Station, TX; Gaille MacKinnon, BA, 

MSc, Department of Conservation Sciences, University of 

Bournemouth, Bournemouth, United Kingdom; and Amy 

Zelson Mundorff, MA, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 

New York City, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 

Bartelink, Eric J. PhD*, 400 West First Street, Department 

of Anthropology, Butte #311, CSUC, Chico, CA 95929- 

0400; Melanie Beasley, BS, 400 West First Street, Chico, 

CA 95929-0400; Chelsey A. Juarez, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, UCSC Social Science 1, 1156 High Street, 


Bartelink, Eric J. PhD*, and Lisa N. Bright, BS, California 

State University-Chico, 400 West First Street, Department 

of Anthropology, Butte #311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Index 112 

When DNA is Not Available Can We Still 

Identify People? Recommendations for Best 

Practice 

The Need for Holistic Investigations of 

Human Rights Violations: An Example From 

Peru 

Unearthing Peru’s Buried Secrets: La Cantuta 

Revisited 

The Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EPAF) and the Memory of the Missing 

The Effective Forensic Investigation of 

Human Rights Violations: A Model for 

Training 

472 

184 

286 

508 

582 

Healing Following Cranial Trauma 510 

Long Bone Healing Following Trauma 69 

Fifteen Years of Forensic Anthropology Short 

Courses at the National Museum of Health 

and Medicine/AFIP 

Forensic Anthropology and Fire 

Investigation: Learning About Burning Using 

Non-Human Models 

Back to the Basics: Anatomical Siding of 

Fragmentary Skeletal Elements From Victims 

of the World Trade Center Disaster 

Extending the Biological Profile Using Stable 

Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis: 

Prospects and Pitfalls 

Taphonomic Signatures of Animal 


558 

577 

535 

248 

205

Bartelink, Eric J. PhD, 400 West First Street, Department 

of Anthropology, Butte #311, California State University- 

Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0400; and Lisa N. Bright, BS*, 

1259 Hobart, Chico, CA 95926 

Bass, William M. PhD*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 



Bassett, H. Beth MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Forensic Anthropology and Computer Enhancement 

Services Laboratory, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803 

Bassett, Helen E. MA*, M. Katherine Spradley, MA, and 



Knoxville, TN 

Beary, Mark O. MS*, University of Missouri at Columbia, 

107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211-1440; and Luis L. 

Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department Applied 


Beatty, Jennifer L. JD*, Department of Justice, Criminal 

Division, International Criminal Investigative Training 

Assistance Program, 1331 F Street NW Suite 500, 

Washington, DC 20530; Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, Eric Emery, 

PhD, William R. Belcher, PhD, and Derek C. Benedix, 


Identification Laboratory, Building 45, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-3350; and Liliana del 

Amparo Segura Leal, and Manuel A. Torres Rojas, 

Prosecutor General’s Office, Technical Investigation 

Corps (CTI), Diagonal 22B No. 52-01, Bogota, DC, 

Colombia 

Beckett, Sophie MSc*, and Keith D. Rogers, PhD, 

Cranfield University, Cranfield Forensic Institute, 

Department of Materials and Applied Science, Shrivenham, 

Swindon, SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

Belcher, William R. PhD*, and Derek C. Benedix, PhD, 

JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Bell, Suzanne PhD*, West Virginia University, Department 

of Chemistry, PO Box 6045, Morgantown, WV 26506; 

Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Beltran, Leilani E. MFS, Forensic Sciences Program, 

National University, 11355 North Torrey Pines Road, La 

Jolla, CA 92037; and A. Midori Albert, PhD*, 

Anthropology Program, University of North Carolina at 


28403 

Benedix, Derek C. PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and 

William R. Belcher, PhD, JPACCIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

Index 113 

Inter- and Intra-Element Variation in 

Carnivore and Rodent Scavenging Patterns in 


Variation in Cremains Weight: Tennessee vs. 

Florida 

The Louisiana Identification Data Analysis 

Project (IDA): A Comprehensive Analysis of 

Missing and Unidentified Cases 

The William M. Bass Donated Collection at 

the University of Tennessee - Knoxville 

Estimation of Bone Exposure Duration 




Creating a Standardized Approach to 


Anthropology: Human Rights Investigations 

in Colombia 

Species Identification of Fragmented Bone: 

Evaluation of a New Method of Pyrolysis and 

X-ray Diffraction Analysis 

Burial Patterns of Korean War Casualties as 

an Indicator of the Social Relationships 


Genes, Nerves, and Bones: Neural Networks, 

Genetic Algorithms, and Forensic 

Anthropology 

Dental Enamel Thickness as a Method of 

Subadult Sex Determination 

Research Trends During the History of the 

Physical Anthropology Section at the AAFS 

Annual Meetings 

111 

472 

463 

535 

230 

336 

252 

400 

517 

430 

374

Berg, Gregory E. MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-5530 

Berg, Gregory E. MA*, Sabrina C. Ta’ala, MA, Elias J. 

Kontanis, PhD, and Sardiaa Plaud, BS, Joint POW/MIA 



Berg, Gregory E. MA*, US Army Central ID Laboratory, 


Berg, Gregory E. MA*and Erin Kimmerle, MA, University 

of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Way, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

Berryman*, John F. University of Tennessee, Lebanon, TN; 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Metropolitan and Davidson 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, Lebanon, TN; Robert 

A. LeMaster, PhD, PE, Department of Engineering, 

College of Engineering and Natural Science, Martin, TN; 

and Carrie Anne Berryman, MA, Vanderbilt University, 

Nashville, TN 

Berryman, Carrie Anne MA*, Department of 

Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN; and 

Jerome C. Rose, PhD, University of Arkansas, Department 

of Anthropology, Fayetteville, AR 

Berryman, Hugh E. PhD*, Department Sociology & 



Berryman, Hugh E. PhD*, Middle Tennessee State 


Box 10, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Alicja K Kutyla, 

BS*, Middle Tennessee State University, MTSU Box 60, 


Berryman, Hugh E. PhD*, Sociology and Anthropology, 

PO Box 10, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Carrie Anne Berryman, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, 2301 

Vanderbilt Place, Box 356050, Station B, Nashville, TN 

37235 

Bethard, Jonathan D. BA*, University of Tennessee, 250 


Bethard, Jonathan D. MA*, and Christine M. Pink, MA, 



Bethard, Jonathan D. MA*, Pellissippi State Community 

College, 10915 Hardin Valley Road, PO Box 22990, 


Bethard, Jonathan D. MA*, The University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, Tennessee 37996; and Murray K. Marks, PhD*, 

University of Tennessee, Graduate School of Medicine, 

1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920-6999 

Index 114 

Discriminant Function Analysis as Applied to 

Mandibular Morphology to Assess 


The Curse of the Curvaceous Femur, the 

Litigious Line, and the Intrepid Investigator 

Discriminant Function Analysis as Applied to 

Mandibular Metrics to Assess Population 

Affinity 

Aging the Elderly: A New Look at an Old 

Method 

Numerical Simulation of Fracture 

Propagation in a Test of Cantilevered Tubular 

Bone 

Accuracy of Age at Death Estimates Derived 

From Human Cementum Increments 

Full Time Employment of Forensic 


Examiner’s/Coroner’s Offices in the United 

States—A History 

Gunshot Residue (GSR) on Bone as a 

Potential Indicator of Gunshot Trauma in the 

Absence of a Bullet Wound Defect — A 

Noteworthy Observation 

Considerations in Differentiating Negligence 

From Deliberate Misconduct — Lessons 

Learned From Tri-State Crematorium 

Skeletal Markers of Parturition: Analysis of a 

Modern American Sample 

Hyoid Fusion and the Relationship With 


Implications 

The American Board of Forensic 

Anthropology: Historical Trends in Research 

and Training 

Aquatic Taphonomy in a Lacustrine 



369 

326 

264 

475 

552 

595 

175 

246 

357 

471 

317 

8 

200

Bird, Cate E. BA*, Michigan State University, 2740 Senate 

Drive, #3E, Lansing, MI 48912; and Amy R. Michael, BA, 

Michigan State University, 528 West Lapeer Street, 


Birkby, Walter H. PhD*, Forensic Science Center, Office 

of the Medical Examiner, Pima County, 2825 East District 


Bodkin, Thomas E. MA*, Hamilton County Medical 


TN 37406; and Gretchen E. Potts, PhD, Kira Shurtz, and 

Timothy Brooks, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, 

Department of Chemistry, 404 Grote Hall, Chattanooga, 

TN 37403 

Bodkin, Thomas E. MA*, Hamilton County Medical 


TN 37406; Jonathan W. Mies, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Physics, 

Geology, and Astronomy, Department 6556, Chattanooga, 

TN 37403 

Bodkin, Tom E. MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner 

Office, 3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37406; 

Timothy Brooks, and Gretchen E. Potts, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Chemistry, 615 

McCallie Avenue, Grote Hall, 4th Floor, Chattanooga, TN 

37403; and Stephanie Smullen, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Computing 

Sciences, 615 McCallie Avenue, Department 2302, 

Chattanooga, TN 37403 

Bodkin, Tom E. MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner 

Office, 3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37409 

Bongiovanni, Rosanne BA*, 601 University Drive, ELA 

232, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Borrini, Matteo MS*, via del Mattone 17\a, La Spezia, 

19131, ITALY; Maria V. Tumbarello, Via Luigi Calabresi 

14, Montecatini (PT), AE 51016, ITALY 

Bouwman, Allison BA*, Jessica Dimka, BS, Jennifer 

Halpain, BS, Turhon A. Murad, PhD, and Eric J. Bartelink, 

PhD, California State University, Chico, 400 West First 

Street, Department of Anthropology, Butte #311, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 

Boyd, Cliff PhD, and; Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Radford 

University, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, Box 

6948, Russell Hall 228, Radford, VA 24142 

Boyd, Donna C. PhD*, Lindsay Sliwa, BS, and Cliff Boyd, 

PhD*, Radford University, Anthropological Sciences 

Program, School of Environmental and Physical Sciences, 


Boyd, Donna C. PhD*, Radford University, Box 6948, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Radford, VA 

24142; William Massello III, MD, Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 6600 Northside High School Road, 

Roanoke, VA 24019 

Index 115 

A Preliminary Study of the Timing of 

Specific Characteristics of Copper and Iron 

Discoloration on Bone 

Ours or Theirs? 494 

Elemental Analysis of Human Cremains 





X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis of Human 

Cremains and Concrete 

Trace Element Analysis of Medical School 

Cadaver Cremains 

Outside Traditional Skeletal Casework: A 

Forensic Anthropologist in a Medical 


Estimating Sex of the Human Skeleton Based 

on Metrics of the Sternum 

Taphonomy Reader Beta-Version: A 

Software to Help in Taphonomic Syndromes 

Diagnosis 

Differential Wound Healing Patterns in Bone: 

A Case Study Involving Multiple 

Antemortem Injuries 

Towards a Comprehensive Theory in 


Differential Decomposition of Non- 

Traumatized, Blunt Force, and Sharp Force- 

Traumatized Buried Pig Carcasses 

Skeletons in the Medical Examiner’s Closet: 

Realities and Merits of Investigating Human 

Skeletal Remains Undergoing Long Term 

Curation in the Medical Examiner’s Office 

64 

435 

249 

402 

519 

72 

50 

316 

228 

89 

466

Brand, Heather J. BA*, 422 Queen Anne Heights, Victoria, The Effect of Carcass Weight on the 239 

British Columbia V8S 4K6, CANADA 


Brewer, Victoria L. BSc*, Bournemouth University, School Observed Taphonomic Changes and Drift 414 

of Conservational Sciences, Talbot Campus, Poole, Trajectory of Bodies Recovered From the 

Doreset BH12 5BB, United Kingdom 

Tidal Thames, London England: A 15-Year 

Retrospective Study 

Briceno*, Claudia M. Departamento Administrativo de Forensic Findings on Illegal Burials in 186 

Seguridad, Carrera 28 # 17a-00, BOGOTA, COLOMBIA Colombia 

Bright, Lisa N. BS*, 1259 Hobart, Chico, CA 95926 Animal Scavenging and Taphonomic 

Interpretation: An Evaluation of the Role of 

Scavenger Behavior and Environmental 


49 

Bright, Lisa N. BS*, California State University, Chico, Ancestry Trends in Trophy Skulls in 122 

400 West First Street, Chico, CA 95928; Ashley E. Kendell, 

BS*, 808 West 2nd Avenue, Apartment 12, Chico, CA 

95926; and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, California State 

University, Chico, Department of Anthropology, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 


Brogdon, B.G. MD*, University of South Alabama Medical Fingering a Murderer: A Successful 

183 

Center, Department of Radiology, 2451 Fillingim Street, Anthropological and Radiological 

Mobile, AL 36617; Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, Margaret 

Chase Smith Policy Center, University of Maine, Orono, 

ME 04469; and Kerriann Marden, MA, c/o 23 Flicker 

Drive, Topsham, ME 04086 

Collaboration 

Brown, Carrie A. BA*, Nikki A. Willits, BA, Brenna K. Fractured Frontier: An Analysis of Fracture 218 

Blanchard, BA, and Kristin L. Chelotti, BA, California 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 400 West 

First Street, Butte Hall 311, Chico, CA 95929 

Patterns in a Historic Nevada Cemetery 

Brown, Carrie A. MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Understanding Uncertainty in Age 

125 


Estimation: Error Associated With the Mann 

Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 et al. Maxillary Suture Method 

Brown, Carrie A. MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Sacral Epiphyseal Fusion at S1-S2: 

16 

Command Central Identification Laboratory, JPAC-CIL, 


96853 


Brown, Robert P. MFS*, 22nd Military Police Battalion Evaluation of Purkait’s Triangle Method for 372 

(CID), USACIDC, PO Box 331009, Mailstop #84, Fort 

Lewis, WA 98433; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, 

Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural 

History, Department of Anthropology, 10th and 

Constitution Avenue NW, MRC 112, PO Box 37012, 

Washington, DC 20013; and Moses S. Schanfield, PhD, 

The George Washington University, Department of 

Forensic Sciences, 2036 H Street NW, 102 Samson Hall, 


Determining Sexual Dimorphism 

Index 116

Bunch, Ann W. PhD*, 164 Albert Brown Building, 

Department of Criminal Justice, SUNY Brockport, 

Brockport, NY 14420; Mary I. Jumbelic, MD, Onondaga 

County Medical Examiners Office, 100 Elizabeth Blackwell 

Street, Syracuse, NY 13210; Robert D. Willis, DDS, 7282 

Oswego Road, Liverpool, NY 13090; Ronald Brunelli, 

Onondaga County Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 

Elizabeth Blackwell Street, Syracuse, NY 13210; and 

Jennifer J. VanWie-Dobson, BA, 403 Robinson Road, 

Durham, NC 27705 

Bunch, Ann W. PhD*, and Calvin Y. Shiroma, DMD, U.S. 

CILHI, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, 

Honolulu, HI 

Bunch, Ann W. PhD*, State University of New York at 

Oswego, 310 Mahar Hall, Department of Anthropology, 

Oswego, NY 13126 

Burke, Kelly L. MSc*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Burke, Rachel M. MA*, 10024 Northeast 120th Sreet #D3, 

Kirkland, WA 

Burns, Karen R. PhD*, University of Utah, Department of 

Anthropology, 270 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, UT 

84112-0060; and Ana C. Guatame-Garcia, MSc, Calle 

126A #7C-45, Bogota, COLOMBIA 

Burns, Karen Ramey PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Georgia, 105 Tamarack Drive, Athens, GA 

Burt, Nicole M. MS*, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, 

Michigan State University, A-439 East Fee Hall, East 


Byers, Steven N. PhD*, and Jennifer L. Brady, BA, 


Albuquerque, NM 

Byers, Steven N. PhD*, University of New Mexico at 

Valencia, 280 La Entrada Road, Los Lunas, NM 87031 

Byrd, John E. PhD*, and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, U.S. 


Hickam AFB, HI; and Lisa M. Leppo, PhD, and Richard J. 

Harrington, PhD, International Commission on Missing 


Byrd, John E. PhD*, JPAC Central Identification 


96853; and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, Office of Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Byrnes, Jennifer F. BS*, SUNY University at Buffalo, 

Department of Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott 

Complex, Buffalo, NY 14261-0026; and Peter J. Bush, BS, 

SUNY at Buffalo, South Campus Instrument Center, B1 

Squire Hall, South Campus, Buffalo, NY 14214 

Index 117 

A Multidisciplinary Test of the Lamendin 

Age Estimation Method 

Be Tenacious in Your Searches for 

Clandestine Burials: A Lesson From the Field 

A Preliminary Investigation of 


Schmorl’s Nodes in the Skeletal Remains of 

an American Military Population: Frequency, 

Formation, and Etiology 

Can We Estimate Stature From the Scapula? 

A Test Considering Sex and Ancestry 

Comparison of Fresh Tissue Autopsy and 


174 

605 

384 

Challenges of the Haitian Courtroom 582 

Testing the Demirjian Method and the 

International Demirjian Method on an Urban 

American Sample 

A Refinement of the Todd Method on a 

Sample of Modern Humans 

Nonmetric Trait Frequencies and the 

Attribution of Ancestry 

Resolution of Large-Scale Commingling 

Issues: Lessons From CILHI and ICMP 

Osteometric Sorting of Commingled Human 

Remains 

Practical Considerations in Trace Element 

Analysis of Bone by Portable X-Ray 

Fluorescence 

70 

73 

51 

256 

596 

485 

540 

438 

151

Byrnes, Jennifer F. MA*, SUNY at Buffalo, Department of 

Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 

14261-0026; Peter J. Bush, BS, SUNY at Buffalo, South 

Campus Instrument Center, B1 Squire Hall, South Campus, 

Buffalo, NY 14214; Esther J. Lee, MSc, and D. Andrew 

Merriwether, PhD, Binghamton University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000; 

and Joyce E. Sirianni, PhD, SUNY at Buffalo, Department 

of Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 

14261-0026 

Bytheway, Joan A. PhD*, Sam Houston State University, 

1003 Bowers Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 77340; Kathryn E. 

Moss, BS*, 4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 77004; and 

Stephen M. Pustilnik, MD*, Galveston County Medical 


77591 



Boulevard, Box 2525, Huntsville, TX 77340 



Boulevard, Box 2525, Huntsville, TX 77340; and Ann H. 

Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, Sociology 

and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 

8107 

C. Smith, O’ Brian MD, Regional Forensic Center of the 

University of Tennessee, 1060 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN; 

and Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old 

Main, Fayetteville, AR 

Calce, Stephanie E. BSc*, University of Toronto, 

Department of Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road 

North, Mississauga, ON L5L1C6, CANADA 

Caldwell, Lindsey L. BA*, 2245 College Drive, Apartment 

178, Baton Rouge, LA 70808; MariaTeresa A. Tersigni, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, Univeristy of 

Cincinnati, Braunstein 481 PO 210380, Cincinnati, OH 




Campos Varela*, Isla Y. and Maria D. Morcillo, MD, 



Campos Varela*, Isla Yolima Institute of Legal Medicine, 

Calle 7A #12- 61, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Elizabeth A. 

DiGangi, PhD*, ICITAP, Calle 125 #19-89, Of. 401, 


Index 118 

Validity of Portable X-Ray Fluorescence in 

Assistance With Identification of Individuals 

in a Burial Setting by Comparison With 

mtDNA 

What Lies Beneath: Re-Examining a Cold 

Case Homicide From a Forensic 

Anthropological Perspective - A Case Report 

Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science 




Precision of Coordinate Landmark Data 


Burning Extremities: Patterns of Arms, Legs, 

and Preexisting Trauma 

Using the Acetabulum to Estimate Age: A 

Revised Method 

Racial Admixture: A Test of Non-Metric 


Dismemberment: Cause of Death in the 

Colombian Armed Conflict 

Forensic Anthropology in Colombia: 


114 

170 

112 

65 

551 

127 

263 

30 

135

Carter, David O. PhD*, University of Nebraska, 

Department of Entomology, 202 Plant Industry Building, 

Lincoln, NE 68583-0816; David Yellowlees, PhD, School 

of Pharmacy and Molecular Sciences, James Cook 

University, Townsville, 4811, AUSTRALIA; and Mark 

Tibbett, PhD, Centre for Land Rehabilitation, University of 

Western Australia, Crawley, 6009, AUSTRALIA 

Carter, Melinda L. PhD*, 302 Heritage Drive, De Soto, IL 

62924 

Casserino, Christopher M. MA*, University of Oregon 

Deptartment of Anthropology, 1650 Arthur Street, Eugene, 

OR 

Cattaneo, Cristina PhD, Dominic Salsarola, BSc, Davide 

J. Porta, PhD, Pasquale Poppa, BSc, and Daniele Gibelli, 

MD*, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, 

V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; Giovanna Sansoni, BE, 

Laboratorio di Optoelettronica, Via Branze 38, 25123 

Brescia – Italy, Brescia, ITALY; and Enrico Silingardi, 

Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, V. 

Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY 

Cattaneo, Cristina PhD, LABANOF, and Danilo De 

Angelis, DDS*, Laboratorio di Antropologia e 

Odontologia Forense, via Mangiagalli 37, Milan, 20133, 

ITALY; Peter Gabriel, MD, Institut für Rechtsmedizin, im 

Uniklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Arnold- 

Heller-Str. 12, D-24105, Kiel, ITALY; Stefanie Ritz-Timme, 

MD, Institut für Rechtsmedizin, im Uniklinikum Schleswig- 

Holstein, Campus Kiel, Arnold-Heller-Str. 12, D-24105, 

Kiel, , GERMANY; Janine Tutkuviene, MD, Department of 

Anatomy, Histology and Anthropology, Faculty of 

Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, , LITHUANIA; and 

Daniele Gibelli, MD, LABANOF, Laboratorio di 

Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, V. Mangiagalli, 37, 

Milan, ITALY 

Cattaneo, Cristina PhD, MD*, and Eloisa Marinelli, MD, 


20133, Italy; Salvatore Andreola, MD, Istituto Nazionale 

per la Cura Dei Tumori, via venezian 1, Milano, 20133, 

Italy; and Pasquale Poppa, BSc, and Marco Grandi, MD, 


20133, Italy 

Cebra, Karen R. MS, MSFS*, California State University 

at Chico, Anthropology Department, 400 West 1st Street, 


Chacon, Shirley C. BA*, and Gillian M. Fowler, MA, 

Fundacion de Antropologia Forense de Guatemala, 

Avenida Simeon Cañas, 10-64, Zona 2, Guatemala City, 

01002, GUATEMALA 

Chacón, Shirley C. BA*, and Leonel E. Paiz, BA, 

Fundación de Antropología Forense de Guatemala 

(FAFG), Avenida Simeón Cañas 10- 64 Zona 2, Guatemala 


Index 119 

The Reliability of Cadaver Decomposition: 



231 

Forensic Bone Toxicology 253 

A Semi-Circular Argument: Patterned 



Evolution of Forensic Archaeology and 

Anthropology in Italy: Three Criminal Cases 

The Importance of Morphological Traits in 


The Detection of Microscopic Markers of 

Haemorrhaging and Wound Age on Dry 

Bone: Beating the Barriers Between Forensic 

Anthropology and Forensic Pathology 

Efficient Processing of Human Remains 

Using Dermestid Beetles 

Uncovering the Truth Behind the Killings: 


Using Skeletons Exhumed From Ex-Military 

Bases in Guatemala 

Most Common Variation and Dental 

Anomalies in Skeletons Analyzed in the 

Laboratory of the Guatemalan Forensic 

Anthropology Foundation 

574 

186 

182 

380 

319 

285 

348

Chacon, Shirley C. BA*, Avenida Simeon Canas 10-64 

zona 2, 2 Avenida 8-28 zona 18 Residenciales Atlantida, 

Guatemala, 01002, Guatemala; and Leonel E. Paiz, BA, 

Avenida Simeon Canas 10-64 zona 2, Guatemala, 01002, 

Guatemala 

Chacon, Shirley C. BA*, Leonel E. Paiz, BA, and Renaldo 

Acevedo, BA, Fundacion de Anthropology Forense de 

Guatemala, Avenida Simeon Cañas 10-64 Zona 2, 


Chadly, Ali MD*, Professor in Legal Medicine, Head of 

Department of Legal Medicine, Tarak Mghirbi, Resident, S. 

Krimi, Resident, and M. Ben Aycha, Médical Student, 

Département de Médicine Légale, Hôpital Universitaire “ 

F. Bourguiba”, Monastir, Tunisia 

Chapman, Katharine A. BA*, Texas State University, 



Chibba, Kavita Novinchandra BSc*, 9203 Nile Street, 

Extension 10, Lenasia, Johannesburg, 1820, SOUTH 

AFRICA 

Child, Stephanie L. MA*, The University of Missouri- 

Columbia, 701 Swallow Hall, Columbia, Missouri 65211; 

and Dana E. Austin, PhD, Tarrant County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 200 Felix Gwozdz Place, Forth Worth, 

Texas 76104 

Child, Stephanie L. MA*, University of Missouri, 107 

Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211; and Daniel J. 

Wescott, PhD, Florida International University, 

Department Biological Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th 


Cho, Helen PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Davidson 

College, Box 6934, Davidson, NC 28035-6934; and Hee- 

Kyung Park, DDS, PhD, Seoul National University, 275-1 

Yeongeon-dong, Jongno-Gu, Seoul National University, 

School of Dentistry, Seoul, 0 110-768, KOREA 

Christensen, Alexander F. PhD*, and William R. Belcher, 

PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


AFB, HI 96853; and Sarah Bettinger, MSFS, Armed 


Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850 

Christensen, Alexander F. PhD*, Joint POW/MIA 


310 Worchester Ave., Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

Index 120 

Children’s Traumas Caused During the Civil 

War in Guatemala 

Disappearance, Torture, and Murder of Nine 

Individuals in a Community of Guatemala 

Age Estimation by the Examination of the 

Endocranial Sutures Closure: A North- 

African Adult Population Study 

When the Bullet Hits the Bone: Patterns of 

Gunshot Trauma to the Infracranium 

The Influence of Body Fat on the Rate of 

Decomposition in Traumatized Pigs 

The Differential Diagnosis of Skullbase 



Detecting Individuals With Reduced Mobility 

Using Femoral Morphology 

A Test of the FORDISC Sex Discriminant 


Analysis of Commingled Remains Using 

Archaeology, Anthropology, and DNA: A 

Case Study from North Korea 

Gooney Birds and Rocky Clouds: 

Perimortem Trauma in World War II C-47 

Crashes From Papua New Guinea 

399 

419 

594 

309 

237 

396 

99 

274 

349 

375

Christensen, Alexander F. PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Suni M. 

Edson, MS*, Armed Forces DNA ID Lab, 1413 Research 

Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Erica L. 

Chatfield, MFS, AFDIL, 1413 Research Boulevard, 

Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Audrey L. Meehan, 

BGS, JPAC-CIL, 91-1074 Anaunau Street, Ewa Beach, HI 

96706; and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, AFDIL, Armed Forces 

DNA ID Lab, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, 


Christensen, Angi M. MA*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, 



Christensen, Angi M. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

The University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 

Christensen, Angi M. PhD*, 301 Taliwa Drive, Knoxville, 

TN 37920 

Christensen, Angi M. PhD*, FBI Laboratory, Trace 

Evidence Unit - Anthropology, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Kevin J. Horn, JD*, FBI 

Laboratory, Evidence Response Team Unit, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and Sarah W. 

Myers, BA, Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, 

GA 30322 

Christensen, Angi M. PhD*, Federal Bureau of 


Forensic Anthropology Program (TEU), Quantico, VA 

22135; Michael A. Smith, PhD, Federal Bureau of 


Chemistry Unit, Quantico, VA 22135; and Richard M. 

Thomas, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

Trace Evidence Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 




Quantico, VA 22135; and Adam D. Sylvester, PhD, The 

University of Tennessee, Department of Mechanical, 

Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, 301 Perkins Hall, 


Index 121 

Field Contamination of Archaeological Bone 

Samples Submitted for Mitochondrial DNA 

(mtDNA) Analysis 

The Impact of Daubert on Testimony and 

Research in Forensic Anthropology 

The Influence of Behavior on Free Fall Injury 

Patterns: Possible Implications for Forensic 

Anthropological Investigations 

Testing the Reliability of Frontal Sinuses in 

Positive Identification Using Elliptic Fourier 

Analysis 

The Effects of Varying pH on Bone in 


Validation of X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) to 



Physical Matches of Bone, Tooth, and Shell 

Fragments: A Validation Study 

152 

581 

552 

527 

86 

43 

354


Investigation Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit - 

Anthropology, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

22135; Vanessa Ramos, BS, Oak Ridge Associated 

Universities, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA ; 

Rachealle Sanford, BA, Western Kentucky University, 

College Heights Boulevard, Bowling Green, KY 42101; 

Candie Shegogue, BS, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Victoria 

A. Smith, MA*, ORAU, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and W. Mark Whitworth, 

BS, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory Explosives 

Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135 

Christensen, Angi M. PhD, FBI Laboratory, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and Victoria 

A. Smith, MA*, ORAU, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Quantico, VA 

Christensen, Angi M. PhD, Federal Bureau of 


Quantico, VA 22135; Christian M. Crowder, PhD*, New 

York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Tracy Rogers, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto at 

Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, CANADA 

Christensen, Angi M. PhD, Federal Bureau of 


Quantico, VA 22135; Christian M. Crowder, PhD*, Office 

of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 


38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Max M. Houck, PhD, 

West Virginia University, 1600 University Avenue, 208 

Oglebay Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506-6217 

Ciaccio, Frank A. MPA*, Kenyon International Emergency 

Services, Inc., 15180 Grand Point Drive, Houston, TX 

77090; and Nick Haig, BA, Msc*, Kenyon International 

Emergency Services, Inc., 1, The Western Centre, Western 

Road, Bracknell, RG12 1RW, England, United Kingdom 

Clowes, Andrea BA*, Michigan State University, 16789 

Chandler Road, #1422A, East Lansing, MI 48823 

Colleran, Peter J. BS*, and Mallory S. Littman, BA, Boston 


MA 02118; Billie L. Seet, MA, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Boston, MA 02118; Tara L. Moore, PhD, 

Boston University School of Medicine, 700 Albany St., 

Boston, MA 02118; Debra A. Prince, PhD, Office of the 

Chief Medical Examiner, Boston, MA 02118 

Congram, Derek MSc*, 706-1850 Comox Street, 

Vancouver, BC V6G 1R3, CANADA 

Index 122 

Primary and Secondary Skeletal Blast 

Trauma 

Analysis of Primary Blast Rib Fractures 4 

Evidentiary Standards for Forensic 

Anthropology 

Errors, Error Rates, and Their Meanings in 


An Argument for the Increased Involvement 

of Forensic Anthropologists in Mass Fatality 

Incidents in the United States, United 

Kingdom and Europe 

Comparison of Two Methods of Age 



Decomposition in Water: The Effects of 

Climate on the Rate of Decay in New 

England 

Spatial Patterning of Clandestine Graves in 




67 

282 

36 

334 

290 

108 

114

Congram, Derek R. BA Honours, MSc, MA*, 393 Pinehurst 

Drive, RR4 Belle River, Ontario N0R 2A0, Canada; and 

Ambika Flavel, BA, MSc Forensic Archaeology, Regime 

Crimes Liaison Office, RCLO/Mass Graves, APO, AE 

09342 

Conlogue, Gerald J. MHS*, c/o Diagnostic Imaging 

Program, Quinnipiac University, 275 Mt. Carmel Avenue, 

Hamden, CT 06518; and Mark D. Viner, MSc, Inforce 

Foundation, Forensic Science Institute, Cranfield 

University, Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, 


Cope*, Darcy J. and Tosha L. Dupras, PhD, University of 

Central Florida, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology, Orlando, FL 32816 

Cornelison, Jered B. MS*, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 204 Olds Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Wendy L. Lackey- Cornelison, MA, Michigan 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 426 East 

Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 28824; and Brian C. Hunter, 

PhD, 1215 East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 48912 

Cornelison, Jered B. MS*, Todd W. Fenton, PhD, and 

Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Michigan State University, 446 East Fee Hall, East 

Lansing, MI; Joyce L. de Jong, DO; and Brian C. Hunter, 

MD, Sparrow Hospital, Forensic Pathology Services, 1215 

East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 

Cornell*, Cheslee and Nicole A. Wall, MFS, College of 

Saint Mary, Forensic Science Program 7000 Mercy Road, 

Omaha, NE 68106 

Cosgriff-Hernandez, Meghan-Tomasita J. MS*, The Ohio 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 4034 Smith 

Laboratory, 174 West 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210; 

and Sam D. Stout, PhD, Ohio State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 4034 Smith Laboratory, Columbus, OH 

43210-1106 

Cotes, Lazaro M. Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama 

City, Panama; Kathryn M. Jemmott, MA, CA Pound 

Human ID Laboratory, University of Florida, Building 114 

SW Radio Road, Gainesville, FL 32611; Loreto S. Silva, 


Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Raleigh, NC 

27612 

Cotter, Meghan M. MSc*, Burial Sites Preservation 

Program, Wisconsin Historical Society, 816 State Street, 

Madison, WI 53706 

Cox, Margaret PhD*, Cranfield University / Inforce 

Foundation, Shrivenham, Swindon, UNITED KINGDOM 

Craig, Emily A. PhD*, and Cristin Rolf, MD, Kentucky 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 

202, Frankfort, KY 40601 

Index 123 

Grave Problems in Iraq 337 

Forensic Field Radiography: In the Trenches 

With MacGyver 

The Effects of Household Corrosive 

Substances on Human Bone and Teeth 

154 

377 

Sex Determination From the Hyoid Body 373 

Comparative Radiography of the Lateral 

Hyoid: A New Method for Human 


Mummification and Palynology: What We 

Can Learn in Regards to Time and Location 

of Death 

Histological Age Estimation: Towards 



604 

243 

The Archaeology of Tyranny 484 

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis, 

Pharmacological Treatments, and the 

Potential for Individuation in Forensic 

Anthropology 

Experiential Education: The Use of 



Putting It All Together: Recovery, Assembly, 

and Analysis of Multiple Body Parts 

96 

427 

235 

320

Craig, Emily A. PhD*, and Cristin Rolf, MD, State Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, 

Frankfort, KY 40601; and Warren Mitchell, Kentucky State 

Police Laboratory, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, 

Frankfort, KY 40601 

Craig, Emily A. PhD*, Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 

Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY 40601 

Craig, Emily A. PhD*, Medical Examiner's Office, 100 

Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY; and Corky 

Deaton, DMD, Consulting Forensic Odontologist, 359-C 

South Fourth Street, Danville, KY 

Crawford, Greg MS,; David Raymond, MS*, Chris Van Ee, 

PhD, and Cynthia Bir, PhD, Wayne State University, 818 


Crider, Stephanie M. BA*, 4525 North Leata Lane, La 

Canada, CA 91011 

Crider, Stephanie M. BA*, Louisiana State University, 


Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Mary H. Manhein, 


& Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Crider, Stephanie Marie MA*, Louisiana State University, 


Russell-Kniffen Geosciences Complex, Baton Rouge, LA 




Crist, Thomas A. PhD*, and John H. Johnsen, PhD, Utica 

College, 1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, NY 13304 

Cross, Peter A. BSc*, 11 Lower Bank Road, Fulwood, 

Preston, 0 PR2 8NS, UNITED KINGDOM 

Crowder, Christian M. MA*, University of Toronto, 100 St. 

George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada 

Crowder, Christian M. MA*, University of Toronto, 

Department of Anthropology, 100 St. George Street, 

Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada 

Crowder, Christian M. MA, and Zoe H. Morris, BSc*, 

University of Toronto, Department of Anthropology, 100 

St. George Street, Toronto, ON M5S3G3, Canada 

Crowder, Christian M. PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command Central ID Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Crowder, Christian PhD*, Benjamin J. Figura, MA, 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD, and Frank DePaolo, MS, New 

York City, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Cuff, Abbie K. MSc*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, University of 

Central Lancashire, Department of Forensic & 

Investigative Science, Preston, PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

Index 124 

Microscopic and Cross Section Analysis of 

Occult Intraosseous Fracture (Bone Bruise) of 

the Skull 

Anthropologist/Medical Examiner 

Collaboration at Isolated, Inaccessible, or 

Disrupted Crime Scenes 

Recovery and Identification Challenges in a 

Case of Suicidal Self-Cremation 


the Forehead and Zygoma 

Superficial Ancestral Characteristics of the 

Nose 

Foramen Magnum Shape as a Potential 


Ancestry Determination From Foramen 

Magnum 

Introducing Forensic Anthropology to 

Albania Using the Problem-Based Learning 

Model 

The Influence of Penetrative Trauma on the 

Rate of Decomposition 

A Review of Age Estimation Using Rib 

Histology: Its Impact on Evidentiary 

Examination 

Measure Twice, Cut Once? Measurement 


Reducing Intra- and Inter-Observer Error 

Through Histomorphometric Variable 

Selection 

Reducing Observer Error Through Choice of 

Histological Evaluation Technique 

The Role of Forensic Anthropology in 


Evidence vs. Identification: The Role of 

Humanitarian Organizations in the Balkans 

1992-2002 

418 

177 

606 

244 

378 

120 

27 

335 

232 

524 

453 

429 

406 

177 

398

Cunha, Eugenia PhD*, Joan V. Badal, and Andersen 

Líryo, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, PORTUGAL; João 

Pinheiro, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Delegação 

de Coimbra, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000, 

PORTUGAL; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Inst, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, 

Erie, PA 16546-0001 

Cunha, Eugénia PhD*, Maria Cristina Mendonça, PhD, 

and Duarte Nuno Vieira, PhD, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Departamento Antropologia, Instituto Nacional de 

Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé-Nova, Coimbra, 3000-056, 

Portugal 

Cunha, Eugénia PhD*,Universidade de Coimbra, 

Departmento de Anthopologia, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Portugal and Maria Cristina de Mendonça, PhD, 

Departmento de Anthropologia, Universidade de 

Coimbra/Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Coimbra, 

Portugal 

Curtin, A. Joanne PhD*, University of West Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 11000 University Parkway, 


Curtin, Briana K. BA*, 1901 Elaine Drive, St. Joseph, MO 

64505 

Curtis, Janene BS*, Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 

and Christine M. Turk, BS, and Mary K. Ritke, PhD, 

Biology Department, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

Curtis, Janene M. MS*, and Owen B. Beattie, PhD, 

University of Alberta, Department of Anthropology, 13-15 

HM Tory Building, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2H4, CANADA 

Dabbs, Gretchen R. BA, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 

Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 

Dabbs, Gretchen R. MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old 

Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; and Michelle A. Granrud, 

585 North Scottsdale Drive, Apartment 6, Fayetteville, AR 

72701 

Daegling, David J. PhD*, Jennifer Hotzman, MA, Casey J. 

Self, MA, and Michael W. Warren, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, 1112 

Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Damann, Franklin E. MA*, and Mark D. Leney, PhD, 

JPAC Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and Suni M. Edson, 

MS, Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 1413 


Damann, Franklin E. MA*, Mark Leney, PhD, and Ann W. 

Bunch, PhD, U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, 

Hawaii, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, 

Honolulu, HI 

Index 125 

How Easily Can We Derive Cause and 

Manner of Death on the Basis of Dry Bones? 

Lessons Derived From Coimbra Identified 

Skeletal Collections 

Exhumation and Identification of a Particular 

Individual in a Mass Grave 

Forensic Anthropology in Portugal: The State 

of Knowledge 

Teaching Forensic Field Methods to 



The Effects of Fire Suppression Techniques 


Using Restriction Enzymes to Reduce the 

Inhibitory Properties of Bacterial DNA on 

PCR Amplification of Human DNA 

Sequences 

Design Perspectives for Obtaining Facial Soft 

Tissue Depths From Cadavers Using a New 

Approach 

Predicting the Location of Scattered Human 

Remains: When Will Heads Roll and Where 

Will They Go? 

Decomposition of Sharpey’s Fibers in 

Estimating Postmortem Interval 

Bone Fracture Mechanics: In Vitro Strain 

Gauge Analysis of the Ribs and Mandible 

During Failure 

Separating Commingled Remains Using 

Ancient DNA Analysis 

Predicting Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 


286 

442 

591 

77 

75 

546 

226 

240 

146 

402 

442 

579

Damann, Franklin E. MA*, National Museum of Health 

and Medicine, AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, DC 

20012-0685; and Aphantree Tanittaisong, MS, AFIP 


Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850 

Damann, Franklin E. MA*, National Museum of Health 

and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 6825 

16th Street, NW, Bldg 54, Washington, DC 20306-6000; 

and Rebekkah Adler, BS, Derek C. Benedix, PhD, and 

Elias J. Kontanis, PhD Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command (JPAC), Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853- 

5530 

Damann, Franklin MA* and John E. Byrd, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Central Identification Laboratory, 


Danforth, Marie Elaine PhD*, and Andrew R. Thompson, 

BA, University of Southern Mississippi, Department of 

Anthropology and Sociology, 118 College Drive, #5074, 

Hattiesburg, MS 39406 

Danforth, Marie PhD*, University of Southern Mississippi, 

Department of Anthropology and Sociology, 118 College 

Drive, #5074, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 

Danner, Elizabeth M. BA*, School of Forensic and 



Darrah, Thomas H. MS*, University of Rochester, 227 

Hutchison Hall, University of Rochester, Department of 

Earth & Environmental Sciences, Rochester, NY 14627; 

Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA, University of Rochester 

Medical Center, Autopsy & Neuropathology, 601 

Elmwood, Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642; and Robert J. 

Poreda, PhD, University of Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, 

University of Rochester, Department of Earth & 

Environmental Sciences, Rochester, NY 14627 

Dautartas, Angela M. BS*, and Kanya M Godde, MA*, 



Dautartas, Angela M. BS*, University of Tennessee, 250 


Dautartas, Angela M. MA, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Kanya 

Godde, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 3904 Lonas Drive, 


Davy-Jow, Stephanie L. PhD*, Liverpool John Moores 

University, James Parsons Building, Byrom Street, 

Liverpool, L3 3AF, UNITED KINGDOM; Summer J. 

Decker, MS, USF COM Department of Pathology, 12901 

Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 33612; 

and Diane L. France, PhD, Colorado State University, 

Human Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, 

Fort Collins, CO 80523 

Index 126 

Human Decomposition Ecology at the 



Patterns of Perimortem Fracture From 

Military Aircraft Crashes 

The Effects of Size in Craniometric 


Assessment of Determination of Handedness 

Using Standard Osteological Measurements 

of the Shoulder Girdle and Arm Long Bones 

from Individuals of Known Handedness 

An Evaluation of Racial Differences in the 

Human Mandible Using Discriminant 


Cremated Tooth Morphology: A User’s 


Characterization of Lead, Transition Metal, 

and Rare Earth Element Composition of 

Human Bone by ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS 

Are Cranial Morphological Traits Population 

Specific? A Reevaluation of Traditional Sex 

Estimation Methodology 

The Effects of Coverings on the Rate of 




Forensic Anthropology and Virtual Human 


106 

240 

470 

312 

448 

203 

250 

265 

147 

119 

11

Day, Kathleen MS*, State of Alaska Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 4500 South Boniface Parkway, Anchorage, AK 

99507; and David McMahan, MA, Alalska Department of 

Natural Resources, Office of History & Archaelogy, 3601 

C Street, Suite 1278, Anchorage, AK 99503 

de Jager Burford, Saskia M. BA, MSc*, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, 

United Kingdom; Robert F. Pastor, PhD, The Calvin Wells 

Laboratory, Department of Archaeological Sciences, 

University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom; and 

Christopher J. Hobbs, BSc, MB, BS, MRCP, Department of 

Community Pediatrics, Saint James University Hospital, 

Leeds, United Kingdom 

Decker, Summer J. BA*, Jennifer L. Thompson, PhD, and 

Bernardo T. Arriaza, PhD, Department of Anthropology & 

Ethnic Studies, University of Nevada at Las Vegas, 4505 

Maryland Parkway, Box 455003, Las Vegas, NV 89154- 

5003 

Decker, Summer J. MA*, Jonathan M. Ford, BA*, and Don 

R. Hilbelink, PhD, Department of Pathology and Cell 


12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 

33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department of 

Chemical Engineering, University of South Florida College 

of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612 

Decker, Summer J. MA*, Jonathan M. Ford, BA, BA, and 

Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, Department of Pathology and Cell 



33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department. of 

Chemical & Biomedical Engineering, University of South 

Florida College of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612 

Decker, Summer J. MA, MABMH*, and Don R. Hilbelink, 

PhD, Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, University. 

of South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. 

Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 33612; and Eric J. 

Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department. of Chemical Engineering, 

University of South Florida, College of Engineering, 13201 


Decker, Summer J. MA, MS*, University of South Florida 

College of Medicine, Department of Pathology & Cell 

Biology, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, 

Tampa, FL 33612; Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, PhD, School of 

Biological and Earth Sciences, Liverpool John Moores 

University, Liverpool John Moores University, James 

Parsons Building, 236, Byrum Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, 

UNITED KINGDOM; and Jonathan M. Ford, MS, and 

Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, Deptartment of Pathology & Cell 



33612 

Index 127 

Even in Alaska! Missing Person or Cremains 

and How to Tell the Difference 

Fracture Patterns in Abused Children: A 

Study of Skeletal Trauma Among Battered 

Children in a Clinical Cohort From the Leeds 

(UK) Metropolitan Area 

3-Dimensional Morphometric Analysis of the 

Zygomatic as Used in Ancestral Identification 

Three-Dimensional Computer Modeling and 

Anthropological Assessment of the National 

Library of Medicine’s Visible Human Male 

Maintaining Custody: A Virtual Method of 

Creating Accurate Reproductions of Skeletal 

Remains for Facial Approximation 

Virtual Skull Anatomy: Three-Dimensional 



Virtual Sex: Phenice and Metrics of the 

Pelvis From 3D Computed Tomography (CT) 

Models 

347 

608 

467 

162 

180 

227 

101

Decker, Summer J. MABMH*, and Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, 

Department. of Pathology and Cell Biology, University of 

South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs 

Boulevard, MDC11, Tampa, FL 33612; Eric J. Hoegstrom, 

MSBE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of 

South Florida College of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612; 

Carl K. Adrian, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Attn: Carl Adrian/IPGU Rm. 

#1170, Quantico, VA 22135; and Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, 

Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield, 

Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Dedouit, Fabrice MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, 

TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; Pierre 

Barrier, Philippe Otal, PhD, Hervé Rousseau, PhD, and 



Poulhès,TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; 

and Daniel Rouge, PhD, and Norbert Telmon, PhD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 

avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse 

Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE 

Dedouit, Fabrice MD*, Stéphanie Bindel, David Gainza, 

MD, and Anthony Blanc, MD, Service de Médecine Légale, 


Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, France; 



Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, France; 

and Daniel Rouge, PhD, and Norbert Telmon, PhD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 

Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse 

Cedex 9, 31059, France 

Index 128 

Who Is This Person? A Comparison Study of 

Current 3-Dimensional Facial Approximation 

Methods 

Analysis of the Auricular Surface on Multi- 

Slice Computed Tomography 

Reconstructions for Assessment of Aging: A 


Utilization of the Iscan Method on Multi-slice 

Computed Tomography Reconstructions for 

Assessment of Aging: A Preliminary Study 

254 

225 

346

Dedouit, Fabrice Ph D*, Service de Médecine Légale, 


Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; 

Marie Faruch Bifeld, MS, Service de Médecine Légale, 

CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue Professeur Jean 

Poulhès, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; José Braga, 

PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie AMIS, FRE 2960 

CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, 37 allées Jules Guesde, 

Toulouse, 31000, FRANCE; Nicolas Sans, PhD, Service de 

Radiologie, CHU Toulouse-Purpan, Place du Docteur 

Baylac, Toulouse, 31059, FRANCE; Hervé Rousseau, PhD, 

Service de Radiologie, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue 

Professeur Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31059, FRANCE; Eric 

Crubezy, PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie AMIS, 

FRE 2960 CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, 37 allées Jules 

Guesde, Toulouse, 31000, FRANCE; Daniel Rouge, PhD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 

Avenue Professeur Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31059, 

FRANCE; and Norbert Telmov, PhD, Service Medico- 

Judiciaire, CHU Rangueil, 1 Avenue Jean Poulhes, 

Toulouse, F-31054, FRANCE 

Delabarde, Tania PhD*, Institut Francais d’Etudes 

Andines, Whymper 442 y Coruna, Quito, ECUADOR; and 

Freddy G.H. Almagro, MD, Departmento Medico Legal de 

la Policia, Judicial de Pichincha Av., Mariana de Jesus s/n 

y Av., Occidental, ECUADOR 

Delvin, Joanne B. PhD*, and Anne Kroman, MA*, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Steve Symes, 

PhD, Mercyhurst College, Mercyhurst Archaeological 

Institute, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences , Erie, 

PA 16546; and Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD, University of 



Derrick, Sharon M. PhD*, Harris County Institute of 

Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; John A. Hipp, PhD, Medical Metrics, Incorporated, 

2121 Sage Road, Houston, TX 77056; Jennifer C. Love, 

PhD, and Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, Harris County 

Institute of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, 

Houston, TX 77054; N. Shastry Akella, PhD, Medical 

Metrics, Incorporated, 2121 Sage Road, Houston, TX 

77056; and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County Institute 

of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054 

Derrick, Sharon M. PhD*, Harris County Medical 


77054 

Derrick, Sharon M. PhD*, Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, Ruth 

Mathis, Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, 

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, Anthropology 

Division, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Index 129 

Three-Dimensional Geometric Morphometric 

Analysis and Multislice Computed 

Tomography: Application for Adult Sexual 

Dimorphism in Human Coxal Bone 

Missing in Amazonian Jungle: A Case Study 

of Suspected Dismemberment 

Heat Intensity Versus Exposure Duration Part 

I: Macroscopic Influence on Burned Bone 

New Method of Identification Based on 

Computer-Assisted Radiograph Comparison 

Supra-Inion Depressions in a Pediatric 

Medical Examiner Sample: Support for a 

Synergy of Developmental and 

Biomechanical Etiologies 

The Utility of the Identification Unit Concept 

in the Medical Examiner Setting 

17 

280 

397 

54 

212 

281

Derrick, Sharon M. PhD*, Michele Hunt, BS, and Luis A. 

Sanchez, MD, Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 


Devlin, Joanne L. PhD*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, MA, 



Devlin, Joanne L. PhD, and Murray K. Marks, PhD*, 



Dicke, Clarissa R. AD*, 1325 East Orange Street, Tempe, 

AZ 85281; Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, Forensic Science 

Center, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; and Mark 

A. Fischione, MD, Maricopa County Office of the Medical 

Examiner, 701 West Jefferson Street, Phoenix, AZ 85003 

Dickson, Gemma C. BSc*, and Russell T.M. Poulter, PhD, 


56, Dunedin, AS 9054, NEW ZEALAND; Jules A. Kieser, 

PhD, University of Otago, Sir John Walsh Research 

Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, PO Box 647, Dunedin, AS 



Private Bag 14901, Wellington, AS 9054, NEW ZEALAND; 

and P. Keith Probert, PhD, University of Otago, 

Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, Dunedin, AS 

9054, NEW ZEALAND 

Dickson, Gemma C. BSc*, and Russell T.M. Poulter, PhD, 


56, Dunedin, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND; Jules A. 

Kieser, PhD, University of Otago, Sir John Walsh 

Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, PO Box 647, 

Dunedin, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND; Elizabeth W. 

Maas, PhD, National Institute of Water & Atmospheric 

Research, Ltd. (NIWA), Private Bag 14901, Wellington, 

Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND; and P. Keith Probert, PhD, 

University of Otago, Department of Marine Science, PO 

Box 56, Dunedin, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND 

DiGangi, Elizabeth A. MA*, and Jonathan D. Bethard, 


250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37916; Erin H. 

Kimmerle, PhD, University of South Florida, Department 

of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, 

Tampa, FL 33620-8100; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, 



DiGangi, Elizabeth A. MA*, Department of Natural and 

Behavioral Sciences, 10541 Hardin Valley Road, 

Knoxville, TN 37933; Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, The 



Index 130 

Houston Mass Murder Victims: 33 Years 

Later 

Supply and Demand: Trends and Training in 


295 

559 

Age Progression: How Accurate Is It? 564 

Biology and Culture in the Modern Era: How 

Cultural Evidence Can Conflict With 


Profiling of Marine Microbial Communities 

Associated With Decomposing Remains Can 

Indicate Postmortem Submersion Interval 

Microbial Marine Decomposition: Marine 



A New Method for Estimating Age-at-Death 

From the First Rib 

A Test of an Age-at-Death Method Using the 

First Rib 

193 

60 

87 

370 

267

DiGangi, Elizabeth A. MA*, Pellissippi State Technical 

Community College, Department of Natural and 

Behavioral Sciences, 10915 Hardin Valley Road, 

Knoxville, TN 37993; and Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, The 



DiMaggio, John A. RPh, DPM*, Forensic Podiatry 

Consulting Services, 2600 East Southern Avenue, Suite I-3, 

Tempe, AZ 

DiMichele, Daniel L. BS*, Texas State University, 601 


Dionne, Charles A. BS*, University of Central Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 4000 Central Florida 


Dionne, Charles A. MA*, and Samantha M. Seasons, BA, 


4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33620; 

Leszek Chrostowski, MD, Hillsborough County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 11025 North 46th Street, Tampa, FL 

33617; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of South 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, 


Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD*, and Luis L. Cabo, MS, 


Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD*, Applied Forensic Sciences 

Department, Mercyhurst College, Glenwood Hills, Erie, 

PA 16546; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 


38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, 



Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD*, Departments of Anthropology 


PA; and Michael Hochrein, BS, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation, St. Louis, MO 

Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD*, Departments of Anthropology 


PA; and Wallace Miller, BS, Somerset County Coroner, 

Somerset, PA 

Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD*, Luis M. Cabo, MS, and James 

M. Adovasio, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th 

Street, Erie, PA 16546; Vicente C. Rozas, PhD, Centro de 

Investigaciones Forestales y Ambientales de Lourizán, 

Departamento de Ecología, Aptdo. 127, Pontevedra, 

Galicia 36080, Spain 

Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA; Steven A. Symes, PhD, University of 

Tennessee Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison 

Avenue, Memphis, TN; Erik Vey, MD, Erie County 

Coroner’s Office, Erie County Courthouse, Erie, PA; and 

O’Brian C. Smith, MD, University of Tennessee Regional 

Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

Index 131 

Skeletal Markers of Parturition II: Reanalysis 

of a Modern American Sample 

311 

The Foot as a Forensic Tool 534 

Sex Estimation From the Calcaneus Using 117 


Detecting Buried Metallic Weapons in a 194 

Controlled Setting Using a Conductivity 

Meter 

Fusion Patterns in Modern Hyoid Bones 33 

The Shallow Grave as an Option for 

Disposing of the Recently Deceased: Goals 

and Consequences 

Forensic Archaeological Recovery of the 

Victims of the Continental Connection Flight 

3407 Crash in Clarence Center, New York 

Teaching Forensic Archaeology to the 



Scene Recovery Efforts in Shanksville, 


Office in the Processing of the Crash Site of 

United Airlines Flight 93 

Mass Graves, Human Rights and 

Commingled Remains: Considering the 

Benefits of Forensic Archaeology 

Recognizing Child Abuse in the Thoracic 

Region Through a Multidisciplinary 

Approach 

386 

113 

560 

571 

444 

609

Dirkmaat, Dennis C. PhD, Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, 

Alexandra R. Klales, MS*, Erin Chapman, MS, and Allison 

M. Nesbitt, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of 


16546 

Donno, Antonio De PhD*, and Bruno Morgese, MD, 

Section of Legal Medicine - University of Bari, Pizza 

Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; Maurizio Scarpa, 

MD, Pizza G. Cesare 11 University of Bari, Bari, ITALY; 

and Francesco Introna, PhD, Section of Legal Medicine - 


Donno, Antonio De PhD*, and Valeria Santoro, PhD, 

Section of Legal Medicine - DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare 

n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; Carlo P. Campobasso, PhD, 

University of Molise, via De Sanctis, snc, Campobasso, 

86100, ITALY; Nunzio Di Nunno, PhD, via Guido Dorso 9, 

Bari, 70125, ITALY; and Francesco Introna, PhD, Section 

of Legal Medicine - DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, 

Bari, 70124, ITALY 

Donno, Antonio De PhD*, Section of Legal Medicine - 

DiMIMP - University of Bari, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, 

Bari, 70124, ITALY; Simona Corrado, MD, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale, Bari, 70100, ITALY; Valeria Santoro, 

PhD, Domenico Urso, MD, Piercarlo Lozito, DDS, and 

Francesco Introna, MD, Section of Legal Medicine, 

Department of Internal and Public Medicine (DiMIMP), 

University of Bari, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, 

ITALY; Aldo Di Fazio, MD, Section of legal medicine - 

Matera Hospital, via Montescaglioso n.5, Matera, 75100, 

ITALY; and Rocco Maglietta, MD, Section of Legal 

Medicine - San Carlo Hospital Potenza, via P.Petroni n.6, 

Potenza, 85100, ITALY 

Doretti*, Mercedes C. Argentine Forensic Anthropology 

Team (EAAF), 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201; 

Luis Fondebrider, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street 


Dotson, Meryle A. BA*, University of South Florida, 4202 

East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33620; Erin H. 


of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 

33820; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of 

Illinois, Department of Anthropology, 109 Davenport Hall, 

607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

Dowdy, Liotta N.*BS, and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, 

4202 East Fowler Avenue SOC 107, Tampa FL 33620; and 

John O. Obafunwa, MD, JD, Department of Pathology and 

Forensic Medicine, Lagos State University College of 

Medicine, Ikeja, Lagos, NIGERIA 

Drawdy, Shuala M. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

Driscoll, Kathryn R.D. MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 


Index 132 

New Forensic Archaeological Recovery 


A New Method for Height Estimation Using 

Photogrammetry: Reliability and Validity 

Forensic Age Estimation of Living 


Homicide by Lapidation in Neolitic Age: 


Perspectives and Recommendations From the 

Field: Forensic Anthropology and Human 

Rights in Argentina 

Age Estimation Utilizing Postnatal Dental 

Mineralization: An Exploratory Analysis of 

Molar Development for a Contemporary 


The Use of Morbidity and Mortality Patterns 

in Transitional Justice Initiatives Towards 


Location, Identification, and Repatriation of 

Remains of Victims of Conflict: Implications 

for Forensic Anthropology 

Can Bilateral Joint Asymmetry Be Used as an 

Estimation of Handedness? 

41 

21 

199 

219 

507 

20 

124 

568 

192

Driscoll, Kathryn R.D. MA*, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 


Drukier, Piotr MS*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Eva E. 

Klonowski, PhD, International Commission on Missing 


Drukier, Piotr MSc*, Eva Klonowski, PhD, Laura 

Yazedjian, Rifat Kesetovic, and Edwin F. Huffine, MS, 

International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipashina 

45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Dudar, J. Christopher PhD*, and Steve D. Ousley, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012, MRC 138, 


Dudley, Mary H. MD*, Sedgwick County Regional 

Forensic Science Center, 1109 North Minneapolis, 

Wichita, KS 67214; Joy Vetters, BS, Wichita State 

University - Department of Anthropology, 1845 Fairmount, 

Wichita, KS 67260; and Angela E. Benefiel, BA, Sedgwick 

County Regional Forensic Science Center, 1109 North 

Minneapolis, Wichita, KS 67214 

Dudzik, Beatrix MA*, and Hillary R. Parsons, MA, 508 

Chisholm Trail, Knoxville, TN 37919-7050; and Ashley H. 

McKeown, PhD, University of Montana, Department of 

Anthropology, Missoula, MT 59812 

Duhaime, Lauren J. BSc*, 1693 Virginia Drive, Sudbury, 

Ontario P3E 4T7, CANADA 

Dupras, Tosha L. PhD*, Joy E. Lang, and Heather L. 

Reay, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, 

University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL; John J. 

Schultz, MS, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, 

Gainesville, FL; and Noel A. Palma, BS, MD, Medical 

Examiner’s Office, Pinellas-Pasco County, West Palm 

Beach, FL 

Dupuis, Diana A. BA*, 2610 110th Avenue, NE, Bellevue, 

WA 98004 

Durakovic, Nedim BSc*, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Emina 

Kurtalić, Amir Hasandžiković, BSc, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and 




E. El-Sheikh, M. Essam MD, PhD*, and Salwa Ramadan, 

MD, PO Box 1747, Farwaina 1747, Kuwait 

Edson, Suni M. MS*, and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, Armed 


Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Mark D. 

Leney, PhD, Central Identification Lab, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 

Air Force Base, HI 96853; and Brion C. Smith, DDS, 



Index 133 

Bilateral Asymmetry and Handedness: Are 

they Really Related? 

Age-Related Changes in the Adult Male 


Anthropological Review of Remains From 

Srebrenica as Part of the Identification 

Process 

Diagnosis of Anencephaly, a Common Lethal 

Neural Tube Defect, From Taphonomically 

Altered Fetal or Neonatal Skeletal Remains 

Exhumation of an Historical Gravesite at 

Taos Cemetery 

Using the Freeze-Thaw Cycle to Determine 

the Postmortem Interval: An Assessment of 

Pig Decomposition in West Central Montana 

Recollected Versus Actual Stature: How 


Measure Up? 

Masking Identity: The Effects of Corrosive 

Household Agents on Soft Tissue, Bone, and 

Dentition 

Decomposition in the Santa Monica 

Mountains: A Seasonal Taphonomic Analysis 

of Buried and Exposed Remains 

Identifying the Missing From Srebrenica: 

Family Contact and the Final Identification 

Process 

Age of Closure of the Spheno-Occipital 

Synchondrosis in the Arabian Gulf Region 

MtDNA From Degraded Human Skeletal 

Remains: Is Quality Affected by Storage 

Conditions? 

313 

541 

515 

458 

296 

49 

123 

579 

411 

143 

364 

409

Egaña*, Sofia Silvana Turner, Patricia Bernardi, 

Mercedes Doretti, and Miguel Nieva, Argentine Forensic 

Anthropology Team (EAAF), Avenue Rivadavia 2443, 2nd 

Floor, Office 3-4, Buenos Aires, C1034ACD, Argentina 

Eleazer, Courtney D. BS*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, 



Eleazer, Courtney D. MA*, 7700 Gleason Drive, 

Apartment 39G, Knoxville, TN 37919 

Emanovsky, Paul D. BS*, University of Indianapolis 

Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna 

Avenue, Indianapolis, IN; Joseph T. Hefner, BS, and 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological 

Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 58th Street, Erie, 

PA 

Emanovsky, Paul D. MS*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 


Emanovsky, Paul D. MS*, U.S. Army Central Identification 


96853 

Ern, Stephania BSc, and Luca Trombino, Dipartimento di 

Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi di Milano, 

Milan, ITALY; Daniele Gibelli, MD*, Laboratorio di 



Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; and 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Laboratorio di Antropologia e 

Odontologia Forense, Sezione di Medicina Legale, 

Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche, 

V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY 

Erno, Jeffrey D. MS*, and Peter H. Tu, PhD, GE Global 


Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Terrie Simmons, MA, and 

Philip N. Williams, BS, FBI Laboratory, CFSRU, Building 


Espenshade, Jordan N. BS*, 1420 Centre Avenue, 

Apartment 103, Pittsburgh, PA 15282; and Lisa Ludvico, 

PhD, Duquesne University Department of Biology, 341 

Fisher Hall 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15282 

Evison, Martin P. PhD*, University of Toronto at 

Mississauga, Forensic Science Program, 3359 Mississauga 

Road North, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; and 

Richard W. Vorder Bruegge, PhD, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation, Forensic Audio, Video and Image Analysis 

Unit, Engineering Research Facility, Building 27958A, 


Falsetti, Anthony B. PhD* and Heather Walsh-Haney, MA, 

C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

32601; Martha J. Burt, MD, Medical Examiner 

Department, Miami-Dade County, Number One on Bob 

Hope Road, Miami, FL 33136 

Index 134 

Commingled Skeletonized Remains in 



Age-Related Histomorphometric Changes in 

Fetal and Infant Long Bones 

Age Related Histomorphometric Changes in 

Fetal Long Bones 

Can Sharp Force Trauma to Bone Be 

Recognized After Fire Modification? An 

Experiment Using Odocoileus virginianus 

(White-Tailed Deer) Ribs 

Prediction of Shoe Size From Tarsals and 

Metatarsals 

Preliminary Results on the Use of Cadaver 

Dogs to Locate Vietnam War-Era Human 

Remains 

Application of Geopedology to Forensic 

Anthropology: Can Vivianite Be a Marker of 

Burial in Soil? – Three Case Reports 

Automatic Skull Landmark Determination for 

Facial Reconstruction 

A Pilot Study on Nuclear DNA Recovery 



Three-Dimensional Variation in Face Shape 

in a Large Study Sample 

Personal Identification and Death 


Undocumented Migrant Workers in Florida: 

Demographic, Biographic, and Pathologic 

Factors 

441 

345 

261 

575 

191 

517 

90 

130 

74 

355 

497

Falsetti, Anthony B. PhD*, and Laurel E. Freas, MA, 


Laboratory, PO Box 112545, Southwest Radio Road, 


Fanton, Laurent MD*, Institut of Legal Medicine, 12 

Avenue Rockefeller, Lyon, 69008, FRANCE; Marie Paule 

Gustin-Paultre, PhD, Lyon University, Lyon 1 University, 

Laboratory of Biostatistics ISPB, Lyon, F-69008, 

FRANCE; Habdelhamid Grait, MD, Milltary Hospital, 

Alger, ALGERIA; Aissa Boudabba, MD, Military Hospital, 

Alger, ALGERIA; Claire Desbois, MD, Lyon University, 

Lyon 1 University, Institut of Forensic Medicine, Lyon, F- 

69008, FRANCE; Patrice Stephane Schoendorff, MD, 

Institut Medico-Legal de Lyon, 12 Avenue Rockfeller, 

Lyon, 69007, FRANCE; Stéphane Tilhet-Coartet, MD, 

Institut of Legal Medicine, 12 avenue Rockefeller, Lyons, 

69008, FRANCE; Daniel Malicier, MD, Institu Medico 

Legal, 12 Avenue Rockfeller, Lyon, 69007, FRANCE 

Fenton, Todd W. PhD*, and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, 



Fenton, Todd W. PhD*, and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, 



Fenton, Todd W. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 

Baker Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI; 

Walter H. Birkby, PhD, and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, 

Forensic Science Center, Pima County, Tucson, AZ; and 

David R. Rankin, MA, U.S. Army Central Identification 


Fenton, Todd W. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Joyce L. de Jong, DO, Sparrow Health System, Department 

of Pathology, and Roger Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics Laboratories, 354 Baker Hall, Michigan 

State University, East Lansing, MI 

Fenton, Todd W. PhD*, Jered B. Cornelison, MS, and 

Leslie A. Wood, BS, Michigan State University, 

Department of Forensic Science, 560 Baker Hall, East 


Fenton, Todd W. PhD*, Michigan State University, 354 

Baker Hall, Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 

48824; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn 

Road, Okemos, MI 48864; and Timothy G. Baumer, BS, 

Brian J. Powell, BS, and Roger C. Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics Laboratories, Michigan State University, 


Fernandes, Tricia A. BSc*, Saint Mary’s University, 923 


Figura, Benjamin J. BA*, PO Box 4423, Chico, CA 95927- 

4423 

Index 135 

Lumbosacral Transitional Vertebrae, 


Prevalence in a Modern Forensic Skeletal 

Population 

Critical Study of Observations of the Sternal 

Extremity of the 4th Rib 

Identification of the Living From Video Tape 

and Photographs: The Dynamic Orientation 

Technique 

Skull-Photo Superimposition and Border 

Deaths: Identification Through Exclusion and 

the Failure to Exclude 

Falls From Cliffs: Reconstructing Individual 

Death Histories From a Perimortem Fracture 

Pattern 

One Unlucky Punch: The Etiology of a Fatal 

Depressed Skull Fracture 

Symmetrical Fracturing of the Skull From 

Self-Inflicted Gunshot Wounds: 






Fracture Initiation and Interface Dependent 

Fracture Patterns 

Taphonomic Patterns: Can Brush Fires 



Air-Drying as a Means of Preservation for the 

Unidentified and Unclaimed Remains From 

the World Trade Center 

405 

262 

401 

494 

574 

584 

505 

167 

80 

516

Figura, Benjamin J. MA*, New York City Office of the 


10016 

Figura, Benjamin J. MA*, New York City Office of the 


Index 136 

World Trade Center Revisited: A Bayesian 


New York City Unidentified Decedents From 

1980 – 2008 

10016 

Figura, Benjamin J. MA*, PO Box 538, Empire, MI 49630 An Assessment of DNA Degeneration Due to 

Air-Drying Preservation for the Remains of 

the World Trade Center 

434 

Finnegan, Michael PhD*, Department of Sociology, 

Anthropology and Social Work, Kansas State University, 

Manhattan, KS 

The Hyoid Bone as a Sex Discriminator 536 

Finnegan, Michael PhD*, Kansas State University, 204 Accuracy of Age Estimates Using the Pubic 305 

Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506-4000 

Symphysis 

Finnegan, Michael PhD*, Kansas State University, Non-Metric Indicators of Ancestry: Making 486 

Osteology Laboratory, 204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS Non-Metric Traits More User Friendly in 

66506 

Racial Assessments 

Flavel, Ambika MSc*, 52 Ninth Avenue, Maylands, WA Gunshot Wounds and Other Perimortem 


563 

Fleischman, Julie M. BA*, Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, and Callus Treatment: Collaboration Between 168 

Jeffrey S. Johnston, MD, Maricopa County Office of the Forensic Anthropology and Forensic 

Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 Pathology to Improve the Recognition and 


and Children 

Fleischman, Julie M. BA*, Michigan State University, 560 An Evaluation of the Chen et al. Pubic Aging 16 

Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Method on a North American Sample 

Fletcher, Joanna M. BA*, 9941 Timber Oaks Court, Monitoring the Applicability of Ground- 1 

Orlando, FL 32817; William T. Hawkins, BA, 10215 Penetrating Radar on Detecting Shallow 

Blanchard Park Trail, Apartment 2314, Orlando, FL 

32817; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, 



Fojas, Christina L. BA*, Mercyhurst College, Department A Radiographic Assessment of Age Using 97 

of Anthropology & Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East Distal Radius Epiphysis Presence in a 



Fojas, Christina L. MS*, Department of Anthropology, Using Spatial Analysis to Recognize Normal 41 

Binghamton University, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 

13902; Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief 


Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 


38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

and Abnormal Patterns in Burned Bodies 

Fondebrider*, Luis Argentine Forensic Anthropology Personal Identification from Skeletal 137 

Team (EAAF), Rivadavia 2443, 2do piso, dpto.3 y 4, Remains in Human Rights Investigations: 

(1034) Capital Federal, Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA; and 

Soren Blau, PhD*, Victorian Institute of Forensic 

Medicine, 57-83 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, Melbourne, 

Victoria 3146, AUSTRALIA 


40 

98

Fontana, Donna A. MS*, New Jersey State Police, Office of 

Forensic Sciences, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, 

1200 Negron Drive, Hamilton, NJ 08691 

Fontana, Donna A. MS*, New Jersey State Police, River 

Road, PO Box 7068, West Trenton, NJ 08628; Raafat 

Ahmad, MD, Mercer County Medical Examiner Office, 

Mercer County Airport, Building #31, West Trenton, NJ 

08628; Jay Peacock, MD, Monmouth County Medical 

Examiner Office, Centra State Medical Center, Route 537, 

Freehold, NJ 07728; Ronald Suarez, MD, Morris County 

Medical Examiner Office, PO Box 900, Morristown, NJ 

07963-0900 

Foose, Adrienne L. BA*, Robert R. Paine, PhD, and 

Richard A. Nisbett, PhD, Texas Tech University, 

Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work, 

PO Box 1012, Lubbock, TX 79409- 1012; Sridhar 

Natarajan, MD, Texas Tech University Health Sciences 

Center, Department of Pathology, Division of Forensic 

Pathology, 3601 4th Street, Lubbock, TX 79430 

Fox, Sherry C. PhD*, Wiener Laboratory, American 

School of Classical Studies at Athens, 54 Souidias Street, 

Athens, Attica GR106-76, Greece; and Sotiris K. Manolis, 

PhD, and Constantinos Eliopoulos, PhD, Department of 

Animal and Human Physiology, Division of Biology, 

University of Athens, Athens, Attica GR106-76, Greece 

Franicevic, Branka MSc*, Department of Archaeology, 

Sheffield University, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Franicevic, Branka MSc*, University of Bradford, 

Bradford, BD7 1DP, UNITED KINGDOM 

Franicevic, Branka MSc*, University of Bradford, 

Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, BD7 

1DP, United Kingdom; and Robert F. Pastor, PhD, 

University of Bradford, Biological Anthropology Research 

Centre, Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, 


Franicevic, Branka MSc*, University of Central 

Lancashire, Department of Forensic and Investigative 

Science, Preston, PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

Franklin, Daniel PhD*, Centre for Forensic Science, 

School of Anatomy and Human Biology, The University of 

Western Australia, MBDP 420, 35 Stirling Highway, 

Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia; and 

Andrea Cardini, PhD, Functional Morphology and 

Evolution Research Unit, The Hull York Medical School, 

Heslington, York Y010 5DD, United Kingdom 

Index 137 

The Forensic Anthropologist, the National 

Crime Information Center (N.C.I.C.), and 

National Missing and Unidentified 


Multidisciplinary Efforts in the Identification 

of Three Unidentified Females in the State of 

New Jersey 

Age at Death Determination Using the 




A Simple Technique for Imaging the Human 

Skeleton: An Application Using the Auricular 

Surface for Aging 

Modes of Mutilation in Taphonomic Context: 

Can Sharp Force Trauma Decelerate the 

Decomposition Process? 

Dead on Time? The Repellent Effect of 

Liquid Petroleum Gas on Time Since Death 

Estimation 

Inter-Tidal Decomposition Patterns in 

Croatia: An Experiment using Sus scrofa 

Pedal Elements 

Basement Bodies: The Effect of Light on 

Decomposition in Indoor Settings 

Mandibular Morphology as an Indicator of 

Human Subadult Age: Interlandmark and 

Geometric Morphometric Approaches 

178 

499 

470 

349 

148 

109 

299 

234 

344

Franklin, Daniel PhD, and Charles E. Oxnard, MBChB, 

PhD, Centre for Forensic Science, School of Anatomy and 

Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, 35 


Australia; Paul O’Higgins, MBChB, PhD, Functional 

Morphology and Evolution Research Group, The 

University of York, Heslington, York Y010 5DD, United 

Kingdom; and Ian Dadour, PhD*, and Robin Napper, BA, 

Centre for Forensic Science, The University of Western 

Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western 

Australia 6009, Australia 

Frazee*, Kathryn Lee 1422 Pearce Park, Apartment # 2, 

Erie, PA 16502-2915 

Freas, Laurel BA*, Department of Anthropology, C.A. 



Freas, Laurel MA*, Department of Anthropology, CA 

Pound Human ID Laboratory, University of Florida, PO 


Fredericks*, Jamie Daniel Lower Bank Road, Fulwood, 

Preston, Lancashire PR2 8NS, UNITED KINGDOM; and 

Tal Simmons, PhD, Department of Forensic and 



Fredericks, Jamie D. MSc*, Cranfield University, SCR 12, 

DASSR, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Freid, Donna MA*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 

250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard L. 

Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South 


Frelich, Lawrence DDS, PhD, Department of Peridontics, 

University of Maryland School of Dentistry, 666 West 

Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201; and David R. 

Hunt, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, Department of 



Fulginiti, Laura C. PhD*, 15015 South 14th Place, 

Phoenix, AZ 85048; Michael W. Warren, PhD, and Joseph 

T. Hefner, MA, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611; Larry R. 

Bedore, MS, District 8 Office of the Medical Examiner, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; Jason H. Byrd, PhD, Department 

of Criminology, Law & Society, University of Florida, PO 

Box 115950, Gainesville, FL 32611; Vincent Stefan, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, Lehman College, CUNY, 

Bronx, NY 10468; and Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, 


Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 E 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Index 138 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Subadult 

Mandible: Quantification Using Geometric 

Morphometrics 

Demographic Expression of the Frontal 

Sinuses 

Assessment of Saw-Blade Wear Patterns and 

Wear-Related Features of the Kerf Wall 

Scanning Electron Microscopy of Saw Marks 

in Bone: Assessment of Wear- Related 

Features of the Kerf Wall 

DNA Quantification of Burned Skeletal 

Tissue 

XRD and FTIR: A Diagnostic Tool to 




Classification and Evaluation of Unusual 

Individuals Using FORDISC 

Morphological Characteristics of Ancestry in 

the Fetal/Newborn Human Skeleton 

364 

268 

501 

383 

238 

80 

421 

326 

Anthropology Responds to Hurricane Katrina 392

Fulginiti, Laura C. PhD*, A.L. Mosley, MD, V. Shvarts, 

MD, J. Hu, MD, K.D. Horn, MD, P.E. Keen, MD, and R.M. 

Hsu, MD, Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 


Fulginiti, Laura C. PhD*, Forensic Science Center, 701 

West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Frank Di Modica, 


Phoenix, AZ 85003; Kristen Hartnett, PhD, Office of Chief 

Medical Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 520 1st 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Diane Karluk, MD, 

Maricopa County Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 



West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Kristen Hartnett, PhD, 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 

520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Frank Di Modica, 


Phoeniz, AZ 85003; and Diane Karluk, MD, Maircopa 

County Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 West 

Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 


West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Kristen M. Hartnett, 

MA, Arizona State University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287; and 

Philip E. Keen, MD, Maricopa County Office of the 

Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson Street, Phoenix, AZ 

85007 

Fulginiti, Laura C. PhD*, Kristen M. Hartnett, MA, Kevin 

D. Horn, MD, and Ruth E. Kohlmeier, MD, Forensic 

Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

Furgeson, Thomas A. BA, BS*, University of Wyoming, 

2109-C East Hancock Street, Laramie, WY 82072 

Furgeson, Thomas A. MA*, University of Wyoming, 1002 

South 3rd Street, Laramie, WY 82070; George W. Gill, 

PhD, University of Wyoming, Department of Anthropology, 

Laramie, WY 82071; and Rick L. Weathermon, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, 10 

East University Avenue, Department 3431, Anthropology, 


Galloway, Alison PhD*, University of California, Social 

Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Lauren Zephro, 

MA, Monterey County Sheriff’s Office, 1414 Natividad 

Road, Salinas, CA 93906-3102 

Galloway, Alison PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Social Science One FS, University of California, Santa 

Cruz, CA 95064; and Lauren Zephro, MA, Monterey 

County Sheriff’s Office, 1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, CA 

95006 

Index 139 

Fatal Footsteps: The Murder of 

Undocumented Border Crossers in Maricopa 

County, Arizona 

Sealed For Your Protection II: The Effects of 

Corrosive Substances on Human Bone and 

Tissue 

Sealed for Your Protection, Part I: The 

Effects of an Unknown Corrosive Agent on 

Human Bone 

A Tale of Two Bodies: Separating 

Commingled Skeletal Remains With Similar 

Biological Profiles 

498 

199 

243 

446 

Of Butterflies and Spirals: Interpretation of 376 

Fractures in Motor Vehicle vs. Pedestrian 

Accidents 

Race as a Viable Concept 492 

Identification of Multiple Cranial Traumas in 

a Recently Closed Homicide Investigation 

176 

Skeletal Evidence of Homicidal Compression 500 

Internal Cranial Fractures 416

Galloway, Alison PhD, University of California, Social 

Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Elayne J. Pope, 

PhD, University of West Florida, Anthropology Building 

13, 11000 University Parkway, Pensacola, FL 32514; and 

Chelsey Juarez, MA*, Dept of Anthropology, UCSC Social 


Garvin, Heather M. BA, BS*, 1422 Pearce Park, 

Apartment # 6, Erie, PA 16502 

Garvin, Heather M. MS*, Johns Hopkins University, 1830 

East Monument Street, Room 302, Baltimore, MD 21205 

Garvin, Heather M. MS*, Johns Hopkins University, 1830 

East Monument Street, Room 302, Baltimore, MD 21205; 

and Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864-4200 

Garvin, Heather MS*, 7471 SE 117th Terrace, Morriston, 

FL 32668; Luis Lorenzo Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst 


East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Kyra Elizabeth Stull, BA, 


and Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological 


16546 

Getz, Sara M. BS*, Mercyhurst College, Department of 


16546 

Gibson, Laura E. BS*, 2040 Larchmont Way, Clearwater, 

FL 33764; Heather A. Walsh-Haney, and Christen E. 


Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, AB3, Fort 

Myers, FL 33965-6565; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, Florida 

Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 

FGCU Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Gertrude 

M. Juste, MD, District 15 Office of the Medical Examiner, 

3126 Gun Club Road, West Palm Beach, FL 33406; and 

Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 


Giles, Eugene PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Illinois, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, 

IL 61801 

Gill, George W. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071 

Giroux, Carolyn L. BA*, 6200 East Richland Road, 

Columbia, MO 65201; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, 

University of Missouri-Columbia, Department of 

Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 

Glassman, David M. PhD*, Texas State University-San 

Marcos, Department of Anthropology, San Marcos, Texas 

78666 

Godde, Kanya MA*, and Angela M. Dautartas, BS, 



Index 140 

The Burning Question: A Case Analysis of 

Peri-Mortem Trauma vs. Post Fire Damage 

Ossification of Laryngeal Structures: As 

Indicators of Age 

Variation in Browridge and Chin 



Forensic Anthropology and Age-at-Death 

Estimation: Current Trends in Adult Age 

Estimation 

A Practical Method for Determining Sex 


An Investigation and Critique of the DiGangi 

et al. (2009) First Rib Aging Method 

Necessary Breaks With Conservator 

Standards: Cranial Reconstruction in Forensic 

Cases 

Ur-FORDISC, or Early Statistical Methods in 


Population Variability in the Proximal 

Articulation Surfaces of the Human Femur 

and Humerus 

Stature Estimation Based on Dimensions of 

the Bony Pelvis and Proximal Femur 

Issues Concerning the Skeletal Identification 

of Deceased Illegal Aliens Recovered on the 

Texas Border 


Sexing 

215 

314 

48 

125 

266 

24 

196 

422 

489 

371 

496 

158

Godde, Kanya PhD*, Texas State University, San Marcos, 



Goff, Alaina K. BA* and Wendy Potter, MS, University of 

New Mexico, Department of Anthropology, Albuquerque, 



87131 

Goff, Alaina K. BA*, and Debra Komar, PhD, Department 


Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 

Gold, Melissa L. BS*, Department of Anthropology, C.A. 



Gonzalez, Richard A. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Saint Lawrence University, 23 Romoda Drive, Canton, NY 

13617 

Gonzalez, Richard A. PhD*, Saint Lawrence University, 

Department of Anthropology, 1 Romoda Drive, Canton, NY 

13617 

Gordon, Kellie M. BA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 


State University, 227 Howe Russell Geoscience Complex, 


Grant, William E. MA*, Holland Community Hospital, 602 

Michigan Avenue, Holland, MI; and Richard L. Jantz, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

Gray, Deborah W. MA*, Riverside County Sheriff- 

Coroner, 800 South Redlands Avenue, Perris, CA 92571; 

and Judy M. Suchey, PhD, Department of Coroner, Los 

Angeles County, 1104 North Mission Road, Los Angeles, 

CA 90033 

Greef, Sven De DDS*, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven 

Faculty of Medicine, School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology 

and Maxillofacial Surgery, Forensic Odontology, 

Kapucijnenvoer 7, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium; Peter Claes, 

MEng, Wouter Mollemans, MEng, Dirk Vandermeulen, 

PhD, and Paul Suetens, PhD, Katholieke Universiteit 

Leuven, ESAT, Medical Image Computing, Herestraat 49, 

Leuven, B-3000, Belgium; and Guy Willems, DDS, PhD, 

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Medicine, 

School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology and Maxillofacial 

Surgery, Forensic Odontology, Kapucijnenvorer 7, Leuven, 

B-3000, Belgium 

Greenwald, Kristen E. MA*, 32 10th Street, Hermosa 


Gremillian, Abigail BA*, 17862 East General Forrest, 

Baton Rouge, LA 70817; and Robert J. Morton, MS, and 

Wayne D. Lord, PhD, FBI NCAVC, FBI Academy, 


Index 141 

Conditions for Breaking Down Mummified 



Skeletal Manifestations of Non-Hodgkin’s 

Lymphoma and Multiple Myeloma: A 

Differential Diagnosis 

SEM Analysis of Mummified Skin: A 

Preliminary Study of Obsidian and Chert 

Induced Trauma 

Hereditary Multiple Exostoses: An 

Identifying Pathology 

Determination of Sex From Juvenile Crania 

by Means of Discriminant Function Analysis: 

A First Study 

Regional Variation of the Proximal Femur in 

the United States: Analysis of Data From 

NHANES III 

The Role of Textiles in Determination of 


The Estimation of Sex From the Proximal 

Ulna 

52 

526 

427 

502 

262 

45 

548 

536 

Mass Disasters and Non-Human Remains 393 

Semi-Automated Ultrasound Facial Soft 

Tissue Depth Registration: Method and 

Preliminary Results 

An Experimental Study of Putrefaction and 

Decomposition in Aqueous Environments 

Insect Colonization of Child-Sized Remains: 

Behavioral Analysis of Pig Carcasses via 24 

Hour, High Resolution Video Surveillance 

437 

108 

413

Grivas, Christopher R. MS*, and Debra Komar, PhD, 


MSC01 1040, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC11 


87131-0001 

Grivas, Christopher R. MS*, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, 1 University of New Mexico, 


Grivas, Christopher R. MS*, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, Albuquerque, 


Investigator, 1 University of New Mexico, MSC11 6030, 


Index 142 

Daubert and Kumho: Implications for 


Differential Diagnosis of Gout in Skeletal 

Remains 

Evaluating Methods of Age Estimation of 



Gruenthal, Ariel M. BA*, 2534 E, Eureka, CA 95501 Differential Decomposition Patterns in 


81 

Guatame-Garcia, Ana C. BSc*, University of Central Computer Simulation for Drift Trajectories of 235 

Lancashire, Calle 9 #0-95, Bogota, COLOMBIA; Luis A. 

Camacho, PhD, Universidad Nacional de Colombia at 

Bogota, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Tal Simmons, PhD, 




Objects in the Magdalena River, Colombia 

Guyomarc’h, Pierre MS*, Bruno Dutailly, MS, Christine Prediction of Mouth Shape Using Geometric 57 

Couture, PhD, and Helene Coqueugniot, PhD, Universite 

Bordeaux 1 - UMR 5199 PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, 

UMR 5199 PACEA - LAPP, Av des Facultes, Bat B8, 

Talence, 33405, FRANCE 

Morphometrics for Facial Approximation 

Guyomarc’h, Pierre MS*, Universite Bordeaux 1, UMR A Performance Check of Ear Prediction 38 

5199 PACEA, UMR 5199 PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, Guidelines Used in Facial Approximation 

Av des Facultes, Bat B8, Talence, 33405, FRANCE; Carl 

N. Stephan, PhD, JPAC - CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 



Hackman, Lucina MSc*, Dundee University, WTB/MSI Training the National Disaster Victim 184 

Complex, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 4AH, UNITED 

KINGDOM 


Haden-Pinneri, Kathryn H. MD*, Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Forensic Pathology and Anthropology: A 179 

Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, and Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, 

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old 

Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Collaborative Effort 

Haden-Pinneri, Kathryn MD*, Office of the Medical 

Examiner of Harris County, Joseph A. Jachimiczyk 

Forensic Center, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; and Gregory Berg, MS, Joint POW/MIA 



Ballistics-Induced Depressed Skull Fractures 309 

Halvorsen, H. Anne MA* and Rick L. Weathermon, MA, Femoral Variation Between Whites and 488 

Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, 


American Indians 

Hamilton, Michelle D. PhD*, and Jerry Melbye, PhD, Going Green: Environmentally Sound 203 

Texas State University-San Marcos, Department of Practices in Human Decomposition Research 

Anthropology, 601 University Drive, ELA 273, San 

Marcos, TX 78666-4616 

and Laboratory Settings 

359 

381 

271

Hampton, Angela BS*, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of 


Hanson, Ian MSc*, School of Conservation Sciences, 

Bournemouth University, United Kingdom 

Harrington, Richard J. PhD*, International Commission 

on Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo; Benjamin 

Swift, MBChB, Division of Forensic Pathology, Robert 

Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester Royal 

Infirmary, Leicester, United Kingdom; and Edwin F. 

Huffine, MS, International Commission on Missing 

Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo 

Index 143 

Testing Determination of Adult Age at Death 

Using Four Criteria of the Acetabulum 

447 

Advances in Surveying and Presenting 561 



Introducing Daubert to the Balkans 538 

Hart, Gina O. BA*, 933 Anchor Lake Road, Carriere, MS Fracture Pattern Interpretation in the Skull: 

Differentiating Blunt Force From Ballistics 

Hart, Gina O. MA*, Regional Medical Examiner’s Office, 

325 Norfolk Street, Newark, NJ 07103-2701 

Hartnett, Kristen M. BA*, and Denise To, MA, Department 

of Anthropology, Arizona State University, PO Box 

872402, Tempe, AZ 

Hartnett, Kristen M. MA*, Arizona State University, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 

85287-2402; Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, 701 West Jefferson, 


Hartnett, Kristen M. MA*, Forensic Science Center, 701 


Haugen, Gwendolyn M. MA*, Saint Louis County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 6039 Helen Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 

63134; Gina O. Hart, MA, 325 Norfolk Street, Newark, NJ 

07103-2701; and Pamela M. Steger, MS, 934 Sycamore 

Street, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Haugen, Gwendolyn M. MA*, St. Louis County Medical 


63134; Kathleen Diebold, MA*, St. Charles, Jefferson & 

Franklin, Medical Examiner’s Office, 3556 Caroline 

Street, Room C305, St. Louis, MO 63104; Mary E.S. Case, 

MD, Chief Medical Examiner of St. Louis, St. Charles, 

Jefferson, and Franklin Counties in Missouri, 6039 Helen 

Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63134; St. Louis County Medical 


63134; and Charles W. Subke, Franklin County Sheriff’s 

Office, #1 Bruns Drive, Union, MO 63084 

Hawkins, William T. BA*, 10215 Blanchard Park Trail, 

Apartment 2314, Orlando, FL 32817; Joanna M. Fletcher, 

BA, 9941 Timber Oaks Court, Orlando, FL 32817; and 

John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, FL 

32816 

Trauma 

Death Investigation for Anthropologists: 

Examining an Alternative Role for Forensic 

Anthropologists in Medical Examiner’s and 

Coroner’s Offices 

Modern Oral Piercings: The Application of 

Their Dental Wear Patterns for Forensic 

Anthropology 

Osseous Traumata Caused by a Fall From a 

Height: A Case Study 

A Reevaluation and Revision of the Suchey- 

Brooks and Loth and Iscan Aging Methods 

Diversification: Evolving Professional Roles 

for the Forensic Anthropologist in the 

Medicolegal System 

Identification by the Numbers: A Case Study 

in Skeletal Trauma Examination and Surgical 

Implant Tracking 

Monitoring the Long-Term Applicability of 

Ground-Penetrating Radar Using Proxy 

Cadavers 

585 

175 

588 

498 

305 

10 

219 

1

Hayashi, Atsuko BA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



5530 

Heaton, Vivienne G. MS*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, 



2HE, United Kingdom 

Hefner, Joseph T. BA, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Stephen 

D. Ousley, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 20560 

Hefner, Joseph T. BS*, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 1898 Seton 

Court, Clearwater, FL 

Hefner, Joseph T. BS*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, 5007 NW 29th Street, Gainesville, 

FL 32607; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Smithsonian, NMNH 

MRCI 138, Washington, DC 20560; Michael W. Warren, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, 


Hefner, Joseph T. BS*, Mercyhurst College, Forensic 

Anthropology Laboratory, 202 Parade Street, Erie, PA 

Hefner, Joseph T. MA*, Forensic Anthropology Center, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Paul D. Emanovsky, MS, and John 

Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 310 


and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012 MRC 138, 


Hefner, Joseph T. MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Natalie M. Uhl, BS, University of 


46227; Stanley Rhine, PhD, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040 Anthropology, 

Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001; and William M. Bass, PhD, 



Hefner, Joseph T. PhD*, and Natalie Uhl, MS, 1503 North 

Pennsylvania Street, Apartment 21, Indianapolis, IN 

46202; and Nicholas V. Passalaqua, MS, Michigan State 

University, 203 Berkey Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824-1111 

Hefner, Joseph T. PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Kate Spradley, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Texas 

State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 

78666; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science 

Center, Office of the Medical Examiner, 2825 East District 


Index 144 

Revising Revisions: Modification of the 

Measurement of the Sacral Body Height for 

Use in Fully’s (1956) Anatomical Method of 

Stature Estimation 

The Decomposition of Human Remains 

Recovered From the River Clyde, Scotland: 

A Comparative Study of UK Fluvial Systems 



The Utility of Nonmetric Cranial Traits in 

Ancestry Determination - Part II 

An Historical Perspective on Nonmetric 

Skeletal Variation: Hooton and the Harvard 

List 

An Assessment of Craniofacial Nonmetric 



The Value of Experience, Education, and 

Methods in Ancestry Prediction 

Pedagogy of Practicing Forensic 

Anthropologists: A Collection of Our History 

Beyond Taphonomy: Craniometric Variation 

Among Anatomical Specimens 

Ancestry Estimation Using Random Forest 

Modeling 

23 

339 

369 

537 

485 

593 

332 

294 

232 

26

Hefner, Joseph T. PhD*, Statistical Research, Inc., 6099 

East Speedway Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85712 

Henderson, Julie A. BA*, PO Box 125, 130 4th Street, 

Morton, WA 98356 

Herman, Rhett PhD, Radford University, Department of 

Chemistry and Physics, Radford University, Radford, VA 

24142; Cliff Boyd, PhD, Radford University, Department 

of Sociology and Anthropology, Radford University, 

Radford, VA 24142; Jarrod Burks, PhD, Ohio Valley 

Archaeological Consultants, 4889 Sinclair Road, Suite 

210, Columbus, OH 43229; Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, 

Department Sociology & Anthropology, Radford 

University, Radford, VA 24142; and Doug Drumheller, 

MBA, Greatest Generation MIA Recoveries, 2187 Ben 

Franklin Drive, Pittsburg, PA 15327 

Herrick, Christen E. BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 



33965-6565; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, Florida Gulf Coast 


Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Marta U. 

Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner’s Office, 3838 

Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; and Margarita 

Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson 

Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206 

Herrick, Christen E. BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 



33965-6565; Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206; 

Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner, 

3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; E.H. 

Scheuerman, MD, 1856 Colonial Drive, Green Cove 

Springs, FL 32043; Jennifer L. Anderson, BS, BA, 4632 

Deleon Street, #129, Fort Myers, FL 33907; Jeffrey J. 

Brokaw, BA, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 

32206; Brian Womble, BS, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, 

FL 34104; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, Florida Gulf Coast 


Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Laura E. Gibson, 

BS, 2040 Larchmont Way, Clearwater, FL 33764; and 

Minas Iliopoulos, BS, 10501 FGCU Boulevard, South, 

Division of Justice Studies, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965 

Herrick, Christen E. BS*,and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 


Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard S, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 

33965-6565; and E. Hunt Scheuerman, MD, 1856 Colonial 

Drive, Green Cove Springs, FL 32043 

Herrmann, Nicholas P. PhD*, Beth Bassett, MA, and Lee 

M. Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 


Index 145 

Morphoscopic Traits: Mixed Ancestry, 


Assessing Directionality of Low Velocity 

Gunshot Wounds to the Vertebrae: A 


Geophysical Remote Sensing Applied to the 

Forensic Search for WWII Graves in 

Guadalcanal 

Molar Crenulation as an Attribute of 


and Accuracy 

Solving Medical Examiner Cold Cases: 



What Starts as a Homicide Ends as a 





High Velocity Fluvial Transport: A Case 

Study From Tennessee 

208 

211 

196 

102 

170 

228 

480

Hines, David Z.C. BA*, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, PO Box 112545, University of Florida, 


Hinkes, Madeleine J. PhD*, San Diego Mesa College, 

7250 Mesa College Drive, San Diego, CA 92111 

Hodgins, Gregory W. PhD*, University of Arizona, 

Department of Physics, 1118 East Fourth Street, Tucson, 

AZ 85721 

Hofmeister, Ute MA*, Morris Tidball-Binz, MD, and 

Shuala M. Drawdy, MA, International Committee of the 


SWITZERLAND 

Hofmeister, Ute MA*, Porzellangasse 48/12a, Alipasina 

45a, Vienna, 1090, Austria; Anahi Ginarte, Lic., EAAF, 

Rivadavia 2443, dpto 3 y 4, Buenos Aires, C1034ACD, 

Argentina 

Holborow, Amy A. BS, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Wyoming, PO Box 3431, Laramie, WY 82071 

Holland, Thomas D. PhD*, DoD JPAC, Central ID Lab, 


Index 146 

Bullet Wipe on Bone: Production and 

Detection 

Migrant Deaths Along the California- Mexico 

Border: An Anthropological Perspective 

Year-of-Death Determination Based Upon 



An Electronic Data Management Tool for the 

Search for Missing Persons and Forensic 

Human Identification: The ICRC AM/PM 

DB 

FAD - A Database Application for Forensic 

Anthropology in Human Rights 

The Zygomaticomaxillary Suture: A Study of 

Variability Within Homo sapiens 



500 

495 

147 

283 

464 

487 

9

Holland, Thomas D. PhD*, DoD JPAC, Central ID Lab, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Angi M. 

Christensen, PhD*, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Bradley J. Adams, PhD, 

New York Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, 


AZ 85714; Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology 

& Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State University, Box 

89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; John E. Byrd, PhD, 

JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853- 5530; Leslie E. Eisenberg, PhD, 6228 Trail Ridge 

Court, Oregon, WI 53575; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, 


354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Michael 

Finnegan, PhD, Kansas State University, Osteology Lab, 

204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506; Diane L. France, 

PhD, Colorado State University, Human Identification 

Lab, Department of Anthropology, Fort Collins, CO 

80523; Lisa M. Leppo, PhD, U.S. Army QM Center & 

School, Joint Mortuary Affairs Center, 1201 22nd Street, 

Fort Lee, VA 23801-1601; Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996- 0720; Robert W. 

Mann, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 


AFB, HI 96853-5000; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst 

College, Department of Anthropology/Archaeology, 501 

East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; William C. Rodriguez III, 

PhD, Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s Office, 1413 

Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850; 

Paul S. Sledzik, MS, NTSB, Office ofTransportation 

Disaster Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, Southwest 

Washington, DC 20594; Richard M. Thomas, PhD, FBI 

Laboratory, DNA Unit II, Room 3220, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, 

JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, NMNH - MRC 112, Smithsonian Institution, 

Washington, DC 20560; Michael W. Warren, PhD, C.A. 


G17, PO Box 113615, Gainesville, FL 32610; and P. 

Willey, PhD, Chico State University, Department of 


Hollands, Nanette BSc*, Flat 8, 5 Bryanstone Road, 

Winton, Bournemouth, BH3 7JE, UNITED KINGDOM; 

and Piotr D. Drukier, MSc*, Bournemouth University, 

C134 Christchurch House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, 


Hoogewerff, Jurian A. PhD*, University of East Anglia, , 

Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UNITED KINGDOM 

Index 147 


Anthropology 

An Evaluation of the Skeletal Aging Method 

Using Adult Male Vertebrae as Developed by 

Drukier, et al. 

Introduction to the Use and Limits of 



Human Remains 

105 

258 

247

Horner, Kristin E. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 


MI 48824 

Horner, Kristin E. MA*, Secchia Center, 15 Michigan 

Street Northeast, Grand Rapids, MI 49503 

Horni, Harald BA*, and Robert R. Paine, PhD, 112436, 

Texas Tech University Department of Sociology, and 

Social Work, Box 41012, Lubbock, TX 

Howard, Sheridan J. BHS*, Centre for Forensic Science, 

The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, 

Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; and Jan Meyer, PhD, 

School of Anatomy & Human Biology, 35 Stirling 

Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 

Huard, Aimee E. MA*, Binghamton University, Jeremy J. 

Wilson, MA, and Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, Binghamton University, PO Box 6000, 


Huculak, Meaghan A. BSc*, Saint Mary’s University, 923 


Huel, Rene BA*, Ana Miloš-Bilic MSc, Sylvain Amory 

PhD, Stojko Vidović, Tony Donlon, BSc, Adnan Rizvić, 

BSc, and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences 

International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A 

Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 

Huffman, Michaela M. BS*, National Museum of Natural 

History, Department of Anthropology, MRC112, 10th & 

Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20560-0112; 

and David R. Hunt, PhD, National Museum of Natural 

History, Department of Anthropology/MRC112, 10th & 

Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20560-0112 

Hufnagl, Kevin B. MA*, 601 Lindsay Place, Apartment 

B14, Knoxville, TN 37919 

Hughes, Cris E. MA*, and Chelsey Juarez, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, University of California – 

Santa Cruz, Social Science 1, 1156 High Street Room 435, 


Hughes, Cris E. MA*, and Chelsey Juarez, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, University of California – 

Santa Cruz, Social Science 1, 1156 High Street Room 435, 

Santa Cruz, CA 95064; and Lauren Zephro, MA, Santa 

Cruz Sheriff’s Office, 701 Ocean Street, Room 340, Santa 

Cruz, CA 95060 

Hughes, Cris E. MA*, University of California at Santa 

Cruz, 5405 Prospect Road, #7, San Jose, CA 95129; and 

Crystal A. White*, University of California at Santa Cruz, 

Crown College, 400 McLaughlin Drive, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064 

Hughes, Cris E. MA*, University of Californiaat Santa 

Cruz, 5405 Prospect Road, #7, San Jose, CA 95129 

Index 148 

The eBay® Mummy: A Case of a Scottish 

Mummy From Maryland for Sale in 

Michigan 

The Accuracy of the Lamendin Method of 


A Comparative Study of Mammalian Cortical 

Bone 

Estimating Time Since Death From Human 

Skeletal Remains by Radioisotope and Trace 

Element Analysis 

Diagnosing Peri-Mortem Blunt Force Trauma 

in Burnt Remains 

In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth Measurements 



High Throughput DNA Typing for Degraded 

Skeletal Remains and Victim Reference 

Samples in a Large Scale “DNALed” Missing 

Persons Identification and Re-Association 

Project: The ICMP Work on the Missing 

Recovered From Srebrenica Mass Graves 

Sex Determination in the Human Sacrum: 


Estimating Time Since Injury From Healing 

Stages Observed in Radiographs 

Frequencies of Non-Metric Characteristics in 

Northern California Native Populations: 


Past or Present? An Empirical Basis for 

Quantitatively Distinguishing Between 

Prehistoric and Modern Forensic Cases Using 

a California Native American Population 

Taphonomy and Dentition: Understanding 


Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs) and 

Forensic Anthropologist’s New Competition: 

Understanding the Theories, Methods, and 

Techniques for Allocating Ancestry in the 

Field of Forensic Genetics 

285 

17 

590 

347 

166 

131 

141 

331 

361 

157 

157 

222 

247

Hughes, Cris E. PhD*, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, 

Urbana, IL 61802; Chelsey A. Juarez, PhD, University of 

California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Social Science 1, 

Department of Anthropology, Santa Cruz, California 

95064; Gillian M. Fowler, MS, Lincoln University, 

Brayford Pool Lincoln, Lincolnshire, LN6 7TS, UNITED 

KINGDOM; Taylor Hughes, PhD, University of Urbana- 

Champaign, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, Urbana, IL 

61802; and Shirley C. Chacon, BA, FAFG, Avenida 

Simeón Cañas 10-64 zona 2, Guatemala, 01002, 

GUATEMALA 

Hulsey, Brannon I. MA*, Walter E. Klippel, PhD, and Lee 

Meadows Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department 


37966-0720 

Humphries, Ashley L. BA*, North Carolina State 


1911 Building, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695 

Huntington, Sarah M. MSc*, PO Box 961, Kingston, WA 

98346; and Tal Simmons, PhD, School of Forensic & 



Hurst, Carolyn V. BA*, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

48824 

Hurst, Sherice L. MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 


Anthropology, 227 Howe- Russell Geoscience Complex, 


Huxley, Angie K. MA, PhD*, PO Box 493812, Redding, CA 

96049-3812 

Huxley, Angie Kay PhD*, Pima Community College West 

Campus, Division of Science and Technology, Department 

of Biology, PO Box 1136, Pomona, CA 

Ii, Suzanne S. BA*, 4198 East Manning Avenue, Fowler, 

CA 93625- 9631; David R. Hunt, PhD, National Museum 

of Natural History, Department of Anthropology, 


Ingvoldstad, Megan MA, Ohio State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 244 Lord Hall, 124 West 

17th Avenue Columbus, OH 43210; and Christian 

Crowder, PhD*, Medical Examiner’s Office, 520 First 


Introna, Francesco MD*, Antonio De Donno, PhD, 

Domenico Urso, PhD, and Valeria Santoro, PhD, Section 

of Legal Medicine, Department of Internal and Public 

Medicine (DiMIMP) - University of Bari, P.zza Giulio 

Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY 

Introna, Francesco MD, University of Bari, Italy, Istituto 

di Medicina legale, Policlinico., Bari, Italy 

Index 149 

A Simulation for Exploring the Effects of the 

“Trait List” Method’s Subjectivity on 

Consistency and Accuracy of Ancestry 

Estimations 

Metacarpal and Metatarsal Histology of 


Craniometric Variation in the Caribbean and 

Latin America as Influenced by the Trans- 

Atlantic Slave Trade 

Taphonomic Processes Involved With the 



Non-Metric Trait Expressions Most Prevalent 

in Undocumented Border Crossers of 

Southwest Hispanic Descent From the Pima 

County Office of the Medical Examiner 

Aquatic Decomposition Rates in South 

Central Louisiana 

A Tale of Two Museums: Available Fetal 


Natural History and the Albert Szent- Gyorgi 

Medical University, Hungary 

36 

150 

44 

87 

210 

597 

471 

Human Remains Sold to the Highest Bidder! 583 

A Snapshot of the Buying and Selling of 

Human Skeletal Remains on eBay®, an 

Internet Auction Site 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Distal Humerus 468 

Observer Error Analysis Trends in Forensic 

Anthropology 

Use of Facial Indices for Comparative Metric 

Facial Identification After Parametrical 


Robber’s Personal Identification by 

Morphometric Analysis of Recorded Images 

190 

246 

589

J. Chan, Wing Nam MA*, 4720 210th Street, Bayside, NY 

11361; Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of Geography 

& Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803; and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 1723 Lombard Drive, 


Jaagumagi*, Alyson E. University of Toronto, 100 St. 

George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada; Bo 

Yeon Kim*, Bryn Mawr College, 101 North Merion 

Avenue, Bryn Mawr, PA 19010-2899; Danielle Stollak, 

Haverford College, 370 Lancaster Avenue, Haverford, PA 

19041-1392; and Meisha Bray*, Grand Valley State 

University, 1 Campus Drive, Allendale, MI 49401-9401 

Jackson, Daniel W. MA*, and Pamela M. Steger, MS*, 

Travis County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1213 Sabine 

Street, PO Box 1748, Austin, TX 78666 

Jans, Miranda M.E. PhD*, Institute for Geology and 

Bioarchaeology, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 

Amsterdam, 1081 HV, NETHERLANDS; Andrew J. Tyrrell, 



Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853; Odile Loreille, PhD, 


Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850; and Henk 

Kars, PhD, Institute for Geology and Bioarchaeology, 

Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 

HV, NETHERLANDS 

Jantz, Lee Meadows PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 



Jantz, Richard L. PhD* and Erin H. Kimmerle, MA, 



Jantz, Richard L. PhD*, University of Tennessee, 



Jantz, Richard PhD*, and Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, 



Jasaragic, Edin BA*, Zlatan Bajunovic, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, 

and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences 



Jeavons, Emily BS*, Bournemouth University, School of 

Conservation Science, Talbot Campus, Poole, Dorset 

BH12 5BB, United Kingdom 

Jemmott, Kathryn M. MA*, CA Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, University of Florida, Building 114 SW Radio 

Road, Gainesville, FL 32611; Ann H. Ross, PhD, North 

Carolina State University, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology, Raleigh, NC 27612; Loreto S. Silva, 


Lazaro M. Cotes, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama 

City, Panama; Carlos Fitzgerald, PhD, Patrimonio 

Historico, Panama, Panama City, Panama 

Index 150 

In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth Study of Adult 

Chinese Americans in New York City 

The Problem-Based Learning Approach to 

Forensic Anthropology at Butrint National 

Park, Albania: The International Student 

Perspective 

Identifying Sharp Force Trauma on Burned 

Bones 

Early Diagenesis of Bone and DNA 

Preservation 

254 

341 

241 

239 

Richard Jantz: A Man of Impressive Numbers 327 

Variation in Size and Dimorphism in Eastern 

European Femora 

Metric Description of Hispanic Skeletons: A 

Preliminary Analysis 

Twentieth Century Change in Facial 

Morphology and Its Relationship to Metric 

Sexing 

473 

493 

119 

The ICMP Identification Coordination 141 




Age Related Changes of the Distal Humerus 315 

Preservation in Paradise II: A Pre-Columbian 

Burial in a Contemporary Cemetery 

484

Jenny, Lindsey L. MA, Paige V. Wojcik, BS*, and Todd W. 

Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, Department of 


Jo, Seung Mook MD, PhD, Gachon University of Medicine 

and Science, Department of Anatomy, 1198, Kuwol-dong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; and Yi-Suk Kim, 

MD, PhD*, Ewha Womans University, Departement of 

Anatomy, School of Medicine, 911-1, Mok6-dong, 

Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158710, KOREA 

Johnson, Amanda MPA*, Sam Houston State University, 

PO Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 77340; Joan A. Bytheway, 

PhD*, 23936 Northcrest Trail, New Caney, TX 77357; and 

Stephen M. Pustilnik, MD, Galveston County Medical 


77591 

Johnston, Cheryl A. PhD*, Western Carolina University, 



Johnston, Cheryl A. PhD*, Western Carolina University, 



Jones, Brannon I. MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


37996 

Jordan, Alison E. BS*, Forensic Institute for Research and 

Education, PO Box 89, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, 



Juarez, Chelsey A. BA*, UC Santa Cruz, Department of 

Anthropology, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Juarez, Chelsey A. MA*, 240 River Street, #1, Santa Cruz, 

CA 95060 

Juarez, Chelsey A. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

UCSC Social Science 1, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064 

Juarez, Chelsey A. MA*, University of California, Santa 

Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Juarez, Chelsey MA*, University of California - Santa 

Cruz, Social Science 1, Department of Anthropology, 1156 

High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; and Cris E. Hughes, 

MA, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802 

Kahana, Tzipi PhD*, Israel National Police, 67 Ben Zvi 

Street, PO Box 8495, Tel Aviv, 61085, Israel; Inmaculada 

Aleman, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Faculty of 

Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 18012, Spain; 

Miguel C. Botella, MD, PhD, Deptartment of 

Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, 

Granada, 18012, Spain; and Jehuda Hiss, MD, National 

Centre of Forensic Medicine, 67 Ben Zvi, PO Box 8495, 

Tel Aviv, 61085, Israel 

Index 151 

Comparing Human and Porcine Infant 



Evaluation of Bilateral Differences in 

Histomorphometry From the Anterior Cortex 

of the Femur of Korean Adults 

Skeletal Remains in a Fluvial Environment: 

Microscopic Evidence of Glycoproteinous 

Adhesive of Balanus Improvisus on the 

Occlusal Surface of Mandibular Teeth 




(FOREST): A New Facility for Studies of 


The Bone Histology of Bear Paws and 

Human Hands 

Bionic Remains: Positive Identifications 


Stable Strontium and Geolocation: The 

Pathway to Identification of Unidentified 

Mexican Aliens 

Refining the Isotopic Fingerprint in Modern 

Mexican Populations: Using Strontium, 

Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen to Determine 

Region of Origin for Deceased 

Undocumented Border Crossers 

Studies in Isotopic Variability: Investigating 

Human Tooth Enamel 

Forensic Anthropology and the Current 


Defining Intimate Partner Violence: New 


52 

93 

202 

205 

243 

295 

134 

432 

312 

249 

401 

Dismembered Bodies - Who, How, and When 460 

6

Kanchan, Tanuj MD*, Kasturba Medical College, 


Mangalore, 575 001, INDIA 

Katzmarzyk, Cheryl MA*, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Kerry-Ann 

Martin, MSc, Edin Jasaragić, René Huel, BA, Jon 

Sterenberg, MSc, and Adnan Rizvić, BSc, International 


71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD; 






Katzmarzyk, Cheryl MA, and Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, 



HERZEGOVINA; Senem Skulj, MSc*, 17 VKB 19/11, 

Sanski Most, 79260, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; and Laura 

Yazedjian, MSc, Dragana Vučetić, MSc, Adnan Rizvić, MA, 

and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences 



Kay, Joanna Yaffa BA*, 222 South 150th Circle, Omaha, 

NE 68154 

Kaye, Michelle MA*, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 

Department of Anthropology, 310 Eielson Building, PO 

Box 757720, Fairbanks, AK 99775-7720; Elayne J. Pope, 

MA, University of Arkansas, Department of Anthropology, 

330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; Frank Cipriano, 

PhD, San Francisco State University, Conservation 

Genetics Laboratory, Hensill Hall 745, 1600 Holloway 

Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132; and O’Brian C. Smith, 

MD, UT Medical Group, Inc, Regional Forensic Center, 

1060 Madison, Memphis, TN 38104 

Kemp, Bobbie J. MS*, University of Pittsburgh, 

Department of Anthropology, 3302 Wesley W. Posvar Hall, 

Pittsburgh, PA 15260; Luis Lorenzo Cabo-Pérez, MS, 


Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; John J. 

Matia, BS, 901 Jancey Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15206; and 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological 


16546 

Kemp, Bobbie J. MS, Michael I. Siegel, PhD, Margaret A. 

Judd, PhD, and Mark P. Mooney, PhD, University of 

Pittsburgh, Department of Anthropology, 3302 Wesley W. 

Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, and Luis L. Cabo- 

Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 


Index 152 

Sexual Dimorphism of Index to Ring Finger 

Ratio in South Indian Children 

The Lukavac Re-Association Center: A 

Model for a Multidisciplinary Approach in 

the Examination of Commingled Remains 

The Use of Population-Specific Standards in 

Anthropological Examination and Their 



Fracture Patterns in Fleshed and De-Fleshed 

Pig Femora Inflicted With Various 

Ammunition Types 

An Experimental Test of the Accuracy of 

Human Forensic Identification Techniques 

for Analysis of Burn- Damaged Bone and 

Tissue 

The Effectiveness of Papain in the Processing 

of Remains 

The Effects of Papain and EDTA on Bone in 

the Processing of Forensic Remains 

187 

139 

140 

241 

436 

244 

150

Kendell, Ashley E. BS*, 1253 West 5th Street, Apartment 

85, Chico, CA 95928; and Ashley Hutchinson, BA, James 

Brill, BA, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, Turhon A. Murad, PhD, 

and P. Willey, PhD, California State University-Chico, 400 

West First Street, Department of Anthropology, Butte #311, 

Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Kennedy, Kenneth A.R. PhD*, Cornell University, 

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 231 

Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 

Kennedy, Kenneth A.R. PhD*, Cornell University, 

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Corson 


Kennedy, Kenneth A.R. PhD*, Department of Ecology and 

Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Cornell University, 

Ithaca, NY 

Kenyhercz, Michael W. BA*, 6327 Catawba Drive, 

Canfield, OH 44406; Michael Pietrusewsky, PhD, 

University of Hawaii, Department of Anthropology, 2424 

Maile Way, Saunders 346, Honolulu, HI 96822; Franklin 

E. Damann, MA, NMHM, AFIP, PO Box 59685, 

Washington, DC 20012-0685; and Stephen D. Ousley, 



Kenyhercz, Michael W. MS*, 6327 Catawba Drive, 

Canfield, OH 44406 

Kešetović, Rifat MD*, Laura Yazedjian, MSc, Dragana 

Vučetić, MSc, Emina Kurtalić, Zlatan Šabanović, Cheryl 

Katzmarzyk, MA, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, 




Kiley, Sarah A. BA*, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Amy Z. Mundorff, 

MA and Thomas Gibson, MD, Office of the Chief Medical 


Kiley, Sarah A. BA*, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Nicolette M. Parr, 

MS, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, 

FL 32611; and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, University of 


46227 

Kiley, Sarah A. MS*, University of Indianapolis, 

Archeology & Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna 


Index 153 

Analysis of Thirty-Three Years of Forensic 

Anthropology Casework at California State 

University, Chico (1975-2008) 

Traumatic Modifications of Human Remains 

of Victims of Mass Disasters and Long-Term 

Abuse 

Markers of Mechanical Loading in the 



Assessment of Muscular-Skeletal Robusticity 

in Personal Identification of Human Remains 

Craniometric Variation Within Southeast 

Asia 

Sex and Ancestry Estimation Using the 


The Podrinje Identification Project: A 

Dedicated Mortuary Facility for the Missing 

From Srebrenica 

Diagnosing Degenerative Pathologies in an 

Unidentified Skeleton 

Extensive Rat Modification of a Human 

Skeleton From Central Indiana 

The Taphonomic Effects of Agricultural 

Practices on Bone 

194 

391 

528 

553 

121 

28 

139 

504 

393 

230

Kim*, Deog-Im Seung-Ho Han, PhD, Dai-Soon Kwak, 

PhD, and Je- Hoon Lee, Department of Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, 

Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South Korea; Yi- 

Suk Kim, MD, Department of Anatomy, Gahon University 

of Medicine and Science, 1198 Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, 

Incheon, 405760, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, 


Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, Ssangyongdong, 

Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, Seoul, 330946, South 

Korea; U-Young Lee, MD, Division of Forensic Medicine, 

National Institute of Scientific Investigation, Sinwol 7dong, 

Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, South Korea; and In-Hyuk 

Chung, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of 

Medicine, Yonsei University, 134, Sinchon-dong, 

Seodaemungu, Seoul, 120752, South Korea 

Kim*, Deog-Im U-Young Lee, MD, and Je-Hun Lee, 


Anatomy, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, 

South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, Department of 


646 Eupnae-ri, Shinchang-myun, Cheonan, 330090, South 

Korea; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, 

Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South Korea 

Kim, Deog-Im PhD*, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong 


Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, PhD, Ewha 



158710, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Department 

of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang 

University, 366-1 Sangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul 

330946, KOREA; and U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung- Ho 

Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of 

Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo- 

dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 

Kim, Deog-Im PhD*, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong 

University, College of Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, 

Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, 



137701, KOREA; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 




KOREA 

Index 154 

Identification of the Rib Number by Metric 

Study in Korean 

The Morphometric Study of the Hyoid Bone 

for Sex Determination of Koreans 

Sex Determination Using the Calcaneus in 

Koreans 

Classification of Frontal Sinus Patterns in 

Koreans by Three-Dimensional 


Tomography 

293 

450 

117 

267

Kim, Yi-Suk MD*, Department of Anatomy, Gahon 

University of Medicine and Science, 1198, Kuwol-dong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon 

Park, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 


Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do 330946, South Korea; 

and Deog-Im Kim, Je-Hoon Lee, and Seung-Ho Han, PhD, 



137701, South Korea 

Kim, Yi-Suk MD, MS*, Department of Anatomy, Gachon 

University of Medicine and Science, Department of 

Anatomy, Gachon University of Medicine, 1198, Kuwoldong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Yong-Woo 

Ahn, DDS, PhD, and Gi-Yeong Huh, MD, PhD, Institute of 

Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan National 

University, 1-10, Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, 

KOREA; Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 


505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Department. of Anatomy, 


Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946 KOREA; and 

U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 




KOREA 

Kimmerle, Erin H. MA*, Lyle Konigsberg, PhD, and 

Richard Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc, 

Office of Missing Persons and Forensics, Department of 

Justice, United Nations Mission in Kosovo, Pristina 

Kimmerle, Erin H. PhD*, University of South Florida, 


SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620- 8100; and Jose Pablo 

Baraybar, MSc, Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EPAF), Toribio Pacheco 216 Lima 18 Peru, Lima, 18, 

Peru 



Tampa, FL 33820; and John O. Obafunwa, MD, JD, 

Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, Lagos 

State University College of Medicine, Ikeja, Lagos, 

NIGERIA 



Tampa, FL 33820; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, 

University of Illinois, Department of Anthropology, 109 


61801 

Index 155 

Assessment of Histomorphological Features 

of the Fourth Rib for Age Estimation in 

Koreans 

Microscopic Age Estimation From the 

Anterior Cortex of the Femus in Korean 

Adults 

A Bayesian Approach to Calculating Age 

Using Pubic Symphyseal Data 

Blasting Injuries in Human Rights Cases and 

Armed Conflicts 

Mortality Structure and Age Estimation in 


Assumptions and Bias in Recalibrating Age 


345 

273 

474 

338 

129 

15



Tampa, FL 33820; Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human Id Laboratory, C/O Cancer/ Genetics Research, 

PO Box 103615, Gainesville, FL 32610; and Ann H. Ross, 

PhD, North Carolina State University, Sociology and 




Tampa, FL 33820; Matthias I. Okoye, MD, JD, The 

Nebraska Institute of Forensic Sciences, 5925 Adams 

Street, Lincoln, NE 68507; John O. Obafunwa, LLB, 5540 

South 72nd Street, Lincoln, NE 68516; Thomas L. Bennett, 

MD, Yellowstone Pathology Institute, 2900 12th Avenue, 

North, Suite 260W, Billings, MT 59101; and Paul F. 

Mellen, MD, East Central Indiana Pathologists, PC & PA 

Labs, LLC2401 West University Avenue, Muncie, IN 47303 

Kirkland, Scott A. MA*, North Carolina State University, 


8107, Raleigh, NC 27695; Sarah L. Cunningham, MA, 

Binghamton University, Department of Anthropology, PO 

Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902; Jonathan Cammack, 

MS, North Carolina State University, Department of 

Entomology, Campus Box 7626, Raleigh, NC 27695; Ann 

H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, 


8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and D. Wes Watson, PhD, 

North Carolina State University, Department of 

Entomology, Campus Box 7626, Raleigh, NC 27612 

Klales, Alexandra R. BA*, Jennifer M. Vollner, BS*, and 


of Anthropology & Applied Forensic Science Program, 501 


Klales, Alexandra R. MS*, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 



Kles, Maranda A. MA*, C.A. Pound Human ID Labortory, 

1376 Mowry Road, Room G17, University of Florida, 

Gainesville, FL 32610; Bruce A. Goldberger, PhD, 

Department of Pathology, University of Florida College of 

Medicine, 4800 Southwest 35th Drive, Gainesville, FL 

32608; Michele Merves, PhD, University of Florida, Rocky 

Point Labs, Toxicology, 4800 Southwest 35th Drive, 

Gainesville, FL 32608; and Michael W. Warren, PhD, C.A. 


G17, PO Box 113615, Gainesville, FL 32610, and John 

Krigbaum, PhD, University of Florida, College of Liberal 

Arts and Sciences, Department of Anthropology, 1112 

Turlington Hall, Gainsville, FL 32611 

Klippel, Walter E. PhD*, and Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA, 



Index 156 

A Population Approach to the Problem of the 

Missing and Unidentified With Emphasis on 

the Status of Migrant and Undocumented 

Workers 

Skeletal Fracture Patterns in Documented 

Cases of Torture, Assault, Abuse, and 

Accidents 

No Country for Young Pigs: Identifying the 

Use of Captive Bolt Pistols in Non-Natural 

Death Occurrences 

A New Metric Procedure for the Estimation 

of Sex and Ancestry From the Human 

Innominate 

The Utility of Cohen’s Kappa for Testing 

Observer Error in Discrete Data and 

Alternatives 

Preliminary Studies of the Isolation of Drugs 

From Bone and Bone Marrow: A Broadened 

Role for the Forensic Anthropologist 

Rodent Modification of Human Skeletal 

Remains: Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) vs. 

Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) 

288 

210 

6 

158 

66 

85 

410

Klonowski, Alexandra M. MS*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, 

University of Central Lancashire, Maudland Building, 


Klonowski, Eva E. PhD*, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Muhamed 

Mujkic, MS, Federation Commission on Tracing Missing 

Persons, Sarajevo, and Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Piotr 



Klonowski, Eva E. PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, MD, Piotr 

Drukier, MS, and Alexandra M. Klonowski, International 



Klonowski, Eva E. PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Piotr 



Klonowski, Eva PhD*, Piotr Drukier, MSc, and Nermin 

Sarajlic, MD, MSc, International Commission on Missing 

Persons, Alipashina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

Klonowski, Eva-Elvira PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, MD, 

and Senem Skulj, BSc, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45A, Sarajevo, 71 000, Bosnia 


Kolatorowicz, Adam BS*, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, and 

Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, Archeology and Forensics 



Kolatorowicz, Adam MS*, 4510 Marcy Lane, # 41, 


Kolpan, Kate E. BA*, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, and Georgia 

L. Fox, PhD, Department of Anthropology, California State 

University, Chico, 400 West First Street, Chico, CA 95929- 

0400 

Komar, Debra A. PhD*, Office of the Medical Investigator, 


NM 87131 



NM 87131-0001 


University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM; Tim 

Petersen, MA, Department of Anthropology, University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM; Suzzette Sturtevant, BSc, 

and Britny Moore, BSc, Office of the Medical Investigator, 



University of New Mexico, MSC11 6030, Albuquerque, NM 

Index 157 

Long Bone Ratios for the Bosnian Male 

Population 

Reassociation of Skeletal Remains Recovered 

From Graves in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

The Impact of Age Related Changes in 

Vertebral Column on Age Determination for 

Identification Purposes 

Exhumations in Bosnia and Herzegovina: 

Unique Challenges in the Recovery From 

Cavern Sites 

Exhumation... and What After? ICMP Model 

in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

New Method of Skeletal Age Estimation 



Performance of FORDISC 2.0 Using 

Inaccurate Measurements 

Selection of Variables for Discriminant 

Analysis of Human Crania for Determining 

Ancestry 

Coming Unglued: The Use of Acrylic Resin 


A Potential New Morphological Indicator of 

Biological Affinity in Human Skeletal 

Remains 

“The (Almost) Exhumation of Billy the Kid: 

Why We Aren’t Digging Him up (and Why 

You Shouldn’t Either)” 

A Test of the Auricular Surface Ageing 

Method Using a Modern Sample: The Effect 

of Observer Experience 

Reassociating Commingled Remains 

Separated by Distance and Time: The Tale of 

Simon And Steven 

342 

541 

454 

540 

516 

302 

446 

363 

275 

447 

405 

533 

513

Komar, Debra PhD*, and Sarah Lathrop, PhD, University 

of New Mexico, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC 11 


87131; and Christopher R. Grivas, MS, University of New 

Mexico, Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 


Komar, Debra PhD*, Director, Laboratory of Human 

Osteology, Maxwell Museum, Department of 

Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 

NM 

Komar, Debra PhD*, International Criminal Tribunal for 

the Former Yugoslavia, Van der Heimstraat 64, The 

Hague, NETHERLANDS 

Komar, Debra PhD*, United Nations Mission in Timor 

Leste, UN House, Dili, EAST TIMOR 

Komar, Debra PhD, Office of the Medical Investigator, 


NM 87131-0001; and Wendy E. Potter, MS*, Department 


Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 

Konigsberg, Lyle W. PhD*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 


South Stadium Drive, Knoxville, TN 

Konigsberg, Lyle W. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

250 South Stadium Drive, University of Tennessee, 


Kontanis, Elias J. BS, BA*, Cornell University, 

Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Corson 


Kontanis, Elias J. BS, BA*, Cornell University, 

Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Corson 

Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853; Krista E. Latham, MS, Temple 

University, Department of Anthropology, 1115 West Berks 

Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122; Mary K. Ritke, PhD, 



Kontanis, Elias J. BS, BA*, Department of Ecology & 

Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Corson Hall, 

Ithaca, NY 

Koon, Alma BS*, 731 Pond Branch Road, Lexington, SC 

29073; and Katherine E. Weisensee, PhD*, Clemson 


Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC 29634 

Koot, Michael G. BA*, Department of Anthropology, 


Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

Kopp, Derinna V. MA*, Jacquel Arismendi, MA, and 

Shannon A. Novak, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Utah, 270 South 1400 East, Room 102, Salt 

Lake City, UT 84112 

Index 158 

The Use of Material Culture to Establish the 

Ethnic Identity of Victims in Genocide 

Investigations: A Validation Study From the 

American Southwest 

The Validity of Using Unique Biological 

Features as a Method of Identifying Victims 

of War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia 

Reconciling the Discrepancy in Victim 



Ten Years On: Problems Relating to Victim 

Identification in Timor Leste 

Percentage of Body Recovered and its Effect 

on Identification Rates and Cause/Manner of 

Death Determination 

Of Posteriors, Typicality, and Individuality in 


Local Standards vs. Informative Priors in 

Applied Forensic Anthropology 

Using Real-Time PCR Quantification of 

Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA to Develop 

Degradation Profiles for Various Tissues 

Empirical Validation and Application of the 

Quality-Control Polymerase Chain Reaction 

(qcPCR) Inhibitor Detection System 

Nuclear DNA Preservation in Soft and 

Osseous Tissues 

Demographic Differences of Homicide 




Radiographic Human Identification Using 


288 

602 

185 

136 

321 

602 

474 

483 

502 

556 

25 

555 

Defining Perimortem: Blunt Force Trauma 503

Kosalka, Renée C. MA*, Sharna Daley, MSc, and Jon 

Sterenberg, MSc, Forensic Sciences International 


71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Rick Harrington, PhD, 

PO Box 40191, Tucson, AZ 85717; Hugh Tuller, MA, 

JPAC CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI; 

Cecily Cropper, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 

Commission on Mission Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 

71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD, 






Kosalka, Renee MA*, Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA*, Sharna 

Daley, MSc, Jon Sterenberg, MSc, Rifat Kešetović, MD, 

Laura Yazedjian, MSc, René Huel, BSc, Edin Jasaragić, 

Adnan Rizić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic 



Kranioti, Elena Fotios MD, Mused Nacional de Ciencias 

Naturales, Jose Gutierrez Abascal 2, Madrid, 28006, 

SPAIN; Anastasia Efstratios Kastanaki, MSc*, State 

Mental Health Hospital of Chania, Psychooncology 

Centre, 38, I. Skaltsouni Str., El. Giakoumaki Str., and 

DaraTso, Chania, Crete, 73100, GREECE; M. Yasar 

Iscan, PhD, Istanbul Universitesi, Adli Tip Enstitusu, 

Cerrahpasa Kampusu, PK.10, 34303, Istanbul, 34098, 

TURKEY; and Manolis N. Michalodimitrakis, MD, JD, 

University of Crete, Medical School, Dpt Forensic 

Sciences, Heraklion, Crete 71110, GREECE 

Kress, Tyler A. PhD*, BEST Engineering, 2312 Craig 

Cove Road, Knoxville, TN 37919; David J. Porta, PhD, 

Bellarmine University, Department of Biology, 2001 

Newburg Road, Louisville, KY 40205; Anne M. Kroman, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; and Bryce O. Anderson, PhD, BEST 


Krishan, Kewal PhD*, Panjab University, Department of 

Anthropology, Sectoc-14, Chandigarh, 160 014, INDIA; 

Tanuj Kanchan, MD, Kasturba Medical College, 


Mangalore, 575 001, INDIA; and Neelam Passi, MSc, 

Panjab University, Department of Anthropology, Sector- 

14, Chandigarh, HI 160 014, INDIA 

Index 159 

The Work of the ICMP in the Detection, 

Excavation, Documentation, and Analysis of 

Clandestine Graves Relating to the 1995 Fall 

of Srebrenica: A Review of Activities and 

Challenges Encountered 

Mapping Forensic Evidence Onto the Stor of 

Srebrenica: Augmenting the Historical 



Sexual Dimorphism of the Humerus in 

Contemporary Cretans 

Bone-Breaking Rules: A Report of Six 

Fracture Mechanism-of-Injury Axioms 

Developed From Experimental Impact 

Testing 

Estimation of Stature From Foot and its 

Segments in a Sub-Adult Population of North 

India 

138 

142 

270 

353 

18

Kroman, A.M. BA*, Department of Anthropology, 


Hall, Knoxville, TN; Steven A. Symes, PhD, O’Brian C. 

Smith, MD, and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Department of 

Forensic Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 

1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; Harry H. Mincer, 

DDS, PhD, Division of Oral Pathology, Dunn Dental 

Building, Memphis, TN; and J.W. Lemmon, BS, 

Department of Forensic Pathology, University of 


Kroman, Anne M. MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Tyler Kress, 

PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546 

Kroman, Anne M. MA*, University of Tennessee, 



Kroman, Anne M. MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Tyler A. Kress, PhD, BEST 

Engineering, 2312 Craig Cove Road, Knoxville, TN 37919; 

and David J. Porta, PhD, Bellarmine University, 

Department of Biology, 2001 Newburg Road, Louisville, 

KY 40205 

Kroman, Anne M. PhD*, and Gregory A. Thomspon, DO, 

Lincoln Memorial University, De-Busk College of 

Osteopathic Medicine, 6965 Cumberland Gap Parkway, 

Harrogate, TN 37752 

Kroman, Anne PhD*, Lincolm Memorial University- 

DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine, 6965 

Cumberland Gap Parkway, Harrogate, TN 

Kutyla, Alicja K. BS*, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Department of Biology, Box 60, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; 

and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Middle Tennesee State 


Box 10, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

Kutyla, Alicja K. MS*, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, 



Kutyla, Alicja K. MS*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Rebecca J. Wilson, MA, 3108 

Rennoc Road, Knoxville, TN 37918; and Hugh E. 

Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, 

Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, 

TN 37132 

Index 160 

The Hidden Truth: Mandibular Condyle 

Fractures in Child Abuse 

Mandible and Cranial Base Fractures in 

Adults: Experimental Testing 

Experimental Study of Fracture Propagation 

in the Human Skull: A Re-Testing of Popular 

Theories 

Propeller Impacts: Injury Mechanics and 

Bone Trauma 

Cranial Suture Closure as a Reflection of 


Osteopathic Medicine Applied to Physical 

Anthropology 

Rethinking Bone Trauma: A New 

Biomechanical Continuum Based Approach 

Detection of Gunshot Residue (GSR) on 

Bone: Potential for Bullet Direction and 

Range Estimation 

Strontium Particles: Confirmation of Primer 

Derived Gunshot Residue on Bone in an 

Experimental Setting 

Common Household Rope and an Outdoor 


Skeletal Case Exhibiting Cervical Vertebra 

Entrapment 

611 

417 

512 

307 

173 

81 

277 

32 

71

Kutyla, Alicja K. MS*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 





L’Abbe, Ericka N PhD*, Marius Loots, BSc, and Natalie 

Keough, BSc, University of Pretoria, Faculty of Health 

Sciences, Department of Anatomy, PO Box 2034, Pretoria, 

0001, South Africa 

Lagden, Abigail C. BSc*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, 




Lahren, Craig H. MA*, North Dakota Department of 

Health, Office of the Medical Examiner, PO Box 937, 

Bismarck, ND 58502; and Thomas E. Bodkin, MA, 

Hamilton County Medical Examiner’s Office, 3202 


Lang, Joy E. BSc, BA*, and Tosha L. Dupras, PhD, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of 

Central Florida, Orlando, FL 

Langley, Natalie R. MA* and Richard Jantz, PhD, 



Langley, Natalie R. MA*, 357 South Curson Avenue, Los 

Angeles, CA 

Lanning, Bradley I. MA*, Jolen Anya Minetz, MA, and 

Jennie J.H. Jin, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue 


Latham, Krista E. BS*, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, and Mary 

Ritke, PhD, Department of Biology, University of 


Latham, Krista E. BS*, Department of Biology, University 

of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Ave, Indianapolis, IN 

Latham, Krista E. MS*, Temple University, Department of 

Anthropology, 1115 West Berks Street, Gladfelter Hall, 

2nd Floor, Philadelphia, PA 19122; and Luis M. Cabo- 

Perez, MS, Jeremy J. Beach, MS, and Dennis C Dirkmaat, 



Latham, Krista E. MS*, Temple University, Department of 

Anthropology, 1115 West Berks Street, Philadelphia, PA 

19122; Jennifer L. Harms, BS, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, 

Mary K. Ritke, PhD, and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, 



Ledford, Jennifer A. BS*, Barrett Gobelet, BS*, and Hugh 

E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & 



Index 161 

The Sacral Auricular Surface: A New 


Matjes River Rockshelter: A Case of 


Decomposition Scoring as a Method for 

Estimating the Postmortem Submersion 

Interval of Human Remains Recovered From 

United Kingdom Rivers - A Comparative 

Study 

Society of Forensic Anthropologists (SOFA): 

An Introduction 

Dissolving Dentition: The Effects of 

Corrosive and Caustic Agents on Teeth 

Sex Determination of Infants and Juveniles 

From the Clavicle 

Determining Direction of Fire: An 

Anthropological Analysis of Gunshot 

Wounds to the Chest 

Evaluating the Performance of Population 

Estimation Methods in Commingled Skeletal 

Assemblages 

The Effect of Heat Associated With 

Maceration on DNA Preservation in Skeletal 

Remains 

Using Amplification of Bacteriophage 

Lambda DNA to Detect PCR Inhibitors in 

Skeletal DNA 

Sources of Error in Genetic and Osteological 

Sex Determination: Lessons from Physical 

Anthropology 

The Ability to Amplify Skeletal DNA After 

Heat Exposure Due to Maceration 

Cervical Vertebrae Entrapment in the Noose 

as Evidence of Cause of Death by Hanging in 

Skeletal Cases: Three Remarkable Finds 

173 

316 

242 

462 

543 

468 

586 

22 

545 

556 

310 

481 

166

Lee, U-Young MD*, Catholic Institute for Applied 

Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, 

Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; In-Heok Chung, MD, 


Medicine, Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University 

College of Medicine, 134 Sinchon-dong, Seodaemoon-gu, 

Seoul, 120752, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, 

Deptartment of Anatomy, Colleege of Medicine, 

Soonchunhyang Univ, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 

Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul 330946 KOREA; Yi- 

Suk Kim, MD, MS, Department of Anatomy, Gachon 

University of Medicine, 1198 Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, 

Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, 



Je-Hoon Lee, MSc, Department of Anatomy, Catholic 

Institute for Applied Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea,, 

505 Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; and 

Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, College of 

Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo- 

dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 

Lee, U-Young MD*, Department of Anatomy, College of 


Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, 

MD, PhD, Soonchunhyang University, College of 

Medicine, Department of Anatomy, 366-1 Ssangyong-dong, 

Cheonan-si, Seoul 330946 KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, PhD, 

Ewha Womans University, Department of Anatomy, School 

of Medicine, 911-1, Mok6-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 

158710, KOREA; Sang-Seob Lee, DDS, National Institute 


Seoul, 158707, KOREA; Yong-Woo Ahn, DDS, PhD, 

Institute of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan 

National University, 1-10, Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 

602739, KOREA; Nak-Eun Jung, PhD, National Institute 






KOREA 

Index 162 

Sex Determination of Talus in Korean Using 

Discrimination Function Analysis 

Forensic Anthropological Consideration of 


From Excavated Human Remains in Case of 

Burial Place at Daehak-Ro, Korea 

269 

93

Lee, U-Young MD*, Department of Anatomy, College of 


Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; In-Hyuk Chung, 



120752, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, Department of 


366-1 Sangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946, 

KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Gachon University of Medicine & Science, 1198 Kuwoldong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Sang-Seob 

Lee, MSD, National Institute of Scientific Investigation, 

Shinwol-7-dong, Yancheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, KOREA; 

Yong-Woo Ahn, PhD, Institute of Forensic Medicine, 

School of Medicine, Pusan National University, 1- 10, Amidong, 

Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, 

PhD, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University 

College of Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, Gangneug, 

201701, KOREA; and Je-Hoon Lee, MSc, and Seung-Ho 

Han, PhD, The Catholic University of Korea, Department 

of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 505, Banpo-dong, 


Leher, Tamara L. BA* and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, 



Leher, Tamara L. BA*, Department of Anthropology, 

California State University-Chico, P.O. Box 4036, Chico, 

CA 

Leigh Moreton*, Reuben Edwin Bournemouth University, 

33 Corsair Drive, Dibden, Southampton, Hampshire SO45 

5UF, UNITED KINGDOM; and Piotr D. Drukier, MSc*, 

Bournemouth University, C134 Christchurch House, 

Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, 0 BH12 5BB, 


Leney, Mark D. PhD* and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, U.S. 

Army Central Identification Laboratory, HI, 310 


Leney, Mark D. PhD*, Central Identification Laboratory, 



Leney, Mark PhD*, U.S. Army CILHI, 310 Worchester 

Avenue Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, HI 

Listi, Ginesse A. MA*, Louisiana State University, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Baton 

Rouge, LA 70803; H. Beth Bassett, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 


Listi, Ginesse A. MA*, Mary H. Manhein, MA, and Michael 

Leitner, PhD, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 227 Howe- 

Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 

Index 163 

Determination of Sex Using Metric Data of 


Home is Where the Bones Are: Rat Nesting 

Behavior as a Tool in Forensic Investigations 

An Examination of the Petrographic 


Increments for the Determination of Age and 

Seasonality in Human Teeth 

A Curve Where No Hand Has Touched - 


The Use of Non-Unique Dental Characters 

and Non-Unique DNA Types to Estimate 

Probability of Identity 

Is This Bone Human or What? In Pursuit of 

Human vs. Non Human Determinations in 

Small Osseous Fragments 

Factors That Affect mtDNA Recoverability 

From Osseous Remains 

Test of an Alternative Method for 

Determining Sex in the Hip: Applications for 

Modern Americans 

The “Next Utility” in Field Recovery of 

Scattered Human Remains 

159 

481 

533 

259 

512 

408 

600 

449 

563

Listi, Ginesse A. PhD*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 



Listi, Ginesse A. PhD*, Louisiana State University, 1723 


Littman, Mallory S. BS*, and Peter J. Colleran, BS, Boston 


MA 02118; and Tara L. Moore, PhD, Boston University 

School of Medicine, 700 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; 

and Billie L. Seet, MA, Office of the Chief Medical 


Lobo, Stany W. MSc*, Department of Anatomy, Melaka 

Manipal Medical College, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, 

INDIA 

Loichinger, Jaime L. BA*, and Cynthia A. Wilczak, PhD, 

University of Maryland, College Park-Dept. of 

Anthropology, 1111 Woods Hall, College Park, MD 20742 

London, Marilyn R. MA, and Dawn M. Mulhern, PhD, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Lenore T. 

Barbian, PhD, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National Museum 

of Health and Medicine, Armed Forced Institute of 

Pathology, Washington, DC; Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA; Laura Fulginiti, PhD, 

Medical Examiner’s Office, Phoenix, AZ; Joseph T. 

Hefner, BS, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; and 

Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Michigan State University, East 

Lansing, MI 

Loucks, Emily J. BA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


37996; and Brannon I. Jones, MA, University of 



Love, Jennifer C. PhD*, and Steven A. Symes, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Memphis, Regional Forensic 

Center, Memphis, Memphis, TN; and Chantal Ferraro, 

PhD, Long Island University, Long Island University, 

Brookville, NY 

Love, Jennifer C. PhD*, Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, and 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, Harris County Medical 


77054; and Heather Backo, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Tulane University, 1326 Audubon Street, 


Love, Jennifer C. PhD*, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 


Love, Jennifer C. PhD*, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104; Gina Hart, MA, 

Regional Medical Examiner’s Office, 325 Norfolk Street, 

Newark, NJ 07103; and Brian Spatola, MA, 125 5th Street, 

NE, Washington, DC 20002 

Index 164 

The Use of Vertebral Osteoarthritis and 


The Impact of Racial Metric Variation in the 

Pelvis on the Morphological Assessment of 

Sex 

A Study of the Differences Between Fresh 


Establishing Time Since Death or Time Since 

Submergence 

Cephalic Index of Gurung Community of 


13 

189 

88 

155 

Population Variation in the Sacrum 362 

Roles of the Biological Anthropologist in the 

Response to the Crash of United Airlines 

Flight 93 

The Relationship Between Bone Weight and 

Age at Death 

571 

296 

Understanding Rib Fracture Patterns 549 

Objective Interpretation of the Striation 



Evaluation of Odor as a Time-Since-Death 

Indicator 

Evaluation of the Sternal Rib End Age 



83 

599 

451

Loyd, Kathleen M. MA*, Joint POW-MIA Accounting 



Luney Parr, Nicolette Maria BA, MS*, 1305 NE 6th 

Terrace, Gainesville, FL 32601-3732; Carlos J. Zambrano, 

MS, 5231 NW 56th Court, Gainesville, FL 32653; and 

Laurel Freas, MA, 3425 SW 2nd Avenue, #246, 


Lynn, Kalan S. BSc*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th 

Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic, 


MacGregor, Donna M. MSc*, Queensland Police Service, 


AUSTRALIA 

MacGregor, Donna M. MSc*, Queensland Police Service, 


AUSTRALIA 

Magnanti, Brooke L. PhD, Newcastle University, Sir James 

Spence Institute, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastleupon-Tyne, 

Tyne and Wear NE1 4LP, UNITED 

KINGDOM; and Anna Williams, PhD*, Cranfield 

University, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, 

Shrivenham, Wiltshire SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

Mahfouz, Mohamed PhD, Ahmed M. Badawi, PhD, 

Brandon C. Merkl, MS, Emam ElHak Ali Abd ElFatah, MS, 

Emily Pritchard, BS, and Katherine R. Kesler, BS, 

Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical 

Engineering, 301 Perkins Hall, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Megan K. Moore, MS*, Richard 

L. Jantz, PhD, and Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Mallett, Xanth PhD*, University of Dundee, Centre for 

Anatomy & Human Identification, Dow Street, Dundee, UK 

DD1 5EH, SCOTLAND 

Malone, Christina A. BHS, BA*, Michigan State 

University, Forensic Anthropology Lab, A-439 East Fee 


Malone, Christina A. BHS, BA*, Michigan State 

University, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, A-439 E. 

Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 48823 

Manhein, Mary H. MA*, and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 



Manhein, Mary H. MA*, and Helen B. Mathews, MA, 



LA 70803 

Manhein, Mary H. MA*, Ginesse Listi, MA, and Michael 

Leitner, PhD, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 227 Howe- 

Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 

Index 165 

The Central Identification Unit (CIU) During 

the Korean War 

Metric Sex Determination From the Mandible 272 

Stature Estimation: Are There Any 

Advantages to Using Principal Component 

Analysis? 

Ground Penetrating Radar: A New Tool in 


Unusual Skeletal Variations Observed in an 

Adult Aboriginal Male: Case Study from 

Brisbane, Australia 

Decomposition and Postmortem Interval: A 

Critical Analysis of British Medico-legal 

Investigation and Trends in South Yorkshire, 

1995-2002 

Patella Sex Determination by 3D Statistical 


Hand Comparison: The Potential for Accurate 

Identification/Recognition in Cases of 

Serious Sexual Assault 

A Radiographic Assessment of Pediatric 


Deconstructing or Perpetuating Race: The 

Status of Race in Forensic Anthropology 

Fifty Years of Questions: The Re-Evaluation 

of a Korean War Soldier Buried in the United 

States 

Establishing a Central Database for the 


The Landscape’s Role in Dumped and 

Scattered Remains 

7 

94 

153 

198 

233 

341 

133 

211 

274 

457 

289 

548

Marden, Kerriann MA*, 3800 New Hampshire Avenue, 

Northwest, Apartment #509, Washington, DC 20011; and 

Marcella H. Sorg, PhD, University of Maine, Margaret 


#4, Orono, ME 04469 

Marden, Kerriann MA*, and John W. Verano, PhD, Tulane 

University, Department of Anthropology, 1021 Audubon 


Marden, Kerriann MA*, Dept of Anthropology, Tulane 

University, 1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 

Marden, Kerriann MA, ABD*, and John W. Verano, PhD, 

Tulane University, Department of Anthropology, 1021 


Marks, Murray K. PhD*, and Kathryn H. Haden, MD, 

Department of Pathology, The University of Tennessee 

Medical Center, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

Marks, Murray K. PhD*, The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Marks, Murray K. PhD*, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Mariateresa A. 

Tersigni, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 


Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Darinka 

Mileusnic, MD, PhD, Knox County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1924 Alcoa Highway, U-71, Knoxville, TN 37920 

Marks, Murray K. PhD*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Diana K. Moyers, MA, Visiting 

Scientist, CFSRU, FBI Laboratory, FBI Academy, Building 

12, Quantico, VA 22135; Peter H. Tu, PhD, GE Global 


Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Philip N. Williams, BS, FBI 

Laboratory, CFSRU, Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

Martille, Laurent MD*, Service de Medecine Legale Chu 

de Montpellier, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen 

Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 34295, France; Douglas H. 

Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560-0112; and 

Fabienne Seguret, MD, and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de 

Médecine Légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen 


Martin, Michael BS*, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, 

Phillips Hall, Room 309, Orlando, FL 32816; and John J. 

Schultz, PhD, University of Central Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, FL 32816 

Martrille*, Laurnet and Tarek Mbghirbi, Service de 

médecine légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 av, Montpellier, 

France; Alain Zerilli, DDS, Faculté d’odontologie, CHU 

Brest, cedex , France, Brest, France; F. Seguret, 

Département d’information médicale, CHU Montpellier, 

France; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de médecine 

légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 av, Montpellier, France, 

Index 166 

Potential Impact of Regional Ecologies on the 

Estimation of Postmortem Interval: Case 

Comparisons From Northern New England 

Closed Case Files: Sequelae of a Case of 

Complex Postmortem Mutilation 

62 

445 

Beating a Dead Pig to Death: An Actualistic 245 

Test of Archaeological Assumptions 

Anatomy of a Cauldron: Sociocultural 423 

Contributions to Understanding a Forensic 

Case 

Child Abuse Case: Multiple Forensic Issues 611 

The University of Tennessee/ FBI Human 

Remains Recovery School 

Antemortem vs. Perimortem Infant Rib 


Advances in Computer Graphic Facial 

Recognition Software: Matching Facial 

Approximations to Antemortem Photographs 

A Test of Four Macroscopic Methods for Age 

Estimation of Human Skeletal Remains 

(Lamendin, Lovejoy Auricular Surface, Iscan, 

Suchey-Brooks) 

Detecting Various Burial Scenarios in a 

Controlled Setting Using Ground- Penetrating 

Radar 

A Strategy for Age Determination Combining 

a Dental Method (Lamendin) and an 

Anthropological Method (Iscan) 

557 

394 

255 

451 

65 

538

Martrille, Laurent MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, 

Montpellier cedex 5, 34295, France; Cristina Cattaneo, 

MD, PhD, Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università Degli 

Studi, Via Mangiagali 37, Milano, 30133, Italy; Steven A. 

Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 119 

Zurn Hall, Erie, PA 16546; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service 

Médecine Légale, CHU Lapeyronie, Montpellier, 34295, 

France 

Martrille, Laurent MD*, Service de Medecine Legale, Chu 

Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du doyen Gaston Giraud, 

Montpellier, 34295, France; Cristina Cattaneo, MD, PhD, 

Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università degli Studi di 

Milano, via Mangiagali 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; Yves 

Schuliar, MD, IRCGN, 1 Boulevard Théophile Sueur, 

Rosny Sous Bois, 93111, France; and Eric Baccino, MD, 

Service de Medecine Legale, Chu Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue 

du doyen Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 34295, France 

Massucci, Charles J. MA*, Tampa Police Department, 411 

North Franklin Avenue, Tampa, FL 33602; and Erin H. 


of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 

33820 

May, Shannon E. BA*, and Richard Jantz, PhD, 


S Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

May, Shannon E. MA*, 250 South Stadium Hall, 



May, Shannon E. MA*, 250 South Stadium Hall, 



McCarthy, Donna M. MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 



McCormick, Kyle BA*, Kate E. Kolpan, BA, Karen Smith 

Gardner, BA, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, Beth Shook, PhD, 

and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, California State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 400 West First Street, Butte 

#311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

McCullough, John M. PhD*, University of Utah, 270 South 

1400 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0060 

McDermott, Christopher M. MA*, U.S. Army Central 



McDowell, Jennifer L. BSc, University of Pretoria, 

Department of Anatomy, Basic Medical Sciences Building, 

PO Box 2034, Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA; Ericka N. 

L’Abbe, PhD*, University of Pretoria, PO Box 5023, 

Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA; and Michael W. 

Kenyhercz, MS, 6327 Catawba Drive, Canfield, OH 44406 

Index 167 

Bones in Aid of Forensic Pathology: Trauma 

Isn’t Only Skin Deep 

307 

Anthropological Aspect of Mass Disasters 391 

Forensic Interviews: Corroborating Evidence 

and Collecting Data for Anthropological 

Field Work 

The Effects of Body Mass Index on 

Cremation Weight 

A SEM-EDS Trace Elemental Analysis of 


Bilateral Asymmetry in Historic Versus 

Modern Skeletal Remains: Activity and 


Anatomical Stature Estimation: Why Not 

Fully Accurate? 

An Assessment of Biological Ancestry in an 

Unmarked Cemetery From Nevada: An 

Integrated Approach 

39 

236 

68 

189 

433 

216 

Race — A New Synthesis for a New Century 490 

U.S. Army Identification Laboratories for 

WWII and Korea and the History of Forensic 

Anthropology 

Morphometric Evaluation of Nasal 



518 

46

McGowan, Regina L. BA*, 3841 Branson Road, Victoria, 

BC V9C 4A7, CANADA 

McKeown, Ashley H. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812; and Daniel J. 

Wescott, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211 

McKeown, Ashley H. PhD*, University of Montana, 

Department of Anthropology, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, 

MT 59812; Walter L. Kemp, MD, Department Of Justice, 

State of Montana, Forensic Science Division, 2679 Palmer, 

Missoula, MT 59808-6010; and Beatrix Dudzik, MA, and 

Hillary R. Parsons, MA, University of Tennessee, 



McKeown, Ashley H. PhD*, University of Montana, 

Department of Anthropology, Missoula, MT 59812; and 

Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, Florida International University, 

Department of Biological Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th 


McManus, Sarah E. BA*, 2019 Stonybrook Road, 

Louisville, TN 37777 

McNulty, Shauna MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


Meehan, Audrey L. BGS*, 91-1074 Anaunau Street, Ewa 

Beach, HI 96706; and Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Acct Command, Identification Laboratory, 310 


Meehan, Audrey L. BGS*, and Robert W. Mann, PhD, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command/Central 


AFB, HI 96853 

Meehan, Audrey L. BGS*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command/ Central Identification Laboratory, 310 


Megyesi, Mary S. BA*, University of Indianapolis, East 

Lansing, MI 

Megyesi, Mary S. MS*, Department of Anthropology, 354 


48824; and Norman Sauer, PhD, Department of 



Megyesi, Mary S. PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Lindsey L. 

Jenny, MA, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 

48823; Cate Bird, MA, 2740 Senate Drive, #3E, Lansing, 

MI 48912; Amy Michael, MA, 528 West Lapeer Street, 

Lansing, MI 48933; and Angela Soler, MA, and Jane 

Wankmiller, MA, Michigan State University, Department of 


Index 168 

Determination of Low Velocity Bullet 

Trajectory in Long Bones: An Experimental 

Investigation 

Morphological Variation in the Cranial Base: 

Implications for Sex and Ancestry Estimation 

Scavenging and Its Relationship to 


Sex and Ancestry Estimation From 


Ancestry Estimation Using the Femur: A 

Pilot Study 

Pattern and Distribution of Fractures in the 

William M. Bass and Hamann-Todd 


Skull/ Photo Superimposition Validation 

Study 

Skull and Photo Superimposition Technique 

Used to Aid in the Identification Process 

The Technique of Sampling Skeletal Remains 

for Mitochondrial DNA Testing 

The Effects of Temperature on the 


The Effects of Cerebral Palsy on Age 


Taphonomy of a Mass Grave in Mid- 


277 

328 

61 

101 

155 

5 

181 

363 

356 

577 

454 

2

Melbye, Jerry PhD*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD, 


Anthropology, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 

78666-4616 

Michaud, Amy L. BS*, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 

Firearms, and Explosives, National Laboratory Center, 

6000 Ammendale Road, Ammendale, MD 20705; Douglas 

H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH- 

MRC112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC, 20560; 

and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 


MI 48824 

Miller Wieberg, Danielle A. MA*, 4107 Meredith Road, 


Miller, Elizabeth A. PhD*, Cal State Los Angeles and Los 

Angeles County Coroner, Department of Anthropology, 

5151 State University Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90032 

Miller, Elizabeth A. PhD*, California State University at 

Los Angeles, Department of Anthropology, 5151 State 

University Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90032; and Stephen D. 

Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546 

Miller, Michelle L. BS, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Miller, Robyn A. BA*, University of Tennessee Department 


Minetz, Jolen Anya MA*, and Jiro Manabe, MA, JPAC- 



Minetz, Jolen Anya MA*, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Bradley I. 

Lanning, MA, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96835; Kylie Puzzuto, West Virginia 

University, PO Box 6201, Morgantown, WV 26506; and 

Elizabeth Okrutny, BS, Central Florida University, 4000 

Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32816 

Monzavi, Babak Faghih DDS*, No 93351 Sanie Zadeh 

Lane-Chahar Bagh Bala Avenue, Esfahan 81638-93351, 

Iran; Arash Ghodoosi, MD, Fayz Square- Forensic 

Medicine Center of Esfahan Province, Esfahan, Iran; Omid 

Savabi, DDS, MS, Azadi Square- Hezar Jerib Avenue, 

Esfahan University of Medical Science, School of 

Dentistry, Esfahan, Iran; Asghar Karimi, DDS, Fayz 

Square - Forensic Medicine Center of Esfahan Province, 

Esfahan, Iran; Akbar Hasanzadeh, MS, Azadi Square- 

Hezar Jerib Avenue, Esfahan University of Medical 

Sciences, School of Health Sciences, Esfahan, Iran 

Index 169 

Creating an Open-Air Forensic Anthropology 

Human Decomposition Research Facility 

Bones of Contention - The Investigation of a 

Cadaver Dog Handler 

Establishing the Perimortem Interval: 

Correlation Between Bone Moisture Content 

and Blunt Force Trauma Characters 

The Boy in the Chimney: A Case Study in 


The Use (and Abuse) of the Sacrum in Sex 

Determination 

Utilizing Ground Penetrating Radar and 

Three-Dimensional Imagery to Enhance 

Search Strategies of Buried Human Remains 

The Role of Clothing in Estimating Time 

Since Death 

Group Classification Using Traditional 



the Potential Applications of These Methods 

to Fragmentary Crania 

Osteometric Analysis of the Vertebral 

Column 

Model of Age Estimation Based on Dental 

Factors of Unknown Cadavers Among 

Iranians 

149 

359 

352 

340 

100 

568 

598 

27 

47 

476

Mooder, Karen P. PhD*, and Mary-Claire King, PhD, 

Division of Medical Genetics, University of Washington, 

Box 357720, Seattle, WA 98195-7720 

Moore, Chester E. II, PhD*, U.S. Army Central 



Moore, Megan K. MS*, Department of Anthropology, 250 

South Stadium Hall, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 

TN 37996-0720 

Moore, Megan K. MS*, University of Tennessee, 301 

Perkins Hall, Department of Mech, Aero, & Biomed 

Engineering, Knoxville, TN; and Dixie L. Thompson, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Department of 

Exercise, Sports and Leisure Studies, 340 Health, Physical 

Education, and Recreation Building, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Moore-Jansen, Peer H. PhD* and Amber Harrison, BA*, 

Department of Anthropology, Wichita State University, 114 

Neff Hall, Wichita, KS 67260-0052 

Moore-Jansen, Peer H. PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Wichita State University, 114 Neff Hall, Wichita, KS 

67260-0052; Elayne J. Pope, PhD, University of West 

Florida, Anthropology Department, 11000 University 

Parkway, Building 13, Pensacola, FL 72701; and Laura B. 

Bennett, BS*, 1013 Wisteria Drive, Derby, KS 67037 

Morcillo, Maria D. MD*, and Isla Y. Campos Varela, 



Morris, Zoe Hensley HBSc, MA*, University Of Western 

Ontario, Department Of Anthropology, Social Sciences 

Centre, London, Ontario N6A 5C2, CANADA; Mary H. 

Manhein, MA, Department Of Geography & Anthropology, 


Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 1723 Lombard Drive, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70810 

Moss, Kathryn E. BS*, 4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 

77004; and Angela D. Rippley, BS, and Joan A. Bytheway, 

PhD, Sam Houston State University, Box 2296, Huntsville, 

TX 77341-2296 

Moyers, Diana K. MA*, and Philip N. Williams, BS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 


Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

Mundorff, Amy Z MA*, Simon Fraser University, 

Department of Archaeology, 8888 University Dr, Burnaby, 

BC V5A 1S6, Canada; and Eric J Bartelink, PhD, 



Mundorff, Amy Z. MA*, Robert Shaler, PhD, Erik T. 

Bieschke, MS, and Elaine Mar, MS, Office of Chief 


Mundorff, Amy Z. MA*, Simon Fraser University, 611- 

1485 West 6th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V6H4G1, Canada 

Index 170 

Applications of DNA Identification to Human 

Rights: Additional Informative Sites in the 

mtDNA Genome 

The Importance of Recovered Life-Support 


408 

605 

Skeletal Markers of Obesity in the Lower Leg 456 

Estimating Body Mass From Bone Mineral 


252 

A Quantitative Study of Morphological 524 

Variation in the OS Coxa for the Purpose of 

Estimating Sex of Human Skeletal Remains 

Human Cremains From a Controlled Car Fire 214 

Identification vs. Cause of Death in Mass 

Graves Where Individuals are Commingled in 

Colombia 

Quantitative and Spatial Comparison of the 

Microscopic Bone Structures Of Deer 

(Odocoileus virginianus), Dog (Canis 

familiaris), and Pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) 

The Effects of Avian and Terrestrial 

Scavenger Activity on Human Remains in the 

Piney Woods of Southeast Texas 

Accuracy Testing of Computerized Facial 



DNA Preservation of Skeletal Elements From 

the World Trade Center Disaster: Some 

Recommendations for Mass Disaster 

Management 

Marrying of Anthropology and DNA: 

Essential for Solving Complex Commingling 

Problems in Cases of Extreme Fragment 

Anthropologist Directed Triage Teams From 

Three Distinct Mass Fatality Events 

Involving Human Fragmentation 

53 

222 

57 

224 

357 

443 

389

Mundorff, Amy Zelson MA*, and Corinne Ambrosi, MD, 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New 

York, NY; and Jason Wiersema, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Texas A&M University, 1602 Rock Cliff 

Road, Austin, TX 

Mundorff, Amy Zelson MA*, Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, New York City, New York, NY 

Murad, Turhon A. PhD*, Anthropology Department, 

California State University, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Murad, Turhon A. PhD*, California State University - 

Chico, Department of Anthropology, 400 West First Street 

Chico, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

Murray, Elizabeth A. PhD*, College of Mount St. Joseph, 

5701 Delhi Road, Cincinnati, OH 45233-1670; and Bruce 

E. Anderson, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 


Murray, Elizabeth A. PhD*, Hamilton County Coroner’s 

Office, College of Mount St. Joseph, 5701 Delhi Road, 

Cincinnati, OH 

Musse, Jamilly O. PhD*, Jeidson A.M. Marques, PhD, 

Faculty of Dentistry, Feira de Santana State University 

(UEFS), Fanco Manoel da Silva, 437, Cidade Nova, Feira 

de Santana - Bahia, 44053-060, BRAZIL; and Rogério N. 

Oliveira, PhD, University of São Paulo, Lineu Prestes, 

5081, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, 05508-000, 

BRAZIL 

Myster, Susan M.T. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Hamline University, St. Paul, MN 

Myster, Susan M.T. PhD*, Hamline University, 

Department of Anthropology, Saint Paul, MN; Susan J. 

Roe, MD, Ramsey County Medical Examiner’s Office, 300 

East University Avenue, Saint Paul, MN; Barbara H. 

O’Connell, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Hamline 

University, Saint Paul, MN; Janice J. Ophoven, MD, The 

Children’s Hospital, 345 North Smith Avenue, Saint Paul, 

MN; and Ann L. Norrlander, DDS, 1553 Medical Arts 

Building, 825 Nicollet Mall, Minneapolis, MN 

Myster, Susan M.T. PhD*, Hamline University, MB 196, 

1536 Hewitt Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55104; Erin Kimmerle, 

PhD, University of South Florida, Soc 110, 4202 East 

Fowler, Tampa, FL 33620; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, North 

Carolina State University, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 

27695-8107 

Myster, Susan M.T. PhD, Hamline University, MB 196, 

1536 Hewitt Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55104; Sarah E. 

Nathan, BA*, Department of Forensic Sciences, Nebraska 

Wesleyan University, Lincoln, NE 68503 

Index 171 

Hyperextension Trauma of Upper Cervical 

Vertebrae 

The Role of Anthropology During the 

Identification of Victims From the World 

Trade Center Disaster 

The Difference Between “Pala” and “Palo” is 

the Instrument of Death 

The Prosecution of a 28-Year-Old Case of 


Forensic Anthropology in the Courtroom: 

Trends in Testimony 

Race and Ethnicity in Subadult Crania: When 

Does Differentiation Occur? 

Contribution of the Maxillary Sinus Analysis 

for Human Identification 

Presenting Forensic Anthropology Training 

Seminars and Workshops to Forensic 

Science, Medico-Legal, and Law 

Enforcement Professionals: Consequences for 

Death Investigations Involving Decomposed, 

Skeletal, and Burned Human Remains 

A Multidisciplinary Approach to Evaluate 

Chronic Malnutrition During Childhood in a 

Case of Suspected Fatal Child Abuse 

Craniometrics as Jantz Taught Us: Multiple 

Lines of Evidence to Deduce the Affiliation 

of Painted “Aztec” Skulls 

An Evaluation of the Greulich and Pyle 

Skeletal Aging Standards for the Hand and 

Wrist in a Contemporary Multiethnic 

Population 

575 

569 

382 

34 

294 

532 

21 

557 

610 

329 

523

Nashelsky, Marcus B. MD*, Department of Pathology - 

5244 RCP, University of Iowa Hospitals & Clinics, 200 

Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, IA 52242; Todd W. Fenton, 

PhD, Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, 

Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864; Carolyn V. Hurst, BA, 3303 Wharton 

Street, East Lansing, MI 48823; and Timothy G. Baumer, 

BS, and Roger C. Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic Biomechanics 


48824 

Nawrocki, Stephen P. PhD*, and Anthony J. Koehl, BS*, 

University of Indianapolis, Archeology & Forensics 

Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

46227 

Nawrocki, Stephen P. PhD*, Matthew A. Williamson, PhD, 

Christopher W. Schmidt, PhD, Heather A. Thew, MS, and 

Gregory A. Reinhardt, PhD, University of Indianapolis 

Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East, Hanna 


Nugent, Teresa G. BA*, Texas State University, 601 


Nusse, Gloria L. BFA*, Clay and Bones, 129 Stanford 

Avenue, Mill Valley, CA 94941; and Alison Galloway, 

PhD*, University of California, Santa Cruz, Anthropolgy 

Department, Social Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

O’Brien, R. Christopher BA, MFS*, University of Western 

Australia, Centre for Forensic Science, 35 Stirling 

Highway, Mail Bag M420, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; 

Shari L. Forbes, PhD, University of Ontario Institute of 

Technology, Faculty of Science, 2000 Simcoe Street, North, 

Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada; Jan Meyer, PhD, 

University of Western Australia, School of Anatomy and 

Human Biology, 35 Stirling Highway, Mail Bag M360, 

Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; and Ian Dadour, University 

of Western Australia, Centre for Forensic Science, 35 

Stirling Highway, Mail Bag M420, Crawley, WA 6009, 

Australia 

O’Callaghan, Jennifer MFS*, and Jacqueline Raskin- 

Burns, MS, Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 

1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 

20850; Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, Central 

Identification Laboratory, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Audrey Meehan, BGS, 

and Mark Leney, PhD, Central Identification Laboratory, 


Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853; and Suzanne 

M. Barritt, MS, and Brion C. Smith, DDS, Armed Forces 



Index 172 

Cranial Fracture Patterns in Pediatric 




Recovery of Human Remains From Vehicles 

Submerged in Fresh Water 

Excavation and Analysis of Four Homicide 

Victims From Shallow Graves in 

Bartholomew County, IN 

164 

200 

580 

Burned Beyond Recognition: Can the 75 



Artists Contribution to Facial Reconstruction 377 

Seasonal Variation of Scavenging and 

Associated Faunal Activity on Pig Carcasses 

in South Western Australia 

Resolving Extremely Commingled Skeletal 



384 

407

O’Connell, Linda BM, MSc*, Joy Steven, MSc*, and 

Margaret Cox, PhD*, School of Conservation Sciences, 


O’Connell, Linda BM, MSc*, School of Conservation 

Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, United 

Kingdom 

Olmer, Merissa BA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Maryland, 1111 Woods Hall, College Park, 

MD 20742; Sophia Mavroudas, BA*, Department of 

Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, 

New York, NY; Franklin E. Damann, MA, National 

Museum of Heath and Medicine, AFIP, PO Box 59685, 

Washington, DC 20012-0685; and Christian Crowder, 

PhD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st 


Olson, Gregory O. MSc*, Office of the Fire Marshal, 2284 

Nursery Road, Midhurst, Ontario L0L 1X0, CANADA 

Osborn, Michelle L. BA*, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Howe-Russel 

Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, FACES Lab, 

Louisiana State University, E105 Howe- Russell Building, 

Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Michael Leitner, PhD, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Loiusiana 

State University, E111 Howe-Russell Building, Baton 


Ousley, Stephen D. MA, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 7012, NMNH MRC 

138, Washington, DC 20013- 7012; and Joseph T. Hefner, 

MA, Department of Anthropology, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, 


Ousley, Stephen D. PhD*, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Ericka N. L’Abbe, PhD*, 

PO Box 5023, Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA 

Ousley, Stephen D. PhD*, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Kyra E. Stull, MS*, 


and Kathryn L. Frazee, MS*, 351 West 22nd Street, Floor 

2, Erie, PA 16502 

Ousley, Stephen D. PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, NMNH 

MRC 138, PO Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013-7012; 

and Lisa M. Martinez, Department of Anthropology, 

Harvard University, 11 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 

02138 

Index 173 

Sex, Size, and Genetic Mistakes: Identifying 

Disorders of Sexual Differentiation in Human 


An Evaluation of the Relationship Between 


Distribution, Type, and Severity of Vertebral 

Degenerative Disease in Archaeological 

Material 

Improving Histomorphometric Age 



Sample Data 

The Recovery of Human Remains From a 

Fatal Fire Setting Using Archeological 

Methodology 

Test of a Method Regarding Sex Indication of 

the Human Hyoid Body 



Craniometric Variation in South African and 

American Blacks 

A Radiographic Database for Forensic 

Anthropology 

Morphological, Metric, and Morphometric 

Variation in the Midface 

534 

553 

95 

212 

319 

419 

103 

115 

367

Ousley, Stephen D. PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, NMNH, 

MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013; and Richard L. Jantz, 

MA, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department of 


37996-0720 

Ousley, Stephen D. PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 

37012, NMNH MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013-7012; 

and John E. Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting, 



Ousley, Stephen D. PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, 


Washington, DC; Jessica L. Seebauer, BS, Department of 

Biology, State University of New York-Geneseo, Geneseo, 

NY; and Erica B. Jones, MA, Smithsonian Institution, 



Owings, Charity G. BS*, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 

77845; Nicole C. Larison, BS*, Sam Houston State 

University, Department of Biological Sciences, Box 2116, 

Huntsville, TX 77341; and Joan A. Bytheway, PhD, Sam 

Houston State University, Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 77341- 

2296 

Paine, Robert R. PhD*, Physical Anthropology 

Department of Sociology, MS1012, Texas Tech University, 

Lubbock, TX; Alfredo Coppa, PhD, Universita La Sapienza 

di Roma, Roma, and Mancinelli Domenico, PhD, 

Universita de L’Aquila, Italy, Roma 

Paolello, Josephine M. MS*, and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, 



Park, Dae-Kyoon MD, PhD*, and Jeong-Sik Ko, PhD, 



Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si, 330946, Korea; and 

Deog-Im Kim, MA, U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, 



University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Sochogu, Seoul, 

137701, Korea 

Park, Dae-Kyoon MD, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, 


Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946 KOREA; 

Deog-Im Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong 


Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; U-Young Lee, MD, and 

Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 


505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 

Index 174 

The Next FORDISC: FORDISC 3 422 

New Statistical Approaches to Sex 



Forensic Anthropology, Repatriation, and the 

“Mongoloid” Problem 

Taphonomic Changes Observed on Skeletal 

Remains in Southeast Texas 

Forensic Application for Evaluating Cranial 

Trauma Cases From the Iron-Age Site of 

Alfedena, Italy 

Elliptic Fourier Analysis of Vertebral 


Morphometrics Using Radiographic Study of 

Thyroid Cartilage for Age-Estimation in 

Korean Males 

Morphometrics of the Korean Thyroid 


331 

537 

48 

584 

283 

378 

269

Park, Dae-Kyoon MD, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, 

Ssangyong-dong, Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si, 

330946, Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, and Nak-Eun Chung, 

MD, PhD, Division of Forensic Medicine National Institute 

of Scientific Investigation, 331-1 Sinwol 7 -dong, 

Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158707 Korea; and Seung-Ho Han, 



University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul 

137701 Korea 

Park, Dae-Kyoon MD, PhD*, Soonchunhyang University, 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 366-1, 

Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 

Choenan-si, Seoul 330946 Korea, Republic of Korea; U- 

Young Lee, MD, National Institute of Scientific 

Investigation, Division of Forensic Medicine, 331-1 Sinwol 

7-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, Seoul 158707 Korea, 

Republic of Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, Gachon University of 

Medicine and Science, Department of Anatomy, 1198 

Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon-si, Seoul 405760 

Korea, Republic of Korea; Deog-Im Kim, BA, and Seung- 

Ho Han, MD, PhD, The Catholic University of Korea, 

College of Medicine, Catholic Institute for Applied 

Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, 505, Banpodong, 

Seocho-gu, Seoul, Seoul 137701 Korea, Republic of Korea; 

and In-Hyuk Chung, MD, PhD, Yonsei University College 

of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, 134, Sinchon-dong, 

Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, Seoul 120749 Korea, Republic of 

Korea 

Park, Dae-Kyoon PhD*, Department of Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Department of 

Anatomy; U-Young Lee, MD, Department of Anatomy, 


505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; Yi- 

Suk Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Gachon University 

of Medicine & Science, 1198 Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, 

Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, 



Seung-Ho Han, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of 


Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; and In-Hyuk 

Chung, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University 

College of Medicine, 134 Sinchon-dong, Seodaemoon-gu, 

Seoul, 120752, KOREA 

Parks, Bruce O. MD*, Eric Peters, MD, Cynthia 

Porterfield, DO, David Winston, MD, and Diane Karluk, 

MD, Pima County Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 

District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Sam Keim, MD, 

University of Arizona Department of Emergency Medicine, 

University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ; 

Michael Kent, MD, Emergency Department, Northwest 

Hospital, Tucson, AZ 

Index 175 

Results of Forensic Anthropological 

Examination in Daegu Subway Disaster 

(2003, Korea) 

Sex Determination of Koreans Through 

Cervical Vertebrae 

Sex-Determination of Koreans Using Metric 

Analysis of Vertebrae 

Deaths of Undocumented Immigrants in 

Southern Arizona 

362 

301 

160 

493

Parks, Connie L. BA*, 8802 Featherhill Road, Austin, TX 

78737; Elizabeth T. Brandt, BA, 232 Evans Liberal Arts, 

Anthropology Department 601 University Drive, San 

Marcos, TX 78666; Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD, Texas 

State University-San Marcos, Department of Anthropology, 

601 University Drive, Austin, TX 78666; Jennifer Pechal, 

MS, TAMU 2475, Texas A&M University, College Station, 

TX 77843- 2475; and Jeffery K. Tomberlin, PhD, 

Department of Entomology, TAMU 2475, College Station, 

TX 77843-2475 

Parr, Nicolette M. MS*, 1305 Northeast 6th Terrace, 

Gainesville, Florida ; Katherine Skorpinski, MA, 1626 

Southwest 14th Street, Aartment 16, Gainesville, FL 

32608; Traci L. Van Deest, MA, 121 Southeast 16th 

Avenue, Apartment J201, Gainesville, FL 32601; and 

Laurel Freas, MA, 3425 Southwest 2nd Avenue, #246, 


Parr, Nicolette M. MS*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Parr, Nicolette M. MS*, University of Florida, CA Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, 1305 NE 6th Terrace, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; and Joseph T. Hefner, PhD, 

Statistical Research, Inc., 6099 East Speedway Boulevard, 


Parsons, Thomas PhD*, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, Andreas 

Kleise, LLM; Adam Boys, MA, and Asta Zinbo, MA; 



HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD, Simon Fraser 

University, Department of Archeology, Burnaby, BC, V5A 

1S6, CANADA; and Kathryne Bomberger, MA, Forensic 



Parsons, Thomas PhD*, Andreas Kleiser LLM, Adnan 

Rizvić BSc, and Kathryne Bomberger MA, Forensic 


45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIAHERZEGOVINA 

Passalacqua, Nicholas V. BA*, Mercyhurst College, 

Department Applied Forensic Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 


Passalacqua, Nicholas V. MS*, 1559 Mount Vernon, East 

Lansing, MI 48823; Jennifer M. Vollner, MS, 328 Baker 

Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Dominique Semeraro, MS, 


Providence, RI 02904; and Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, 

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New 


Index 176 

A Study of the Human Decomposition 


Case Studies and Patterns of Postmortem 

Dismemberment 

An Assessment of Non-Metric Traits of the 

Mandible Used in the Determination of 

Ancestry 

A Statistical Assessment of Cranial and 

Mandibular Morphoscopic Traits Used in the 


The International Commission on Missing 

Persons and an Integrated, Multidisciplinary 

Forensic Approach to Identification of the 

Missing From the 1995 Srebrenica, Bosnia 

Mass Execution Event 

Lessons and Challenges From Srebrenica: A 

Summary and Future Perspectives 

Forensic Age-at-Death Estimation From the 

European American Male Sacrum: A New 

Component System 

A Pilot Study in the Forensic Potential of the 

Health Index 

204 

68 

368 

207 

137 

144 

304 

25

Passalacqua, Nicholas V. MS*, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864-4200; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan 


Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Brian J. Powell, BS, and 

Timothy G. Baumer, BS, Orthopaedic Biomechanics 


48824; William N. Newberry, MS, Exponent Failure 

Analysis Associates, Inc., Farmington Hills, MI 48331; and 

Roger C. Haut, PhD, A407 East Fee Hall, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 

MI 48824 

Passalacqua, Nicholas Vere MS*, 3518 Hagadorn Road, 

Okemos, MI 48864 

Pastor, Robert F. PhD*, The Calvin Wells Laboratory, and 

Jacinta N. Daines, BSc, Department of Archaeological 

Sciences, University of Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 

1DP, Bradford, United Kingdom 

Pastor, Robert F. PhD*, University of Bradford, Biological 

Anthropology Research Centre, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 

1DP, United Kingdom; and Angela J. Reynard, MSc*, 

Bureau of Forensic Science, Ltd, Temple Chambers, 3-7 

Temple Avenue, London, EC4Y OHP, United Kingdom 

Pastor, Robert F. PhD*, University of Bradford, 

Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, West 

Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom 

Patiño*, Andres nd Edixon Quinones Reyes, c/o ALAF and 

EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

Patton, Susan B. MNSc*, Steven A. Symes, PhD, O’Brian 

C. Smith, MD, T.A. Campbell, MD, and Cynthia D. 

Gardner, MD, Department of Forensic Pathology, 


Memphis, TN 

Peccerelli, Fredy c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street, 

#502, Brooklyn, NY 11201; José Samuel Suasnavar 

Bolaños, Lourdes Penados, and Mario Vasquez, c/o ALAF 

and EAAF, 10 Jay St #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

Penados, Lourdes A. MS*, CAFCA, 2a. calle 6-77 zona 1, 

Guatemala, 01001, Guatemala; and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, 


and Investigative Sciences, Maudland Building 114, 

Preston, Lancashire PR12HE, United Kingdom 

Perry, Paula A. BA*, Bournemouth University, Talbot 

Campus, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BF, United Kingdom 

Pharr, Lauren R. MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 


Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Wayne L. 

Kramer, PhD, Louisiana State University, Department of 

Entomology, 404 Life Science Building, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803 

Index 177 






The Utility of the Samworth and Gowland 

Age-at-Death “Look-Up” Tables in Forensic 

Anthropology 

The Analysis of Ancestry From Skeletal 



Evaluation of the Relationship Between Fifth 

Metatarsal Length and Foot Length/ Shoe 

Size: A Possible Aid in Human Identification 

Sexual Dimorphism in Vertebral Dimensions 

at the T12/L1 Junction 

82 

271 

592 

394 

430 

Forensic Anthropology in Colombia 509 

Diagnostic Imaging of Child Abuse: A 

Comparison of Radiographic Views to Detect 

Rib Fracture 

608 

Forensic Anthropology in Guatemala 508 

Forensic Anthropology Investigation of 

Human Rights Violations in the Ixil and 

Ixcan areas of Guatemala 

347 

Human Decomposition in the Detroit River 413 

Anaerobic and Aerobic Decomposition in 55gallon 

Oil Drums: A Two-Year Study on the 

Deliberate Concealment of Remains 

61

Pinheiro*, João Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, 

Instit Nacional Medicina Legal, Delegação do Centro, 

Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 0 3000, PORTUGAL; 

Andersen Lyrio da Silva, and Eugenia Cunha, PhD, 

Departamento De Antropologia, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, PORTUGAL; and Steven A. Symes, 

PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst 


Pinheiro, Joao MD, MS*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina 

Legal, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000-213, Portugal; 

Eugénia Cunha, PhD, Departamento De Antropologia, 

Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Università degli Studi di Milano, 

Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia, Università 

degli Studi di Milano, Milano, 3330, Italy; and Francisco 

Corte Real, PhD, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, 

Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000-213, Portugal 

Pinheiro, João MD, MSc*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina 

Legal, Instit Nacional Medicina Legal, Delegação do 

Centro, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000, PORTUGAL; 

Eugenia Cunha, PhD, Departamento De Antropologia, 

Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, 

PORTUGAL; Hugo Pissarra, DVM, Faculdade de 

Medicina Veterinária da Univsersidade Técnica da Lisboa, 

Av. da Univsersidade Técnica da Lisboa, Lisbon, AL, 

PORTUGAL; and Francisco Corte Real, PhD, Insituto 

Nacional de Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé Nova, 3000, 

Coimbra, AL, PORTUGAL 

Pokines, James T. PhD*, Greg E. Berg, MA, Bradley J. 

Adams, MA, Ann W. Bunch, PhD, John E. Byrd, PhD, and 

Thomas D. Holland, PhD, U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force 

Base, Honolulu, HI 

Pokines, James T. PhD*, Kelly L. Burke, MSc, and 

Josephine M. Paolello, MS, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester 


Pope, Elayne J. MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old 

Main, Anthropology Department, Fayetteville, AR 72701 


Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 


Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; Alan G. Robinson, MSc, 

Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation, 

Guatemala City, Guatemala City, 01002, Central America; 

Kate Spradley, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and O’Brian C. Smith, 

MD, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison, Memphis, 

TN 38104 


Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 381 

Cherry Hollow, Cordova, TN 38018; and Kate M. 

Spradley, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 

Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996 

Index 178 

Cranial Bone Trauma: Misleading Injuries 279 

Forensic Anthropologist and Forensic 

Pathologist: Why Work Together? Some 

Illustrative Cases of Homicide 

Eaten or Attacked By His Own Dogs? From 

the Crime Scene to a Multidisciplinary 

Approach 

How Not to Stage a Burial: Lessons From 

North Korea 

Patterns of Trauma on the Skeletal Remains 

of U.S. Soldiers in the Battle of East Chosin, 

North Korea 

Burned Human Remains: Myths in Forensic 

Science 

Utilizing Taphonomy and Context to 

Distinguish Perimortem from Postmortem 

Trauma in Fire Deaths 

Burned Beyond Recognition: Attempts to 

Destroy Evidence of Death 

Bevel, Bevel in my Bone, Be it Bullet or Be it 

Stone? Misidentification of Blunt Force 

Trauma as Ballistic Entrance Wounds in 


429 

169 

600 

84 

351 

459 

459 

382


Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Regional Forensic Center, University of Tennessee, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104 


Main, Fayetteville, AR; and O’ Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Regional Forensic Center of the University of Tennessee, 


Pope, Elayne J. MA*, University of Arkansas, 

Anthropology Department, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 

72701 

Pope, Elayne J. MA*, University of Tennessee, 252 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN; Steven A. Symes, PhD, and 

O’Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 


Pope, Elayne J. MA, Trey Batey, MA*, and Jerome C. 

Rose, PhD, University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, 

Fayetteville, AR 72701 

Pope, Elayne J. PhD*, Anthropology Department, 

University of West Florida, Anthropology Building 13, 


Pope, Elayne J. PhD*, University of West Florida, 


Building 13, Pensacola, FL 72701 

Pope, Elayne J. PhD, Heidi S. Davis, BA, BS*, and Ashley 

E. Shidner, BA, University of West Florida, Anthropology 

Department,11000 University Parkway, Building 13, 


Pope, Melissa A. BA*, University of South Florida, 


Tampa, Florida 33613; and Liotta N. Dowdy, BA*, 

University of South Florida, 3115 Palmira Street, Tampa, 

Florida 33629 

Pope, Melissa A. BA*, University of South Florida, 


Tampa, FL 33612; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University 

of South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East 


Pope, Melissa A. MA*, University of South Florida, 



Potter, Wendy E. BA, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 


NM 87131 

Potter, Wendy E. BA, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 


NM 87131-0001; and Russell T. Alexander, MD, Office of 

the Medical Investigator, MSC11-6030, 1 University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 

Index 179 

Burning Observations of Decomposed 

Human Remains: Obscuring the Postmortem 

Interval 

Features of Preexisting Trauma and Burned 

Cranial Bone 

Beyond the Fire: Taphonomic Variables of 

Burned Human Remains 

Burning Observations of the Head: An 

Experimental Model 

Non-Destructive Microscopic Differentiation 

of Human From Non-Human Fragmentary 

Burned Bone 

Fatal Fire Modeling: Replicating 




From Scene to Seen: Post-Fire Taphonomic 

Changes Between the In Situ Context and the 

Medicolegal Examination of Burned Bodies 

Differentiating Peri- and Postmortem 


Radiography as a Tool for Contemporary 


Decomposition Patterns in Indoor 



Decomposition Patterns of Human Remains 

Within Enclosed Environments: A 

Comparative Analysis of the Midwest and 

Southeast 

The Potential Diagnostic Value of Scanning 



Nail or Bullet? A Comparison of Typical 



511 

550 

229 

586 

380 

77 

213 

78 

191 

88 

59 

317 

395

Price, Alan MA*, Associate Director, Southern Institute of 

Forensic Science, Regional Service Office, 7224 West 

Canberra Street Drive, Greeley, CO; and Michael Britt, 

BS, Supervisor of Investigations, District 20, Medical 


Prince, Debra A. BS, MA* and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, 


Hall, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996- 

0760 

Prodhan, Rika BS*, 547 Cedar Branch Road, League City, 

TX 77573; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, MRC 112, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; 

and Debra A. Prince, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Prutsman-Pfeiffer, Jennifer J. MA*, University of 

Rochester Medical Center, Autopsy and Neuropathology, 

601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642; and 

Peter J. Bush, BS, South Campus Instrument Center, 

School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at 


Prutsman-Pfeiffer, Jennifer J. MA*, University of 

Rochester, University of Rochester Medical Center, 

Autopsy & Neuropathology, 601 Elmwood, Box 626, 

Rochester, NY 14642; and Thomas H. Darrah, MS, 

University of Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, University of 

Rochester, Department Earth & Environmental Sciences, 

Rochester, NY 14627 

Quintyn, Conrad Bezekiah PhD*, Bloomsburg University, 

Department of Anthropology, 400 East 2nd Street, 

Bloomsburg, PA 17815 

Rainwater, Christopher W. MS*, and Christian Crowder, 

PhD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Jeannette S. Fridie, 

MA, 520 First Avenue, Forensic Anthropology Unit, New 


Randolph-Quinney, Patrick PhD*, Centre for Anatomy & 



Randolph-Quinney, Patrick PhD*, Centre for Anatomy and 



Rankin, David R. MA*, and C.E. Moore, PhD, U.S. Army 

Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, 310 Worchester 


Rawlings, Kristen J. MA*, University of Wyoming, 

Department of Criminal Justice, A&S 223, PO Box 3197, 


Index 180 

Fire Scene Management Strategies for the 

Recovery of Human Remains From Severe 

Vehicle Fires 

New Formulae for Estimating Age in the 

Balkans Utilizing Lamendin’s Dental 

Technique 

Evaluation of Three Methods of Age 

Estimation From Human Skeletal Remains 

(Suchey-Brooks, Lamendin, and Two-Step 

Strategy) 

Trace Element Analysis of Human Bone 

Using Portable XRF 

Comparison of Portable X-ray Florescence 


Spectroscopy in the Measurement of Lead in 

Human Bone 

Admixture and the Growing List of Racial 

Categories: Clarity or Confusion for Law 

Enforcement (and the Public) 

Microscopic Analysis of Sharp Force Trauma 

From Knives: A Validation Study 

Towards a Standardization of Burnt Bone 


Tomography and 3-Dimensional Imaging to 

Assess Morphological Change 

Forensic Characteristics of Hand Shape: 

Analysis of Individuation Potential and 

Sexual Dimorphism Using Geometric 

Morphometrics 

Playing the “Race” Card Without a Complete 

Deck: The Addition of Missing Asian Data to 

Aid Racial Determinations in Forensic 

Casework 

Racial Variation in Palate Form and the 


546 

477 

371 

353 

251 

263 

32 

78 

133 

486 

488

Raymond, David MS*, Greg Crawford, MS, Chris Van Ee, 

PhD; and Cynthia Bir, PhD, Wayne State University, 818 


Rea, Christine N. MA*, Department of Anthropology, Kent 

State University, 228 Lowry Hall, Kent, OH; and H.O. 

Back, Department of Physics, Virginia Polytechnic 

Institute and State University, Robeson Hall, Blacksburg, 

VA 

Reeves, Keri MS*, and Jill Haslasm, MS, University of 

New Haven, 300 Orange Avenue, West Haven, CT 06516; 

Shannon Butler-Williams, BS, University of California, 

Davis, Department of Anthropology, 1 Shields Avenue, 

Davis, CA 95616; and Brandi J. Schmitt, BS, MS*, 

University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, 

Anatomical Services Division, Davis, CA 95616 

Reeves, Nicole M. BA*, Texas State University-San 

Marcos, Anthropology Department, 601 University Drive, 

San Marcos, TX 78666 

Regan, Laura A. MS*, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Lab, Department of 


Building 114, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Andrew Tyrrell, 

PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-CIL, 310 


Regan, Laura A. PhD*, Armed Forced Medical Examiner 

System, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, 

MD 20850; Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human 


1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32601; and Andrew 

Tyrrell, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command- 



Reineke, Robin MA*, The University of Arizona, School of 

Anthropology, 1009 East South Campus Drive, Tucson, AZ 

85721; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Pima County Office 

of the Medical Examiner, 2825 East District Street, 


Renke, Sophia G.D. MA*, Faculty of Law, University of 

Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H5, CANADA; Mary H. 

Manhein, MA, Department of Geography & Anthropology, 


Sibel Bargu-Ates, PhD, Department of Oceanography and 

Coastal Sciences, 1235 Energy, Coast and Environment, 


Rennick, Stephanie L. BS*, Michigan State University, 

Forensic Science Program, School of Criminal Justice, 560 

Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Todd W. Fenton, 

PhD, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology and Forensic Science Program, Baker Hall, 

East Lansing, MI 48824; David R. Foran, PhD, Michigan 

State University, Forensic Science Program, School of 

Criminal Justice and Department of Zoology, 560 Baker 


Index 181 


the Head and Fracture Specific Injury Criteria 

Development 

Determining Postmortem Interval: A 

Preliminary Examination of Postmortem 

Thorium, Actinium, and Radium Isotopes in 

Bone 

An Assessment of Tissue Depth 

Measurement Tables Used for Facial 

Reconstruction/Reproduction 

276 

599 

425 

Taphonomic Effects of Vulture Scavenging 234 

Isotopic Determination of Region of Origin in 

Modern Peoples: Applications for 


Vietnam Conflict 

Isotopic Determination of Region of Origin in 

Modern Peoples: Applications for 


Vietnam Conflict II 

Sociocultural Factors in the Identification of 

Undocumented Migrants 

Using Algae to Estimate Postmortem 


The Effects of Skeletal Preparation 

Techniques on DNA From Human and 

Nonhuman Bone 

379 

327 

99 

59 

434

Reveal, Malina L. MSc*, PO Box 4493, Chico, CA 95927; 

and Ian Hanson, MSc, Bournemouth University, Room 

C136, Christchurch House, Talbott Campus, Fern Barrow, 


Reveco*, Isabel Association for Latin American Forensic 

Anthropology, c/o EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 

11201 

Rezos, Mary M. BA*, 12644 Victoria Place Circle, 

Apartment 7216, Orlando, FL 32828; John J. Schultz, 

PhD, University of Central Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, 

FL 32816; and Ronald A. Murdock, MFS, and Stephen A. 

Smith, BS, Orange County Sheriff’s Office, 2500 W 

Colonial Drive, Orlando, FL 32804 

Rhode, Matthew PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam, AFB, HI 96853 

Rhode, Matthew PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Building 45, Hickam, AFB, HI 96853 

Ridgely, Ariana P. BA*, Department of Anthropology, New 

York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003 

Rizvic, Adnan MA*; Azra Aljić, MSc; Djordje Badza, BsC; 

Damir Bolić, BsC; Goran Jotanović, BsC; Muris Pucić, 

BsC; Amir Mandzuka, PhD; Zoran Cvijanović, PhD; Edin 

Jasaragić, BA, Zlatan Bajunović, Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA, 

Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, Sharna Daley, MSc, Reneé 

Kosalka, MA, René Huel, BA, Tony Donlon, BSc, and 




Rodriguez III, William C. PhD*, Armed Forces Medical 





Rockville, MD 20850; Tasha Z. Greenburg, MD, 

University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 

Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 7530; and David R. 

Fowler, MD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 111 

Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201 


Examiner’s Office, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 


Rodriguez III, William C. PhD*, Office of the Armed 

Forces Medical Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, 



Forces Medical Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, 



Forces Medical Examiner, 16465 Old Frederick Road, 


Index 182 

Protocol for Objective Evidentiary 


The Development of Forensic Anthropology 

in Chile 

Controlled Research Utilizing Geophysical 



Skeletal Trauma Patterns in a Vietnam-Era 

Aircraft Loss: Part I - Lower Extremities 

Sex Discrimination Using Patellar 

Measurements: Method and Validation Study 

Microscopic Characteristics of Hacking 



An Innovative Software Solution for Large 


Living With Corpses: Case Report of 



Infanticide and Unclear Law: The Death of 

Four Infants 

Mama Mia! Murder and Disposal of a Corpse 

in a Pizza Oven 

The Impact of High Speed-High Resolution 

Three Dimensional CT Scans on Forensic 

Anthropology 

Methods and Techniques for Sorting 

Commingled Remains: Anthropological and 

Physical Attributes 

Odd Man Out: Separation and Identification 

of Terrorist Remains in Suicidal Bombings 

70 

507 

223 

7 

19 

298 

142 

149 

34 

79 

403 

440 

398


Forces Medical Examiner, Armed Forces Institute of 

Pathology, 1413 Research Boulevard. Building 102, 

Rockville, MD 



Pathology, 1413 Research Boulevard. Building 102, 

Rockville, MD 



Pathology, Washington, DC 

Ross, Ann H. PhD*, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. 


Florida, Gainesville, FL; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, 

Department of Ecology & Evolution, State University of 

New York, Stony Brook, NY; and Douglas H. Ubelaker, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 

Ross, Ann H. PhD*, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, P.O. Box 112545, Gainesville, FL; and Bruce 

Broce, MA*, Comision de la Verdad de Panama, Edificio 

No. 37, Panama 

Ross, Ann H. PhD*, Department of Sociology and 


Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 8107; Loreto S. Silva, 

Director of Anthropology, Comision de la Verdad de 

Panama, Balboa, Republic of Panama; Kathryn M. 

Jemmott, MA, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; Lazaro M. 

Cotes, Comision de la Verdad de Panama, Balboa, 


Ross, Ann H. PhD*, North Carolina State University, 


8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and Erin H. Kimmerle, 

PhD*, University of South Florida, Department of 


33820 



8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 8107; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, 

Wake Forest University, School of Medicine, Department 

of Biomedical Engineering, Division of Radiologic 

Sciences, Winston-Salem, NC 27157; and José V. Pachar, 

MD, Morgue Judicial, Instituto de Medicina Legal, 

Panama-Ancon, Panama 

Index 183 

The Pits: Recovery and Examination of 

Skeletonized Remains From a Concrete 

Filled-Fire Pit 

Accident, Suicide, or Homicide: A Case 



Attack on the Pentagon: The Role of Forensic 

Anthropology in the Examination and 

Identification of Victims and Remains of the 

‘9/11’ Terrorist Attack 

Population-Specific Identification Criteria for 

Cuban Americans in South Florida 

In Search of Floyd Britton: Investigations of 

Human Rights Issues on the Island of Coiba, 


Preservation in Paradise I: El Marañon 

Cemetery, Isla de Coiba, Republic of Panama 

Introducing COFFA: An International 

Consortium of Forensic Anthropology 

Programs 

Forensic Identifications and the Complexity 

of Determining Biological Affinities of 

“Hispanic” Crania 

601 

606 

572 

594 

565 

479 

8 

420



8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 8107; Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 


4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620- 

8100; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Institute for Anthropology, 

University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; and Anthony B. 

Falsetti, PhD, University of Florida, CA Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, Gainesville, FL 

32611 


Department of Sociology and Anthropology, CB 8107, 

Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and Shanna Williams, MA, 


Laboratory, Gainesville, FL 32611 



NC 27695-8107; and Shanna E. Williams, PhD, University 

of Florida, Department of Anatomy, PO Box 100235, 

Gainesville, FL 32610-0235 



NC 27695-8107; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, NMNH - MRC 112, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and Erin H. Kimmerle, 

PhD, University of South Florida, Department of 


33820 

Rougé-Maillart, Clotilde G. MD*, Nathalie C. Jousset, 

MD, Arnaud P. Gaudin, MD, and Michel P. Penneau, MD, 

PhD, Service de Médecine Légale, Centre Hospitalier 

Universitaire - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 49100 Cedex 01, 

France 

Rougé-Maillart, Clotilde MD*, and Nathalie Jousset, MD, 

Service de Médecine Légale, CHU - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 

49933, France; Bruno Vielle, MD, Departement de 

Statistique, CHU - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 49933, France; 

Eugénia Cunha, MD, PhD, Departamento de Antropologia 

- Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; and Norbert Telmon, MD, 

PhD, Service de Médecine Légale, hôpital de Rangeuil - 1 

Avenue Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31403, France 

Russell, Valerie B. BA*, 8 Thomas Court, Valley Cottage, 

NY 10989 

Index 184 

What Matters - Size or Shape? Three- 

Dimensional Analysis of Craniofacial Sexual 

Variation Among American Populations 

Repeatability and Error of Cranial Landmark 

Coordinates 

Craniofacial Growth, Maturation, and 


A Test of Methods: Implications of 




Age Determination From Adult Human 


Age Estimation From the Posterior and 

Middle Part of the Ilium 

The Difference Between an Individual’s Self- 

Reported, Perceived, and Actual Height and 

Its Forensic Significance 

366 

330 

171 

264 

452 

306 

300

Saint-Martin, Pauline MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital Trousseau, CHRU Tours, Tours, 37044, France; 

Norbert Telmon, MD, PhD, and Henri Dabernat, MD, 

PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie, UMR 8555, CNRS, 

39 allees Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 31400, France; 

Christian Theureau, Laboratoire d’Archéologie Urbaine, 

Chateau de Tours, 25 quai d’Orleans, Tours, 37000, 

France; Patrick O’Byrne, MD, Service de Médecine 

Légale, Hôpital Trousseau, CHRU Tours, Tours, 37044, 

France; and Eric Crubezy, PhD, Laboratoire 

d’Anthropobiologie, UMR 8555, CNRS, 39 allees Jules 

Guesde, Toulouse, 31400, France 

Salter-Pedersen, Ellen R. BA, BSc*, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe-Russell, 


Sanabria, Cesar MA*, Instituto de Medicina Legal y 

Ciencias Forenses, Calle 7a #12-61, Segundo Piso, 

Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Elizabeth A. DiGangi, PhD*, 

ICITAP, Calle 125 #19-89, Office 401, Bogota, 

COLOMBIA 

Santos Bremme, Adriana Gabriela BS*, Apartado postal 

01901-1830 Correo Central, Guatemala, Central America 

Santos Bremme, Adriana Gabriela BS*, Fundación de 

Antropología Forense de Guatemala-Universidad de San 

Carlos de Guatemala, Apartado Postal 01901 1830 correo 

central Guatemala C.A. 

Sarajlic, Nermin MD MSc*, Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, Piotr 

Drukier, MSc, and Richard J. Harrington, PhD, 


45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Sarajlic, Nermin MD*, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia 

and Herzegovina; Zdenko Cihlarz, PhD, Departmen of 

Forensic Medicine, UKC, Tuzla, 75000, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina; and Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, and Piotr 



Herzegovina 

Sarajlic, Nermin MD, PhD*, Eva-Elvira Klonowski, PhD, 

and Senem Skulj, BSc, ICMP, Alipasina 45A, Sarajevo, 


Sauer, Norman J. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 


48824 

Sauer, Norman J. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 


MI 

Saul, Frank P. PhD* and Julie M. Saul, BA, Consultants, 

Lucas County Coroner’s Office and Wayne County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 3518 East Lincolnshire 

Boulevard, Toledo, OH 43-1203 

Index 185 

Paleopathological Diagnosis of Leprosy in 


Forensics and Television: A Learning 


Development of the Colombian Skeletal 

Collection 

Confronting the Past in Guatemala: A 

Challenge for Forensic Science 

This Grave Speaks: Forensic Anthropology in 

Guatemala 

Lamendin’s and Prince’s Dental Aging 

Methods Applied to a Bosnian Population 

The Application of the Lamendin and Prince 

Dental Aging Methods to a Bosnian 

Population: Formulas for Each Tooth Group 

Challenging One Formula for All Teeth 

Diverse Stature Estimation Formulae Applied 

to a Bosnian Population 

Forensic Anthropology and the Belief in 

Human Races 

A Comparison of Facial Approximation 


297 

520 

12 

583 

569 

542 

452 

348 

490 

590 

Sex vs. Gender: Does it Really Matter? 469

Saul, Frank P. PhD*, and Julie M. Saul, BA, Lucas County 


43614-2674; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Departments of 


College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

Saul, Frank P. PhD*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 

2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH; Sandra Anderson, 

Canine Investigation Consultant, 913 East Price Road, 

Midland, MI; and Julie M. Saul, BA, Lucas County 


Saul, Frank P. PhD*, Regional Commander, USPHS 

DMORT 5, and Julie Mather Saul, BA, Lucas County 

Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue Toledo, OH; 

Sandra Anderson, Canine Solutions International, PO Box 

50, Sanford, MI; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Forensic 

Anthropologist, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison 

Avenue Memphis, TN; Cheryl L. Loewe, MD, Wayne 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1300 Warren, Detroit, 

MI; James R. Patrick, MD, Lucas County Coroner’s 

Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue Toledo, OH; and Steven K. 

Lorch, PhD, Michigan State Police Laboratory, 42145 

West Seven Mile Road, Northville, MI 

Saul, Julie M. BA*, and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County 

(Toledo) Coroners Office and Wayne County (Detroit) 

Medical Examiners Office, 3518 East Lincolnshire Blvd, 

Toledo, OH 4360 

Saul, Julie M. BA*, and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County 


43614-2674; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Departments of 


College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and 

Carl J. Schmidt, MD, Wayne County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1300 East Warren Avenue, Detroit, MI 48207 

Saul, Julie M. BA*, Forensic Anthropology Lab, Lucas 

County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, 

OH 43614-2674; Frank P. Saul, PhD, U.S. HHS DMORT 

5, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614- 2674; and 

Allan J. Warnick, DDS, Wayne & Oakland Counties 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 31632 Schoolcraft Road, 

Livonia, MI 48150 

Saul, Julie M. BA*, Frank P. Saul, PhD, and James R. 

Patrick, MD, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2673 

Index 186 

The Lady in the Box 428 

Operacion Eagle: Clandestine Graves and a 

Taphonomy of Tyrants — Part 1: The Truth 

Commission of Panama, Witness Testimony, 

and Searches in Western Panama 

Homicide for the Holidays: Linkage Through 

Multidisciplinary Teamwork 

566 

581 

Missing, Present, and Left Behind 374 

When Experts Disagree: There May be a 

Rodent Involved – Part I: The Request for a 

New Trial 

424 

And a Little Child Shall Lead Them.... 168 

A Small Plane Crash With (Unforeseen) 


216

Saul, Julie M. BA*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office 

Forensic Anthropology Lab, 2595 Arlington Avenue, 

Toledo, OH 43614-2674; Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Lucas 

County Coroners Office, US HHS DMORT 5, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; G. Michael 

Pratt, PhD, Heidelberg University, Department of 

Anthropology, 310 East Market Street, Tiffin, OH 44993; 

Richard P. Brownley, BA, Ohio Peace Officers Training 

Academy, 1650 State Route 56, London, OH 43140; and 

Lauri M. Martin, PhD, University of Texas, Austin, 

Department of Anthropology, Campus Mail Code C3200 1 

University Station, Austin, TX 78712 

Saul, Julie M. BA*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 



MI; and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County Coroner’s 

Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

Sava, Vincent J. BS, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 



Sava, Vincent J. MA*, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 


96853 

Sava, Vincent J. MA*, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 


96853; and John E. Byrd, PhD, JPAC, Central 

Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853-5530 

Schaefer, Maureen C. BS, MA*, International Commission 

on Missing Persons, Alipashina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, 


Schaefer, Maureen C. MA*, University of Dundee, 

Anatomy and Forensic Anthropology, Faculty of Life 

Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 

5EH, Scotland 

Schaefer, Maureen MA*, 8549 Wuest Road, Cincinnati, 

OH 

Schaefer, Maureen MA*, University of Dundee, Anatomy 


MSI/WTB Complex, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom 

Schmidt, Ryan W. BS*, 1424 Santa Anita Drive, Apartment 

B, Las Vegas, NV 89119; and Jennifer L. Thompson, PhD, 

University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, 

Las Vegas, NV 89154 

Schuliar, Yves MD* and Pascal Chaudeyrac, MS, Institut 

de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 


France; Richard Aziza, MD, 13 Avenue Eylau, Paris 

75116, France; Jean-Noel Vignal, PhD, Institut de 

Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 


France 

Index 187 

Rolling Bones: A Field “System” for the 



Operacion Eagle: Clandestine Graves and a 

Taphonomy of Tyrants — Part 2: Searches on 

Coiba Island, Panama City, and Vicinity 

The ASCLD-LAB Accreditation of the Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Identification Laboratory 

Proficiency and Competency Testing — 


Accreditation of the Small Skeletal 


Epiphyseal Closure Rates in the Srebrenica 

Youth 

Forensic Application of Epiphyseal 

Sequencing 

A Comparison of the Cranial Wounding 


Progression of Intra-Epiphyseal Union and its 

Predictive Capability in Fragmented Remains 

A Case of Historical Homicide in Northern 

Nevada 

Computer Assisted Facial Reconstruction 

Technique 

74 

567 

518 

35 

255 

522 

373 

576 

302 

365 

527

Schultz, Johh J. PhD*, University of Central Florida, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Orlando, FL 

32816-1360 

Schultz, John J. MS*, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 


Schultz, John J. MS, Heather Walsh-Haney, MA*, Suzanne 

Coyle, MA, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human ID Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 

112545, Gainesville, FL 

Scott, Audrey L. MA*, Simon Fraser University, 

Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, 

Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, CANADA 

Scott, Audrey MA*, Simon Fraser University, Department 

of Archaeology, 8888 University Dr., Burnaby, British 

Columbia V5A 1S6, CANADA; David Sweet, DMD, PhD, 

Bureau of Legal Dentistry Lab, University of British 

Columbia, 6190 Agronomy Road, Suite 202, Vancouver, 

BC V6T 1Z3, CANADA; Derek Congram, MSc, Simon 

Fraser University, Department of Archaeology, 8888 

University Drive, Vancouver, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA; and 

Stephen Fonseca, Office of the Chief Coroner, 

Identification and Disaster Response Unit, 2035-4720 

Kingsway, Burnaby, BC V5H 4N2, CANADA 

Seasons, Samantha M. BA*, and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 


4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

Seasons, Samantha M. BA*, University of South Florida, 

4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620; Charles A. 

Dionne, MA, University of South Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, 

FL 33620-7200; Leszek Chrostowski, MD, Hillsborough 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, 11025 North 46th 

Street, Tampa, FL 33617; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 


4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

Seet, Billie L. MA*, 16 Arcola Street #2, Jamaica Plain, 

MA, 02130 

Seet, Billie L. MA*, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 

720 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; and Jonathan D. 

Bethard, MA*, Pellissippi State Community College, 10915 


Semeraro, Dominique S. MS*, Office of State Medical 

Examiners, 48 Orms Street, Providence, RI 02904; 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, Department of 

Anthropology, Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, 

East Lansing, MI 48824; Steven A. Symes, PhD, 

Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 

501 East 38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and Thomas P. 

Gilson, MD, Office of State Medical Examiners, 48 Orms 

Street, Providence, RI 02904 

Shamblin, Casey BA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 


State University, Baton Rouge, LA 

Index 188 

Forensic GPR: Using Ground-Penetrating 

Radar to Search for Buried Bodies 

Forensic Applications of Ground Penetrating 

Radar in Florida 

Ankylosing Spondylitis in Three Forensic 

Cases 

Taphonomic Degradation to Bone Through 

Scavenging by Marine Mollusks of the Class 

Polyplacophora 

Separately Discovered Skeletal Remains and 

the Path to Reassociation: A Case Review 

An Evaluation of Facial Features Used for 



Determining the Epidemiology of Hyoid 

Fractures in Cases of Hanging and 

Strangulation 

Estimating the Postmortem Interval in 

Freshwater Environments 

And Dens There Were Two: The Utility of 

the Second Cervical Vertebra as an Indicator 

of Sex and Age-at-Death 

Patterns of Blunt Force Trauma Induced by 

Motorboat and Ferry Propellers as Illustrated 

by Three Known Cases From Rhode Island 

Two Miles and Nine Years From Home: The 

Taphonomy of Aqueous Environments 

365 

578 

590 

202 

217 

161 

33 

374 

97 

165 

543

Shattuck, Rebecca E. MA*, 809 Green Meadows Drive, 

Apartment #305, Columbia, MO 65201 

Shepherd, Katy L. BS*, 10101 Villagio Palms Way, Unit 

201, Estero, FL 33928; Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, 


10501 FGCU Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 

33965-6565; and Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 

Medical Examiner, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 

34104 

Shepherd, Katy L. BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, 



33965-6565; Valerie J. Rao, MD, District 4 Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 

32206; Khalil S. Wardak, MD, 5301 SW 31st Avenue, Fort 

Lauderdale, FL 33312; Predrag Bulic, MD, District 7 

Office of the Medical Examiner, 1360 Indian Lake Road, 

Daytona Beach, FL 32124; and Christena Roberts, MD, 

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of Virginia, Western 

District, 6600 Northside High School Road, Roanoke, VA 

24019 

Shepherd, Katy L. BS*, Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, 

and Christen E. Herrick, BS, Florida Gulf Coast 

University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 Florida Gulf 

Coast University Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 

33965-6565; Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical 




Shidner, Ashley E. BA*, and Heidi S. Davis, BA, BS, 

University of West Florida, Department of Anthropology, 


Shirley, Natalie L. MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, The 



Shirley, Natalie R. MA*, and Richard Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee Department of Anthropology, 



Shirley, Natalie R. MA*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Brandon C. Merkl, MS, University of 

Tennessee, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and 

Biomedica, 414 Dougherty Engineering Building, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Richard Jantz, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

37996-0720 

Shirley, Natalie R. PhD*, Alicja K. Kutyla, MS, and 

Richard Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department 


37996 

Index 189 

Peri-Mortem Fracture Patterns in South- 



Surgical Sutures as a Means of Identifying 

Human Remains 

Decomposition Variables: A Comparison of 

Skeletal Remains Recovered After Long- 

Term Submersion in Florida Aquatic 

Environments 

The Effect of Axial Developmental Defects 


4 

218 

201 

130 

Hispanic: History and Use of a Generic Term 154 

Age Determination From the Medial and 

Lateral Clavicle: A Re-Evaluation of Present 

Scoring Systems 

Spheno-Occipital Synchondrosis Fusion in 

the American Population 

Sex Estimation From the Clavicle in Modern 

Americans: Traditional Versus Alternative 

Approaches 

What’s in a Number: Statistical Paradigm 


303 

259 

188 

100

Shirley, Natalie R. PhD*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Emam E.A. Fatah, MS, Center for 

Musculoskeletal Research, University of Tennessee, 307 

Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 




Shirley, Natalie R. PhD*, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Emam ElHak Abdel Fatah, BS, 


Tennessee, Department Mechanical, Aerospace, & 

Biomedical Engineer, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996; and Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, Center for 

Musculoskeletal Research, Department Mechanical, 

Aerospace, & Biomedical Engineer, University of 


Sholts, Sabrina B. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210; and Sebastian K.T.S. 

Wärmländer, PhD, Stockholm University, Division of 

Biophysics, Stockholm, 10691, SWEDEN 

Siegel, Nicole D. DVM*, Cleveland Museum of Natural 

History, 1 Wade Oval Drive, Cleveland, OH 44106-1767; 

and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 



Silva, Loreto Suarez Director of Anthropology, Comision 

de la Verdad de Panama, Balboa, 27695-8107, Republic of 

Panama; Kathrynn M. Jemmott, MA, University of Florida, 

C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, Gainesville, FL 32611; 



Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

Simmons, Tal PhD*, and Rachel Adlam, MSc, University of 

Central Lancashire, Forensic & Investigative Science, 

Maudland Building, Preston, Lancashire, PR1 2HE, 


Simmons, Tal PhD*, Department of Forensic and 

Investigative Science, University of Central Lancashire, 

Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom; and Mark Skinner, 

PhD, International Commission on Missing Persons, 


Simmons, Tal PhD*, Peter A. Cross, MSc, Rachel Adlam, 

MSc, and Colin Moffatt, PhD, University of Central 

Lancashire, School of Forensic and Investigative Sciences, 


Index 190 

Improving Sex Estimation From the Cranium 

Using 3-Dimensional Modeling From CT 

Scans 

Ancestry Estimation From the Tibia: Size and 

Shape Differences Between American Whites 

and Blacks 

Investigating Between Group Differences in 

Zygomaxillary Suture Form Using Fourier 

Analysis 

The Importance of Testing and 

Understanding Statistical Methods in the Age 

of Daubert: Can FORDISC Really Classify 

Individuals Correctly Only One Percent of 

the Time? 

In the Name of the Dead: The Panamanian 



29 

123 

23 

38 

506 

Debugging Decomposition Data 232 

The Accuracy of Ante-Mortem Data and 

Presumptive Identification: Appropriate 

Procedures, Applications and Ethics 

390 

Bugs Bunny? No Bugs Bunny 145

Simmons, Tal PhD*, School of Conservation Sciences, 

Talbot Campus, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset 

BH12 5BB, United Kingdom Panelists: Alison Galloway, 

PhD*, University of California, Social Science One FS, 

Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Jose Pablo Baraybar, BA, MSc*, 

Office on Missing Persons and Forensics (OMPF), United 

Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), AUCON/KFOR, 

Kosovo A1503, Austria; Laura Bowman, BA*, 3856 Porter 

Street NW, E-371, Washington, DC 20016; Melissa 

Connor, MA, RPA*, 11101 South 98th Street, Lincoln, NE 

68526; Margaret Cox, PhD*; William D. Haglund, PhD*, 

20410 25th Avenue, NW, Shoreline, WA 98177; Sara Kahn, 

MSW, MPH*, 108 West 76th Street, #2A, New York, NY 

10023; Mary Ellen Keough, MPH*, Meyers Primary Care 

Institute, 630 Plantation Street, Worcester, MA 01605 

Simmons, Tal PhD*, School of Forensic & Investigative 

Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, 

Lancashire PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM; and Elizabeth 

A. Walker, BSc, 3 Ruskin Road, Birtley, Co Durham, DH3 

1AD, UNITED KINGDOM 

Simmons, Tal PhD, Peter A. Cross, MSc*, and Rachel E. 

Cunliffe, MSC, University of Central Lancashire, School of 

Forensic and Investigative Sciences, Preston, AS PR1 2HE, 


Simmons, Terrie L. MA*, Counterterrorism and Forensic 


Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Peter H. Tu, PhD, and 

Jeffrey D. Erno, MS, GE Global Research, One Research 

Circle, Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Philip N. Williams, BS, 

and Keith L. Monson, PhD, Counterterrorism and Forensic 



Simmons, Terrie L. MA*, FBI Laboratory Division, 


2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Lisa G. 

Bailey, BA, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

SPU/Room 1115, Quantico, VA 22135; and Melissa A. 

Torpey, MS, Philip N. Williams, BS, and Keith L. Monson, 

PhD, Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research 

Unit, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 


Sinha, Alpana MBBS, MD*, Assistant Professor, 

Department of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Lady 

Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi, India 

Skinner, Mark PhD, Simon Fraser University, Department 

of Archeology, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA; and 

Ariana Fernandez, MPhil, and Derek Congram, MSc*, 

706-1850 Comox Street, Vancouver, BC V6G 1R3, 

CANADA 

Index 191 

Rapid Responses to International Incidents: 

To Go or Not to Go (or When to Go and How 

to Go)? 

An Investigation Into the Rate of 



Establishing a Taphonomic Research Facility 

in the United Kingdom 

Biometric Assessment of the Accuracy of a 



Results From a Survey on Computerized 


529 

94 

112 

Age Estimation From Pubic Symphysis 597 

Material Culture Analysis in Forensic Cases: 

A Call for Formal Recognition by Forensic 

Anthropologists 

90 

91 

183

Sledzik, Paul S. MS*, National Transportation Safety 

Board, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, DC 20594; 

and Elias J. Kontanis, BS, Oak Ridge Institute for Science 

and Education, Joint POW MIA Accounting Command- 





L’Enfant Plaza East, SW, Washington, DC 20594; Lee 

Meadows Jantz, PhD*, Forensic Anthropology Center, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Simon 

Fraser University, 611-1485 West 6th Avenue, Vancouver, 

BC V6H 4G1, Canada; Giovanna M. Vidoli, MSc*, Office 


NY 10016; Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA 


310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Darinka 

X. Mileusnic- Polchan, MD, PhD*, University of Tennessee 

Medical Center, Department of Pathology/Knox County 

Office of the Medical Examiner, 1924 Alcoa Highway, 

Knoxville, TN 37920; and Mercedes Doretti*, and Luis 

Fondebrider*, Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense, 

Av. Rivadavia 2443, Piso 2 Dep. 4, Buenos Aires, 1034, 

Argentina 

Index 192 

Resolving Commingling Issues In Mass 

Fatality Incident Investigations 

Working With Family Members of 

Decedents: A Discussion of Techniques for 

Forensic Scientists 

439 

388



L’Enfant Plaza East, SW, Washington, DC 20594-2000; 



48824; Michael W. Warren, PhD*, Department of 


Gainesville, FL 32611; John E. Byrd, PhD*, Joint 



96853-5530; Christian Crowder, PhD*, Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 

10016; Shuala M. Drawdy, MA*, International Committee 

of the Red Cross, 19 Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, 1202, 

Switzerland; Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Department of 

Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Alison Galloway, PhD*, 

Chancellor’s Office, University of California, Santa Cruz, 

1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Michael 

Finnegan, PhD*, Osteology Laboratory, Kansas State 

University, 204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506; Laura 

C. Fulginiti, PhD*, and Kristen Hartnett, MA*, Maricopa 

County Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 

Phoenix, AZ 85007; Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, Joint 



96853-5530; Murray K. Marks, PhD*, Department of 


Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, 

Repatriation Office, Department of Anthropology, NMNH- 

MRC 138, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013- 

7012; Tracy Rogers, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, 

Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada; Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, 

Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, Michigan 

State University, East Lansing, MI 48824; Tal L. Simmons, 

PhD*, Department of Forensic and Investigative Science, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Preston PR1 

2HE, United Kingdom; Steven A. Symes, PhD*, 

Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst 

College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001; 

Morris Tidball-Binz, MD*, International Committee of the 


SWITZERLAND; and Douglas Ubelaker, PhD*, 

Department of Anthropology, NMNH-MRC 112, 


Slemmer, S. Taylor MA*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, 



Index 193 

The Fourth Era of Forensic Anthropology: 


Comparison of CT and MR Imaging 

Techniques to Traditional Radiographs in 


322 

589

Slice, Dennis E. PhD*, Wake Forest University School of 

Medicine, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical 

Center Boulevard, Winston-Salem, NC 27157-1022; Ann 

H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, 


8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

Smith, Emilie L. BA*, 1910 Runaway Bay Lane, Apartment 

P, Indianapolis, IN 46224 

Smith, Martin PhD, and Marie Christine Dussault, MSc*, 

Bournemouth University, Centre for Forensic Science, 

Christchurch House, Poole, BH12 5BB, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

Smith, Victoria A. MA*, Oak Ridge Associated 

Universities, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory 

TEU, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; 

Angi M. Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of 


Quantico, VA 22135; and Sarah W. Myers, Emory 

University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322 

Snow, Clyde PhD*, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street 


Soler, Angela BS*, and Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan 

State University, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

and Joyce L. deJong, DO, Sparrow Hospital, 1215 East 

Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 48909 

Soler, Angela MA*, Michigan State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Sorg, Marcella H. PhD*, Margaret Chase Smith Policy 

Center, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; William 

D. Haglund, PhD, 20410 25th Avenue, Northwest, 

Shoreline, WA 98177; Edward David, MD, JD, 498 Essex 

Street, Bangor, ME 04401; Sarah A. Kiley, MS, 235 Forest 

Hill Street, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130; William Parker, BS, 

Margaret Chase Smith, Policy Center, University of Maine, 

Orono, ME 04469; Harold W. Borns, PhD, Climate 

Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; 

John Burger, PhD, Department of Zoology, University of 

New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03834; John Dearborn, 

PhD, School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, 

Orono, ME 04469; Ann Dieffenbacher-Krall, PhD, Climate 

Change Institute, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; 

Deborah Palman, MS, Maine K-9 Services, PO Box 57, 

Aurora, ME 04408; and Touradj Solouki, PhD, 

Department of Chemistry, University of Maine, Orono, ME 

04469 

Sorg, Marcella H. PhD*, University of Maine, Margaret 


#4, Orono, ME 04469 

Soto, Miriam E. MA*, The University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, 1425 South Stadium Drive, Knoxville, 

Tennessee 37996 

Index 194 

Population Affinities of “Hispanic” Crania: 


The Deconstruction of Race: Its Origins and 

Existence 

Blast Injury in Skeletal Remains: The Case of 

a Soldier From WWI 

The Reliability of Visually Comparing Small 

Frontal Sinuses 

Truth, Justice, and Forensic Anthropology in 

Latin America 

Examination of Identification Methods Used 

by Medical Examiners: A Facility Study 

Positive Identification Through Comparative 

Panoramic Radiography of the Maxillary 

Sinuses: A Validation Study 

Developing a Regional Forensic Taphonomy: 

Environmental and Climatic Inputs 

Scavenging Impacts on the Progression of 


Subadult Sexual Dimorphism in Long Bone 


478 

491 

3 

162 

506 

356 

53 

106 

58 

187

Soto, Miriam E. MA*, The University of Tennessee, 250 CPR Fractures in Infants: When Do They 


Occur? 

Spatola, Brian F. MA*, and Franklin E. Damann, MA*, A Summary of Trauma Specimens at the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, National Museum of Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 

Health and Medicine, 6825 16th St. NW, Building 54, National Museum of Health and Medicine 


Spatola, Brian F. MA*, Department of Geography and Musculoskeletal Stress Markers: An 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Exploration of Forensic Applicability 

LA 

Spradley, Kate PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Texas Hispanic Affiliation: Definitions, 

State University - San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San Assumptions, and Biological Reality 

Marcos, TX 78666; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic 

Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 

85714 

Spradley, Katherine M. PhD*, and Bridget F.B. Algee- Estimating Geographic Ancestry of Hispanic 

Hewitt, MA, The University of Tennessee, Department of Crania Using Geometric Morphometrics 


37996 

Spradley, M. Katherine MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Skull vs. Postcranial Elements in Sex 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 252 Determination 


Spradley, Martha K. MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Biological Variation Among Hispanic 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 (Spanish-Speaking) Peoples of the Americas 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; David M. 

Glassmann, PhD, University of Southern Indiana, School 

of Liberal Arts, 8600 University Boulevard, Evansville, IN 

47712-3596; and Alan G. Robinson, MSc, Fundacion de 

Antropologia Forense de Guatemala, Avenida Simon 

Canas 10-64 Zona 2, Ciudad de Guatemala, Guatemala 


Spradley, Martha Katherine MA*, Knoxville, TN Age Estimation From Long Bone Lengths in 

Forensic Data Bank Subadults: Evidence of 

Growth Retardation and Implications of 

Under Aging 

Srnka, Carrie F. MA*, 6352 Iradell Road, Trumansburg, Differential Human Decomposition in the 

NY 14886 

Early Stages: An Experimental Study 

Comparing Sun and Shade 

Stafford*, Katelyn A. Sam Houston State Univeristy, Postmortem Interval of Surface Remains 

Department of Chemistry, PO Box 2117, 1003 Bowers During Spring in Southeast Texas 

Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 77341; Kathryn E. Moss, BS*, 

4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 77004; Natalie 

Lindgren, BS, Sam Houston State University, College of 

Criminal Justice, 1300 Bowers Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 

77340; and Joan A. Bytheway, PhD*, Sam Houston State 

University, Chemistry & Forensic Science Building, 1003 

Bowers Boulevard, Box 2525, Huntsville, TX 77340 

Index 195 

31 

221 

604 

208 

328 

531 

421 

595 

461 

71

Steadman, Dawnie W. PhD*, Binghamton University, 


NY 13902-6000; Camila Oliart, MA, Universidad 

Autònoma de Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Edifici 

B, Barcelona, 08193, SPAIN; Elena Garcia-Guixé, MA, 

Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, Laboratori de 

Paleoantropologia i Paleopatologia, Barcelona, SPAIN; 

María Inés Fregeiro, MA, and Elena Sintes, MA, 

Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Department of 

Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 08193, SPAIN; Jennifer 

Bauder, MA, and Aimee E. Huard, MA, Binghamton 

University, Department of Anthropology, Binghamton, NY 

13902; Jorge Jiménez, MA, Universidad Autònoma de 

Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Barcelona, 08193, 

SPAIN; and Carme Boix, PhD, Badley Ashton & 

Associates Ltd., Winceby House, Winceby, Horncastle, 

Lincolnshire, LN9 6PB, UNITED KINGDOM 

Steadman, Dawnie W. PhD*, Binghamton University, 


NY 13902-6000; Elena Sintes Olives, MA, and Camila 

Oliart Caravatti, MA, Autonomous University of 

Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 

08193, Spain; and Jennifer M. Bauder, MA, Binghamton 

University, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 6000, 


Steadman, Dawnie W. PhD*, Jeremy Wilson, BS, Kevin E. 

Sheridan, MA, and Steven Tammariello, PhD, Department 

of Biology, Binghamton University, P.O. Box 6000, 

Binghamton, NY 

Stefan, Vincent H. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Lehman College - CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, 

West, Bronx, NY; and Patricia J. McFeeley, MD, Office of 

the Medical Investigator, University of New Mexico School 

of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 

Stefan, Vincent H. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

Lehman College, CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, 


Stefan, Vincent H. PhD*, Lehman College - CUNY, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, 


Stefan, Vincent H. PhD*, Lehman College, CUNY, 



Stefan, Vincent H. PhD*, Lehman College, CUNY, 



Steffensen, Thora S. MD*, University Hospital of Iceland, 

Department of Pathology, Rannsoknastofa H.I. vid 

Baronsstig, Reykjavik, IS 108, Iceland; and Omar 

Palmason, Reykjavik Police Department, Hverfisgata 115, 

Reykjavik, IS 108, Iceland 

Index 196 

Epidemiology of Homicide in the Spanish 

Civil War 

Investigating the Spanish Civil War: Forensic 

Anthropological Investigations in Santaella 

Impact of Heat and Chemical Maceration on 

DNA Recovery and Cut Mark Analysis 

Unusual Sharp Force/Penetrating Trauma 

Pattern on a Cranium; Cooperative 

Examination and Evaluation by the Forensic 

Pathologist and Forensic Anthropologist 

Tags and Spurs: Morphological Features of 


Stature Estimation of Hispanics: The Most 

Appropriate Stature Regression Equations 

Determining Medicolegal Significance: 

Human vs. Selkie 

Temporomandibular Joint Morphology and 

the Assessment of Potential Commingling 

The Meeting of Old and New: Luminol 

Application to a Suspected Ritualistic 

Heathen Stone From Viking Times 

134 

350 

542 

562 

66 

432 

501 

513 

415

Steger, Pamela M BA, MS*, Travis County Medical 

Examiners Office, 934 Sycamore Street, San Marcos, TX 

78666; and Daniel Jackson, BA, MA, Travis County 

Medical Examiners Office, 104 B Ladybird Lane, San 


Stephan, Carl N. BHSc, Department of Anatomical 

Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Australia; Ian S. 

Penton-Voak, PhD, Department of Psychology, The 

University of Stirling, Scotland; David Perrett, PhD, and 

Bernard Tiddeman, PhD, School of Psychology, The 

University of St. Andrews, Scotland; John G. Clement, 

PhD*, School of Dental Science, The University of 

Melbourne, Australia; and Maciej Henneberg, DSc, 

Department of Anatomical Sciences, The University of 

Adelaide, Australia 

Stephan, Carl N. PhD*, and Andrew J. Tyrrell, PhD, 

JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853 

Stephan, Carl N. PhD*, Anne Huang, and Paavi Davidson, 

School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, 

Otto Hirschfeld Building, Brisbane, 4072, AUSTRALIA 

Stephan, Carl N. PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; Jody 

Cicolini, BSc, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, 

4072 AUSTRALIA 

Stephan, Carl N. PhD*, The University of Queensland, 

Anatomy and Developmental Biology, The University of 

Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; and Ellie K. 

Simpson, PhD, Forensic Science South Australia, 21 Divett 

Place, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia 

Stewart, John E.B. PhD*, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis 

Unit I, Quantico, VA 22135; Patricia J. Aagaard, BS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit II, Quantico, 

VA 22135; Deborah Polanskey, BS, Federal Bureau of 


DNA Analysis Unit II, Quantico, VA 22135; Eric G. 

Pokorak, BA, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit I, 

Quantico, VA 22135; and Mark R. Ingraham, MS, and H. 

Gill-King, PhD, Laboratory of Forensic Anthropology and 

Human Identification, Department of Biological Sciences, 

University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203 

Stolze, Dolly K. MA*, 1900 Huntington Lane, Apartment 4, 

Redondo Beach, CA 90278 

Index 197 

The Mastoid Sinuses and Their Potential in 

Comparative Radiology for Forensic 

Anthropology 

Testing the Average Methodological 


Skeletal Identification by Radiographic 

Comparison: Blind Tests of a Morphoscopic 

Method Using Antemortem Chest 

Radiographs 

Placement of the Human Eyeball and Canthi 

in Craniofacial Identification 

The Reproducibility of Results From Facial 


Face-Arrays 

Facial Soft Tissue Depths in Craniofacial 

Identification: Properties Gleaned From a 

Comparative Bottom-Up Approach 

Reducing Problems With Osteological and 

Dental Samples Submitted to Missing Person 

DNA Databases 

Sex Estimation Using the Petrous Portion of 

the Temporal Bone By Linear Regression 

Anaylsis 

343 

603 

131 

225 

163 

355 

407 

20

Stout, Sam D. PhD*, and Deborrah C. Pinto, MA*; 

Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, 124 

West 17th Avenue, 244 Lord Hall, Columbus, OH 43210- 

1364; Lara E. McCormick, MA*, The Ohio State 

University, 2894 Neil Avenue, #513A, Columbus, OH 

43202; and Meghan-Tomasita C. Cosgriff-Hernandez, MA, 

and Annamaria C. Crescimanno, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Ohio State University, 124 West 17th 

Avenue, 244 Lord Hall, Columbus, OH 43210-1364 

Strohmeyer, Dawn M. MS*, 12 Bridge Street, Hitchin, 

Hertfordshire SG5 2DE, United Kingdom; and Tal L. 

Simmons, PhD, Department of Forensic and Investigative 

Science, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, 

Lancashire PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

Stuart, Jaime MA* and Lyle Konigsberg, PhD, University 

of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

Stuart, Jaime MA*, Department of Anthropology, 


Knoxville, TN 

Stubblefield, Phoebe R. MA*, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, P.O. Box 112545, University of 


Index 198 

Sternal Rib Histomorphometry: A Test of the 

Age Estimation Method of Stout, et al. (1994) 

Sex and Stature Estimation Based on the 


Sternal Rib Standards for Age Estimation in 

Balkan Populations: An Evaluation of U.S. 

Standards Using Alternative Statistical 

Methods 

The Effect of Human Body Mass on the Rate 

of Decomposition 

Body Weight Estimation in Forensic 

Anthropology 

273 

300 

477 

549 

554

Stubblefield, Phoebe R. PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of North Dakota, 236 Centennial 

Drive Stop 8374, Grand Forks, ND 58202; Susan C. Anton, 

PhD*, New York University, Department of Anthropology, 

25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; James J. 

Snodgrass, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University 

of Oregon, 1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405- 

1218; Christian Crowder, PhD, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Anthony Di 

Fiore, PhD, Department of Anthropology, New York 

University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; Dana 

L. Duren, PhD, Departments of Community Health, 

Neuroscience, Wright State Boonshoft School of Medicine, 

3640 Colonel Glenn Highway, Dayton, OH 45435; 

Eduardo Fernandez-Duque, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 3260 South 

Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398; William R. Leonard, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern 

University, 1810 Hinman Avenue, Evanston, IL 60208- 

1330; Steve Leigh, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 109 Davenport 

Hall, 607 South Matthews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801; 

Felicia Madimenos, MS, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Oregon, 1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, 

OR 97405-1218; Scott McGraw, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 174 West 18th 

Avenue Columbus, OH 43210; Emily R. Middleton, MS, 

and Chris A. Schmitt, MS, Department of Anthropology, 

New York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 

10003; Richard J. Sherwood, PhD, Wright State Boonshoft 

School of Medicine, 3640 Colonel Glenn Highway, Dayton, 

OH 45435; Trudy R. Turner, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, PO Box 

413, Milwaukee, WI 53201; Claudia R. Valeggia, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 

3260 South Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398; and 

Francis J. White, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Oregon, 1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, 

OR 97405-1218 

Stull, Kyra E. BA*, 108 Firethorne Drive, Greer, SC 

29650; Dustin M. James, BA, 7735 Village Drive, 

Knoxville, TN 37919; and Joseph T. Hefner, MA, 241 


Stull, Kyra Elizabeth BA*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 


Suckling, Joanna K. BS*, Texas State University, 601 


Suskewicz, Jaime A. BA*, Louisiana State University, 2000 

Brightside Drive, #722, Baton Rouge, LA 70820 

Index 199 

Integrative Measurement Protocol 

Incorporating Morphometric and Behavioral 

Research Tools From Forensic Anthropology, 

Human Biology, and Primatology 

The Determination of Age Using the 

Acetabulum of the Os Coxa 

92 

315 

Sexual Dimorphism in the Juvenile Skeleton 275 

A Longitudinal Study on the Outdoor Human 

Decomposition Sequence in Central Texas 

Estimation of Living Body Weight Using 

Measurements of Anterior Iliac Spine 

Breadth and Stature 

50 

520

Swift, Benjamin MB, ChB*, and Guy N. Rutty, MD, 

Division of Forensic Pathology, University of Leicester, 

Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, Leicester 

Royal Infirmary, Leicester LE2 7LX, United Kingdom; 

Richard Harrington, PhD, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia 


Symes, Steven A. PhD*, and Christopher W. Rainwater, 

BA, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546; and Susan M. Thurston Myster, PhD, Hamline 

University, PO Box 196, St. Paul, MN 55104 

Symes, Steven A. PhD*, Department of Applied Forensic 

Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546; Anne M. Kroman, MA, Department of 


Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, 

Hamline University, Department of Anthropology, St. Paul, 

MN 55104; and Christopher W. Rainwater, BA, and John 

J. Matia, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Forensic/Biological Anthropology, Erie, PA 16546 

Symes, Steven A. PhD*, Department of Forensic 

Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 

Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; C. Ferraro, PhD, Long 

Island University, Long Island University, Brookville, NY, 

Susan B. Patton, MNSc, and O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Department of Forensic Pathology, University of 

Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, 

TN; and A.M. Kroman, BA, Department of Anthropology, 



Symes, Steven A. PhD*, Mercyhurst Archaeological 


16546-0001; Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, Office of the 

Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 

10016; Erin N. Chapman, BA, 216 Maiden Lane, Erie, PA 

16504; Desina R. Gipson, BA, 549 East Grandview 

Boulevard, Erie, PA 16504; and Kyra E. Stull, BA, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

Symes, Steven A. PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Forensic/Biological Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA 16546; James J. Woytash, DDS, MD, Erie County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 462 Grider Street, Buffalo, NY 

14214; Anne M. Kroman, MA, Department of 


Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Andrew C. Wilson, BS, 

Department of Forensic/Biological Anthropology, 

Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA 16509 

Index 200 

Developing the “Isotope Fingerprint” in 


Standardizing Saw and Knife Mark Analysis 

on Bone 

Anthropological Saw Mark Analysis on 

Bone: What is the Potential of 


From Caffey (1946) to Kempe (1962): 

Historical Perspectives of the Recognition of 

Child Abuse 

Recognizing Patterned Fire and Heat Damage 

to Bone 

Perimortem Bone Fracture Distinguished 

From Postmortem Fire Trauma: A Case 


526 

308 

388 

607 

280 

416

Symes, Steven A. PhD*, Susan B. Patton, MNSc*, T.D. 

Campbell, MD, Cynthia D. Gardner, MD, O’Brian C. 

Smith, MD, T. Paulette Sutton, MS, MT, and Craig T. 

Mallak, JD, MD, Department of Forensic Pathology, 


Memphis, TN; and A.M. Kroman, BA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 252 


Synstelien, Jennifer A. MA*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, 

MA, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 


Synstelien, Jennifer A. MA*, and Walter E. Klippel, PhD, 


South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Michelle D. 

Hamilton, PhD, Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Tribal 

Historic Preservation Office, PO Box 455, Cherokee, NC 

28719 

Synstelien, Jennifer A. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

250 South Stadium Hall, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Synstelien, Jennifer A. MA*, The University of Tennessee, 


250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Ta’ala, Sabrina C. MA*, and Gregory E. Berg, MA, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command Central ID Lab 

(JPAC/CIL), 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-5530 

Ta’ala, Sabrina C. MA*, and Gregory E. Berg, MA, Joint 



96853-5530 

Taborelli, Anna MD, and Salvatore Andreola, MD, Sezione 

di Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e 

Scienze Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; 

Alessia Di Giancamillo, DVM, Dipartimento di Scienze e 

Tecnologie Veterinarie p, Università degli Studi, Milan, 

ITALY; Guendalina Gentile, BSc, Sezione di Medicina 


Biomediche, Via Mangiagalli, 37, Milano, ITALY; Daniele 

Gibelli, MD*, and Marketa Pechnikova, BSc, Laboratorio 

di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e 

Scienze Biomediche, Via Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; 

Cinzia Domeneghini, DVM, Dipartimento di Scienze e 

Tecnologie Veterinarie, Università degli Studi, Milan, 

ITALY; Marco Grandi, MD, Sezione di Medicina Legale e 

delle Assicurazioni di Milano, Dipartimento di Morfologia 

Umana e Scienze Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, 

ITALY; and Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Laboratorio di 




Index 201 

Child Abuse: It’s All in the Recognition 612 

Expressions of Handedness in the Vertebral 

Column 

Raccoon (Protocyon lotor) Foraging as a 



Differences in the Os Coxa Between Blacks 

and Whites 

Raccoon (Protocyon lotor) Soft Tissue 


Unusual Cranial Base Trauma in Victims of 

the Khmer Rouge 

The Current and Potential Role of Forensic 

Anthropology in Cambodia 

Microscopic Markers of Trauma in 


531 

461 

592 

206 

418 

337 

73

Tallman, Sean D. MA*, and Allysha P. Winburn, MA, Joint 

POW/MIA Acct Command, Central ID Laboratory, 310 


5530 

Telmon, Norbert MD*, Service de Medecine Legale, CHU 

Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, France; Loic 

Lalys, Pascal Adalian,and Marie D. Piercecchi, Universite 

de la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite d’ 


Cedex 05, France; Olivier Dutour, Universite de la 


Anthropologie, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Marseille 

Cedex 05, France; Daniel Rouge, MD, Service de 

Medecine Legale, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, 

Toulouse Cedex, France; and Georges Leonetti, MD, PhD, 

Universite de la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite 

d’ Anthropologie, UMR 6578, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille 


Tersigni, Mariateresa A. MA*, Department of 



Tersigni, Mariateresa A. MA*, University of Tennessee, 



Tersigni, MariaTeresa A. PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Cincinnati, Braunstein 481, 

PO 210380, Cincinnati, OH 45221; Amy Michael, BA, 416 

West Genesee, Apartment 1, Lansing, MI 48933; and John 

E. Byrd, PhD, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 

Air Force Base, HI 96853-5530 

Tersigni, MariaTeresa PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Cincinnati, Braunstein 481 PO 210380, 

Cincinnati, OH 45221; Amy Michael, BA*, 416 West 

Genesee, Apartment 1, Lansing, MI 48933; Amber Heard, 

BA, 16789 Chandler Road, #1632, East Lansing, MI 

48823; Christina Malone, BHS, BA, 180 Arbor Glen Drive, 

Apartment 203, East Lansing, MI 48823; and John E. 

Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853-5530 

Tersigni-Tarrant, MariaTeresa A. PhD*, MCG/UGA 

Medical Partnership, 279 Williams Street, Athens, GA 

30602; John E. Byrd, PhD, 95-033 Hokuiwa Street, #51, 

Mililani, HI 96853-5530; and Jiro Manabe, MA, JPAC- 



Terstegge, Stacie MS*, University of New Haven, Public 

Safety and Professional Studies, California Campus, 6060 

Sunrise Vista Boulevard, Citrus Heights, CA 95610; 

Brandi Schmitt, MS, University of California, Department 

of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, 

Davis, CA 95616 

Index 202 

Applicability of Femur Subtrochanteric 


Age Estimation of the Immature Individuals 

Starting From the Ratio Epiphysis 

Width/Diaphysis Width of the Bones of the 

Hand and the Wrist 

Frozen Human Bone: A Histological 

Investigation 

Serial Bone Histology: Interand Intra-Bone 


Osteon Area and Circularity: A Method for 

the Assessment for Human and Non-Human 

Fragmentary Remains 

Osteon Area Measurements - A Validation 

Study 

Test of Osteon Circularity as a Method of 


Anthropological Tissue Depth Measurement 

Standards: A Comparison For Accurate 

Facial Reproduction 

29 

587 

545 

453 

292 

291 

55 

482

Thew, Heather A. MS*, and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, 

University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue 

Indianapolis, IN 

Thomas, Tammy S. BS*, 910 San Jacinto Street, Lockhart, 

TX 78644; and Tal Simmons, PhD, School of Forensic & 



Tichnell, Tracey A. BS*, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824 

Tichnell, Tracey BS*, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

48824 

Tise, Meredith L. BA*, Texas State University, Department 

of Anthropology, 601 University Drive, ELA 232, San 

Marcos, TX 78666; and Kate Spradley, PhD, Texas State 

University, Department of Anthropology, 601 University 

Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666 

To, Denise MA*, Department of Anthropology, Arizona 

State University, Box 87-2402, Arizona State University, 

Tempe, AZ 

To, Denise MA*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


To, Denise PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Carrie A. 

Brown, MA, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Tocheri, Matthew W. BA*, and Anshuman Razdan, PhD, 

PRISM, Arizona State University, Box 87-5106, Tempe, AZ 

Tomberlin, Jeffery K. PhD*, Texas A&M University, 1229 

North U.S. Highway 281, Stephenville, TX 76401; A. 

Midori Albert, PhD*, University of North Carolina at 


28403; Jason H. Byrd, PhD, Office of the Medical 


32164;and David W. Hall, PhD, David Hall Consultant, 

Inc., 3666 Northwest 13th Place, Gainesville, FL 32605 

Torpey, Melissa A. MS*, and Philip N. Williams, BS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Counterterrorism and, 

Forensic Science Research Unit, FBI Academy, Building 


Torpey, Melissa A. MS*, Michigan State University, 7 

Gardenwood Drive, Asheville, NC 28803 

Torwalt, Carla R. BSc*, Thambirajah Balachandra, MBBS, 

and Janice Epp, RN, HBScN, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 210-1 Wesley Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 

Canada 

Toyne, J. Marla MA*, John W. Verano, PhD, and Laurel S. 

Hamilton, MA, Tulane University, 1021 Audubon Street, 

Department of Anthropology, New Orleans, LA 70118 

Index 203 

The Effects of Lime on the Decomposition 


The Relationship Between Directionality of 

Force and the Formation of Butterfly 

Fractures 

Escaping Tennessee: Regions for Taphonomy 

Research Beyond Eastern Tennessee 

Effect of Loading Environment on the 

Healing of Long Bone Fractures 

Postcranial Sex Estimation of Individuals 


Three-Dimensional Digital Data Acquisition: 

A Test of Measurement Error 

Sexual Dimorphism of Joint Surface Area 


Recovery and Identification of a WWI 


Mad, France 

Quantitative Analyses of Human Pubic 

Symphyseal Morphology Using Three- 

Dimensional Data: The Potential Utility for 

Aging Adult Human Skeletons 

Interdisciplinary Forensic Science 


Identity Crisis: The Number and Quality of 

Unidentified Decedent Data and a New 

Solution 

Stages of Epiphyseal Union in the Cervical 


Cervical Smears as an Alternate Source of 

DNA in the Identification of Human Skeletal 

Remains 

Finding Clues on the Bony Surface: The Use 

of Markers of Occupational Stresses as Aids 

to Identification and Age Determination in 

Skeletonized Remains 

598 

31 

412 

279 

118 

564 

159 

42 

596 

462 

290 

301 

562 

455

Trammell, Lindsay H. MA*, Murray K. Marks, PhD, and 

Walter E. Klippel, PhD, University of Tennessee, 


Knoxville, TN 37966-0720; and Darinka Mileusnic- 

Polchan, MD, PhD, UTMCK, Department of Pathology, 

1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920 

Trammell, Lindsay H. MA*, University of Tennessee- 

Knoxville, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

Troy, Amanda B. MSc*, 13 Castlerock, Tulla Road, Ennis, 

IRELAND; and Colin Moffatt, PhD, and Tal Simmons, 

PhD, School of Forensic & Investigative Sciences, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, 


Truesdell, Nicole D. BA*, 1933 South Brightside View 

Drive, Apartment E, Baton Rouge, LA 70820 

Tuller, Hugh H. MA*, and Joan Baker, PhD, Joint 


Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, Hawaii 

96853 

Tuller, Hugh H. MA*, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, 71000, Sarajevo 

Tuller, Hugh H. MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; Cecily 

Cropper, BSc*, Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Laura Yazedjian, 

MSc, Jon Sterenberg, MSc, and Jon M. Davoren, MA*, 



Tuller, Hugh H. MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; Ute 

Hofmeister, MA, International Commission on Missing 


Herzegovina; and Sharna Daley, MSc, International 



Tuller, Hugh MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 


Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and Jon Sterenberg, MS, 



Ubelaker, Douglas H. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

MRC 112, National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; Bruce A. 

Buchholz, PhD, Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, 

Mail Stop L-397, Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, CA 94551; and John 

Stewart, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation, DNA 

Analysis Unit II, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, 

VA 22135 

Index 204 

Cranial Histomorphology: Species 


A Histological Examination of Odocoileus 

virginianus for Forensic Application 

The Relationship Between Ambient 

Temperature and the Temperature of Maggot 

Masses on Decomposing Pig and Rabbit 

Carcasses 

Nonmetric Characteristics of the Skull for 


Bodies and Body Parts: When and How to 

Record Them During the Excavation of Mass 

Graves 

Dirty Secrets: Identification of Older Crime 

Scenes in the Former Yugoslavia Through 

Blood Protein and Volatile Fatty Acid Soil 

Analysis 

New Tools for the Processing of Human 

Remains From Mass Graves: Spatial Analysis 

and Skeletal Inventory Computer Programs 

Developed for an Inter-Disciplinary 

Approach to the Re-association of 

Commingled, Disarticulated and Incomplete 

Human Remains 

The Importance of Body Deposition 

Recording in Event Reconstruction and the 

Re-Association and Identification of 


Not for the Passive: The Active Application 

of Electronic Resistivity in the Excavation of 

a Mass Grave 

Evaluation of Date of Death Through 

Analysis of Artificial Radiocarbon in Distinct 

Human Skeletal and Dental Tissues 

265 

293 

63 

466 

320 

539 

464 

441 

424 

403

Ubelaker, Douglas H. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

NMNH - MRC 112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 

DC 20560; and Roberto C. Parra, BA, Instituto de 

Medicina Legal del Peru, Av. Abancay 491 6to Piso, Lima, 

PERU 

Ubelaker, Douglas H. PhD*, Department, Anthropology, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Dennis C. Ward, 

BS, FBI Laboratory, Washington, DC; Valeria S. Braz, 

MSc, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 

Brazil; and John Stewart, PhD, FBI, Washington, DC 

Ubelaker, Douglas H. PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, 








Washington, DC 20560; Jerold M. Lowenstein, MD, 

California Pacific Medical Center, 2333 Buchanan Street, 

San Francisco, CA 94115; Darden G. Hood, BS, 

MicroAnalytica, LLC, 4989 SW 74 Court, Miami, FL 

33155 

Uhl, Natalie M. BS, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East 

Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Joseph T. Hefner, 


Knoxville, TN 37996; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University 

of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, 


Uhl, Natalie M. MS*, 308 North Orchard Street, 

Apartment 7, Urbana, IL 61801; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, 

MS, 1559 Mount Vernon, East Lansing, MI 48823; and 

Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of Illinois, 109 


61801 

Uhl, Natalie MS*, 1503 North Pennsylvania Street, 

Apartment 21, Indianapolis, IN 46202 

Uhl, Natalie MS*, 308 North Orchard Avenue, Apartment 

7, Urbana, IL 68101 

Uhl, Natalie MS*, 308 North Orchard Street, Apartment 7, 


Van Deest, Traci L BA*, California State University, 

Chico, Department of Anthropology, 311 Butte Hall, 


Vass, Arpad A. PhD*, and Madhavi Martin, PhD, Oak 

Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, 1505, 

MS 6038, Oak Ridge, TN 37831- 6038; Jennifer Synstelien, 


Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Kimberly Collins, BS, 


Vass, Arpad A. PhD*, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 

P.O. Box 2008, Oak Ridge, TN 

Index 205 

Dental Aging Methods and Population 

Variation as Demonstrated in a Peruvian 

Sample 

Differentiation of Bone and Tooth From 


International Research in Forensic 

Anthropology 

Advances in the Assessment of Commingling 

Within Samples of Human Remains 

Species Identification of Small Skeletal 

Fragments Using Protein Radioimmunoassay 

(pRIA) 

Geometric Morphometrics of the Scapula: An 

Assessment of Ancestry 

A Bayesian Approach to Multifactorial Ageat-Death 

Estimation 

Multifactorial Determination of Age at Death 

From the Human Skeleton 

Estimation of Age at Death From the Juvenile 

Scapula 

New Scapular Measurements for Determining 

Sex 

Sifting Through the “Ashes”: Age and Sex 


Elemental Characterization of Skeletal 



257 

600 

479 

445 

525 

311 

13 

257 

198 

116 

350 

435 

The National Forensic Academy 561

Vella, Giancarlo Di MD*, Carlo Pietro Campobasso, MD, 

PhD, and Francesco Introna, MD, Section of Legal 

Medicine, University of Bari, Policlinico, piazza G. 

Cesare, Bari, Italy 

Verano, John W. PhD*, Brian Pierson, BA, and Anne 

Titelbaum, MA, Doris Z. Stone Laboratory of Biological 

and Forensic Anthropology, Department of Anthropology, 


70118 

Verano, John W. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 


70118 

Vidarsdottir, Una Strand BSc, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Durham, 43 Old Elvet, 

Durham, County Durham DH1 3HN, United Kingdom 

Vidoli, Giovanna M. MSc*, 56 Mitchell Avenue, 

Binghamton, NY 13903 

Vigil, Bianca MFS*, Ismail Sebetan, MD, PhD, and Paul 

Stein, PhD, Forensic Sciences Program, National 

University, 11255 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 

92037 

Vincent, Daisy D.M. MA*, 29 rue des Poudrieres, 

Neuchatel, 2000, SWITZERLAND 

Vollner, Jennifer M. MS*, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 1559 Mount 

Vernon, East Lansing, MI 48823; and Christopher W. 

Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 

1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Vollner, Jennifer M. MS*, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn 

Road, Okemos, MI 48864-4200; and Stephen D. Ousley, 



W. Mires, Ann Marie PhD*, Chief Medical Examiner, 720 

Albany Street, Boston, MA; Mary H. Manhein, MA, 

Louisiana State University, FACES Laboratory, Baton 

Rouge, LA; Greg Mahoney, Boston Crime Laboratory, 720 

Albany Street, Boston, MA; and Eileen Barrows, Louisiana 

State University, Faces Laboratory, Baton Rouge, LA 

W. Mires, Ann Marie PhD*, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 720 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; Alberto 

Giordano, PhD, Department of Geography, University of 

Texas, Austin, TX 77005 

Wagner, Sarah PhD*, University of North Carolina 

Greensboro, Department of Anthropology, 437 Graham 

Building, Greensboro, North Carolina 27410 

Waldrip, Edward B. PhD*, Southern Institute of Forensic 

Science, PO Box 15764, Hattiesburg, MS; Ted A. Rathbun, 

PhD, University of South Carolina, Department of 

Anthropology, Columbia, SC; Steven A. Symes, PhD, 

Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, 

Memphis, TN; and James E. Lee, Adams County, 112 South 

Wall Street, Natchez, MS 

Index 206 

Peculiar Marine Taphonomy Findings: 

Preservation of Human Remains as a Result 

of Submersion in Sequestered Environments 

Left Hanging in Mandeville: Multiple 

Approaches in Search of a Positive 


Serial Murder With Dismemberment of 

Victims in an Attempt to Hinder 



Geometric Morphometric Techniques for 

Ancestry Assessment in Sub-Adults 

Fragmentation Patterns of Victims From a 

Fatal Aviation Accident 

Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) 

Scans for Skeletal Remains Identification of 

Anorexia Nervosa 

Effects of Heat-Modification on Sharp Force 

Trauma in Charred Remains 

New Linear Measurements for the Estimation 

of Sex From the Human Sacrum 

The Use of Geometric Morphometric 



Reconstructing Facial Freeform Images 

Using FREEFORM Software 

Using GIS Technology to Locate Clandestine 

Human Remains 

The Social Effects of Recognizing 


Human Skeleton Found in a Chimney: A 

Misidentification Corrected and an 

Opportunity to Reevaluate Methods of 


547 

284 

457 

478 

278 

224 

76 

19 

118 

565 

515 

143 

603

Walsh-Haney, Heather A. MA*, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 


Walsh-Haney, Heather A. MA*, John J. Schultz, MS, and 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory/Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, P.O. Box 112545, Gainesville, FL; 

and Reinhard W. Motte, MD, Miami-Dade County, District 

11 Office of the Medical Examiner, Number One on Bob 

Hope Road, Miami, FL 

Walsh-Haney, Heather A. MA*, John J. Schultz, PhD, and 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, University of Florida, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Laboratory, PO Box 112545, 


Walsh-Haney, Heather MA*, and Sulekha R. Coticone, 

PhD*, Florida Gulf Coast University, 10501 FGCU 

Boulevard, Ft. Myers, FL 33965 

Wankmiller, Jane C. MA*, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East 


Warnasch, Scott C. MA*, New York City Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 

10016; Christian Crowder, PhD, Office of the Chief 


and Kristen Hartnett, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 520 1st Avenue, New 


Warren, Michael W. PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; Leslie E. Eisenberg, 

PhD, Wisconsin Historical Society, 816 State Street, 

Madison, WI; Heather Walsh-Haney, MA, University of 

Florida, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; and, Julie Mather 

Saul, BA, Lucas County Medical Coroner’s Office, 2595 

Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

Watamaniuk, Lelia BSc*, University of Toronto, 

Department of Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road, 

North, NB 226, Mississauga, ON M4V 1R6, CANADA 

Waters, Kevin A. BS*, Laura Gibson, BS, and Heather A. 

Walsh- Haney, PhD, Florida Gulf Coast University, 

Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, 

AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565 

Waxenbaum, Erin B. MA*, C.A. Pound Human 


1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32610; Anthony B. 

Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification Lab, 

University of Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; and David R. Hunt, PhD, National 

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 


Index 207 

Cross-Sectional Diaphyseal Geometry, 

Degenerative Joint Disease, and Joint Surface 

Area in Human Limb Bones: A Comparison 

of American Whites & Blacks 

Rituals Among the Santeria: Contextual 


Footnotes: Diabetic Osteopathy Used in 


Correlation of Forensic Anthropologic 

Findings With DNA Profiles Obtained From 

Cold Cases 

Positive Identification Using Radiographs of 

the Lumbar Spine: A Validation Study 

Archaeological Methodology Used at the 



Anthropology at Fresh Kills: Recovery and 

Identification of the World Trade Center 

Victims 

The Assessment and Determination of 

Forensic Significance in Forensic 

Anthropology 

Archival Matters: The William R. Maples 


Morphological Variation of the Human Knee: 

Implications for Sex and Ancestral 

Designations 

456 

544 

504 

314 

132 

39 

570 

115 

221 

330

Waxenbaum, Erin B. MA*, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, PO Box 112545, Building 114, 

Gainesville, FL 32611; David R. Hunt, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, University 

of Florida, PO Box 112545, Building 114, Gainesville, FL 

32611 

Waxenbaum, Erin B. PhD*, 1810 Hinman Avenue, 

Evanston, IL 60208; and Kelsea Linney, BA*, 

Northwestern University, 1810 Hinman Avenue, Evanston, 

IL 60208 

Webb, Nicole M. BS*, 19760 Osprey Cove Boulevard, 

Apartment 136, Fort Myers, FL 33967; Heather A. Walsh- 

Haney, PhD, Katy L. Shepherd, BS, and Christen E. 


Justice Studies, 10501 Florida Gulf Coast University 

Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Alyssa 

L. Butler, BA, 9795 Glen Heron Drive, Bonita Springs, FL 





Wedel, Vicki L. MA*, and Joshua B. Peabody, MA*, 

University of California, Santa Cruz, Department of 

Anthropology, 1156 High Street, Social Sciences 1 Faculty 

Services, Room 361, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Wedel, Vicki L. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of California, 1156 High Street, SS1 Faculty 

Services, Santa Cruz, CA 95064-1077; Shannon Bowman, 

BA, Texas A&M University, Department of Anthropology, 

College Station, TX 77483 

Wedel, Vicki L. MS, MA*, University of California, Santa 

Cruz, Department of Anthropology, Social Sciences 1 

Faculty Services, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 

Weitzel, Misty A. PhD*, Oregon State University, Waldo 

212, Corvallis, OR 97333 

Wescott, Daniel J PhD*, University of Missouri-Columbia, 


MO 65211 

Wescott, Daniel J. PhD*, University of Missouri at 


Columbia, MO 65211; Deepa Srikanta, BA, University of 

Missouri at Columbia, Department of Biology, Columbia, 

MO 65211 

Wescott, Daniel J. PhD*, University of Missouri- 


Columbia, MO 65211 

Wessling, Roland BSc*, and Ambika Flavel, MSc, Inforce 

Foundation, Cranfield University, Cranfield Forensic 

Institute, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

Index 208 

To Measure or Not to Measure: An Analysis 

of Maximum Length of the Tibia 

The Condyle Connection: Forensic 

Implications for the Association Between the 

Condyles of the Femur and Tibia 

Dead Man’s Curve: How Scoliosis Affects 

Rib Aging 

Analysis of Season at Death Using 

Cementum Increment Analysis 

How to Look a Gift Corpse in the Mouth: 



392 

44 

129 

414 

387 

Race vs. Ancestry: A Necessary Distinction 492 

Temperature Variability in the Burial 

Environment 

Using Growth Data to Understand Secular 

Trends in Femur Diaphyseal Size and Shape 

among American Adults 

Racial Assessment Using the Platymeric 

Index 

Ontogeny of Femur Subtrochanteric Shape: 

Implications for Determining Ancestry Using 

the Platymeric Index 

Training in Forensic Archaeology and 

Anthropology on a Shoestring: Is It Possible? 

Is It Sensible? 

386 

333 

489 

370 

152

Wessling, Roland MSc*, Inforce Foundation, Cranfield 

University, Cranfield Forensic Institutde, Shrivenham, 0 





Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 

0ES, UNITED KINGDOM 




Archaeology, Janus House, Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 

0ES, UNITED KINGDOM 

Wheat, Amber D. BS*, 232 Evan Liberal Arts, 601 


Wheatley, Bruce P. PhD*, Department of Anthropology 

and Social Work, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 

35294-3350 

White*, Rebecca E. 1 Harlestone Court, Harlestone Road, 

Dallington, Northampton, Northamptonshire, NN5 7AP, 


Whitman, Elizabeth J. MA*, 1044 Eugenia Drive, Mason, 

MI 48854 

Widya, Marcella M.C. BSc*, 14 Stanleyfield Road, 

Preston, Lancashire PR1 1QL, UNITED KINGDOM 

Wieberg, Danielle A.M. MA*, Knoxville Police 

Department, 800 Howard Baker, Jr. Avenue, PO Box 3610, 

Knoxville, TN 37927; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, Florida 

International University, Department of Biological 

Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th Street, Miami, FL 333199 

Wiersema, Jason M. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840; Mario 

Vasquez, MA, Oficina de Derechos Humanos del 

Arzobizpado de Guatemala, 115 5th Avenue, Guatemala 

City, 33154, Guatemala; Luis Rios, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Universidad Autonima de Madrid, Madrid, 

15404, Spain 

Wiersema, Jason M. MA*, Department of Anthropology, 

Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4352 

Wiersema, Jason M. PhD*, Harris County Medical 

Examiner, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 


Examiner, Anthropology Division, Houston, TX 77054; and 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, and Luis 

A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

Index 209 

Realism in Simulation Training: Examples of 

Mass Grave Excavation and Mass Fatality 

Incident Mortuary Simulation Exercises 

The Fromelles Project: Organizational and 

Operational Structures of a Large Scale Mass 

Grave Excavation and On-Site 


The Fromelles Project – The Recovery and 

Identification of British and Australian WWI 

Soldiers From Mass Graves in Northern 

France 

Estimating Ancestry Through Nonmetric 

Traits of the Skull: A Test of Education and 

Experience 

Postmortem and Perimortem Fracture 

Patterns in the Long Bones of Deer 

Decomposition in a Mass Grave and the 

Implications for Post Mortem Interval 

Estimates 

Distinguishing Between Human and Non- 

Human Secondary Osteons in Ribs 

Predicting the Postmortem Submersion 

Interval From the Adipocere Formation on 

Rabbits 

Interpretation and Confirmation of Patterned 

Clothing Stains Observed on Both Tibiae 

Silent Slaughter in Guatemala: The 




The Human Petrous Temporal Bone: 

Potential for Forensic Individuation 

The Petrous Portion of the Human Temporal 

Bone Revisited: A Bayesian Analysis of its 

Potential Value in the Identification of 


The Role of the Harris County Medical 



236 

3 

43 

206 

509 

339 

525 

110 

64 

482 

361 

343 

178


Examiner, Anthropology Division, Houston, TX 77054; 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris 

County, Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old Spanish 


Williams, Anna PhD*, Cranfield University, Defense 

Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, 


Williams, John A. PhD*, Anthropology & Sociology, 


NC 28723 

Williams, John A. PhD*, Anthropology & Sociology, 


NC 28723 

Williams, John A. PhD*, University of North Dakota, Box 

8374, Grand Forks, ND 

Williams, John A. PhD*, Western Carolina University, 

Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Cullowhee, 

NC 28723 

Williams, Philip N BS*, and Melissa A Torpey, MS, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Counterterrorism and 

Forensic Science Research Unit, Building 12, Quantico, 

VA 22135; and Lisa Bailey, BA, Federal Bureau of 


SPU/Room 1115, Quantico, VA 22135 

Williams, Shanna E. MA*, University of Florida, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 1376 Mowry 

Road, Gainesville, FL 32610 

Williams, Shanna E. PhD*, University of Florida, 

Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, PO Box 100235, 

Gainesville, FL 32610- 0235; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, 

North Carolina State University, Sociology and 




32610-0235 



32610-0235; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State 

University, Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 

8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 



32610-0235; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Department of 

Scientific Computing, Florida State University, 

Tallahassee, FL 32306; and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, CA 

Pound Human Id Lab, C/O Cancer/Genetics Research, PO 


Wilson, Rebecca J. BS*, University of Tennessee, 



Index 210 

Practical Consideration of the Daubert 

Guidelines on Methods of Identification in 

the Medical Examiner Setting 

Femmes Fatales: Why Do Women Dominate 

the Discipline of Forensic Anthropology? 

Anthropology for Breakfast: A Semi- 

Cautionary Tale 

Saw Cut Marks in Bone Created by Atypical 

Saws 

It Came Out of the Sky: Cremains as an 

Aerial Hazard 

Bone Fragmentation Created by a Mechanical 

Wood Chipper 

VICTIMS Identification Project: The 

Nation’s Unidentified...Who Are They? And 

What Can We Do? 

220 

11 

197 

237 

549 

298 

226 

A New Method for Evaluating Orbit Shape 325 

Shifting Morphological Structure: Comparing 

Craniometric Morphology in Founding and 

Descendant Populations 

The More the Better?: Evaluating the Impact 

of Fixed Semi-Landmark Number in Cranial 

Shape Variation Analyses 

Subadult Ancestry Determinations Using 


209 

37 

103 

Age-Related Change in Adult Orbital Shape 171 

Sexing the Zygomatic Bone 450

Wilson, Rebecca J. MA*, Jonathan D. Bethard, MA, and 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA, The University of Tennessee, 



Wilson, Teresa V. MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, 



LA 70803; and Ray E. Ferrell, Jr., PhD, Department of 

Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State University, E235 

Howe Russell Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

Winburn, Allysha P. MA*, and Carrie A. Brown, MA, Joint 

POW/MIA Acct Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 


Winburn, Allysha P. MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 


Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam Airforce Base, 

HI 96853; and Carme Rissech, PhD, Universitat de 

Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal, 645; 08028, Barcelona, SPAIN 

Winburn, Allysha P. MA, BA*, and Carrie A. Brown, MA, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 



Wolf, Dwayne A. MD, PhD*, Harris County Medical 

Examiner Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; Harrell Gill-King, PhD, University of North Texas, 

PO Box 305220, Denton, TX 76203; Lee M. Goff, PhD, 

Chaminade University of Honolulu, 3140 Waialae Avenue, 


Wood, Brian MS*, University of Tennessee, 315 Pasqua 

Engineering Building, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard Jantz, 

PhD, Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 



University of Tennessee, Center for Musculoskeletal 


Yazedjian, Laura N. MSc*, Rifat Kesetovic, MD, Ana Boza- 

Arlotti, PhD, and Zeljko Karan, MD, International 


71000, Bosnia-Herzegovina 

Zambrano, Carlos J. BA*, Archaeology and Forensics 



Zambrano, Carlos J. MS, Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, Laurel 

Freas, MA, Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, and Michael W. 

Warren, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, 

FL 32610 

Zephro, Lauren Rockhold MA*, Monterey County Sheriff’s 

Department, 1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, CA 

Index 211 

Orthopedic Devices and the William M. Bass 

Donated Skeletal Collection: Implications for 

Forensic Anthropological Identification 

X-Ray Diffraction as a Tool for the Analysis 

of Age-Related Changes in Teeth 


Estimation Part II: Younger vs. Older Adult 

Females 

Estimating Advanced Adult Age-at-Death in 

the Pelvis: A Comparison of Techniques on 

Known-Age Samples From Iberia 


Estimation Part I: Younger vs. Older Adult 

Males 

Beetle Poop: Interpret With Caution in 

Southeast Texas 

Improving Forensic Facial Reproductions 


The Importance of Using Traditional 



Evaluation of Regression Equations to 

Estimate Age at Death Using Cranial Suture 

Closure 

Evaluation of the Mandibular Angle as an 

Indicator of Sex 

Forensic Anthropology for Sale: A 

Perspective From Law Enforcement 

376 

126 

14 

172 

127 

385 

56 

440 

448 

318 

559

CHICAGO 2011 CHICAGO 2011 

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 

H1 Monitoring the Long-Term Applicability of 

Ground-Penetrating Radar Using 

Proxy Cadavers 

William T. Hawkins, BA*, 10215 Blanchard Park Trail, Apartment 2314, 

Orlando, FL 32817; Joanna M. Fletcher, BA, 9941 Timber Oaks Court, 

Orlando, FL 32817; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, FL 32816 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a better 

understanding of the potential benefits of ground-penetrating radar 

(GPR) and its possible limitations in the search for clandestine graves. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community by 

providing guidelines concerning investigations utilizing GPR in searches 

for clandestine bodies interred over a year. 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the applicability of 

GPR in grave detection of cadavers that have been buried for a 

significant period of time (up to 24 months). By using GPR to monitor 

controlled graves with multiple burial scenarios, questions can be 

answered concerning the usefulness of this tool in the search for cadavers 

that have been interred underground longer than a year. Initial guidelines 

are offered for the forensic community concerning investigation utilizing 

GPR for clandestine body searches. 

Controlled research using pig carcasses as human proxies has 

demonstrated that GPR is the best geophysical tool to employ when 

searching for clandestine bodies. Ground-penetrating radar provides the 

best resolution for subsurface imaging of all geophysical tools used on 

land. Additionally, the results are displayed in real-time, and information 

about depth and size of target can be inferred. This presentation 

continues the second phase of a larger research project involving the 

monitoring of controlled graves for a two year period and will focus on 

year two of data collection using a 250-MHz antenna. 

The GPR unit used was a MALA RAMAC X3 M with a 250-MHz 

antenna. The data was processed using REFLEXW and GPR-SLICE 

computer programs. REFLEXW was used to display the transect data as 

reflection profiles, while GPR-SLICE was used to display the grid data 

as horizontal slices (plan view). These data were collected from a 

permanent grid measuring 11 m by 22 m containing eight graves total, 

buried in a spodic (Spodosol) soil. A total of eight graves were created: 

six represented different burial scenarios and containing a single pig 

carcass (Sus scrofa) each; the last two represented empty control graves. 

The eight graves were arranged in two rows with four graves in each row. 

Burial scenarios included a shallow empty control hole (dug at 0.5 m), a 

deep empty control (dug at 1.0 m), a shallow pig grave (0.5 m depth), a 

deep pig grave (1.0 m), a pig carcass buried underneath a layer of lime, 

a pig carcasses buried underneath a layer of gravel, a pig carcasses 

wrapped in a blanket, and a pig carcasses wrapped in a tarpaulin. The 

final four scenarios were buried at a depth of 1.0 m. Data were collected 

following both a west-to-east transect direction and a north-to-south 

transect direction with a transect interval of 0.25 m. 

Over the first year of grave monitoring, salient grave reflections 

were observed for all of the scenarios containing a pig carcass. 

Conversely, the second year of grave monitoring showed decreased 

responses from the decomposing carcasses. By month 15, a number of 

burial scenarios had become difficult to detect; the shallow and deep 

carcasses, buried without additional grave items, exhibited the poorest 

resolutions. The graves with the best resolution were those with the 

carcasses either wrapped or covered. The scenario of the carcass covered 

with gravel exhibited the best resolution of all the scenarios. Of the 

wrapped carcasses, the tarpaulin exhibited greater resolution than the 

carcass wrapped in the blanket. The two empty control graves were 

important for the research by showing the difference between an 

anomaly produced by disturbed soil and an anomaly produced by an 

actual carcass. While the deep control grave exhibited a consistent 

response, it was at a lower level of the grave shaft, compared to the 

carcass anomalies, and was consistent with the location of the grave 

floor. Though the horizontal slices provided a grid view of the burials, 

less graves were detected compared to the resolution exhibited by the 

reflection profiles. It is therefore recommended that when performing 

clandestine body searches with GPR both imagery options should be 

utilized and the data should be processed in the lab before making any 

definitive conclusions concerning the location of potential targets. This 

project was supported by the National Institute of Justice, Office of 

Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, 

and conclusions or recommendations expressed are those of the author(s) 

and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice. 

Ground-Penetrating Radar, Controlled Graves, Geophysical 

Search Methods 

H2 Monitoring the Applicability of Ground- 

Penetrating Radar on Detecting Shallow 


Joanna M. Fletcher, BA*, 9941 Timber Oaks Court, Orlando, FL 32817; 

William T. Hawkins, BA, 10215 Blanchard Park Trail, Apartment 2314, 

Orlando, FL 32817; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, FL 32816 


understanding of the benefits and limitations associated with the use of 

ground penetrating radar (GPR) in the search for clandestine graves, 

specifically in cases involving small bodies and shallow graves. 


illustrating the ability of GPR, using a 250-MHz and 500-MHz antenna, 

to locate bodies in shallow graves in various burial scenarios. 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the ability of GPR to 

detect small cadavers buried in shallow graves over a period of six 

months. By using GPR to monitor controlled graves with multiple burial 

scenarios, questions can be answered concerning its applicability in the 

search for small cadavers in shallow graves. Burial scenarios also help 

distinguish which component or components of the grave, the disturbed 

soil, the body, or the additional material added to the grave, is producing 

the geophysical response once the GPR detects the grave. 

The use of remote sensing geophysical techniques in the search and 

detection of clandestine graves in a forensic context has many 

advantages, particularly as it is non-invasive and can highlight smaller 

areas for more detailed searching. Controlled research has demonstrated 

that GPR is the most accurate geophysical tool in forensic investigations. 

Ground-penetrating radar is time efficient, results are displayed in realtime 

in the field, it provides the best subsurface-imaging resolution, and 

can be used in different scenarios, such as over the concrete of a house 

foundation or on a forested landscape. This presentation will focus on 

the first six months of data collection for a project evaluating the ability 

of GPR, using a 250-MHz and 500-MHz antenna, to locate shallow 

graves containing small pig cadavers in various burial scenarios. 

The ground-penetrating radar unit used for this research was a 

MALA RAMAC X3 M with a 250-MHz and 500-MHz antenna. The 

1 * Presenting Author

GPR data was processed using the REFLEXW computer program to 

display the data in a reflection profile, showing one transect at a time. 

These grid data were collected from a permanent grid, measuring 9 m by 

15 m, containing six graves total, five with a single pig (Sus scrofa) 

carcass, and one control grave. Multiple-burial scenarios were 

incorporated into the project: a pig carcass buried under a layer of lime; 

a pig carcass buried under a layer of rocks; a pig carcass wrapped in a 

fleece blanket, a pig carcass wrapped in a tarpaulin; and a pig carcass 

without additional material. The final grave was an empty control grave 

to measure the response of soil disturbance only versus graves 

containing bodies. Each grave was 0.5 m deep, and the pig cadavers 

weighed an average of 25.8 kg. The soil at the research site is classified 

as Spodosol. However, due to the shallow depths of the graves, they 

were only buried in sandy horizons. The six graves were arranged in two 

rows with three graves in each row. Data was collected following both 

a north-to-south transect direction and an east-to-west transect direction 

with a transect spacing of 0.25 m. 

Over the first six months of monitoring, all graves were detected in 

reflection profiles, although some had better resolution than others. 

While all of the graves containing a pig carcass produced prominent 

reflections for this monitoring period, the graves containing items (rocks 

and lime) placed over the pig carcass resulted in slightly better 

resolution. Conversely, the grave containing only the pig carcass 

produced the lowest resolution, but was easily detected. Throughout the 

first few months of data collection, a minimal response was exhibited by 

the empty control grave; however, after several months of soil 

compaction within the grave shaft, there was no longer a response from 

this grave. These results for the control hole were important in 

demonstrating that the reflections produced within the graves containing 

the pig carcasses were the result of the bodies and items added to the 

graves and not the disturbed soil. In terms of antenna performance, the 

250-MHz data initially provided a better resolution within the first few 

months. However, over time the higher detail provided by the 500-MHz 

data consistently resulted in easily discernable reflections. While either 

antenna would be a good option when searching for shallow clandestine 

graves, the 500-MHz may be a better option depending on 

soil conditions. 

Ground-Penetrating Radar, Controlled Graves, Geophysical 

Shallow Burial Searches 

H3 Taphonomy of a Mass Grave in Mid- 


Mary S. Megyesi, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Lindsey L. Jenny, MA, Michigan State 

University, East Lansing, MI 48823; Cate Bird, MA, 2740 Senate Drive, 

#3E, Lansing, MI 48912; Amy Michael, MA, 528 West Lapeer Street, 

Lansing, MI 48933; and Angela Soler, MA, and Jane Wankmiller, MA, 

Michigan State University, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker 


Forensic anthropology skills can be applied to a variety of medicolegal 

situations. The goal of this presentation is to discuss a unique 

instance of a mass grave site in Mid-Michigan in order to provide future 

investigators with information about the decomposition, taphonomy, and 

recovery of deeply buried remains. 


providing an example of how forensic anthropology expertise, including 

knowledge of decomposition, skeletal anatomy, and recovery techniques, 

can aid law enforcement in what may not be a “typical” human remains 

case. 

In August of 2009, the Michigan State University Forensic 

Anthropology Laboratory (MSU FAL) was called to assist the 

Livingston County Sheriff’s Department with an ongoing legal dispute 

between two parties over the disappearance of approximately 160 head 

* Presenting Author 

of beef cattle. The plaintiff in this case claimed the defendant had sold 

the cattle for profit, while the defendant claimed that these animals had 

died approximately two years prior and were buried on his farm. In 

order to settle this dispute, the defendant was required to provide 

evidence of the buried animals. The excavation was monitored 

determine how many animals were present, estimate the time since 

death, and to interpret the stratigraphy of the burial pits. 

This case was atypical in a number of ways: the individuals were 

cows and steers; they were buried in a mass grave; due to the legal issues 

surrounding this case, the defendant was responsible for exhuming the 

animals; and there was little scientific control over the operation of the 

backhoe during the excavation. Regardless, this unique situation 

provided important information about the decomposition and taphonomy 

of a mass grave excavated with a backhoe that could aid future 

researchers. 

The mechanical action of the backhoe dispersed and broke up the 

cattle remains during the excavation. Some skeletal elements survived 

this process better than others. During the excavation, skeletal elements 

were organized by element in order to determine a minimum number of 

individuals (MNI). This process revealed that skulls and innominates 

were recovered less often than long bones such as femora, tibia, or 

humeri. This may be due to the fact that, quite often, skulls were crushed 

while long bones were more durable. In addition, the animals recovered 

were young, growing, feeder cattle, and many innominates were still 

separated into their smaller elements which may have made them more 

difficult to recover. The MNI was eventually determined by the recovery 

of 23 left tibias. 

The cattle were buried in a large pit where some animals were very 

close to the surface and others were buried quite deep – up to 3 to 4.5 

meters. Time since death estimates were based on the degree of 

decomposition, taking into account the burial depth where the animals 

were recovered. Cattle recovered near the ground surface were 

skeletonized, mainly dry, and had some mummified skin and tendons. 

Deeply-buried animal bones were wet with black decomposing sludge 

and had adhering skin, fur, cartilage, and tendons. This would be an 

expected pattern of differential decomposition due to different burial 

depths. Age-at-death estimates concluded the animals had most likely 

died between 2 to 7 years based on these observations. 

One of the important questions regarding this case when it went to 

trial was whether there were any additional animals in the pit when the 

defendant had finished digging. Decomposition staining of the pit walls 

was noticeably black, where it made a strong contrast with the 

surrounding lightly-colored soil. It served as a good indicator of where 

additional animals were located as the defendant excavated the burial pit. 

At the conclusion of the excavations, no additional animals were in the 

pit due to the lack of decomposition staining. 

This atypical case is one example of how knowledge of skeletal 

anatomy and field recovery techniques can assist with a variety of 

investigations. This mass cattle grave excavated with a backhoe 

presented special challenges to the interpretation of time since death 

and MNI. 

Taphonomy, Decomposition, Recovery 

2

H4 The Fromelles Project: Organizational and 

Operational Structures of a Large Scale 

Mass Grave Excavation and On-Site 


Roland Wessling, MSc*, Inforce Foundation, Cranfield University, 

Cranfield Forensic Institute, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UNITED 

KINGDOM; and Louise Loe, PhD, Oxford Archaeology, Janus House, 

Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 0ES, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have an increased 

understanding of the organizational and operational aspects of a project 

that includes the recovery, processing, anthropologically analyses, and 

documentation of 250 sets of human remains and over 6,000 artifacts in 

a task-specific, on-site laboratory with high security demands in a fixed 

timeframe. 


demonstrating how organizational and operational planning can lead to 

maximizing quality and efficiency, and ensure delivery of results within 

given time and budget constraints. 

Between July 19 and 20, 1916, British and Australian forces fought 

a hopeless battle against German forces while trying to draw attention 

away from the Somme. The outcome of this battle was the catastrophic 

loss of over 7,000 soldiers in less than 48 hours. The Australians 

reported 5,533 killed, wounded, and missing and the British 1,547. 

In February 2009, Oxford Archaeology (OA) was awarded the 

contract to carry out the recovery of eight mass graves near the village of 

Fromelles in Northern France. Within less than two months, the project 

planning was finalized and a team of OA staff and external consultants 

assembled, including forensic archaeologists and anthropologists, 

osteoarchaeologists, finds experts, crime scene investigators, anatomical 

pathology technologists, radiographers, IT experts, and many more. 

The process was divided into excavation, x-ray, processing, drying, 

skeletal and artifact analysis, storage, and DNA. Each section had one or 

two section heads. These section heads and project managers, assisted 

by specialist, arrived early onsite to ensure that the entire operation was 

setup according to their needs. The laboratory and excavation site were 

secured through fencing, CCTV, and 24-hour guards. Tool-storage, 

office, and facilities for the excavation team were kept within an inner 

cordon that could only be entered when team members changed into 

work clothing and put on full personal protective equipment, including 

paper suits, hair nets, face masks, and surgical gloves. 

The laboratory, store rooms, changing rooms, and office space were 

set up in April 2009 using connectable office containers. This layout 

guaranteed a secure and efficient workflow as well the dignified and 

respectful treatment of the human remains. The anthropological analysis 

began in late May and had to be completed by the end of November. 

Final analysis of artifacts and finalizing of reports went on throughout 

the winter and the first soldiers were reburied in January. 

Sets of remains and associated artifacts were transferred from the 

excavation to the anthropological laboratory using a documented 

handover procedure witnessed by a crime scene investigator to order to 

guarantee the continuity and integrity of all evidence. The mortuary 

manager took charge of the remains and constantly monitored progress 

throughout the different mortuary stages. Remains and artifacts were 

first x-rayed using a direct-digital x-ray unit, operated by an experienced 

radiographer, who also holds a degree in forensic anthropology. All 

images were stored digitally and moved onto the secure database to give 

access to the anthropologists. 

Remains and artifacts were then separated for processing. Human 

remains were carefully cleaned to prepare them for anthropological 

analysis. To ensure the highest quality processing, only staff with 

experience in osteoarchaeology or anthropology were employed at this 

stage. After processing and drying, the remains were handed over to one 

of the anthropologists. All anthropologists had their own workstation, 

consisting of a fixed table, a digital SLR camera permanently fixed to the 

ceiling above the table, a PC workstation connected both to the camera 

and the database server and all necessary measurement equipment and 

reference material. All laboratory space was adequately air-conditioned 

to guarantee optimum conditions for both remains and artifacts. All 

rooms and equipment was completely cleaned daily using hospital 

mortuary protocols. 

It was the efficient and effective work flow and data movement that 

ensured high quality results within a limited timeframe. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Archaeology, DNA Sampling 

H5 Blast Injury in Skeletal Remains: The Case 

of a Soldier From WWI 

Martin Smith, PhD, and Marie Christine Dussault, MSc*, Bournemouth 

University, Centre for Forensic Science, Christchurch House, Poole, 

BH12 5BB, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, attendees can expect to gain an 

understanding of the utility of unusual occupation pathologies as an 

individuating characteristic in historical missing person’s cases. 

Attendee will also learn about the patterns of blast trauma injury that can 

be identified in cases of suspected blast injury, as well as, be able to 

discuss the potential of the combination of blast trauma analysis and 

forensic anthropological techniques for historical cases such as the one 

presented. 


demonstrating the need and potential for the application of blast trauma 

identification and analysis in forensic anthropology. This presentation 

demonstrates that forensic anthropologists should be familiar with this 

type of trauma as it can be identified in a variety of contexts in which the 

forensic anthropologist may be called to contribute. The lack of 

knowledge in the field is stressed to outline the importance of 

undertaking research on this type of trauma due to its relevance in many 

forensic and anthropological situations. 

Recent years have seen increasing attention given to the analysis of 

many types of skeletal trauma; however, injuries to the skeleton caused 

by explosions remain poorly understood. The results of a project with 

dual objectives aimed at both identification of a specific individual killed 

during the Great War (1914-1918) and understanding the cause of their 

death are presented. Assisting in the identification of remains excavated 

in 2008 from Plugstreet, Belgium, the remains were located buried in situ 

in proximity of the location of the German front lines during the Great 

War at St. Yvon, north of the Ultimo crater. The remains were fully 

clothed and found buried under soil in a trench. The remains were 

accompanied by artifacts such as personal effects, munitions, medical 

supplies, and a souvenir Pickelhaube. These artifacts clearly indicated 

that this was not a proper burial and the individual was killed at 

that location. 

Anthropological analyses were performed to determine the age, sex, 

stature, and pathology of the remains. A number of individuating 

characteristics were identified regarding age and physical type as well as 

occupationally-related pathological changes. The biological profile 

indicated that the individual was a male with a stature ranging between 

5’ 7” and 5’ 10”, aged between 30 and 40, which narrowed down the 

potential casualties due to the older age of the individual, a characteristic 

which was at odds with the typical enrollment age of soldiers of the time. 

The skeletal remains also indicated a bone robusticity that suggesting 

that the individual participated in a physically-demanding occupation 

during his life. This observation was further supported by the extensive 

occupationally-related pathologies observed on the vertebrae, illustrated 

by arthritic changes and prominent Schmorl’s Nodes, and arthritic joints 

of the legs. These pathologies are unusual for an individual of this age 


and can provide interesting information to add to the identification. 

Collectively these observations permitted the exclusion of all possible 

identities with the exception for a small number of individuals. The 

anthropological analysis was combined with a stable isotope analysis 

and a subsequent DNA match to identify Private Alan James Mather, a 

grazier or rancher from Inverell in New South Wales, missing-in-action 

from Messines, Belgium since June 1917. 

Of further interest was a range of evidence for severe skeletal 

trauma consistent with the individual being hit by a mortar. Laid out 

anatomically, distinct injuries were located on the upper left side of the 

body and torso. Path of injury could be accurately located and followed 

through the absent humerus and sternum, and the extensively fragmented 

ribs. Elements in close association to these, such as the manubrium and 

right arm bones, were completely intact, indicating a very specific path 

of injury, ending in the torso. Fragments of mortar shell were found 

embedded in the left temporal bone and left scapula. A large fragment, 

with an intact driving band (typical of German rifled mortars), was found 

in the associated grave fill, along the left side of the skeleton, which had 

been included in a bag of skeletal elements from the upper arm. 

Subsequently examined historical and archaeological information 

supports the evidence examined and contributes to the positive 

identification. Historical records confirm that on June 8, 1917, Private 

Mather’s 33 Battalion was hit by mortar fire. This exemplifies the 

application of blast trauma analysis by a forensic anthropologist to a 

historical case. This case illustrates the potential for additional work in 

this area to further expand understanding of this class of skeletal injury 

which remains equally relevant in modern contexts. 

Forensic Anthropology, Blast Trauma, Occupational Markers 

H6 Peri-Mortem Fracture Patterns in South- 



Rebecca E. Shattuck, MA*, 809 Green Meadows Drive, Apartment #305, 

Columbia, MO 65201 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have an 

understanding of peri- and postmortem decompositional changes in 

bone, and how these alterations are associated with changes in blunt 

force trauma fracture patterns. Additionally, attendees will learn which 

features proved most diagnostic in placing these fractures in an 

appropriate sequence during the peri-mortem interval. 


providing tools to estimate the postmortem interval from long bone 

fractures, which will help to bring blunt force trauma analysis in line 

with the Daubert (2003) criteria for expert witnesses. 

There have been several studies investigating long bone fracture 

characteristics during the peri-morteminterval (PMI), but none have been 

undertaken in the unique climate of southwest Texas. Additionally, the 

definition of the term “peri-mortem” as it applies to human remains is 

not unanimously agreed upon. Estimates vary regarding how long the 

peri-mortem interval lasts. Janjua and Roberts’ (2008) research in 

Ontario indicates that it takes bone approximately 200 days to reach a 

stage of “advanced decomposition,” which they measured based 

primarily on weathering and color change. Conversely, Bell et al. (1996) 

claim that buried bones may remain in the ground for five years or more 

before they begin showing any sort of postmortem change. 

Issues arise because bone decomposition is a continuous process; 

however, anthropologists typically rely on non-quantifiable indicators to 

establish largely arbitrary divisions separating these three timeframes. 

To improve understanding of peri-mortem bone changes, 50 pig femora 

were allowed to weather at the Texas State University Forensic 

Anthropology Research Facility at Freeman Ranch, in San Marcos, TX 

for up to 18 weeks (PMI=126 days). A portion of the sample was 


fractured at regular 2-week intervals by the mechanical application of a 

known dynamic force, and the resulting fracture outlines, angles, and 

edges, were methodically examined and documented. Also examined 

were the number and size of fragments produced. 

A jagged fracture surface proved to be the feature most strongly 

indicative of postmortem drying in the short term, appearing 

approximately a month after death and appearing at consistently high 

rates in all subsequent tests. A significant change in the frequency of 

curvilinear versus transverse fracture outlines separates the first two 

months of the experiment from the following period. Fracture angle 

proved to have poor predictive powers, as obtuse and acute-angled 

fractures, indicative of fresh bone, occurred through the final test at 

PMI=126 days, though right-angled fractures did begin to appear at 

PMI=28 days. 

There are essentially two “peaks of activity” when it comes to 

timing peri-mortem fractures in south-central Texas. The first peak 

occurs around 28 days, and is characterized by the first appearance of a 

jagged fracture surface, the first appearance of longitudinal cracking, and 

the beginning of a transition from curvilinear to intermediate fracture 

outlines. The second peak occurs around 70 days, and is distinguished 

by the absence of any smooth fracture surface after that point. Statistical 

tests indicated that different features may be diagnostic over a short 

period (e.g., 2-week intervals) than those over a longer period (e.g., 8week 

intervals). 

No one feature proved to have extraordinarily high diagnostic 

value, but fracture characteristics analyzed in conjunction with one 

another have the potential to time the occurrence of a fracture with some 

accuracy. The results of this experiment highlight the need to develop a 

shared knowledge base regarding the interpretation of blunt force 

trauma, backed by statistically supportable research. This replicable 

experimental design and method of quantitative analysis will help to 

bring blunt force trauma interpretation in line with the Daubert (1993) 

ruling, as well as aid in standardizing trauma analysis criteria. 

Peri-Mortem Interval, Blunt Force Trauma, Forensic Taphonomy 

H7 Analysis of Primary Blast Rib Fractures 

Angi M. Christensen, PhD, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and Victoria A. Smith, MA*, ORAU, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the 

results of an analysis of rib fractures associated with primary blast 

trauma. 


providing a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms and 

affects of blast trauma, specifically those involving the ribs, resulting in 

more accurate interpretations of skeletal trauma. 

Worldwide, the prevalence of terrorist attacks employing the use of 

explosive devices has served to shift counterterrorism focus from widescale 

weapons of mass destruction to conventional explosive attacks. In 

2008, bombings alone accounted for more than one-third of all terrorist 

attacks, with explosives, vehicle bombs, and improvised-explosive 

devices resulting in the majority of injuries. Forensic anthropologists 

have become increasingly involved in the identification of blast victims 

as well as the interpretation of skeletal trauma caused by exploding 

ordinance. Understanding rib fracture patterns associated with such 

explosive events would provide significant medical and forensic lead 

information. This study investigates the rib fractures associated with 

primary blast trauma (i.e., resulting from the blast wave). 

Rib fractures are associated with the majority of traumatic thoracic 

events and can be important indicators of soft tissue and organ injury. 

Despite this, rib fractures have historically received little attention in 

medical and anthropological literature. The relatively small amount of 

rib fracture research could be due to the habit of viewing ribs as 

4

individual bones rather than a protective system for the thoracic cavity, 

the cumbersome nature of processing the torso, and the medical practice 

of often overlooking rib injuries due to the potential for more severe 

injury to the vital thoracic organs. The majority of literature on the 

broader topic of blast trauma is in medical journals and focus on 

treatment of injuries rather than conducting controlled, empirical studies. 

Some researchers have examined the mechanisms of rib fracture in order 

to understand their structural failure during different traumatic thoracic 

events, but have not specifically considered blast forces. 

A bone’s reaction to stress is affected by factors such as force and 

the mechanical properties of the bone. The morphology of ribs, 

specifically their cross-sectional shape and degree of curvature along 

their length, sets them apart from other human bones and suggests that 

they should be expected to respond uniquely to applied forces. A recent 

study by Christensen et al. 1 examined primary and secondary skeletal 

blast trauma and reported the presence of numerous butterfly fractures in 

ribs that were most likely caused by ventrally applied blast force. 

Building on these findings, the present study involves further analysis of 

the previous observations, as well as additional simulated (and more 

controlled) primary blast event forces. 

Results indicate that in response to blast and blast-type forces, ribs 

tend to fracture in the head, neck, and shaft in a manner consistent with 

compression, shearing and bending forces. Butterfly fractures, which are 

the result of bending, tensile and compression forces, were frequently 

observed. This is unsurprising considering that these forces are typically 

associated with blast events. Rib fracture patterns differed from those 

normally associated with other types of trauma events such as blunt force 

(including deceleration), projectile, and sharp force. 

These results contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of 

the effect of blast forces on ribs and the interpretation of rib fractures in 

forensic contexts and may allow forensic anthropologists to differentiate 

between blast trauma and trauma resulting from some other cause. 

Practitioners should bear in mind; however, that blast traumas involve a 

number of complicated variables. If blast injury is suspected, 

consideration should be given to bone type, injury location, and all 

available contextual and investigative information including the amount 

of explosives utilized, the placement of the explosives in relation to the 

victim and the presence of potential projectiles. 

Reference: 

1. Christensen AM, Ramos V, Shegogue CW, Smith VA, Whitworth 

WM. Primary and Secondary Skeletal Blast Trauma. Proceedings 

of the 62 nd American Academy of Forensic Sciences 62 nd Annual 

Scientific Meeting 2010 February 22-27; Seattle, WA. 

Forensic Anthropology, Blast Trauma, Rib Fractures 

H8 Pattern and Distribution of Fractures in the 

William M. Bass and Hamann-Todd 


Shauna McNulty, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand whether 

aspects of modern life predispose individuals to different patterns of 

trauma than earlier, historical populations. The specific patterns and 

susceptibilities to injury may be unique to individual populations and 

provide a reference in order to gauge quality of life and health status for 

the populations under study. 


providing information that can be used to determine lifestyle factors that 

predisposed modern, as well as earlier historical populations, to injury. 

This may allow for predictions to be made as to what types of injuries 

will be represented in modern medical institutions, based on the lifestyle 

of the populations feeding into those systems. 

It is possible that modern activities can predispose certain 

populations to different risks, and therefore different injury patterns. 

Few studies take into account the effects of ancestry, age, and sex on 

frequency and location of these fractures. The goal of this study is to 

determine whether aspects of modern life predispose individuals to 

different patterns of trauma than earlier populations, as well as whether 

differences exist across demographic parameters. 

Lifestyle choices, as well as biological and environmental factors, 

can predispose different individuals to fracture. Habitual daily activities 

combined with poor health characterize the risk factors for many 

populations experiencing high fracture rates. These can include a 

sedentary lifestyle, tobacco smoking, alcoholism, and poor diet. An 

individual’s age, deteriorating senses, osteoporosis, hormonal changes, 

poor health, and/or inactivity all contribute to biological predispositions 

to fracture. In addition, several non-biological factors can increase an 

individual’s rate of fracture, including geographic location, climate, 

technology, occupation, and participation in sporting activities. Modern 

ways of life have introduced longer lives that are on average less 

laborious than earlier time periods, as well as city crowding, violent 

crime, automobiles accidents, and accidents attributable to urban 

architecture. All of these factors interplay to form an individual’s unique 

susceptibility to fracture. 

The present investigation was conducted using the Hamann-Todd 

Osteological Collection and the William M. Bass Donated Collection. 

The analysis of both collections was conducted macroscopically without 

the aid of radiographs. Only complete, adult specimens were used to 

allow for greater statistical power. Each element of the skeleton, except 

for hands and feet, was visually inspected for the presence or absence of 

fractures. Demographic information was recorded for each individual 

and includes cause of death, age, sex, and ancestry. Statistical analyses 

were performed using two statistical analysis software programs. The 

frequency data generated by the two collections in this study were 

analyzed using cross-tabulations with Chi-square tests, to determine if 

any differences occurred between the earlier and later populations, as 

well as between age, sex, and ancestry groups. 

Among the significant (i.e., Chi-squared test significant) cranial 

bones we see several patterns emerge, the first being that white males 

tend to have more fractures than expected. In contrast, white females 

tended to have fewer fractures than expected in both collections. In the 

post-crania, there appears to be higher fracture counts than expected only 

for the Bass collection. There seems to be a predisposition toward more 

post-cranial fractures in the more modern sample. The highest fracture 

counts were attributed to the ribs and nasals with some individuals 

experiencing more than one fracture. This has been found in other 

studies, since these areas are often susceptible to not only violence, but 

traumatic injuries from falls and accidents. 

Overall, the results indicate that differences exist across the 

demographic categories. The variation inherent in the sample may be 

attributed to the fact that the Hamann-Todd collection was created from 

a more socio-economically disadvantaged population, as compared to 

the Bass-donated collection. Overall, there is significant variation found 

between the demographic groups included in this study, which helps 

garner a further understanding of modern injury patterns. 

Fractures, Age Differences / Sex Differences, Patterns of Injury 


H9 No Country for Young Pigs: Identifying the 

Use of Captive Bolt Pistols in Non-Natural 

Death Occurrences 

Scott A. Kirkland, MA*, North Carolina State University, Department of 

Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695; 

Sarah L. Cunningham, MA, Binghamton University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902; Jonathan 

Cammack, MS, North Carolina State University, Department of 

Entomology, Campus Box 7626, Raleigh, NC 27695; Ann H. Ross, PhD, 

North Carolina State University, Department of Sociology & 

Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and D. Wes 

Watson, PhD, North Carolina State University, Department of 

Entomology, Campus Box 7626, Raleigh, NC 27612 


similarities and differences in trauma to the skull resulting from gunshot 

wounds and wounds inflicted by a tool used in the slaughtering of 

livestock, the captive bolt pistol (CBP). 


presenting the criteria for differentiating defects produced by handguns 

and the captive bolt pistol. 

Case studies from Germany, Italy, and Serbia have shown that 

different varieties of the CBP have been used in suicides and homicides. 

While gunshot wounds (GSW) are much more common forensically in 

the United States, the wide availability of captive bolt pistols, found in 

commercial livestock slaughterhouses and many family farms, means 

these tools could be used as a weapon in a homicide. 

In this study, skeletal evidence of gunshot wounds in the skulls of 

humans was compared to captive bolt pistol wounds in the skulls of 

domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) (n=6). A seventh pig (n=1) was observed for 

a month separately from the first group in an effort to determine if the 

wound sizes changes over time in an uncontrolled environment, exposed 

to the elements. The captive bolt pistol (CBP) produces a characteristic 

round, sharp-edged entrance wound with internal beveling that 

resembles a GSW entrance defect. The CBP entrance wounds were 

measured in an effort to identify the caliber of the weapon used (Ross 

1996). While they were classified within the range of a large-caliber 

weapon, the CBP mean value of the minimum diameter (13.05 mm) was 

found to be greater than the large caliber GSW mean (11.004 mm). The 

values obtained when plugging into the Ross (1996) equation was 9.51, 

classifying it as large caliber. The individual measurements of the CBP 

entrance sites are all larger in diameter than the mean diameters for the 

selected small and large caliber weapons (.22, .25, .32, .38) found in 

Ross (1996). The size of the CBP bolt used (11.9 mm), is slightly larger 

than bullets from common-caliber handguns: 9 mm, .357 Magnum (9.07 

mm), .38 Special & ACP (9.65 mm), .40 S&W (10.2 mm), .44 Magnum 

(10.9 mm), and .45 ACP & GAP (11.5 mm). While a large caliber value 

may indicate a captive bolt pistol, other characteristics that aid in 

differentiating the CBP wound from a gunshot wound include: (1) the 

absence of radiating fractures from the area of trauma impact; and, (2) 

the lack of an exit wound, as the CBP bolt does not travel through and 

exit the skull. Interestingly, previous research discovered that the wound 

size was equal to or slightly less than the diameter of the bolt (Simic et 

al. 2002). However, in this study, it was found that the wound defect 

sizes of bolted pigs were observed to be slightly larger than the 11.9 mm 

diameter of the bolt itself (mean diameter=13.05 mm). At this point, the 

resulting difference in size is still unaccounted for as the observed 

taphonomic processes do not appear to be actively modifying the cranial 

defects. More research will need to be conducted before a cause can be 

more conclusively determined. 

Captive Bolt Pistol, Gunshot Wounds, Pigs 


H10 Defining Intimate Partner Violence: New 


Chelsey Juarez, MA*, University of California - Santa Cruz, Social 

Science 1, Department of Anthropology, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, 

CA 95064; and Cris E. Hughes, MA, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be familiar with the 

most common trends of fracture associated with intimate partner 

violence (IPV), in particular the hierarchy of facial fractures and their 

types that are indicative of IPV. 


presenting the most current data on patterns of skeletal injury common 

in cases of IPV and by illustrating the range, and characteristics of these 

injuries in three cases studies. 

Women are approximately 4 to 5 times more likely to be victims of 

intimate partner homicide (IPH) than their male counterparts (Campbell, 

et al. 2007). 1 The major risk factor for IPH, regardless of whether the 

male or female partner is killed, is the presence of prior domestic 

violence. When analyzing human remains for evidence of chronic 

physical abuse, forensic anthropologists rely on a temporal range of 

trauma and the presence of specific types of skeletal injuries (Cook, et al. 

1997; Galloway 1999; Marks et al. 2009). 2,3,4 Likewise, in the majority 

of cases, physical IPV occurs over a long period of time resulting in a 

documentable history of soft tissue and/or skeletal injuries (Campbell 

and Glass 2009). 5 Identification of IPV from skeletal trauma is critical, 

because knowing such information increases accurate reporting of IPVrelated 

deaths, helps to mitigate abuse of future partners and children, 

and may assist in the identification of perpetrators. As first-incident IPV 

female homicides increase, it is critical that forensic anthropologists 

become aware of the patterns of injury, populations at risk, limitations of 

assessment, and their role in the identification of IPV during analysis of 

skeletal trauma. The following fracture guidelines may identify IPV 

(Juarez and Hughes, in press; Arosarena et al. 2009): 6,7 

1) Most victims are female. 

2) Most victims are involved in ongoing abuse, which may present 

as antemortem trauma to the skeleton. 

3) IPV correlates statistically with peri-orbital fractures and 

intracranial injury. 

4) Fracturing to the nasal bones is not unique to IPV and has been 

correlated with motor vehicle accidents, falls, and assaults by 

unknown or unidentified assailants. 

5) Fracturing to the mandible and zygomatic complex is not unique 

to IPV and has been correlated with assaults by unknown or 

unidentified assailants. 

Three known victims of IPH are examined for evidence of 

identifiable trauma associated with IPV. In two cases, clear evidence of 

antemortem trauma, both post-cranial and cranial exist, and in both 

instances this trauma is consistent with past and recent IPV. However, in 

the third case IPV-related trauma was only present perimortem. At the 

time of case analysis, the forensic anthropologists were not aware of the 

skeletal traumatic patterns often associated with IPV and, therefore, no 

suggestion for such a case was made. 

References: 

1. Campbell, J., Glass, N., Sharps, Phyllis W., Laughon,K., 

Bloom,T. (2007). Intimate Partner Homicide Review and 

Implications of Research and Policy. Journal of Trauma and 

Abuse, 8(3): 246-269. 

2. Crandall, M. L., Nathens, A. B., & Rivara, F. P. (2004). Injury 

patterns among female trauma patients: Recognizing intentional 

injury. Journal of Trauma Injury, Infection, and Critical Care, 

57, 42-45. 

3. Galloway A. (1999). The circumstances of blunt forces trauma. 

In Broken Bones: Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force 

6

Trauma edited by A. Galloway. Springfield: Charles C Thomas. 

224-254. 

4. Marks, M., Marden, K., Mileusnie-Polchan, D. (2009). Forensic 

Osteology of Child Abuse. In Hard Evidence: Case Studies in 

Forensic Anthropology 2nd edition. eddited by D. Wolfe 

Steadman. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 205-220. 

5. Campbell, J., Glass, N. (2000). Safety Planning Danger and 

Lethality Assessment In Intimate Partner Violence: A Health 

Based Perspective (Eds) Mitchell, C., Anglin, D. Oxford 

University Press. New York 319-335. 

6. Juarez, C. and Hughes, C. (In press). Investigating patterns of 

Injury: Identifying Intimate Partner Violence. In Broken Bones: 

Anthropological Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma 2 nd edition. 

Edited by A. Galloway and VL Wedel. C.C. Thomas, 

Springfield IL. 

7. Arosarena O, Fritsch TA, Hsueh Y, Aynehchi B, Huag R. (2009). 

Maxillofacial injuries and Violence Against Women. Arch Facial 

Plastic Surgery. 11(1):48-52. 

Domestic Violence, Facial Fracture, Intimate Partner Violence 

H11 Skeletal Trauma Patterns in a Vietnam-Era 

Aircraft Loss: Part I - Lower Extremities 

Matthew Rhode, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 

Hickam, AFB, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a broader 

understanding of the types of skeletal trauma exhibited in the lower 

extremities of multiple passengers of the same Vietnam era aircraft loss. 

In addition, based on consistencies in the patterns of fractures observed, 

a model is posited that delimits the types of lower extremity trauma 

expected in this type of aircraft loss. 


serving as a baseline from which future investigators can compare and 

contrast skeletal trauma seen in casework. Specifically, knowledge of 

expected trauma patterns for certain aircraft mishaps and military loss 

incidents will enhance the interpretation of skeletal trauma throughout 

the field. 

One feature that is often lacking from scientific literature reviewing 

trauma caused in aircraft losses, falls from heights, and automobile 

accidents, is specific detail regarding the types of fractures sustained. 

This lack of detail limits the interpretation and analysis forensic 

scientists can perform on such remains. The paucity of information on 

skeletal trauma may be related to an autopsy-based, or soft-tissue, 

perspective as well as a lack of sufficient case material covering more 

than a few individuals. This project seeks to fill this information gap by 

presenting a unique opportunity to describe the skeletal trauma exhibited 

across multiple individuals involved in the same aircraft loss incident. 

Specifically, this project, involves the analysis of lower extremity trauma 

(femur, tibia, and fibula) in a series of skeletal remains recovered from 

the 1965 loss of a C-123 cargo plane with 84 passengers on board. 

However, due to an incomplete recovery, nine years later in 1974, there 

are only approximately 30 individuals represented in the sample. 

Review of the remains reveals a combination of peri-mortem 

fracturing and postmortem damage but an estimated 80% or more of the 

observed fractures are peri-mortemin origin. The nine-year lapse 

between the loss and recovery did result in some taphonomic damage; 

however, this did not significantly impede the observation of fracture 

surfaces and trauma patterns. For each element in the lower extremity, 

summary and descriptive statistics describing fracture types and 

orientations are presented for the proximal, middle, and distal thirds. 

When possible, specific information is given on fracture types in the 

femoral head and neck, knee, and ankle. 

There is a consistency in fracture patterns across the sample, 

indicating a similar array of forces during the crash. Viewed as a group 

assemblage, all individuals on the aircraft experienced dynamic, sudden 

deceleration, blunt force trauma during the crash resulting in nearly 

every bone in the lower extremity exhibiting one, if not multiple, 

fractures. Accepting some variability, a majority of the observed 

fractures are oblique in orientation, suggesting a predominance of 

bending (tension and compression) forces acting on the lower 

extremities. 

Drawing this information together, a model describing the types of 

fractures is posited for this type of aircraft and loss incident. This model 

is presented to the greater scientific community as tool for comparison to 

other cases. A basic comparison of trauma patterns in other aircraft 

losses does indicate similarities, while differences are noted in cases with 

published data on falls from heights. 

Trauma, Skeletal, Lower Extremity 

H12 The Central Identification Unit (CIU) 

During the Korean War 

Kathleen M. Loyd, MA*, Joint POW-MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853 

The goal of this presentation is to provide historical insight into the 

operations of the United States Army Central Identification Unit (CIU) 

during the return of United States (U.S.) deceased from the Korean War, 

spanning from 1951 until 1956. Brief descriptions of forensic 

anthropologists working at the CIU, Standard Operating Procedures 

(SOPs), and insight into the analysis of unknown Korean War deceased 

will be examined through historical documents, anecdotes, and period 

photographs. 


contributing to the historical understanding of the CIU during the return 

of deceased U.S. Korean War servicemen. Attendees will understand the 

purpose of the CIU, process of analysis and identification, and the 

historical legacy of the identifications made by the CIU. In addition, a 

brief synopsis will demonstrate how historical documents about the CIU 

have been used to develop name associations for Korean War cases 

previously categorized as unknowns by investigators at the CIU. 

On January 2, 1951, the United States Army (USA) opened a 

forensic identification laboratory at Camp Kokura, Japan to analyze, 

identify, and return deceased U.S. Korean War servicemen to their 

families. The CIU employed a staff of mortuary technicians, forensic 

specialists, and forensic anthropologists to analyze and identify the 

remains of thousands of U.S. servicemen who lost their lives during the 

Korean War. Utilizing developments in forensic anthropology refined by 

forensic anthropologists working on the identification of war deceased 

from World War II, a small handful of anthropologists at the CIU handled 

caseloads of over 100 remains per day. In light of such demands, 

stringent SOPs were followed in order to ensure the integrity of 

identifications. Official SOPs and CIU documents detail the procedures 

for receiving, storing, analyzing, preserving, and identifying remains. 

These documents will be captured through summary and copied 

examples to demonstrate how remains were recovered, analyzed, 

identified, and returned by the CIU. 

Candid anecdotes from Dr. Kazuro Hanihara’s book, “Bones Reveal 

the Identities of Human Bodies: Scientific Procedures for Identification” 

provide insight into the working conditions at the CIU and challenges 

faced by anthropologists working on war deceased. 

United States Army Signal Corps silent film recordings of the CIU 

offer visual reference to the procedures of analyzing remains recovered 

from the conflict. Though there is no commentary, the film captures how 

the SOP was employed by staff at the CIU, and shows the laboratory as 

used by the forensic anthropologists and technicians. 

Unknown Korean War deceased presented unique challenges to 

investigators at the CIU. Various investigative methods of anthropologic 


analysis and historical research were utilized to examine unknown 

remains. When an investigation was unable to result in identification, 

these remains were classified as Unknown “X” cases, and were 

eventually buried in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific 

(Punchbowl) in Honolulu, Hawaii. The Joint POW-MIA Accounting 

Command Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC CIL) has continued 

to research the unknown cases in an attempt to associate the unknowns 

with unaccounted-for servicemen. A brief summary of the JPAC 

research process through a case study will demonstrate the critical 

importance of historical documents from CIU. 

Korean War, Forensic Anthropology, History 

H13 Introducing COFFA: An International 

Consortium of Forensic Anthropology Programs 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, Department of 

Sociology & Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; 

and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD*, University of South Florida, Department 

of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 


challenges faced by young researchers and practitioners in academia. 


introducing a consortium with a mission to provide support for faculty in 

forensic anthropology in the realms of promotion and tenure and 

curriculum development. Additionally, membership information in the 

consortium will be presented. 

In 2010, the International Consortium of Forensic Anthropology 

Programs (COFFA) was founded as a consortium to provide support for 

faculty and departments who teach forensic anthropology 

(http://www.coffa.usf.edu). The mission is to support the development 

and success of fundamental education and training for students, faculty, 

and practitioners of forensic anthropology. 

In the past decade, many new educational programs have started at 

universities where there was not a tradition of teaching or practicing 

forensic anthropology. In part, this is the result of the high demand by 

students due to the so-called “CSI effect.” For a fresh forensic 

anthropology PhD, it can be challenging to navigate through the standard 

roles of university responsibilities, when time is divided among teaching, 

administration, research, and consulting practice. Even more taxing, can 

be negotiating the unique roles and challenges forensic anthropologists 

face trying to incorporate case work into an academic model (i.e., the 

unique relationship between casework as research and teaching 

opportunities for students). 

A recent 2009 survey presented by the physical anthropology 

section of the AAFS showed that there were 32 academic programs 

suited for forensic anthropology training at the time the survey was 

conducted (http://aafs.org/sites/default/files/pdf/PAEmploymentTrends.pdf). 

The criteria for making it on the list included an AAFS member on 

faculty that could mentor students, a graduate level forensic 

anthropology course, and a graduate program in anthropology. 

However, the number of resources and professional networking 

outlets are lacking for forensic anthropologists. Therefore, similar in 

model to the Consortium for Practicing and Applied Anthropology 

Programs, COFFA started with eleven initial members including: 

Hamline University, Department of Anthropology; LSU, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology; NCSU, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology; Mercyhurst College, Department of Anthropology; MSU, 

Department of Anthropology; Texas State University – San Marcos, 

Department of Anthropology; University of Coimbra, Research Centre 

for Anthropology and Health; UGA, Department of Anthropology; UCF, 

Department of Anthropology; UF, Department of Anthropology; USF, 

Department of Anthropology. 


Most higher learning institutions have specific guidelines for 

attaining promotion and tenure, which are evaluated according to the 

realms of teaching, research, and service/engagement. Most institutions 

incorporate Boyer’s (1996, p. 32) “Scholarship of Engagement,” which 

stressed the importance of faculty and universities applying their 

expertise to “our most pressing social, civic and ethical problems.” 

Although engagement is an evaluation criterion and is outlined in most 

university guidelines, most traditional academic departments still do not 

count the applied or engaged scholarship, which defines forensic 

anthropology during the tenure and promotion process. 

COFFA was established to provide faculty support in: (1) tenure 

and promotion recommendations for programming in forensic 

anthropology; (2) best practices and lessons learned in teaching forensic 

anthropology; and, (3) guidelines for training practicing forensic 

anthropologists. Over the next year, COFFA will develop a set of 

recommendations on: (a) how to develop meaningful ways of defining, 

documenting, evaluating, and promoting diverse forms of scholarship in 

forensic anthropology; and, (b) how to raise awareness and recognition 

for practical applied work in forensic anthropology among department 

chairs, deans, and members of tenure and promotion committees (e.g., 

scholarship of engagement). Additionally, COFFA members plan to 

develop documents that provide models and suggestions for 

undergraduate and graduate level curriculum development in forensic 

anthropology. These documents will provide COFFA members 

opportunities to share resources and to learn from each others’ 

experiences in developing guidelines for the design and administration 

of degree-granting graduate training programs for practicing 

forensic anthropologists. 

Forensic Anthropology, Education, Promotion and Tenure 

H14 The American Board of Forensic 

Anthropology: Historical Trends in 

Research and Training 

Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, Pellissippi State Community College, 10915 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about 

historical trends in research and training of Diplomates certified by the 

American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA). 


providing an historical overview of the ABFA and its Diplomates. 

Moreover, this presentation adds to the growing body of literature 

describing the development of forensic anthropology in the United 

States. 

While forensic anthropology continues to advance both 

theoretically and methodologically during the twenty-first century, 

numerous workers have contributed to the discipline by tracing the 

historical developments in the field. 1-8 These careful analyses have 

demonstrated that the craft of forensic anthropology has grown from the 

peripheral application of physical anthropology in medico-legal contexts 

to a legitimate, full-time discipline and profession. While numerous 

scholars indicate that 1972 marked a turning point for the discipline, with 

the founding of the Physical Anthropology Section of the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), 1977 was also a watershed year, 

as the American Board of Forensic Anthropology, Inc. (ABFA) was 

founded. 1-8 

The ABFA was originally established by seasoned practitioners 

interested in creating a board certification process for forensic 

anthropologists. Since its inception in 1977, 85 individuals have been 

certified as Diplomates, with 63 active individuals as of 2010. The first 

two cohorts of Diplomates were automatically granted Diplomate status; 

however, since 1979 individuals wishing board certification have had to 

pass a rigorous written examination and laboratory practicum. 

8

This project traces the academic histories of all 85 Diplomates and 

examines trends in research and training. Dissertation titles were used to 

decipher broad research patterns and academic institutions were tracked 

for the purpose of indicating trends in training. In addition, the number 

of years between graduation and board certification was calculated and 

each Diplomate’s major professor was noted. 

All but one of the 85 Diplomates received the PhD degree. Dan 

Morse (now deceased) graduated from Western Reserve Medical School 

in 1932 and was certified as a Diplomate 45 years later. Of the remaining 

Diplomates, dissertation research topics are diverse and variable. 

Broadly, topical research interests can be classified into six categories: 

(1) skeletal biological studies and bioarchaeology; (2) forensic 

anthropology; (3) zooarchaeology; (4) paleoanthropology; (5) 

primatology or paleoprimatology; and (6) human biology, human 

variation, or dermatoglyphics. Of these, 56.4% fall into the skeletal 

biology or bioarchaeology category with 18.8% of dissertations related 

to forensic anthropology. These data indicate that board-certified 

forensic anthropologists have far-reaching interests that are not solely 

devoted to the profession, as over 80% wrote dissertations outside of the 

forensic purview. 

Regarding institutional training, a total of 36 institutions were 

attended for the terminal degree. These schools are geographically 

diverse, are found all over the United States, and include both public and 

private institutions. Eight Diplomates received their degrees from 

institutions outside the US (Canada, United Kingdom, and South Africa). 

The number of Diplomates trained at one institution varies with The 

University of Tennessee granting the most number of degrees (n=17). 

The mean year difference between completing requirements for the 

terminal degree and board-certification is 9.4 years and ranges from 2 to 

45 years. 

This project has demonstrated that board-certified forensic 

anthropologists are a broadly trained group of professionals and that the 

ABFA represents a diverse group of practitioners with far-reaching 

anthropological interests and expertise. Additionally, this historical 

analysis has demonstrated that several pioneering individuals have had 

far-reaching influence on the field of forensic anthropology and the 

development of successful training programs. 

References: 

1. Buikstra JE, King JL, Nystrom KC. Forensic anthropology and 

bioarchaeology in the American Anthropologist: rare but 

exquisite gems. American Anthropologist. 2003 Mar;105(1): 

38-52. 

2. Galloway A, Simmons TL. Education in forensic anthropology: 

Appraisal and outlook. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 1997 

Sep;42(5):796-801. 

3. Reichs KJ. Forensic Anthropology in the 1990s. American 

Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 1992 

Jun;13(2):146-53. 

4. Reichs KJ. A professional profile of diplomates of the American 

Board of Forensic Anthropology - 1984 - 1992. Journal of 

Forensic Sciences. 1995 Mar;40(2):176-82. 

5. Ubelaker DH. Skeletons testify: Anthropology in forensic 

science. AAPA luncheon address: April 12, 1996. Yearbook of 

Physical Anthropology, Yearbook Series Vol 39; 1996;229-44. 

6. Ubelaker DH. Contributions of Ellis R. Kerley to forensic 

anthropology. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2001 Jul;46(4): 

773-6. 

7. Willey P. William R. Maples and the development of the 

American Board of Forensic Anthropology. Journal of Forensic 

Sciences. 1999 Jul;44(4):687-8. 

8. Marks MK. William M. Bass and the Development of Forensic 

Anthropology in Tennessee. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 1995 

Sept;40(5):741-750. 

Forensic Anthropology, American Board of Forensic 

Anthropology, History 

H15 The Scientific Working Group for Forensic 


Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, DoD JPAC, Central ID Lab, 310 Worchester 



recent activities of the Scientific Working Group for Forensic 

Anthropology (SWGANTH). 


raising awareness of the SWGANTH’s work to establish, identify, and 

publish “Best Practices” within the forensic anthropology discipline. 

In late 2007, the U.S. Department of Defense Central Identification 

Laboratory (DOD CIL) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 

cosponsored the creation of the Scientific Working Group for Forensic 

Anthropology, or SWGANTH. The group’s by-laws were adopted at its 

first formal meeting on January 8, 2008. The 20-member Executive 

Board, comprised of professionals from the forensic anthropological 

community, represent a broad cross-section of expertise and 

jurisdictional involvement. To this end, the permanent members of the 

Executive Board were specifically selected to represent large, medium, 

and small graduate-level academic programs, large and small medical 

examiner offices, the museum and cultural resource communities, as 

well as federal, state, and local government agencies. As with other 

“Scientific Working Groups,” the SWGANTH does not function as a 

regulatory body and lacks any sort of direct coercive authority. Rather, 

the purpose of the SWGANTH is to identify and recommend current 

“best practice” within the forensic anthropology discipline, to chart a 

path into the future, and to bring about voluntary compliance through 

education and peer involvement. This is being accomplished primarily 

through the work of approximately 20 sub-committees, each chaired by 

two or more members of the Executive Board, but populated by forensic 

anthropologists from around the United States and world. Ultimately, 

the success of the SWGANTH will be directly proportional to the 

interest and involvement of the larger forensic anthropology community. 

The SWGANTH benefits from having co-sponsors in that it is 

relatively well funded. The group’s Executive Board meets twice 

annually, in the National Capitol Region in the spring and in Hawaii in 

the winter. At the June 2010 meeting, hosted by the National 

transportation Safety Board. the SWGANTH Executive Board reviewed 

and evaluated the work of the sub-committees, ultimately approving ten 

“Best Practice” guidelines for promulgation. These were then posted on 

the SWGANTH website for public dissemination. At the most recent 

meeting, January 2011, the Board voted on eight additional subcommittee 

recommendations, bringing the total number of approved 

“Best Practice” guidelines to 18. These are: 

1. Code of Ethics and Conduct 

2. [Individual] Qualifications 

3. [Forensic Anthropology] Laboratory Management and Quality 

Assurance 

4. Determination of Medicolegal Significance 

5. Sex Assessment 

6. Pathological Conditions and Anomalies 

7. Facial Approximation 

8. Age Estimation 

9. Skeletal Sampling and Preparation 

10. Personal Identification 

11. Resolving Commingled Remains 

12. Stature Estimation 

13. Trauma Analysis 

14. Statistical Methods 

15. Ancestry Estimation 

16. Taphonomy 

17. Documentation and Reporting 

18. Detection and Recovery of Remains 


The SWGANTH Executive Board also created three new subcommittees 

that have been charged with identifying some of the basic 

elements common to a well-rounded forensic anthropology educational 

program, isolating “gaps” in the underlying practice of our discipline, 

and creating a “self assessment” that will aid forensic anthropologists in 

evaluating their performance relative to the larger community. As with 

previous guidelines, drafts of these documents will be posted for public 

comment for at least 45 days prior to a final evaluation and decision by 

the SWGANTH Executive Board. No specific timetable was established 

for these sub-committees to issue their recommendations. 

Best Practices, SWGANTH, Guidelines 

H16 Involvement of Forensic Anthropologists in 



Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science Center, Office of the Medical 

Examiner, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Elizabeth A. 

Murray, PhD*, College of Mount Saint Joseph, Department of Biology, 

5701 Delhi Road, Cincinnati, OH 45233-1670; Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, 

Hamline University, MB 196, 1536 Hewitt Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 

55104; and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, Harris County Institute of Forensic 

Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

After attending this presentation, attendees will better understand 

the ways in which forensic anthropologists can engage with NamUs, and 

learn more about the current scope of the unidentified persons problem 

in the United States, particularly as it relates to the field of forensic 

anthropology. 


communicating to forensic anthropology professionals the ways in 

which they can become involved with NamUs, reporting on unidentified 

skeletal remains of forensic interest in various regions of the country that 

have not been entered into NamUs; and demonstrating basic NamUs 

case entry for unidentified persons. 

Throughout the past decade, forensic professionals have 

increasingly become aware of the need to create a system that retains and 

integrates records of unidentified persons and missing persons 

throughout the United States. Out of these and other realizations, and 

under the auspices of the Department of Justice, National Institute of 

Justice, evolved the “President’s DNA Initiative” in 2003, and the 

“Identifying the Missing Summit” in 2005. Later, in 2007, the initial 

phases of what was to become the National Missing and Unidentified 

Persons System (NamUs) developed. The scope of the missing and 

unidentified problem is enormous and has been referred to “the nation’s 

silent mass disaster.” Based on records collected in 2004 by the Office 

of Justice Programs, it was estimated that as many as 40,000 unidentified 

dead may exist in the United States today. Some of these unidentified 

persons currently exist only as records; other unidentified decedents lie 

buried in public cemeteries throughout the United States without benefit 

of tissue sampling for DNA analysis. Additional sets of unidentified 

skeletal remains sit in boxes on shelves in police property rooms, county 

morgues, museums, and anthropology departments. Many of these 

skeletons, though forensically significant, have dates of discovery that 

preceded modern anthropological identification methods, and certainly 

predated the use of DNA technology. 

The advent of the NamUs system, and the resources and technology 

it provides, allows the medicolegal system a new and dynamic way to 

pursue identification of unknown persons. The responsibility of forensic 

anthropologists, in collaboration with the coroners and/or medical 

examiners with whom they consult, is to ensure that skeletal remains 

within the regions in which they practice are afforded this new 

technology, including the fully-funded DNA analyses associated with 

this national identification effort. Those who have been entrusted with 


remains by coroners and medical examiners are empowered to actively 

participate in the identification process of the individuals in their charge. 

To this end, it is essential that forensic professionals become familiar 

with the NamUs system, use it in their casework, encourage the use of 

the NamUs system by their colleagues, and that those involved in 

forensic anthropology education begin to introduce this tool to their 

students. 

This presentation will provide an overview of the NamUs system, 

with special emphasis on its application to the identification of unknown 

skeletal remains. Case data entry will be demonstrated, means of 

obtaining free DNA analyses will be outlined, and ways that forensic 

anthropologists can become more involved with NamUs will 

be discussed. 

NamUs, Unidentified Persons, Forensic Anthropology 

H17 Diversification: Evolving Professional 

Roles for the Forensic Anthropologist in the 

Medicolegal System 

Gwendolyn M. Haugen, MA*, Saint Louis County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 6039 Helen Avenue, Saint Louis, MO 63134; Gina O. Hart, MA, 

325 Norfolk Street, Newark, NJ 07103-2701; and Pamela M. Steger, MS, 

934 Sycamore Street, San Marcos, TX 78666 

After attending this presentation, attendees understand the different 

professional roles forensic anthropologists fill in a medical 

examiner/coroner office. In light of the current economic climate, the 

trend to diversify professional duties is expected to rise. 


highlighting the additional professional roles forensic anthropologists 

currently serve in the medicolegal system. This trend presents unique 

opportunities for cross-training in other forensic specialty areas thereby 

increasing overall marketability for the forensic anthropologist. 

The role of a Forensic Anthropologist (FA) in the Medical 

Examiner/Coroner (ME/C) Office is an important one, but for many 

offices, the work load of such a position is not enough to justify a fulltime 

FA staff member. In the past, a FA was used as an external 

consultant providing services on an “as needed” basis to the ME/C. This 

proved to be problematic in some cases due to chain of custody-related 

issues and the long amount of time required for analysis and report 

completion if the consultant was not local. Over the last 15 years, this 

mode of operation has evolved with many larger offices bringing a FA on 

staff to provide case analysis as needed, while also filling an additional 

role(s) in the office. This arrangement has proven advantageous for the 

ME/C in that they have a specialist on their staff that is available at any 

time for FA consults – to include trauma consults with the pathologist 

during the autopsy examination. In addition, the FA is also trained in 

office policy/procedures (especially those related to the handling of 

evidence). The broad educational background of a FA lends itself to 

other roles in the office to include, but not limited to, medicolegal death 

investigator, DNA coordinator, identification coordinator, mass disaster 

planning management, director of photography, trace/evidence/latent 

print examiner, autopsy technician and forensic database administrator. 

In this way the FA also builds important working relationships with the 

entire ME/C staff, police and crime scene personnel, and other 

investigative agencies. These relationships also lead to greater education 

and understanding of forensic anthropology for outside agencies. As part 

of the ME/C staff, the FA is immediately available to assist with the case 

from the point of the scene investigation/recovery. In the majority of 

cases, this involvement directly leads to the greatest recovery of skeletal 

and trace evidence from the scene which is typically correlated with 

successful case resolution. 

This presentation will discuss the current, diversified roles filled by 

FAs in the medicolegal system and the advantages this provides for 

10

professional enrichment, new training opportunities, certification options 

and diverse employment opportunities. Stresses associated with the 

overall unpredictability of the operational movement at an ME/C Office 

and the demanding workload requirements diversification of duties 

presents will also be explored. The roles and responsibilities of several 

FAs currently serving in ME/C offices will be presented and discussed. 

In addition, the roles of several FAs currently employed in professional 

forensic positions outside of the ME/C system will also be presented to 

illustrate the range of opportunities available to the FA. 

Diversification of professional duties is a trend that is on the rise, in 

part, due to the current economic climate. This trend should not be 

looked on as a negative in that professional focus is being split, but as a 

positive opportunity to learn and apply additional forensic skills. As will 

be shown, this trend presents the FA with unique opportunities to 

diversify their forensic proficiency into other areas and increase 

overall marketability. 

Forensic Anthropology, Medicolegal System, Professional Roles 

H18 Forensic Anthropology and Virtual Human 


Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, PhD*, Liverpool John Moores University, James 

Parsons Building, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UNITED 

KINGDOM; Summer J. Decker, MS, USF COM Department of 

Pathology, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 

33612; and Diane L. France, PhD, Colorado State University, Human 

Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, Fort Collins, CO 80523 


understanding of some of the ethical considerations that forensic 

anthropology as a discipline may be facing as it begins to increase the 

use of virtual human remains and imaging technologies. 


opening a dialogue in the anthropological community regarding the use 

of virtual human remains so as to establish ethical guidelines for 

the future. 

The use of virtual human remains in forensic anthropology has been 

steadily increasing as the technology to capture and view them becomes 

more affordable and accessible. Within the next decade, it is anticipated 

that medical imaging tools such as multislice computed tomography 

(MSCT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and software, 

along with other data capture capabilities such as laser scanning will 

become a routine component of the anthropologist’s toolkit in much the 

same way as radiographs and photographs. Recent work (Decker et al, 

in press; Decker et al, 2008) 1,2 and others (Thali et al, 2003) 3 demonstrate 

the potential for virtual remains for the non-invasive examination of 

remains, as well as the ability to use imaging as a permanent record of 

an individual. It is now possible to scan an entire human body, whether 

living or dead, and create a 3D virtual model of it in minutes. This digital 

human can be explored in a multitude of unprecedented and heretofore 

unimagined ways, both for crime-solving and research purposes. It has 

not yet been decided whether these new types of medical images will be 

considered a simple increase in sophistication from existing tools, or if 

the differences are so marked that they will be subject to a new set of 

rules that has yet to be defined. 

The discipline must consider the potential contentiousness 

surrounding the retention and future use of virtual skeletal remains. The 

big question that has yet to be asked – or answered – is “Are virtual 

remains governed by same ethics as actual remains?” There are three 

main areas in which these issues likely will be encountered: forensic 

cases (involving identified and unidentified individuals), use in 

education, and use in research. There is potential for a vast amount of 

knowledge to emerge from such specimens, but issues must be 

considered that may arise surrounding cultural and religious values of 

the deceased and the survivors – this is a daunting task in uncharted 

territory. 

Recent reports and investigations by the National Academy of 

Sciences and the United States Congress have made this an even more 

pressing issue that must be addressed as the discipline pushes towards 

standardization of the forensic sciences. 

As a field, there must be transparency in our practices and consider 

the values and viewpoints of the public as part of the discipline’s 

responsibility. In the modern climate, public dissemination is necessary. 

It may be assumed that the treatment of virtual human remains will be 

similar to other types of digital evidence in a forensic case. However, real 

human remains are often handled differently than other types of 

evidence. Also, due to the nature of the work, human remains handled 

by a forensic anthropologist are not always part of an investigation so the 

circumstances of such remains are different. In this presentation, these 

issues are discussed as well as the different issues surrounding the use of 

remains in teaching and research. 

This presentation will examine current attitudes toward the 

treatment and use of virtual human remains and explore the pathways 

that the profession can take to ensure that ethical practices continue to 

evolve along with laboratory practices. 

References: 

1. Decker SJ, Davy-Jow SL, Ford JM, Hilbelink DR (In Press) 

Virtual Sex Determination: Metric and non-metric traits of the 

adult pelvis from 3D computed tomography (CT) models. 

Journal of Forensic Sciences. 

2. Decker SJ, Hilbelink DR, Hoegstrom E, Ford J (2008) Virtual 

Skull Anatomy: 3 Dimensional Computer Modeling and 

Measurement of Human Cranial Anatomy. Proceedings of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences 2008, Washington DC. 

3. Thali, MJ, Yen K, Schweitzer W, Vock P, Boesch C, Ozdoba C, 

Schroth G, Ith M, Sonnenschein M, Doernhoefer T, Scheurer E, 

Plattner T, Dirnhofer R (2003). Virtopsy, a new imaging horizon 

in forensic pathology: virtual autopsy by postmortem multislice 

computed tomography (MSCT) and magnetic resonance imaging 

(MRI)—a feasibility study. Journal of Forensic Sciences 48: 

386–403. 

Virtual Anthropology, Medical Imaging, Ethics 

H19 Femmes Fatales: Why Do Women 

Dominate the Discipline of 

Forensic Anthropology? 

Anna Williams, PhD*, Cranfield University, Defense Academy of the 

United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to recognize 

the global phenomenon showing more women than men are actively 

engaged in forensic anthropology education and professional practice in 

the United Kingdom, United States, and Europe; and understand the 

reasons for this sweeping trend. It is especially obvious that more 

women than men are applying for and attending higher education 

courses in the United Kingdom and United States. It is anticipated that 

the attendees will have observed this trend in their own university 

courses, whether as tutors or students, and will have their own views on 

the phenomenon and explanations for it. This presentation will explore 

the different reasons for the trend, perhaps controversially. Attendees 

will gain insight into the determining factors that make more women 

choose to study forensic anthropology, remain in the discipline, and 

prosper with successful careers, as well as, discover if there are 

disincentives for men. It is hoped that this presentation will raise 

questions that will stimulate debate and make the attendees think about 

the nature of forensic anthropology education and practice. 



discussing the reasons why more women enter university programs and 

become professional forensic anthropologists than men. It is undeniable 

that, both in the United Kingdom and abroad, undergraduate, and postgraduate 

programs are inundated with female applicants, and female 

students in courses outnumber male students in the order of at least 2:1, 

up to record numbers of even 25:1. This has tremendous implications for 

the future of forensic anthropology as a discipline, and for universities 

attempting to attract male, as well as, female students. Female-rich 

cohorts may positively or negatively influence selection criteria, 

numbers enrolled on part-time courses, completion rates, and the quality 

of learning. The high numbers of female professional forensic 

anthropologists may have positive or negative implications for career 

progression, deployment opportunities, membership of professional 

organizations, and acceptance by male-dominated institutions such as 

police and law enforcement agencies. Although the phenomenon has 

undoubtedly been noticed in the classrooms and laboratories of the 

United Kingdom and the United States, a systematic analysis of the 

reasons behind it has not been carried out to date, and it is vital in order 

to understand and prepare for the future of modern forensic 

anthropology. 

This research aims to discover the cause of the undeniable, 

worldwide phenomenon that women dominate the global discipline of 

forensic anthropology today. There are more women than men training 

to be forensic anthropologists; in academic roles teaching forensic 

anthropology; and in professional forensic anthropology practice, in the 

United Kingdom, United States, and abroad, which begs the question 

“why”? This study is focused on establishing the various motivations for 

both men and women contemplating degrees and careers in forensic 

anthropology, and discusses their implications for the discipline. 

Research questionnaires were circulated among male and female 

student and professional forensic anthropologists in the United 

Kingdom, United States, and Europe, in order to collate educational 

backgrounds and attitudes towards the subject and careers in the 

discipline. Admission and attendance statistics from United Kingdom, 

United States, and European universities and professional organizations 

were also gathered to amass data to chart the progression of the trend, the 

steady influx of women, and the decline of male students in 

undergraduate and postgraduate forensic anthropology courses since 

they began. Preliminary data has shown a steadily increasing majority 

of female applicants since the subject was offered as a university degree 

in the United Kingdom in 2002. Data from professional organizations in 

the United Kingdom and abroad was interrogated to determine whether 

applications from women outnumber those from men, and whether 

continued attendance and contribution has shown a gender bias over the 

last ten to fifteen years. In the handful of professional organizations for 

Biological and Forensic Anthropologists in the United Kingdom, for 

example, women outnumber men as many as 3:1. 

The questionnaires pinpoint the factors that influence and 

encourage women to pursue a career in forensic anthropology, and to 

stay in it even if their life circumstances change. Preliminary results 

have offered some conflicting evidence, some of which suggests a career 

in forensic anthropology is flexible enough to accommodate raising a 

family, and some of which implies it may preclude it. It considers the 

attractions of the discipline to women, and whether these are different to 

those for men. The presentation explores this undeniable and extensive 

phenomenon, and investigates how long it has been occurring. It also 

discusses the motivation and impetus behind it. It will investigate the 

extent of the trend, and whether it exists only in forensic archaeology and 

anthropology, or whether it is true for forensic science as a whole, or 

indeed all the sciences in general. 

Preliminary questionnaire responses raise some important 

questions: is the popularity of television crime shows to blame/credit? 

What is it about forensic anthropology that appeals to women? Is 

forensic anthropology perceived as glamorous? Does forensic 

anthropology represent a flexible career for women with families? Is it 


a recent phenomenon that reflects changing demographic distribution in 

most academic subjects? Is the trend to do with changing attitudes 

towards science, academic careers, women, or men, or all of the above? 

How long will it last? Already, there is a vast pool of opinion regarding 

these issues, which shows that although the trend is obvious, the reasons 

behind it are not, and/or they may be difficult to accept. Controversially, 

it will discuss whether women make better forensic anthropologists, or 

whether they are better suited to the subject for any reason, and whether 

men cannot compete in the workplace. Are men being put off the 

subject? Is there a stigma attached to the discipline for men? Do they 

feel at a disadvantage for any reason? Are they feeling ‘crowded out’ or 

unwelcome in any way? Are men put off by the sheer numbers of 

women in the discipline? And of course, does the dominance of women 

in the discipline matter at all? 

The answers to these questions have considerable implications for 

the future of forensic anthropology in the United Kingdom and abroad, 

in terms of education marketing, compliance with Equal Opportunities 

legislation and the composition of professional organizations and the 

practitioner workforce. This research aims to answer these questions and 

more, and to determine the true nature of the apparent complete 

dominance of the discipline that has emerged in the last ten to fifteen 

years, and above all, it aims to stimulate debate amongst male and 

female, student and professional, forensic anthropologists, and “get to 

the bottom” of this important and remarkable phenomenon. 

Forensic Anthropology, Women, Education 

H20 Development of the Colombian 

Skeletal Collection 

Cesar Sanabria, MA*, Instituto de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses, 

Calle 7a #12-61, Segundo Piso, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Elizabeth A. 

DiGangi, PhD*, ICITAP, Calle 125 #19-89, Office 401, Bogota, COLOMBIA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain knowledge of 

the development of the Colombian Skeletal Collection, including the 

administrative and technical logistics behind its assembly, the 

antemortem information available, and the goals of research projects. 


detailing the creation of a new modern skeletal collection in Colombia 

available for research with the goal of aiding in the identification process 

of victims of the Colombian conflict. 

During the past two decades Colombia has been faced with sociopolitical 

problems which have led to innumerous violent situations, 

resulting in the deaths and disappearances of thousands of individuals. 

Many of the recovered individuals are skeletons from clandestine graves 

located all over the country. Once excavated and sent to the forensic 

laboratories, analysis is done by forensic anthropologists, dentists, and 

pathologists who must determine who each individual was and whether 

or not they died in a violent context. 

As the majority of recovered individuals remain unidentified, it is 

necessary to develop a way to augment the ability to answer several 

questions, including positive identification and cause and manner of 

death. Due to the above, a research collection of modern skeletons is 

currently being organized in Colombia. The Colombian Skeletal 

Collection is being assembled for several reasons: (1) to develop 

standards and validation studies (for age-at-death, sex, stature, etc.) from 

the Colombian population because best practice states that standards 

developed from one population should only be applied to that particular 

population; (2) at this point, there are very few forensic anthropologyrelated 

population studies that have been done in Colombia, and 

therefore, the standards used to analyze forensic cases here are those 

based on American and European populations; and, (3) to allow for the 

generation of scientific knowledge with regards to physical/forensic 

anthropology for Colombia and to enable research to move forward here 

12

in the areas of physical/forensic anthropology, dental anthropology, 

radiology, osteopathology and taphonomy, among others. 

In order to assemble the collection, an inter-institutional agreement 

was entered into between the National Institute of Legal Medicine and 

Forensic Sciences and the Public Services Administrative Unit, the entity 

which administers the cemeteries within Bogotá. The agreement states 

that instead of being placed into collective ossuaries, bodies not claimed 

by relatives once a four-year single burial period has lapsed will be 

donated to the Institute of Legal Medicine for the purpose of scientific 

investigations. 

The first phase of the project has a five-year duration (2009-2013) 

and will be renewed in 2013 if both parties agree. The goal for Phase 1 

is to assemble a collection of 600 individuals. Since 2009, 100 skeletons 

have been prepared for the collection (native-born Colombians, males 

and females aged 18-65, birth years 1940-1987, death year 2005). 

Skeletons are in good to excellent condition. 

A large amount of antemortem information is available for each 

individual in the collection and is being placed in a searchable database. 

This information includes date of birth, place of birth, sex, stature, date 

of death, and cause and manner of death. In the instances where the 

individual died while under a doctor’s care, the medical records that 

show the evolution of the patient’s treatment are available. Likewise, 

when an autopsy was performed, this report is also available with 

postmortem photographs of the individual’s face. Furthermore, 

information from each cemetery regarding where each person was buried 

(e.g., in a coffin in the ground or in a mausoleum); climate of the area 

where the cemetery is located; type of coffin or burial container; and the 

photograph of the individual at the time of exhumation is available 

as well. 

The collection will be available for research once 150-200 

individual skeletons have been prepared, which is anticipated within a 

year. The requirement for researchers will be that a project proposal be 

presented to and approved by the Division of Scientific Investigation of 

the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences 

in Bogotá. 

In addition to being the first of its kind in South America, the 

Colombian Skeletal Collection will rival other similar modern skeletal 

collections in terms of available antemortem information alone. This 

will greatly contribute to both the utility and variety of the research 

questions that will be investigated. 

Colombia, Skeletal Collection, Modern Population 

H21 A Bayesian Approach to Multifactorial 

Age-at-Death Estimation 

Natalie M. Uhl, MS*, 308 North Orchard Street, Apartment 7, Urbana, 

IL 61801; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 1559 Mount Vernon, East 

Lansing, MI 48823; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of Illinois, 

109 Davenport Hall, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees about a new 

Bayesian approach to multifactorial age-at-death estimation. 


presenting a new method for combing several indicators of skeletal ageat-death 

to arrive at a single age estimate. 

Most forensic anthropologists rely on multiple skeletal indicators of 

age-at-death but lack a statistically sound method for combining 

individual indicators. Attempts at multifactorial aging (e.g., Brooks, 

1955; Lovejoy et al., 1985) have had generally disappointing results 

because they typically rely on either non-statistical or linear statistical 

methods, creating problems with validity and applicability. 

Recently, paleodemographers have been at the forefront of 

multifactorial age-at-death estimation. Boldsen and colleagues (2002) 

developed a computer program (ADBOU) that collects data on multiple 

skeletal indicators scored as discrete ordinal phases and uses Bayesian 

inference to calculate the posterior probability density and estimate ageat-death. 

Unfortunately, tests of the ADBOU program found it only 

moderately effective (Bethard, 2005; Uhl, 2008), in part because the trait 

scoring departs from the methods (e.g., Suchey-Brooks) that so many 

osteologists are accustomed to. Without extensive practice, intra- and 

inter-observer error can be problematic. Further, the ADBOU program 

comes with a small choice of prior age-at-death distributions “hardwired” 

into the program. Bayesian analyses rely on these prior 

probabilities, together with the osteological data, to estimate ages at 

death for individual cases. The current research makes use of a more 

diverse, and possibly more appropriate, reference sample and familiar 

skeletal scoring techniques to estimate age-at-death from multiple 

indicators when combined with an appropriate prior age-at-death 

distribution. 

The present data set consists of age indicator scores for pubic 

symphysis (6 phases; Brooks and Suchey, 1990), auricular surface (8 

phases; Lovejoy et al., 1985), and sternal rib end (8 phases; İşcan et al., 

1984, 1985) for 623 individuals from four collections: the Hamann-Todd 

Collection, the William M. Bass Collection, the R.J. Terry Collection, 

and the Pretoria Bone Collection. 

Results: One initial issue to address is whether the original scoring 

follows a particular transition model. First, a Lagrange multiplier test 

indicated that the original six-phase pubic symphysis scoring and the 

eight-phase rib end scoring fit well in a cumulative log probit model. 

The auricular surface scoring did not fit well, so the first four phases in 

the Lovejoy et al. system were collapsed into a single phase. After 

making this collapse, the scoring did fit well in a cumulative log probit 

model. 

Following initial testing, 100 individuals were randomly sampled 

structured on age-at-death using a Gompertz model of mortality 

estimated from the ages at death for Suchey’s LA County male forensic 

data. This Gompertz model was also used as the informative prior in 

estimating ages for the 100 individuals. After forming this “hold out” 

sample, transition models were fit using the remaining 523 individuals, 

and the 95% highest posterior density region was found for each of the 

240 morphological patterns (6 pubic symphyseal phases times 5 

auricular surface phases times 8 rib phases) combined with the 

informative prior. The left and right boundaries were stored in a “lookup 

table” and then compared to the actual ages for the hold out sample. 

Ninety-five of the 100 individuals had ages that fell within the 95% 

highest posterior density regions, indicating proper coverage. The 

widths of the 95% highest posterior density regions were sometimes 

quite considerable, reaching a maximum of 50 years for anyone in the 

final phase for all three indicators. The right side for this region is 

entirely determined by the prior age-at-death distribution. 

Conclusions: All analyses were done in “R,” which is an open 

source package that can be downloaded for free. As such, the lookup 

tables, while they are easy to use can also be adjusted to meet individual 

researcher’s needs. For example, the density regions can be changed (to, 

for example 50% highest posterior density regions) and the Gompertz 

model parameters for the prior age-at-death distribution can also 

be changed. 

Age-at-Death Estimation, Bayesian Inference, Multifactorial Age 

Estimation 

H22 The Use of Vertebral Osteoarthritis and 


Ginesse A. Listi, PhD*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803 

The goal of this presentation is to assess whether or not vertebral 

degenerative changes can be used for estimating age. 



demonstrating that a significant but weak correlation exists between age 

and vertebral degenerative changes. 

For more than 50 years, research has been conducted on various 

regions of the human skeleton to establish techniques for determining 

age at death; however, the accuracy of those age prediction techniques 

generally decreases as chronological age increases. While previous 

research on the vertebrae indicates that a correlation exists between age 

and osteophyte development (osteophytosis) (Snodgrass 2004, Stewart 

1958), 1,2 degenerative changes (osteoarthritis) in the zygapophyses have 

not been assessed for patterns associated with age. Additionally, many 

of the past studies that assessed vertebral bodies in forensic and 

bioarchaeological settings were conducted on skeletal collections from 

more than 75 years ago. 

The present study examined degenerative changes both in the 

bodies and zygapophyses in all 24 vertebrae using a modern forensic 

population from the Donated Collection at the University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville. Researchers independently examined and scored the superior 

and inferior borders of the vertebral bodies and the superior and inferior 

facets of each vertebra for 104 individuals aged between 30 and 90 years. 

Scoring techniques for osteophytosis and osteoarthritis were based on 

Ubelaker (1999). 3 Statistical analyses were used to assess relationships 

between age and degenerative change for the bodies and facets, both 

separately and in combination, for all vertebrae collectively, as well as 

for subcategories of vertebral types. Separate analyses also were 

conducted which included only the vertebrae in regions that are most 

commonly flexed (for osteophytosis, these regions included C5-6, T8-9, 

and L4-5; for osteoarthritis, C6-7, T1-5, L2-4). 

Results using all 24 vertebrae indicate the following. Severity of 

osteophytosis is significantly correlated to age for all vertebrae 

collectively, as well as for each vertebral subcategory (p < .001); 

however, the association is not strong (R 2 values range from 0.244 for 

cervical vertebrae to 0.393 for lumbar vertebrae). With regard to 

osteoarthritis, severity is significantly correlated to age for all vertebrae 

collectively, as well as for the cervical and lumbar subcategories (p < 

.01); however, once again, the association is not strong (R 2 values range 

from 0.168 for all facets combined to 0.305 for cervical facets). Results 

do not improve when bodies and facets are considered together: severity 

is significantly but not strongly correlated with age in all categories (p < 

.05; R 2 ranges from 0.205 for thoracic vertebrae to 0.370 for cervical 

vertebrae). 

Results of the analyses for areas of common flexion are only 

slightly better. Osteophytosis and osteoarthritis are significantly 

correlated to age for all categories of data when considered both 

separately and together (osteophytosis: p < .001 with R 2 values ranging 

from 0.243 in the cervical vertebrae to 0.408 for combined subtypes; 

osteoarthritis: p < .01 with R 2 values ranging from 0.116 in the thoracic 

facets to 0.244 in the lumbar facets; combined: p < .001 with R 2 values 

ranging from 0.217 in the thoracic vertebrae to 0.319 in the lumbar 

vertebrae). 

The current study assessed the presence and strength of the 

relationship between age and vertebral degenerative changes with the 

hope of generating predictive models for estimating age in older 

individuals. To differentiate from previous research, data from multiple 

indicators were considered both individually and collectively and a 

contemporary population, composed of individuals whose deaths postdated 

1980, was used. In general, results from this study add to, but 

ultimately mirror, previous research. That is, both osteophytosis and 

osteoarthritis are significantly but not strongly correlated with age (either 

singularly or in combination). Therefore, though both types of 

degenerative change are believed to be associated with repetitive 

movements and stress (and, thus, exacerbated by the aging process), the 

relationship is not strong enough to yield predictive power for 

establishing age estimates. 


References: 

1. Snodgrass JJ. Sex differences and aging of the vertebral column. 

J Forensic Sci 2004;49(3):458-463. 

2. Stewart TD. The rate of development of vertebral osteoarthritis 

in American whites and its significance in skeletal age 

identification. Leech 1958;28(3-5):144-151. 

3. Ubelaker DH. Human skeletal remains: excavation, analysis, 

interpretation. 3 rd edition. Washington, D.C.: Taraxacum, 1999. 

Age Estimation, Vertebrae, Osteoarthritis 

H23 Error and Uncertainty in Pelvic Age 

Estimation Part II: Younger vs. Older 

Adult Females 

Allysha P. Winburn, MA*, and Carrie A. Brown, MA, Joint POW/MIA 

Acct Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand how the 

error rates of three commonly used pelvic age estimation methods differ 

among females of different age groups, and how to quantify uncertainty 

in forensic anthropological analysis. Additionally, error rates will be 

compared for males and females. 


responding to Recommendation 3, of the National Academy of Sciences 

Report, “Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path 

Forward,” which calls for research determining causes of bias and work 

toward quantification of method error in forensic investigations. 

This presentation is the second half of an aging study designed to 

test the assumption that adult skeletal age estimation methods have lower 

error rates when applied to younger versus older adults. It will focus on 

pelvic age estimation methods for adult females; the first part of the 

study concerning adult males was presented at the 2010 AAFS meeting. 

Skeletal age estimation methods are widely understood to overage 

the young and underage the old. This paper supports these assertions by 

offering quantified measurements of error for three frequently used 

pelvic age estimation methods, as applied to a large sample of female 

individuals between the ages of 18 and 101 years. The methods include 

the following auricular surface and pubic symphyseal techniques: 

Lovejoy et al. (1985); Suchey-Brooks (1990); and Osborne et al. (2004). 

The study sample was compiled from several sources: female 

individuals sampled from modern known-age Iberian skeletal collections 

housed at the Universidad de Valladolid and the Universidad Autònoma 

de Barcelona; and identified female individuals from the Forensic Data 

Bank (FDB) courtesy of Dr. Richard Jantz at the University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville. The combined sample was divided into two broad 

age categories: “younger” individuals (≤ 39 years) and “older” 

individuals (≥ 40 years). Error with respect to the methods’ assigned 

means was analyzed in terms of bias (directionality of error: Σ[estimated 

age – actual age]/n) and inaccuracy (absolute mean error in years: 

Σ|estimated age – actual age|/n). Percent of correct age classifications 

(i.e., the method’s predicted age range included the individual’s actual 

age) was also calculated. 

All three methods have low mean positive biases and mean 

inaccuracies close to five years for the group of females < 39 years of 

age. Conversely, all three methods have substantial mean negative 

biases and mean inaccuracies greater than 17 years for females > 40 

years of age. In all three methods, levels of mean bias and inaccuracy 

were statistically significantly different for the two age groups (p ≤ 

0.001; Student’s t-test). Error rates were always greater for older than for 

younger individuals. 

14

Use of the Suchey-Brooks method resulted in correct classification 

of 95% of individuals ≤ 39 years of age and 76% of individuals ≥ 40 

years of age. For the Lovejoy et al. method, the percent of correctly 

classified individuals was 49% for individuals ≤ 39 years of age and 53% 

for individuals ≥ 40 years of age. The Osborne et al. phase modifications 

resulted in a higher amount of correct classifications than the Lovejoy et 

al. method for both age groups (90% and 71%, respectively). Full ranges 

of error (in years) for each method for individuals ≤ 39 are as follows: 

Suchey-Brooks (-11 to 31); Lovejoy et al. (-9 to 19); Osborne et al. (- 

14.9 to 24.8). For individuals ≥ 40, full ranges of error (in years) are as 

follows: Suchey-Brooks (-43.8 to 20); Lovejoy et al. (-53 to 25); 

Osborne et al. (-48 to 18.9). 

As compared to adult males, adult females exhibit higher error rates 

for all three pelvic age estimation methods. In most instances, females 

are also more likely to be incorrectly classified than males when using 

these selected methods. An exception is the Lovejoy et al. method 

applied to individuals over the age of 40, which results in 53% correct 

classification of females and 30% correct classification of males. The 

full ranges of error for males and females are similar, though female 

ranges are always slightly larger. 

This study indicates that three widely used pelvic aging techniques 

estimate age in younger adult females (≤ 39) with lower error than older 

adult females (≥ 40), but with higher error for females than males. 

Auricular surface methods are problematic regardless of age group or 

sex. Given that error increases with age, modifications of upper phases 

of the Suchey-Brooks method are warranted (e.g., Berg [2008]). It is 

important to recognize that there will always be error associated with age 

estimation and other forensic anthropology methods. Therefore, the 

focus should now move to understanding and quantifying error so as not 

to overstate method performance. 

Adult Female Age Estimation, Pelvis, Error 

H24 Assumptions and Bias in Recalibrating Age 


Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD*, University of South Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820; and Lyle 

W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of Illinois, Department of Anthropology, 

109 Davenport Hall, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

The goals of this presentation are to explore the application of 

Bayesian analyses in age estimation for human identification and to 

demonstrate possible evidentiary biases that result from incorrect 

assumptions about the data. This is particularly critical for research into 

population variation where investigators attempt to recalibrate age 

parameters based on ethnic variation. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community by reanalyzing 

published data on age estimation for dental methods. The 

correct application of Bayesian statistics and assumptions about 

population data are critically important when these methods are applied 

to estimate age among living subjects, for human identification among 

decedents, and for the courtroom admissibility of anthropological 

methods. 

In recent years, there have been a number of published articles that 

argue for population specific standards, in other words, researchers 

suggest that aging methods should be recalibrated when applied across 

populations. While Bayesian analyses in forensic anthropology can be 

very useful in some contexts, it is generally agreed that if informative 

priors are used they need to be clearly delineated. Without making priors 

explicit, forensic anthropologists run the risk of introducing biases into 

evidentiary processes based on assumptions that may not fit well with 

what is known about a particular case. The use of dental age estimation 

methods often fail to account for implicit priors. The following study 

reexamines data from published studies to demonstrate how 

interpretations vary based on prior assumptions about the data and how 

results change based on explicit prior information. 

For example, summary data from Kasper et al. (2009 Journal of 

Forensic Sciences 54(3):651-57) is re-analyzed. Kasper et al. present 

data on third molar development for 950 individuals ranging in age (at 

the last birthday) from 12 to 22 years including the mean and standard 

deviation for age within seven stages of third molar formation (“B” 

through “H” from Demirjian et al.’s 1973 scoring system). As 

Konigsberg et al. (2008:542) noted “a final problem with any method 

that conditions on stage to estimate age is that all of these methods 

contain an implicit prior distribution for age.” This is seen in the present 

study, particularly for teeth where the root apex is complete (stage “H”). 

Kasper et al. assume that age within stage is normally distributed, but 

because their sample’s age distribution is truncated at 12 and 22 years, 

the mean age within stage “H” must be less than 22 years. 

With age data, it is difficult to justify the assumption that the age 

distributions within stages are normal, as these distributions depend on: 

(1) the age distributions for when individuals move to the next higher 

stage; and (2) the overall age distribution of the sample. By Bayes’ 

Theorem: 

15 * Presenting Author 

(1) 

where p(i|a) is the probability that someone at exact age “a” is in stage 

“i,” f(a) is the probability density function for age, and f(a|i) is the 

probability density function that someone is exact age “a” given that they 

are in stage “i,” and ω is the upper limit of integration (i.e., the maximum 

possible age). If a researcher does not wish to include an informative 

prior then a uniform prior can be substituted, giving: 

(2) 

A critical issue for the presentation of aging methods in court when 

identifying the age of living suspects is the probability of being a certain 

age. Examples of court cases in which age methods have been disputed 

are discussed in this presentation. Additionally, other methods of 

determining the probability of a given age include the use of a parametric 

model for p(i|a). More specifically a cumulative probit model on the log 

scale ages can be used to model p(i|a). This is precisely the model that 

was used by Moorrees, Fanning, and Hunt in their classic studies of 

dental development. 

This paper demonstrates that in using estimated “transition 

parameters” in log cumulative probit models, the probability that 

someone is over the age of 18 years is substantially different than the 

reported accuracy in published studies and demonstrates the need for 

discussion about the biases implicit in demographic data as well as the 

possible evidentiary biases that result from such assumptions about 

the data. 

Age Estimation, Population Variation, Bayes’ Theorem

H25 Sacral Epiphyseal Fusion at S1-S2: 


Carrie A. Brown, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification Laboratory, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand how 

sacral fusion can be used properly in age estimation, problems associated 

with current techniques, and proposals for best practices when using 

sacral fusion as an age estimation technique. 


examining sacral fusion age estimation in response to critiques raised by 

the National Academy of Sciences Report (NAS) concerning the need to 

evaluate the reliability and accuracy of methods used in forensic science. 

Epiphyseal fusion as an age estimation method is useful because 

fusion generally occurs at the same time for all individuals. The fusion 

of the anterior margins of the sacral vertebrae has further potential for 

age estimation in young adults because of the delayed union of the first 

two sacral segments (S1 and S2). McKern and Stewart’s 1957 

publication of Skeletal Age Changes in Young American Males, one of 

the first and most comprehensive analyses of age estimation, examined 

sacral fusion employing a five-stage system (e.g., Stage 0=nonunion; 

Stage 4=complete union). Several more recently published methods also 

examine sacral fusion, albeit with the use of different scoring systems 

(e.g., Coqueugniot and Weaver (2007) used a three-stage letter system 

[a=open, b=partial, c=complete], and Belcastro et al. (2008) used a fourstage 

numbering system [e.g., Degree 0=absence of fusion, Degree 

1=less than 50% fusion]). These differences complicate comparisons of 

results from essentially the same technique. 

The current study was designed to examine the performance of the 

sacral fusion age estimation method using the scoring system and age 

intervals given by McKern and Stewart (1957:148). The known age-atdeath 

was compared to the predicted age-at-death based on the recorded 

stage of fusion for all individuals identified at the JPAC-CIL between 

1972 and 15 June 2010 whose case documentation specifically 

referenced the McKern and Stewart (1957) method (n=40). Correct 

classification, or the percent of individuals whose known age-at-death 

fell within the assigned age interval, was used to test this method. 

Additionally, the sample was compared to the overall JPAC-CIL 

identified sample and the Korean War identified sample from McKern 

and Stewart (1957). 

The JPAC-CIL sample for the McKern and Stewart (1957) sacral 

fusion method (n=40) has a mean age-at-death of 24.2 years, an age 

range of 12 years (youngest individual=18, oldest individual=30), and is 

entirely male. There is a statistically significant difference (p=0.002, 

Student’s t-test) in mean age-at-death between this sample and the total 

known age-at-death sample of JPAC cases (n=979, =27.2); the sample 

aged using S1-S2 fusion is younger than the entire identified sample. 

Of the 40 individuals whose case files referenced this method, 45% 

(n=18) were placed in Stage 0. The second largest group was comprised 

of individuals scored as Stage 2 (n=12). Stages 1, 3, and 4 each had three 

individuals, and one individual was scored as “Stage 1 or 2.” Compared 

to the McKern and Stewart (1957) sample, there were considerably more 

individuals observed with nonunion of the S1-S2 joint in the JPAC-CIL 

sample. 

The age distribution of the samples also differs. For example, in the 

McKern and Stewart (1957) sample, Stage 0 (nonunion) was observed 

only in individuals between the ages of 17 and 18, whereas nonunion 

was seen in the JPAC-CIL sample in individuals up to 30 years of age. 

Because of this, the sacral age estimation method based on McKern and 

Stewart’s (1957:148) reported ages had a correct classification rate of 

32.5% and an incorrect classification rate of 67.5% for the JPAC-CIL 

sample. However, when applying a simple “fused versus unfused” 

model, the percentage of correct classification increases to 95% for the 


entire sample (n=40). This model classifies Stages 0, 1, and 2 as 

incomplete fusion and Stages 3 and 4 as complete fusion and categorizes 

individuals with incomplete fusion as less than 30 years of age and 

individuals with complete fusion as 17 years of age or older. 

Analyses of the JPAC-CIL case files indicate that employing the age 

intervals provided by McKern and Stewart (1957:148) results in largescale 

misclassification of age when presented with an S1-S2 joint in any 

stage of incomplete (i.e., partial or open) fusion. It is therefore 

recommended that incomplete sacral fusion be regarded simply as an 

accessory to other more precise methods of age estimation. Incomplete 

sacral fusion can be used to establish an upper bound for the age 

estimate; in this sample, age 30 was found to be a useful sectioning point. 

However, further research in a more varied sample could modify this 

sectioning point. Additionally, there is a great need for anthropologists 

to agree on methods of age estimation, to include the use of identical 

scoring systems. This will alleviate unnecessary complications in data 

comparison and the continual redevelopment of these scoring systems. 

Sacral Fusion, Age Estimation, Error 

H26 An Evaluation of the Chen et al. Pubic 

Aging Method on a North American Sample 

Julie M. Fleischman, BA*, Michigan State University, 560 Baker Hall, 



Chen et al. (2008) pubic bone aging method and its application for 

estimating age-at-death for a North American population. 


exploring the utility of the Chen et al. (2008) aging method for males of 

European ancestry. 

Accurately assessing the age-at-death of adult human skeletons is 

fundamental in creating biological profiles for unidentified remains. 

There are many methods available to forensic anthropologists to estimate 

age-at-death; the most widely used and generally accepted involve 

analysis of the pubic bones. Numerous aging methods using the pubic 

bones are available, including Chen et al. (2008) which is the focus of 

this study. 

Chen and colleagues assessed age-at-death for Chinese Han males 

based on multiple pubic bone features. The features were scored for 262 

pubic bones and were subjected to four types of statistical equations to 

estimate age: multiple regression analysis (MRA) and gradual 

regression analysis (GRA), with quantification theory model-I (QMI) 

and GRA to compare with MRA. One goal of the Chen et al. (2008) 

study was to improve upon the Suchey-Brooks method, which is 

currently the most accepted technique for estimating age from the pubic 

bone. For the Han sample Chen and colleagues claim that with the use 

of their statistical formulae, a large sample, evaluating males only, and 

subdividing each feature, age-at-death can be quantitatively estimated 

with a high degree of accuracy. 

The objective of this research is to evaluate the Chen et al. (2008) 

method to determine if it can accurately evaluate age-at-death for 

individuals outside the original study population. This research 

addressed two primary questions: (1) Will the Chen et al. (2008) method 

accurately assess age-at-death for non-Chinese males?; and, (2) Will the 

revised Chen et al. (2008) method accurately assess age-at-death for 

males of European ancestry? 

This research is based on a known sample of modern pubic bones 

curated at the Maricopa County Forensic Science Center (FSC) in 

Phoenix, Arizona. A sample of 296 left male pubic bones of European 

ancestry, between the ages of 18 and 70, was selected from the larger 

collection. These bones were scored based on nine morphological 

indicators (e.g. ridges and furrows on the symphyseal surface, ossific 

nodules, and bone density). Each pubic bone was scored blind by four 

16

observers with osteological experience ranging from 20+ years to 

2 years. 

This research generated statistical data concerning the accuracy, 

rates of error, and significance of the Chen et al. (2008) model’s utility 

for aging male populations of European ancestry. The original Chen et 

al. (2008) equations were tested and then four revised equations were 

generated from the FSC scores. Accuracy for the revised equations was 

evaluated via the percentage correct within brackets of one, five, ten, and 

fifteen years from the actual ages. A higher percentage per bracket 

translates to higher accuracy. 

Results indicate that the Chen et al. (2008) method is fully 

replicable for males of European ancestry. The most accurate equation 

varies by bracket—one year from actual age: original Chen et al. 

MRA+GRA (10.8%); five years: revised QMI+GRA (38.6%); ten and 

fifteen years: revised MRA+GRA (65.7% and 87.3%). The revised 

model demonstrates only incremental gains over the original model 

(revised model MRA+GRA R 2 = .491 and original model MRA+GRA R 2 

= .440), and on average the revised model tends to slightly over-age the 

specimens. The revised model has an average error of 8 years from 

actual ages. Both the original and revised models have lower predictive 

values for the FSC sample than Chen and colleagues report for their 

sample (Chen et al. MRA+GRA R 2 = .978). All Pearson’s correlations 

for inter- and intra-observer error were statistically significant indicating 

low error rates between observers. 

The Chen et al. (2008) method is challenging and requires 

proficient knowledge of the nine pubic bone features and their 

development before implementation; however, the model does explain 

almost 50% of the variability in the FSC sample. An average error of 

eight years from actual age is acceptable for a forensic biological profile, 

and the model accurately estimates age within 15 years for over 87% of 

individuals. Therefore, this is a viable method for estimating age-atdeath 

for males of European ancestry. Future research is required to 

determine if this method is more or less accurate than others, such as 

Suchey-Brooks. 

Pubic Bone, Age Estimation, Male 

H27 The Accuracy of the Lamendin Method of 


Kristin E. Horner, MA*, Secchia Center, 15 Michigan Street Northeast, 

Grand Rapids, MI 49503 


results and implications of a study to determine if the presence of a 

filling in a tooth effects the accuracy of the Lamendin method (Lamendin 

et al., 1992) of dental aging. 

This study will impact the forensic science community by providing 

validation for the application of a commonly used aging technique to a 

unique subset of teeth. This validation is important in the post-Daubert 

era, where established error rates are important. Although error rates are 

known for the Lamendin method, and some dental aging studies have 

included teeth with fillings, no investigation has previously been made 

into the effects that these fillings might have on the accuracy of age 

estimation. 

The purpose of this presentation is to discuss the effects of dental 

restorations on the accuracy of the Lamendin dental aging method. The 

Lamendin method uses two measurements, tooth root translucency and 

periodontosis. Tooth root translucency begins at the tip of the root and 

proceeds toward the crown with advancing age, and is believed to be 

caused by calcification within dentinal tubules (Bang & Ramm, 1970). 

This changes the refractive index within the dentinal tubule so that it is 

similar to that of the material surrounding the dentinal tubules, making 

the area appear transparent. It has been established that root canal 

treatment can have a significant effect on the development of tooth root 

translucency (Thomas et al., 1994), but there has been no published work 

documenting the effects of fillings. 

The utility of the Lamendin method is clear; it is fast, easy to use, 

does not require any special equipment, and utilizes a simple formula. 

The method provides a relatively accurate estimation of age that is useful 

in both forensic and archaeological contexts. However, it is important to 

determine if any external factors affect the rate of development of tooth 

root translucency. If any factors are discovered that do affect the rate of 

translucency, these factors would influence the accuracy of dental aging 

methods, such as the Lamendin method, that rely on tooth root 

translucency. 

Premolar teeth (N = 100) from the William M. Bass Donated 

Skeletal Collection were used for this research. The sample consists of 

50 teeth with no dental restorations and 50 teeth with fillings. All teeth 

were selected from individuals age 30 or older because the Lamendin 

method cannot be used in individuals younger than 25, and tends to be 

unreliable at younger ages. Measurement of periodontosis and root 

height were taken in millimeters with sliding calipers. Measurement of 

root translucency was observed using a light box and taken in 

millimeters with sliding calipers. Age-at-death was recorded from the 

collection database. 

Age at the time of death was estimated using the Lamendin method. 

The difference between the estimated age and known age was calculated 

for each tooth. Error was compared between teeth with no restorations 

and teeth with fillings using a student’s T-test. No significant difference 

(p < 0.05) was found between the errors of the teeth with fillings and the 

teeth without fillings. 

It is concluded that the presence of dental fillings does not 

significantly impact the accuracy of the Lamendin method, and that teeth 

with fillings may be used to estimate age using the Lamendin method. 

Lamendin, Dental, Aging 

H28 Three-Dimensional Geometric Morphometric 

Analysis and Multislice Computed 

Tomography: Application for Adult Sexual 

Dimorphism in Human Coxal Bone 

Fabrice Dedouit, Ph D*, Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de 

Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse 

Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; Marie Faruch Bifeld, MS, Service de 

Médecine Légale, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue Professeur Jean 

Poulhès, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; José Braga, PhD, 

Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie AMIS, FRE 2960 CNRS, Université 

Paul Sabatier, 37 allées Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 31000, FRANCE; 

Nicolas Sans, PhD, Service de Radiologie, CHU Toulouse-Purpan, 

Place du Docteur Baylac, Toulouse, 31059, FRANCE; Hervé Rousseau, 

PhD, Service de Radiologie, CHU Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue 

Professeur Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31059, FRANCE; Eric Crubezy, 

PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie AMIS, FRE 2960 CNRS, 

Université Paul Sabatier, 37 allées Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 31000, 

FRANCE; Daniel Rouge, PhD, Service de Médecine Légale, CHU 

Toulouse-Rangueil, 1 Avenue Professeur Jean Poulhès, Toulouse, 31059, 

FRANCE; and Norbert Telmov, PhD, Service Medico-Judiciaire, CHU 

Rangueil, 1 Avenue Jean Poulhes, Toulouse, F-31054, FRANCE 

The goal of this presentation is to present an assessment of the 

sexual dimorphism based on the study of the human adult coxal bone, by 

three-dimensional (3D) geometric morphometric analysis of clinical 

multislice computed tomography (MSCT) explorations. This 

presentation illustrates the potentialities of the MSCT with a particular 

anthropological tool, the 3D geometric morphometric analysis, and a 

particular anthropological application, sexual dimorphism. 



providing an example of anthropological use of the 3D geometric 

morphometric analysis, based on clinical MSCT. 

Background and Introduction: Multislice computed tomography 

is uncommonly used in anthropology and forensic anthropology. With 

this in mind, this study demonstrates that the 3D adult coxal shape 

differences related to sexual dimorphism can be identified and visualized 

objectively with geometric morphometric analysis based on clinical 

MSCT explorations. 

Materials and Methods: Materials consist of a retrospective study 

of coxal bones from adult patients undergoing clinical MSCT in the 

authors’ institution. Patients with a known history of bone disease were 

excluded. A total of 65 MSCT explorations were included, consisting of 

30 males and 35 females, with 16 x 1.5 mm collimation. Scans were 

saved as DICOM files and a 3D post-processing was performed. 

The methods included standard anthropometric techniques, 15 

osteometric landmarks were chosen on the left innominate. The 3D 

coordinates of landmarks were identified on the MSCT 3D 

reconstructions. The three separate bones of the innominate (e. g., the 

anatomical pubis, the anatomical ilium, and the ischium) were first 

studied individually. Additionally, a modified ilium shape (consisting in 

the ilium and the ischial spine), and a modified pubis shape (including 

the ischiopubic ramus) were studied. Finally, complexes from bone parts 

were analyzed, including: the ischiopubic complex (consisting of the 

modified pubis and the ischium), the iliopubic complex (consisting of the 

ilium and the pubis), the ilio-ischial complex (consisting of the ilium and 

the ischium), and the complete coxal bone. Males and females were 

analyzed separately. Percentage errors were calculated for the 15 

landmarks to examine the effects of intra- and inter-observer errors. For 

each analysis the recorded landmarks were scaled, rotated and translated 

using Generalized Procrustes Analysis. A consensus configuration, or 

mean shape configuration, was produced for males and females, so that 

sex differences could be compared. The landmark coordinates were 

analysed using Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Canonical 

Variates Analysis (CVA). Finally, Goodall’s F-test and Mahalanobis D² 

matrices were calculated. 

Results and Discussion: Clinical MSCT explorations have not 

been previously used with geometric morphometric analysis to study 

sexual dimorphism of the adult human coxal bone, using 3D 

reconstructions. The advantage of geometric morphometric techniques 

is their ease of use, and their reproducibility. In the present case, intraand 

inter-observer variabilities were less than 3%. Goodall’s F-test for all 

structures studied was significant, suggesting that the sexual dimorphism 

of the specific morphological structures of the skeletal elements, are 

similar to results achieved in previous studies. 

Based on the results of the PCA, CVA, and Malahanobis D² 

distances, the most sexually dimorphic anatomical structures were nonisolated 

bones: the complete coxal bone, the iliopubic complex, the ilioischial 

complex, and finally the ischiopubic complex. Our results agree 

with classical sex determination data. The 3D consensus shapes 

(masculine or feminine) are intrinsically composed of all the differences 

of lengths or length ratio, which explained the high sexual dimorphism 

of the innominate. Concerning the ischiopubic complex, our results 

completely agreed with previous results, demonstrating it is an important 

marker of sexual dimorphism. However, results were surprising in 

regards to the iliopubic and ilio-ischial complexes. Data were not found 

concerning the sexual dimorphism of those complexes, but those 

complexes were highly dimorphic, and particularly more dimorphic than 

the previous described ischiopubic complex. 

The most discriminating isolated bones of the innominate with 

anatomical and embryological definition were the ilium and the pubis. 

The modified pubis, including the ischiopubic ramus, had Malahanobis 

D 2 distances similar to those of the anatomical ilium. This feature had 

never been described before in the literature. Inclusion of the ischiopubic 

ramus within the pubis increased its sexual dimorphism. The modified 

ilium, including the ischial spine, provided supplementary information 


concerning the greater sciatic notch, which agreed with the classical 

anthropological data. Based on the results of the PCA, CVA, and 

Malahanobis D 2 distances, the isolated ischium presented a weak but 

significant sexual dimorphism. 

Conclusion: The reliability of this method and determined 

innominate’s areas with the greatest shape sexual dimorphism are 

demonstrated. All the results are on accordance with previous past 

studies’ results but bring also new data for sexual dimorphism. Further 

studies will be done on supplementary individuals, immature 

populations. Furthermore, dimorphism analysis of the innominate shape 

with landmarks type III (semi landmarks) will be an additional way 

of research. 

Forensic Anthropology, Geometric Morphometric, Multislice 


H29 Estimation of Stature From Foot and its 

Segments in a Sub-Adult Population of 

North India 

Kewal Krishan, PhD*, Panjab University, Department of Anthropology, 

Sectoc-14, Chandigarh, 160 014, INDIA; Tanuj Kanchan, MD, Kasturba 

Medical College, Department of Forensic Medicine, Light House Hill 

Road, Mangalore, 575 001, INDIA; and Neelam Passi, MSc, Panjab 

University, Department of Anthropology, Sector-14, Chandigarh, HI 160 

014, INDIA 


usefulness of stature estimation in forensic examinations especially from 

foot and its segments as the literature on this aspect has been scanty. 


presenting standards for stature estimation from foot and its segments 

when feet or their parts are brought for forensic examination. 

Establishing personal identity is one of the main concerns in 

forensic investigation process. Estimation of stature forms a basic 

domain of investigation process in unknown and commingled human 

remains in forensic anthropology case work. The objective of the 

present study was to set up standards for estimation of stature from foot 

and its segments. Sample for the study constitutes of 154 male and 149 

female adolescents from Northern part of India. The subjects were aged 

between 13 to 18 years old (Mean age in male and female was 15.8 + 1.7 

and 15.5 + 1.6 years respectively). Besides stature, seven 

anthropometric measurements that included length of the foot from each 

toe (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 respectively), foot breadth at ball and foot 

breadth at heel were taken on both feet of each subject. All the 

measurements were taken with standard procedures and landmarks 

according to international texts and research papers. The results indicate 

that mean stature in adolescent males (163.1 + 10.1 cm) is significantly 

larger than mean stature in females (154.3 + 5.9 cm). All measurements 

in the male foot are significantly larger than in females (p

of estimate (SEE), it is observed that stature from foot measurements can 

be estimated more accurately in females than males. Among the foot 

measurements, T5 in males and T1 in females give the most accurate 

estimation of stature by linear regression analysis. Multiple regression 

models are derived for estimation of stature from foot length (T1 to T5) 

in males and females. Foot breadth measurements (BHEL and BBAL) 

are used to derive multiple regression models on the right and left sides 

in males and females. Multiple regression models tend to estimate 

stature more accurately than the linear regression models. It is observed 

that the multiple regression models derived from the measurements of 

the foot length (T1 to T5) estimate stature more accurately than models 

derived from the measurements of the foot breadth (BHEL and BBAL). 

The method may be applied successfully for estimation of stature 

whenever foot remains are brought for forensic examination that can 

help the investigating agencies primarily in narrowing down the pool of 

possible victim matches by establishing the partial identity of 

the deceased. 

Forensic Anthropology, Foot Anthropometry, Stature Estimation 

H30 New Linear Measurements for the 

Estimation of Sex From the Human Sacrum 

Jennifer M. Vollner, MS*, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 1559 Mount Vernon, East Lansing, MI 

48823; and Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief Medical 


The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees about six new 

measurements of the sacrum that were proven to be the most useful for 

adult sex estimation through a discriminant function analysis. 

The presentation will impact the forensic science community by 

demonstrating an accurate method of adult sex estimation from the 

sacrum through discriminant function analysis using new linear 

measurements derived from three-dimensional inter-landmark distances. 

The accurate estimation of sex is crucial to the development of a 

biological profile for a set of unidentified skeletal remains. Previous 

metric and non-metric methods of sex estimation utilizing the sacrum 

have demonstrated the potential of this skeletal element for such an 

assessment; but classification rates derived from an appropriate sample 

are unknown. This research provides new linear measurements of the 

sacrum from a large sample that were shown to be the most useful in the 

estimation of sex through a cross-validated discriminant function 

analysis. 

A geometric morphometric analysis of the sacrum was previously 

conducted (Passalacqua et al. 2010) in order to capture the sexual 

dimorphism visually apparent in this skeletal element. This method was 

able to estimate sex with an 85.75% cross-validated accuracy (89.40% 

for males, 82.10% for females). Unfortunately, the use of geometric 

morphometric analysis in forensic anthropology casework is often 

impractical due to differential preservation, skeletal trauma, or lack of 

equipment. Due to these factors, the development of new twodimensional 

linear measurements of the sacrum will allow for a wider 

application of this method. Thus, the current study utilizes previous 

geometric morphometric sacrum data to determine the most useful linear 

measurements for sex estimation (Passalacqua et al. 2010). 

A sample of 163 adult sacra (85 males, 78 females) was collected 

from the Hamann-Todd Collection (Cleveland Museum of Natural 

History). Twenty-three three-dimensional (3D) landmarks were 

developed and collected on each individual using a digitizer. Interlandmark 

distances were then extracted from the 3D data providing 253 

measurements for each sacrum. This method of extracting linear 

measurements allows for a vast amount of data to be collected in a short 

amount of time and in addition creates new measurements which may 

not have been otherwise analyzed. These measurements were analyzed 

through a forward step-wise (F = 0.05 to enter, F = 0.10 to remove) 

discriminant function analysis. This discriminant function analysis 

selected six measurements for estimating biological sex. These 

measurements focus on the alae especially in relation to the promontory. 

This suggests the majority of the sexual dimorphism exhibited in the 

sacrum involves this area and effective sex estimation is possible with 

fragmentary sacra as the overall size, shape, and curvature were not 

necessary. Results indicated an 89.0% cross-validated accuracy of the 

correct classification of sex (males were correctly classified at 89.4% 

and females were correctly classified at 88.5%). As noted above, this is 

slightly higher than the classification rate with 3D geometric 

morphometrics and these inter-landmark distances can be measured 

using standard sliding calipers allowing for this method to be easily 

utilized in the field or laboratory without access to a digitizer. 

Sex Estimation, Sacrum, Discriminant Function Analysis 

H31 Sex Discrimination Using Patellar 

Measurements: Method and Validation Study 

Matthew Rhode, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 

Hickam, AFB, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand how to 

determine the sex of Americans using discriminant functions derived 

from common patellar measurements. 


introducing a series of easily applicable discriminant functions for use in 

determining the sex of Americans using a single patella. Subsequent 

validation of the method, using an independent American sample, 

indicates the method is robust. The visual inspection of associated ROC 

curves provides a means of selecting among the available discriminant 

functions. Based on the results of this analysis, the patella is offered as 

an alternative method to determine sex when others are not applicable. 

Although a number of previous projects have presented 

discriminant functions for sexing the patella, these methods are derived 

from African and European populations. To date, no specific patella 

based sex classification method in the scientific literature is available, 

which is both easily applicable and calibrated for use with Americans. 

This project addresses this issue using a sample of 182 individuals 

combining white and black males (100) and females (82) from the 

Hamann-Todd collection. Each individual possessed data on the left and 

right patella height, width, and thickness. The left and right values were 

later averaged for each measurement to make the applicable to a single 

bone of either side. Males possessed an average patellar height of 44.12 

mm ± 2.93mm, an average patellar width of 44.57 mm ± 3.17 mm, and 

an average patellar thickness of 21.03 mm ± 1.57 mm. Females 

possessed an average patellar height of 38.83 mm ± 2.94 mm, an average 

patellar width of 39.10 mm ± 2.95 mm, and an average patellar thickness 

of 19.01 mm ± 1.57 mm. 

The three measurements used in seven different combinations were 

examined using discriminant function analysis. The resulting 

discriminant functions generated average classification rates between 

73.5% and 83.5% when cross-validated with average classification rates 

ranging between 73% and 83% for males and 74.4% and 85.4% for 

females. These results are similar to previous studies and generally 

indicate the method is robust, but a more powerful and convincing test 

of the method is by applying it to an independent sample. Here an 

independent American sample of patella measurement data from a series 

of 300 white and black males (147) and females (153) from the Terry 

collection, obtained by O’Connor (1996) was used to test the 

classificatory power of the Hamann-Todd patella discriminant functions. 

Upon testing, the efficiency drops an average of 3% to achieve values 

between 70% and 79%. The correction classification rate among males 

ranges between 68% and 80% and for females between 75% and 80%. 


Reduced efficiency is a common result of validation but the overall 

classification rates remain relatively high. Among the seven 

discriminant functions, the most effective can be identified using the 

classification rate, but a visual method comparing ROC curves is used. 

The associated statistics indicate that all seven discriminant functions 

provide results that are significantly different from random guessing. 

The most consistent equations being those developed with patella width 

and height. 

Although the present method does not yield correct classification 

rates of 90%, the best validated discriminant functions does a provide 

classification rate of 79%, which suggests the method has potential for 

sex discrimination. Since the patella is a small bone, with a dense 

structure, and is often recovered intact, the discriminant functions 

developed here are offered to the scientific community as an alternative 

method, applicable when other more powerful methods cannot be used 

due to recovery or preservation issues and as check on the results 

obtained using other methods. 

Patella, Sex, Validation 

H32 Sex Estimation Using the Petrous Portion 

of the Temporal Bone By Linear 

Regression Anaylsis 

Dolly K. Stolze, MA*, 1900 Huntington Lane, Apartment 4, Redondo 



petrous portion of the temporal bone can be used to identify sex in 

fragmented skeletal remains. 


giving the forensic anthropologist another method to estimate sex in 

fragmented skeletal remains and provide a jumping-off point for further 

evaluation of the use of the petrous portion of the temporal bone in sex 

estimation. 

When bodies are heavily decomposed, chances increase that not all 

of the remains will be recovered. Lengthy postmortem intervals seen in 

heavily decomposed or skeletonized remains can impact identification 

efforts because essential bones for a biological profile may not be 

recovered due to human, animal, and environmental factors. A number 

of taphonomic processes that affect skeletal recovery include human and 

environmental processes, such as disfigurement of dead bodies, 

dismemberment to prevent positive identification, animal scavenging, 

and environmental disbursement. Since recent forensic anthropological 

studies have shown a metric relationship between temporal bone 

morphology and sex, this study investigates the quantitative relationship 

of seven measurements of the temporal and occipital bones and sex. 304 

crania from the Bass Collection were measured for this study, including 

92 females and 212 males. This study used the following seven 

measurements: (a) mastoidale to porion; (b)porion to asterion; (c) 

asterion to mastoidale; (d) asterion to the intersection of the parietal, 

temporal and sphenoid (PST); (e) PST to mastoidale; (f) the length of the 

petrous portion from the foramen lacerum (fl) to the mastoidale; and (g) 

from the mastoidale to basion. The base of the petrous portion (from its 

most anterior point in the foramen lacerum to the mastoidale) is an 

insertion point for the levator veli palatini. This muscle elevates, 

retracts, and laterally deviates the soft palate, and opens the auditory tube 

during swallowing. So the length of the base of the petrous portion may 

be larger in males because they have more robust muscle attachments 

than females. Five regression formulae were developed using these 

seven measurements of the temporal and occipital bones. The fifth 

regression equation [0.539 (fl-ms) + 0.265 (ms-po) + 0.157(ast-ms) - 

4.137] is statistically significant to determine sex in a fragmented skull. 

This formula correctly identified sex in 88% of the cases used for this 

study. Three measurements taken on petrous portion of the temporal 


bone can be used to identify sex in skeletonized and fragmented remains: 

(1) the length of the petrous portion from the foramen lacerum to the 

mastoidale; (2) from the mastoidale to the porion; and (3) from the 

asterion to the mastoidale. This demonstrates the forensic value of the 

length of the petrous portion in sex identification in fragmented 

skeleton remains. 

Sex, Petrous Portion, Linear Regression 

H33 Age Estimation Utilizing Postnatal Dental 

Mineralization: An Exploratory Analysis of 

Molar Development for a Contemporary 


Meryle A. Dotson, BA*, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler 

Avenue, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33620; Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University 

of South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 

107, Tampa, FL 33820; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of 

Illinois, Department of Anthropology, 109 Davenport Hall, 607 South 

Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand that a 

more accurate construction of dental age estimation standards can be 

achieved by considering population age structure and by utilizing 

Bayesian analysis. The objectives of this study are to explore the 

patterns and timing of dental development for a contemporary Florida 

population, to test the accuracy of current dental age estimation 

standards for juveniles and young adults devised by Moorrees et al. 

(1963), and to evaluate the accuracy of age estimation utilizing third 

molar development. 


presenting data related to estimating appropriate dental ages for 

unknown juveniles and young adults utilizing advanced stages of molar 

development. The accurate estimation of age utilizing molar 

development can have important legal implications for living individuals 

for which chronological age is unknown since the observation of 

advanced mineralization stages in third molars can provide insight into 

whether or not an individual is likely to have reached 18 years of age. 

This information can assist courts within the United States in 

determining whether or not an individual is legally considered a minor or 

an adult. 

Due to the strong genetic component of dental development, 

research has shown that mineralization patterns of the human dentition 

are relatively buffered against environmental influences that normally 

affect bone growth and development (Cardoso 2007). It is because of 

this resistance to environmental factors and the continuous growth of the 

permanent dentition throughout childhood and adolescence that the 

evaluation of dental development patterns has become the preferred 

method of age estimation in living and deceased children. 

While it has been suggested that the timing of dental development 

varies by ancestral descent and geographic populations, further 

exploration of the role of statistical modeling in the comparisons of 

dental development tempo and patterning among populations is 

necessary. For this study, 81 panoramic radiographs of individuals (33 

males and 48 females) from a contemporary Florida population ranging 

in age from 7.7-20.4 years were reviewed. The mean age for males 

included in this study was 15.7 years, while the mean age for females 

was 16.1 years. Maxillary and mandibular third molars were observed 

and assigned a mineralization score ranging from 1-14 in accordance 

with dental development standards devised by Moorrees et al. (1963). 

Previous research (Demirjian 1978) suggests that dental development 

occurs symmetrically between tooth types in each dental arcade. 

Therefore, one score was obtained for each tooth type. Most scores were 

obtained from teeth in the left side of the mouth; however, in instances 

where the development stage of the left tooth was not clearly visible, the 

20

development stage of the corresponding tooth on the right side of the 

mouth was scored. Similarly, most scores were obtained by observation 

of the mineralization stage of the distal root; however, in instances for 

which the mineralization stage of the distal root was not observable, the 

mesial root was scored. Of 246 molars observed, 53 were maxillary third 

molars, 77 were mandibular first molars, 77 were mandibular second 

molars, and 39 were mandibular third molars. Maxillary first and second 

molars were not scored due to the difficulty in observing advanced 

mineralization stages of maxillary teeth on panoramic radiographs. 

Previous research has suggested that females achieve advanced 

dental development stages earlier than males (Tompkins 1996). 

Therefore, each sex was treated independently, and mean ages for 

attained development stages were calculated for each tooth. The mean 

age of complete root apex closure of the third maxillary molar (stage 14) 

for males was 19.5 years, while the mean age of complete root apex 

closure of the third mandibular molar (stage 14) for males was 17.6 

years. Similarly, the mean age of complete root apex closure of the third 

maxillary molar (stage 14) for females was 18.5 years, while the mean 

age of complete root apex closure of the third mandibular molar (stage 

14) for females was 18.8 years. 

The accurate observation and comparison of stages of molar 

development can serve as a noninvasive method for evaluating the 

probability of whether or not an unknown individual is likely to have 

reached 18 years of age. The refinement of existing dental age 

estimation standards can be achieved by incorporating a Bayesian 

statistical analysis, transitional analysis, and a cumulative probit model 

on the log scale ages. 

Dental Mineralization, Age Estimation, Bayesian Analysis 

H34 A New Method for Height Estimation Using 

Photogrammetry: Reliability and Validity 

Antonio De Donno, PhD*, and Bruno Morgese, MD, Section of Legal 

Medicine - University of Bari, Pizza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, 

ITALY; Maurizio Scarpa, MD, Pizza G. Cesare 11 University of Bari, 

Bari, ITALY; and Francesco Introna, PhD, Section of Legal Medicine - 



a new method, and its reliability, for height estimation using 

photogrammetry. 


demonstrating how height estimation of the subject videotaped while in 

the act of robbery is a parameter that can be accurately estimated using 

the proposed method, respecting the experimental conditions described, 

and that it can consequently be utilized in probatory inquiries. 

The identification of subjects by means of image comparison has 

already been used in the past; however, the advent of new software for 

the elaboration of images has provided a new impact and new resources 

useful for the application of techniques for the identification of the 

culprits. The sensitivity of the results of the investigations which, in 

association with other evidence, can point the judge towards a verdict of 

guilt or innocence, making the use of reliable scientific methods 

necessary, without neglecting to highlight the possible objective limits of 

the techniques used. 

These scientific studies have had a particular impact in Italy, where 

the identification of the culprit by means of the comparison between the 

images of the arrested suspect and those of the subject videotaped in the 

act of robbery is allowed. 

The application of such techniques; however, requires the 

permission of the suspect to be filmed by the bank surveillance system; 

in addition, the images filmed during the robbery need to be of excellent 

quality. 

When this permission is denied, it might be useful to collect the 

information regarding the robber’s stature from the images taken during 

the robbery itself. 

During this study, the possibility of determining the stature of a 

subject by means of photogrammetry was investigated; such technique is 

defined as the procedures that make use of photographs in order to obtain 

the position, the shape and the dimension of a subject. 

Preliminarily, actual heights (in cm) were obtained by measuring a 

selection of 288 people including subjects of a height ranging from 150 

cm to 200 cm with a metallic pole; they were all photographed while 

standing in a doorway, so as to simulate the images of subjects taken in 

the doorway of a bank. 

The selected subjects were measured by a standardized method. 

They were photographed (wearing shoes) positioned both standing still 

and in movement; another operator measured the actual height by using 

a metric pole, standing still, wearing the same shoes. The photographs 

obtained were examined (by another operator who was unaware of the 

actual heights) using a professional image editing software to determine 

the height of the people selected using the grid technique. 

In the assessment of the height of a person in motion, it was 

attempted to standardize the measurement by filming the subjects placed 

in such a position that their center of gravity corresponded with the 

threshold of the door. 

From what has been seen so far, the use of photograph for forensic 

purposes can be considered useful only when the subject is filmed in a 

static position (i.e., inside the bank doorway). The mean differential 

values between the actual height and the height measured in people 

standing, ranging from – 0.90 cm to + 1.24 cm, confirm the reliability of 

the technique. However, the validity of the technique for the 

measurement in motion is unreliable, owing to the high variability 

between the actual heights and the measurements obtained by a 

professional image editing software (ranging from – 3 cm to + 6 cm). 

Height Estimation, Photogrammetry, Reliability 

H35 Contribution of the Maxillary Sinus 

Analysis for Human Identification 

Jamilly O. Musse, PhD*, Jeidson A.M. Marques, PhD, Faculty of 

Dentistry, Feira de Santana State University (UEFS), Fanco Manoel da 

Silva, 437, Cidade Nova, Feira de Santana - Bahia, 44053-060, BRAZIL; 

and Rogério N. Oliveira, PhD, University of São Paulo, Lineu Prestes, 

5081, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, 05508-000, BRAZIL 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand and 

appreciate how maxillary sinus analysis can contribute to human 

identification in forensic cases. 


showing one more human identification method, the maxillary sinus 

analysis. 

The goal of this study is to evaluate the possibility of individual 

human identification and sex identification by means of maxillary sinus 

and propose three identification methods using the referred structures. 

The sample was composed of 656 panoramic radiographs, from 328 

adult individuals of both sex, more than 20 years, and divided in: Group 

I/ control: formed by radiographs of patients submitted to orthodontic 

treatment, but that did not need dental extraction in posterior teeth; and, 

Group II/experimental: formed by radiographs of patients submitted to 

orthodontic treatment that needed dental extraction in any posterior 

teeth. The radiographs had been randomly selected for the sample 

composition. 

Two radiographs were used from each individual, one from the 

beginning of treatment and the other after a two-year-orthodontic 

treatment. After that, three methods were employed in each radiograph, 

in both groups. 


In the manual technique I, the configuration of the right and left 

maxillary sinus was performed, using an acetate sheet on the panoramic 

radiography and after that. 

Using the trace of maximum height and width in the transparency 

on the panoramic radiography from the previous reported technique, in 

manual technique II, the aerial cavity of the maxillary sinus was divided 

into four quadrants (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4). Based on that division, the 

quadrant morphology was compared using overlapping of the acetate 

sheet related to the radiographs of the same individual. 

In the computerized technique, after panoramic digitalization, the 

configurations of the maxillary sinus were computer-generated and the 

respective areas and perimeters were calculated, using an image 

acquisition and analysis software. Besides the previously mentioned 

measures, the form factor measurement was also used. The form factor 

value is calculated through the relation between area and perimeter, and 

expresses how much the morphology of maxillary sinus was preserved if 

compared to the radiographs of the same individual. 

In the analysis of the results, descriptive statistics techniques were 

used (average and standard deviation), Student’s t-test with similar and 

non-similar variants and paired Student’s t-test to quantitative variables. 

The level of significance used in the statistics tests was 5.0%. Statistical 

analysis software was used to obtain statistics calculations. The quadrant 

analysis was performed by visual comparison. 

In the manual technique I, the measurement results in the initial 

radiography and in the radiography after a two-year- treatment were 

evaluated separately. In both radiographs, regarding all the variables, the 

averages were higher in male than in female sex. 

Between sexes, the only significant difference was observed in the 

“left width” variable in the experimental group. Differences between the 

groups were observed in “right width” in both sex and “left width” in 

female. Regarding those variables, it was observed that the averages 

were positive in the experimental group and negative in the group 

control, except for “left width” in female sex. 

In the comparison of the quadrant morphology of maxillary sinus in 

both kinds of radiographs, absence of alteration in the registered 

individuals as group control was observed. In the experimental group, 

the presence of alteration in the sinus morphology was observed in eight 

individuals, all of them in inferior quadrants, related to the loss of 

dental units. 

The computerized technique results shown that in the initial 

radiograph and in the one after a two-year-treatment, in most of the 

variables, the averages were higher in male than in female sex. 

In the experimental group, except from the “form factor” variables, 

in both sexes – that presented negative values, all the other averages 

were positive. Differences between the groups were checked for “right 

perimeter” in both sex; and “right area” in female. Regarding those 

variables, it was observed that the averages were positive in the 

experimental group and negative in the control group. 

The present research techniques can be used in human identification 

cases where only skull fragment is available for anthropological analysis. 

The incorporation of the analysis added to other evidences may 

contribute in a decisive way to cases of forensic human identification. 

Forensic Odontology, Human Identification, Maxillary Sinus 

H36 Evaluating the Performance of Population 

Estimation Methods in Commingled 

Skeletal Assemblages 

Bradley I. Lanning, MA*, Jolen Anya Minetz, MA, and Jennie J.H. Jin, PhD, 

JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96835 

The goal of this presentation is to compare population estimation 

results yielded from commingled skeletal assemblages of different sizes. 



evaluating different methods of estimating the original case population 

size represented by skeletal assemblages produced by widely varying 

circumstances. Predictive models generated from intact mass graves and 

secondary burial mass graves excavated by the Joint POW-MIA 

Accounting Command - Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) 

anthropologists are compared to portions of large and heavily 

commingled skeletal assemblages unilaterally turned over to the CIL by 

the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK). 

The CIL received a series of shipments of skeletal remains from the 

DPRK during the early 1990’s. A total of 208 boxes of remains were 

turned over dubbed the “K208.” The North Koreans claimed that these 

remains represented 208 U.S. servicemen. The original anthropological 

analysis of the remains revealed that most of the accessions represented 

multiple individuals. When the remains were sampled for mitochondrial 

DNA (mtDNA), it confirmed the suspicion that more people were 

present in the containers than previously estimated to a substantial 

degree. In the analysis and sorting of the K208 assemblage, it is 

important to create an accurate estimation of the original population. 

Different population estimation methods were used in this study, 

with special consideration for the Most Likely Number of Individuals 

(MLNI). 1 The MLNI has been shown to estimate the original population 

size, while the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) estimates the 

recovered population size. In cases of taphonomic loss, the MLNI 

should provide a more accurate estimation than the MNI. In addition to 

a traditional MNI, the Grand Minimum Total (GMT) was also calculated. 

The results of these different population estimation methods were 

generated from a series of CIL-lead excavations with the purpose of 

constructing predictive models. First, two excavations consisted of 

intact primary mass graves from the DPRK where commingling was 

slight; in both of these cases some remains were retained by DPRK 

officials. Second, another excavation consisted of poorly preserved and 

fragmentary remains from a World War II bomber crash. Finally, an 

excavation of a secondary burial mass grave from the DPRK where 

remains had been intentionally planted in the recent past was analyzed. 

The population estimation results derived from these models were either 

compared to the number of individuals archaeologically determined or to 

the minimum number of mtDNA sequences present (MNS). 

In both primary mass graves and the World War II bomber case, all 

population estimators were accurate and in close agreement. The MNI 

only slightly underestimated the original population, while the MLNI 

estimated the true original population. This is to be expected given the 

high recovery rate. An exception to this trend was recognized in one 

mass grave where poor preservation and fragmentation restricted 

accurate pair matching, which inflated the population estimation. In the 

secondary mass grave, all population estimators drastically 

underestimated the original population size, including the MLNI. 

For the K208 skeletal assemblage, population estimators usually 

underestimated the original population in each purported origin. The 

highest MLNI in Chongsung-ni was 23 individuals and the MNS is 22; 

however, the overall MLNI is 18. The highest MLNI in Okchang-ni is 5 

individuals and the MNS is 12. In Kaljon-ri the highest estimation is 34 

individuals and the MNS is 44. The highest MLNI from the combined 

villages is 58 individuals and the MNS is 67. 

The underestimation is due to a number of factors. The use of 

mtDNA to aid in the pair matching of heavily fragmented remains has 

helped prevent the method from overestimating the population. In both 

the secondary mass grave and the K208, purported individuals were 

being constructed from a stockpile of remains of unknown number. This 

has produced an effect of selective data loss. While the MLNI can help 

more accurately estimate the original population in cases of normal 

taphonomic data loss, in situations such as the K208 and the planted 

mass grave, the MLNI alone is unable to do so. An avenue for future 

research is to increase the discrimination powers of the population 

estimator used by combining osteometric sorting and mtDNA analysis 

with the MLNI. 

22

Reference: 

1. Adams, B. J. and L. W. Konigsberg. Estimation of the most likely 

number of individuals from commingled human skeletal remains. 

Am J Phys Anthropol 2004; 125(2):138-151. 

Commingling, Population Estimation, MLNI 

H37 Revising Revisions: Modification of the 

Measurement of the Sacral Body Height for 

Use in Fully’s (1956) Anatomical Method of 

Stature Estimation 

Atsuko Hayashi, BA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 


AFB, HI 96853-5530 


pelvis should be properly reconstructed in anatomical position, and how 

measurement of the height of the first sacral body is unnecessary for use 

with a revision of Fully’s Anatomical Method of stature estimation. 


clarifying some of the uncertainty of Fully’s measurement instructions. 

Increasing the precision of the Anatomical Method can provide 

numerous opportunities to conduct comparative group (including sex 

differences) studies using skeletal collections that lack records of living 

stature. 

When applicable, the Anatomical Method can provide more 

accurate results than that of “mathematical methods” (i.e., single element 

regression-based methods). This is because measurements are taken for 

all bones contributing to stature, and varying allometric patterns 

within/among groups and between the sexes, therefore should not be 

affected by these factors. The method also compensates for individuals 

with extra vertebrae. Recent studies called for a revision of the protocols 

described by Fully (1956), as the method tended to underestimate living 

or cadaveric statures in known-stature skeletal collections (Bidmos 

2005; Raxter et al. 2006). This revision is necessary in part, because 

utilizing the sacral height, rather than reconstructing the pelvis, does not 

compensate for a gap between the first transverse line of sacrum to 

superior margin of acetabulum. The Raxter et al. (2006) revision of the 

Fully method attempted to account for this gap; however, it is unclear 

which procedure for reconstruction of the pelvis was utilized, 

furthermore, it did not systematically employ a new measurement, but 

rather introduced a correction factor based on a subsample of their 

dataset to compensate for the gap. 

The current study explores a revision of the Raxter et al. (2006) in 

order to measure the gap between the first transverse line of the sacrum 

and the superior margin of the acetabulum. First, the anatomical position 

of the pelvis was reconstructed following Hiramoto (1972) which 

substitutes the 2 mm thickness of cartilage with clay placed between 

auricular surfaces and sacroiliac joints, and approximately 7 mm 

between the pubic symphyses. The pelvis was placed in a sand box for 

support, while the anterior superior iliac spine of the ilium and pubic 

tubercle were held on same plane/perpendicular in lateral view 

(Bannister et al. 1995: 673). The pelvis was next turned toward the 

researcher in the anterior view, then a perpendicular scale and another 

scale to make a right angle for the measurement of the height of the first 

sacral vertebra from the anterior midline of the promontory to the first 

transverse line of sacrum and parallel line of the left and right superior 

margins of the acetabulum. 

Measurements were taken using the standard Fully (1956) method 

with this revised criterion on a skeletal sample of 102 Japanese 

individuals (males: n=76 and females: n=36) from the University of 

Chiba School of Medicine and the University of Jikei School of 

Medicine. Paired-sample t-tests show that there are significant 

differences (p

and subjected to Fourier analysis. Fourier coefficients were used to 

create discriminant functions that most effectively separate the European 

and American Indian crania in the sample by side and by sex, and the 

validity of the functions were tested with the leave-one-out technique. 

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that a 

quantitative analysis of zygomaxillary suture form is equally effective in 

discriminating European and Native American crania as a qualitative 

analysis. Thus, the results of the discriminant analysis were compared 

with the results of a traditional visual assessment, in which both 

evaluations identified “angled” or “curved” suture forms in the sample 

and calculated the within-group frequencies of each type. Based on 

these comparisons, it was possible to evaluate the relative merits of these 

methods of purposes of human identification. In addition, new 

information was obtained on the diagnostic capabilities of the 

zygomaxillary suture in males versus females and in the right side of the 

skull versus the left side, which has not previously been investigated. 

Zygomaxillary Suture, Fourier Analysis, 3D Models 

H39 An Investigation and Critique of the 

DiGangi et al. (2009) First Rib 

Aging Method 

Sara M. Getz, BS*, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic 



DiGangi et al. (2009) first rib aging method and will have been presented 

with a study that investigates and critiques this method. 


making attendees aware of the pros and cons of this newly developed 

method and the direction of future aging research in the field of forensic 

anthropology. 

Most commonly used methods of age estimation have several 

shortfalls. They tend to over-estimate the age of young individuals, 

under-estimate the age of older individuals, utilize terminal age 

categories, such as 50+, provide age ranges which are too precise or too 

wide to be of practical use in a forensic setting, and fail to provide 

prediction intervals based on an explicit probability. To address these 

issues, the DiGangi et al. (2009) 1 first rib aging method utilizes transition 

analysis on features of the first rib previously investigated by Kunos et 

al. (1999) 2 in the Hamann-Todd collection. The newly developed 

method was first applied to positively and presumptively identified 

males of Balkan ancestry collected in the former Yugoslavia (n=470). 

The application of the method, as described in the original publication, 

requires only that observers familiarize themselves with descriptions of 

the traits to be scored and the example photos found in the appendix, 

score the features of the ribs as described, and refer to the table of 

posterior densities provided in the article to find the appropriate age 

prediction range and the point estimate of age. The purpose of this study 

is to evaluate the performance of this method. 

To assess inter- and intra-rater agreement, four graduate students 

with advanced osteological training scored 113 ribs of white males from 

the Hamann-Todd collection ranging from 21 to 88 years. Sub-samples 

of individuals were re-coded from the total sample by each observer to 

allow for the calculation of intra-observer agreement. The ‘irr’ package 

in R.2.10.10 (2009) 3 was used to assess levels of agreement for the costal 

face, tubercle facet, and combined scores. The data was analyzed using 

tests for both nominal and ordinal data. Despite the fact that the 

published 95% probability intervals for each combination of scores 

range from 35 to 50 years, individuals were only placed into an age range 

that contained their true age on average 87% of the time. With the 

exception of four younger adults between 20 and 35 years of age who 

were problematic for all observers, all individuals incorrectly aged were 

above 55 years of age. 


Due to the large overlap in the age ranges provided for each unique 

combination of costal face and tubercle facet scores, it is possible for 

observers to correctly age an individual while having only minimal 

agreement in their scores for each rib feature. The highest inter-observer 

values for any agreement statistic (Cohen’s Kappa) were 0.74 for the 

costal face and 0.56 for the tubercle facet. Despite the apparent 

simplicity of the coding system provided, the use of stages with multiple 

features and ambiguous descriptions results in high inter-observer error 

and a method that is generally unreliable. Also, the use of arbitrary 

stages containing multiple features that may or may not be present as 

opposed to specific ordinal variants directly violates the fundamental 

assumptions of transition analysis and is inappropriate. 

The discrepancies between the performance of the method as 

described in the original article and the results of this study may be due 

in part to genetic differences between the males of Balkan ancestry in the 

original publication and the American white males of the Hamann-Todd 

collection used in this study. The definitions provided should also be 

reviewed and revised as necessary to lower inter-observer error rates to 

acceptable levels. Also, concentrating on ordinal features that change 

over time is preferred to using an agglomerated “stage” approach. 

Despite the disappointing performance of this method for age-at-death 

estimation, transition analysis and other statistically based methods of 

age-estimation represent the most promising new frontier for the 

development of new standards. 

Funding for this research was provided by the Faculty-Led Student 

Research Grant Program at Mercyhurst College. 

References: 

1. DiGangi EA, Bethard JD, Kimmerle EH, and Konigsberg LW. 

A New Method for Estimating Age-at Death from the First Rib. 

Am J of Phys Anthropol 2009 138:164-176. 

2. Kunos C, Simpson S, Russell K, Hershkovitz I. First rib 

metamorphosis: its possible utility for human age-at-death 

estimation. Am J Phys Anthropol 1999 110:303–323. 

3. R Development Core Team. R: A language and environment for 

statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 

Vienna, Austria. 2009 http://www.R-project.org. 

Age-at-Death Estimation, Transition Analysis, Forensic Anthropology 

H40 Cervical Vertebral Centra Epiphyseal 

Union as an Age Estimation Method in 

Teenage and Young Adult Skeletons 

A. Midori Albert, PhD*, University of North Carolina - Wilmington, 

Department of Anthropology, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, NC 

28403-5907 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain an 

understanding of the pattern, sequence, and timing of maturation of 

cervical vertebral centra and how it may be used to estimate skeletal age 

at death. 


introducing a supplemental method of estimating skeletal age-at-death of 

teenagers and young adults, which when used with other skeletal age 

indicators may improve the accuracy of age estimation in human 

identification. 

This study examined epiphyseal union of the inferior centrum of the 

second cervical vertebra (C2 or the axis), and the superior and inferior 

centra of the third though seventh cervical vertebrae, C3-C7. The sample 

comprised 55 individuals of known sex, ethnicity, and age at death. 

There were 23 females (2 American European, 21 African American) and 

32 males (5 European American, 27 African American), aged 14 to 27 

years from the Robert J. Terry Skeletal Collection housed at the National 

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. 

24

A four stage method was used to code the progress of epiphyseal 

union of the vertebral centra or “ring epiphyses”. Stage 0 represented the 

absence of any epiphyseal union activity. Vertebral centra in Stage 0 

were completely bare with no epiphyseal attachment. Stage 1 signified 

beginning union or union in progress. Beginning union was 

characterized by the slightest adherence of any portion of the epiphyses, 

and union in progress included partial to full epiphyseal rings present 

with gaps—adhesion in some areas and open spaces in other areas along 

the surfaces of the vertebral centra. Stage 2 denoted epiphyses that were 

almost completely united or recently united. Beginning union and union 

in progress were consolidated into one stage, Stage 1, and almost 

complete union and recent union were also consolidated into one stage, 

Stage 2, since the timing of fusion seemed to occur over the course of 

only a few months. Stage 3 corresponded to epiphyses that were fully 

fused for some time. The distinction between recently united epiphyses 

(Stage 2) and fusion that had been complete for some time (Stage 3) was 

important in that noting recent union allowed for more age information 

to be extracted from the sample and may yield greater accuracy in 

estimating age at death. That an individual may skeletally show signs of 

youth in adulthood (recently completed union, Stage 2) is more 

informative than simply recognizing an individual as adult (complete 

union, Stage 3) since that adult skeletal status could have occurred many 

years ago. 

Results indicated that: (1) females matured at an earlier age than 

males; (2) there was no identifiable sequence of union—various ring 

epiphyses of C2-C7 fused in seemingly random order; and, (3) cervical 

vertebral ring epiphyseal union correlated with known age-at-death 

moderately well (r=0.63). Thoracic and first two lumbar vertebral ring 

epiphyseal union data for the same sample, however, yielded a higher 

correlation with known age-at-death (r=0.70) probably due to there being 

more data for thoracic and lumbar centra—28 epiphyses—versus 11 

epiphyses for the cervical vertebrae. Cervical vertebral ring union data 

correlated rather poorly with thoracic and first two lumbar vertebral ring 

union data for the same sample (r=0.41). While these results may not 

fare as well as other skeletal age estimation methods as a stand alone 

method, cervical vertebral ring epiphyseal union is still a viable option 

inasmuch as it may be used to corroborate findings from other skeletal 

age indicators and or it can provide a general idea of an age range if 

cervical vertebrae are the only bones available for analysis. 

Age Estimation, Epiphyeal Union, Cervical Vertebrae 

H41 A Pilot Study in the Forensic Potential of the 

Health Index 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS*, 1559 Mount Vernon, East Lansing, MI 

48823; Jennifer M. Vollner, MS, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

48824; Dominique Semeraro, MS, Office of State Medical Examiners, 48 

Orms Street, Providence, RI 02904; and Christopher W. Rainwater, MS, 

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016 

The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees about the 

potential utility of applying the Health Index to skeletal remains 

recovered from forensic contexts. 


describing the results of a pilot study applying the health index to a small 

forensic sample of individuals with known backgrounds and health 

statuses. Further, a general comparison will be made of the overall 

health index score of an aggregate modern forensic population to health 

scores of past, bioarchaeological populations from North America. 

In bioarchaeology the health index developed by Steckel et al. 

(2002), ranks aggregations of individuals clustered into sites, time 

periods, etc., in order to understand relative rankings in biological 

“health.” However, Steckel and Rose (2002:62) speculate “if estimated 

for [single] individuals, it could be used to assess not only average health 

but inequality of health within groups.” Here, health is measured by a 

number of dental and skeletal variables including: age-at-death and 

stature, as well as presence and severity of dental and bony pathologies, 

degenerative joint disease and skeletal trauma (See Steckel et al. 2002 

for further details). 

Previous studies have had limited success when investigating 

applications of life history and activity pattern models to forensic 

remains. However, trends in skeletal pathology such as healed fractures, 

marked vertebral osteophytic activity, and/or poor dental care often 

appear in decedent’s remains from similar cultural contexts such as 

homelessness and individuals with a history of drug addiction problems. 

The goal of this project is to apply the health index to a number of known 

forensic cases which include some background of the decedent’s health 

prior to death. Doing so will not only demonstrate potential differences 

in antemortem health status among individuals, but this will also serve as 

a test of the forensic efficacy of the Health Index. Nearly 50 forensic 

cases with antemortem health statuses ranging from what would be 

considered “good” to “poor” have been assessed and the sample size will 

increase by time of presentation. 

These contemporary individuals will also be grouped into a forensic 

population and compared to other ranked health index scores of past 

bioarchaeological populations (bioarchaeological health index scores 

obtained from Steckel and Rose (2002)). This will demonstrate the 

relative health of a modern North American forensic population in 

comparison to historical populations from North America. 

Preliminary individual health index results suggest that while less 

healthy individuals generally score below those considered healthier, 

there does not appear to be a strong enough trend to recommend the 

health index as a tool for interpreting individual forensic antemortem 

health statuses. When considering a single forensic population, the 

group “% of max” falls above the bioarchaeological mean value (using 

n=65 archaeological sites), but within a one standard deviation interval. 

This suggests the health ranking is not significantly greater than North 

American bioarchaeological scores. This is also true when only 

considering bioarchaeological heath index scores of samples within the 

last 200 years (n=20). It may be important to note that a forensic sample 

is likely biased and thus not a true representation of the health status of 

the entire contemporary United States population from which it is 

derived. Further research based on the potential of these results may be 

to examine a larger U.S. population from a contemporary donated nonforensic 

sample and thus compare these health index scores of those of 

the forensic sample. 

Health Index, Pathology, Demography 

H42 Demographic Differences of Homicide 




Alma Koon, BS*, 731 Pond Branch Road, Lexington, SC 29073; and 

Katherine E. Weisensee, PhD*, Clemson University, Department of 

Sociology & Anthropology, 132 Brackett Hall, Clemson, SC 29634 

After this attending this presentation, attendees will appreciate 

differences in demographic parameters, regional differences, and 

temporal changes between homicide victims examined by forensic 

anthropologists and national homicide statistics. 


informing practitioners of the unique demographic profile of homicide 

victims examined by forensic anthropologists in comparison with 

national homicide trends. 

This study examines the demographic parameters of individuals 

that were victims of homicide, examined by forensic anthropologists, 

and reported to the Forensic Data Bank (FDB). The FDB is a centralized 


database to which forensic anthropologists from around the country 

report information from recent cases. The data used in this study 

contains individuals that were examined by forensic anthropologists 

between 1961 and 1991. By virtue of the fact that individuals in the 

databank were examined by forensic anthropologists, the postmortem 

interval of the average homicide victim in the databank is longer in 

comparison to other homicide victims. This is because forensic 

anthropologists are typically involved in cases where individuals are 

partially to completely decomposed, and when identification through 

other methods is not feasible. The sex ratio, age, and ancestry of 

individuals in the FDB is compared with national homicide statistics in 

order to determine if the demographic profile of individuals examined by 

forensic anthropologists is unique in comparison to national 

homicide trends. 

Preliminary results of the demographic characteristics of homicide 

victims show that 53% of homicide victims in the FDB are female, in 

comparison to national statistics where females make-up only 24% of 

homicide victims. In addition, the mean age of individuals in the FDB 

is 28.3 years, while nationally the mean age of homicide victims is 33.8 

years. Finally, in the FDB, 65.8% of homicide victims were reported as 

White, 22.6% as Black, and 11.6% as other. Nationally, the ancestry 

profile of homicide victims is 52.9% White, 45.3% Black, and 1.7% 

other. In addition to these preliminary results, the FDB will be compared 

to national trends to examine changes over time in the demographic 

parameters of the two samples. Also explored is the regional variation in 

order to determine if there are differences in FDB demographic 

parameters in difference areas of the country. 

These preliminary results suggest that in general, homicide victims 

that are examined by forensic anthropologists are more likely to be 

female than other homicide victims. Moreover, they are somewhat 

younger and more likely to be White in comparison to other homicide 

victims. Given that the main difference between individuals in the FDB 

compared to other homicide victims is that FDB individuals have a 

longer postmortem interval, a number of possible causes for these 

differences are explored. The clear female-bias in the FDB suggests that 

female victims of homicide are more likely to be concealed following 

death and the period between death and discovery is longer for females. 

Furthermore, the results suggest that female victims of homicide are 

more often killed in private settings, perhaps related to sexual violence 

associated with the homicide, and therefore there is a longer period until 

the body is discovered. Social theory research on intimate partner 

homicide and violence against women will be used to contextualize the 

results of this comparison. 

Homicide, Demographics, Comparison 

H43 Ancestry Estimation Using Random 

Forest Modeling 

Joseph T. Hefner, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


AFB, HI 96583; Kate Spradley, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666; 

and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science Center, Office of the 

Medical Examiner, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be introduced to the 

use of Random Forest Modeling (RFM) and the performance of RFM in 

ancestry estimation. 


providing an additional method for the estimation of ancestry. 

Compared to other exploratory and classification methods used in 

anthropological research, for example, principal component analysis 

(PCA) and linear discriminant function analysis (lDFA), Random Forests 

may be more appropriately applied to datasets frequently encountered in 

forensic anthropology. The suitability of Random Forest models to 


forensic anthropological data is due in large part to the rather rigid 

assumptions of parametric methods (i.e., observation independence, 

normal distribution, and homogeneity of variance), which do not hold for 

many of the datasets encountered during forensic anthropological 

research and method development. Fortunately, these assumptions are 

not required for nonparametric methods like Random Forest modeling. 

The most promising potential of Random Forest models is their ability to 

handle all variable types (categorical, continuous, count, etc.) seamlessly 

and to relate the various observations in highly non-linear ways to a 

response variable. Ancestry estimation as practiced by forensic 

anthropologists regularly incorporates both metric (continuous) and 

morphoscopic (categorical) data. In reality, most analysts prefer—or 

trust!—one method over the other. Only after one method (e.g., 

morphoscopic analysis) has provided results does the analyst turn to the 

next (e.g., metric analysis) for confirmation or refutation. Combining 

metric and morphoscopic predictor variables into a single classification 

analysis is generally not possible because of the differences in the 

distribution of the data. RFM avoids these issues using a nonparametric 

classification algorithm (a classifier consisting of a collection of treestructured 

classifiers) relying on majority voting and bootstrapping to 

assign cases to a response class after the initial model is produced from 

a randomly selected training set. Further randomness is introduced 

during initial variable selection and tree construction by randomly 

selecting predictor variables, resulting in a ‘forest’ of trees contrasted of 

randomly selected individuals. A classification matrix (and various 

classification statistics) is then constructed to assess how well the model 

classifies all individuals in the dataset. Two supplementary measures 

produced during Random Forest analysis provide additional information: 

a measure of the importance of each predictor variable and a proximity 

measure (measure of the internal structure of the data). These statistics 

provide the analyst a great deal of information on the structure of the data 

(proximity measure) while identifying the most important variables— 

continuous and categorical, combined—to consider when estimating 

ancestry. 

To examine the usefulness of Random Forest modeling in ancestry 

estimation, we applied the RFM classification algorithm to 34 standard 

cranial measurements and 16 standard morphoscopic traits collected 

from 149 crania. The sample represents modern American Whites (n = 

72) and Blacks (n = 38) from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal 

Collection in Knoxville, Tennessee and identified and unidentified 

border crossers representing Southwestern Hispanics (n = 39) from the 

Pima County Medical Examiner’s Office in Tucson, Arizona. Using 

Random Forest, 89.5% of the cross-validated groups (by group: 

American Whites (AW) = 84.0%; American Blacks (AB) = 92.8%; 

Hispanic (H) = 92.6%) were correctly classified, substantially improving 

classifications compared to using traditional methods independently 

(craniometric = 76.1% [by group: AW = 81.0%, AB = 75.0%, and H = 

69.2%]; morphoscopic = 72.7% [by group: AW = 70.0%, AB = 61.5%, 

and H = 85.7%]). Heuristically setting a threshold value at 0.50, thirtyfour 

variables (seven morphoscopic, 27 craniometric) derived from the 

RFM variable importance measure were examined for underlying 

patterns to better understand their significance. The significant 

morphoscopic traits are all mid-facial (NAS, INA, IOB, NBC, NAW, 

ORB, and NSF), quantifying Brues (1990) assertion that the mid-facial 

skeleton is the most important area to consider when estimating ancestry, 

at least anthroposcopically. The significant craniometric variables are 

facial breadth (ZYB), orbital breadth (OBB), alveolar length (MAL), 

vault width (WFB, STB, ASB) and vault length (NOL, GOL), and 

alveolar prognathism (BPL). The metric variables do not follow the 

same pattern of the morphoscopic variables as they are not isolated to 

one specific area, but rather the craniometric variables seem to describe 

overall cranial morphology. 

The results of the analysis using Random Forest modeling to 

estimate ancestry indicate that the combination of morphoscopic and 

craniometric datasets—which have for so long been diametrically 

opposed—greatly enhances the estimation of ancestry, allowing 

26

esearchers to quantify the process of variable selection. In other words, 

the advantage of Random Forest modeling as a practicable classification 

alternative to traditional methods, such as morphoscopic trait lists and 

discriminant function analysis, is that analysts are freed from the 

obligation of defending method selection while maintaining the principle 

of ancestry estimation. 

Forensic Anthropology, Ancestry Estimation, Quantitative Method 

H44 Ancestry Determination From 

Foramen Magnum 

Stephanie Marie Crider, MA*, Louisiana State University, Department 

of Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe-Russell-Kniffen 

Geosciences Complex, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Mary H. Manhein, 

MA, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State 

University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

After attending this presentation, attendees will become aware of 

possible cranial base changes and of the usefulness of the foramen 

magnum shape as a non-metric characteristic of ancestry to aid in the 

identification of unknown human remains. 


presenting results that suggest possible localized change in cranial base 

dimensions and explore the potential for an eliminating non-metric 

characteristic for ancestry determination. 

Ancestry estimation is a crucial part of creation of a biological 

profile in forensic anthropology. Improper classification of ancestry can 

affect other aspects of the biological profile, such as stature. Several 

metric and non-metric techniques are used by forensic anthropologists to 

determine ancestry of unidentified human remains. Some 

anthropologists believe the cranium to be an excellent indicator of 

ancestry (Rhine 1990). 1 Previous studies have explored the effectiveness 

of using the cranial base’s occipital condyles for ancestry assignment of 

an individual. Holland (1986) 2 studied the Terry Collection, housed at 

the Smithsonian, to develop five multiple-regression equations for 

determining ancestry from osteological landmarks on the cranial base. 

The current presentation focuses on the utility of the foramen magnum 

region on the cranial base as a positive indicator of ancestry. 

This research utilizes the same measurements as the study 

conducted by Holland (1986) to analyze four modern skeletal collections 

consisting principally of whites, blacks, and Hispanics. A total of 12 

measurements were taken from 465 cranial bases from collections of 

modern forensic remains housed at the William M. Bass Donated 

Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, the 

Louisiana State University Forensic Anthropology and Computer 

Enhancement Services (FACES) Laboratory, Pima County Office of the 

Medical Examiner, in Tucson, Arizona, and the Maxwell Museum of 

Anthropology’s Osteology Laboratory at the University of New Mexico. 

All measurements were taken with a sliding caliper unless the 

osteological landmarks were missing or incomplete. These 

measurements included: length of the left and right occipital condyles, 

maximum width of the left and right occipital condyles, minimum width 

of the left and right occipital condyles, maximum distance between 

occipital condyles, minimum distance between occipital condyles, 

maximum interior distance between occipital condyles, foramen 

magnum width, foramen magnum length, and length of the basilar 

process. A Student’s t-test indicates that variation of the foramen 

magnum width among blacks, whites, and Hispanics is significant (p < 

0.05). Also, when comparing results of the measurements of blacks and 

whites from the modern forensic collections with those from Holland 

(1986), 2 variation was significant (p < 0.05) in two of the 12 

measurements for both sex and ancestry. These results suggest that 

localized changes on the cranial base may have occurred. The maximum 

distance between occipital condyles increased in length and the 

maximum interior distance between occipital condyles has decreased 

in length. 

Finally, to assess non-metric variation of the shapes of the foramen 

magnum, five different shape categories were defined to classify each 

foramen magnum: Arrowhead, Circle, Diamond, Egg, and Oval. A 

Pearson’s chi-square test showed a significant relationship between 

black, white, and Hispanic ancestral groups and foramen magnum shape 

(p < 0.05) based on shape analysis as defined by the researchers. To test 

the practicality of applying such a non-metric assessment of ancestry 

based upon the shape of the foramen magnum, a survey was conducted 

at the 62 nd American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting. 

That survey asked participants, ranging in experience from 

undergraduate students to experts, to classify a group of foramen 

magnums into one of the five categories. The results from the survey 

showed that the five foramen magnum shape categories are highly 

subjective and that the Diamond and Arrowhead categories should be 

combined. Interestingly, since none of the 37 presumed Hispanic skulls 

(either self-identified or defined by the Pima County Office of the 

Medical Examiner) possessed an Egg-shaped foramen magnum, an Egg 

shape has the potential to be used as an eliminating non-metric 

characteristic. 

References: 

1. Rhine, Stanley. “Non-Metric Skull Racing.” Skeletal Attribution 

of Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology. Albuquerque: 

Maxwell Museum of Anthropology Press, 1990. 

2. Holland, T.D. “Race Determination of Fragmentary Crania by 

Analysis of the Cranial Base.” Journal of Forensic Sciences. Vol 

31, No 2. (1986): 719-725. 

Ancestry, Foramen Magnum, Biological Profile 

H45 Group Classification Using Traditional 



the Potential Applications of These Methods 

to Fragmentary Crania 

Jolen Anya Minetz, MA*, and Jiro Manabe, MA, JPAC-CIL, 310 

Worchester Avenue Building 45, Hickam AFB, Honolulu, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a greater 

understanding of the utility of various craniometric methods as they 

pertain to differentiating populations as well as associating fragmentary 

crania with specific groups. The goal of this presentation is to examine 

the morphological variation evident in the crania of three groups and the 

utility of several craniometric techniques: (1) traditional craniometric 

measurements; (2) angles acquired for cranial landmarks; and, (3) 

geometric morphometric techniques to differentiate between groups and 

assist with the assessment of race in a biological profile. 


contributing to the continuous evaluation of the utilization of 

craniometric analyses and emphasize the importance of developing 

diverse craniometric methods for the analysis of fragmentary crania. 

The purpose of this research is to test the discriminatory ability of 

these analyses in the classification of three groups, and evaluate the 

ability for these methods to classify fragmentary crania. The reference 

sample consists of 198 dry male skulls representing three groups: 

Japanese (n=105), American White (n=42) and American Black (n=51). 

Cranial landmarks were collected in Cartesian coordinates using a 

Microscribe G2X digitizer. The three dimensional coordinates were 

deposited into a formatted spreadsheet that computed inter landmark 

distances for 24 standard cranial measurements and angles between 


landmarks for as 8 angle variables. A generalized procrustes analysis 

was also conducted on the data in Morphologika2 to obtain principle 

components for using in discriminant function analyses. 

A discriminant function analysis was performed using SPSS 

statistical software. The classification rate for the three groups using the 

standard measurements alone ranged from 78.6% for American White to 

90.2% for American Black. The classification rate for the angles was 

between 80.0% for Japanese and 86.3% for American Black, and when 

the analysis was performed in a combined model (standard 

measurements and angles), each of these groups were correctly classified 

above 90%. The 3D data classified the three groups at a higher rate than 

the standard craniometric analysis but not as well as the combined 

method; the predicted group member ship ranged from 82.4% for the 

American Black group to 94.3% for the Japanese group. 

The utility of the different methods was tested in the analysis of 

several fragmentary crania. Different models were used depending on 

the portion of the cranium preserved. If portions of the crania, such as 

the craniofacial area or cranial vault are preserved, then measurements 

and landmarks are generally abundant enough to be analyzed using all of 

the models. However, in more heavily fragmentary crania where the 

midsagittal plane was compromised or lateral fragmentation obscured 

the contralateral point of a paired craniometric point, then metric 

analysis was only capable with geometric morphometric analysis. 

Heavily fragmentary crania that exhibited these patterns tended to retain 

very few non metric traits that could assist with race determination. The 

cranial fragments were analyzed by inputting a database into FORDISC 

3.0 comprised of the principle components produced by the geometric 

morphometric analysis of the aforementioned groups and cranial 

fragment and running a discriminant function analysis. The results were 

then compared to the mtDNA haplogroup of the cranial fragment, and in 

some cases to the antemortem records. Overall, the classification results 

were useful, but the discriminating powers of the landmarks ranged 

based on the location and number of obtainable landmarks. For future 

research it would be valuable to assess the utility of all combinations of 

landmarks and how the combinations relate to the underlying 

morphology in order to better predict the classification potential for any 

fragmentary crania. It would also be valuable to compute and analyze a 

variety of inter landmark angles in order to understand the relationship 

of small areas of the cranium in relation to the overall morphology and 

provide more minute measurements to assist with the classification of 

fragmentary crania. 

The development and validation of these methods in the future will 

greatly assist with the biological profile of fragmentary remains. Since 

the cranium is the most important aspect of the skeleton for determining 

race, advancing these techniques for the purpose of evaluating cranial 

fragments that retain little information otherwise, could be a great help 

in a variety of forensic contexts where remains have been compromised 

and may not yield an mtDNA sequence. 

Geometric Morphometrics, Cranial Angles, Craniometrics 

H46 Sex and Ancestry Estimation Using the 


Michael W. Kenyhercz, MS*, 6327 Catawba Drive, Canfield, OH 44406 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn methods for 

quantifying shape measures in the olecranon fossa through GIS and 

elliptical Fourier analysis and their application to sex estimation. 


testing the Rogers method on the distal humerus and also offering a 

method to quantify complex shapes. 

Forensic anthropologists generally work with either partially or 

fully skeletonized human remains. Their task is to generate a biological 

profile consisting of age, sex, stature, and ancestry for law enforcement 


to aid in a positive identification. Due to the Daubert standards for the 

admissibility of expert opinion, the measures of the biological profile 

should ideally have a quantifiable basis and associated levels of 

confidence (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc 1993). 

Therefore, forensic anthropologists are constantly looking for new 

techniques and also ways to improve previous methods (i.e., ways to 

quantify non-metric methods) to aid in their investigation. 

The distal end of the humerus is often found through recovery 

efforts due to its durability in withstanding environmental factors. 

Through this durability, the distal humerus is frequently used in sex 

estimation. The morphology of the humerus has been previously studied 

by Rogers (1999, 2006, 2009) as a means to estimate sex in adults and 

adolescents. Using four criteria (trochlear constriction, trochlear 

symmetry, angle of medial epicondyle and olecranon fossa shape and 

depth), Rogers has reported sex estimation accuracy rates as high as 

92%. The most significant of the aforementioned traits was determined 

to be the shape and depth of the olecranon fossa; however, her study is 

based on visual observations with no quantifiable measurements. For 

example, the male olecranon fossa form is described as a “shallow 

triangle,” while the form of the female olecranon fossa is described as a 

“deep oval” and Rogers concluded that, “shape is more important than 

depth” (Rogers 1999). Beyond these simple descriptions, there are no 

guidelines on how this trait is to be examined and evaluated. Her method 

results in subjective characteristics by offering only qualitative data, 

especially regarding shape. 

This study was conducted to evaluate the Rogers method in regard 

to olecranon fossa depth and shape for sex estimation. A sample of 140 

(35 black males, 35 black females, 35 white males, 35 white females) left 

humeri were digitized from the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection 

curated at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, Cleveland, OH. 

The coordinate data for each humerus was uploaded into ArcGIS (ESRI 

2008) and ArcMap was used to define the olecranon fossa outline, or rim, 

and to calculate the output variables maximum and mean slope, 

maximum curvature, and surface volume. Outlines were also analyzed 

using Elliptical Fourier Analysis (EFA) through the program Shape 1.3 

(Iwata and Ukai 2002) where principle components of shape were 

calculated and visualized. The programs TPSdig (Rohlf 2010) and 

GMTP (Taravati 2009) were used to calculate centroid size from the 

outlines. In all, 13 variables representing size, shape, and depth of the 

olecranon fossa were obtained and used for sex and ancestry estimation. 

FORDISC 3.0 (Jantz and Ousley 2005) was then used to perform 

discriminant function analysis from the 13 variables. Forward Wilks 

stepwise selection was used to select the appropriate variables for each 

analysis and all percent correct classifications were cross validated. A 

four-way sex and ancestry estimation for all groups classified 48.3% 

correctly and a two-way sex estimation of the individuals classified 

82.5% correctly. Two-way sex and ancestry specific ranged from 58.3% 

to 82.5% correct classification. 

The Elliptical Fourier results show that shape of the olecranon fossa 

rim had no correlation with either sex. Both sexes showed similar ranges 

of shape variation, only being separated by size. Between ancestral 

groups there were significant differences in shape through slope, 

curvature and the principle components generated through the EFA. This 

study presents an objective means to record the olecranon fossa form and 

demonstrates that sex and ancestry can be determined through the 

olecranon fossa alone while also meeting the Daubert standards for 

court admissibility. 

Sex Estimation, Humerus, GIS 

28

H47 Applicability of Femur Subtrochanteric 


Sean D. Tallman, MA*, and Allysha P. Winburn, MA, Joint POW/MIA 

Acct Command, Central ID Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 


advantages and limitations of utilizing femur subtrochanteric shape in 

distinguishing between ancestral groups during the analysis of 

fragmentary and/or incomplete skeletonized remains. 


testing the applicability of the platymeric index, a relatively common 

postcranial ancestry determination method, on samples of modern 

Southeast Asian and white American individuals. 

The determination of ancestry from postcranial skeletal remains 

presents a significant challenge to forensic anthropologists in the 

analysis of fragmentary and/or incomplete remains. Morphological and 

metric observations from the femur can be used to differentiate between 

broad ancestral groups. In particular, metric dimensions of the 

subtrochanteric region are believed to assist in distinguishing between 

individuals of Asian and non-Asian descent (Bass 2005; Brothwell 1981; 

Gilbert and Gill 1998; Wescott 2005). To determine the shape of the 

subtrochanteric region, the platymeric index is calculated by dividing the 

subtrochanteric antero-posterior diameter by the subtrochanteric mediolateral 

diameter and multiplying by 100 (Wescott 2005). It is believed 

that individuals of Asian descent typically exhibit a medio-laterally 

broad (platymeric) subtrochanteric region with platymeric indices below 

84.9, while non-Asian individuals typically exhibit a more rounded 

(eurymeric) subtrochanteric region with platymeric indices between 84.9 

and 99.9. Less frequently, individuals may exhibit an antero-posteriorly 

broad (stenomeric) subtrochanteric region with platymeric indices over 

100; however, the data to support the association of platymeria with 

Asian ancestry were collected from small samples composed largely of 

pre-contact Native American individuals. This can be partially attributed 

to the makeup of the skeletal collections used for skeletal biology 

research in the United States, which lack significant numbers of 

Northeast and Southeast Asian individuals. Ancestry assessment 

methods derived from North American samples, such as the platymeric 

index, have not been rigorously tested on other Asian samples. Thus, it 

is unclear whether such methods can be utilized to identify individuals of 

Northeast and Southeast Asian descent in a forensic context. 

This dearth in research is of particular concern to the forensic 

anthropologists at the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command’s Central 

Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL), where casework routinely 

requires ancestry assessment of highly fragmented or incomplete 

remains that were recovered from, or unilaterally turned over by, Asian 

countries. The primary goal of the JPAC-CIL is to recover and identify 

U.S. service members killed during past conflicts, including the World 

Wars, Korean War, and Vietnam conflict. The ability to distinguish 

between the remains of Southeast Asian and Black and White American 

males is integral to accomplishing this goal. 

As many JPAC-CIL cases exhibit extensive peri-mortemtrauma 

(i.e., from aircraft crashes and projectile trauma) and originate from 

extreme postdepositional environments (i.e., highly acidic soils and 

humid jungle environments), fragmentation of remains is common. 

However, due to its robusticity, the femur is often represented in 

casework assemblages, making it an important skeletal element for sex, 

age, race, and stature estimation. 

This study tests the applicability of the platymeric index on a 

sample of 128 modern Southeast Asian males (age 23-96 years) housed 

at Khon Kaen University (KKU), Khon Kaen, Thailand, and 77 White 

American males (age 18-41 years) identified by the JPAC-CIL, Hickam 

AFB, Hawaii. The KKU skeletal collection consists of more than 600 

known individuals from northern Thailand. The JPAC-CIL sample 

consists of U.S. servicemembers who died during World War II, the 

Korean War, and the Vietnam conflict. Measurements were obtained 

with standard anthropometric sliding calipers and rounded to the nearest 

millimeter. The platymeric index of the left femur was calculated; 

however, the right femur was substituted if the left was damaged 

or missing. 

While results indicate that the KKU sample contains a larger 

number of platymeric femora, both samples exhibit variability in 

subtrochanteric form. In the KKU individuals, platymeric indices range 

from 64.1 to 109.6 and are normally distributed (mean = 83.9; S.D. = 

7.36), with 58% exhibiting platymeric, 39% exhibiting eurymeric, and 

3% exhibiting stenomeric femora. In the JPAC-CIL sample, platymeric 

indices range from 76.5 to 118.4 and are normally distributed (mean = 

91.6; S.D. = 10.2), with 44% of individuals exhibiting eurymeric, 36% 

exhibiting platymeric, and 19% exhibiting stenomeric femora. 

Differences in the mean platymeric indices for the two samples are 

statistically significant (p ≤ 0.001), with the KKU platymeric index 

range generally lower, and the JPAC-CIL range generally higher; 

however, the considerable overlap in the ranges urges caution when 

using platymeric indices in ancestry assessment. 

Ancestry Determination, Femur, Southeast Asia 

H48 Improving Sex Estimation From the 

Cranium Using 3-Dimensional Modeling 

From CT Scans 

Natalie R. Shirley, PhD*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Emam 

E.A. Fatah, MS, Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of 

Tennessee, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 

37996-0720; and Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, Center for Musculoskeletal 

Research, University of Tennessee, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, 

TN 37996 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about the 

utility of alternative approaches in exploring and quantifying sexual 

dimorphism in the human skeleton, particularly the cranium. This 

presentation will offer the forensic community simple and effective 

measurement techniques for improving sex estimation from the cranium 

providing measurements with the highest discriminatory power for sex 

estimation, as well as precise descriptions of how to take the 

measurements accurately using radiographs and/or calipers. 


facilitating more accurate sex estimation techniques for the cranium than 

those used most frequently in forensic practice today. In addition, this 

study uses a large sample of modern Americans, thereby increasing 

statistical power of the discriminant functions. Finally, reducing the 

number of measurements needed to accurately discriminate sex from the 

cranium will lend these functions useful for fragmentary crania, as well. 

Among the skeletal elements used for sex estimation, postcranial 

elements are generally superior to cranial elements. Therefore, when 

cranial and postcranial elements are present forensic anthropologists 

typically give more weight to postcrania, especially os coxae; however, 

skeletal forensic cases often consist of a skull only, or a skull and 

fragmentary/incomplete postcranial remains. A query of cases submitted 

to the Forensic Data Bank showed that 45% of cases consist of a skull 

with no sexable postcranial elements. 

Metric sexing of crania using statistical procedures came to forensic 

anthropology via Giles and Elliott’s classic paper on the American 

population. 1 Their success rate was in the high 80%, a rate typical of 

subsequent cranial sexing analyses. In general, accuracy rates exceeding 

90% are rare in sexing crania, whether using morphological traits or 

measurements. Several studies have shown lateral radiographic 


cephalometry to be more accurate than traditional techniques for cranial 

sex estimation. 2-4 Hsiao et al. reported 100% accuracy in sexing 

Taiwanese adults with 18 variables, as well as rates ranging from 94% to 

98% using between one and three variables only. A subsequent 

validation study on a European population achieved 96% accuracy. 4 A 

unique aspect of lateral cephalometry is that it allows the practitioner to 

take endocranial measurements and calculate angles that are informative 

of skull shape. In view of these promising reports, the present study 

conducts a similar analysis on the William M. Bass Donated skeletal 

population using computed tomography (CT) scans and an innovative 

3D bone-modeling algorithm (the bone atlas). CT scanning technology 

enables the crania to be examined more thoroughly than has heretofore 

been possible and to examine structures that are not easily accessible in 

traditional evaluation. 

The study sample consists of CT scans of adult skeletons from the 

William M. Bass Donated Collection. Each scanned cranium was 

rendered as a 3D model and then added to the cranial atlas. A statistical 

bone atlas is an average mold that captures the primary shape variation 

in the bone and facilitates rapid and accurate generation of automated 

measurements. An atlas consists of a sample of bones that all contain the 

same number of points and share the same spatial relationship. At the 

writing of this abstract, the cranial atlas contains 40 individuals; the 

projected atlas size upon completion will be 600-700 individuals 

(January 2011). A combination of linear and angular measurements was 

calculated from the atlas and t-tests and discriminant function analysis 

with cross-validation and stepwise variable selection were performed on 

these measurements. T-test results showed basion-nasion, metopionglabella 

to glabella-basion angle, and the linear distance between the tips 

of the mastoid processes to be the most significant measurements 

(p

H50 CPR Fractures in Infants: When Do 

They Occur? 

Miriam E. Soto, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be more aware of 

characteristics that may indicate which infants are more susceptible to 

CPR related rib fractures. 


contributing information which may be helpful for differentiating 

between abuse and CPR related rib fractures. 

The literature indicates that CPR related rib fractures in infants and 

children are rare, occurring in only 0-2% of studied samples. To test 

these findings, this study examined all autopsy records of infants and 

children, up to the age of two years, that came into the Harris County 

Institute of Forensic Sciences (HCIFS) office during a one year period 

(n=186). The purpose of this evaluation was to identify characteristics 

which may be contributory to CPR fractures. In addition, this study 

compared the bone quality of infants/children that had CPR fractures and 

those that received CPR but did not exhibit fractures. Since CPR 

fractures often occur in ribs 4-6, an effort was made to examine ribs from 

these positions; however, in a single case rib two had to be examined due 

to availability. There was no preference for side. The samples for this 

study were taken from the osteological material stored in the 

Anthropology Laboratory of the HCIFS. It is hypothesized that infants 

that were in poor health for extended periods of time will be more 

susceptible to rib fractures due to a lower quality of bone. Gross 

observations with and without a stereoscope of the ribs of infants with 

CPR fractures was used to assess bone quality. 

Of the 186 infant/child cases that entered the HCIFS office in 2009, 

162 received CPR. Only seven of these 162 cases had CPR related rib 

fractures. These results indicate that cases in which infants/children 

received CPR fractures are indeed rare, occurring in 4% of infant/child 

cases that received CPR. 

Regarding the direct comparison of ribs for the evaluation of bone 

quality, the rib specimens of six infants aged two to five months that 

received CPR fractures were compared to the rib specimens of four 

infants aged two to four months that received CPR without receiving 

CPR fractures. All infants without CPR fractures were born at ≥36 

weeks gestation while four out of the six infants with CPR fractures were 

born at

information that can be attained by their examination can accurately be 

used in the determination of mechanisms of injury. 

Butterfly Fractures, Blunt Force Trauma, Mechanism of Injury 

H52 Microscopic Analysis of Sharp Force 

Trauma From Knives: A Validation Study 

Christopher W. Rainwater, MS*, and Christian Crowder, PhD, Office of 

the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and 

Jeannette S. Fridie, MA, 520 First Avenue, Forensic Anthropology Unit, 


The goal of this presentation is to present error rates in determining 

blade class characteristics from tool mark impressions made by knives. 


providing a baseline study with which known error rates for determining 

knife class characteristics from tool marks can be referenced. 

Forensic anthropologists are often asked to examine defects on 

bone and cartilage created as a result of sharp force trauma. Previous 

research has established the precedent for analyzing cut mark 

morphology on bone and cartilage and has promoted the use of class 

characteristics (Andahl 1978; Symes 1992). While this research has 

been invaluable in advancing toolmark analysis in bone, it has largely 

focused on tool marks left by saws as they are more variable than knives 

and thus have the capability to leave more class characteristics. 

Although a general anthropological approach to tool mark analyses has 

been established and accepted, there is a lack of method validation and 

known error rates for correctly identifying these characteristics, 

particularly in reference to knives. This is necessary in light of the 

recommendations of the recent National Academy of Sciences Report 

(2009) and considering that analytical results are subject to Daubert 

standards of courtroom-acceptable scientific evidence (1993). 

Researchers have noted this deficiency, but previous efforts have 

suggested no correlation between serrations on a blade and the regularity 

of striation patterns in experimentally cut pig cartilage (Love et 

al. 2010). 

This research attempts to establish a baseline study to assess the 

accuracy of associating a tool mark with a particular blade class under 

optimal conditions. Experimental defects will be evaluated for class 

characteristics that relate to only two blade characteristics: blade 

serration (serrated, partially serrated, and non-serrated) and direction of 

blade bevel (left, right, or both). A medium-to-soft casting wax is 

presented as an optimal material when it is necessary to transect material 

with an experimental cut. Wax blocks were impacted in two ways: (1) 

in a single impact transecting the wax block (to mimic a stab wound); 

and, (2) in a repetitive, reciprocating motion (to mimic dismemberment). 

Impacts were made for each of the fourteen knives in the study sample 

and coded to be unknown to the researchers (four partially serrated 

blades, five non-serrated blades, and five serrated blades with a variety 

of different bevels and serration patterns). The test cuts were then 

assessed by three researchers with varying degrees of experience 

analyzing sharp force trauma. Additionally, two microscopes were used 

to test the necessary level of technology for these analyses (a digital 

microscope offering an increased depth of field and the ability to 

reconstruct defects in three dimensions and a standard light microscope). 

Cuts were analyzed at the observer’s preference between 10x and 50x 

magnification with the assistance of fiber optic lights to produce oblique 

lighting. In total, 168 cut marks were observed. Error rate was assessed 

as the number of misclassifications divided by the total number of 

observations. 

Serrated blades were generally distinguishable from non-serrated 

blades due to their distinct, patterned striations whereas non-serrated 

blades leave fine, unpatterned striae. Distinct striations can generally be 

considered as equidistant, but the angle of the impact of the blade is the 

most influential aspect of the distance between striae left by blade teeth, 


so pattern recognition was favored over measurements. Two observers 

misclassified two of the four partially serrated blades as serrated blades 

while the third misclassified all four as serrated blades. Blade bevel was 

assessed by determining the corresponding direction change in the vshaped 

kerf. The average raw error rates (misidentification of class) for 

all three observers was 19% for the assessment of blade serration using 

both the digital and light microscopes. Partially serrated blades were 

particularly problematic in this study as the impact may not have left 

both a serrated and a non-serrated signature. When the adjusted error 

rates are considered from only serrated and non-serrated blades, the 

average error rate for determining blade serration was 2% on both the 

digital and light microscopes. Average error rates were 18% for 

determining blade bevel on the digital microscope and 10% on the light 

microscope, but this corresponded to the experience level of the 

observer. These preliminary results show that, under optimal conditions 

and an appropriate level of experience, assessments of blade serration 

and blade bevel can be made with a high level of accuracy. This research 

will be supplemented by experimental cuts in bone and cartilage. 

Tool Marks, Sharp Force Trauma, Validation Study 

H53 Strontium Particles: Confirmation of 

Primer Derived Gunshot Residue on Bone 

in an Experimental Setting 

Alicja K. Kutyla, MS*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, 

Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

After attending this presentation, attendees will appreciate the 

potential of using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy 

Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDXA) to confirm both visually and by 

elemental composition, the presence of primer derived gunshot residue 

(GSR) on bone. 


discussing how the use of an SEM and EDXA on bone fractures has the 

potential of providing a means of determining whether a bullet was 

involved and a mechanism of trauma. 

Motivation for this project was derived from recent research that 

resulted in two papers presented at the 60th annual meeting of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences held in Washington, DC. This 

research was first undertaken to demonstrate the presence of primer 

derived GSR deep within the wound tract (Berryman et al., 2010); a 

finding that is counter to the generally-held belief that it is found only on 

clothing, skin, or at the subcutaneous level. The GSR examined in this 

study is solely primer-derived and not other general soot-related particles 

that can arise from multiple sources including propellant, lubricants, and 

metals found in the bullet, bullet jacket, cartridge casing, and gun barrel. 

It is vital to differentiate the sources of GSR, as it is only primer derived 

GSR that are considered unique to the shooting environment. It is these 

unique particles measuring 0.1 µm to 55 µm in diameter that are 

examined in this study. 

The current research was directed at confirming the original 

findings of primer derived GSR (Berryman et al., 2010). The 

experimental design is essentially the same as the original one. Pork ribs 

with intact muscle tissue were used in an experimental attempt to 

identify bullet wipe on bone at distances from one to six feet. Instead of 

the barium/antimony/lead-based primers used in the initial study, bullets 

with strontium-based primers were used since this element is not readily 

present in the shooting environment. In addition, the authors devised a 

rigorous protocol both in the shooting and processing environments to 

eliminate the potential risk of contamination. The presence of strontium 

therefore, would confirm that the GSR particles observed on bone are 

derived solely from primer components, and not from elements present 

in the bullet, bullet casing, or gun barrel. 

32

After processing, which involved the forceful removal of 

periosteum and drying of the ribs, each fragment was placed in the 

Hitachi S-3400 SEM for visual analysis. With backscattered electrons, 

the intensity of the signal is directly related to the atomic number of the 

material being illuminated by the electron beam. By adjusting the 

contrast, brightness, gain, and scan rate, particles containing heavy 

elements, having a higher atomic number, in this case Strontium, will 

glow brightly as compared to the rest of the field, specifically the bone. 

Particles that glowed brightly using this process were then examined for 

their elemental composition using the Oxford INCA Energy 200 

Dispersive X-Ray Analyzer. 

Strontium particles were found on ribs shot at gun-to-target 

distances of one to six feet confirming the original findings of Berryman 

et al. (2010), that primer derived GSR occurs well below the level of 

subcutaneous tissue and is present on bone, even after the forceful 

removal of the periosteum in gun-to-target distances of up to 6 feet. This 

research is ongoing with expanded sample size and an increase in gunto-target 

distances to determine the maximum range primer-derived GSR 

can be detected on bone. Further research could provide a method for 

determining gun to victim distance although this could be extremely 

complicated due to the wide variety of ammunition available, including 

variations in primer composition, caliber and bullet type; however, this 

technique could prove useful in situations where ammunition type is 

known permitting test firings to establish case-specific distances. 

Additionally, if GSR particles are present after decomposition then these 

observations can be used to verify a gunshot wound to bone in the 

absence of a typical gunshot wound fracture pattern. 

This research was supported by the Forensic Science Foundation 

Lucas Grant. 

Gunshot Residue, Terminal Ballistics, Gunshot Trauma 

H54 Determining the Epidemiology of Hyoid 

Fractures in Cases of Hanging 

and Strangulation 

Samantha M. Seasons, BA*, University of South Florida, 4202 East 

Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620; Charles A. Dionne, MA, University of 

South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, 

Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33620-7200; Leszek Chrostowski, MD, 

Hillsborough County Medical Examiner’s Office, 11025 North 46th 

Street, Tampa, FL 33617; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of 

South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will become familiar 

with literature in forensic science concerning injuries to the hyoid bone 

following hanging or strangulation; will learn about local hanging or 

strangulation cases from recent years exhibiting fracture of the hyoid 

bone; and, will learn about possible epidemiological causes for the 

trauma seen in the hyoid following hanging or strangulation. 


providing age ranges for unilateral and bilateral fusion of the greater 

cornua to the hyoid body, discussing the effect of demographic variables 

on the fusion patterns, and improving the interpretation of traumatic 

injuries to the neck. 

A review of the forensic literature on neck trauma in hanging and 

strangulation cases showed two distinct patterns. Overall, there appears 

to be little debate that hyoid fractures are more common when the cause 

of death is strangulation. Traumatic injuries to the hyoid bone following 

strangulation have been described as being frequent and previous studies 

have shown that up to one third of strangulations cases lead to a fracture; 

however, in cases of hangings, opinions are much more varied. Some 

studies argue that fractures in hanging cases are much fewer than in 

strangulations cases, while other authors mention that trauma to the 

hyoid bone is common following hanging. Population variation may be 

responsible for the divergent literature and this study attempts to identify 

the variables that may be responsible for the variation. 

To study local cases of hanging and strangulation, data collection 

was performed at the Hillsborough County Medical Examiner’s Office in 

Tampa, Florida. The Hillsborough County Medical Examiner’s Office 

services a population of more than one million people and investigated 

an average of 1,915 cases between 2004 and 2009. A total of 148 cases 

between fall 2004 and spring 2010 listed hanging, ligature strangulation, 

manual strangulation, asphyxia, or compression of neck as the cause of 

death. Autopsy reports were analyzed to obtain a series of variables from 

each case. In addition to sex, age, and ancestry of the victim, cause and 

manner of death, past or present history of substance abuse, description 

and location of the hyoid bone trauma if present, and if noted by the 

medical examiner, fusion of the hyoid bone were collected. 

The vast majority of cases, 134 out of 148 (91.0%), were classified 

as hangings. An additional eight were indicated as strangulations, two as 

ligature strangulation, and four were classified as a combination of 

suffocation, asphyxia, and compression of neck and chest. Similarly, 

134 cases were listed as suicides. Nine cases were homicides, four were 

classified as accidents, and one case remained undetermined. From the 

148 cases reviewed, only eight contained a fractured hyoid bone while 

another two autopsy reports made no mention of the hyoid bone. Six of 

the eight fractured hyoid bones were from hanging cases while the 

remaining were classified as manual strangulations. Overall, 2.05% of 

strangulations cases contained a traumatic injury to the hyoid bone, 

while damage was present in only 4.0% of suicides cases analyzed. In 

half of the hanging cases exhibiting trauma to the hyoid, force exerted on 

the ligature implement appeared to be a significant cause for the damage. 

In one case, the victim hung them self from a bridge while in two 

additional cases, the men weighed well over 200 lbs. Age could possibly 

be a factor as an ossified hyoid bone is more prone to traumatic injuries 

than an unfused one. Unfortunately, the autopsy report discussed the 

fusion of the hyoid in only five cases. Seven out of eight fractured hyoid 

bones were males, but this is representative of the sample used. Through 

a better understanding of the variables that affect hyoid fractures in 

hanging and strangulation cases, forensic anthropologists may be able to 

better interpret a fracture found on a skeletonized hyoid. 

Hyoid Bone, Hanging, Strangulation 

H55 Fusion Patterns in Modern Hyoid Bones 

Charles A. Dionne, MA*, and Samantha M. Seasons, BA, University of 

South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Soc 

107, Tampa, FL 33620; Leszek Chrostowski, MD, Hillsborough County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 11025 North 46th Street, Tampa, FL 33617; 

and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of South Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820 

The goal of this presentation is to examine how unilateral and 

bilateral fusion patterns in the hyoid bone vary with age within a 

population, and how the ossification process can help forensic 

anthropologists understand fracture patterns of the hyoid in traumatic 

cases. 


providing age ranges for unilateral and bilateral fusion of the greater 

cornua to the hyoid body, discussing the effect of demographic variables 

on the fusion patterns, and improving the interpretation of traumatic 

injuries to the neck. 

The fusion of primary and secondary ossification centers is one of 

the commonly used methods by forensic anthropologists to age 

adolescents and young adults due to the specific age ranges at which 

elements of long bones and vertebrae fuse together; however, few studies 

have looked at the fusion process in the hyoid bone. Ossification of the 

hyoid bone occurs slowly over time and as the greater cornua fuse with 


the hyoid body, chances of traumatic injuries increase. This project was 

designed to study the fusion pattern of the greater cornua to the body of 

the hyoid bone using a modern North American sample, determine how 

variation arises between individuals of various sexes and ancestries, and 

determine probabilities of trauma to the hyoid bone from patterns of 

unilateral and bilateral fusion of the greater cornua. 

Data collection was performed in collaboration with the 

Hillsborough County Medical Examiner’s Office in Tampa, Florida. 

During a five-month period, all hyoid bones were collected during 

autopsy for the study regardless of demographics or cause of death. A 

sixth month was later added to collect additional hyoid bones to increase 

the percentage of juveniles and African-Americans in this sample. For 

each hyoid bone, demographic information, cause and manner of death, 

and past or present abuse of alcohol and drugs were noted. A total of 264 

hyoid bones were processed and used for analysis. The hyoid bones 

were processed by removing the majority of the excess soft tissue and 

then boiling each hyoid to facilitate the removal of the remaining tissue. 

A mobility test was performed during processing to assess the fusion of 

each greater cornua: a positive test occurred when the cornua was still 

slightly movable while a negative result was associated with a greater 

cornua that was completely immobile. Once the hyoid bones were dry, 

photographs and radiographs were taken of each hyoid using superior 

and posterior views to observe the joints between the hyoid body and 

each greater cornua. The radiographs were used to assess the fusion of 

each greater cornua to the hyoid body. Each cornua was scored 

independently by two anthropologists: a score of “0” indicated a 

completely unfused cornua, while presence of fusion, whether complete 

or incomplete, was scored as “1.” In addition, a linear regression was 

used to determine how much variation in age can be explained through 

unilateral and bilateral fusion. 

Results indicate that a wide variation exists in the unilateral and 

bilateral fusion patterns of the hyoid bone. Unilateral fusion was 

observed as early as at eight years of age while bilateral fusion was first 

visible in a 23-year-old. As a previous study demonstrated, the majority 

of hyoid bones are fully fused in the elderly but in some cases the hyoid 

may remain only partially fused. Two males from our sample, one in his 

70s and one is his 80s, still exhibited a unilaterally fused hyoid at the 

time of death. Overall, the number of individuals displaying unilateral 

fusion increased steadily until the 40-49-age bracket and decreased 

afterwards. Conversely, the percentage of individuals with bilateral 

fusion constantly increased from 65.0% in the 20-29-age bracket to over 

90.0% in the 70-79 and 80+ age ranges. In both ancestral groups the 

mean age for bilateral fusion occurred approximately five years earlier in 

men, and in both sexes, African-American individuals exhibited bilateral 

fusion two years earlier. The regression formula demonstrated that 30% 

of the variation in age is explained by greater cornua fusion patterns. 

Through the understanding of the pattern in which the greater cornua 

fuse to the hyoid bone, anthropologists can better understand estimate 

the risk of fractures to neck structures according to the ossification of the 

hyoid bone. 

Hyoid Bone, Fusion Pattern, Age Estimation 

H56 The Prosecution of a 28-Year-Old Case of 


Turhon A. Murad, PhD*, California State University - Chico, 

Department of Anthropology, 400 West First Street Chico, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have addressed the 

events leading to the successful prosecution of an older male who was 

responsible for the death of a nine-month-old infant 28-years earlier. 

The presentation will impact the forensic science community as 

well as those family members who have lost an infant in a suspicious 


death by suggesting that after a lengthy period of grief, noteworthy 

skeletal evidence of a death due to shaken-baby can be revealed 

following an earlier diagnosis of death as being due to a case of SIDS. 

On November 28, 1979, a nine-month-old infant, David Drew 

Dickson, died while temporarily in the care of his day-care provider’s 

husband. It appeared the day-care provider’s husband demanded his 

wife leave him in charge of three infants while she left to purchase beer. 

When the wife returned, one of the children was found dead in an 

adjacent room. The husband did not provide an immediate explanation 

other than to suggest the child must have fallen from the sofa where he 

was sleeping. Furthermore, the husband stated that he had attempted 

CPR when he noticed the child had stopped breathing. The infant was 

taken to the local hospital and pronounced dead. The death was deemed 

suspicious and the infant’s body was autopsied. In spite of evidence of 

trauma (i.e., broken ribs and cranial hemorrhage), the pathologist 

concluded that the death was due to SIDS. 

Although the child’s parents were suspicious of the incident, no 

further investigation was conducted and David Drew Dickson was 

buried the following week. Years later a forensic pathologist from a 

neighboring county requested the exhumation of the infant’s body. The 

forensic pathologist stated that new testimony from the day-care 

provider suggested a different interpretation of the evidence. On May 2, 

2006, the requesting pathologist, various staff of the California State 

University, Chico Human Identification Laboratory (CSUC-HIL), along 

with local sheriff and district attorney investigators conducted the 

exhumation. 

The infant’s remains had very little flesh and only a minor amount 

of adipocere adhering to the largely skeletonized remains; therefore, the 

remains were transported to the CSUC-HIL for skeletal analysis. The 

analysis revealed a complete set of skeletal remains of a nine-month-old 

infant still in their correct anatomical position. Of particular note, greenstick 

and complete rib fractures were noted among right ribs Nos. 2, 3, 

5, 6, and 7, as well as left ribs Nos. 2 and 3. Furthermore, a deformed 

fracture was discovered on the right side of the occipital bone near the 

temporal-occipital junction of the lambdoidal suture. All the fractures 

were determined to be peri-mortem due to the combination of their 

location, deformation, and/or lack of healing. The result of the skeletal 

analysis suggested that the child likely died from a combination of being 

shaken and/or squeezed around the chest/abdomen along with blunt 

force trauma to the head. 

Armed with these two new lines of evidence (testimony from the 

day-care provider, as well as the skeletal analysis) the day-care 

provider’s ex-husband was charged with the murder of David Drew 

Dickson. 

The suspect pled guilty to California Penal Code 192a. In addition 

to murder, the Code addresses voluntary manslaughter, or the killing of 

a human being without malice, and in such an instance permits a 

maximum term of eleven years in state prison. In this specific case, the 

defendant’s sentence was suspended; he was placed on five-year 

probation, and ordered to pay a fine of $5,200.00. 

Exhumation, Shaken Baby, Cold Case 

H57 Infanticide and Unclear Law: The Death of 

Four Infants 

William C. Rodriguez III, PhD*, Armed Forces Medical Examiner, 1413 

Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850; Tasha Z. 

Greenburg, MD, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 

Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 7530; and David R. Fowler, MD, Office 

of the Chief Medical Examiner, 111 Penn Street, Baltimore, MD 21201 

The goal of this presentation is to provide details on the 

investigation, recovery, and forensic examination of the remains of four 

infants, three of which were discovered in a skeletal state. Examination 

34

procedures involving locating hidden or buried remains will be discussed 

in addition to the sorting and aging of the skeletal remains of three full 

term babies. Also, to be discussed is the importance of social services, 

law enforcement, and community in observing clues to infanticide 

behavior 

Impact of this presentation will provide present and future forensic 

investigations insight as to the forensic analysis of decomposed and 

skeletonized remains of newborn and term infants. The forensic 

community will benefit from the knowledge that specialized recovery is 

required for remains of fetus and infants, and that proper handling and 

detailed analyses is required when dealing with such cases 

Recovery of decomposed remains of late term fetus and newborns 

can be quite challenging for forensic scientists and investigators. The 

small size of such deceased and their skeletal elements, and the limited 

ossification of skeletal elements, provides for easy disposal and rapid 

degradation of the remains compared to that of adults. 

In July of 2007 hospital personnel in Ocean City, Maryland alerted 

authorities of a possible infanticide of a newborn child as a result of 

treating a 37-year-old woman who had arrived at the emergency room 

with vaginal bleeding. Examination of the local resident by physicians 

revealed that the woman had recently given birth, which she denied. The 

police searched the woman’s residence and discovered a deceased 

newborn hidden beneath a bathroom vanity. Further searching of the 

residence by police led to the discovery of two additional infants 

wrapped in plastic and placed in a clothing trunk; a fourth body was 

found in a motor home parked at the residence. The finding of the 

multiple sets of remains prompted law enforcement officials, including 

the FBI, to conduct an intensive search of the suspect’s house and entire 

property. A search of the house included removal of various walls and 

ceilings. Fiber-optic cameras and cadaver dogs were utilized to search 

inside of the residence. A preliminary search of the ground property was 

conducted utilizing a combination of ground penetrating radar, cadaver 

dogs, and soil probing. Suspicious areas of the ground property were 

examined by establishing a marked grid followed by hand excavation. 

Fetal skeletal elements can be difficult to recover; thus, this multipronged 

approach to recovery allows complex surfaces and subsurface 

areas to be examined thoroughly and efficiently. 

The female suspect was arrested and initially charged with murder 

for the death of one of the infants a male fetus (aged at 26 weeks of 

gestation), recovered from beneath the bathroom vanity. The woman, 

who worked as a cab driver and was the mother of four other children, 

was never suspected of being pregnant by her live-in boyfriend during 

the four pregnancies. According to neighbors, the suspect always wore 

extra large and loose fitting clothing and made up various excuses during 

her pregnancies to hide her condition. 

Anthropological examination of the three sets of skeletal remains 

revealed them to represent full term fetuses, between 37 to 40 weeks of 

age based on osteological development. No apparent skeletal 

abnormalities were noted and no clear evidence of skeletal trauma was 

present. At the Grand Jury hearing the criminal charges against the 

woman were dismissed as a result of insufficient evidence after a 

medical examiner’s report. The defendant did admit the children were 

hers; however, she insisted that she did not kill them. An additional 

complication leading to dismissal of the charges is that “Maryland law 

expressly protects woman who abort their own unborn children from 

criminal prosecution.” Also, it unclear whether it was a crime to retain 

the remains of miscarried children. As a result of this case, the Maryland 

law was modified to address the two issues. 

Anthropology, Fetal Remains, Pediatric 

H58 Proficiency and Competency Testing — 


Vincent J. Sava, MA*, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester 


After attending this presentation, attendees should be able to 

understand the basic differences between competency and proficiency 

test programs. Attendees will learn the basic concepts and procedures 

related to competency and proficiency testing, especially as they relate to 

the human identification discipline, and how to meet the criteria and 

expectations of laboratory accreditation agencies. Additionally, drawing 

from experiences and lessons learned from the JPAC Central 

Identification Laboratory, participants will learn best practices and 

practices to avoid. Attendees should be able to utilize the material 

presented to formulate and manage competency and proficiency test 

programs for their staff. 


advancing quality assurance in forensic laboratories and forensic 

programs. It will allow human identification laboratories to expedite the 

planning and implementation of competency and proficiency test 

programs in their organizations. These programs, when properly 

established and managed, will ultimately strengthen and elevate the 

forensic profession as a whole. 

Quality assurance programs in forensic laboratories and activities 

have been a growing trend over the past decade. The publication of the 

National Academy of Sciences Report, “Strengthening Forensic Science 

in the United States: A Path Forward” and its recommendations have 

made quality assurance programs and accreditation relevant and thus an 

increasing priority for forensic human identification laboratories. Since 

1999, the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification 

Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) has implemented a stringent quality assurance 

program to ensure the scientific integrity of its casework. The CIL’s 

quality assurance program ultimately led to its accreditation by the 

American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors Laboratory 

Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB) Legacy Program in 2003–the first 

forensic skeletal identification laboratory to be so credentialed. In 2008 

the CIL was re-accredited under the ASCLD-LAB International 

Program using ISO 17025 (General Requirements for the Competence of 

Testing and Calibration Laboratories) and criteria from the ASCLD- 

LAB supplement, Supplemental Requirements for the Accreditation of 

Forensic Science Testing and Calibration Laboratories. 

Informal surveys and queries within the human identification 

discipline includiing discussions during sessions of the Scientific 

Working Group for Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH), reveal that 

there are many misconceptions and misunderstandings about 

competency and proficiency test programs. During its accreditation 

efforts, the CIL gained vast experience with competency and proficiency 

testing programs. While these programs are a key component to any 

successful quality assurance program and its accreditation, at the same 

time they have the potential to negatively consume resources if not 

properly understood and effectively managed and administered. To that 

end, the CIL recognizes that it is imperative that laboratories first 

understand the basic differences between competency and proficiency 

testing programs—what they are, and what they are not. As such, this 

presentation will demonstrate the differences between competency and 

proficiency test programs from a standpoint of their intents and purposes, 

discuss minimal program requirements that human identification 

laboratories need to meet for ASCLD-LAB accreditation, outline criteria 

and considerations for training, testing, and corrective action, as well as 

discuss similarities between the two programs. 

Administration and management considerations of competency and 

proficiency test programs are also addressed. For example, competency 

and proficiency test programs need to strike a reasonable balance 


etween their intended outcomes, the resource expended, laboratory 

productivity, and satisfying accreditation requirements. 

Competency Test, Proficiency Test, Quality Assurance 

H59 Errors, Error Rates, and Their Meanings in 


Angi M. Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Christian M. 

Crowder, PhD*, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, 

New York, NY 10016; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA 16546; and Max M. Houck, PhD, West Virginia University, 1600 

University Avenue, 208 Oglebay Hall, Morgantown, WV 26506-6217 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a clearer 

understanding of the different classes of errors pertinent to forensic 

methods and practice, and will be provided a better taxonomy for method 

development, validation, and quality issues in their daily work. 


providing a clearer understanding of the different types of errors. This 

understanding will make error easier for practitioners to identify, control 

for and discuss, and will provide the courts with a better understanding 

of how to interpret the classes of error introduced in scientific testimony. 

Overall, this presentation will result in a higher quality of forensic 

practice. 

The discussion of errors and error rates has gained momentum in 

forensic science following the rulings from the Daubert trilogy (Daubert 

v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., General Electric Co. v. Joiner, 

and Kumho Tire Co., Ltd. v. Carmichael) and has accelerated with the 

National Academy of Sciences National Research Council’s Report 

“Strengthening Forensic Science in the United States: A Path 

Forward.” While the concepts of testing, standards, peer review, and 

general acceptance are fairly easy to understand, identify, and evaluate, 

the issue of error has proven to be more problematic. It has become clear 

that a discussion of what “error” means and how it is applied in forensic 

sciences is warranted. Furthermore, the convergence of science and law 

has made the identification and interpretation of error in the courtroom 

an even greater challenge. This paper presents an overview of the 

concept of method error as it pertains to forensic science techniques and 

attempts to clarify the difference between method error and other types 

of error that may be encountered in a forensic examination. As part of 

this clarification, the notion of the so-called “zero error rate” is 

addressed, and why this is an impossible and inherently non-scientific 

claim. 

Too often, forensic practitioners themselves misunderstand the 

meaning of technique or method error (method validity), often confusing 

it with practitioner (human) error. Statistical error (unexplained 

variation) inherent in a statistical model is yet another type of error that 

the practitioner needs to consider. Misunderstanding or conflating 

different classes of error may lead practitioners to be reluctant to address 

the issue of error as it relates to their discipline or their individual case 

results. This confusion can also been seen in the courts, where attempts 

have been made to derive a measure of method error from things like 

practitioner proficiency testing results. Certainly the courts are 

concerned with both method error and practitioner error, but practitioner 

error is not error in the scientific sense and, for the most part, does not 

relate to method validity. 

Misunderstanding (and misuse) of the concept of method error by 

forensic practitioners is particularly evident in claims of a “zero error 

rate” for particular forensic techniques. What some practitioners fail to 

realize is that despite the strength of the basis for certain forensic 

association techniques (e.g., the uniqueness of fingerprints as a basis for 

their use in identification), experts can still make false matches. The 

issue of method error does not relate to the uniqueness of a particular 


feature, but to how reliable and valid the methods of comparison are in 

determining a positive match, exclusion, or concluding that there is no 

scientific basis for either determination. Most forensic examination 

results require tempered conclusions, and practitioners need to 

demonstrate caution and distinguish errors from uncertainty 

and probability. 

Error, Daubert, Validation 

H60 A Simulation for Exploring the Effects of 

the “Trait List” Method’s Subjectivity 

on Consistency and Accuracy of 

Ancestry Estimations 

Cris E. Hughes, PhD*, 2306 East Delaware Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802; 

Chelsey A. Juarez, PhD, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High 

Street, Social Science 1, Department of Anthropology, Santa Cruz, 

California 95064; Gillian M. Fowler, MS, Lincoln University, Brayford 

Pool Lincoln, Lincolnshire, LN6 7TS, UNITED KINGDOM; Taylor 

Hughes, PhD, University of Urbana-Champaign, 2306 East Delaware 

Avenue, Urbana, IL 61802; and Shirley C. Chacon, BA, FAFG, Avenida 

Simeón Cañas 10-64 zona 2, Guatemala, 01002, GUATEMALA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a clear 

understanding of the specific aspects of applying the trait list method that 

potentially incur bias. The sources of bias are tested by simulating the 

application of the trait list method, and the results will provide attendees 

with empirical information on the overall consistency of the trait list 

method. 


providing a mathematical analysis of the bias embedded in a commonly 

used forensic anthropological method for assessing ancestry. The results 

of the analysis allow the authors to make specific conclusions regarding 

the consistency of the method, as well as recommendations for how to 

avoid bias when utilizing the trait list method. 

The nonmetric “trait list” methodology is widely used for assessing 

ancestry of skeletal remains. Although, recent valid critiques have been 

made, 1-3 the method has endured because of its ease of application and 

the familiarity of traits to the anthropologist. For a given unidentified 

skeleton, a checklist of traits is completed, noting each trait’s state of 

expression. The distribution of the trait states among three geographic 

ancestries (Asian, African, and European) are typically used in 

conjunction with additional lines of evidence (such as metric analysis) to 

arrive at an ancestry estimation for the unidentified skeleton. While the 

application seems straightforward, there are both theoretical and 

logistical issues with this approach. Trait states are not exclusive to a 

single ancestry; instead, the trait list method is grounded in the belief that 

individuals of a specific ancestry more often express a particular trait 

state than other ancestries. Because nonmetric traits are considered 

heritable, albeit to various degrees, genetic drift and gene flow must be 

considered when accounting for shifts in distributions of trait state 

expressions. The polygenic nature of nonmetric traits maintains a 

complex path for variation in expression. The evolutionary premise of 

trait state distribution within a population and the influential genetic 

nuances are often lost in the application of the trait list method, such as 

with the use of “mixed” or “admixed” ancestries. 4 This designation 

implicitly relies on the concept that trait states are unique to a given 

ancestry and that “Asian,” “African,” or “European” parental ancestries 

actually existed at some point in the past. 5 

Choosing to incorporate the admixture approach into their research, 

because whether this is a theoretically sound approach or not, it is an 

approach that has been generally practiced over the decades. Thus, this 

research is based on the typical application of the trait list method, not 

the theory-bound approach that has recently found support. 6,7 The effects 

of the method’s embedded subjectivity on subsequent accuracy and 

36

consistency are largely unknown. Trait list ancestry assessment involves 

a series of decisions (how many and which traits to use) and 

interpretations (how to describe the ancestry based on the trait states), 

but there is no protocol. 4 For example, if 10 out of 10 observed traits 

express the Asian state, the associated skeleton would typically be 

classified as being of Asian ancestry, but what if only 9, 8, or 7 out of 10 

are associated with Asian ancestry? What is the threshold for 

considering the conventional admixture estimations when using the “trait 

list” methodology? 

Using a mathematical simulation that realistically represents the 

possible analytical variations of trait list ancestry estimation. The 

simulation explores: (1) trait selection; (2) number of traits employed; 

and, (3) ancestry choice thresholds affect the ancestry estimation of a 

skeleton. The relative accuracy of the trait list method in actual 

casework has not been comprehensively examined. The current study is 

a simulation of this accuracy, and tests how ancestry estimations for a 

given skeleton can differ from practitioner to practitioner when 

methodological choices vary. Using two temporally and geographically 

diverse samples comprising over 100 individuals, the simulation 

demonstrated that trait selection, quantity of traits, threshold choices, and 

the exclusion of high-frequency traits within a given sample had minimal 

effect on consistency in ancestry determination. For all datasets and 

Runs, accuracy AS was maintained above 90%. 

References: 

1. Hefner J. An Assessment of Craniofacial Nonmetric Traits 

Currently Used in the Forensic Determination of Ancestry. Proc 

Am Acad For Sci; 2002. 

2. Wheat A. Estimating Ancestry Through Nonmetric Traits of the 

Skull: A Test of Education and Experience. Proc Am Acad For 

Sci; 2009. 

3. Williams S. A New Method for Evaluating Orbit Shape. Proc Am 

Acad For Sci; 2007. 

4. Hefner J, Emanovsky P, Byrd J, and Ousley SD. The Value of 

Experience, Education, and Methods in Ancestry Prediction. 

Proc Am Acad For Sci; 2007. 

5. Long J and Kittles R. Human Genetic Diversity and the 

Nonexistence of Biological Races. Hum Biol 2003; 75(4):449-71. 

6. Hefner J, Emanovsky P, Byrd J, and Ousley SD. Morphoscopic 

Traits the Statistical Determination of Ancestry Using Cranial 

Nonmetric Traits. Proc Am Acad For Sci; 2006. 

7. Hefner J. Morphoscopic Traits: Mixed Ancestry, Hispanics, and 

Biological Variation. Proc Am Acad For Sci; 2009. 

Nonmetric Cranial Traits, Ancestry Estimation, Bias 

H61 The More the Better?: Evaluating the 

Impact of Fixed Semi-Landmark Number 

in Cranial Shape Variation Analyses 

Shanna E. Williams, PhD*, University of Florida, Department of 

Anatomy, PO Box 100235, Gainesville, FL 32610-0235 

The goal of this presentation is to refine the applicability of fixed 

semi-landmark-based techniques in biological profiling. 


highlighting several important factors which contribute to the 

effectiveness of fixed semi-landmarks in characterizing morphological 

variation in cranial curvature. 

Geometric morphometrics (GM) often utilizes anatomical landmark 

coordinates, in either two or three dimensions, to capture biological 

shape. Anatomical landmark coordinates exhibit biological homology 

across specimens and are categorized into three groups: Type I - discrete 

juxtapositions of tissue; Type II - points of maximal curvature; and Type 

III – extremal points (Bookstein, 1991). However, some anatomical 

regions, such as boundaries and surface curvature, lack well-defined 

landmarks. GM addresses this obstacle via the application of semilandmarks 

to such regions. The simplest form of semi-landmark data are 

represented by the placement of equally-spaced points on curves or 

surfaces. An algorithm resamples raw curve data into a manageable 

number of evenly-distributed fixed points. The number of fixed semilandmarks 

is user-defined and reflects just enough points to maintain the 

original curve’s “shape.” However, exactly what constitutes enough 

points is arbitrary and thus entirely at the researcher’s discretion. 

The present study examines the relationship between the number of 

fixed semi-landmarks utilized and their effectiveness in detecting sex 

and population differences in cranial curvature. Three-dimensional fixed 

semi-landmarks were captured on the orbital rims, zygomatic arches, 

nasal aperture, and maxillary alveolar ridge of 193 crania embodying a 

mix of socially-determined race (Black, White) and biologicallydetermined 

sex from the Terry, Hamann-Todd, Maxwell Museum, and 

W.M. Bass skeletal collections of known individuals. Curvature data 

was gathered as continuous stream data using a portable digitizer. Fixed 

semi-landmarks were then extracted utilizing a beta program (Slice 

2005), which applies an algorithm that re-samples each curve into a userdefined 

number of evenly-distributed points. Two separate resampling 

sessions were performed on the original dataset. During the first session 

of resampling (S1) the following numbers of fixed semi-landmarks were 

extracted for each region: orbits = 40; zygomatic arches = 64; nasal 

aperture = 16; maxillary alveolar ridge =16. These amounts were halved 

during the second resampling session (S2) (orbits = 20; zygomatic arches 

= 32; nasal aperture = 8; maxillary alveolar ridge =8). 

The resultant regional semilandmark data from each session were 

fit into a common coordinate system via a generalized Procrustes 

analysis (GPA), which filters out the effects of location, scale, and 

rotation. A principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on the 

covariance matrix of the GPA-aligned coordinates in order to reduce 

dimensionality. The resulting principal component (PC) scores, which 

accounted for 85% of the total variance in each region, were employed 

in subsequent multivariate statistical analyses. A multivariate analysis of 

variance (MANOVA) of the PC scores from both sessions detected 

significant race and sex effects in all of the regions (Pr>F=

H62 A Performance Check of Ear Prediction 

Guidelines Used in Facial Approximation 


Pierre Guyomarc’h, MS*, Universite Bordeaux 1, UMR 5199 PACEA, 

UMR 5199 PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, Av des Facultes, Bat B8, 

Talence, 33405, FRANCE; Carl N. Stephan, PhD, JPAC - CIL, 310 


The goal of this presentation is to report quantified data on 

established ear prediction methods used in facial approximation. 


communicating to peers the strength and weaknesses of ear prediction 

methods. 

Facial approximation is the method used to predict the appearance 

of the face from a skull. This face can then be advertised in the hope that 

somebody recognizes it, possibly generating leads that may assist in the 

identification of the skeletal remains. For facial approximation to work 

effectively, it is important for prediction methods to be valid and 

accurate. This applies to all components of the face, including the ears. 

Currently several prediction rules have been published and widely 

employed with respect to the pinna or outer part of the ear, but few 

empirical validation studies have been conducted. 

In this study, previously published ear prediction methods using 

seventy-eight living individuals of known age and sex who had been 

subjected to CT-scans were examined. The sample is composed of 43 

males and 35 females with a mean age of 41.4 years (18-84 years, SD = 

18.8 years). Osseous and cutaneous surfaces were reconstructed using 

the half-maximum height algorithm of the TIVMI software (Treatment 

and Increased Vision in Medical Imaging, developed by Bruno Dutailly, 

Université de Bordeaux). Landmarks and associated angles and 

measurements were collected to quantify the orientation and size of the 

mastoid process, nasal bones, nose and outer ear regions. Lobe 

attachment and supramastoid crest development were also visually 

assessed. These data enabled us to examine the following well-known 

ear prediction rules: 

1. The main axis of the ear is oriented parallel to the major axis of 

the posterior mandibular ramus (Welcker 1883). 

2. The height of the ear approximates the height of the nose (and a 

variation using an additional two millimeters (Ullrich and 

Stephan, in press) and the width of the ear equals half its height 

(Gerasimov 1949, 1955). 

3. A large and broad ear is related to a massive and prominent 

mastoid process and the inverse regarding small ears; upper ear 

protrusion is also related to a strong development of the 

supramastoid crest (Gerasimov 1955). 

4. Anterior projection of the mastoid process is associated with free 

lobes; and inferior projection of the mastoid process with 

attached lobes (Fedosyutkin and Nainys 1993). 

5. The ear is oriented parallel to the profile angle of the nose 

(Wilkinson 2004). 

Student t-tests, correlation matrices and cross table analysis were 

performed to evaluate the above mentioned prediction rules and to assess 

asymmetry, sexual dimorphism, and age trends within the sample. None 

of the empirical rules concerning the reconstruction of the ears reported 

in the literature proved reliable in our sample. The gross approximation 

of the height of the ears from the height of the nose was observed (mean 

error = 5 mm), however, no correlation was found between these two 

measurements. Although the width of the ear is not half of its height, the 

two were correlated (r = 0.56), and the width averaged 0.6 of the height 

(mean error of the estimate = 2 mm). In addition, no bony dimensions 

collected on the mastoid region were found to correlate with ear 

dimensions (r < 0.3). The only additional relationships between the soft 

and hard tissue that we observed were that a strong supramastoid crest 

appears to be linked with a free ear lobe (χ² = 5.65; df = 1; p-value = 


0.02). However, the inverse is not true, subtle mastoid crests are 

associated with both free and attached ear lobes and height and width of 

the ear appears to be influenced by age (r < 0.38) and sex (p-value < 

0.01). 

These findings indicate that classic ear prediction rules hold little 

value for accurate prediction in facial approximation. Future efforts 

should be made to examine other relationships between the ear and 

the skull. 

Facial Approximation, Facial Reconstruction, Pinna 

H63 The Importance of Testing and 

Understanding Statistical Methods in the 

Age of Daubert: Can FORDISC Really 

Classify Individuals Correctly Only One 

Percent of the Time? 

Nicole D. Siegel, DVM*, Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 1 Wade 

Oval Drive, Cleveland, OH 44106-1767; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic, Anthropology, 501 


After attending this presentation, attendees will avoid future 

misunderstandings in the use of FORDISC and will be better able to use 

the program correctly and effectively. 


exploring common misunderstandings in statistical analysis, particularly 

FORDISC. 

Fordisc 3.1 (Jantz and Ousley 2005) uses discriminant function 

analysis, as has previous versions, and FORDISC has provided more and 

more additional information in addition to the classification results 

during its evolution. Failure to understand this additional information 

has led to a claim that challenges the accuracy of FORDISC. The recent 

publication of a series of FORDISC tests by Elliott and Collard (2009) is 

a result of their failure to appropriately interpret statistical results. 

Elliott and Collard classified individuals from five groups in the 

Howells database (Berg, Northern Japan, Santa Cruz, Tasmania, and 

Zulu) into all Howells groups. They used all 56 craniometric variables 

in FORDISC as well as three groups of 10 variables from different 

cranial regions (basicranium, neurocranium, and face). Due to a 

misunderstanding of posterior probabilities, they reported very low 

percentage correct classification in general and concluded that 

FORDISC classifies less than 1% of individuals correctly. Their 

criterion was that classifications showing a typicality probability of less 

than 0.01 or a posterior probability of less than 0.8, no matter which 

group was most similar, were considered incorrect. Unlike typicality 

probabilities, the posterior probability does not have a threshold 

requirement. Higher posterior probabilities generally reflect higher 

probability of correct classification, but there are no specific 

recommendations or discrete cut-off values. In the statistical literature, 

having a posterior probability of at least 0.8 is merely considered a 

“strong” classification. Their test conditions seem rigged for failure: 

when using 56 variables, they were using more variables than many of 

Howells sample sizes, resulting in lower typicality probabilities, and 

when using only 10 variables form certain areas of the cranium, they 

were extremely unlikely to get high posterior probabilities. Additionally, 

they classified Howells individuals from the five groups using every 

other Howells group to ascertain if groups showed geographic similarity. 

However, they designated only one specific group from each region that 

should theoretically be the most similar one, and any other classifications 

were deemed incorrect. For instance, in Europe, only a classification of 

Howells’ Berg individuals into Norse was considered correct. 

Elliott and Collard’s methods were followed as closely as possible 

using both FORDISC 3.1 (2005) and SAS 9.1 (2003), using the Howells 

38

database. Individuals from the same five ancestral groups were used, 

and run against all individuals in the Howells database. The analyses 

were conducted with all 56 variables and the same three groups of 10 

variables representing the basicranium, neurocranium, and face. 

Because Elliott and Collard did not state which typicality probability was 

used, the chi-square typicality was used in this study. Correct analysis of 

the results resulted in correct cross-validated classification percentages 

of 18 to 32%, which is significantly greater than random, and greater 

than 1%. Classifications with higher posterior probabilities showed 

higher correct percentages, and regionally patterned variation was 

strongly indicated. The disparity between Elliott and Collard’s 

conclusions and those of the current study is clearly a result of their 

misuse of posterior and typicality probability thresholds. Further, the 

geographic affinities of the test groups were confirmed when a more 

flexible criterion of regional similarity was accepted. Unlike Elliott and 

Collard’s results, the current study showed that when the reference group 

is excluded, the percentage correct regional classifications is comparable 

to or slightly higher than the percentage correct classifications when the 

group is included in the analysis. 

With the advent of Daubert standards, it is critical for forensic 

anthropologists to validate methods. The current analysis has shown that 

it is imperative to thoroughly understand the statistical underpinnings of 

any method, and that faulty criteria and test procedures can lead to false 

conclusions of low validity for a method. The number of measurements 

and stipulations for classification correctness used by Elliott and Collard 

resulted from a statistical misunderstanding that virtually guaranteed a 

low classification accuracy rate. 

FORDISC, Discriminant Function Analysis, Statistics 

H64 Forensic Interviews: Corroborating 

Evidence and Collecting Data for 

Anthropological Field Work 

Charles J. Massucci, MA*, Tampa Police Department, 411 North 

Franklin Avenue, Tampa, FL 33602; and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, 

University of South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn which 

forensic interviewing techniques can be applied by anthropologists who 

are interviewing international populations in anticipation of field 

excavation. The same techniques can also be considered by investigators 

in the United States who are reviewing cold case homicides and missing 

person investigations involving immigrant and migrant populations. 


discussing the validity of memory recall from survivors or witnesses of 

genocide, massacre, torture, murder, and other acts of violent crime after 

an extended period of time has elapsed. This presentation will examine 

techniques for developing a forensic interview strategy when 

approaching witnesses and survivors of violent crimes and international 

atrocities. 

From November of 2008 through July of 2010, investigators from 

the University of South Florida conducted interviews with Nigerians 

who survived or witnessed a massacre that occurred in Asaba, Nigeria on 

October 7, 1967. The process of creating an oral record began with a 

review of the known literature and the development of an interview 

strategy. The interviewers established a general interview protocol that 

was used to establish the witness’ role during the event, ascertain specific 

information that could assist with a field excavation, and open a forum 

that offered the interviewees the opportunity to recount their experience. 

The research team conducted more than 40 interviews for this project 

and these interviews were used for the analysis presented in this research 

paper. 

This paper will address the benefits of conducting a directed, goal 

oriented interview that also allows interviewees the opportunity of tell 

their stories (in the oral tradition). This technique allows for the broadest 

opportunity to gather information and identify evidence. Investigators 

who attempt to gather legal truth from events which have occurred in the 

past are faced with the challenge of corroboration and will be limited by 

the existence of evidence. These types of forensic interviews are a 

starting point for the anthropologists who are searching for physical 

evidence, or it can be used by law enforcement to corroborate physical 

evidence. 

Interviewing survivors or witnesses to genocide, massacre, torture 

or other acts of violent crime presents specific problems of memory 

recollection, legal reliability, and/or credibility. The role of 

anthropologists in these types of investigations is more varied than in 

typical American casework. Therefore, the ability of anthropologists, 

pathologists, and investigators to successfully interview family members 

and survivors is critical to successfully completing the mission. 

Each interview for the Asaba project was developed in a unique 

manner and the interviewers were required to direct the process so the 

established interview goals were met, while not interfering with the 

natural process of the interview. The interviewers were also required to 

connect the common points of each interview (in real time) and to 

address any points of discrepancy between the interviews. 

The investigators who are developing a forensic interview strategy 

must consider the following factors before they consider the validity of 

episodic memory: the elapsed amount of time between the event and the 

interview, the psychological effects of trauma, the potential of outside 

influence upon the memory, cultural perspectives of the interviewees, the 

age of the interviewee at the time of the event and the time of the 

interview, and any other hidden agendas brought to the interview 

process. The investigators and anthropologists have to understand that 

information (or evidence) provided these witnesses has the greatest 

potential for being unreliable and this presents very specific challenges 

to the interviewer. This challenge is the purpose for creating a defined 

forensic interview strategy. 

The paper will also address the methodology for documentation of 

the data, including the creation of missing person(s) questionnaire and 

victim databases, and the best practice standards for obtaining, sharing, 

and analyzing such data. 

The initial results from this interview project suggest that the 

forensic interview strategy did establish the reliability of the witness, 

corroborated known facts, and directed the anthropologists with the field 

excavation plan. 

Interview, Massacre, Cold Case 

H65 Archaeological Methodology Used at the 



Scott C. Warnasch, MA*, New York City Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Christian Crowder, 

PhD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016; and Kristen Hartnett, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be presented an 

overview of the archaeological methods used during the 2006/2007 

Human Remains Recovery Operation at the World Trade Center (WTC) 

site. Additionally, some of the findings, including the relationships 

between the buried deposits of WTC material and human remains 

recovered during the excavation and specific situations and activities 

conducted during the 2001/2002 recovery operation that lead to their 

omission will be presented. 



providing a body of information and protocols, developed and tested in 

the field that could be adapted to future mass disaster situations, built 

upon, and potentially used to improve recovery efforts, especially where 

a high degree of fragmentation is involved. 

This presentation will provide an overview of the archaeological 

methods used during the ongoing Human Remains Recovery Operation 

at the World Trade Center site conducted by the New York City Office of 

Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) since 2006 and will discuss findings 

from the excavation. The topics addressed will include the 

archaeological methods used to identify, delineate and document the site, 

the identification of WTC debris patterns and their relationship to the 

recovered human remains concentrations, and what these patterns reveal 

about the original recovery effort that took place immediately following 

the terrorist attacks. 

The primary objective of the WTC operation was to recover 

victims’ remains and personnel effects for identification. The excavation 

also presented an opportunity to test which archaeological methods 

would be most effective in a large-scale mass disaster recovery 

operation. In addition, the archaeological investigation provided insight 

into aspects of the initial response and recovery conducted in 2001/2002. 

Although the OCME operation was not intended to analyze or critique 

the original recovery operation, but when understood within the larger 

site context it provided general explanations for why much of the 

remnant WTC material and remains were not originally removed 

from site. 

A total of 952 potential human remains have been recovered from 

the excavation during sifting operations conducted in 2006 and 2007. 

Potential human remains were recovered from 49 (83%) of the 59 

excavated units. In addition, 29 potential remains were recovered from 

subterranean structures located on and adjacent to the site. The three 

main contexts where WTC debris and human remains were found were: 

(1) sections of intact paved pre-9/11/2001 surfaces; (2) pre-9/11/2001 

unpaved areas; and, (3) voids caused by debris impact, machine 

excavation and pre-9/11/2001 subterranean structures. Many of these 

contexts were found to be partly the results of recovery activities carried 

out during the 2001/2002. Photographs of the original recovery effort 

clearly support the excavations findings and illustrate these relationships. 

Many of the archaeological contexts exposed during the excavation 

were not necessarily unique to the WTC disaster and could be 

encountered in other mass disaster situations. These insights regarding 

the original recovery effort including the assessments of the strategies 

used in the OCME operation provide a body of information that could be 

adapted to future situations, which could be used to improve mass 

disaster recovery efforts, especially where a high degree of 

fragmentation is involved. The OCME WTC operation demonstrates the 

strength and practicality of using archaeological methods as a framework 

for systematic mass disaster recovery operations. In addition, the 

operation demonstrates that archaeologists properly trained in forensic 

protocols are uniquely effective at carrying out the variety of tasks it 

takes to ensure that the scene has been accurately defined, cleared and 

documented. Attendees will gain an appreciation for the practical 

benefits of archaeological methods in such tasks as defining horizontal 

and vertical site boundaries using stratigraphic analysis and artifact 

identification, as well as some conceptual ideas regarding how pre- and 

post-disaster land use factor into an urban mass disaster 

recovery operation. 

It is not suggested that a mass disaster response and recovery 

operation similar to the WTC disaster should, or could, be conducted 

solely by archaeologists, but that those leading forensic investigations 

and recovery operations might consider the benefit of adopting 

archaeological methodology, as well as including uniquely trained 

professional archaeologists in future mass disaster response teams. 

Archaeology, World Trade Center, Mass Disaster 


H66 World Trade Center Revisited: A Bayesian 


Benjamin J. Figura, MA*, New York City Office of the Chief Medical 


The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate to attendees the 

potential of a multivariable identification process using Bayesian 

statistics in a mass fatality context. The specific variables presented 

include anthropological estimates of age and sex, dental information, and 

recovery location and uses the World Trade Center disaster as an 

example. 


providing an alternative approach to victim identification for disasters 

featuring highly fragmented and/or degraded remains and where 

traditional identification methods have reached their limits. The 

approach presented utilizes fragments of data deemed insufficient for 

identification based on a single modality. 

Disaster victim identification (DVI) for mass fatality incidents 

involving highly fragmented and/or degraded remains is a difficult 

process because the individuating information that is required by the 

various identification disciplines is often limited. For example, the 

roughly 9,000 unidentified remains from the World Trade Center (WTC) 

disaster possess varying amounts of anthropological, odontological, 

and/or DNA data that go unused because none is sufficient for 

identification on their own. Further, information such as recovery 

location is often available but never directly utilized in the identification 

process. Steadman et al. (2006) 1 recently demonstrated how age, sex, 

stature, pathology, and dental data may be combined in a Bayesian 

framework to generate a statistical statement regarding the relative 

strength of a single circumstantial identification. The goal of this 

research is to apply the Steadman et al. approach to combine age, sex, 

dental, and recovery location data in a mass fatality context, where a 

defined victim population presents practical and statistical advantages. 

This approach incorporates the concept of a statistical threshold for 

identification as currently used for direct DNA-based identifications of 

WTC remains (Posterior Odds > 4x10 9 ). 

Ante- and postmortem data from the WTC disaster were utilized in 

this research. Likelihood ratios were calculated for each theoretical 

combination for the following variables: 

Age: Likelihood ratios were calculated for age based on estimates 

using the Suchey-Brooks (1990) 2 method for the pubic symphysis for 

each theoretical combination of Age and Phase. The WTC victim age 

distribution was used as the prior odds and data collected by Hartnett 

(2010) 3 was used as a reference sample. 

Sex: Likelihood ratios were calculated for sex based on estimates 

using the Phenice (1969) 4 characteristics with the WTC victim sex 

distribution as the prior odds. Data collected by Konigsberg et al (2002) 5 

was used as a reference sample. 

Dental: Likelihood ratios were calculated for the available dental 

patterns of the unidentified WTC remains based on the expected pattern 

frequencies in the “population-at-large” according to the Odontosearch 

application (Adams 2003). 6 

Recovery Location: The WTC victim population was divided into 

subgroups based on known location at the time of the incident (Tower 1, 

Tower 2, AA 11, UA 175, etc). Likelihood ratios were calculated for 

membership within a particular WTC subgroup based on the recovery 

location of the remains (grid system established by the New York City 

Fire Department). Likelihood ratios were determined for each 

combination of group and location using the location of identified 

remains as a known sample and the total number of remains recovered at 

each location as the prior odds. 

The average likelihood ratios calculated for age, sex, and recovery 

location are comparable to the contribution of individual CODIS STR 

40

alleles. The available dental patterns were more informative, with 

likelihood ratios ranging from just above 1 up to 37,956. Combining 

these variables using the Product Rule under a theoretical “best-case” 

scenario produces a likelihood ratio of 8.3x10 6 , which does not meet the 

established threshold for identification (4x10 9 ). However, it does result 

in a smaller required contribution from any potential DNA evidence. 

These results suggest that partial DNA profiles may be sufficient for 

identification if other available information is considered within a 

Bayesian framework. 

The consideration of additional variables beyond DNA in a 

quantitative manner allows for a truly multidisciplinary DVI process and 

has the potential to allow for identification of highly fragmented and/or 

degraded remains that might not otherwise be identified. The 

quantification of these variables also has the potential benefit of 

providing a mechanism for ranking of database search results similar to 

dental identification applications. 

References: 

1. Steadman, D. W., B. J. Adams, and L. W. Konigsberg 2006 

Statistical basis for positive identification in forensic 

anthropology. Am J Phys Anthropol 131(1):15-26. 

2. Brooks, S., and J.M. Suchey 1990 Skeletal age determination 

based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Acsádi-Nemeskéri and 

Suchey-Brooks methods. Human Evolution 5(3):227-238. 

3. Hartnett, K. 2010 Analysis of Age-at-Death Estimation Using 

Data from a New, Modern Autopsy Sample - Part I: Pubic Bone. 

J Forensic Sci doi: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01399.x 

4. Phenice, T. W. 1969 A newly developed visual method of sexing 

the os pubis. Am J Phys Anthropol 30(2):297-301. 

5. Konigsberg, L.W., N.P. Herrmann, and D.J. Wescott 2002 

Commentary on McBride et al. “Bootstrap Methods for Sex 

Determination from the Os Coxae using the ID3 Algorithm.” 

2001 J Forensic Sci 46(3):427-431. J Forensic Sci 47(2): 

424-426. 

6. Adams, B. J. 2003 Establishing personal identification based on 

specific patterns of missing, filled, and unrestored teeth. J 

Forensic Sci 48(3):487-96. 

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI), World Trade Center (WTC), 

Bayesian Statistics 

H67 New Forensic Archaeological Recovery 


Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Alexandra R. Klales, 

MS*, Erin Chapman, MS, and Allison M. Nesbitt, MS, Mercyhurst 

College, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be familiar with 

new forensic archaeological techniques applicable to fatal fire scenes 

that result in efficient and effective evidence recovery. 


pointing out the benefits of employing forensic archaeology in the 

documentation and recovery of all types of outdoor crime scenes, 

including fatal fire scenes. 

Victim remains at fatal fire scenes are typically difficult to detect, 

recover, and handle. All of the burned material at the scene, including 

biological tissue, is often modified to a similar appearance and bones, in 

particular, become discolored, brittle, and highly fragmented. As a 

consequence, these remains are often missed, disturbed, altered, or even 

destroyed during scene processing with standard crime scene protocols. 

The added postmortem fracturing, fragmentation, and bone loss resulting 

from these recovery techniques hinder the already difficult task of 

autopsy and laboratory analysis of burned human remains. This is 

especially problematic for bone trauma analysis, as its most immediate 

goal is distinguishing peri-mortem(forensically significant) trauma, from 

postmortem (not forensically significant) alteration. The substantial 

addition of trauma features created by fire and then recovery can result 

in a daunting analytical task. 

Lack of on-scene recordation of relevant information related to 

body positioning and contextual relationships of the remains as well as 

of other physical evidence at the scene, further complicates trauma 

analysis, biological profile estimation, and event reconstruction. 

New scene recovery protocols drawn from forensic archaeological 

methods are described in this presentation. Six tests of specific scene 

recovery methodologies were conducted in the last two years in which 

evidence, including spent bullet cartridges, knives, and euthanized pigs, 

were placed in house structures that were then burned to the ground. 

Following a search for evidence by trained fire investigators, forensic 

archaeologists then excavated the burned matrix and carefully mapped 

the evidence found in situ. The method that yielded the most efficient 

and effective recovery involved the hands and knees “search/excavation” 

in which burned matrix was excavated using a “cake-cutting” (i.e., 

cutting a vertical face) technique working from the outer edges of the 

excavation corridor or room, inward. This process allowed for the rapid 

excavation of debris in areas where no significant evidence was located. 

The excavated debris was removed by buckets and placed on tarps, 

sorted by provenience unit, where it was quickly sorted by hand and 

discarded if no evidence was detected or sieved. The matrix from these 

areas bypassed the tarp hand sorting and was directly sent for careful 

screening on ¼ in mesh screens. The debris over the victim was 

removed via a “top-down” excavation method, thus exposing fully the 

remains. The remains were photographically documented in situ, and 

mapped both by hand and with electronic instrumentation such as a total 

station or survey-grade GPS units. Head, distal limbs and any other 

fragile body regions were protected with heavy-duty plastic wrap to 

maintain the integrity of the bone. The remains were then placed on a 

sheet of plywood in a body bag in efforts to reduce further disruption of 

the remains during transport. 

These new protocols were demonstrated to: (1) improve evidence 

detection and recovery; (2) limit disturbance and further fragmentation 

of the remains during the recovery; and, (3) provide precise and detailed 

information regarding the position and orientation of the body and 

related evidence, as well as on their contextual relationship at the scene. 

Further, these improvements are realized within an efficient timeline. 

This project was funded by the National Institute of Justice, U.S. 

Department of Justice. 

Forensic Archaeology, Fatal Fire, Human Remains 

H68 Using Spatial Analysis to Recognize Normal 

and Abnormal Patterns in Burned Bodies 

Christina L. Fojas, MS*, Department of Anthropology, Binghamton 

University, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902; Christopher W. 

Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, 

New York, NY 10016; Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001 


utility of spatial data in recognizing normal and abnormal patterns in 

burned bodies. 


quantifying the progression of heat alteration in burned bodies, 

independent of the circumstances of death or area of heat exposure, thus 

suggesting criteria for identifying normal and abnormal burn patterns. A 

mapping approach will demonstrate the utility of geographic information 

system (GIS) technology for the analysis and quantification of heat 

alteration to human remains. 


Recognizing the typical pattern of heat alteration in burned bodies 

under normal circumstances is important in a forensic context. 

Deviations from this pattern may imply special burning conditions such 

as protective shielding, the presence of accelerants or pre-existing 

trauma. Symes and colleagues (2008) provided a preliminary model for 

the normal sequence of bone exposure and heat alteration resulting from 

tissue thickness and limb position (i.e., body posture). While an 

invaluable resource, that model is merely derived from observation 

(based on extensive case experience) and has not been empirically 

quantified or tested. This study employs GIS to achieve these goals. 

The sample data were collected at the Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner (OCME) in New York City. Burned body information with 

detailed documentation and known circumstances of death were 

compiled from cases spanning from January 2005 to July 2009. After 

excluding superficially burned victims and deaths due to smoke 

inhalation with little or no heat alteration to the body, the final sample 

included 74 forensic cases. Cases consisted of accidents (including 

vehicular accidents), homicides, suicides, and undetermined manners of 

death at both indoor and outdoor crime scenes. The burn patterns were 

charted in homunculi diagrams, with an anterior and posterior chart for 

each body. The degree of heat alteration was coded into five categories: 

1 = no burning/minimal burning; 2 = charred tissue; 3 = charred tissue 

with burned bone visible; 4 = charred tissue with calcined bone visible; 

and, 5 = missing or fragmentary bone. Polygon shapefiles of the body 

outlines and burn patterns were created in a GIS application for each 

case. The vector data were converted to raster data and added together, 

and the surface areas for each heat alteration category for each case were 

calculated. 

A composite image of the 74 cases illustrates the areas of the body 

that are more severely altered by heat, as well as the extent of this 

modification. As predicted by Symes and colleagues (2008), the degree 

and anatomical pattern of heat alteration can be most accurately 

predicted from tissue thickness, principally in relation to the sequence in 

which the areas exposed to heat will attain a particular degree of 

alteration. In this way, deviations from this sequence can be marked as 

suspicious, regardless of the overall degree of heat exposure. In order to 

test this, individuals were ranked based on degree of burning and that 

rank was compared with the total area burned. Results indicate a strong 

correlation (R 2 = 0.98, p-value < 0.001) between the degree and 

extension (area) of heat alteration, in such cases where the whole body 

was exposed to fire, but not at a temperature or period long enough to 

result in the alteration of the entire body surface. These bodies, 

therefore, provide a baseline for the normal sequence and intensity of 

heat alteration. After approximately 80% of the body shows heat 

alteration, any degree of burning to the body is not uncommon. 

Abnormal burn patterns are recognized when less than 80% of the body 

is burned yet a category of 3 or higher of heat alteration is observed. The 

examination of cases meeting this proposed criteria for the detection of 

abnormal patterns revealed that they include a homicide with the 

victim’s legs bound by a ligature, a vehicular accident in which the 

victim sustained extensive blunt force injuries, and accidents with 

evidence of substantial clothing on the body. 

This research was partially funded by a grant from the National 

Institute of Justice. 

Burned Body, Pattern Recognition, Spatial Analysis 


H69 Recovery and Identification of a WWI 


Mad, France 

Denise To, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 

Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Carrie A. Brown, MA, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester 


The goal of this presentation is to provide the attendee with a case 

example involving the remarkable recovery and identification of an 

individual from World War I. After this presentation, attendees will gain 

a better understanding of the complexity of cold cases, a greater 

awareness of the importance of the multiple lines of evidence that are 

required for identification, and a heightened appreciation for community 

responsibility. 


providing an example of a successful forensic recovery in the 

international setting, by demonstrating how a positive identification was 

attained despite having multiple name associations, by broadening our 

understanding of factors that may influence preservation of remains, and 

by further demonstrating the significance of proper archaeological 

techniques and methodical data collection. With this case, the forensic 

community may gain additional approaches that can be applied to a 

variety of cold cases or cases in the international setting. 

The Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command’s Central Identification 

Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) has the mission to search, recover, and identify 

service-personnel still missing as a result of past U.S. conflicts. 

Anthropologists at the CIL regularly conduct recovery missions around 

the world related to World War II and the Korean and Vietnam conflicts. 

However, recoveries and identifications from earlier conflicts are 

uncommon. Even more uncommon are those that result in a well 

preserved burial of a World War I American Doughboy Marine whose 

identification was obfuscated by dog tags recovered with his remains 

that were inscribed with the name of another marine. 

Shortly after a discovery by French relic hunters, JPAC was notified 

in September 2009 of an alleged burial of a World War I American 

Marine in the village of Rembercourt-sur-Mad in northeastern France. 

Initial verification of the plausibility of the burial involved investigation 

of archival records. This confirmed that the first U.S.-led offensive of 

the war by the American Expeditionary Forces, under the command of 

General John J. Pershing, occurred on September 12, 1918, at St. Mihiel, 

approximately 17 miles northeast of Rembercourt-sur-Mad. Among the 

approximately 7,000 Allied casualties were 2,000 American KIA. Fortysix 

U.S. Marines are memorialized at the Saint Mihiel cemetery (with 11 

listed as unaccounted for). 

Anthropologists from the JPAC-CIL traveled to Rembercourt-sur- 

Mad, France, where they recovered a superbly preserved human burial. 

Thirty-five kinds of artifacts were recovered from the burial; their in situ 

locations on the skeleton mimicked where they would have been worn 

on the body during life, including a wallet, dog tag, and badge in the 

front left breast pocket, a first-aid kit, shaving kit, canteen, and side arm 

ammunition on the hips, and six complete clips of rifle ammunition still 

slung across the chest. In addition, tree roots had grown, over time, 

through the burial site. Some had penetrated the thorax, but rather than 

damaging the remains, they gently moved and shifted skeletal elements. 

This preservation was welcome, as roots can be a very disruptive 

taphonomic force. All archaeological signs pointed to a considerate 

burial by friendly forces. 

After international transport, the skeletal remains and artifacts were 

analyzed at the CIL. A name engraved on the badge and initials inside 

the wallet were consistent with one of the 11 unaccounted-for U.S. 

Marines, but a different person’s name engraved on the dog tag 

warranted caution of any presumptive identification. After further 

investigation, and using numerous lines of evidence, the individual was 

42

identified in March 2010. Personnel records included a letter written to 

the individual’s brother by a witness to the death incident. In that letter, 

the witness recounted their hasty but respectful burial of the individual, 

as well as a map of its location. Shortly after the war, a search for his 

burial using this map was unsuccessful. Ninety-two years later, his 

remains were found, recovered, and identified. He was buried in June 

2010 in Arlingtion National Cemetery with full military honors. 

Cold Case, WWI American Doughboy, Presumptive Identification 

H70 The Fromelles Project – The Recovery and 

Identification of British and Australian 

WWI Soldiers From Mass Graves in 

Northern France 


Cranfield Forensic Institute, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UNITED 

KINGDOM; and Louise Loe, PhD, Oxford Archaeology, Janus House, 

Osney Mead, Oxford, OX2 0ES, UNITED KINGDOM 


understanding of how forensic anthropological and archaeological 

methods can be used to not only excavate eight mass graves, document, 

and recover 250 sets of remains and thousands of artifacts, but also 

manage to positively identify almost 100 of the soldiers through 

interdisciplinary evidence collection. 


demonstrating up-to-date and progressive excavation and 

anthropological analysis methods and by showing the possibilities of 

positively identifying individuals after being buried almost 100 years. 

On July 19 and 20, 1916, British and Australian Forces fought a 

hopeless battle against German forces trying to draw attention away 

from the Somme. The outcome of this battle was the catastrophic loss of 

over 7,000 soldiers in less than 48 hours. 

In the past two decades professional and amateur historians 

managed to locate eight possible mass grave pits adjacent to a small 

village of Fromelles in Northern France. The presence of multiple 

remains was confirmed in 2007-08 and in February 2009, Oxford 

Archaeology (OA) was awarded the contract to carry out the recovery at 

Pheasant Woods. A team of OA staff and external consultants was 

assembled, including forensic archaeologists and anthropologists, 

osteoarchaeologists, finds experts, crime scene investigators, anatomical 

pathology technologists, radiographers, IT experts, and many more. 

A second contract was awarded for analyzing ante- and postmortem 

DNA samples. The goal was to extract sufficient amounts of 

uncorrupted DNA from the soldiers as well as trying to find second or 

third generation direct relatives. Both aspects of the program were 

extremely challenging but turned out very successful. 

After the site was made secure in April, two teams of around five to 

six archaeologists and one supervisor each began excavations of the first 

two graves. All stages of the excavation were carefully documented by 

professional surveyors and photographers. The excavation was 

conducted under strict forensic archaeological rules. All data was 

immediately entered onto a secure database system and therefore 

instantly available to all relevant staff in the anthropological laboratory. 

DNA sampling was carried out using a specifically developed 

protocol that ensured that samples were taken within a few minutes of 

being uncovered and exposed to oxygen and to eliminate contamination 

as much as possible. All personnel involved on site had to wear full 

personal protective equipment at all times when within less than 10 

meters of the grave. 

To ensure that all human remains and artifacts were recovered, 

metal detectors were used extensively throughout the excavation and all 

soil that was removed from around remains or artifacts was scrutinized 

in great detail. Soil was collected from around and underneath remains 

and x-rayed to make certain that even the smallest finds would not be 

lost. The excavation and recovery phase resulted in 250 sets of human 

remains and over 6,000 artifacts. 

The laboratory, store rooms, and office space was set up in March 

and April. The layout guaranteed a secure and efficient workflow as well 

the dignified and respectful treatment of the human remains. Sets of 

remains and associated artifacts were transferred from the excavation to 

the anthropological laboratory using a documented handover procedure 

witnessed by a crime scene investigator to guarantee the continuity and 

integrity of all evidence. Remains and artifacts were first x-rayed using 

a direct-digital x-ray unit, operated by an experienced radiographer. All 

images were stored digitally and moved onto the secure database to give 

access to the anthropologists. 

Human remains were then carefully cleaned to prepare them for 

anthropological analysis. All anthropologists had their own workstation, 

consisting of a fixed table, a digital SLR camera permanently fixed to the 

ceiling above the table, a PC workstation connected both to the camera 

and the database server. 

The newly build cemetery is located in close proximity to the mass 

grave site. Each soldier was buried individually with full military 

honors. DNA analysis took place throughout the project and the results, 

together with the anthropological and artifact analysis results were 

presented to an Identification Commission in March 2010. To date, 97 

soldiers have been positively identified. The cemetery was officially 

dedicated and opened in a ceremony in July 2010. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Archaeology, DNA Sampling 

H71 Validation of X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) to 



Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Forensic Anthropology 

Program (TEU), Quantico, VA 22135; Michael A. Smith, PhD, Federal 

Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Chemistry Unit, Quantico, VA 22135; and Richard M. Thomas, PhD, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135 


results of a study conducted to validate the use of x-ray fluorescence 

(XRF) in determining whether unknown material is osseous (bone) or 

dental (tooth) in origin or some other type of material (such as mineral, 

plastic, wood, etc.). 


supplying an additional analytical tool for forensic anthropologists or 

other experts to quickly and effectively assess the potential skeletal 

origin of unknown material. 

Forensic anthropological examinations typically involve the 

analysis of human skeletal remains, but it is sometimes necessary to first 

determine whether the material in question is even osseous or dental in 

origin (i.e., whether it is, in fact, part of a skeleton). This is especially 

relevant in cases where the material may be submitted for DNA analysis. 

Tissue identification can usually be achieved through visual macroscopic 

and/or microscopic (and in some cases radiographic) examination by a 

trained anthropologist when specimens are sufficiently large and in good 

condition. Occasionally, however, specimens are very small and/or 

taphonomically compromised, making this determination difficult. Xray 

fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) is a technique that reveals the 

elemental composition of materials and is hypothesized to have utility in 

these analyses. Validation of the XRF technique for identifying osseous 

or dental tissue would impact the forensic community by supplying an 

additional analytical tool for forensic anthropologists or other experts to 


quickly and effectively assess the potential skeletal origin of unknown 

material. 

In this study, XRF analysis was conducted on a variety of tissues of 

known osseous and dental origin in good condition including human 

bones, human teeth, non-human bones, non-human teeth, and ivory. In 

addition, other biological hard tissues such were analyzed as horn, beak, 

coral, and shell, as well as other materials that may appear similar to 

osseous or dental tissue when in small fragments or altered states such as 

wood, minerals, plastic, metal, and glass. XRF was also conducted on 

these same tissues and materials in thermally, chemically, and 

taphonomically altered states. These states included various degrees of 

burning (e.g., charred, calcined), weathering (e.g., bleached, exfoliated), 

antiquity (up to 9,000 years old), and exposure to several destructive 

chemicals. 

Analysis of the human and non-human osseous and dental tissues in 

good, burned and weathered conditions revealed characteristic levels of 

calcium and phosphorous. Osseous and dental tissue samples also 

commonly (though not always) contained trace levels of strontium. 

Significantly compromised osseous and dental tissue, such as ancient 

samples, showed very low or virtually absent phosphorous levels, as did 

the coral and shell samples. Horn, plastic, wood, metal, and other 

materials in either good or compromised conditions did not contain these 

characteristic levels of calcium, phosphorous or strontium. Because 

there was no sample preparation involved in the analysis, many 

specimens contained low levels of various other elements due to surface 

contamination. These levels did not substantially affect the results. 

Materials were accurately identified as osseous or dental in origin 

based on the calcium and phosphorous levels identified by XRF using 

the analytical parameters of this study, with no other material showing 

profiles that might be mistaken for osseous or dental tissue. In other 

words, preliminary results suggest that osseous and dental tissue in 

altered states may be misclassified as some other material (due to its 

similarity to materials like shell and coral), but non-bone or non-tooth 

materials are unlikely to be misclassified as osseous or dental tissue. It 

is concluded that XRF analysis is a valid and effective means of 

determining osseous or dental origin of unknown material. 

Forensic Anthropology, X-Ray Fluorescence, Elemental Composition 

H72 The Condyle Connection: Forensic 

Implications for the Association Between 

the Condyles of the Femur and Tibia 

Erin B. Waxenbaum, PhD*, 1810 Hinman Avenue, Evanston, IL 60208; 

and Kelsea Linney, BA*, Northwestern University, 1810 Hinman Avenue, 

Evanston, IL 60208 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have observed the 

results of comparisons between the condyles of the distal femur with 

those of the proximal tibia for a given individual as well as the developed 

predictive formula which have practical applications for the medical 

community, archaeological research, and forensic casework. 


providing an analysis of the relationship and correlation between the 

individual skeletal components of the functional unit of the knee. 

The knee is one of the most functionally important and largest joints 

in the body. Previous research has investigated the distal femur and 

proximal tibia with regards to sex assessment, ancestry and 

morphological differences (Waxenbaum et al., 2007), but the 

relationship among the condyles specifically has not been addressed. 

Given the robusticity with which these components of the lower limb 

survive in both archaeological and mass disaster scenarios, this 

investigation into the degree of their association is particularly 

important. 


The populations examined include segments of the Terry White 

(n=94) and Terry Black (n=100) anatomical collections, a component of 

the South Dakota Arikara (n = 120) and Native Alaskan groups (n = 201) 

(all remains included in this analysis are housed at the National Museum 

of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution). Individuals were sampled 

from both sexes and were separated into “older” and “younger” 

categories for age analysis given the archaeological nature of the Alaska 

and South Dakota remains. Measurements of the left medial and lateral 

condyles of the distal femur and proximal tibia were taken on all 

individuals and compared through correlations analysis, Tukey’s 

procedure and reduced major axis regression. 

The present research found that the medial and lateral condyles of 

the proximal tibia and the distal femur show a statistically significant 

relationship across sex (p

criminal investigations, and provides family and friends with closure. As 

the application of forensic anthropology increases worldwide, the need 

for population specific methods and population specific research has 

become more paramount, particularly those concerned with ancestry. 

Until recently, ancestral categories have been loosely based on 

linguistics, regional, and/or continental affinity. For example, the terms 

Hispanic and African provide broad categories which assign a missing 

person as coming from a Spanish speaking population or the entire 

continent of Africa. Increasingly, investigations have shown that 

humans are far more diverse than these broad categories account for and 

have shown that modern statistical methods can more narrowly identify 

intra-regional variation as well as answer broader questions concerning 

human migration and expansion (Ousley 2010, Spradley et al. 2008, 

Kenyhercz et al. 2010, Ross et al. 2003, Ross et al. 2008). 

During the 16 th and 19 th centuries, nearly 10 million African slaves 

were transported to the Americas drastically changing the biological 

composition of the region. This event brought together Europeans, 

indigenous Americans, and various African groups to create a blend of 

cultural and biological diversity. One approach to investigating this 

biological diversity is through the comparison of cranial inter-landmark 

distances. 

In order to investigate the biological diversity found within the 

Caribbean and Latin America and elucidate the specific African origins, 

several samples of African origin, contemporary Mexicans (n=21), 

nineteenth-century Cubans (n=23), contemporary Panamanians (n=12), 

contemporary Afro-Antillean Panamanians (n=6), and contemporary 

Ecuadorians (n=54) were compared using traditional craniometrics. The 

African data include the Teita from Southeast Kenya (n=83), the Dogon 

tribe from Mali West Africa (n=99), the Zulu from South Africa (n=101), 

the Bushman from South Africa (n=90), individuals from Angola (n=68), 

individuals from São Tomé (n=5). All African data (excluding Angola 

and São Tomé) were collected by W.W. Howells and can be easily 

accessed online at http://konig.la.utk.edu/howells.htm. Inter-landmark 

distances (ILDs) from the Howells data were collected using the 

traditional 2D caliper-derived methods. On nearly all of the remaining 

crania, 3D data was collected using a Microscribe digitizer in which the 

traditional ILDs were simultaneously recorded. To evaluate group 

similarities and differences, Mahalanobis D 2 were calculated using SAS 

9.13 (2001). Mahalanobis D 2 is a function of the group means as well as 

pooled variances and covariances that measures the degree of 

differentiation observed between the considered populations. Results 

show that all African groups are significantly different from one another 

at the

endocortical diameter and narrow neck endocortical diameter account 

for group differences in the sample. In CAN2, narrow neck width and 

femoral shaft width account for regional differences. 

The results of the present study are consistent with previous works 

by demonstrating that regional variation has a strong effect in the 

morphology of the proximal femur. While the overall pattern in sexual 

dimorphism is not affected by region, the pattern of group affiliation is, 

which in turn, influences sex variation. In both males and females, the 

sample breaks down according to group affiliation. However, the pattern 

of group affiliation is determined by regional membership. This study 

demonstrates the importance of using data from living populations to 

create biological profiles of skeletal remains. The creation of biological 

profiles is not possible without an understanding of variation from 

living populations. 

Proximal Femur, Sexual Dimorphism, Group Affiliation 

H75 Morphometric Evaluation of Nasal 



Jennifer L. McDowell, BSc, University of Pretoria, Department of 

Anatomy, Basic Medical Sciences Building, PO Box 2034, Pretoria, 

0001, SOUTH AFRICA; Ericka N. L’Abbe, PhD*, University of 

Pretoria, PO Box 5023, Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA; and Michael 

W. Kenyhercz, MS, 6327 Catawba Drive, Canfield, OH 44406 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a variation of 

knowledge in mid-facial characteristics of black and white South 

Africans, and will understand the statistical framework used to describe 

similarities and/or differences within these groups. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community in 

contributing to knowledge of human variation within a modern South 

African population, in providing a more scientific evaluation of this 

variation, and in presenting a mathematical approach to the classification 

of population groups. 

With more than 49 million people of various social identities, 

languages, and belief systems, South Africa is an ideal country in which 

to evaluate human variation and the statistical relationship between 

social identity and biological characteristics. With the world’s highest 

rate of homicide and a large number of unidentified persons, a need 

exists for accurate and reliable methods to assess ancestry from skeletal 

remains of sub-Saharan Africans. Since patterns of variation within and 

between populations are shaped by culture, language, geography and 

secular change, it is necessary to define the effect these parameters on the 

reliability and accuracy of our methods for estimating ancestry as well as 

sex, stature, and age at death. 

With a large database of population groups, FORDISC 3 has 

addressed problems regarding osteometric differences among 

populations. However, the accuracy of non-metric features, such as 

inter-orbital breadth and nasal aperture width, in describing variation 

among black and white groups outside of North America has not been 

adequately described. In North American populations, mid-face and 

nasal morphology has been shown to be the most accurate region of the 

cranium from which to sort population groups. 

The purpose of this study was to assess variation in mid-facial 

shape, namely nasal bone structure, interorbital breadth and nasal shape, 

among black and white South Africans using Elliptical Fourier Analysis, 

Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) and Geometric Morphometrics 

(GM). 

The mid-facial region of 151 crania of black and white South 

Africans (75 males; 76 females) from the Pretoria Bone and Raymond A. 

Dart research collections were photographed in the Frankfort plane, at a 

distance of 46 cm, using an Olympus 305 digital camera. Standard 

landmarks, which include subspinale, inferior point of nasal borders, 


alare, nasale inferius, dacryon, nasal superius, nasion and glabella, along 

with three nasal arcs were digitized using a MicroScribe G2. Inter- and 

intra-observer error was evaluated. 

Geometric Morphometric (GM) analyses including Procrustes fit 

and Elliptical Fourier analysis (EFA) were used to obtain shape 

variables. These variables as well as linear measures were imported into 

FORDISC 3.1 for linear discriminant function analysis (DFA). 

Statistical significance was assessed within and between ancestral 

groups. Each group was tested for normality and each was proven to be 

normally distributed. Outliers were identified through box plots. 

Student’s t-test between whites and blacks were performed for each 

measurement and each proved to be statistically significant. A two-way 

analysis demonstrated 95% correct cross-validated classification. The 

differences observed between these groups may be used as a tool for 

estimating ancestry among South Africans. 

To approach the evaluation of ancestry from unknown skeletal 

remains, the relationship between social and biological race has to be 

examined, understood, and continually evaluated on modern groups. 

Large databases are needed, and an understanding of the cultural history 

of the population is crucial for the interpretation of these differences. 

Morphometrics, Nasal Aperture, South Africans 

H76 Can Femoral Shape be Used to 

Estimate Weight? 

Gina M. Agostini, MA*, 83 Newton Street, Greenfield, MA 01301 

The goals of this presentation are to investigate the relationship 

between body mass index and femoral shape, and to determine the utility 

of using cross-sectional measurements in body mass index estimations. 


providing evidence that being overweight or obese significantly impacts 

external femoral shape in a specific pattern. Despite poor classification 

results, these significant shape differences necessitate further 

investigation into the use of long bone shape to estimate weight, a visible 

trait that could be integrated into the biological profile and used to aid in 

forensic identification efforts. 

It has been known for several decades that long bone shape is 

affected by body mass; however, there has been limited investigation 

into the impact that obesity has on load-bearing bones despite its high 

prevalence in modern populations. Given that obesity is a condition that 

clearly affects how an individual appeared to others in life, this research 

can benefit the forensic community by investigating whether bone 

geometry is sufficient to estimate weight, potentially adding another trait 

for use in biological profile determinations. 

Previous research in this concentration demonstrated a significant 

positive relationship between body weight and mediolateral (ML) 

dimensions of the proximal femur. Using a larger sample with increased 

representation of obese individuals, this project sought: (1) to further 

investigate the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and femoral 

shape; and, (2) to determine the utility of using cross-sectional 

measurements to estimate BMI classification. This project was designed 

under the null hypothesis that individuals from all BMI classes would 

have the same mean anteroposterior (AP) and ML dimensions. Using 

standards largely devised by Ruff (1983), external AP and ML 

measurements were taken at 20%, 35%, 50%, 65% and 80% bone shaft 

length, with 20% and 80% indicating the distal-most and proximal-most 

measurement, respectively. 

Four categories were formed based on BMI: underweight (BMI < 

17.5), normal weight (BMI = 19 - 24.5), overweight (BMI = 26 - 30) and 

obese (BMI > 31.5). Age was controlled for in all statistical tests. 

Control for ancestry, sex and secular trends was effectuated through 

sampling, as only males of European ancestry with a date of death within 

the last century were included for this research. The final sample 

46

consisted of 268 total individuals, 37 obese, 88 overweight, 86 normal 

weight and 57 underweight. 

After controlling for age, multivariate statistics show a significant 

(p-value < 0.01) relationship between midshaft and proximal ML 

dimensions and BMI. MANOVA results also report a significant Wilk’s 

λ (p-value < 0.05) for BMI. T-tests with an LSD correction for uneven 

sample sizes confirm ML dimensions are significantly larger in the 

overweight and obese BMI classes (p-value < 0.05). Additionally, size 

and shape variables were computed according to Mosimann and 

colleagues (Mosimann 1979; Darroch and Mosimann 1985). ANOVA 

results show that BMI has a significant effect on overall ML size (pvalue 

< 0.01). MANOVA results report a significant effect of BMI on 

shape-standardized variables at all five ML locations (p-value < 0.05) 

with a significant Wilk’s λ (p-value < 0.05). 

There was a significant effect of BMI on AP dimensions at all five 

diaphyseal locations (p-value < 0.05) using the raw data. However, a 

significant interaction between age and BMI was observed at all five AP 

locations (p-value < 0.01) when using the transformed size-standardized 

data, invalidating any further analysis of BMI effect alone. These results 

suggest that the femora of overweight individuals undergo abnormally 

high rates of ML stress irrespective of age, but that both age and BMI 

operate in conjunction to impact AP dimensions. It is also possible that 

pelvic movements in overweight/obese individuals create abnormally 

high ML torques of the femur, rendering any age effect irrelevant. 

Finally, a discriminant function analysis with cross-validation was 

conducted to assess the classificatory power of using ML measurements 

to discern BMI status. Poor classification results were obtained, with 

58% correct classification for underweight, 57% for normal weight, 50% 

for overweight and 36% for obese. Collapsing underweight and normal 

weight individuals into one category and overweight and obese 

individuals into another resulted in little difference, with 58% correct 

classification into the underweight/normal weight BMI category, and 

45% into the overweight/obese BMI category. 

Three important conclusions are drawn from this research: (1) there 

is a significant relationship between femoral shape and BMI, but this 

relationship differs for AP and ML dimensions; (2) this relationship has 

poor use in classifying individuals into their respective BMI categories; 

and, (3) these femoral shape changes correlate well with documented 

biomechanical modifications made by overweight/obese individuals 

during locomotion. Given that previous research has demonstrated the 

importance of internal cross-sectional geometry in bone strength 

properties, it is possible that use of external measurements alone is not 

sufficient to estimate BMI classification. 

Obesity, Bone Morphology, Weight Classification 

H77 Osteometric Analysis of the 


Jolen Anya Minetz, MA*, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Bradley I. Lanning, MA, JPAC-CIL, 310 

Worchester Avenue Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96835; Kylie Puzzuto, 

West Virginia University, PO Box 6201, Morgantown, WV 26506; and 

Elizabeth Okrutny, BS, Central Florida University, 4000 Central Florida 



understanding of the relationship of measurements within a vertebral 

column, as well as, the relationships and correlations of those 

measurements with other postcranial elements. 


introducing the utilization of novel measurements for osteometric 

analysis. 

The Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command’s Central Identification 

Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) is analyzing a heavily commingled skeletal 

assemblage that was unilaterally turned-over to U.S. officials from North 

Korea. Prior to their turnover, the remains were manipulated in such a 

way as to appear as single individuals, but gross observations detected 

major discrepancies. Multiple rounds of mtDNA sampling were 

conducted in order to sort major elements. Now, in addition to the 

mtDNA results, analysts use a variety of tools including osteometric 

sorting, pair matching, articulations, taphonomic and radiographic 

comparisons to sort the remains. These methods are very useful for 

sorting the major elements, but are not used as often with the association 

of vertebrae. In this context, a vertebral column can be associated with 

a set of remains if a single vertebra in a column segment is cut for 

mtDNA and yields a valid sequence, or if the column is continuous and 

has a terminal end that articulates with a major element. However, 

isolated vertebra and fragmentary columns are much more difficult to 

associate to individuals or combine. 

The purpose of this research is to determine how well a metric 

analysis classifies a vertebra within a column and how well vertebrae 

correlate with one another and other postcranial elements within an 

individual in order to determine the associative value of these 

measurements and analyses. The sample consists of 19 intact vertebral 

columns of unknown race, sex and age, sixteen of which have associated 

postcranial remains. Twelve to eighteen discrete measurements were 

taken per vertebra throughout the entire vertebral column. Canonical 

discriminant function analyses were conducted to evaluate the 

classification and discriminating powers of the combined measurements 

of vertebrae within a column. In the primary analysis, all of the 

compatible measurements (14 distinct variables) for C3 through L5 were 

utilized. Wilks’ lambda was significant in the testing of the first seven 

iterations of discriminant functions (λ = 0.000, df = 308, p < 0.001, based 

on functions 1 through 14 and λ = 0.518, df = 128, p < 0.001, based on 

functions 7 through 14). The first fourteen canonical discriminant 

functions were used in the analysis and the first four of those functions 

account for 95% of the variation, with the first accounting for 64%. The 

variables that are the most correlated with this discriminant function and 

therefore the most discriminating are related to the vertebral centrum. 

The classification results for predicted group membership revealed 

76.1% of the original grouped cases were classified correctly, and 58.0% 

of the cross-validated grouped cases were correctly classified. The 

discrepancy is due in large part to the small sample size. The overall 

results of the canonical discriminant function analyses reveal that it is 

best to run the analyses using the optimum number of variables that are 

the most significant and highly correlated. The level of inter observer 

error was evaluated for the vertebral measurements by comparing the 

differences in the measurements of a single column between analysts. 

Overall the error was minimal (

H78 Variation in Browridge and Chin 



Heather M. Garvin, MS*, Johns Hopkins University, 1830 East 

Monument Street, Room 302, Baltimore, MD 21205 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be presented with a 

new method to quantify sexual dimorphism in browridge and chin 

morphology using 3D surface scans and geometric morphometrics. 

Upon attending the presentation, attendees will have a better 

understanding of brow and chin shape differences exhibited in males and 

females of American black and white ancestries. Knowledge will also be 

gained regarding the relationship between these features and postcranial 

body size. 


discussing how in traditional sex determination methods, the browridge 

and chin are scored using ordinal categories presented in a universal set 

of line drawings, as well as, objectively quantifying these shape changes, 

thus providing an opportunity to formulate population-specific standards 

and overall gain a better knowledge of existing morphological variation. 

Sexual dimorphism exists among modern humans in body size and 

cranial features, but varies in degree of expression across populations. 

Robusticity of craniofacial traits has been shown to be related to ancestry 

and geographic origins, but variations between groups in degree of 

sexual dimorphism of these traits have not been well documented. 

Besides degree of expression, studies have also shown that populations 

differ in the pattern of craniofacial traits. For example, one population 

may display robust brows and gracile chins, while another displays the 

reverse pattern. Therefore, documenting the variation of within and 

between population differences could be important for sex determination 

methods. 

While linear cranial measurements have been proven to be 

correlated with postcranial size, evidence for a relationship between 

body size and discrete craniofacial traits is equivocal. This suggests that 

craniofacial traits may be influenced by different factors or display a 

different degree of plasticity than postcranial size. Understanding the 

relationship between body size and craniofacial traits, dimorphism in 

these variables, and the factors affecting each, will provide knowledge 

regarding population differences and observed secular and evolutionary 

trends. 

This project examines variation in human skeletal sexual 

dimorphism using metric and morphometric approaches. The sample 

consisted of 19 th -20 th century blacks and whites from the Terry 

collection. A method was developed to isolate and quantify sexually 

dimorphic craniofacial traits (browridge and chin morphology) using 3D 

laser surface scans and geometric morphometrics. Once quantified, coexpression 

between the traits was evaluated and the relationship between 

the craniofacial traits and postcranial size was analyzed for allometric 

effects. The use of semi-landmarks across the brow and chin regions and 

principal component analyses, allowed visualization of shape changes 

between sexes and ancestries. 

Preliminary results suggest that the browridge can be sexually 

differentiated by size, volume, and degree of projection relative to size. 

Morphometric analyses also suggest shape changes across the brow 

differ between the sexes. The chin, however, displayed a much higher 

degree of morphological variation and asymmetry. The majority of the 

variation between the sexes was confined to the lateral tubercles, which 

are responsible for the traditional “squared” or “pointed” chin shapes. 

When individual principal components were compared to body size, it 

was found that some of the most sexually diagnostic components 

displayed no significant relationship with postcranial or cranial size. 

However, Spearman rank correlations between cranial trait and body size 

discriminant function scores suggest there is a relationship between 

overall “maleness” and “femaleness” between the variables. Terry 


whites displayed a significantly lower degree of postcranial dimorphism 

than the blacks. Overall dimorphism in cranial robusticity was not 

significantly different between the groups, although trends suggest more 

masculine brows in the Terry white males thereby slightly increasing 

dimorphism. This could be evidence for separate factors affecting 

postcranial and craniofacial trait dimorphism, or different responses in 

the skeletal regions to the influences. 

Browridge, Chin, Sex 

H79 Taphonomic Changes Observed on Skeletal 

Remains in Southeast Texas 

Charity G. Owings, BS*, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 77845; 

Nicole C. Larison, BS*, Sam Houston State University, Department of 

Biological Sciences, Box 2116, Huntsville, TX 77341; and Joan A. 

Bytheway, PhD, Sam Houston State University, Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 

77341-2296 


taphonomic changes, in particular how sun-bleaching of skeletal remains 

can be attributed to the clothes worn by the decedent during 

decomposition. 


potentially providing a link between the last known attire worn by a 

missing person to sun-bleached patterns on skeletal remains. 

Few studies focus directly on the taphonomic process of sunbleaching 

and the resulting patterns produced on human bone (Calce and 

Rogers 2007, Janjua 2008, Quatrehomme and Iscan 1997). The goal of 

this study is to expand upon the current taphonomic literature as well as 

enhance the interpretation of sun-bleaching patterns observed on skeletal 

remains. During the course of a year in Southeast Texas, it is expected 

that an individual exposed to the environment would undergo 

taphonomic alterations during decomposition. 

Taphonomy is the study of processes affecting an organism from the 

time of death to the time of discovery (Calce and Rogers 2007, Haglund 

and Sorg 1997). Forensic anthropologists, as well as other death 

investigators, rely on taphonomic studies in order to properly interpret 

alterations sustained by skeletal remains. The extent of alteration to 

skeletal remains is dependent upon weathering processes, such as the 

amount of moisture, sun, and soil type to which the remains are exposed 

(Janjua 2008, Calce and Rogers 2007). Taphonomy also includes 

modifications by carnivore activity, fluvial transport, and trampling 

(Haglund and Sorg 1997, Janjua 2008), though these processes were not 

the focus of the present study. 

This study revolved around an individual involved in a fatal 

vehicular accident. The remains of the individual were donated to the 

Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science (STAFS) Facility where they 

were clothed in shorts, a short-sleeved button-up shirt, and flip-flops. 

The remains were placed within the maximum security outdoor research 

facility on July 14, 2009 and were removed on June 2, 2010. Throughout 

the eleven-month duration of the study, scavenger activity was inhibited 

by the placement of a hardware cloth cage over the remains. At the time 

of removal, the remains were skeletonized with mummified tissue 

remaining on the skull and both hands and legs. A visual examination of 

the remains revealed sun-bleaching on areas of the bone that were not 

protected by clothing, thereby creating a color pattern consistent with the 

decedent’s postmortem attire. The sun-bleached bones include facial 

bone fragments not covered by desiccated tissue, clavicles, cervical and 

lumbar vertebral bodies, sternal rib ends, distal portions of both arms, 

portions of the pelvic girdle, and portions of the distal legs not covered 

by desiccated tissue. Algal growth was also observed on two left ribs, 

several vertebrae, the superior sacrum, distal portions of the left ulna, 

two carpals and eleven tarsals and metatarsals. It is important to note 

that algal growth occurred only on bones that were bleached by the sun. 

48

Facial bones sustained blunt force trauma with comminuted fractures as 

a result of the vehicular accident in which the individual was involved. 

Several of these facial bone fragments, as well as the proximal and distal 

ends of the left ulna and the proximal end of the left radius, exhibited 

uniform sun-bleaching. It was determined in a recent study that 

perimortem-inflicted blunt force trauma to pig skulls (Sus scrofa) also 

revealed uniform sun-bleaching of fracture sites (Calce and Rogers 

2007). Postmortem trauma; however, can result in inconsistent sunbleaching 

or coloration of the fractured bone (Quatrehomme and Iscan 

1997). Acknowledging this phenomenon could be potentially beneficial 

to the forensic investigator by providing a means to differentiate between 

peri-mortemand postmortem trauma of skeletal remains. 

The sun-bleaching patterns observed on the skeletal remains can 

possibly reflect clothing worn by the decedent which, in turn, can 

provide seasonal clues as to when the person may have died. This 

information can be related to clothing details provided in a missing 

persons report and can thereby link skeletonized remains to an 

individual’s identity. 

Taphonomy, Sun-Bleaching, Blunt Force Trauma 

H80 Using the Freeze-Thaw Cycle to Determine 

the Postmortem Interval: An Assessment 

of Pig Decomposition in West 

Central Montana 

Beatrix Dudzik, MA*, and Hillary R. Parsons, MA, 508 Chisholm Trail, 

Knoxville, TN 37919-7050; and Ashley H. McKeown, PhD, University of 

Montana, Department of Anthropology, Missoula, MT 59812 

The goal of this presentation is to educate attendees about the 

variables of human decomposition in west central Montana during the 

freeze-thaw cycle of winter and spring. Previous decomposition studies 

have found that temperature is the most influential factor on the rate of 

decomposition; however systematic research in cold, dry climates has 

yet to be conducted. West Central Montana represents a climatic region 

characterized by cold winters and hot, arid summers. This presentation 

provides information from the second half of a two-part systematic study 

conducted on two Sus scrofa in west central Montana. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community 

extending the knowledge and comprehension of decomposition patterns 

in an array of geographic climates. Establishing the postmortem 

interval, or PMI, is one of the most important factors used when 

attempting to identify human remains for the medicolegal field as it can 

establish the time period and context surrounding a death. The study of 

human decomposition is crucial to understanding the postmortem 

interval, and outdoor human decomposition has been most notably 

assessed at the Anthropology Research Facility at the University of 

Tennessee in Knoxville, an area characterized by warm temperatures and 

high humidity. 

This study investigated the decomposition pattern of pig carcasses 

during the freeze-thaw cycle of winter, spring, and summer in west 

central Montana. Data collection focused on the particular physical 

changes associated with colder temperatures and the decomposition 

stasis that occurs during the late fall and winter months. The preliminary 

findings suggest the stasis that occurs during periods of subfreezing 

temperatures can result in an inaccurate assessment of decomposition 

and an imprecise estimation of the PMI. Analysis of the pattern of the 

decomposition cycle after the spring thaw was carried out to assess 

differential patterns of previously frozen remains. 

This baseline project suggests that the rate at which a body becomes 

frozen during the freeze-thaw cycle of the Montana winter and spring 

alters the expected decomposition pattern. These observations can be 

used to differentiate between remains that experience the freeze cycle 

quickly as opposed to remains that experience a delayed freeze. This 

indicates whether or not remains had become exposed to taphonomic 

forces before or after the onset of subfreezing temperatures in this 

region. To establish an accurate postmortem interval in west central 

Montana the impact of the freeze-thaw cycle and the unique 

decomposition patterns associated with delayed and rapid freezing of 

remains must be understood. 

Decomposition, Freeze-Thaw Cycle, Postmortem Interval 

H81 Animal Scavenging and Taphonomic 

Interpretation: An Evaluation of the Role of 

Scavenger Behavior and Environmental 


Lisa N. Bright, BS*, 1259 Hobart, Chico, CA 95926 

The goals of this presentation are to provide an assessment of 

taphonomic predictions in relation to animal scavenging behavior, an 

evaluation of the role of animal behavior and environmental factors on 

human remains; and a discussion of actualistic experimental data that 

demonstrate patterns of damage and dispersal of skeletal elements from 

outdoor contexts. 


providing a critical evaluation of taphonomic theory and discussing the 

benefits of a multidisciplinary approach to taphonomic analysis. 

The goals of this research include: (1) an assessment of taphonomic 

predictions in relation to animal scavenging behavior; (2) an evaluation 

of the role of animal behavior and environmental factors on human 

remains; and, (3) a discussion of actualistic experimental data that 

demonstrate patterns of damage and dispersal of skeletal elements from 

outdoor contexts. 

Taphonomy has become an integral area of research within forensic 

anthropology since the late 1980s. Previous studies have generally 

focused on field or laboratory-based experiments, retrospective case 

reviews, or case reports. However, little attention has been devoted to 

evaluating aspects of taphonomic theory, such as scavenging behavior, 

using rigorous experimental methodology. Sorg and Haglund (2002) 1 

advocate the use of a bioenvironmental and idioecological approach to 

forensic taphonomic analysis. By focusing on the context specific 

features of an environment and the scavengers inhabiting that area, a 

more accurate interpretation of outdoor forensic scenes is possible. The 

incorporation of models from other disciplines, such as ecology and 

paleontology, provides a more detailed perspective. 

This research was conducted at the Big Chico Creek Ecological 

Reserve (BCCER). The BCCER, owned and maintained by California 

State University, Chico, currently encompasses 3,950 acres of diverse 

habitats, which support more than 140 animal species. Common 

carnivores include the black bear, western spotted skunk, gray fox, 

coyote, raccoon, as well as the domestic dog and cat. Although the black 

bear and raccoon are omnivorous, they are known to actively scavenge 

animal carcasses, and are treated as carnivores for the purpose of this 

study. Less common scavengers include the bobcat, mountain lion, 

marten, fisher, and badger. Mountain lions excepted, these carnivores 

are thought to minimally contribute to the scavenging of human remains 

in northern California. 

A pilot study was conducted in October of 2009 to document animal 

scavenging behavior at the BCCER. The carcass of a single adult mule 

deer (Odocoileus heminous) was placed at a site where animal 

scavengers are known to frequent. A motion sensitive digital infra-red 

game camera was positioned within the site to identify carnivore species 

and to monitor scavenger behavior. The site included a 15 meter clearing 

protected by vegetation, which provided a suitable environment for 

scavengers to feed without being disturbed. This location is also a 

known popular habitation spot for bears inhabiting the BCCER, with 

easily visible game trails and access to water. To prevent the immediate 


emoval of the carcass from the camera position, it was tied down to 

rebar stakes with lengths of barbed wire wrapped around the forelimbs 

and hind limbs. The site was monitored for three days, and data such as 

time, temperature, and precipitation were recorded as well as notes on 

decomposition, surface scatter, and scavenging damage. The carcass 

was collected at the end of the three days, and was completely devoid of 

soft tissue. Many of the elements were scattered within the site, and a 

few elements, including the right and left scapula, left forelimb, eight 

ribs, thoracic vertebrae No. 12, and a small portion of the skull could not 

be located. The remains were transported to the CSU-Chico human 

identification laboratory for analysis of scavenging patterns. . 

The game camera recorded two different species: black bear (Ursus 

americanus) and the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus). The black 

bear was the only species documented actively scavenging the carcass. 

The carcass was not investigated until it had been exposed for seven 

hours, but once scavenging began it continued unabated for more than an 

hour. A majority of the activity occurred at night, and during the 24-48 

hour exposure period. Bears ranging from a first year cub to the 

reserve’s alpha male were documented feeding. The camera recorded 

significant damage, including tooth impact marks and breakage resulting 

from manipulation of the carcass. 

The photographic, climatic, and osteological data in conjunction 

with biological, ecological, and anthropological theory, is being used to 

generate a model for scavenging behavior of human remains in Northern 

California. This model will be further tested using the remains of ten 

feral pigs (Suc scrofa) as models for human remains. 

Reference: 

1. Marcella Sorg and William Haglund. Advancing Forensic 

Taphonomy: Purpose, Theory, and Process. In: Haglund W and 

Sorg M, editors. Advances in Forensic Taphonomy Method, 

Theory, and Archaeological Perspectives. Boca Raton: CRC 

Press, 2002;3-30. 

Taphonomy, Scavenging, Animal Behavior 

H82 A Longitudinal Study on the Outdoor 

Human Decomposition Sequence in 

Central Texas 

Joanna K. Suckling, BS*, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, 

San Marcos, TX 78666 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a better 

understanding of human decomposition in the climate of Central Texas 

as learned through a longitudinal experimental study. 


presenting the observed stages of decomposition for a specific climate 

while providing insight regarding how geographic regions may influence 

human decomposition. Results from this study will allow forensic 

anthropology practitioners to better understand environmental factors 

present in Central Texas and similar geographic regions that complicate 

the estimation of the postmortem interval, or PMI, also known as the 

time since death. 

Forensic anthropologists may be consulted in the estimation of the 

PMI. In this estimation forensic anthropologists employ decomposition 

stages. PMI is dependent upon local climate conditions, such as 

temperature, humidity, and scavengers (Megyesi et al. 2005; Reeves 

2009). Although decomposition sequences have been proposed for 

specific geographic regions including Tennessee (Mann et al. 1990; Vass 

et al. 1992; Love and Marks 2003), New Mexico (Rhine and Dawson 

1998), and Arizona (Galloway 1997), these sequences may not be 

applicable in other regions. The Forensic Anthropology Research 

Facility (FARF) at Texas State University-San Marcos is located in an 

area subject to various weather conditions characteristic of a sub-tropical 


climate, in which the humid climate may be punctuated by periods of 

drought leading to semi-arid conditions (Dixson 2000). 

A systematic longitudinal study on the decay of the human body 

was conducted with a sample of ten donated human cadavers (N = 10). 

The objective of the research was to monitor each donated cadaver upon 

arrival at the FARF by using the decomposition scoring method 

developed by Megyesi et al. (2005) based on Galloway’s (1997) arid 

environment decomposition stages. For each day, decomposition was 

scored using the same scoring categories developed by Megyesi et al. 

(2005) to represent the overall condition of remains and determine if 

there is a sequential order to human decomposition. Decomposition 

stage was assessed for the torso, limbs, and head separately to account 

for different areas of the body decomposing at different rates (Megyesi 

et al. 2005). The decomposition stages used were divided into Fresh, 

Early, Advanced, Skeletonization, and Extreme Decomposition 

(Galloway 1997; Megyesi 2005). Donations were observed until 

skeletonization, defined as less than one half of the skeleton covered by 

desiccated or mummified tissue (Galloway 1997). 

Previous decomposition studies (Galloway et al. 1989; Rhine and 

Dawson 1998; Megyesi et al. 2005) could not control for scavengers in 

a natural environment, but longitudinal data collection permitted a 

comparison between scavenged and non-scavenged human remains. 

Both caged donations and those exposed to scavenging were included in 

the sample. Time delayed photography on a wildlife camera was used to 

photo document specific scavengers and their effect on the rate of 

decomposition. Accounting for the behavior and effects of scavengers 

will provide anthropologists and future researchers’ data on how to 

properly evaluate the postmortem interval when scavengers have access 

to a body (Reeves 2009). 

The present study supports Galloway’s (1997) assertion that beyond 

broad categories of early decomposition, advanced decomposition, 

skeletonization, and decomposition of skeletal material, secondary 

characteristics, such as coloration and mummified tissues, do not 

necessarily follow a sequential order of appearance. Decomposition in 

Central Texas also appears to coincide with incidences of high humidity 

as observed by Galloway et al. (1989), with a rapid onset of advanced 

decomposition, high rates of maggot activity when avian scavengers do 

not have access, accelerated autolysis, and rapid skeletonization or 

adipocere formation. The results of the study also demonstrate that 

decomposition in Central Texas can progress rapidly. In one case of an 

autopsied donation, without the variable of scavenging, the first sign of 

bone exposure was noted within four days after placement outdoors. 

With scavenging, bone exposure to the point of skeletonization can occur 

within 24 hours. The results of the study also assert that the variable of 

insect activity is not the only major factor that may disrupt or accelerate 

decomposition estimates. Temperature, humidity, and access to 

scavenging animals can all significantly distort time since death 

estimations in outdoor environments. 

Forensic Anthropology, Decomposition, Postmortem Interval 

H83 Taphonomy Reader Beta-Version: 

A Software to Help in Taphonomic 

Syndromes Diagnosis 

Matteo Borrini, MS*, via del Mattone 17\a, La Spezia, 19131, ITALY; 

Maria V. Tumbarello, Via Luigi Calabresi 14, Montecatini (PT), AE 

51016, ITALY 

After attending this presentation, attendees will value the benefits of 

using a free software that assists reading the alterations on human bones 

to reconstruct the taphonomic process. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community and 

students in this discipline by offering a Beta version of a free software 

50

that presents the possibility of recognizing taphonomic imprints on 

bones, a combination of which can indicate one or more taphonomic 

syndromes and is useful to redevelop the postmortem life of 

skeletal remains. 

As demonstrated by numerous articles and the AAFS Workshop in 

2010, taphonomy has an important role in the study of skeletal human 

remains from historical and forensic settings. The natural and artificial 

alterations readable on osseous remains can make understandable the 

changes and the events that a body suffered in its death onwards; to 

individuate taphonomic imprints on bones and their classification in 

taphonomic syndromes, it is necessary in forensic anthropological 

investigation to estimate the postmortem interval and forensic 

pertinence, to contextualize the remains, and to recognize the natural and 

human agents that acted upon the remains. 

Taphonomy is a very complex discipline and in its application on 

archaeological and forensic study, it is possible to recognize two 

different lines: depositional and contextual taphonomy. The depositional 

taphonomy analyzes the position of the remains and the preservation of 

articulations that helps to recognize the type of the burial (i.e. primary, 

secondary, a dressed or nude body, in an empty space). The contextual 

taphonomy analyzes the specific imprints left on the bones by the 

interaction between the remains and the environment such as soil, water, 

atmosphere, fire, and human activity as well. The software presented is 

called Taphonomy Reader and has been developed to help the 

anthropologist (students or professionals), the archaeologist, and the 

forensic investigatory in the contextual taphonomy analysis by creating 

the base for a common language in this discipline. 

Taphonomy Reader has been written in HyperText Markup 

Language (HTML), the predominant markup language for web pages; 

this language allows the software to be used on every kind of computer 

and platform (Windows, Linux, Macintosh) using a simple browser. The 

HTML has embedded scripts using JavaScript, a different language that 

affects the behavior of HTML pages, which creates an elaborate “results 

page.” JavaScript has been used to avoid developing a database that 

requires use online; in this way, users can download the software on their 

computer and use it either on- or off-line. 

When run, Taphonomy Reader shows the “main window” with the 

most common taphonomic imprints: marrow or soft tissue presence; 

complete degreasing; fossilization and sub-fossilization; soil adherence; 

soil staining; mineral incrustation; warping; melted elements adherence; 

roots invasion; roots erosion; soil infiltration on fractures; mineral 

staining; unilateral soil adherence; unilateral soil staining; bleaching; 

algal growth; punctures; parallel striations (rodent gnawing marks); 

longitudinal splitting; weathering; blackening with smoke; ash 

accumulation, calcination; carbonization; crisscross cracking; shrinkage 

fractures or bull-eye fractures; sand adhesion; water staining; 

circumferential staining; surface erosion; rounded margins; marine taxa 

incrustation. If the user is uncertain about the meaning of each pattern, 

it’s possible to click on the pattern’s name to open a new page with a 

synthetic description and a picture of the typical appearance of each 

taphonomic modification. The pictures are from several Italian historical 

or forensic cases and from the sample collection of the MercyHurst 

College. 

Examining a case, the user can tick off the patterns that are singledout 

on the analyzed remains and then push the verification button. The 

script recognizes the choices of the user and creates a new virtual “result 

page.” The taphonomic changes present in the software can correspond 

to eight different taphonomic syndromes: forensic interest; possible 

forensic interest; historical remains; burial; surface exposure; animal 

activity; cremation or fire alteration; and, aquatic taphonomy. 

The “result page” presents the selected taphonomic changes 

tabulated in a schedule where it can be visualized and each taphonomic 

syndrome imprint is presented. The syndromes are clickable to open a 

page with a short explanation and references. As some imprints are 

common to more than one syndrome, the user can choose the most 

appropriate syndrome or if two or more possible syndromes are present, 

they can be listed sequentially. 

A preliminary version of the software will be presented that is able 

to analyze 32 different taphonomic imprints tracing them back to eight 

different taphonomic syndromes. The software is free and downloadable 

at the web site www.restiumani.it. As it is an open source, the software 

can and will be improved by the scientific community over time. 

Taphonomy, Software, Forensic Anthropology 

H84 Comparison of Fresh Tissue Autopsy and 


Karen R. Burns, PhD*, University of Utah, Department of Anthropology, 

270 South 1400 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0060; and Ana C. 

Guatame-Garcia, MSc, Calle 126A #7C-45, Bogota, COLOMBIA 


set of recent cases from Colombia that provide the rare opportunity to 

compare postmortem examinations of skeletonized remains with freshtissue 

autopsy reports of the same individuals at the time of death. The 

attendees will be able to compare and identify disagreements, additions, 

and omissions between types of analysis. This presentation will help the 

forensic scientists who are focused on human identification and 

determination of circumstances of death to anticipate differences in 

reports and adjust expectations and methods accordingly. It will also 

highlight the value of multidisciplinary teams in postmortem exams. 


demonstrating the need for flexibility and cooperation between experts 

in the analysis of human remains. Problems concerning both human 

identification and circumstances of death are highlighted. 

In the summer of 2008, eighteen cases of unidentified combat dead 

from 1995-2003 were disinterred from a cemetery in the Department of 

Antioquia, Colombia. All were analyzed by standard anthropological 

methods. The skeletal analyses were then compared with the records of 

forensic autopsies (necropsies), which had been conducted locally near 

the time of death. The autopsies provided a superficial description of the 

remains, including skin and hair color, tattoos, and scars. The autopsy 

reports then focused on superficial peri-mortem trauma (recent wounds), 

but did not include radiographs. The anthropological analyses included 

a basic description of sex, age, race, and stature. They then focused on a 

more detailed analyses of bone trauma, both antemortem and 

perimortem. (Postmortem trauma did not present a problem because the 

bodies had been maintained in crypts and carefully removed from the 

original coffins.) 

Of the eighteen research cases, the autopsy reports of fifteen 

individuals contained enough material for serious comparison. Of the 

fifteen, there was complete agreement in sexual identity, but 31 percent 

disagreement regarding age at death. Part of this can be attributed to the 

differences in method of reporting. The autopsy reports tended to state 

a unique age and the anthropology reports stated an age range. Another 

problem is the lack of local population data. The stature estimates were 

surprisingly inconsistent and cannot be easily explained. The error 

might have been introduced by overly rapid estimations during autopsy, 

or the errors may be the result of the lack of local population data. It was 

almost impossible to compare the conclusions regarding race. The 

vocabulary used by the pathologists was based on skin color and local 

terminology. The vocabulary used by the anthropologists was based on 

cranial observations and measurements described in terms of global 

populations. The anthropological reports revealed 54 elements of 

additional information potentially critical to success in personal 


The most significant report differences were in the analysis of perimortem 

trauma. The anthropology reports revealed that many of the 

discrepancies and errors were in the original (autopsy) trauma analysis. 


Forty-nine injuries were not recorded in the autopsies; fourteen gunshot 

trajectories were reported to have occurred in the wrong direction; and 

two injuries were recorded in autopsy on the wrong side of the body 

(left/right error). There were also five differences of opinion about the 

specific weapon of injury, and several inconsistencies in the general 

interpretation of injuries. 

Methods, materials, and often motives differ between fresh tissue 

autopsy and skeletal analysis. The result is a separate set of findings, 

sometimes congruent, but sometimes very different. As expected, 

autopsies provide more information about soft tissues, whereas 

osteoanalyses provide more information about both antemortem and 

peri-mortem trauma to osseous tissues. The combination of reports 

provides a more complete description of the circumstances of death, 

significantly improves accuracy, and increases the probability of 

personal identification. Cooperation between professionals as utilized 

for example, in DMORT post-disaster operations, is recommended. 

Osteoanalysis, Autopsy, Colombia 

H85 Conditions for Breaking Down Mummified 



Kanya Godde, PhD*, Texas State University, San Marcos, Department of 

Anthropology, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666 

The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees of the methods 

and conditions favorable to soften mummified tissue for easy removal 

from bone. 


demonstrating how the application of this technique will quicken and 

simplify the bone cleaning process for skeletal collections. Moreover, 

the findings from this project suggest that traditional time since death 

estimates may need to be adjusted based on the state of mummified 

remains. 

As more decomposition facilities are launched across the nation, the 

need for establishing effective techniques for removing debris, tissue, 

and organic matter from skeletal remains increases. In order to run a 

successful facility, the director must maintain a delicate balance between 

incoming donations and those ready to be cleaned for curation. 

Mummified tissue has a tough texture, is challenging to remove, and 

slows the process of cleaning skeletons. Efforts to soften the tissue 

typically occur after the skeleton is removed from the outdoor 

environment and transferred to an indoor lab for cleaning. Attempts to 

remove tissue can include heating it in water and picking it off the bone. 

Unfortunately, these strategies still result in an increase in the time it 

takes to clean donations. Thus, the need for finding a more suitable 

means to remove this type of tissue is necessary to prevent a processing 

backlog. Based on observations of processing techniques, the most 

effective variables for softening mummified tissue are heat and moisture. 

This project involved testing a variety of variables, including heat and 

moisture, prior to the removal of the donation from an outdoor 

environment. As a result of the effectiveness of heat and moisture 

application in indoor lab procedures, the author expected these variables 

to play a similar role in the outdoor environment. 

Over the course of one year, donations were observed at the 

Anthropological Research Facility (ARF) at University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville. Each donation was prescreened to ensure that at least one 

anatomical region (e.g., a hand, etc.) was mummified. After the 

donations were collected, they were placed into two bags: the inner bag 

was clear plastic (allowing for observations of changes in the tissue); 

and, the outer bag was a tan biohazard bag (to designate the nature of the 

contents). Observations of moisture, light, insects, and amount of soil 

were made at the time of placement into the bag and approximately every 

week until the remains were deemed suitable for processing or were 


skeletal. Donations were placed in several locations at the ARF to 

provide differing amounts of exposure to the variables. Categorical 

statistics were applied to the data to isolate the most effective variables 

for breaking down the toughness of the tissue in the shortest amount of 

time. 

The results of this project were consistent with the findings during 

processing; both light and moisture (in conjunction with one another) 

were significant variables in speeding up the decomposition process. 

Surprisingly, partial sun was the most effective amount of light, while 

both small and medium amounts of moisture were successful. This 

discovery is consistent with the hypothesis that both heat (as generated 

by the amount of light) and moisture are crucial elements for the decay 

of mummified tissue. Donations that are placed in bags in a location 

with partial sun and light to moderate moisture will break down the 

tough tissue in intervals between two weeks and two months, based on 

seasonality. 

The purpose of this methodology is to ease the burden of the 

processing crew. Instead of spending weeks working on removing tissue 

from one mummified skeleton, the processing crew can focus on mostly 

skeletal remains that only require a few hours to clean. The mummified 

donations can be placed into bags with the optimal conditions listed 

above and left while the natural moisture and light break down the tissue. 

The implications for these findings extend beyond mere processing 

techniques; they are also significant for time since death estimations. 

Assessing individuals with tissue that appears mummified 

(discoloration, patches of toughness, etc.), except for a soft texture, 

should take into account the possibility of a longer postmortem interval 

than those remains that are mummified with a tough texture. This project 

demonstrates that softening of mummified tissue can occur after a body 

has mummified and been exposed to key environmental elements. 

Mummification, Time Since Death, Decomposition 

H86 Comparing Human and Porcine Infant 



Lindsey L. Jenny, MA, Paige V. Wojcik, BS*, and Todd W. Fenton, PhD, 

Michigan State University, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand 

similarities and differences in histomorphology between human infant 

and porcine infant parietal bones as well as histomorphology’s 

relationship to trauma research. 


indicating that infant porcine parietal bones are an appropriate analog to 

human infant parietal bones up to 24 months of age when conducting 

pediatric cranial trauma research. Because it is difficult to obtain human 

pediatric skeletal material for trauma and biomechanics research, it is 

important to understand the histological relationships between the 

human infant skull and the porcine infant skull, which is often used as an 

analog in these types of studies. 

This study established the baseline histomorphological properties of 

the human infant parietal bones and the porcine infant parietal bone, 

which did not previously exist. Histomorphology, the study of 

microscopic features of bone, is useful in determining the growth and 

developmental patterns of the porcine infant and human infant skulls. 

This information is essential to understand the manifestations of cranial 

injury on a histomorphological as well as biomechanical level. 

Previous research at Michigan State University suggests a 

correlation in cranial bone development between 1-day-old porcine 

skulls and 1-month-old human skulls based on biomechanical properties. 

This research tests the hypothesized correlation by comparing porcine 

bone histology to human bone histology. By comparing the appearance 

52

and thickness of diploe, endocranial thickness, ectocranial thickness, and 

secondary osteon size, number, and arrangement, it was determined if the 

hypothesized correlation in cranial bone development is valid in a 

histomorphological context. 

Human infant and porcine infant parietal bones were thin sectioned 

using a saw and examined using light microscopy at 100x. Images were 

captured using image analysis software. Image analysis software was 

also used to measure endocranial and ectocranial thickness and osteon 

size and density. 

The main goal of this research was to determine whether the porcine 

infant skull is a reasonable analog for the human infant skull in 

conducting research on pediatric cranial trauma. It is necessary to use 

the porcine skull as an animal model of the human skull due to a lack of 

pediatric cadaveric material available for research and experimentation. 

Paired t-tests found no significant differences between the human 

and porcine skulls in the ratios between the ectocranial, endocranial, and 

diploe thickness to total parietal thickness. Results indicate that there 

was a correlation in the appearance of diploe between nine-day-old pigs 

and twelve month old humans. However, parietal development 

permanently diverged at two years in humans and twenty-four days in 

pigs. There was no correlation in osteon density as infant pigs had more 

osteons than human infants. Differences in osteon size and density have 

been reported between species in long bones (Hillier and Bell, 2007) but 

the skull requires further exploration. 

In conclusion, this study indicates that infant porcine parietal bones 

are an appropriate analog to human infant parietal bones up to 24 months 

of age when conducting pediatric cranial trauma research. Because it is 

difficult to obtain human pediatric skeletal material for trauma and 

biomechanics research, it is important to understand the histological 

relationships between the human infant skull and the porcine infant skull, 

which is often used as an analog in these types of studies. 

Pediatric, Trauma, Histology 

H87 Identification vs. Cause of Death in Mass 

Graves Where Individuals are Commingled 

in Colombia 

Maria D. Morcillo, MD*, and Isla Y. Campos Varela, National Institute 

of Legal Medicine, Calle 7 A Number 12-61, Piso 3, 


The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the importance of 

determining cause of death of commingled individuals from mass graves 

from the Colombian armed conflict. 


discussing the approach used to individuate remains that will impact the 

forensic community in those countries with mass graves issues and low 

resources. 

In Colombia, graves were commingled and/or incomplete 

individuals were buried to increase the complexity of forensic analyses. 

Of the reasons that can explain the existence of these type of graves is 

the practice used by paramilitary groups where victims are dismembered 

alive or as a method to dispose and hide the remains. Consequently, 

several individuals are sometimes buried in one or more graves in a 

disorganized and random manner. Other reasons are the cultural 

traditions of the community and circumstances of the victim’s family, 

who bury their loved ones in one grave on their own property or in local 

cemeteries, even when they have died in different events or 

circumstances, including natural death. Sometimes the community is 

forced to carry out mass burials in a short period of time when threatened 

by armed groups that may strike again. On other occasions, forcibly 

displaced families exhume their dead relatives in order to rebury them in 

the area where they relocate. Lastly, particularly in rural cemeteries, 

bodies are often exhumed and disposed of with other remains, in order to 

open space for the recently deceased. No record is kept on the conditions 

in which these individuals are buried or found. 

These graves are characterized by the presence of commingled and 

incomplete bodies at different stages of preservation and with various 

types of injuries. Frequently, the climate of the tropical forest where the 

conflict takes place deteriorates the bony structures and hinders the 

determination of the biological profile and prevents articulation of body 

segments. 

During lab analyses, remains are individualized based on the 

morphological and metric characteristics in order to determine the 

minimum number of individuals. The most likely number of individuals 

is not used because graves usually have three to five bodies. In cases 

where individualization/sorting is impossible, the remains of each 

individual are classified as INDIVIDUAL X; groups of anatomically 

associated structures where it is impossible to determine to which 

individual they belong are classified as GROUP X; and disarticulated 

structures that may correspond to any individual are classified as 

MISCELLANEOUS. Both INDIVIDUAL and GROUP skeletal samples 

are kept for purposes of genetic analysis. However, due to the high cost 

and volume of cases, DNA labs give higher priority to INDIVIDUAL 

samples than to GROUP samples. Consequently, INDIVIDUALS 

samples are identified, but in most cases the cause of death may not be 

established, particularly if the injuries that caused death remain 

unassociated. 

The medical-anthropological teams are frequently faced with these 

two problems: sorting and determination of the individual’s cause of 

death. Returning complete skeletons to family members is very often not 

possible and cannot rely on genetics because of sample processing 

limitations. Additionally, the cause of death of these individuals is 

frequently undetermined. The proposal is to take bone samples from the 

skull and injured structures for identification purposes. This would 

require the enhancement of DNA extraction techniques from small 

structures, and a coordinated effort with DNA experts. Processing 

samples in this way may contribute to victim identification and explain 

the circumstances of death. Additionally, it would meet the requirements 

of the administration of justice and each family’s need to know the truth 

about what happened to their loved ones. 

Commingled, Cause of Death, Armed Conflict in Colombia 

H88 Positive Identification Through 

Comparative Panoramic Radiography of 

the Maxillary Sinuses: A Validation Study 

Angela Soler, MA*, Michigan State University, Department of 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the results of 

a validation study among forensic anthropologists and forensic 

odontologists conducting positive identifications by comparing 

antemortem and postmortem panoramic radiographs of the maxillary 

sinuses. 


providing accuracy rates for the use of panoramic radiography and the 

maxillary sinuses to establish positive identification of unknown 

decedents. In addition, this presentation will discuss the effects of 

educational background and experience in comparative radiography 

when making a positive identification using panoramic radiographs and 

the maxillary sinuses. 

According to Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993) all 

court admissible forensic techniques must comply with four standards: 

they have been or have the potential to be empirically tested; have known 

error rates; have been subjected to peer review; and have been generally 

accepted in the scientific literature. Furthermore, with the 2009 

recommendations of the National Academy of Sciences and the 2010 


Draft Outline of Forensic Reform Legislation there is an increasing push 

for the standardization and validation of forensic methods. As a result 

many studies have been conducted to validate positive identification in 

forensic anthropology and odontology. Validation studies on the use of 

comparative radiography have included a range of anatomical regions 

including: the lumbar spine (Wankmiller 2010); chest (Keuhn et. al. 

2002); hand (Koot et. al. 2005); hyoid (Cornelison 2002); frontal sinuses 

(Christensen 2005); and the dentition (MacLean et. al. 1994, Soomer et. 

al. 2003). In recent years panoramic radiography has become a standard 

of care in many dental offices throughout the United States and now a 

larger percentage of positive identifications are being made through the 

comparison of panoramic antemortem radiographs. In addition, new 

technology is increasing the efficiency and use of postmortem panoramic 

radiography in the medical examiner setting (Du Chesne et. al. 2000, 

Mincer et. al. 2008). Although the dentition in panoramic radiographs 

has been validated as a viable positive identification method (Lee et. al. 

2004), the use of the maxillary sinuses and other osteological features 

has never been investigated. 

This study evaluates panoramic radiography and the maxillary 

sinuses in positive identification by comparing antemortem and 

postmortem radiographs. Twenty fully skeletonized skulls from 

Michigan State University were selected for this project. Simulated 

“antemortem” panoramic radiographs were obtained using a Panorex 

radiography machine. The skulls were placed on a table and propped up 

with foam blocks. All crania were positioned in the Frankfurt horizontal 

plane with the central incisors resting on a notched bite stick. The frontal 

was placed onto a forehead block and the skull was steadied using the 

device’s parietal head supports. Horizontal linear light beams on the 

lower border of the nasal aperture and vertical linear light beams on the 

left canine were used to maintain consistent positioning of the skull. Five 

crania were then randomly selected to simulate the “postmortem” 

matching films. Each of the five skulls were repositioned in the machine 

using the above method. All radiographs were digitized and then cropped 

to exclude viewing of the teeth. A web-based study was designed to 

invite forensic anthropologists and odontologists to match five 

“postmortem” radiographs from one of the twenty “antemortem” films. 

Data regarding the most helpful features, like the borders of the 

maxillary sinuses, nasal aperture, and inferior orbits was collected. 

Additional data regarding the participant’s field of expertise, level of 

education, years practicing in forensics, and experience with positive 

identification was also analyzed. 

Although the study is ongoing, so far a total of thirty-five forensic 

anthropologists, odontologists, and graduate students have participated 

in this study. The overall accuracy rate for correctly matching all five of 

the postmortem films was 65.7%; however, when the most challenging 

radiograph was withdrawn, the accuracy rate reached 91.4%. Only 

57.1% of participants accurately identified postmortem film C, and 

14.3% chose not to answer based on the poor quality of the antemortem 

film. Postmortem radiograph C was the most difficult to match due to a 

slight difference in the radiographic angulation and distance from the xray; 

however it highlights an important point. The ability to accurately 

identify individuals based on panoramic radiography of skeletal features 

other than the teeth relies heavily on the clarity of the films and exact 

duplication of the antemortem position of the skull within the panoramic 

radiography machine. Contingency tables and chi-square test results 

suggest that observer education, years in the field of forensics, and 

experience in positive identification did not significantly affect the 

ability to accurately identify the correct match for any of the postmortem 

radiographs, including postmortem film C. In addition, there was no 

significant difference in the way that experienced forensic 

anthropologists or odontologists performed in the study. However, it 

does appear that the key to correctly matching antemortem and 

postmortem films in this research was the ability to determine whether 

the antemortem films were of sufficient quality to perform an 

identification, which often comes with experience in 

comparative radiography. 

Positive Identification, Panoramic Radiography, Validation 


H89 New Method of Identification Based on 

Computer-Assisted Radiograph Comparison 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Harris County Institute of Forensic Sciences, 

1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054; John A. Hipp, PhD, 

Medical Metrics, Incorporated, 2121 Sage Road, Houston, TX 77056; 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, Harris County 

Institute of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

77054; N. Shastry Akella, PhD, Medical Metrics, Incorporated, 2121 

Sage Road, Houston, TX 77056; and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris 

County Institute of Forensic Sciences, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, 

TX 77054 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have received a 

detailed description of the basis for the computer-assisted radiograph 

comparison method, explanation of the proposed practical application of 

the method in medical examiner/coroner offices, and a discussion of the 

pilot study results. 


introducing a new and practical identification method that is responsive 

to the recent National Academy of Science Report recommendations and 

post-Daubert evidence admissibility standards. 

A crucial need exists for a statistically validated, time-sensitive, and 

relatively inexpensive scientific identification method for routine use in 

the medical examiner/coroner setting. Medical examiner/coroner 

reliance on scientific identification extends far beyond the completely 

unknown medicolegal decedent. Tentatively identified decedents are 

often unrecognizable due to disfiguring facial trauma, charring, or 

advanced decomposition. In cases of multiple fatalities, scientific 

identification methods are used because there is increased potential for 

incorrect assignment of identity. In the aftermath of a mass fatality 

event, scientific identification of the casualties becomes paramount. 

This presentation describes a new quantitative approach to identification 

achieved through modification of existing clinically-tested computer 

technology. Attendees will receive a detailed description of the basis for 

the computer-assisted radiograph comparison method, the proposed 

practical application of the method in medical examiner/coroner offices, 

and a discussion of the pilot study results. 

The foundation of the proposed identification method is 

“Quantitative Motion Analysis” (QMA ® ) software (Medical Metrics, 

Incorporated). The performance of the software has been validated in 

multiple clinically based peer-reviewed studies of spinal biomechanics 

and spinal treatments. QMA ® allows for computer-assisted matching of 

specific skeletal elements, such as vertebral bodies, by tracking them 

through multiple radiographic images. The first step in transforming 

QMA ® into a forensic identification tool has been to program the 

software to generate quantitative match scores for a statistically 

sufficient number of tracked skeletal elements per comparison. 

The ongoing pilot study began with the development of a 

processing algorithm that provides QMA ® with the ability to 

successfully calculate the required match scores. The fourth cervical 

vertebra (C4) was selected as the first test element. The goal of this 

initial work was simply to develop and test the algorithm, a timeconsuming 

process that required testing of a large number of rejected 

algorithms. Once a satisfactory algorithm was developed, it was tested 

on five unique sets of lateral cervical radiographs or fluoroscopic images 

of 10 individual subjects. The anonymized radiographs were assembled 

from archived spine research image sets. There were no implants or 

surgical alterations in any of the views. The sets of images were of 

subjects between the ages of 22 and 89 years, loosely grouped into 

“younger” and “older” subjects for comparison purposes. Each set of 

images contained two different images of the same index subject and an 

array of nine images from nine different subjects. During the QMA ® 

tracking process, variations in magnification between images were 

adjusted so that the C4 was approximately the same size in all of the 

images. Following the tracking process, a region of interest was defined 

54

around the C4, the images were rotated so that the endplates were 

approximately horizontal, and histogram equalization was applied to all 

of the images, using the combined histogram for the entire set of images. 

This process standardized the orientation of the vertebrae and equalized 

brightness and contrast of the images in each set. A contrast 

enhancement filter was then applied that maximized contrast for 

horizontally aligned image features. This filter weights the contribution 

of the vertebral endplates more heavily than other features. An image 

match score was then calculated between the first image and each of the 

other images in the set. 

For each set of 10 images, the maximum match score was returned 

for the two index images, representing a correct comparison match for 

the index subject in each set. The maximum score was scaled to 100 and 

all other match scores were normalized to that score. After 

normalization, all matches returned a score of 99-100 and non-match 

scores ranged from 77-98. The results of the pilot study show that 

QMA ® can successfully be adapted to establish positive identification in 

the medical examiner/coroner system. 

Radiograph Identification, Forensic Anthropology, QMA ® 

H90 Test of Osteon Circularity as a Method of 


MariaTeresa A. Tersigni-Tarrant, PhD*, MCG/UGA Medical 

Partnership, 279 Williams Street, Athens, GA 30602; John E. Byrd, PhD, 

95-033 Hokuiwa Street, #51, Mililani, HI 96853-5530; and Jiro Manabe, 

MA, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue Building 45, Hickam AFB, 


After attending this presentation, attendees can expect to learn how 

new osteon area and circularity tests can help with the identification of 

fragmentary remains and how to utilize the proposed method on 

fragmentary skeletal casework. 


terms of knowledge, competence, and performance by describing to the 

attendees how osteon measurements can be used to distinguish between 

human and non-human fragmentary remains, educating the attendees on 

the proper method of application of the proposed method, and providing 

a standard operating procedure for the implementation of this method in 

forensic practice. 

Due to increased need for the identification of highly fragmentary 

skeletal remains, more laboratories are turning to histological techniques 

for fast, accurate species identification tests. This research adds to the 

body of knowledge by focusing on the overall shape and areas of the 

osteons. Human bone specimens from known individuals were utilized 

to develop reference data. Each of the limb bones from five individuals 

was histologically sampled, yielding slides from 30 specimens. Digital 

images of a random location on each slide were captured at 100x 

magnification using a color digital camera. 

Osteon area was measured with Image J program (NIH). The 

program requires the perimeter of each osteon be traced. The perimeter 

outline provides the basis for calculation of area and other 

measurements. The assessment of shape, called the circularity index 

(CI), was obtained using Image J’s circularity measurement option. Area 

and circularity data were obtained for 1204 osteons from the 30 samples 

from five individuals to form the reference data set. These individuals 

were selected from the Bass Collection (UTK). The same procedures 

were used to obtain area and circularity from 1,442 osteons in 37 

samples from 35 individuals from JPAC-CIL (calculating the mean 

values for area and circularity from a random sample of 30 osteons 

drawn from each sample image). This mean is compared to the mean 

and “standard error of the mean” calculated from the reference data. A 

bootstrap step was taken to generalize the reference data and make the 

statistical tests meaningful (i.e., to avoid the trap with large sample sizes 

whereby any difference is statistically significant). The 1,204 osteon 

measurements for each variable had independent samples of size 30, 

randomly drawn 1,000 times. Each time a sample was selected, the 

mean was calculated. Specimen mean values were compared to the 

grand mean (e.g. mean of means) utilizing the standard deviation (SD) of 

the 1,000 means (bootstrap standard error of the mean) as the basis for a 

formal test of the null hypothesis that the case specimen is human (e.g. 

has osteons that are within the bounds of natural variation for area or 

circularity). 

The grand mean value obtained for human osteons was 37,365 

microns and the standard deviation of the bootstrap means was 2,728 

microns. The distribution closely approximates normality. 

Consequently, it was decided to conduct a one-sided test of the null 

hypothesis (e.g., specimen is human) in the direction of smaller mean 

areas. The resulting cutoff values for osteon area were set as follows: 

mean < 31,909 for p

one microarchitecture have been reported in the anthropological 

literature, the evaluation of trabecular bone area has not been included in 

histological age-estimation methods. 

With advancing age cortical bone is architecturally modified 

through the process of trabecularization. This conversion increases the 

endosteal area and displays a network of interconnecting trabecular 

struts that are not included in the measurement of cortical bone area. The 

traditional measurement of cortical area requires the observer to 

subjectively determine where cortical bone ends and cancellous 

(trabecular) bone begins, producing measurement variability between 

observers. By including trabecular bone in area measurements, this 

subjectivity is removed. Furthermore, it is believed that incorporating 

both cortical and trabecular bone in area measurements to produce a 

bone area variable will provide more information for histological 

analysis of age-related bone loss. 

It has been demonstrated that histological age estimation methods 

based on osteon counts (OPD) are limited when applied to older 

individuals. This is attributed to the nature of bone remodeling and the 

osteon population density (OPD) variable used for histological age 

estimation. Osteon counts from the rib eventually reach an asymptotic 

value in individuals of advanced age. Two factors exist that determine 

the age at which osteon counts will reach an asymptote value: (1) cortical 

area; and, (2) osteon area (size). Including trabecular bone area in 

histological measurements may improve future histological age 

estimation methods for the ribs, especially in older individuals where the 

OPD value becomes less reliable. The objectives of this study are: (1) to 

remove the subjectivity caused by measuring cortical area; and, (2) to 

determine if bone area has a stronger correlation with age than cortical 

area alone. 

The sample consisted of midshaft sixth rib cross-sections from 31 

known age individuals, ranging from 16-87 years of age (mean age 46.4 

+/- 3.2 SD years). These included 26 men and 5 women. All data was 

collected from a pre-existing collection of sixth rib bone samples at the 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner in New York City. The following 

histomorphometric variables were collected: (1) total subperiosteal area 

(TA); (2) cortical area (CA); (3) bone area (BA); (4) relative bone area 

(rBA); (5) relative cortical area (rCA); and, (6) endosteal area (EA). 

The rib cross-sections were prepared following standard protocols 

for histological sample preparation. The cross-sectional area of two rib 

samples per individual was evaluated. Only thin sections with suffice 

microstructural preservation and an intact cortex were utilized. Thin 

sections were photographed using a transmitted light microscope and a 

mounted digital camera attachment (x40 magnification). A series of 

sectional photographs were merged using digital imaging software. 

Cortical and trabecular bone areas were measured using a modular 

imaging software and a digitizing tablet. 

Statistical analyses were completed using statistical software. A 

one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with age as the predictor 

variable was fit for rBA, rCA, CA, BA, EA, and TA to determine the 

strongest correlation with known age. When significant effects were 

detected, paired t-tests were utilized to identify significant differences 

between age categories. Relationships between known age and the 

respective variables were evaluated by linear regression analysis. 

Results from this preliminary research indicate that cross-sectional 

area measurements were found to decrease with advancing age. 

Although the sample size is small, individuals greater than 40 years of 

age were found to have significantly smaller mean BA than those who 

were less than 40 years of age. Overall, a negative correlation was 

observed between known age and sixth rib BA (R=-0.34), and CA (R=- 

0.35). rBA and rCA displayed highly significant negative correlations 

with increasing age. The correlation strength was slightly higher 

between known age and rBA (R=-0.65) compared to known age and rCA 

(R=-0.59). Known age and TA displayed a positive correlation 

(R=.0.25). With one-way ANOVA, both rBA and rCA show significant 

difference among age groups at P=.039 and P=.025, respectively. 


Previous studies have demonstrated that sixth rib cortical bone area 

significantly decreases with age and therefore, the variable has been 

applied to more recent age estimation equations. This overall age-related 

decrease in bone mass can be attributed to trabecularization of the 

cortical bone which results in endosteal expansion. The results of this 

study suggest that evaluating bone area may improve the accuracy of 

histological methods. Including rBA in future studies will provide a 

more relevant measure of bone area as it is independent of bone size. 

Finally, subjectivity and interobserver error may be reduced if the BA 

and rBA variables are included in future methods. 

Histology, Histomorphometry, Bone Area 

H92 Improving Forensic Facial Reproductions 


Brian Wood, MS*, University of Tennessee, 315 Pasqua Engineering 

Building, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard Jantz, PhD, Lee Meadows 

Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Mohamed 

Mahfouz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Center for Musculoskeletal 



benefits of using empirical modeling to produce more accurate soft facial 

tissue thicknesses that are used in facial reproductions. 


presenting how empirical modeling improves the accuracy of forensic 

facial reproductions and can have a positive impact on the identification 

rate of unknown skeletal remains. 

Forensic facial reconstruction has been used for many years to 

identify skeletal remains. The face of the unknown person can be 

reproduced based on the soft facial tissue thickness, which overlays the 

bony structure of the skull. Currently, forensic artists place average 

facial tissue markers at 21 specific anatomical locations on the skull and 

use clay to model the face based on the length of the markers. The 

purpose of this study was to develop a new method for estimating the 

facial soft tissue thickness at the 21 traditional craniometrical landmarks 

used in forensic facial reconstruction. This newly developed method 

uses a non-parametric modeling technique to predict the facial tissue 

depths based on a unique skull input. 

Computed Tomography (CT) images of 100 American White male 

subjects’ skulls were used to build a database of facial tissue thicknesses 

and input predictors for the non-parametric model. The inputs to the 

model are various cranial bone thicknesses and measurements along 

specific anatomical lines, which are then used to predict the facial tissue 

thicknesses at the traditional landmarks using a Non-Parametric Kernel 

Regression model. The tissue and bone measurements were performed 

using a software package being developed at the Center for 

Musculoskeletal Research (CMR) at The University of Tennessee. 

Hetero-Associative Kernel Regression (HAKR) and Inferential Kernel 

Regression models were built using the measurements from the 100 male 

subjects. 

Two results were computed for each model; one including age, 

height, weight and BMI as predictors in the model and the other 

removing them from the model. This was done because, in many cases, 

the demographics of an unknown skull are not known. The Root Mean 

Squared Error (RMSE) when not using the demographics as an input to 

the model was 2.21mm for the HAKR architecture and 2.19 mm for the 

inferential model. When including the demographics, the RMSE for the 

HAKR architecture was 2.04mm and 1.89mm for the inferential 

architecture. The HAKR and Inferential model’s RMSE were both less 

than the currently used tabled tissue thickness RMSE from the actual 

measured tissue thicknesses of 3.07 mm. The developed inferential 

56

model provided forensic facial tissue thickness approximations with an 

average of 38% less error when using demographics or 29% less error 

when not using demographics. The error reduction is based on the tabled 

tissue thicknesses that are used in facial reconstructions today. The 

average prediction uncertainty from the LOOCV was computed to be 

19.7% for the HAKR model and 20.5% for the inferential model. 

Three male skulls from the William Bass Donated Collection at The 

University of Tennessee were used to visualize the model’s performance. 

A certified forensic artist performed the facial reconstructions. The 

facial reconstructions using tabled tissue thicknesses were compared to 

the reconstructions of the same subject using the inferential model’s 

predicted tissue thicknesses. The reconstructions were then compared to 

an actual photograph of each respective subject. The results show an 

overall more accurate representation of the actual subject face when 

using the empirical model tissue thicknesses. The findings from this 

pilot study have shown a proof of principal for using non-parametric 

empirical modeling to predict facial soft tissue thickness. This 

technology has the promise, with further research, to produce more 

accurate forensic facial reproductions. More accurate facial 

reproductions will hopefully have a positive effect on the identification 

rate of unknown skeletal remains. 

Facial, Reconstruction, Modeling 

H93 Prediction of Mouth Shape Using 

Geometric Morphometrics for 


Pierre Guyomarc’h, MS*, Bruno Dutailly, MS, Christine Couture, PhD, 

and Helene Coqueugniot, PhD, Universite Bordeaux 1 - UMR 5199 

PACEA, Universite Bordeaux 1, UMR 5199 PACEA - LAPP, Av des 

Facultes, Bat B8, Talence, 33405, FRANCE 


advantages of geometric morphometrics when applied to facial 

approximation issues and the possibilities to enhance the accuracy of a 

prediction with the mouth shape as a practical example. 


emphasizing the importance of taking the bone morphology into account 

in a multivariate way prior to the reconstruction of a face based on the 

skull. 

Facial approximation specialists base their research on the principle 

that the facial form is directly related to the morphology of the 

underlying bony features. The applicability of such techniques is 

hindered by a lack of accuracy and reproducibility. The new advances 

and software availability in the geometric morphometrics field 

contiguously, with the development of 3D medical imaging, offer many 

possibilities to enhance the precision of forensic techniques. The 

purpose of this research is to introduce a semi-automatic face 

approximation method, using objective analysis strictly based on skull 

morphology. 

Several hundred computed tomography (CT) scans were collected 

in French hospitals. A homogeneous sub-sample of 140 known age and 

sex individuals was extracted. The mean age of the sample is 54 years 

(min = 18; max = 96; SD = 21) and the sex ratio is 1:1. Patients showing 

pathological or traumatic conditions were excluded. Forty 3D landmarks 

were collected on the mouth region of each individual directly on the 

reconstructed osseous and cutaneous surfaces. TIVMI software was 

used to obtain reliable surfaces, based on the half-maximum height 

algorithm in 3D (Dutailly et al. 2009). The extracted coordinates were 

imported into MorphoJ software (Klingenberg 2008) for analysis. The 7 

cutaneous and 33 osseous landmarks were checked for intra- and interobserver 

error and the configurations were normalized with a Procrustes 

superimposition. The resulting residuals and centroid sizes were used to 

study sexual dimorphism (with discriminant function analysis), age 

trends (with canonical variate analysis), asymmetry (with a Procrustes 

ANOVA), allometry (with multivariate regression) and covariation 

between the different sets of landmarks (with Partial Least Squares or 

PLS analysis). Results indicate the lower facial skeleton is influenced by 

age (mainly reflected by bone remodeling due to loss of teeth), subtle 

localized allometry (size-related shape changes) and sexual dimorphism 

(more pronounced on the mandible and consistent with allometric shape 

changes). Lips show some specific changes with age (wider mouth and 

thinner lips in older individuals) and a subtle allometry (mouth corners 

more posterior and thinner lips when centroid size is high) but no 

significant differences between males and females. PLS results suggest 

a good correlation between shape changes of the lips and shape changes 

of the facial skeleton; significant covariation in the regions studied was 

detected by this method. 

Based on these results, a prediction technique was employed (by 

multivariate regressions) using principal components of the osseous 

landmarks configuration and the Procrustes coordinates of the cutaneous 

landmarks. The mean correlation (r) of the regressions attains 0.69 (r² = 

0.48). Based on its specific morphology, it is possible to extract the 

shape variables from a skull to make an approximation of the coordinates 

of the lips. This methodology was applied to 5 CT scans (out of the 140 

sub-sample) in order to compare the estimated shape of the lips to the 

true coordinates. The differences can be evaluated through a Principal 

Component Analysis in order to visually assess the distance between the 

true shape and the predicted shape. In terms of metric proportions, 

distances between landmarks can be calculated and multiplied by the 

centroid size of the true subject to get appreciable data. For example, the 

width of the mouth which is the largest measurement that can be 

extracted from the lips, displays a mean absolute error of 2.3 mm (4.3 % 

of the mean mouth width in the tested individuals). 

This methodology offers an accurate and objective tool to 

approximate the shape of facial features from the skull. Further 

assessment of the shape of facial features using outlines or semilandmarks 

might enhance the precision of the results. In order to 

implement this approach, the next step is to develop software for 

computer-assisted (semi-)automatic technique for facial approximation. 

Facial Reconstruction, Stoma, Procrustes Superimposition 

H94 The Effects of Avian and Terrestrial 

Scavenger Activity on Human Remains in 

the Piney Woods of Southeast Texas 

Kathryn E. Moss, BS*, 4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 77004; and 

Angela D. Rippley, BS, and Joan A. Bytheway, PhD, Sam Houston State 

University, Box 2296, Huntsville, TX 77341-2296 


impact scavenger activity has on human decomposition rates in the 

Southeast region of Texas. By recognizing soft tissue and skeletal 

trauma caused by scavengers, as opposed to those caused by humans, 

investigators will be able to interpret taphonomic events more accurately. 


presenting research which illustrates the impact several species of 

scavenging animals, native to the Southeast area of Texas, has on human 

decomposition. Investigators, such as pathologists, law-enforcement 

officers, and forensic anthropologists must understand all of the factors 

which influence decomposition, including wildlife, in order to correctly 

interpret taphonomic events for the establishment of accurate 

postmortem interval (PMI) estimates. 

There have been many studies conducted which examine the effects 

scavenger activity has on human and nonhuman decomposition. 

However, to date, no such research has ever been conducted which 


examines these effects in the subtropical humid climate of Southeast 

Texas. This research project will, for the first time, examine the effects 

terrestrial and avian scavenger activity has on human decomposition. 

Data collected during this study will not only help investigators 

understand the agents involved in scavenger modified scenes, but also 

help to establish the time standards of decomposition as they relate 

specifically to the Piney Woods of Southeast Texas. This information is 

crucial to investigators such as medical examiners, law-enforcement 

personnel, and forensic anthropologists who need to determine the 

postmortem interval (PMI) for recovered human remains. 

During the time period of August 2009 to January 2010, ten 

cadavers were placed outdoors at the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic 

Science facility for observation. The research subjects were 

photographed with a camera for decomposition stage assessment while 

scavenger activity was monitored via motion-sensing stealth cameras. 

These stealth cameras recorded a sequence of still photos each time an 

object moved into the camera’s field of vision throughout the day and 

night. Scattered skeletal elements were observed and distance from 

primary placement was recorded utilizing photographs, linear 

measurements, and mapping software taken in the field. By recording 

activity with a stealth camera, the authors were able to unobtrusively 

observe several different scavenging animals in the field including the 

American black vulture (Coragyps atratus), turkey vulture (Cathartes 

aura), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and opossum (Didelphis virginiana). The 

results showed that patterns in scavenger activity leading to complete 

disarticulation seem to have been influenced by environmental 

conditions such as temperature, lunar phases, vegetation, and levels of 

sun exposure. Those placed outdoors during the fall season achieved 

disarticulation much faster than those placed during the winter. For 

example, one cadaver placed during the fall reached skeletonization and 

complete disarticulation in approximately two months whereas those 

placed during the winter required over six months. Among those 

cadavers included in winter placement, scavenging activity and 

decomposition noticeably slowed during the colder months until warmer 

temperatures returned in the spring. By this time, vegetation in two of 

the placement units had grown tall enough to obscure the location of the 

cadaver. This growth in vegetation seems to have camouflaged the area 

and negatively impacted scavenger activity. 

Findings regarding scavenger behavior showed that turkey vultures 

were among the first to arrive but would observe the area of cadaver 

placement from a tree nearby before their descent. Once their interaction 

with the cadaver began, they would visit throughout the day along with 

the American black vultures. These two species of vultures would often 

scavenge together however it was usually the American black vulture 

who took the initiative to disarticulate the skeletal elements. Their 

forceful behavior often led to turkey vultures leaving the scene while 

American black vultures flocked in and dominated the area. One fallplaced 

cadaver was photographed with as many eighteen vultures during 

one such scavenging scene. Over the course of one weekend, this same 

cadaver was almost completely disarticulated through vulture activity 

alone. At the completion of this research subject’s participation in the 

field, the skeletal elements were recovered and processed in the lab. By 

observing the photographic evidence along with the skeletal analysis, the 

trauma was able to be associated with the animal that caused it and at the 

specific stage of decomposition it occurred. 

This study shows the effects environmental conditions and 

scavenger activity has on human decomposition. As more data is 

compiled with the completion of future studies, a time-line of activity 

along with a decomposition stage assessment specific to this region of 

Texas will be established. By understanding and correctly interpreting 

the trauma on modified remains and the scene of activity, investigators 

will be able to establish a more accurate PMI based on the taphonomic 

evidence documented from research such as this. 

Scavengers, Taphonomy, Postmortem Interval 


H95 Scavenging Impacts on the Progression of 


Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, University of Maine, Margaret Chase Smith 

Policy Center, 5784 York Complex, Building #4, Orono, ME 04469 


the potential effects of scavenging on differential decomposition, and 

how these modifications may influence estimations of postmortem 

interval (PMI). 


illustrating how regional ecological variation can affect accurate 

estimation of PMI. 

Many researchers acknowledge the critical role scavengers can play 

in the scattering of remains and postmortem modification. However, few 

studies document the impact of scavenging on PMI estimates. Recent 

research and experimental studies in the Midwest have demonstrated the 

utility of estimating accumulated degree days (ADD), by assessing of 

decomposition. Megyesi et al. (2005) and Sheil (2008) have proposed an 

ordinal scale (“total body score,” referred to as TBS) to assess the extent 

of decomposition in three body zones (head and neck, torso, and limbs) 

and use the resulting score in a regression formula to calculate an 

ADD range. 

With more than 90 percent of its land covered in forest, Maine’s 

outdoor forensic cases are usually (70 – 80% percent) modified by 

scavengers, making it an extremely important taphonomic issue. Often, 

whole regions of the body are consumed, scattered, or missing. 

Megygesi’s methodology was piloted with a small sample of nine 

forensic cases from Maine with a known PMI and an ADD calculated 

from nearest weather station data. A recently developed Regional 

Taphonomy Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to assess 

the macroenvironmental context and calculate the weather station-based 

ADD for the PMI dates in each case. Five cases lacked representative 

elements for one or more of the anatomic regions. When all regions are 

represented, these preliminary data show that formula-calculated ADD 

ranges tend to be much lower than the actual ADD range. 

Maine’s “scavenger guild” includes both mammalian and avian 

animals, predominantly coyote (Canis latrans), black bear (Ursus 

americanus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), bobcat (Lynx rufus), raven (Corvus 

corax) crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) 

and bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), as well as smaller mammals. 

In far southern and coastal areas, as well as during winter months 

statewide, the scavenger guild is coyote-dominant. In spring, summer 

and fall, it is potentially bear-dominant in most of the state. Particularly 

in early spring, bears are more apt to seek protein-rich meals when they 

first emerge from hibernation. In warmer weather, bears are more likely 

to be attracted to a carcass by a maggot mass, rather than decomposing 

flesh. Raptors and corvids participate in the scavenger guild throughout 

the state. Corvid presence can signal other scavengers, particularly 

eagles, which lack olfactory capacity, that there is a meat source in the 

proximity. With their sharp beaks, corvids easily “open up” a body, even 

when frozen, enhancing access to the viscera for other avian taxa. 

Coyotes are common throughout the state and are very frequent 

scavengers, along with other canids. 

Similar to canid patterns modeled by Haglund (1997) for the 

Northwest, limbs are often removed beginning with the upper limbs, 

which are easier to disarticulate and lighter to carry (if removed from the 

site). Bones with a thinner cortex and narrower diameter, such as ribs, 

require little expenditure of energy on the part of the scavenger and are 

generally consumed on-site early on in the process. The cranium and 

limb bones are often scattered, and the limb bones and extremities are 

often completely consumed, missing, or cached. Although most scatter 

tends to be within a 50 meter radius, it can range up to a mile, creating 

extreme challenges for search and recovery. 

Results indicate that scavenging can both accelerate and decelerate 

progression towards skeletonization, potentially interfering with 

58

estimates of PMI. In Maine cold temperatures as well as the 

involvement of large mammalian scavengers can preclude, or 

considerably diminish, insect infestation. Frequently, one or more 

anatomic regions are entirely missing, which can also bias 

decomposition assessment and PMI estimates. 

This research was supported in part by the National Institute of 

Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The 

opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in 

this presentation are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 

those of the Department of Justice. 

Scavenging, Decomposition, Taphonomy 

H96 Decomposition Patterns of Human Remains 

Within Enclosed Environments: A 

Comparative Analysis of the Midwest 

and Southeast 

Melissa A. Pope, MA*, University of South Florida, Anthropology 

Department, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33620 

The goals of this presentation are to explore the patterns and timing 

of the effects of decomposition for enclosed settings in both the Midwest 

and Southeast, and to identify taphonomic factors that will be useful for 

predicting the accumulated degree days (ADD). Attendees will be 

presented with predictive models for estimating ADD and a blueprint for 

retrospective decomposition studies. 


presenting trends in human decay within two distinct geographical 

regions for an environment that has been largely unexplored. The 

identified patterns accentuate the need for generating comparative 

samples and engaging in collaborative research to create context-specific 

standards for estimating the postmortem interval (PMI). 

Retrospective case studies from autopsy records were utilized to 

assess human decay trends in different geographical regions. The 2003- 

2008 Nebraskan autopsy records revealed 69 cases within enclosed 

settings, and Florida’s Hillsborough County Medical Examiner records 

for 2009 yielded 87 cases. Five outliers were removed (Nebraska: n=67; 

Florida: n=84). The reliability of Bass’ (1997) model was tested for a 

correlation between time ranges (first day, 2–7 days, 8–31 days, and >31 

days) and decay stages (fresh, bloated, advanced) to determine whether 

a context-specific standard can be applied to enclosed settings in varied 

U.S. regions. To test variation in decomposition, relationships between 

PMI (time in days) and Bass’ stages were tested using Spearman’s 

Correlations for each state, and differences in PMI among decay stages 

were tested with Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests. The role of 

insect activity was described by location. Spearman’s Correlations were 

further used to identify factors that may be powerful in predicting ADD 

in Nebraska and PMI in Florida. For Florida, preliminary trends were 

identified. For Nebraska, a multiple regression model was constructed 

for the prediction of ADD. 

For Nebraska cases, the investigation of decompositional phases 

revealed that there were 49.3% (33/67) fresh, 37.3% (25/67) bloated, and 

13.4% (9/67) advanced. PMI ranged from one to 66 days (mean 

PMI=4.84 days, n=64). For Florida cases, there were 6.0% (5/84) fresh, 

77.4% (65/84) bloated, and 16.7% (14/84) advanced. PMI ranged from 

2–26 days (mean PMI=6.27 days, n=81). 

For both regions, Bass’ decay stages were significantly correlated 

with time ranges (Nebraska: r=0.829, n=64, p≤0.000; Florida: r=0.366, 

n=81, p=0.001). For both regions, relationships between PMI and 

decomposition were identified (Nebraska: r=0.772, p≤0.000, n=64; 

Florida: r=0.512, p≤0.000, n=81). For Nebraska, there were significant 

differences in PMI days among all decomposition stages (X²=37.818, 

df=2, p≤0.000). Florida possessed differences in PMI between bloated 

and advanced cases (MW-U=165.500, p≤0.000). Fresh cases could not 

be considered, due to small sample size. 

For Nebraska, only 12.3% (7/57) cases with fly colonization were 

documented: 11.1% (2/18) within bloat and 71.4% (5/7) within 

advanced. The Florida sample included flies, ants, gnats and beetles; 

73.56% (64/87) of cases had insect activity. Insect activity was more 

prevalent among Florida depositions. 

For Nebraska, several factors were identified as significantly 

correlated with the transformed log 10 ADD. Ultimately, brain 

liquefaction, marbling, decompositional odor, mummified tissue and the 

use of A.C. or heat were selected for a predictive model (Adjusted R 2 

=0.952; F=40.807, df=5, 5 and p≤0.000). For Florida, taphonomic 

variables identified as having a relationship with PMI include: 

necrophagy (r=0.268, p=0.015, n=81), livor mortis (r=0.234, p=0.035, 

n=81), bloating (r=-0.251, p=0.024, n=81), mummified tissue 

(r=0.527, p≤0.000, n=81), brain liquefaction (r=0.285, p=0.038, n=53), 

and organ decomposition (r=0.281, p=0.038, n=55). Although 

preliminary, these decomposition variables may be powerful predictors 

of ADD for Florida. 

Correlations between stages of decay and PMI, as well as the 

disparity in PMI days among stages indicate that retrospective data are 

well suited for identifying what taphonomic effects have a relationship 

with time and would serve as powerful predictors of the PMI. Although 

Bass’ model for outdoor Tennessee decomposition accounted for a 

significant portion of the variation for both locations, the low 

Spearman’s rho score for Florida indicated that Bass’ model cannot 

adequately address decomposition rates for enclosed settings in Florida. 

The disparity in insect activity and the selection of different 

decomposition variables as predictors of PMI and ADD for both 

locations suggest that taphonomic factors vary in influence over decay 

rates by geographical region. Collectively, these results lend support for 

the need to create quantitative models for predicting ADD that are 

geographically and contextually specific. Predictive models can be 

constructed by identifying taphonomic influences and effects that best 

characterize decompositional change in a given environment. 

Florida Decomposition, Enclosed Environments, Postmortem Interval 

H97 Using Algae to Estimate Postmortem 


Sophia G.D. Renke, MA*, Faculty of Law, University of Alberta, 

Edmonton, AB T6G 2H5, CANADA; Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department 

of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803; and Sibel Bargu-Ates, PhD, Department of Oceanography 

and Coastal Sciences, 1235 Energy, Coast and Environment, Louisiana 


After attending this presentation, attendees will recognize the utility 

of algae in the estimation of postmortem submersion interval (PMSI). 


highlighting an often overlooked resource for the prediction of time 

since death, promoting collaboration between forensic anthropologists 

and algologists for the estimation of PMSI. 

When a body is found in a terrestrial setting, the forensic 

anthropologist has a wide array of taphonomic information available to 

assist in the estimation of postmortem interval (PMI). Yet, 

decomposition in water is far less understood, with the estimation of 

PMSI more difficult to determine. While insects are a principal 

contributor to the data on terrestrial decomposition, few truly 

sarcophagous aquatic insects have been documented (Wallace et al. 

2008). 1 Water is a highly variable habitat, being affected by numerous 

factors such as sunlight, temperature, wind, pollution, and geographic 

location. The position of a body in water is also highly variable, with 

some bodies floating or sinking naturally, while others are trapped or 


deliberately weighted to sink to the water floor. Depth, salinty, pH 

content, current, and micro and macro organisms all affect how quickly 

a body will decompose, and disarticulation coupled with fluvial transport 

make submerged cases particularly challenging. However, researchers 

have identified stages of underwater decomposition, such as the six-stage 

system suggested by Payne and King (1972). 2 

The current study used fetal pigs as models for humans to assist in 

evaluating the potential for using algae growth as an indicator of PMSI, 

examining three questions: (1) will a decomposing pig have different 

algae growth than a non-decomposing object; (2) does a clothed 

substrate have different algae growth than an unclothed substrate; and, 

(3) is algae growth different in spring and fall? Pigs were placed in a 

Louisiana bayou in spring and fall, some clothed in cotton and others 

unclothed. Each season, one clothed pig and one unclothed pig were 

sampled for algae accumulation daily for ten days, then once weekly 

until no flesh remained. In addition, submerged clothed and unclothed 

slate tiles were sampled for algae during the same time period, acting as 

comparative, non-decomposing objects. In laboratory, the algae samples 

were quantified through chlorophyll a concentration, while microscopic 

analysis qualified diatoms as the primary algae in both seasons. 

Additionally, each season a neighboring clothed pig and an unclothed pig 

were not sampled but rather visually assessed for stages of 

decomposition. These unsampled pigs provided a control for 

observation into the effects of algae sampling on the rate of 


Statistical analyses were conducted to examine the effects of 

clothing and season on chlorophyll a on the pigs and tiles. Positive, 

linear relationships existed between the amount of time submerged and 

the accumulation of chlorophyll a l substrates in both seasons, meaning 

that chlorophyll a potentially can indicate time since submersion. 

Results also demonstrate that the presence of clothing has a greater 

impact on algae growth rate than the presence of decomposing matter, 

with the clothed pigs and clothed tiles having more growth than the 

unclothed pigs and tiles, especially in spring. Season was also found to 

highly impact algae growth, with the light rainfall and warm 

temperatures of spring creating ideal growing conditions compared to 

the heavy rainfall and cool temperatures of fall. Finally, the act of 

experimental algae sampling did not influence the process of 


In summary, this study shows that algae growth, measured through 

chlorophyll a, has tremendous potential for the estimation of PMSI. 

References: 

1. Wallace JR, Merritt RW, Kimbirauskas R, Benbow ME, 

McIntosh M. Caddisflies assist with homicide case: determining 

apostmortem submersion interval using aquatic insects. Journal 

of Forensic Sciences 2008;53(1):609-614. 

2. Payne JA, King EW. Insect succession and decomposition of pig 

carcasses in water. Journal of the Georgia EntomologicalSociety 

1972;7:153-162. 

Postmortem Interval, Algae, Taphonomy 


H98 Profiling of Marine Microbial Communities 

Associated With Decomposing 

Remains Can Indicate Postmortem 


Gemma C. Dickson, BSc*, and Russell T.M. Poulter, PhD, University of 

Otago, Department of Biochemistry, PO Box 56, Dunedin, AS 9054, 

NEW ZEALAND; Jules A. Kieser, PhD, University of Otago, Sir John 

Walsh Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, PO Box 647, Dunedin, AS 

9054, NEW ZEALAND; Elizabeth W. Maas, PhD, National Institute of 

Water & Atmospheric Research, Ltd. (NIWA), Private Bag 14901, 

Wellington, AS 9054, NEW ZEALAND; and P. Keith Probert, PhD, 

University of Otago, Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, 

Dunedin, AS 9054, NEW ZEALAND 

After attending this presentation, attendees, will have a better 

understanding of the role that extrinsic microbial communities play in 

the rate and pattern of decomposition of remains in New Zealand coastal 

marine environments and how such information may enable forensic 

investigators to more accurately determine the postmortem submersion 

interval (PMSI). 


extending the currently limited knowledge of aquatic decomposition of 

bodies and/or body parts mediated by marine microorganisms while 

introducing a novel framework through which PMSI may be determined 

by analyzing the marine microbial community present on submerged 

remains at the time of body recovery. 

Microbial communities play a central ecological role in the 

recycling of nutrients and organic matter in aquatic ecosystems. Despite 

the clear importance of bacteria in the decomposition process, a detailed 

understanding of the postmortem microbiology of decomposing remains 

in aquatic environments is currently lacking. A previous study in a 

coastal marine environment showed that marine microbes display 

successional colonization patterns which can be linked to particular 

submersion intervals, but highlighted the need to develop a more highthroughput 

methodology, if this concept is to be utilized in a forensic 

setting. 

One such methodology is terminal restriction fragment length 

polymorphism (TRFLP) analysis. TRFLP is a molecular fingerprinting 

technique that examines the 16S rRNA genes of virtually all bacteria in 

a microbial community, producing a community profile or “fingerprint” 

which consists of different length fragments for different bacterial 

phyloypes. TRFLP has the advantage of being a fast, reliable and 

relatively quick and inexpensive technique that produces digital output 

and could potentially be used for forensic analysis. 

This study aimed to identify, using TRFLP analysis, successional 

changes in microbial community composition on submerged pig remains 

as they decomposed in the sea, and to assess whether unique components 

of the community existed for particular stages of decomposition or 

periods of submersion. 

Adult domestic pig (S. scrofa L.) carcasses, used as models for 

partial human remains, were placed in cages encompassed by mesh, so 

as to deny larger scavengers access and achieve the longest postmortem 

submersion interval possible for the collection of colonizing bacteria. 

Cages were submerged in the Otago Harbour in water 5-7 m deep in 

January (summer) 2009 and July (winter) 2010, and in Wellington 

Harbour in water 8-10 m deep in February (summer) 2009. The study 

was performed in two geographic coastal locations, and in one of these 

locations, during two seasons, in order to explore the general 

applicability this technique would have across time and space. Bacterial 

samples were taken by swabbing the skin of the carcasses before entry 

into the water, after 1, 2 and 3 days, then at 2-4 day intervals until 

skeletonization. DNA from the bacterial community present on the 

carcass at each time point was extracted from the swabs and subjected to 

TRFLP analysis. On sampling days, observations of gross 

60

decomposition changes and the presence of any small marine scavengers 

in or on the cage were also noted. During the course of the experiments, 

environmental data such as seawater temperature and pH were also 

monitored. 

Clustering analysis of TRFLP microbial community profiles from 

early, mid and late periods of submersion formed distinct clusters and 

could be distinguished based on the presence of certain bacterial 

phylotypes. There appeared to be very little difference in the pattern of 

community change over time between carcasses deployed in the two 

different geographic locations, suggesting this concept has broad spatial 

applicability. Many phylotypes present on the skin before submersion 

disappeared within the first few days, indicating significant and rapid 

disruption of the original skin microbiome following submersion of the 

remains in salt water. Extrinsic marine microbes colonized the remains 

immediately. Dynamic shifts in the structure of the microbial 

community present on the remains were seen during the early 

submersion period (Fresh to Early Putrefaction stages), with a number of 

short-lived, time-specific phylotypes observed. The mid-submersion 

period (Advanced Putrefaction) was characterized by much more 

gradual shifts in community composition, with colonization by unique 

phylotypes not observed before particular submersion intervals, but 

which persisted on the remains for longer periods of time. As well as the 

continued presence of mid-phase colonizers, the late submersion period 

(Advanced Decay and Skeletonized Remains) saw the arrival and 

subsequent disappearance of many short-lived, time-specific phylotypes; 

thus the microbial community present on the decomposing remains once 

again underwent noticeable and rapid compositional changes. 

Preliminary results from a comparison of decomposition events during 

summer and winter in Otago Harbour found substantial differences in 

bacterial phylotypes within TRFLP profiles, suggesting there is a strong 

seasonal aspect to colonization. However the overall pattern of 

compositional change over time was similar. 

The use of TRFLP as a microbial community profiling tool has 

enabled the first characterization, at a community level, of the 

postmortem microbiology of submerged mammalian remains over the 

course of an aquatic decomposition event. This reproducible, highthroughput 

technique is cost-effective and could be easily implemented 

in the modern forensic laboratory. Microbial community presence, 

abundance and successional dynamics, coupled with temperature data, 

have the potential to provide detailed information regarding length of 

submersion time of immersed bodies and/or body parts recovered from 

coastal marine waters of New Zealand and beyond in cases where a 

specific PMSI is in doubt. 

Decomposition, Postmortem Submersion Interval, 

Microbial Communities 

H99 Scavenging and Its Relationship to 


Ashley H. McKeown, PhD*, University of Montana, Department of 

Anthropology, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT 59812; Walter L. Kemp, 

MD, Department Of Justice, State of Montana, Forensic Science 

Division, 2679 Palmer, Missoula, MT 59808-6010; and Beatrix Dudzik, 

MA, and Hillary R. Parsons, MA, University of Tennessee, Department 

of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 


the need for assessing scavenging as an aid to discerning the postmortem 

interval in regions such as Montana, where mummification is a normal 

part of the early decomposition process and often becomes the static, 

long term condition of remains not exposed to scavenging. 


demonstrating many cases of partially and completely skeletonized 

remains in Montana are likely the result of large carnivore scavenging as 

opposed to extended periods of exposure as previously thought. 

Accurate estimation of time since death can be an important component 

of a forensic investigation and the processes by which soft tissue is lost 

from the skeleton need to be well understood, particularly for areas with 

variable decomposition patterns and the presence of large carnivores. 

Recent research by Parsons (2009) and Dudzik (2009) has 

demonstrated that decomposition rates and patterns in the Northern 

Rockies of Montana vary from those known elsewhere in the United 

States. The arid and cool climate not only slows the general rate of soft 

tissue decomposition, but also results in mummification of the external 

tissues very early in the decomposition process. Nevertheless, partially 

or fully skeletonized remains are recovered, even when the postmortem 

interval has been relatively brief (3-6 months). Typically these remains 

have been scavenged by one or more of the large carnivores native to 

Montana, including brown bears, grizzly bears, mountain lions, and 

wolves. 

A retrospective review of twelve cases, with established 

postmortem intervals, analyzed by the medical examiners of Montana’s 

Forensic Science Division and forensic anthropologists at the University 

of Montana over a six year period was undertaken. Based on reports, 

case notes and photographs, degree of mummification was scored by 

percentage of the body retaining mummified tissue and degree of 

scavenging was scored as percentage of the skeleton bearing evidence 

for carnivore scavenging activity. Eight (66%) of the total cases 

reviewed had either not been subject to scavenging or were only 

minimally scavenged (scored as 10% or less) with postmortem intervals 

ranging from three weeks to two years. Of these cases, 75% of the 

individuals retained mummified tissue covering more than 50% of the 

body. In the cases where scavenging had significantly affected the 

remains (scored as 25% or greater), the retention of mummified tissue 

was limited to 50% or less, with two of these cases having postmortem 

intervals of less than one year. In summary, remains that do not 

experience scavenging tend to retain the external layer of mummified 

tissue, even years after death, while remains that are subject to large 

carnivore scavenging can be completely or partially skeletonized within 

a few months. 

Therefore, estimations of the postmortem interval for human 

remains in Montana and similar regions must consider not only the 

unusual decomposition pattern associated with the climatic conditions of 

the Northern Rockies, but also the degree of scavenging by large 

carnivores as this is a likely factor responsible for the absence of soft 

tissue as opposed to decomposition due to an extended period of 

exposure. This will assist efforts to identify human remains or to 

pinpoint the timeframe for a crime. 

Decomposition, Scavenging, Postmortem Interval 

H100 Anaerobic and Aerobic Decomposition in 

55-gallon Oil Drums: A Two-Year Study on 

the Deliberate Concealment of Remains 

Lauren R. Pharr, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803; and Wayne L. Kramer, PhD, Louisiana State University, 

Department of Entomology, 404 Life Science Building, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803 


unique stages of decomposition occurring inside an above ground, manmade 

container used for concealment purposes. Using pigs as human 

models, this research focuses on both anaerobic and aerobic decay inside 

an above ground container and reveals how such decomposition can 

mimic antemortem or peri-mortemtrauma. 


providing new criteria for estimating the postmortem interval for bodies 

concealed in above ground, man-made containers such as an oil drum. 


Gaining insight into this under-researched decompositional context is 

important for forensic anthropologists involved in estimating the 

postmortem interval (PMI). 

Numerous studies have focused on the process of decomposition, 

but few studies have focused on decomposition within above ground 

containers used for concealment purposes. Moreover, no forensic 

studies have focused on decomposition within 55-gallon oil drums. 

For the past two years, three, one-year-old male pigs weighing 80.0, 

80.8, and 84.2 pounds, respectively, have been decomposing inside 55gallon 

black, metal, oil drums placed on a cattle farm in Baton Rouge, 

Louisiana; each drum contains one pig. Oil drums were chosen for this 

study because federal regulations require that oil drums have an airtight 

seal to prevent the leakage of chemicals and oil during transport (U.S. 

Department of Transportation, 49 CFR 178.540(6)). 1 Prior to the start of 

this study, 1-ft 2 lexan observation windows were installed in the lids of 

two of the three oil drums to allow observations of anaerobic 

decomposition. Drum A (containing pig A) was sealed at the initiation 

of the project. Drum B (containing pig B) was also sealed at the 

initiation of the project and then was opened one month later. Drum C 

(containing pig C) was sealed at the top but had four holes drilled in the 

sides to allow for insect access. 

During the first six months of this study (September 22, 2008 – 

March 13, 2009), daily visits were made to the research site and detailed 

observations of the anaerobic and aerobic decomposition stages 

occurring inside each oil drum were recorded. A full collection effort of 

forensically-important insects was made during each visit; over 1,000 

arthropods were collected and identified. Seasonal visits to the site have 

been made since March 13, 2009. A brief summary of the findings for 

each of the three pigs provides insight into the great variation in 

decomposition seen in each of the three drums. 

Drum A was sealed on September 22, 2008; pig A currently is still 

sealed inside, and oil drum A has never been opened. The lexan window 

on the oil drum’s lid has allowed the process of anaerobic decay to be 

observed. During the first two weeks after placement, pig A’s intestines 

were forced outside of the body as a result of decompositional gases, but 

neither bloating nor the expected color changes of the skin occurred 

during the first year of concealment. Pig A gradually began to liquefy 

during the second year of concealment. No insects have been observed 

inside the oil drum. 

Drum B was also sealed on September 22, 2008; pig B underwent 

one month of anaerobic decay prior to intentional removal of the drum’s 

lid. During the first two weeks of placement, the pig’s abdomen 

exploded as a result of gas pressure build up. This “explosion” was 

vastly different from the intestinal expulsion viewed in pig A with pig 

B’s body tissue adhering to the drum’s walls. No insects were observed 

inside the oil drum during the month of anaerobic decay. However, once 

the drum was opened, insects were immediately attracted to the exposed 

carrion following lid removal. Nevertheless, unlike pigs A and C, pig B 

gradually mummified during the five months following lid removal. 

Drum C contained pig C and was sealed September 22, 2008. Prior 

to the pig’s placement in the drum, four evenly spaced ½-inch holes were 

drilled into the oil drum’s upper perimeter. Within 24 hours of placing 

pig C inside the oil drum, the pig’s intestines were found resting outside 

of the body, though no explosion had taken place. Complete 

skeletonization occurred in one week; however, the liquefied remains 

and bones have undergone a series of taphonomic changes during the 

past two years. Most noticeably, the bones changed from black in color 

to white without ever having been removed from the oil drum or exposed 

directly to the sun. Two years after beginning this study, the skeleton 

inside this oil drum is no longer visible because the liquefied soft tissues 

have solidified and expanded to the top of the drum. 

Finally, results from this study provide new insight into the effects 

anaerobic and aerobic environments have on decomposition within 

above ground containers used for concealment purposes. This research 

reveals that attempts to conceal remains can result in liquefaction of 


tissues, mummification, and, under-certain conditions, postmortem 

explosion of soft tissue. 

Reference: 

1. U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special 

Programs Administration. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 49, 

vol. 2, pt. 178, sec. 504, Standards for Steel Drums. Washington, 

D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1999, 

(49CFR178.504).http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getcfr.cgi?TITLE=49&Part=178&SECTION=504&YEAR=1999 

&TYPE=TEXT 

Forensic Anthropology, Postmortem Interval, Anaerobic Environment 

H101 Potential Impact of Regional Ecologies on 

the Estimation of Postmortem Interval: 

Case Comparisons From Northern 

New England 

Kerriann Marden, MA*, 3800 New Hampshire Avenue, Northwest, 

Apartment #509, Washington, DC 20011; and Marcella H. Sorg, PhD, 

University of Maine, Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center, 5784 York 

Complex, Building #4, Orono, ME 04469 


the potential effects of microenvironment on differential decomposition, 

and how regional differences can influence taphonomic condition and 

estimation of postmortem interval (PMI). 


illustrating how regional ecological variation can affect accurate 

estimation of PMI in a medicolegal context. 

Estimation of postmortem interval is among the most important— 

and among the most complex—tasks performed by forensic 

anthropologists. An accurate PMI can help the medical examiner to 

determine a timeline for events surrounding a death and can inform the 

direction of medicolegal investigation. However, PMI estimation is 

complicated by numerous factors, many of which vary geographically, 

including temperature, precipitation, elevation, terrain, and soil 

characteristics. These combined factors all contribute to the ecology of 

plant, insect and animal communities that impact the condition of a 

corpse. A multi-year research initiative to develop regional taphonomic 

standards for northern New England has selected comparative case 

examples where time of death and ecological context is known to 

illustrate representative patterns. 

This presentation examines the effects of regional ecosystem 

variables using a Maine case involving the body of a young woman 

found partially submerged in a shallow stream in a area of light-growth, 

mixed deciduous-evergreen woods. Data from a weather station six 

miles away was used to calculate the accumulated degree days (ADD). 

Investigation of daily temperatures showed a cold October, with belowfreezing 

temperatures, but a warmer-than-average November. With a 

late September death, a 65-day PMI, and an ADD total of 536, the body 

demonstrated four distinct taphonomic zones, ranging from fleshed with 

intact internal organs to skeletonization of the head and arms. Large 

scavengers, primarily coyote, had removed flesh from the arms, back, 

and buttocks. The head was skeletonized but showed no evidence of 

carnivore activity, suggesting that this area may have been defleshed by 

insects or putrefaction prior to canid involvement. However, evidence of 

insect involvement was absent. 

Microenvironmental factors help to explain differences between 

this case and selected comparison cases from the same geographic area 

and/or the same timeframe. This case is compared with two other cases 

found in the woods in the same local area. One is from roughly the same 

autumn timeframe, with a shorter PMI (about 30 days) and no evidence 

of mammalian scavengers. Decomposition is at the decay stage, and 

62

larvae are present but not abundant. The other comparison case is from 

the same area, and has a similar amount of decomposition on average, 

but was exposed in the summer and for a shorter time frame (15 days). 

Mammalian scavengers were minimally involved, and fly larvae were 

abundant on the body. 

The importance of scavenger involvement and the cold, often 

freezing temperatures are critical variables in interpreting cases in the 

northeast. Many actualistic taphonomic studies used to calibrate the PMI 

estimation have been conducted at the scavenger-protected University of 

Tennessee Anthropological Research Facility, yet natural experiments in 

the arid regions of the southwest United States (Galloway 1997; Rhine 

and Dawson 1998), the southeast (Manhein 1997) and the northeast 

(Sorg et al., 1998) amply demonstrate tremendous regional variations in 

the taphonomic factors that influence the rate and characteristics of 

decomposition. Temperature has been demonstrated to alter the speed of 

decomposition, and Micozzi (1997) has shown that freezing 

temperatures can cause cellular breakdown and reverse the order in 

which decomposition occurs within a body, so that more external and 

peripheral parts decompose earlier. Comparative rates of thawing of 

anatomical parts may also reverse scavenging order, and colder 

temperatures and resulting food scarcity can enhance the intensity of 

scavenger activity (Klepinger 2006; Bass 1997). 

In sum, regional variation in ecological and climatological factors 

necessitates a more fine-grained examination of case context in order to 

estimate PMI. Results of actualistic studies, particularly those conducted 

in other regions, need local testing and adjustments before they can be 

applied. 

This research was supported in part by the National Institute of 

Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice. The 

opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in 

this presentation are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 

those of the Department of Justice. 

Taphonomy, Postmortem Interval, Regional Ecology 

H102 The Relationship Between Ambient 

Temperature and the Temperature of 

Maggot Masses on Decomposing Pig and 

Rabbit Carcasses 

Amanda B. Troy, MSc*, 13 Castlerock, Tulla Road, Ennis, IRELAND; 

and Colin Moffatt, PhD, and Tal Simmons, PhD, School of Forensic & 

Investigative Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 



understanding of the effect of maggot mass temperature on the 

development of Diptera larvae and will be aware of the need for a more 

accurate measurement of accumulated degree hours (ADH) from Diptera 

larval development in maggot masses. 

This presentation will impact on the forensic science community by 

outlining the influence ambient and maggot mass temperatures have on 

Diptera larval development, which will aid in establishing a realistic 

postmortem interval (PMI) from entomological specimens originating 

within maggot masses at crime scenes. 

Forensic anthropologists often estimate PMI by determining the 

accumulated degree days (ADD) to which a cadaver has been subject 

during decomposition. Insect activity is one of the most significant 

factors affecting the decompositional process. The examination of larval 

maturation is particularly important, as investigators have previously 

used the correlation of insect development rates over ADD to obtain an 

estimation of PMI. Diptera are of a particular forensic importance, as 

they are among the first insects to colonize a corpse. Temperature has a 

major influence on the rate of development of Diptera larvae. To date, 

estimating PMI from Diptera larval development has been proven to be 

inaccurate. The heat generated from maggot mass formation accelerates 

maggot developmental rate, significantly reducing the maturation time, 

and therefore altering the estimated PMI. 

This study was conducted in the North West of England using 

domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domestica) and European rabbits (Oryctolagus 

cuniculus). Two experimental groups, one pig group (N=6) and one 

rabbit group (N=6) were left to decompose on a grass surface. When 

maggot masses formed, a thermal probe connected to a data logger was 

inserted into a mass on each carcass to record the temperature generated 

by the maggot activity. A pig control group (N=3) and a rabbit control 

group (N=3) were placed outdoors in a cage constructed from a wooden 

frame and covered in a fine wire mesh, in order to exclude insects and 

therefore assess the temperature generated by non-insect mediated 

decomposition processes. The internal body temperatures of the control 

groups were recorded. 

The results demonstrated that the maggot masses were comprised of 

three species of Diptera, Calliphora vomitoria, Calliphora vicina and 

Protophormia terraenovae. Oviposition occurred at natural creases at the 

limbs, in the head, and along the back of the neck in the pig carcasses. 

ADD was used to standardize all calculations in order to compare 

groups. The ADD of the maggot masses in the experimental groups was 

calculated, as was the ADD of the corresponding internal temperatures in 

the control groups. The results were statistically analyzed against the 

ADD of the ambient temperature. 

Analysis of the mean daily temperatures in the pig control group 

compared to mean daily ambient temperatures showed no significant 

difference (ANOVA, p= 0.07). This would indicate that any resulting 

rise in temperature in the experimental pig group over ambient 

temperature is from maggot mass activity. The increase in the 

experimental pig group ADD over ambient ADD was 38.5%. An 

estimation of ADD from larval development, based on the ambient 

temperature, would have lead to an overestimation of PMI by over 13 

days in a 6-week period. The difference between ambient ADD and 

experimental pig ADD for this research can be defined as: 

Difference in Ambient ADD Versus Exp. Pig ADD ( 0 C) = 

(0.0461x + 0.2106) 2 where R 2 =0.96301: The rabbit carcasses yielded 

similar results, with the ADD of the rabbit experimental group showing 

an increase of 29.4% over the ambient temperature ADD, with no 

statistical difference between the mean daily ambient temperatures and 

the control rabbit daily temperatures (ANOVA, p=0.8). The difference 

between ambient ADD and experimental rabbit ADD for this research 

can be defined as: 

Difference in Ambient Versus Exp. Rabbit ADD ( 0 C) = 0.4335x 

– 2.6092 where R 2 = 0.99254: Rabbits were shown to be poor 

models for this type of research, as it was not feasible to visually 

examine the maggot masses due to the fur and the maggot masses could 

not be sustained due to the size of the carcasses. 

Investigators must be aware of the ineffectiveness of using previous 

ADD calculations of Diptera larval development in order to establish a 

PMI. It is recommended that the investigator should determine the ADD 

of maggot masses as opposed to ambient ADD when establishing PMI. 

Temperature, Maggot Mass, Postmortem Interval 



Seattle 2010 Seattle 2010 

H1 Interpretation and Confirmation of 

Patterned Clothing Stains Observed on 

Both Tibiae 

Danielle A.M. Wieberg, MA*, Knoxville Police Department, 800 Howard 

Baker, Jr. Avenue, PO Box 3610, Knoxville, TN 37927; and Daniel J. 

Wescott, PhD, Florida International University, Department of 

Biological Sciences, 11200 Southwest 8th Street, Miami, FL 333199 

After attending this presentation, attendees will observe how 

staining observed on skeletal remains was positively attributed to the 

victim’s last known attire and how different patterns were linked to 

various parts of the garment. 


providing an additional means of linking the description of an individual 

reported missing to unidentified skeletal remains. Investigators could 

potentially use this information as a means of ruling out individuals 

when attempting to make an identification. 

Compared to the typical case received by a medical examiner, 

forensic anthropologists are at a considerable disadvantage when 

attempting to establish the identity of the human remains they receive. 

Usually there is very little soft tissue remaining. This eliminates the 

presence of identifying scars, marks and tattoos; makes it difficult to 

determine a subject’s weight; and makes visual identification difficult 

without reconstruction. Dental records and radiographs can only be 

compared if you have a pool of potential victims to compare them with. 

Furthermore, skeletal remains are often discovered devoid of any 

contextual evidence, such as clothing or jewelry. 

On a positive note, anthropologists can use skeletal measurements 

to determine height and several discrete skeletal features to determine 

sex. Several different skeletal features can help determine an 

individual’s age at death, but the estimate typically includes +/- five 

years in each direction, if not more. Often, they are able to determine 

what type of build an individual had while based on the bone structure 

and degree of gracility or robusticity of the skeleton. Additionally, some 

features on the skull and some of the long bones may indicate what 

“race” an individual may have identified themselves as during life. 

Unfortunately, all of that information can still leave several possible 

“victims.” 

When a person is reported missing, it is standard to provide a 

description of the clothing the victim was last seen in. Therefore, 

associating skeletal remains with a missing individual can be easier if 

there is clothing accompanying those remains. Additionally, if the 

remains belong to an individual that was not reported missing, the type 

of clothing may provide an indication of the season or temperature at the 

time the individual died. 

Analysis of remains in this case indicated a middle-aged white male 

with multiple gun shot wounds and several fractures, both peri-mortem 

and postmortem. Furthermore, staining patterns on the tibiae of the 

victim in this case indicated an object, possibly a material, with a gridlike 

pattern had lain against the bones for some time. The stains were 

light brown in color and showed two distinct patterns, a very small or 

tight-knit square pattern, and a larger square pattern higher up on the 

tibia. One author postulated that the larger square pattern looked like the 

waffle pattern of thermal underwear, while the smaller squares 

resembled the cuffs. As is typical in forensic anthropology cases, any 

clothing accompanying the remains had not been provided so the 

analysis would not be influenced or biased in any way. Once the analysis 

was finished and the report turned in, the authors reviewed the photos 


taken at the recovery scene. These photos showed insulated pants that 

had a thermal underwear-like lining in which the decedent’s legs were 

enclosed at the time of recovery. 

The exact method through which the staining occurred is unknown, 

but it is most likely due to differential exposure to the sun because of the 

varying thickness of the fabric. Observing such patterns in the future and 

associating them with certain clothing items could assist anthropologists 

and law enforcement agencies with identification. 

Anthropology, Patterns, Stains 

H2 A Preliminary Study of the Timing of 

Specific Characteristics of Copper and Iron 

Discoloration on Bone 

Cate E. Bird, BA*, Michigan State University, 2740 Senate Drive, #3E, 

Lansing, MI 48912; and Amy R. Michael, BA, Michigan State University, 

528 West Lapeer Street, Lansing, MI 48933 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the early 

stages of copper and iron alloy corrosion and their transfer to bone. 

This pilot study will impact the forensic science community by 

contributing to the understanding of the postmortem interval in forensic 

cases in which skeletal remains are recovered with associated metal 

objects. 

Metal objects are often found in association with human skeletal 

remains in forensic contexts. Due to the presence of these objects, 

evaluation of the processes of metal discoloration on bone should be 

further explored. This preliminary qualitative analysis evaluates the 

timing and extent of stains on bone over a one year period from two 

general metal classes: copper and iron alloy. Specifically, this research 

evaluates the timing of discoloration, the reflection of the object form, 

the depth of cortical penetration, and the persistence of the stain through 

cleaning. 

Five common metal object types, with different chemical 

compositions and forms, were affixed with non-metallic mesh on a 

sample of defleshed non-human (Bos taurus) bones. These objects 

included steel shot, steel utility knives, copper zippers, copper-plated 

shot, and copper-jacketed bullets. Bone samples were placed on the 

ground surface in secure enclosures that allowed for exposure to yearround 

environmental conditions in mid-Michigan. One bone sample 

from each metal category was then collected monthly and evaluated in a 

laboratory setting. Monthly climatic data were documented at each 

collection episode through the use of an on-site weather station. 

Macroscopic changes related to metal staining on the bone surfaces 

were photographed and recorded by two observers. Microscopic changes 

related to the penetration of the metal discoloration into the cortical 

surface of the bone were documented using histological analysis. 

Samples exhibiting extensive staining were thin sectioned and observed 

microscopically to determine the diffusion of the stain into the cortical 

bone. 

Discolorations were consistent with the corrosion of the specific 

metal type. Both metal classes exhibited evidence of corrosion within 

the first month of exposure, but only the corrosive product of the iron 

alloy objects stained the cortical surface of the bone. The iron alloy 

objects consistently produced deep-penetrating red-brown stains: the 

steel shot closely mirrored the shape of the corresponding metal object, 

while the utility knife did not. All of the iron stains persisted through the 

subsequent cleaning process. Conversely, the rate of stain for copper 

64

objects was inconsistent. Although the teal-green corrosive product was 

visible superficially on both the metal object and the adhering soft tissue 

within the first few months of exposure, the copper stains rarely persisted 

through the subsequent cleaning process. When visible, the copper 

stains vaguely reflected the form of the corresponding object. 

Metal staining on bone may provide forensic investigators with 

vital clues concerning secondary burials or primary burials where metal 

artifacts associated with human remains are transported away from the 

crime scene. Although this pilot study does not reflect the total breadth 

of crime scene recoveries, it does contribute to understanding the 

phenomenon of metal corrosion and its effect on bone in a controlled 

environment. With further studies, this research may help investigators 

interpret the postmortem interval when known metals are discovered in 

close proximity to skeletal remains. 

Metal Corrosion, Human Osteology, Taphonomy 

H3 Detecting Various Burial Scenarios in a 

Controlled Setting Using Ground- 

Penetrating Radar 

Michael Martin, BS*, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, Phillips Hall, 

Room 309, Orlando, FL 32816; and John J. Schultz, PhD, University of 

Central Florida, Department of Anthropology, PO Box 25000, Orlando, 

FL 32816 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the effectiveness of grave 

detection using ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at a controlled research 

site that incorporates multiple burial scenarios. Ground-penetrating 

radar can be a useful geophysical instrument used by forensic 

investigation teams in the search for buried bodies. After attending this 

presentation, attendees will gain a better understanding of the 

capabilities of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to detect a variety of 

common grave scenarios that involve buried bodies. 


providing guidelines to death investigation personnel on the benefits of 

the use of GPR when searching for buried bodies. 

The field of forensic archaeology has proven vital for the improvement 

of forensic searches by conducting controlled research with various 

geophysical technologies. In particular, controlled research has 

determined that GPR is the best geophysical tool used to locate 

clandestine burials of homicide victims. One advantage of using GPR is 

that it provides the best resolution out of all geophysical instruments 

because real-time data is displayed on a monitor for immediate 

assessment in the field. The objective of this research project is to 

investigate the capability of GPR to detect a variety of grave scenarios 

utilizing buried pig carcasses. This presentation focuses on one aspect 

of a larger research project involving monitoring controlled graves for a 

two-and-a-half year period, and will focus solely on the first six months 

of data collection using a 500-MHz antenna. 

The ground-penetrating radar unit chosen for this research was the 

[Mala RAMAC X3M] with a 500-MHz antenna. GPR grid data were 

processed using REFLEXW and GPR-SLICE computer programs, and 

were displayed using radargrams (the GPR transects collected over the 

two rows of graves), Z-slices (planview representations of the grid that 

can be displayed at different depths), and fence diagrams (data viewed 

simultaneously in multiple planes). A permanent grid measuring 11 m 

by 22 m containing six graves, each with a single pig carcass, and two 

control graves was set up in two rows. Data were collected in both a 

west to east direction and a north to south direction utilizing a transect 

interval spacing of 0.25 m. The six graves containing pig carcasses and 

the two control graves were devised to test a number of common forensic 

scenarios involving buried bodies. The eight scenarios consisted of a 

deep (1.0 m) blank control grave containing only disturbed backfill to 

determine the geophysical response of only the disturbed soil; a shallow 

(0.50 m) blank control grave consisting of only disturbed backfill to 

determine the geophysical response of only the disturbed soil; a deep 

grave containing only a pig carcass; a shallow grave containing only a 

pig carcass; a deep pig carcass wrapped in a vinyl tarpaulin; a deep pig 

carcass wrapped in a cotton blanket; a deep pig carcass with a layer of 

lime placed over the carcass; and a deep pig carcass with a layer of rocks 

placed over the carcass. 

Initial results using the radargrams for months one to six showed 

that the graves containing items over the pig carcasses (rocks or lime) 

displayed the best resolution out of the six scenarios with pig carcasses. 

The grave containing a pig carcass wrapped in a tarpaulin displayed a 

greater resolution compared to the grave that contained a carcass 

wrapped in a cotton blanket as well as both graves that contained 

carcasses with nothing added to the graves. When viewing the shallow 

Z-slices, the disturbed backfill of all of the test graves is detected. 

Furthermore, the Z-slices demonstrated that each of the deep graves were 

easily discernable compared to the shallow graves. Finally, the fence 

diagrams showed that each of the deep graves containing a pig carcass 

were easily discernable, with the graves containing rocks and lime 

displaying the best resolution. Overall, the combination of radargrams, 

Z-slices and fence diagrams provided maximum resolution and 

delineation of the various grave scenarios. 

Forensic Archaeology, Ground-Penetrating Radar, Controlled 

Graves 

H4 Precision of Coordinate Landmark Data 


Joan A. Bytheway, PhD*, Sam Houston State University, Chemistry & 

Forensic Science Building, 1003 Bowers Boulevard, Box 2525, 

Huntsville, TX 77340; and Ann H. Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State 

University, Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 

27695-8107 

The goal of this presentation is to show that traditional and novel 

landmarks located on the human adult os coxa are repeatable and that 

researchers with at least moderate experience in landmark identification 

can locate varying types of landmarks on the human adult os coxa with 

minimal observer error. 

This presentation will impact the forensic anthropological 

community by revealing new landmarks (as well as the use of traditional 

ones) located on the human adult os coxa that are repeatable and can be 

located with minimal observer error. These 36 landmarks provide a clear 

representation of the adult os coxa shape and some landmarks are located 

in regions that previously have not been metrically considered for sex 

determination. These landmarks can be used with a high percentage of 

accuracy in the assessment of sex. 

In a recent sexing study using three-dimensional landmark 

coordinate data collected from 200 human adult os coxae, Bytheway and 

Ross (in print JOFS July 2010) found that sex and size have a significant 

effect on shape for both European Americans and African Americans. 

They achieved a sexing accuracy of 98% for both males and females of 

European Americans and 98% for African American females and 100% 

for African American males. 

In this study, a total of 36 landmarks were chosen that would best 

capture the complete shape variation of the os coxa. Thirteen of the 36 

landmarks are newly described landmarks identified by the first author. 

Landmarks were chosen because: (1) they are considered useful and 

significant in the literature; (2) they are repeatable; (3) they represent the 

object being studied; (4) they represent regions that are considered 

reliable for sexing the pelvis; and, (5) they represent regions that have 

not been metrically considered for sex determination but are addressed 

in this research. The landmarks fell into the general categories of 

Traditional or Type 2, Constructed, and Extremal or Type 3 landmarks 

according to Lele and Richtsmeier (2001) and Bookstein’s (1991) 


landmark classifications. Traditional and Extremal landmarks are single 

points identified by biological description whereas Constructed 

landmarks are points identified once maximum values are established. 

The purpose of the present study is to test the precision of 

consistently locating the 36 landmarks on a single form between the 

repeated measures of the same individual used in the morphometric 

sexing study. Nineteen individuals were randomly selected and each 

individual was digitized three times with a wait period of at least 30 

minutes between digitizing sessions. The os coxa were “fixed” or not 

moved between digitizing sessions. A [Microscribe® 3D digitizer] was 

used to register the x, y, and z coordinates. Each os coxa was clamped 

into a vertically oriented vise and the 36 landmarks were digitized. Prior 

to digitizing the Constructed landmarks, each was measured with a 

sliding caliper to obtain maximum measurements. Once maximum value 

was obtained both points were marked with a pencil. Because the object 

was not moved between digitizing sessions, it is not necessary to bring 

each digitized object into the same coordinate system and the estimation 

of error along each axis can be calculated (Corner et al. 1992). Error was 

evaluated by calculating the standard deviation of each coordinate for the 

36 landmarks across digitizing sessions and individuals. The maximum 

standard deviation, which is a measure of measurement error, for the X 

axis is 0.26mm with a mean of 0.180mm, 0.48mm for the Y axis with a 

mean of 0.240mm and 0.40mm for the Z axis with a mean of 0.260mm. 

These results show that for the 36 landmarks no one axis or direction is 

prone to error confirming consistency in locating the landmarks. Both 

authors were experienced in locating the landmarks, however, a less 

experienced observer would be expected to have less precision. 

Precision, Coordinate Landmarks, Os Coxa 

H5 The Utility of Cohen’s Kappa for Testing 

Observer Error in Discrete Data 

and Alternatives 

Alexandra R. Klales, MS*, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn to use caution 

in the application of Cohen’s Kappa (1960) for assessing interobserver 

error for ordinal scoring and will learn of the utility in forensic 

anthropology of alternative methods that can be applied to data for error 

testing. 

This presentation will have an impact on the forensic anthropology 

community by presenting methods that can be reliably used to test interand 

intra-observer error for discrete data, which is frequently used in sex 

and age estimation. Additionally, this study will encourage the use of 

appropriate tests of error for discrete data that can then be applied to 

make forensic anthropological studies Daubert compliant. 

Compliance with the Daubert criteria requires the validation of all 

medico-legal methods through error testing. However, Ingvoldstad and 

Crowder (2009) have revealed a lack of consistency in the field for 

testing observer error in forensic anthropological research. While there 

is a clear trend to increase error testing in recent years, many studies fail 

to test both inter- and intra- observer error, or to use reliable methods for 

some specific data sets. Among the latter, testing inter- and intraobserver 

error in discrete data, such as the qualitative or ordinal data 

often employed to assess sex or age, poses a particular challenge. 

Cohen’s Kappa (1960) is one of the most popular methods to test 

observer error in discrete data in disciplines such as clinical medicine 

and psychology, to name a few, yet its application within forensic 

anthropology has been limited. 


The goal of this study is to examine the utility of Cohen’s Kappa for 

assessing observer error and also to compare it with those of other 

alternative methods. This evaluation is based on the analysis of newly 

recorded data and the original datasets from Klales et al. (2009) and 

Vollner et al. (2009) to develop new methods for sex estimation from the 

human pelvis. A sample of 170 innominates of known, adult individuals 

from the Hamann-Todd Collection (HTH), housed at the Cleveland 

Museum of Natural History, was used for this study. Each of the Phenice 

(1960) traits was scored from the HTH material on separate occasions by 

two to four different individuals. Scores from one to five were assigned 

following the scale and corresponding illustrations and written 

descriptions in the previously mentioned studies. Different estimates of 

intra- and inter- observer error were obtained, as well as the percentages 

of correct classification for each specimen observed. 

In the prior studies, sex estimation was based on linear discriminant 

function analysis and provided correct classification rates above 99%. 

However, Cohen’s Kappa in these studies rendered low values: ventral 

arc 0.53, subpubic concavity 0.40, and medial aspect of the ischio-pubic 

ramus 0.43 (i.e., high inter-observer errors), therefore questioning the 

likelihood of replicating this high correct classification rates when the 

variables are scored by other researchers. Specifically, the low Kappa 

values did not seem to reflect differences in the end result, a highly 

accurate method of estimating sex; therefore, using this method of 

measuring reliability, specifically, inter-observer differences, may itself 

not be reliable for discrete data, because differences in scoring minimally 

affected classification accuracy. Unreliable methods cannot be valid and 

in this case, a low indication of reliability was contradicted by a high 

indication of validity. When evaluating reliability, one should not be 

discouraged by a “low” Kappa value, but must also look at other 

statistics and the practical consequences of inter-observer differences. 

Results suggest that in spite of the low Cohen’s Kappa figures 

originally obtained for these data sets, correct classification rates remain 

high and fairly constant independent of the observer. Cohen’s Kappa 

was clearly outperformed by some of the alternative error estimation 

methods, which provided results more consistent with the observed 

correct classification rates. This suggests that Cohen’s Kappa should be 

interpreted with caution, or even abandoned, when analyzing ordinal and 

other discrete data in forensic contexts. 

Observer Error, Cohen’s Kappa, Discrete Data 

H6 Tags and Spurs: Morphological Features of 


Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Lehman College, 

CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, West, Bronx, NY 10468 

After attending this presentation, the attendees will be aware of 

unique, morphological features observed through the examination of 

several forensic cases that may serve as diagnostic features of cranial 

blunt force traumas. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by 

introducing and discussing morphological features, “Tags” & “Spurs”, 

which can be utilized to identify cranial fractures produced through blunt 

force traumas when complete crania or isolated cranial fragments are 

recovered and/or examined. 

The ability to recognize, identify and interpret cranial fracture 

patterns is instrumental in the correct and accurate assessment of the type 

of trauma(s) which produced those fracture. Berryman and Symes 

(1998) provide a comprehensive discussion on recognizing gunshot and 

blunt cranial trauma through fracture interpretation, while Galloway 

(1999) provides a detailed discussion of blunt force fracture patterns and 

cranial morphology which influence their generation and propagation. 

Several fracture types and patterns have been documented that are 

frequently utilized to identify blunt force trauma (i.e., linear, depressed, 

66

stellate, ring, Le Fort, contra-coup, internally beveled concentric, etc.), 

however through the course of examination of several forensic cases 

additional morphological features have been observed which may be of 

diagnostic importance for blunt force trauma recognition. Presented here 

will be two morphological features, “Tags” and “Spurs”, and the 

probable mechanisms of their production. 

Tags are small, hinge-fracture segments of the fracture margin, 

found on the inner or outer table of the cranium. After a linear, radiating 

and/or concentric fracture has divided a cranium into several pieces there 

is the potential for shearing, edge-to-edge movement of the fragments 

internally and externally through the application of force. This shearing 

movement along the fracture may not be smooth and even, and 

occasionally the fracture margins may snag creating hinge-fracture 

segments as force continues to be applied. 

As previously noted, internally-beveled concentric fractures are 

associated with blunt force traumas, with the degree of beveling 

appearing slight to moderate. However, occasionally localized large 

bevels are produced along fracture margins creating what could be 

termed spurs. As force is applied to a cranium and a cranial fragment is 

created, the internal or external movement of the fragment may produce 

a relatively large spur or flake of the internal table attached to the margin 

of the fragment or adjacent fragment. These spurs are analogous to the 

“break-away” spurs frequently produced at the terminal aspect of saw 

cuts of long bones (Symes, Berryman & Smith, 1998). 

Two forensic cases will be utilized to illustrate the “Tags” and 

“Spurs” discussed above. Case No. 1 involves a probable Caucasian, 

possible Hispanic female, 30-45 years of age, with multiple blunt force 

traumas of the left parietal, which possesses several distinctive “tags” 

along fracture margins and one fragment with a moderately large “spur.” 

Case No. 2 involves an adult, probable Caucasian, possible Hispanic 

female with multiple blunt force traumas of the left parietal and frontal, 

which produced a fragment with very large “spur” and a small “spur” 

along a fracture margin. Each case clearly illustrates one of these unique 

fracture features of blunt force trauma. 

Though there are several well know and documented fracture types 

and patterns that can be directly attributable to either blunt or gunshot 

wound traumas, two additional fracture types where noted during the 

course of examination of forensic cases involving blunt force trauma that 

have not been addressed in the forensic literature (at least to this 

researcher’s knowledge). These fractures types, “Tags” and “Spurs,” 

appear to be unique to blunt force trauma and may serve as additional 

diagnostic features in the identification of blunt force trauma in complete 

and/or more importantly fragmentary crania. 

Blunt Force Trauma, Fracture, Tag & Spur 

H7 Primary and Secondary Skeletal 

Blast Trauma 


Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit - Anthropology, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Vanessa Ramos, BS, Oak Ridge 

Associated Universities, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA ; 

Rachealle Sanford, BA, Western Kentucky University, College Heights 

Boulevard, Bowling Green, KY 42101; Candie Shegogue, BS, Oak Ridge 

Associated Universities, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

22135; Victoria A. Smith, MA*, ORAU, Federal Bureau of Investigation 

Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Quantico, VA 22135; and W. Mark Whitworth, BS, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation Laboratory Explosives Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand some of 

the basic principles of explosives, blast trauma, skeletal injury 

mechanisms, and fracture patterns, and will learn the results of an 

experimental study on primary and secondary blast trauma, specifically 

skeletal fracture and dismemberment patterns resulting from various 

controlled explosive events. 


assisting anthropologists in interpreting skeletal fracture patterns related 

to blast trauma. 

Forensic anthropologists have become increasingly involved in 

criminal, humanitarian, and conflict-related investigations that involve 

human skeletal remains. Skeletal trauma interpretation is often an 

important aspect of these investigations. In recent wars and terror 

events, most injuries of the skeletal system have been caused by 

exploding ordnance. Within the anthropological literature, however, 

studies of skeletal trauma emphasize blunt, sharp and ballistic trauma, 

with little mention of skeletal trauma resulting from blasts. Explosive 

weapons are designed to be destructive through the sudden pressure 

change caused by the blast, or by spreading shrapnel which acts as small 

projectiles, both of which may result in skeletal fractures and 

dismemberment. In order to properly interpret skeletal fracture patterns 

resulting from blasts, it is important to understand the mechanisms of 

skeletal blast trauma, and to document known blast trauma patterns. 

While there is an abundance of literature on blast trauma, 

particularly in medical and orthopedic journals, the focus of these studies 

is generally mortality and treatment of blast injuries. Moreover, most of 

these papers are case reviews, with very few controlled, empirical 

studies having been conducted. This project examines primary (resulting 

from blast wave) and secondary (resulting from disintegrated, 

penetrating fragments) blast trauma to bone in semi-controlled 

environments, and documents skeletal fracture and dismemberment 

patterns. 

Pigs (Sus scrofa) procured from a local farmer were used as test 

specimens. Specimens were exposed to explosive events of varying 

explosive type (including C4, det cord, PETN, and pipe bombs), charge 

size (ranging from 0.5-10lbs of C4, up to 120 feet of det cord, and 1ft 2 of 

PETN), and distance (ranging from contact to several feet away). 

Specimen and test preparation were carried out in conjunction with and 

under the supervision of explosives experts. Following the explosive 

events, the remaining biological material was retrieved and transferred to 

the FBI Laboratory where the specimens were macerated in warm water, 

and reconstructed using Duco cement. Specimens were examined 

radiographically, visually, and microscopically. The extent and pattern 

of skeletal fracture and dismemberment was documented, along with any 

other pertinent observations. 

Skeletal trauma from the blast events observed in this study tended 

to be extensive, presenting as complex, comminuted fractures with 

numerous small, displaced bone splinters and fragments. Traumatic 

amputation of the limbs and cranium was also observed. Skeletal 

injuries were concentrated in areas nearer the explosion, but there was 

generally no identifiable point of impact. Fracture patterns were more 

random in appearance than those typically associated with ballistic or 

blunt force injury events. Fractures tended to be more extensive on long 

bone shafts, though proximal and distal ends were also affected. 

The patterns found appear to be uniquely associated with blast 

trauma, or at least differ enough in quality and extent to appear distinct 

from other types of well-documented skeletal trauma (such as ballistic, 

sharp force, and blunt force). These results may therefore assist forensic 

anthropologists and other forensic examiners in the interpretation of 

skeletal trauma by enabling them to differentiate between blast trauma 

and trauma resulting from some other cause. It is important, however; to 

consider the various factors affecting trauma and trauma variation 

including the bone type, injury location, and all available contextual 

information. 

Forensic Anthropology, Blast Trauma, Skeletal Fractures 


H8 Case Studies and Patterns of 

Postmortem Dismemberment 

Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, 1305 Northeast 6th Terrace, Gainesville, 

Florida ; Katherine Skorpinski, MA, 1626 Southwest 14th Street, 

Aartment 16, Gainesville, FL 32608; Traci L. Van Deest, MA, 121 

Southeast 16th Avenue, Apartment J201, Gainesville, FL 32601; and 

Laurel Freas, MA, 3425 Southwest 2nd Avenue, #246, Gainesville, 

FL 32607 

The goal of this presentation is to present three case studies on 

postmortem dismemberment through the joint surfaces, and discuss the 

patterns of tool mark damage to the soft tissue and surrounding and/or 

underlying bone. 


suggesting a protocol for processing and analyzing cases of 

dismemberment through the joint surfaces. 

Two patterns of postmortem dismemberment are commonly 

discussed in the cutmark literature: one in which the bones of the limbs 

or torso are transected, and the other in which dismemberment is 

executed via disarticulation through the joint capsules. However, the 

latter method is observed at much lower frequencies. A survey of cases 

from the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory identified 34 

instances of postmortem dismemberment over the past 37 years. Of 

these, 27 (79%) occurred through the bone, while 7 (21%) were through 

the joint capsules. Recently; however, the Pound Lab has seen an 

increase in cases of postmortem dismemberment through the joints, with 

four such cases since August 2007. 

The majority of the literature on cutmark analysis focuses primarily 

on the characteristics of marks made directly in the bone. As such, 

analysis and interpretation of dismemberment through the joint capsule 

is often difficult, as many of the cutmarks are often found in cartilage 

rather than in bone. Additionally, implements typically used to cut 

through the joints, such as knives or scalpels, have fewer diagnostic class 

characteristics than saws, making them more difficult to differentiate. 

With the involvement of the soft tissue, a different approach to the 

processing and analysis of the remains may aid in identifying 

characteristics of the tools used in the dismemberment event. The 

current study provides an overview on how to process and analyze 

dismemberments through the joints by presenting three case studies, 

each involving a slightly different approach. 

The remains from Case 1 were preserved in formalin by the medical 

examiner prior to arrival at the lab in September 2008. Dismemberment 

occurred at the major limb joints and between two cervical vertebrae. 

Cutmarks were found in the articular cartilage or in the non-articular 

bone immediately adjacent to the joint surfaces, and had characteristics 

consistent with a straight-edged (non-serrated) blade. While some tissue 

was removed during analysis, preservation in formalin precluded a more 

detailed analysis of the underlying bone. 

Case 2, in April 2009, provided an opportunity for exploring 

different methods of preserving cutmarks in cartilage. Some of the 

remains were submerged in formalin; other joint surfaces were covered 

with damp towels to prevent drying and permit eventual examination of 

the subchondral bone. A cross-cut saw was used to transect the lumbar 

spine; a knife was used to dismember the shoulder and hip joints. The 

knife cutmarks were highly variable in morphology, ranging from 

smooth, straight margins to very ragged, irregular margins. This 

variability may be an artifact of the remains’ exposure to the differing 

preservation conditions, however the use of two different implements 

cannot be ruled out. Analysis of the underlying bone failed to provide 

any further distinguishing characteristics of the knife. 

In June 2009, Case 3 arrived at the Pound Lab completely 

skeletonized. As the remains were fully fleshed at initial recovery, 

photos provided by the medical examiner’s office were used to visually 

assess the articular cartilage of the major joints. This case displays both 


patterns of dismemberment, with the shoulders and knees disarticulated 

through the joint capsules and the proximal femora transected below the 

lesser trochanters with a hacking implement. The articular cartilage 

displayed incised defects, gouges and scrape marks, some of which 

corresponded with defects in the subchondral bone. The morphology of 

the cutmarks observed within and adjacent to the joint surfaces is 

consistent with the use of a finely serrated blade. 

After examining these three different cases, it appears that the best 

approach is a two phase analysis starting with an in-depth examination 

of the soft tissue followed by an analysis of the underlying bone after 

processing. As the soft tissue must be kept hydrated prior to processing, 

a prolonged period of analysis can lead to differential preservation 

conditions that may alter the appearance of the cutmarks. If the analysis 

is conducted over an extended period of time, preservation of the 

remains in formalin may be ideal to better preserve the diagnostic 

features of the cutmarks. It is important to note; however, that this 

approach largely precludes an analysis of the underlying bone. Further 

research on knife marks in cartilage and other soft tissue is needed, as 

these types of cutmarks may contribute valuable information to tool 

mark analyses in dismemberment cases. 

Dismemberment, Tool Mark Analysis, Soft Tissue 

H9 A SEM-EDS Trace Elemental Analysis of 


Shannon E. May, MA*, 250 South Stadium Hall, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37966 

The goal of this presentation is to apply the scanning electron 

microscope, with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to trace 

elemental analysis of sharp force trauma on bone. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by expanding 

the use of the SEM beyond that of cutmark analysis and to apply EDS to 

sharp-force injuries specifically. This study furthermore aims to provide 

another method for identifying tools used to inflict trauma. 

The study of cutmarks on bone, as evidence of sharp forces, has a 

long history in anthropological studies. Forensic anthropologists have a 

particular interest when medico-legal questions are raised concerning the 

presence of cutmarks along with circumstances surrounding death. The 

unifying goal of these studies is to match diagnostic features of the tool 

with unique impressions left in the resulting cut. 1 It is crucial that 

forensic practitioners become familiar with recent technological 

innovations which could potentially meet these goals. 

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a high-powered 

visualization tool typically applied to engineering, microbiological, and 

material sciences. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) is an 

additional technique that may be used concurrently with the SEM to 

identify the elemental composition of scanned materials by collecting the 

fluorescent X-rays generated in the SEM process. While SEM has been 

used extensively for cutmark analysis, few studies have applied EDS for 

the principles of forensic anthropology in published literature. EDS has 

determined the presence and chemical ratio of elements present in dental 

restorative resins, 2,3 and has additionally been used to authenticate or 

eliminate a possible set of human cremains. 4,5 In 2007 Berryman et al. 

identified several elements characteristic of gunshot residue on bones 

which had been impacted by gunshot trauma. 6 However, research has 

not yet applied SEM-EDS to additional forms of trauma on bone, 

particularly sharp force trauma. 

Most contemporary metallic instruments are composed of steel or a 

similar alloy, which will rust upon exposure to aquatic environments. 

External layers of rust can easily be shed through contact, as well 

superficial metallic particles that deteriorate through the corrosion 

process. Sharp force trauma was preferentially selected for this analysis 

because the incision often resembles a trough, in which trace particles 

68

are more likely to become imbedded and preserved in the bone matrix. 

Even when a sufficient amount of force is used, sharp instruments rarely 

obliterate or completely destroy point of contact. 

Osteological material was provided by the University of Tennessee 

Zooarchaeological Laboratory. One Bos taurus limb (humerus, radius, 

ulna, and metapodials) was disarticulated and flesh was removed, 

leaving periosteum intact. Eight sharp tools of known metallic 

composition, with various shapes, sizes, and level of rust development, 

were selected to induce sharp force trauma to samples. Each tool was 

used to strike a single area of bone, leaving cut marks relatively 

perpendicular to the shaft. Samples were either fully processed by 

boiling and removing residual tissue, or minimally process by removing 

periosteum only. Samples were then dried, and vacuum-pumped for 72 

hours prior to scanning. SEM was performed using a [Hitachi VP-SEM 

S-3400N microscope] and elemental analysis was performed using the 

[Oxford INCA Energy 200 Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscope.] 

The SEM successfully imaged the cutmarks on bone at 

magnifications 200x – 500x. EDS found organic compounds (Ca, C, O, 

P, Na) in the control samples at generally expected ratios. Inorganic 

elements (Fe, Ni, Mn, Cr) were determined in samples cut with metallic 

hand-axes, and the highest amount of iron (Fe) and elevated oxygen 

(together creating corrosive rust compounds) were seen in the samples 

where a rusty instrument was used. The presence of inorganic elements 

was greatly reduced by the full processing method. Future research will 

include comparisons of various corroded tools to potentially 

individualize a source, and investigation of other metallic substances in 

addition to steel. 

Results suggest that EDS may successfully be used to identify 

inorganic elements resulting from sharp force trauma. This methodology 

will lend to class-level identification, or negate alternative explanations 

for bone pathology. This work may potentially support other 

corroborating evidence when attempting to identify an instrument used 

in forensic contexts. 

References: 

1 Boyd A, Jones S. 1996. Scanning Electron Microscopy of Bone: 

Instrument, Specimen, and Issues. Microsc Res Tech 33:92-120. 

2 Ubelaker DH. The Evolving Role of the Microscope in Forensic 

Anthropology. In: Reichs KJ, editor. Forensic Osteology. 2 ed. 

Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1997:514-532. 

3 Bush MA, Miller, RG, Prutsman-Pfeiffer J, Bush PJ. Identification 

through X-Ray fluorescence analysis of dental restorative resin 

materials: A comprehensive study of noncremated, cremated, and 

processed-cremated individuals. J Forensic Sci 52(1):157-165. 

4 Warren MW, Falsetti AB, Kravchenko II, Dunnam FE, Van Rinsvelt 

HA, Maples WR. Elemental analysis of bone: proton-induced X-ray 

emission testing in forensic cases. Forensic Sci Int 2002;125(1): 

37–41. 

5 Brooks TR, Bodkin TE, Potts GE, Smullen SA. Elemental analysis 

of human cremains using ICP-OES to classify legitimate and 

contaminated cremains. J Forensic Sci 2006 Sept ;51(5):967-973 

6 Berryman H, Kutyla, A. Detection of Gunshot Residue (GSR) on 

Bone: Potential for Bullet Direction and Range Estimation; 2008 

February 18-23; American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual 

Meetings, Washington DC. p 360-361. Colorado Springs, CO: 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 2008. 

Sharp Force Trauma, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy 

Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) 

H10 Long Bone Healing Following Trauma 

Lenore Barbian, PhD*, Department of History & Anthropology, 

Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, Edinboro, PA 16444 

The goal of this presentation is to offer information on the timing of 

macroscopically observable osseous changes related to long bone 

healing for an historic skeletal sample and compare these observations to 

those previously reported for cranial fractures. 


contributing to the available research on fracture healing rates by 

providing a non-destructive method to assess fracture healing. The data 

presented here can be used to aid investigators in more accurately 

predicting time since injury in forensic settings. 

The analysis of fractures in dry bone is of considerable medicolegal 

importance and can contribute significant information on the cause and 

timing of death. However, much remains to be learned about the timing 

of specific bony responses during the healing process. A previous study 

has already explored the timing of initial bony response to injury in 

regard to cranial fractures (Barbian and Sledzik 2008). 1 Using the same 

historic sample, this study further investigates the macroscopic timing 

and appearance of fracture healing in long bone specimens. 

The Civil War skeletal collection at the National Museum of Health 

and Medicine, Washington, DC represents a collection with detailed 

case history reports that make it possible to compute the time elapsed 

from insult to recovery, amputation, or death. From this collection, a 

sample of humeri and femora specimens with gunshot wound fractures 

were selected for observation (n=262). Each specimen was 

macroscopically examined and scored for the presence or absence of any 

bony response. This presentation will report on the rates of four bony 

responses around the fracture area: osteoblastic response, osteoclastic 

response, line of demarcation, and sequestration. Osteoblastic response 

was defined as any bone building response including the deposition of 

subperiosteal new bone, rounding of the fracture margins, or the 

presence of areas of woven bone. Osteoclastic response was defined as 

areas of pitting, exposure of the diploë, or other bone resorptive 

response. A line of demarcation was seen as an “etched” line running 

adjacent to the fracture margins and appearing as a shallow depression. 

Sequestration was noted when a segment of bone was becoming 

necrosed. 

A comparison of the findings from this study with the previous one 

reveals that the osteoclastic, osteoblastic, and line of demarcation 

responses show a similar pattern to that recorded for cranial fractures. 

Specifically for the clastic and blastic responses, there is a clear trend of 

increasing frequency in the weeks post-fracture with over 80% of the 

sample demonstrating a response by the sixth week post-fracture. For 

the line of demarcation, there is an increasing prevalence of this response 

through the fifth week post-fracture followed by a decrease in frequency 

in the sixth and subsequent weeks. 

Different from the cranial fracture study is the onset and prevalence 

rates of the bony responses. The cranial fracture healing study found that 

the osteoclastic response can occur earlier than the osteoblastic response. 

While this finding is not supported by the long bone data, the frequency 

of osteoclastic response in long bones is slightly higher than that of the 

osteoblastic response through the second week post-fracture. The most 

notable finding from this study is the prevalence of all the bony 

responses during the first week post-fracture. In fact all four bony 

responses were scored as present during the first week post-fracture and 

over 41% of the first week post-fracture specimens displayed at least one 

osseous response. In comparison, the cranial fracture study found an 

initial latency period of approximately one to two weeks for each of the 

four osseous responses scored. Although it has been long recognized 

that cranial bone responds differently to fracture (Sevitt 1981), 2 the long 

bone rates of osseous response during the first week post-fracture still 

seem remarkable. The cranial healing study found that the earliest bony 

response occurred five days post-fracture. However, the long bone data 

suggest that some individuals are manifesting a bony response in less 

than five days. This occurs most frequently for the osteoclastic (n=33) 

and osteoblastic (n=32) responses although line of demarcation (n=3) 

and sequestration (n=3) are also represented. This appears to be in direct 

contradiction to our current understanding of the bone healing process. 

While these results may seem surprising, it should be noted that at 

least some of the bony responses scored during the first five days post- 


fracture do not appear to be consistent with the initial osseous response 

to trauma, but rather appear to be more consistent with longer term bony 

changes. This would appear to be the case with the observations of 

sequestration as well as the some of the osteoblastic responses which 

were associated with rounded fracture margins (n = 8) or the deposition 

of areas of woven bone (n=8). It, therefore, seems likely that some of 

the bony lesions scored represent pre-existing conditions unrelated to the 

bony fracture per se. It is known that the health of Civil War soldiers was 

compromised due to a number of factors including nutrition, sanitation, 

and infectious disease vectors (Bollet 2002), 3 and these factors may help 

to explain the observations reported here. In forensic contexts 

determining the timing of multiple fractures is often important, and the 

initial results of this study suggests that macroscopic bony responses on 

fractured long bones may reflect more than simply fracture healing. 

References: 

1 Barbian L, Sledzik P. Healing following cranial trauma. J Forensic 

Sci 2008; 53: 263-268. 

2 Sevitt S. Bone repair and fracture healing in man. Edinburgh: 

Churchill Livingstone, 1981. 

3 Bollet AJ. Civil War medicine: challenges and triumphs. Tucson, 

Arizona: Galen Press, Ltd., 2002. 

Long Bone Fracture, Fracture Healing, Gunshot Wounds 

H11 Schmorl’s Nodes in the Skeletal Remains of 

an American Military Population: 

Frequency, Formation, and Etiology 

Kelly L. Burke, MSc*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


AFB, HI 96853 


patterns of occurrence of a frequent pathological condition, the 

Schmorl’s node, in a U.S. military population. 


broadening our understanding of factors which may cause and influence 

the frequency of Schmorl’s nodes. 

This research considers multiple hypotheses regarding the etiology 

of Schmorl’s nodes. Schmorl’s nodes result from herniation of the 

nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disc through the cartilaginous 

endplate and into the cancellous bone of the vertebral centrum. The 

author hypothesizes that the frequency of Schmorl’s nodes in military 

populations will be higher than that seen in most non-military 

populations, since physical stressors, such as those experienced by those 

in military training and operations, may increase the incidence of this 

pathological condition. Schmorl’s nodes might also be expected to 

appear more frequently in farming and athletic populations. 

This research investigates the frequency of Schmorl’s nodes in 

differing populations, with new data from a skeletal sample from the 

Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) at the Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command (JPAC) in Hawaii. The sample consists of U.S. 

servicemembers (the majority of whom are young Caucasoid males) who 

served during World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, with 

additional servicemembers from the Civil War and World War I. The 

remains derive from JPAC recoveries of battlefield burials, cemetery 

exhumations, and turnovers from foreign and domestic citizens and 

governments. 

The current study consists of two samples, a broader study of 

instances of this pathological condition in CIL case reports and a more 

specific study examining intact skeletal remains. In the broader sample, 

34 of 172 individuals (19.8%) had at least one vertebra affected by a 

Schmorl’s node. This frequency has of course been depressed by 

instances of incomplete skeletal recovery and poor preservation. In this 

sample, the greatest concentration of Schmorl’s nodes was seen in the 


lower thoracic region. In the smaller sample of nearly complete 

skeletons, 28 of 38 individuals (73.3%) had at least one Schmorl’s node 

present. The greatest concentration of Schmorl’s nodes was again seen 

in the lower thoracic region, with diminishing frequencies seen as the 

vertebrae get higher and lower in number from this point. Several 

Schmorl’s nodes were also seen in the cervical vertebrae, a finding that 

has not often been reported. 

In a comparison of other studies charting the occurrence of 

Schmorl’s nodes, it was found that the frequency of these lesions can 

range from 8% to 79% of a population. A number of processes have been 

implicated in causing Schmorl’s nodes, including trauma, the aging 

process, disease, intrinsic factors, and unknown causes. Of these 

processes, it is hypothesized that both rapid-loading events on the axial 

skeleton and repeated stress injuries due to hard physical labor over time 

are the predominant causes. Age does not appear to be a factor in the 

formation of these lesions, with similar frequencies found in young and 

old populations. 

Schmorl’s Node, Paleopathology, Trauma 

H12 Protocol for Objective Evidentiary 


Malina L. Reveal, MSc*, PO Box 4493, Chico, CA 95927; and Ian 

Hanson, MSc, Bournemouth University, Room C136, Christchurch 

House, Talbott Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the need 

for photographic procedural guidelines and protocols within the field of 

forensic and biological anthropology and will gain insight into proposed 

photography protocols that are straightforward and user-friendly to 

produce objective photographic documentation for a court of law. 


demonstrating the importance of establishing professional standards for 

producing objective photographic documentation to visually substantiate 

scientific findings in a court of law. 

This presentation will help attendees gain a better insight into the 

current limited availability of standardized photographic procedural 

guidelines and protocols within the field of forensic and biological 

anthropology and will demonstrate the importance to the forensic 

community of establishing professional standards for producing 

objective photographic documentation to visually substantiate scientific 

findings in a court of law by outlining specific, reproducible, userfriendly 

photographic procedural guidelines, and protocols. 

Currently, there is no generally accepted protocol for the 

photographic evidentiary documentation of human remains analyzed by 

the forensic and biological anthropologist in the determination of a 

biological profile. A detailed analysis of existing photography 

procedural guidelines and protocols (PG&P) from a variety of forensic 

professions was conducted and elements of these protocols were 

synthesized, supplemented, and organized into straightforward and 

accessible procedural guidelines and protocols specific to the forensic 

and biological anthropologist that are applicable for the field or the 

laboratory. Procedural guidelines and a photography protocol for use in 

the documentation of a biological profile, as well as a digital image 

processing PG&P were also developed. 

The proposed photography PG&P were used to produce digital 

images at the California State University, Chico Human Identification 

Laboratory (CSUC-HIL). Photographs were taken of the human skeletal 

remains of a single individual curated at the CSUC-HIL. [The following 

equipment was used: a Canon Digital Rebel, 35 mm camera, Canon EFS 

18-55 mm normal lens and a Canon 50 mm Compact-Macro EF lens.] In 

this instance, the more common JPEG photographic format was used, 

although TIFF is recommended. A ScanDisk Flash 4 GB memory card 

was used to store all photographs. 

70

Following the laboratory protocol, initial photographs of the human 

remains were taken with a 35 mm normal lens. All four corners, seals 

and the inside of the box containing the remains were photographed to 

ensure chain of custody. The human remains were photographed in 

anatomical position from head to foot and foot to head. The protocol 

recommends taking 100% orientation photographs using a 35 mm 

normal lens. This is achieved by photographing each skeletal element 

from all possible views to create a permanent visual record of all 

elements present. 

Next, a 50 mm Compact-Macro EF lens was used to photograph all 

trauma, pathological conditions, and developmental anomalies. Using 

the 35 mm normal lens and the macro lens, photographs of all 

taphonomic changes present on all bones, the facial skeleton, maxillae 

and the mandible were taken. Photographs of the skull/cranium using a 

35 mm normal lens were taken in the following order: Frankfurt plane, 

left and right lateral views, sagittal plane, occipital region, frontal plane, 

and basilar view. The photographs produce detailed visual and 

permanent documentation of fragile skull/cranial bones and of longs 

bones, flat bones and irregular bones. 

The PG&P recommended for the photographic documentation of 

the biological profile incorporates elements of the laboratory procedural 

guidelines adapted to each skeletal element used in determining ancestry, 

sex, stature, age at death, and individuating characteristics. 

The protocols worked well in the CSUC-HIL; however, the 

laboratory tables were low and could not be configured to reduce back 

strain and fatigue. Many photographs are needed to fully document 

human remains, thus it is important that the photography station facilitate 

the taking of many photographs. The protocols are straightforward and 

can be easily followed. Therefore, even if the Forensic anthropologist is 

not available to attend the recovery of the remains, detailed visual 

inventory and documentation of the human remains can be established 

for a court of law. 

Forensic anthropologists are called upon to testify as expert 

witnesses in legal proceedings related to medico-legal death 

investigations and often use photographs of skeletal elements to 

document their findings regarding a biological profile. It is anticipated 

that the recommended photography procedural guidelines suggested here 

will be expanded and modified as the situation dictates, and as 

technology and the profession advance. The wide-spread and consistent 

application of these guidelines and protocols will, hopefully, lead to the 

speedy adoption of standardized photography procedural guidelines and 

protocols as part of the established methodologies in the profession. 

Anthropology, Photography, Standards 

H13 Postmortem Interval of Surface Remains 

During Spring in Southeast Texas 

Katelyn A. Stafford*, Sam Houston State Univeristy, Department of 

Chemistry, PO Box 2117, 1003 Bowers Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 

77341; Kathryn E. Moss, BS*, 4800 Calhoun Street, Houston, TX 77004; 

Natalie Lindgren, BS, Sam Houston State University, College of 

Criminal Justice, 1300 Bowers Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 77340; and 



Huntsville, TX 77340 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the effect of 

environmental factors on decomposing human remains located on the 

ground surface in southeast Texas during the spring season. In the past, 

decomposition studies have been conducted mostly on pig carcasses in 

different types of climates. Southeast Texas has a subtropical humid 

climate which is quite different than climates in previous studies. The 

present study was conducted on a human cadaver in the spring season in 

a sun-exposed location at the Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science 

Facility (STAFS), located in the Center for Biological Field Studies at 

Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. 


because the data collected from the surface remains will show the 

postmortem interval and body changes that occur while exposed 

outdoors during the spring season in southeast Texas. This data will be 

informative information that can be used in law enforcement 

investigations involving human decomposition in southeast Texas or 

other geographic areas with similar climates. 

A previous study done in Saskatchewan, Canada on pig carcasses 

(Sharanowski et. al, 2008) measured the rate of decomposition and insect 

activity in the fall, spring, and summer in a shaded and sun-exposed 

location. There were three pig carcasses placed at each location and 

secured to the ground so that scavengers could not remove the carcasses. 

The pig carcasses were clothed in long sleeve shirts when placed for the 

observation period. The spring season in the Saskatchewan experiment 

(sun-exposed area) related most to the research done on the subject at the 

STAFS facility. The spring season time frame recorded for the 

Saskatchewan, Canada study was May 17, 2000 until June 18, 2000. The 

average temperature at the sun-exposed site was 17.8 degrees Celsius. 

The conclusion of the study conducted in Canada was that 

decomposition occurred at a much faster rate during the spring season 

with little insect activity. 

Sam Houston State University recently began research at Southeast 

Texas Applied Forensic Science Facility (STAFS) to study 

decomposition and insect activity on various human cadavers under 

different environmental conditions. The test subject was an unclothed 

middle-aged male. He was placed on the ground surface in the outdoor 

facility, in an unobstructed, open area, in direct sunlight. The subject was 

placed during the spring from March 9, 2009 until May 29, 2009. The 

average temperature during the study time period was 19.22 degrees 

Celsius and the average rain fall was 0.0134 inches. Climate data was 

recorded at two hour intervals, twenty four hours per day over the three 

month period. Vigorous insect activity was seen throughout the study. 

At the conclusion of the study some skeletal elements were 

exposed, but the majority of bone elements remained covered by 

desiccated tissue. Portions of the upper and lower limbs of the body, 

skull mandible, and cervical vertebrae had been moved from their 

original positions as a result of scavenger activity. A similar 

decomposition pattern was seen on the STAFS’ subject as was recorded 

in the Canadian study with skin and soft tissue desiccated. The 

decomposition findings were not expected in the humid climate of 

Southeast Texas. 

With heavy rain in mid-March the desiccating body tissue 

moistened, but once the rain ceased, it immediately dried and remained 

desiccated for the remainder of the study. 

Decomposition, Surface Remains, Southeast Texas 

H14 Common Household Rope and an Outdoor 


Skeletal Case Exhibiting Cervical 

Vertebra Entrapment 

Alicja K. Kutyla, MS*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Rebecca J. 

Wilson, MA, 3108 Rennoc Road, Knoxville, TN 37918; and Hugh E. 

Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, Middle 

Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 


limitations imposed by the type of rope used in outdoor hanging 

contexts. 


providing data on the limitations of the type of rope used in outdoor 


hanging contexts, and insight into the clues important in determining 

whether skeletal remains decomposed on the surface or while being 

suspended. 

Despite the fact that most suicidal hangings occur indoors, outdoor 

suicidal hangings are a relatively common occurrence (Komar et al., 

1999; Spitz and Fisher, 2004). The purpose of this study was to recreate 

a skeletal forensic case involving an outdoor suicidal hanging that 

presented with a cervical vertebra entrapped in a cotton and belt 

makeshift noose (Berryman, 2008). In this type of case the presence of 

the entrapped cervical vertebra is thought to provide clear evidence of 

hanging as the cause of death (Ledford et al., 2009); however, it is 

unclear what conditions are required for this to occur. In the absence of 

a feature of this type, especially in anthropological cases where the bones 

and associated cultural items have been scattered, it would be difficult to 

attribute hanging as a cause of death as the pattern of skeletal deposition 

of a hanging individual is virtually unknown. 

This preliminary investigation attempted to recreate a skeletal 

forensic case that presented with an entrapped cervical vertebra in an 

outdoor context. In order to do so, a 10-foot high wooden device was 

built to bear a maximum load of over 600 pounds with a pulley/crank 

system to ease the force required to lift an individual into the hanging 

position (1 to 2 feet above the ground surface). This study was designed 

to test whether a cotton rope, commonly used in indoor hanging contexts, 

can be used to recreate a “true hanging” where both feet are off the 

ground. Although a cotton rope was not used in the case that precipitated 

this research, it is thought to be an adequate substitute for the actual 

cotton material (rolled to form a cord approx. 3/8 inch in diameter) that 

appears to be the point of failure, having been broken or cut. This 

research was conducted at the Anthropological Research Facility at the 

University of Tennessee using cadavers from the Forensic Anthropology 

Center body donation program. 

Results indicate that a cotton rope 3/8 inch in diameter is unable to 

sustain the full weight of a hanging, adult individual. In most 

circumstances the tensile strength of a particular rope is made available 

by manufacturers and can be used to assess whether an individual was 

fully suspended, or suggest a positional asphyxiation scenario, where 

feet remain on the ground. It is impossible to determine how a rope will 

respond to an outdoor hanging situation based solely on its tensile 

properties, especially in situations where common household items have 

been strung together to form makeshift asphyxiation devices. The cotton 

clothesline rope used in this study is common in indoor hanging 

scenarios, but it seems that it does not possess the tensile strength to 

withstand a fully suspended load. 

As forensic practitioners—particularly in anthropological cases in 

an outdoor setting–the possibility of hanging as a potential cause of death 

is not considered without the presence of obvious features such as a 

noose. An understanding of the decomposition process and subsequent 

skeletal deposition in hanging cases is essential in order to differentiate 

between remains originally decomposing on the surface from those that 

decomposed while being suspended. Expanding our understanding of 

the decomposition process and subsequent skeletal deposition in 

situations other than an individual lying on the ground is necessary. 

Investigations of this nature may enable the discovery of other tell tale 

markers to differentiate situations where an individual decomposed on 

the surface as opposed to a hanging situation, and vice-versa. Identifying 

tell tale markers indicative of decomposition while suspended, and 

understanding the variables that the hanging condition presents (e.g., 

distance from the ground, positioning of the body in relation to the 

asphyxiation device, the type of noose used, and how these affect the 

decomposition process) may allow a more accurate evaluation of these 

types of cases. 

Outdoor Hanging, Cause of Death, Forensic Anthropology 


H15 Estimating Sex of the Human Skeleton 

Based on Metrics of the Sternum 

Rosanne Bongiovanni, BA*, 601 University Drive, ELA 232, San 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the call 

for utilization of the sternum as a viable estimate of sex in a recent 

forensic sample from North America and be introduced to the necessary 

measurements of the sternum, reasons preventing the taking of 

measurements, the process and reasoning behind the collection of data, 

and subsequent statistical analysis employed in this study. 


showing that the sternum provides a viable estimate of sex in a recent 

forensic sample from North America and is a useful addition to the 

methods employed in human identification. 

Estimating the sex of an adult skeleton is a critical facet in creating 

the biological profile of an individual. To date, there are different 

methods used on select elements of the skeleton to assess the sex of the 

individual. Studies performed on an Indian population (Jit et al 1980) 

indicate that analyzing the sternum may lead to an accurate estimation of 

sex. Therefore, the method is not population specific and may not prove 

useful on a recent forensic sample from North America, hence the 

motivation for this study. 

Sternal measurements were collected from the William M. Bass 

Skeletal Collection located at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

This is a collection of recent forensic skeletons with known age at death, 

ancestry, and sex. The metric definitions provided by Schwartz (2007) 

and Bass (1987) were followed so that others attempting to replicate this 

research will be able to reliably measure the sternum. The measurements 

include length of the manubrium, length of the body, sternebra 1 width, 

and sternebra 3 width. A digital sliding caliper was utilized to take these 

measurements. Time was designated at the beginning of the second and 

third days to employ the test-retest method in order to calculate the intraobserver 

error rate and ensure reliability of these measurements. 

In this study, comparisons of the proportion of the length of the 

manubrium to the length of the body of the sternum were performed to 

determine if there are measureable differences between males and 

females. Based on the work of Dahiphale et al. (2002), it is hypothesized 

that the body of the sternum in an American population will be greater 

than twice the length of the manubrium in male samples, but that in 

female samples, the length of the manubrium will be greater than half the 

length of the body. This is referred to as Hyrtl’s Law. In addition, 

comparisons of these measurements between individuals identified as 

American Black and White were analyzed to determine whether or not 

this method could be used on both population groups. 

The study contained 412 sterna (289 males, 123 females; 377 

White: 35 Black). The data was entered into the Statistical Analysis 

Software (SAS) computer program, version 9.1.2. A discriminate 

function analysis (DFA), using all variables, produced an overall crossvalidation 

classification rate of 84.12% for sex estimation. The crossvalidation 

classification rates for males and females were 80.00% and 

88.24%, respectively. The applicability will be discussed of utilizing the 

sternum as a method of sex estimation and propose specialists in the field 

adopt it as a supplementary method for use in human identification. 

Forensic Anthropology, Sex Estimation, Sternum 

72

H16 Microscopic Markers of Trauma in 


Anna Taborelli, MD, and Salvatore Andreola, MD, Sezione di Medicina 

Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche, V. 

Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; Alessia Di Giancamillo, DVM, 

Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Veterinarie p, Università degli 

Studi, Milan, ITALY; Guendalina Gentile, BSc, Sezione di Medicina 

Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche, Via 

Mangiagalli, 37, Milano, ITALY; Daniele Gibelli, MD*, and Marketa 

Pechnikova, BSc, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, 

Sezione di Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e 

Scienze Biomediche, Via Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; Cinzia 

Domeneghini, DVM, Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Veterinarie, 

Università degli Studi, Milan, ITALY; Marco Grandi, MD, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale e delle Assicurazioni di Milano, Dipartimento di 

Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, 

ITALY; and Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Laboratorio di Antropologia e 

Odontologia Forense, Sezione di Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di 

Morfologia Umana e Scienze Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, 

Milan, ITALY 

The goal of this presentation is to detect the vitality of soft tissue 

and bone lesions in an advanced state of decomposition using a 

monoclonal anti-human Glycophorine A antibody in order to evaluate 

the presence and distribution of blood cells. 


showing an attempt at detecting a vital reaction in decomposed skin and 

bone in order to distinguish between antemortem and postmortem 

lesions in difficult situations. 

The diagnosis of the vitality of a wound, or rather the identification 

of a vital reaction that enables one to differentiate an intravital wound 

from a postmortem wound, is a crucial issue in forensic pathology and 

more so in forensic anthropology. In fresh skin the macroscopic 

examination of hemorrhage infiltration can be sufficient to reveal the 

vitality of the wound but in many other cases histological and 

histochemical analyses are required. Bone injuries may follow similar 

“laws” as concerns the evolution of the macroscopic and histological 

picture. 

The scope of this study was to detect the vitality of soft tissue and 

bone lesions in an advanced state of decomposition using a monoclonal 

anti-human Glycophorine A antibody in order to evaluate the presence 

and distribution of blood cells. 

Six samples of bone fractures and two samples of skin wounds were 

taken from cadavers with a known time of survival between trauma and 

death, and then submitted to a simulated decomposition procedure. 

Negative controls were also included. The samples were left to 

decompose for 30 days in air and in water and analized at a time interval 

of 3-6-15 and 30 days. The bones were decalcified in a specific solution 

consisting of water, HCl, and Formic acid. Bone samples were stained 

with HE, Perls’, PTAH, Weigert technique and PAS. Skin samples were 

stained with HE, Trichrome stain. Both bone and skin samples were 

stained with immunohistochemical technique. Skin and bone samples 

from four real cases of blunt and gunshot trauma were also included in 

the study. 

Results showed, in the bone samples, red blood cell residues on the 

fractured margins and within Haversian canals may contribute to the 

diagnosis of a vital reaction. In the skin samples, red blood cells were 

visible until the 6 th day in air and granular deposits of glycophorin 

reactive material after six days in air and in all samples in water. The 

general microscopic structure of bone was assessed in order to verify 

traumatic alterations in osteons. 

In conclusion, this study may begin to shed some light on the issue 

of detecting a vital reaction in decomposed skin and bone in order to 

distinguish between antemortem and postmortem lesions in difficult 

situations. 

Bone Fracture, haemorrhagic Infiltration, Glycophorine 

H17 Can We Estimate Stature From the 

Scapula? A Test Considering Sex 

and Ancestry 

Rachel M. Burke, MA*, 10024 Northeast 120th Sreet #D3, Kirkland, WA 


why multiple techniques for estimating stature are important, what 

measurements of the scapula are potentially useful for estimating stature, 

and how to use different regression formula to estimate stature based on 

scapular measurements. 


providing a new method for estimating stature based on measurements of 

the scapula in order to create a more thorough biological profile. 

The biological profile is one of the most important things that 

forensic anthropologists accomplish in their work. This includes the 

determination of age, race, sex, and stature. These four components of 

the biological profile aid in the identification of an individual in the 

forensic context. Since the beginnings of the field of physical 

anthropology, osteologists and anatomists have studied human remains 

in order to provide new and innovative ways of building the biological 

profile. 

Two published studies have attempted to estimate stature from 

measurements of the scapula. Campobasso et al. (1998) found that 

certain measurements of the scapula were highly accurate in estimating 

the stature of males and females from an Italian population. Shulin and 

Fangwu (1982) concluded that other measurements of the skeleton were 

more useful in estimating stature than the maximum scapular breadth for 

a Chinese population. 

The current research expands upon both of these previous studies 

using an American population collected from the Hamann-Todd 

Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. In 

so doing, this researcher hypothesized that there was a significant 

relationship between one or more measurements of the scapula and 

living stature. Additionally, significant measurements were submitted 

for multiple regression analysis in order to create regression formulae 

useful in estimating stature. 

After taking eleven measurements of the scapula, these variables 

were regressed against the stature measurements (N=223) provided in 

the Hamann-Todd Human Collection Database. The results show that 

several variables including the length of the scapular spine, the 

maximum acromion-coracoid distance, the length of the axial border, the 

length of the coracoid, and the maximum scapular breadth significantly 

contribute to stature. Additionally, race also significantly contributes to 

stature. Regression formulae were calculated for populations when race 

is both known and unknown. After applying each of these formulae to a 

smaller test sample, results show that, unlike the findings of Campobasso 

et al. (1998), stature could be predicted for all individuals with an 

accuracy of 27%, for blacks with an accuracy of 50%, and for whites 

with an accuracy of 36%. 

Stature, Scapula, Biological Profile 


H18 A Pilot Study on Nuclear DNA Recovery 



Jordan N. Espenshade, BS*, 1420 Centre Avenue, Apartment 103, 

Pittsburgh, PA 15282; and Lisa Ludvico, PhD, Duquesne University 

Department of Biology, 341 Fisher Hall 600 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, 

PA 15282 


recovery of compromised DNA from charred bone remains from three 

commonly used incendiary liquids. 

This presentation will impcat the forensic science community by 

identifying if certain bones yield more DNA than others, especially after 

being burnt, although this study uses white-tail deer as an animal mode. 

Criminals often attempt to hide proof of the crime by burning evidence. 

Both wildlife and human homicide investigators will benefit from the 

results charred bone DNA analysis can give to their respective forensic 

inquiry. 

The proposed study utilizes White-tail deer (Odocoileus 

virginianus) as an animal model to study the effects of different 

accelerants on long bones. The sample location (i.e., tibia, femur, and/or 

patella) was also compared to determine the best area from which to 

extract DNA. The population for the proposed study is legs from whitetail 

deer recovered from road kill. Samples were obtained in conjunction 

with the Pennsylvania Game Commission from Pennsylvania roadways. 

Time of death was estimated using ocular fluid reflectivity based on an 

established index used by wildlife officers. One of the legs was reserved 

as a control from each specimen. The remaining three legs were 

incinerated with gasoline, kerosene, or lighter fluid respectively. These 

accelerants are considered to be the most commonly used to conceal 

criminal behavior by investigators. This study will comprise a total of 

ten deer, with an associated sample size of 40 appendages, using three 

bone fragments from each appendage. 

Appendages were soaked in a heated solution of water and sodium 

carbonate to ease removal of the soft tissue surrounding the bone. After 

elimination of all adhering tissue, each bone fragment was pulverized in 

a sterile coffee grinder. DNA from the subsequent bone powder was 

extracted using the standard silica ancient DNA protocol (Paablo and 

Moss). Each sample was genotyped using a custom designed STR 

multiplex. Multiplexing utilized primers previously designed by 

Anderson et al (2002) for white-tail deer populations. The modified 

multiplexes consisted of eleven STR primers separated into two PCR 

panels determined by base pair (bps) size and fluorescent label color. 

The white-tailed deer STR panel utilized two primer mix cocktails, 

which were run through an EdgeBio filter cartridge. These cartridges are 

essential when working with in-house multiplexes as they remove any 

unincorporated fluorescent labels. Stacking of salts, which is a common 

problem associated with non-commercial multiplexes, is also diminished 

via the filter cartridge. The samples were then run on an ABI 3100 Avant 

genetic analyzer. Allele sizes were binned and exported to a computer 

spreadsheet. Complete and partial genetic profiles were identified and 

scored for each appendage bone fragment. 

Although this study uses white-tail deer as an animal model, it 

impacts the forensic community by identifying if certain bones yield 

more DNA than others, especially after being burnt. Criminals often 

attempt to hide proof of the crime by burning evidence. Both wildlife 

and human homicide investigators will benefit from the results charred 

bone DNA analysis can give to their respective forensic inquiry. This 

study purports to demonstrate that nuclear DNA can be extracted from 

remains containing extremely degraded DNA and previously only typed 

for mitochondrial DNA sequencing. It also outlines the development of 

a microsatellite multiplex, which will be used as part of Duquesne 

University’s service learning component. In this capacity, future 

students can assist Pennsylvania game commission officers on white-tail 


deer poaching cases, incorporating collection and documentation 

techniques learned in another two semester long course, Criminal 

Investigations. 

Charred Bone, DNA, Accelerants 

H19 Rolling Bones: A Field “System” for the 



Julie M. Saul, BA*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office Forensic 

Anthropology Lab, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; 

Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Lucas County Coroners Office, US HHS DMORT 

5, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; G. Michael Pratt, 

PhD, Heidelberg University, Department of Anthropology, 310 East 

Market Street, Tiffin, OH 44993; Richard P. Brownley, BA, Ohio Peace 

Officers Training Academy, 1650 State Route 56, London, OH 43140; 

and Lauri M. Martin, PhD, University of Texas, Austin, Department of 

Anthropology, Campus Mail Code C3200 1 University Station, Austin, 

TX 78712 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be better able to 

preserve, recover, document, and transport fragile skeletal remains and 

other evidence encountered in field situations. 


demonstrating how an inexpensive, easily available material (aluminum 

foil) can be used as the basis for a “system” to protect the integrity of 

fragile evidence. 

Skeletal remains are encountered. Usually, local and other law 

enforcement recover them and bring them to the nearest coroner or 

medical examiner – maybe even to the nearest forensic anthropologist. 

How often do they arrive jumbled in a body bag, paper bag or a box, 

where the bones rattle around, break themselves up and in general 

destroy the direct evidence that bones provide? How to preserve the 

integrity of fragile, even fragmentary, skeletal remains? How to 

document the relationship of bones and fragments to each other and to 

other material evidence in or on the ground? How to safely recover 

fragmented and fragile material evidence other than bone? 

In 1976, the Sauls excavated their first ancient Maya skeletons 

(Cuello site in northern Belize). 1 They encountered poor bone 

preservation due to the destructive actions of plant root penetration, 

burrowing critters, and alternating rainy and dry seasons. Skeletal 

remains were fragile, fragmentary and incomplete. 

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, they received and analyzed 

shipments of additional burials from Cuello that were excavated by the 

project in their absence. The chemical impregnation techniques in use at 

the time were not easily reversed, damaged the bone, and potentially 

interfered with molecular analysis. The traditional wrapping of remains 

with toilet tissue, often while wet with preservative, made things even 

worse. Traditional field diagrams were based on the assumption (often 

wrong) that the excavators had identified each fragmentary, bone or bone 

fragment and its orientation in situ. 

This research was motivated to develop a different approach when 

next in the field at Cuello. The technique was further refined during 

several excavation seasons at various sites in the Maya area, and 

subsequently applied it to forensic work. This procedure involves the use 

of aluminum foil for both retained alignment of fragmentary bones 

during removal from the grave, and packaging of the bone for transport. 

During removal the foil becomes the package, maintaining the 

relationships of bone fragments and protecting them from further 

breakage. A technique of “rolling out” and lifting fragile, fragmented 

bone (or other evidence) using foil was also developed, further 

maintaining integrity and preserving information. 

A number and orientation end-mark can be written on individual 

foil packages with a felt-tip marker, corresponding to the number and 

74

end-mark recorded on the “rough working” burial plan. When the 

packages are appropriately labeled and field mapped in situ, the 

orientation of each bone (and therefore the body) in the grave can be 

more easily determined in the laboratory. In essence, the bones can be 

“put back the way they were in the ground”, revealing finer nuances of 

body position and other relationships. This “rough working burial plan 

is the one that goes with the bones to aid in analysis”. “A more carefully 

drawn official” burial plan is also produced for reports. 

This very simple and inexpensive system for preservation, recovery, 

documentation, and transport of skeletal (especially fragmentary 

skeletal) remains has been field tested in both archaeologic and forensic 

situations for more than 30 years. Useful with postcranial bones, skulls 

also lifted and packaged in foil retain their teeth, cranial fragments are 

held in position, and fragile facial bones are protected. 

This training and this technique have paid off. Remains recovered 

by individuals who have taken our course are coming to us in much 

better condition. Skulls wrapped in foil have all the teeth they were 

found with and facial bones are not broken en route. Other bones are not 

breaking each other up inside paper or plastic bags. Important 

relationships are maintained within the packages. More information 

(evidence) can be obtained. 

Those who have taken the OPOTA course are often assisted by 

other investigators in recoveries, and now some of these other 

individuals have begun to carry foil with them in their kits. 

Reference: 

1 Saul, JM, Saul, FP, Thompson, LM. Recovery and Documentation 

of Skeletal Remains: A Brief Field Guide, Programme for Belize 

Archaeological Project Field Guide Series 1, Occasional Papers, 

Number 7, Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory, 

The University of Texas at Austin, Austin; 2007. 

Skeletal Recovery, Skeletal Preservation, Skeletal Transport 

H20 The Effects of Fire Suppression Techniques 


Briana K. Curtin, BA*, 1901 Elaine Drive, St. Joseph, MO 64505 


causes and types of secondary fractures produced on burned pig (Sus 

scrofa) bones by two distinct fire suppression techniques: (1) water from 

a portable fire engine with a pressurized hose; and (2) hand-held 

compressed air/chemical portable fire extinguishers. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by presenting 

the differences of fracture patterns produced by natural burn, natural 

cooling, handling, pressurized water, and hand-held compressed dry 

chemical portable fire extinguishers. Results from this study will allow 

forensic anthropology practitioners to better discriminate between 

fractures caused by heat exposure and those caused by fire suppression 

techniques. In particular, this research will clarify the description and 

identification of fracture patterns resulting from the two most common 

suppression techniques employed at fire scenes. 

Pope and Smith (2004) discuss five typical fire scene events that 

damage bone: (1) falling debris; (2) heat embrittlement; (3) types of fire 

extinguishments; (4) manual handling of the burned remains; and, 5) 

transport of the burned remains. This research will focus upon fire 

extinguishment methods. It will be shown that burned remains 

extinguished by pressurized water or portable fire extinguishers produce 

differences in secondary trauma fragmentation and fractures compared 

to burned remains allowed to cool naturally (i.e., no fire suppression 

technique employed). 

This study examines the results from experimentally burning four 

intact fleshed pig carcasses for four hours on mattresses. Test one 

involves burning the fleshed remains of one whole pig with no method 

of fire suppression employed, with the remains allowed to cool naturally. 

Test two involves physical removal of the burned remains from the fire 

and allowed to cool, which simulates conditions where firefighters 

hastily remove remains from the fire scene. Test three examines the 

effects of using pressurized water extinguishment from a fire engine. 

Test four examines the postmortem condition of burned remains that 

were extinguished using a hand-held compressed air/chemical portable 

fire extinguisher. 

Several variables are held constant for each of the four tests: size 

of the fire and amount and type of fuel, size of the pig, temporal exposure 

of the body, and condition of the bone (DeHaan 2002). In addition to 

these variables, the duration of the fire will be held constant for tests two 

through four, which will be allowed to burn for four hours, the 

approximate time it will take for the majority of appendicular bones to 

be defleshed and fractured from heat (de Gruchy and Rogers 2002). 

Comparisons between the burned bones from each of the four tests 

(natural cooling, cooling and manual removal from the fire, pressurized 

water, and hand-held compressed dry chemical portable fire 

extinguisher) will be outlined. Examination of secondary post-fire 

fractures caused by the different types of suppression techniques will be 

performed through both macroscopic and microscopic comparative 

analyses, with variables including bone fracture type and size, 

fragmentation degree, length, width, and external/internal color scored 

for each bone. Type of trauma, distinguished between heat-related 

fractures caused by fire, post-fire fractures caused by handling/external 

pressure due to fire suppression and post-fire fractures caused by 

handling and transport alone will be demonstrated. This ability to 

distinguish between heat-related, post-fire extinguishment, and post-fire 

handling fractures is important to forensic anthropologists who are 

confronted with burned bones, and this research will allow practitioners 

a better understanding of the mechanisms of bone fracture caused by fire 

suppression techniques. 

Burned Bone, Fire Suppression, Secondary Fractures 

H21 Burned Beyond Recognition: Can the 



Teresa G. Nugent, BA*, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, 

ELA 232, San Marcos, TX 78666 


potential for determination of biological profile from bones that are 

believed to be “burned beyond recognition” based on macroscopic 

observations of unprocessed, cremated human skeletal remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by providing 

investigators with an indication of the skeletal elements that most 

frequently survive high temperature fires of lengthy duration and the 

patterning of preservation of the bony elements that are typically used to 

estimate the biological profile. 

The biological profile of unidentified human skeletal remains is an 

integral part of forensic investigations and analyses. Cremation makes 

establishing a biological profile difficult due to the thermal destruction 

and associated fragmentation of bone. However, Stewart (1979:67) 1 

emphasized that a “good number of skeletal parts often survive the firing 

with characteristic features intact enough to be recognizable as human.” 

Because there are a limited number of publications that corroborate 

Stewart’s observations (Bass 1984; Bass and Jantz 2004; Bohnert 1998; 

Brickley 2007; Eckert et al 1988; Murat 1998; Warren and Schultz 

2002), 2 this study evaluates the potential for estimation of the biological 

profile based on macroscopic observations of unprocessed cremated 

human skeletal remains from contemporary commercial cremations. 


investigators with an indication of the skeletal elements that most 

frequently survive high temperature fires of lengthy duration and the 


patterning of preservation of the bony elements that are typically used to 

estimate the biological profile. 

Data for this study were gathered from blind macroscopic analyses 

of 18 individuals from the collection of documented human cremains 

from the University of Tennessee’s William M. Bass skeletal collection. 

These individuals were cremated using standard crematory procedures at 

temperatures between 1600-1700 o F (870-926 o C) for similar duration and 

were not mechanically pulverized. Use of these cremains allowed for an 

in depth examination of burned bone without debris such as building 

materials, soil, melted glass, and plastic that often confound the recovery 

of human remains at fatal fire scenes. Specific skeletal elements (pelvic, 

cranial, mandibular, vertebral, and certain long bone epiphyses) were 

selected as the focus of this study due to their standard use in estimating 

the biological profile. Because of the fragmentary nature of the sample, 

elements were not laid out in anatomical position, instead each element 

was reconstructed to the extent that preservation allowed and examined 

on its own. Each set of cremains was inventoried using the fragmentary 

remains inventory procedure described in Ubelaker and Buikstra’s 

Standards for Data Collection of Human Skeletal Remains (1994). Once 

an element was identified and sided, the completeness was determined 

and scored as 1 = > 75% present (or “complete”), 2 = 25%-75% present 

(or “partial”), and 3 = < 25% present (or “poor”). Paired elements were 

scored separately. In addition, degenerative changes, skeletal age 

markers, and pathology were recorded. Data reported here include: (1) 

the frequency of which skeletal elements relating to the biological profile 

most often survived cremation; (2) whether there was consistency in 

preservation of particular elements from one cremain to the next; and, (3) 

whether preserved elements included features that could be used to 

estimate age and sex. 

Results showed that the bones of the cranial vault preserved in over 

90% of the individuals in the sample. Cranial preservation frequencies 

were 94.4% for parietals, 91.6% for frontal, 91.6% for occipital, and 

91.6% for temporals. Of the postcranial elements, only the proximal 

femur had a preservation frequency above 90%. Postcranial preservation 

frequencies were 94.4% for proximal femora, 88.8% for proximal 

humeri, 86.1% for ischia, and 82.8% for acetabulae. Age and sex 

indicators from the pelvis and cranium were less frequent, but 

observable. The following indicators of sex were observed from the 

pelvis: ventral arc (8.3%), subpubic concavity (2.7%), ischiopubic ramus 

ridge (8.3%), greater sciatic notch (16.6%), and preauricular sulcus 

(13.8%). The following indicators of age were observable from the 

pubic bone: auricular surface (52.7%) and pubic symphysis (27.7%). 

The following indicators of sex were observable from the cranium: 

nuchal area (27.7%), mastoid processes (22.2%), supraorbital margins 

(38.8%), and glabellar region (5.5%). 

The results from this study clearly support earlier work done on 

estimation of the biological profile using human cremains. From this 

presentation, attendees will take away a greater understanding of the 

potential for determination of biological profile from bones that are 

believed to be “burned beyond recognition.” 

References: 

1 Stewart, T.D. 1979. Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. 

2 Springfield: Charles C. Thomas. 

Cremains, Biological Profile, Burned Remains 

H22 Effects of Heat-Modification on Sharp 

Force Trauma in Charred Remains 

Daisy D.M. Vincent, MA*, 29 rue des Poudrieres, Neuchatel, 2000, 

SWITZERLAND 

The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the significance of heatmodification 

on sharp force trauma found in charred remains. 


demonstrating that the influence of heat on sharp force trauma found in 


charred remains is minimal and that the forensic analysis may be carried 

out with accuracy. 

Postmortem criminal burning holds a prominent place in attempts to 

delay the identification of the victim and the cause of death. Previous 

experiments have focused on the microstructure of the bone, qualitative 

changes such as color, shrinkage and warping, and to a lesser extent, 

trauma in relation to fire modification. Due to the reaction of bone 

microstructure to fire, it is expected that trauma would be affected as 

well, which may have an effect on the accuracy of its analysis. 

This experiment explores qualitative and quantitative differences 

between sharp force trauma found on heated bone and on normal bone. 

The first part of this project focuses on the qualitative effects of heat and 

fire modification on sharp force trauma. Variability of color shades, as 

well as the shape of the edges and extremities were documented. The 

quantitative analysis includes measurements of the defects and of their 

related morphological features. Depth at each extremity, width of the 

internal extremity, width at the border of the rib and size of the bone 

raising at border were recorded. A count of associated fractures and a 

measurement of the angle of penetration were also included in the 

quantitative analysis. 

Forty-eight fresh domestic pig carcasses were stabbed four times in 

the left ribs with a utility kitchen knife mounted on a guillotine to obtain 

stabs of similar orientation and force. The carcasses were stabbed 

perpendicularly to the ribs. Half the sample (24) was subsequently 

charred using Propane UN1978 blowtorches. They were superficially 

charred on their entire side and exposed to flames directed into the 

trauma sites for 10 to 20 minutes. The process was stopped when the 

epidermis flaked off and the trauma sites had opened into oval-shaped, 

gaping wounds with deeper charring on the neighboring soft tissues. The 

interface temperature of the blowtorches varied between 985 and 1070 

degrees Celsius. The carcasses were monitored during decomposition at 

the TRACES facility in northwest England, and the ribs were collected 

at various stages of decomposition. After maceration, the trauma sites 

were analyzed both macroscopically and microscopically. Microscopic 

analysis included light microscopy qualitative observations and scanning 

electron microscope measurements. The final sample contained 50 

control cut marks and 92 experimental cut marks. 

A detrended correspondence analysis and an analysis of similarity 

(ANOSIM) were used to interpret the qualitative data. The ANOSIM, 

using the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity coefficient, showed that there is no 

significant difference between the groups based upon location, 

morphology and color (R=0.01372, p=0.28394). 

A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and a principle 

components analysis were used to analyze the quantitative data and 

identify the significant variables. The multivariate analysis of variance 

showed that there is no significant difference between the groups. 

(Pillai=0.27526, F8,57=1.16417, p=0.33656). A principle components 

analysis identified two variables explaining 99% of the variance between 

the cuts marks: width of the defect at the border of the rib and size of the 

raising at border. 

The results of this experiment show that in charred remains, heat 

does not seem to affect the shape, size and characteristics of the trauma 

defects. This discovery is significant as it indicates that tool mark 

analysis and sharp force trauma analysis can be carried out with the same 

level of accuracy than on normal bone. It is however expected that a 

modification of the trauma features may be observed at higher degrees of 

temperature and longer exposure to heat and fire. More data needs to be 

collected to evaluate at which stage heat modification may start to 

significantly affect sharp force trauma features and the accuracy of 

forensic analyses. 

Sharp Force Trauma, Charred Remains, Scanning Electron 

Microscope 

76

H23 Teaching Forensic Field Methods to 



A. Joanne Curtin, PhD*, University of West Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 11000 University Parkway, Pensacola, FL 32514 


scope of forensic anthropological field training offered at University of 

West Florida. 

The purpose of this presentation is to describe the field methods 

course currently offered at University of West Florida, and to open a 

dialogue with other institutions offering similar courses, with the 

ultimate goal of improving the training of undergraduate and graduate 

students in forensic anthropology. 

Continuing education courses (“short courses”) in the 

documentation and recovery of human skeletal remains are offered for 

law enforcement personnel at numerous institutions across the United 

States. Academic courses devoted to training anthropology students in 

forensic field methods are fewer in number, and more variable in their 

content. The purpose of this presentation is to describe the field methods 

course currently offered at the University of West Florida (UWF), and to 

open a dialogue with other institutions offering similar courses, with the 

ultimate goal of improving the training of undergraduate and graduate 

students in forensic anthropology. 

Since 2008 UWF has offered a dedicated forensic field school 

whose goal is to train graduate students and senior undergraduates in the 

skills required to handle forensic field recoveries. These situations 

require solid project management skills. Each forensic case is unique, so 

responders must be able to assess each scene, make an informed decision 

as to whether skeletal elements are human or not, devise an efficient 

strategy for locating, recording and recovering remains, work 

collaboratively as team members with other anthropology students, and 

with professionals from other fields (forensic investigators from the 

medical examiner’s office, crime scene specialists from law 

enforcement, dog handlers, etc.). The data collected must be accurate 

and meet contemporary evidence standards. Finally, responders must be 

able to communicate the results of their investigations clearly and 

unambiguously. 

At UWF, students receive training in technical skills such as 

compass use, line search, establishment of grids, setting up/running an 

optical survey instrument, excavation, measurement, and field 

photography, and broader project management skills (ability to assess 

needs, determine efficient solutions, delegate tasks, contribute 

constructively to team dynamic, and communicate effectively). Students 

first receive classroom instruction in relevant field techniques, and then 

are required to apply their knowledge and skills initially in a series of 

“mock” forensic scenes including both surface scattered remains and 

clandestine burials, and later in a real cemetery excavation. Finally, each 

student is required to write two case reports, one describing the recovery 

of surface remains, and one for buried remains. Once they have 

successfully completed the course, students may assist in actual forensic 

case work, under the supervision of faculty members. 

Forensic Field School, Survey Methods, Excavation Techniques 

H24 Fatal Fire Modeling: Replicating 




Elayne J. Pope, PhD*, Anthropology Department, University of West 

Florida, Anthropology Building 13, 11000 University Parkway, 


The goal of this presentation is to present replicative modeling of 

structural and vehicular fires provides forensic scientists with the 

opportunity to identify specific variables that are directly correlated with 

the production of burn patterns, which serves to improve the overall 

accuracy and reliability of our analysis of burned human remains. 


showing that just as each fire scene is unique, so are the burn patterns 

produced on the body, which directly result from being exposed to 

different types of environmental conditions during and after the fire. 

A year ago, a report by the National Academy of Sciences called for 

higher standards and increased accuracy of scientific research in the 

forensic sciences. Experimental replication of known and realistic 

conditions is but one of several solutions that forensic anthropologists 

can use to address these concerns. Traditionally, our investigation of 

burned human remains begins in a laboratory setting, which is far 

removed from the in situ context of the taphonomic changes that 

originally produced the skeletal burn patterns used in our analysis. This 

presentation will show that just as each fire scene is unique, so are the 

burn patterns produced on the body, which directly result from being 

exposed to different types of environmental conditions during and after 

the fire. Replicative modeling of structural and vehicular fires provides 

forensic scientists with the opportunity to identify specific variables that 

are directly correlated with the production of burn patterns, which serves 

to improve the overall accuracy and reliability of our analysis of burned 

human remains. 

A total of eight donated human cadavers were burned different 

environments that replicated actual forensic casework using two 

vehicles, four furnished burn cells (structures), a travel trailer, a 

dumpster, and a light craft airplane that had crashed into a building. 

Though these seem like random scenarios, many of these environments 

produced patterned similarities, as well as differences, depending on the 

types of combustible fuels, objects in contact with the body, duration, 

and methods of extinguishment. All of the experiments went to 

flashover (where all contents ignite), and burned for a duration of 15-30+ 

minutes. 

Combustibles and Points of Contact: Initially during the fire, 

certain surfaces of the body remained protected from heat, since they 

were in direct contact with other objects (floor/furniture/fabrics/seats). 

However, these points of contact gradually changed as the furnishings 

burned away and from limb flexion into the pugilistic posture, which 

exposed more surfaces of the body directly to heat. Bodies that remained 

elevated from the floor on exposed mattress springs, seating frames 

(household and vehicular) had more uniform heat-related damage to soft 

tissues and bone than those that remained directly in contact with a flat 

surface (metal bench/floor/stove/trunk) during the fire. 

Fallen Debris: During the fire, especially after flashover, various 

types of debris collapsed onto and around the body, more so for 

structural fires than vehicular. This process created two different 

taphonomic artifacts of fragmentation and protection. Collapse of fire 

debris increased fragmentation of brittle burned bone from impacts to the 

body and/or from the body shifting position as supportive materials 


urned away. Debris also provided more areas of protection from direct 

flame and dehydrated the remaining soft tissues. For example, the 

aircraft crash fire burned for 20 minutes with temperatures over 2000° F 

that destroyed the body of the plane and part of the building, yet the 

human body remained well protected from being buried in fire debris, 

leaving only the face, hands, and knees exposed. 

Human Factors: Scenes were realistically extinguished by 

firefighters with pressurized water, then searched and excavated by fire 

and death investigators, who had no prior knowledge of the original 

conditions. Each of these activities contributed to the further breakdown 

and alteration of burned human remains. This inherent problem was 

minimized with extensive photographic documentation of the original in 

situ context of the victim and the entire field investigative process. 

Results from these documented structural and vehicular fires will be 

presented to illustrate the how each kind of fire environment produces 

different types of burn patterns and should be considered when analyzing 

burned human remains, along with postmortem changes from human 

factors during recovery. 

Fatal Fire Investigation, Burned Human Remains, Taphonomy 

H25 Differentiating Peri- and Postmortem 


Elayne J. Pope, PhD, Heidi S. Davis, BA, BS*, and Ashley E. Shidner, 

BA, University of West Florida, Anthropology Department,11000 

University Parkway, Building 13, Pensacola, FL 32514 

The goal of this presentation is to examine how preexisting skeletal 

trauma alters the normal heat-related changes of the soft and skeletal 

tissues, causes limb deformation, and produces characteristic burn 

patterns in the bone that are discernable from normal heat-related 

fractures. 


demonstrating how there are identifiable characteristics of peri-mortem 

trauma in poscranial remains that alter the normal burn patterns for each 

limb and leave permanent evidence of injury after the fire. 

The classic characteristics of peri-mortem and postmortem fractures 

are relatively easy to determine in skeletonized long bones, however this 

distinction becomes more difficult to assess in burned human remains. 

When bone is exposed to heat, it undergoes systematic biochemical and 

structural changes from pyrolysis that can result in charring, calcination, 

heat-related fractures, and fragmentation, all of which makes it very 

brittle during and after the fire. This presentation examines how 

preexisting skeletal trauma alters the normal heat-related changes of the 

soft and skeletal tissues, causes limb deformation, and produces 

characteristic burn patterns in the bone. 

Blunt force trauma was intentionally produced in long bones of 10 

limbs prior to burning and documented for their post-fire condition as 

they would appear at an actual scene, followed by laboratory analysis. 

The characteristics of preexisting trauma was evaluated for the type of 

wound (closed or open), contextual soft and skeletal anatomy for the 

upper and lower limbs, degree of limb deformation (in situ and after 

recovery), heat-related color changes, and morphology of the fracture 

margins. These were then compared to characteristics of normal 

postmortem heat-related and post-fire handling fractures that are 

commonly produced during and after the fire. 

Peri-mortem Skeletal Trauma Characteristics: It takes a 

considerable amount of external force to produce fractures in living and 

green bone, especially while being protected within soft tissues. Long 

bones of the appendicular skeleton have been shown to fracture 


predictably based on variable of area and amount of force, cortical and 

trabecular thicknesses, injury types, and other biomechanical factors 

(Galloway 1999). This study found that additional factors contribute to 

the heat-related changes of peri-mortem trauma in burned postcranial 

remains. One of the biggest influences was the anatomical arrangement 

of muscle and soft tissues around the bone itself. 

Muscle Protection: Muscle is dense and fibrous, and heat 

exposure causes it to gradually shrink and retract, regardless if the bone 

is intact or not. It was observed that in thicker musculature of the thigh 

that the broken margins pulled over one another in the charred muscle. 

In contrast, limbs that had differential amounts of soft tissue, such as the 

lower leg, the fractured ends of the anterior tibia protruded into the fire 

environment as the thicker musculature of the calf continued to shrink 

and opened the broken areas open like a hinge. Both conditions caused 

marked limb deformation that is observable after the fire. 

Open or Closed Wounds: The soft tissue wound around the 

fractured bone also influences the heat-related changes of limb 

deformation and condition of the fractured margins. Open wounds 

(compromised layers of soft tissue) exposed the fractured margins the 

earliest and longest to the fire, thus producing abnormal burn patterns 

and heat-related changes to the bone. Closed wounds did not always 

expose the fractured ends to the fire, since they remained protected and 

overlapped within charred muscle, but still shows marked limb 

deformation. 

Limb Anatomy: The upper arm and leg both have a singular bone, 

which are more uniformly protected by musculature. In contrast, the 

lower arm and legs have two bones with irregular distributions of 

musculature around each bone, particularly the lower leg. One of the 

variables tested was to examine the differences of breaking one or both 

bones within the same distal limb. Fractures to both bones resulted in 

marked limb distortion, while fractures to a single bone resulted in 

partial limb deformation. Neither condition affected the pugilistic 

position of distal joints below the traumatized sites. 

Fracture Morphology: Fractured margins from peri-mortem 

trauma exhibited one or several identifiable characteristics of (1) 

fractures in or extending into unburned bone; (2) stark color differences 

divided by a fracture; (3) pieces of fractured bone present in charred 

musculature; and/or, (4) deformation/erosion of the fracture margin and 

sometimes color differences (in charred and calcined bone). 

Postmortem Heat-related Characteristics: Heat-related fractures 

in bone result from direct exposure and the depletion of organic 

components during the process of pyrolysis, thus causing the external 

surfaces of cortical bone to shrink and split. At this point, minimal force 

applied to burned bone can result in fracturing and fragmentation during 

and after the fire. These and other postmortem fracture characteristics of 

burned human remains will be presented. 

Peri-mortem Skeletal Trauma, Fractured Long Bones, Burned Bone 

H26 Towards a Standardization of Burnt Bone 


Tomography and 3-Dimensional Imaging to 

Assess Morphological Change 

Patrick Randolph-Quinney, PhD*, Centre for Anatomy & Human 

Identification, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, 

DD1 5EH, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation attendees will learn of the issues 

surrounding analysis of burnt bone from a forensic anthropological basis, 

78

and methods which may be applied using advanced 3D imaging 

techniques in order to standardize and obviate some of these issues. 


presenting a novel standardization method for the quantitative analysis 

of burnt bone, and raise significant issues with the methodology 

expounded by the current and historical literature. 

An understanding of the heat induced alterations to bone is a 

necessary prerequisite for the subsequent identification of burned human 

remains. Fire, or any form of combustion, has the capability to alter, 

damage, or destroy evidence that is vital to the identification process. 

However, since bone undergoes extensive alterations when exposed to 

heat, the accuracy of standard identification methods will therefore be 

detrimentally affected. In spite of this, there is still a great deal not fully 

understood regarding the transformative processes that heat causes to 

bone and the most appropriate method for study. This is in part due to 

the large variation in experimental models used by investigators. 

Different temperature intervals, recorded measurements, and statistical 

analysis have lead to confusion in the literature regarding the typical 

mechanism and expression of heat alteration. Although there is a 

growing corpus now available to facilitate more accurate interpretation 

and analyses of burned bone, these studies are largely based on 

qualitative features and are, at best, misleading. Without quantitative 

measurements, there is no way to account accurately for the heat induced 

alterations that bone experiences, or modify current anthropological 

techniques. Recording quantitative measurements can therefore help to 

standardise burnt bone analysis, improve current analytical methods and, 

in the process, meet the imperative need to develop more accurate 

identification techniques for burned human remains. 

The primary goal of this research was to quantify morphological 

and morphometrical differences between pre-burn and post-burn skeletal 

specimens (before and after burning comparison) using advanced microimaging 

and three-dimensional volumetric techniques. The 

experimental investigation was conducted on a data set of porcine 

skeletal elements burned between 300°C and 1200°C. Differences 

between the use of embalmed and unembalmed specimens were also 

investigated. The material was scanned before and after burning using 

Micro-Computed Tomography and 3D surface laser scanning. The 

resulting pre- and post-burn CT and surface scans were analyzed using 

volumetric reconstruction software in order that a comprehensive 

qualitative and metrical assessment could be carried out between the pre 

and post-burn homologues. Numerical data, which could be statistically 

analysed for the quantification of heat-induced alterations, was obtained 

by generating volumes of interest (VOI). Interpolation and resampling 

was applied to the resulting VOI. This allowed us to investigate and 

quantify the percentage change in standard histomorphological skeletal 

characteristics between the pre- and post-burn states. The cortical 

thickness of each specimen was also measured in order to calculate 

average volume change. Changes in surface shape, morphology, and 

distortions were quantified using Geomagic best-fit contour alignments. 

The study found recognizable quantifiable morphological change 

between the pre- and post-burn homologues, some of which run counter 

to established expectations of thermal alteration from published sources. 

In particular, although an increase in trabecular thickness and subsequent 

decrease in trabecular separation was expected (due to the welldocumented 

loss of carbonates during inversion and fusion) this trend 

was not achieved during this investigation. The results show a decrease 

in trabecular thickness at 600°C and 900°C, and although recorded to 

initiate at 500°C, both features showed a marked change at temperature 

as low as 300°C. These deviations from the normal trend can all be 

explained by the high presence of bone marrow in the rib sections; this 

reflects the process of “normal” anatomical burning whereby tissues 

contain their full complement of inorganic and organic components 

(including marrow and fat), highlighting the need to establish element 

specific models for each anatomical region. 

Burnt Bone, Computed Tomography, Forensic Anthropology 

H27 Mama Mia! Murder and Disposal of 

a Corpse in a Pizza Oven 

William C. Rodriguez III, PhD*, Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850 

The goal of this presentation is to provide the attendee with a case 

example involving the dismemberment and burning of the remains of an 

adult male in a commercial pizza oven. As a result of the remains being 

burnt to a near carbonized state, determination of personal identification 

and cause of death were found to be somewhat problematic. As a result 

of the condition of the remains, forensic anthropologists were consulted 

so as to assist not only in the identification but to make to determinations 

as to the temperatures required to render the remains in their burnt state. 

Forensic anthropological methodology, utilized in this case will be 

presented to the attendee to demonstrate its importance in the 

investigation of fire death and disposal of human remains by fire. 


greatly assisting the attendee with forensic anthropological concepts and 

techniques which can be applied to a variety of cases involving the 

burning of human remains. 

In cases involving homicide, the body of the victim is often burned 

as a means of hiding the crime and eradicating features of personal 

identification. Various methods of disposing of a corpse by burning have 

been reported, including burning of the deceased in a house, car, 

fireplace, or in a fire pit or fire barrel. The degree of body cremation is 

dependent on a number of factors ranging from the type of heat source, 

temperature, time, and position of the body within the heat source. This 

case involves a unique case of body cremation in which the deceased was 

cut up into several portions and placed on aluminum pizza trays in a 600 

degree fahrenheight commercial pizza oven. In August of 1993 in the 

city of Surrey British Columbia, a fire was reported at the “pizza king” a 

local pizzeria. Local fire fighters responded to the scene and quickly 

extinguished the fire which was observed roaring from the large pizza 

oven in the back of the restaurant. Inspection of the oven to determine 

the cause of the fire, revealed the badly burnt skeletal remains of a 

human body. Police were summoned to the ghastly scene only to 

discover additional evidence of a brutal murder. A search at the rear of 

the restaurant led to the recovery of a large plastic trash bag containing 

clothing items of the deceased which were stained with blood. A total of 

four large pizza pans were recovered from the oven, each holding 

multiple burnt skeletal elements. Additional burnt human remains 

located on the floor of the oven were also recovered. 

Examination of the remains at the coroner’s facility revealed that 

the body had been cut into the following segments: head, arms plus 

upper thorax to the bottom of the rib cage, remaining thorax, spine and 

pelvic girdle, the left leg, and right leg. Anthropological analysis of the 

remains found them to represent that of a senior adult male. 

Identification of the deceased was later established via odontological 

comparisons as that of a recent immigrant from India. The antemortem 

height and weight of the deceased was reported to be approximately 65 

inches and 130 pounds respectively. The temperature conditions in the 

pizza oven not only reduced the copse to cremains, but were great 

enough to produce partial melting of the heavy aluminum pizza trays. 

One of the key questions concerning the investigation of the murder was 

the time and temperature required to reduce the human remains to their 

present burnt state. Data utilized to interpret the cremation of the 

remains included information on the construction and operation of the 

gas fueled oven, maximum obtainable temperature, and coloration and 

density changes observed in the cremains. The cremation findings will 

be presented along with other details regarding the murder investigation. 

Cremains, Forensic Anthropology, Homicide 


H28 XRD and FTIR: A Diagnostic Tool to 




Jamie D. Fredericks, MSc*, Cranfield University, SCR 12, DASSR, 

Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 


effects that temperature has on the material and physical properties of 

bone and their subsequent correlation with DNA amplification and 

typing. 


demonstrating that XRD and FTIR can be used to predict whether or not 

a DNA profile can be obtained from heat treated bone, prior to DNA 

extraction. 

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) from skeletal tissue can be 

invaluable, as it is often the only available source of information for 

individual identification. Bone is considered a tri-phase composite, made 

up from collagen (protein), hydroxyapatite (mineral) and water. Unlike 

soft tissue, osteocyte cells, which are the source of DNA in bone, can be 

protected from external environmental factors by the protein-mineral 

matrix. However, when skeletal tissue is exposed to extreme conditions, 

including high temperature or long periods of submersion in water, the 

potential for generating a useful ‘DNA profile’ can be adversely affected. 

Although heating has been shown to cause damage to DNA through 

oxidation and hydrolysis, there has been very little detailed research into 

the amplification of DNA from bone compromised by heat. Studies have 

often lacked appropriate controls or were based on case studies where 

accurate environmental parameters, such as temperature and/or the 

exposure period were unknown. 

To date, DNA-based identification from badly decomposed remains 

has often been reliant on the use of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which 

exists within cells in much higher abundance than nuclear DNA (nDNA). 

However, mtDNA is only inherited through the maternal line. This 

reduces the usefulness of identifications made using mtDNA, as 

matrilineal relatives cannot be distinguished from one another. nDNA 

profiling of such samples would greatly improve the specificity of 


By comparison to soft tissue, the protocols for extracting DNA from 

bone are often time-consuming and laborious, usually requiring a 

demineralization step prior to extraction, which can take a number of 

days. In the case of skeletal tissue that has been compromised by 

environmental insults, even more time can be ‘wasted’ as not all the 

samples extracted will successfully produce a useable DNA profile. In 

individual cases, time may not be a critical issue. However, in cases 

where hundreds or thousands of samples are processed, such as in the 

World Trade Centre attacks (2001) where 13,000 samples were 

processed, a large amount of time and money was wasted on 

unsuccessful profiles. 

The goal of this project is to develop a diagnostic tool that can 

reliably predict the likelihood of successfully obtaining a useable DNA 

profile from a compromised skeletal tissue sample. Mechanical 

properties, such as hardness and elastic modulus and material properties, 

such as collagen content and mineral content, of bone that has been 

compromised through heat treatment, will be correlated with the results 

of nDNA profiling. 

Using Bos taurus as an animal model, sections of femora were heat 

treated, using a muffle furnace, at 50 °C intervals to 600 °C for periods 

of one and two hours. Post treatment, Vicker’s hardness was recorded, 

and the Crystallinity Index (CI) of samples’ mineral content measured 

using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared imaging 

Spectroscopy (FTIR). These properties were then correlated with the 

presence of detectable nDNA as determined by the PCR amplification of 

100, 300 and 500 base pair fragments and STR based DNA profiling. 


The results of this study show that the characteristics of bone 

change when heat-treated. XRD and FTIR findings showed that the 

crystallinity of hydroxyapatite increased with temperature, while 

Vicker’s hardness was seen to increase until 200 °C then suddenly 

decrease before a rapid increase at 300 °C. The ability to amplify DNA 

and hence obtain a DNA profile genotyping was lost above 200 °C. 

Using logistic regression both FTIR and XRD were shown to produce a 

CI value that could be used to successfully predict whether or not a DNA 

profile could be obtained. 

The ultimate goal of this study is to produce a diagnostic tool that 

can be performed quickly and cheaply, in order to determine whether 

subsequent DNA profiling is a viable/cost effective option for 

identification purposes. Such a tool would not only save time and 

money, but would increase the overall success rate of DNA profiling. 

Predicting DNA, HeatTreated Bone, Temperature 

H29 Taphonomic Patterns: Can Brush Fires 



Tricia A. Fernandes, BSc*, Saint Mary’s University, 923 Robie Street, 

Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3C3, CANADA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand that 

brush fires are capable of creating discoloration patterns similar to those 

which occur on human bones from the natural progression of 

decomposition. This will be evaluated using three stages of 

decomposition: fresh, advanced decomposition, and skeletonization. 


introducing ground breaking heat related skeletal trauma research that 

has not previously been evaluated. Although heat related skeletal trauma 

has been studied in house, crematorium, and car environments, it has 

rarely, been studied in outdoor environments and never examined in a 

maritime environment. This research will impact the forensic 

community by helping discern the stage of decomposition for burned 

human remains that were exposed to a brush fire. It will also contribute 

to the breadth of information available on the identification of heat 

related skeletal trauma and the interpretation of morphological color 

characterizations. 

Brush fires in Nova Scotia typically occur from April to June. Rare, 

but still occurring, is that humans fall victim to brush fire injuries. These 

injuries may result in an individual’s demise or mask their unique 

deposition, if deceased in an outdoor environment before exposure to a 

brush fire. This study evaluates: (1) whether or not brush fires create 

unique burn patterns at specific stages of decomposition; and, (2) 

whether the discoloration patterns on bone, from burning, mimic 

naturally decomposing muscle tissue on skeletal remains. Therefore, 

caution must be adopted in the interpretation of taphonomic processes in 

outdoor environments that are frequented by brush fires. 

This project was conducted during the summer months, of June to 

September 2009, to isolate one Maritime season. Eight 50 kg pigs were 

used as the experimental specimen due to their similarity in weight 

ranges, percentages of fat content, and body hair texture to human 

cadavers. The pigs were placed into four paired groups for evaluation: 

(1) control, non-burned pigs; (2) fresh, burned pig; (3) advanced 

decomposition, burned pigs; and (4) skeletonization, burned pigs. Each 

pig was secured and protected under a custom-made cage throughout the 

decomposition process. However, when the pigs were exposed to the 

simulated brush fires, the cages were removed for a brief period of time. 

To quantitatively determine the decomposition stages of the pigs, they 

were scored using Megyesi et al.’s (2005) method that was broken into 

three different anatomical areas. The control pair was allowed to 

proceed from fresh to skeletonization in an undisturbed manner, and 

once the optimum characteristics were observed in the other three groups 

80

(fresh, advanced, and skeletonized) their cages were removed and they 

were exposed to simulated brush fires. The pigs were visited on a daily 

basis, at the same time, to keep decomposition data and photo 

documentation consistent. The local weather station was also consulted 

on a daily basis so that data pertaining to the minimum and maximum 

temperature and relative humidity, total precipitation, and wind speed 

was collected. 

Once all four paired groupings reached the dry stage of 

skeletonization they were dry macerated to remove any remaining flesh 

that remained on the bone surfaces. This was to avoid disturbing or 

removing any discoloration patterns on the surface of the bone that may 

be otherwise damaged due to exposure to water or chemical treatment. 

Once prepared, the cleaned bones were observed for burn pattern 

analysis and characterized using a Munsell Color Chart for 

standardization of colors. Bones exposed to the simulated brush fires 

were compared to the taphonomic discolorations that occurred in the 

naturally decomposing, control, paired grouping. As well, surveyors (a 

forensic anthropologist and a forensic pathologist) then scored the 

discoloration patterns on a selection of various bones, anonymously, as 

either coming from a burned or natural decomposed pig. 

Burn analysis revealed: (1) no significant burn pattern on skeletal 

remains that have been exposed to fire while at various stages of the 

decomposition: but, (2) that brush fires can mimic the natural 

decomposition patterning of heavy muscle markers on bone. 

Brush Fires, Taphonomy, Decomposition 

H30 Differential Decomposition Patterns in 


Ariel M. Gruenthal, BA*, 2534 E, Eureka, CA 95501 

The goal of this presentation is to provide attendees with a method 

for both recognizing differential decomposition patterns indicative of 

fire modification and estimating the postmortem interval in charred 

remains. 


providing awareness concerning the process of decomposition in fire 

modified remains, and allowing for more accurate postmortem interval 

estimation in charred remains. The pattern of decomposition in fire 

modified remains will be discussed in order to provide a greater 

understanding of the taphonomy of burning and subsequent 


In recent years there has been a renewed interest in fire modification 

of human remains, focus has primarily centred on early soft tissue 

changes during a fire and the effect of fire modification on bone. There 

is a paucity of literature on the subsequent decomposition of fire 

modified remains. This study established a scale by which investigators 

may determine the postmortem interval (PMI) from the appearance of 

charred remains, using visual markers of decomposition. The scale is 

based on accumulated-degree days (ADD) for standardization and 

applicability across disparate geographic and environmental regions. 

Additionally, the unique pattern of decomposition in charred remains is 

proposed as a means by which investigators may distinguish areas 

exposed to the most intense levels of burning from those which sustained 

less intense fire damage. 

For the purposes of this study, a total of forty eight pig carcasses 

(Sus scrofa) were designated to either a control group (N=24) or an 

experimental burn group (N=24). Experimental pigs were charred for 

approximately ten minutes using a propane blowtorch (at sustained 

temperatures between 985-1070 ºC) to Crow-Glassman Scale (CGS) 

levels 1 (for the head, neck and limbs) and 2 (for the torso) (Glassman 

and Crow, 1996). These levels have been associated with the term 

charred for the purposes of this study, as opposed to burned, which 

suggests more extensive muscle tissue damage. Decomposition was 

assessed visually every 50 ADD for all carcasses, with weights and pH 

samples taken in subgroups (N=3) every 100 ADD for both charred and 

uncharred carcasses. 

A Charred Body Scale (CBS) for decomposition, paralleling that of 

Megyesi et al. (2005), was created and visual observations utilized to 

score charred carcasses at 50 ADD intervals. Carcasses in the control 

group were scored using the Megyesi et al. (2005) scoring system at the 

same ADD interval. The total body scores (TBS) for the control group 

and the total charred body scores (TCBS) for the experimental group 

were statistically analyzed to determine whether a significant difference 

existed in the rate of decomposition between the two groups. 

Preliminary results indicate that there is a slight but significant 

difference (p

thorax/upper body trauma, human phalanges, an lower limb fractures. 

The results show the importance of the variables (“engineering inputs”); 

force, surface area, and acceleration/deceleration, on the fracture patterns 

(“anatomical outputs”) of the human body. 

Force: The human body is subjected to a variety of forces in 

everyday activities; however, injury occurs when these forces exceed the 

tolerance levels for the tissues of the body. The amount of force 

influences the severity of fracture. In the cranial base, the impact force 

determined extent of fracturing. In forensic anthropology, clues to the 

amount of force may be seen in the extent of the fractures. In the vault, 

fracture patterns with numerous radiating and concentric fractures may 

be indicative of higher force than a single linear fracture. However, 

anthropologists must keep in mind that it is not always a one to one 

comparison. The intrinsic properties of the bone (such as geometry, 

location, quality of bone) come into play and can explain differences in 

fracture patterns caused by equal force. 

Surface Area of Impacting Interface: The variable of surface 

area between the impacting object and the bone is crucial in fracture 

analysis. This variable explains the differences between blunt and sharp 

trauma. An impact to the skull of 12 lbs, but a large surface area may 

cause a typical blunt trauma fracture pattern with a point of impact, 

radiating, and concentric fractures. However, an impact to the skull with 

an identical force of 12 lbs, but a very small surface area (i.e., the edge 

of a knife or axe) will create an incising type wound with straight 

margins. While the force remains the same, a change to the surface area 

of the impact interface alters the pounds per square inch (psi) influencing 

the bone. As frequently and aptly noted, sharp trauma is simply a beating 

with a sharp object (Symes et al 1989, Symes et al 2002). The variable 

that dictates the difference between a sharp trauma wound and a blunt 

trauma wound is simply surface area. It is possible to have sharp trauma 

wounds that also contain characteristics of blunt trauma. In testing, this 

variable played an important role in understanding the mechanics of 

impacts to the thorax. 

Acceleration/Deceleration: The variables of acceleration or 

deceleration are important for understanding how a change in velocity 

over time can influence how bone responds to trauma. Since bone is a 

viscoelastic material, it has different mechanical properties dependant on 

the rate of loading (acceleration/deceleration). Anthropologists are 

accustom to looking for plastic deformation to indicate blunt trauma, and 

an absence of deformation to indicate ballistic trauma. These differences 

are created by the differences in acceleration/deceleration rates between 

the two. Instead of viewing these categories as independent, they can be 

visualized as a continuum; influenced by how the deceleration of the 

impacting object influences the fracture mechanics of the bone. When 

conceptualized in this manner, it is easy to understand how a bullet can 

create plastic deformation and “blunt trauma” when it has slowed down 

(i.e., reached terminal velocity) to an acceleration/deceleration rate 

consistent with blunt trauma. 

In conclusion, there is a need for a “rethinking” in regards to 

trauma, with a shift in focus from a categorical weapons based approach 

to a biomechanically based continuum. 

Fracture Biomechanics, Bone Trauma, Blunt Trauma 


H32 A Forensic Pathology Tool to Predict 





Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS*, 3518 Hagadorn Road, Okemos, MI 

48864-4200; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, 

Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

Brian J. Powell, BS, and Timothy G. Baumer, BS, Orthopaedic 

Biomechanics Laboratories, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; William N. Newberry, MS, Exponent Failure Analysis 

Associates, Inc., Farmington Hills, MI 48331; and Roger C. Haut, PhD, 

A407 East Fee Hall, Orthopaedic Biomechanics, Michigan State 

University, East Lansing, MI 48824 

The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees about further 

research on fracture propagation caused by impulsive loading of the 

parietal bone in a developing porcine (pig, Sus scrofa) model. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by describing 

directions and patterns of fracture propagation in the developing porcine 

model and demonstrate the GIS image-analysis method to quantify 

fracture patterns. 

Pediatric deaths involving head injury with associated cranial 

fractures represent one of the greatest challenges to forensic 

professionals. The ability of the forensic investigator to establish the 

circumstances of death in these cases is severely hampered by the lack of 

skull fracture standards for infants and young children. In many of these 

situations the most likely cause of trauma is interpreted by examining the 

overall patterns of bone fracture and comparing them to descriptions of 

the incident, however these analyses are both qualitative and anecdotal, 

leaving the final interpretation up to a best guess by the experienced 

professional. This research aims to understand the basic principles 

behind infant cranial fractures in the porcine model which may then be 

used to guide later human research. 

Previously findings were reported that identified multiple fracture 

initiation sites on the porcine cranium away from the impact site, and 

also demonstrated that a compliant interface caused relatively more 

fracture damage to the developing porcine cranium than did a rigid 

interface at equal energy levels (Fenton et al. 2009). The phenomenon 

of remote fracture initiation in the infant porcine specimen has also been 

documented using high-speed video. This next phase of research deals 

with fracture propagation at higher input energy levels. The generated 

porcine fracture patterns from both the previous low energy (initiation) 

and new high energy (propagation) impacts have been quantified using a 

GIS image-analysis model. In addition, fracture propagation and the 

relationship between input energy and fracture length has been explored 

through these higher energy impacts. 

In order to examine higher energy fracture propagation, a gravity 

accelerated mass (GAM) drop-tower was employed. Only rigid impacts 

have been conducted to date. To produce more input energy for the 

impacts, the drop height of the mass was doubled. Based on a sample 

size of 34 porcine specimens aged under 28 days, the preliminary data of 

total damage to the cranium (both bony fracture and diastatic fractures) 

followed similar patterns as the previous rigid impacts but with four 

times more measured damage than documented in our earlier studies. 

In an attempt to quantify these porcine fracture patterns, a GIS 

model was employed using an image-analysis approach, as previously 

described by Marean et al. (2001). Using this method, each fracture 

82

configuration was traced onto an individual outline of the porcine 

cranium. The GIS model then superimposes each cranial outline and 

sums the overlying fractures, generating an overall fracture pattern. 

Results indicate that more fracture damage occurred in the younger aged 

specimens, particularly more diastatic fractures. The fracture patterns 

for each corresponding age class were similar to the previous initiation 

impact fracture patterns. Interestingly, the higher energy impacts 

generated more fracture co-occurrence between specimens. This 

suggests that with more input energy, the tendency for repeated fracture 

configurations increases. 

The location of fracture initiation has been in question due to 

conflicting viewpoints in the literature. Recently, Kroman (2007) 

documented fracture initiation beginning at the impact site for adult 

human cadaveric specimens. From gross observation of the current 

infant porcine model, fracture initiation appeared to occur at remote sites 

and radiate back toward the site of impact. Fracture initiation and 

propagation was then recorded using high-speed video on six drop-tower 

impacts to infant porcine crania of differing ages. Each impact was 

recorded at a speed of 8,000 frames per second with a resolution of 

512x128 pixels. Results indicate that fracture initiation occurred at the 

surrounding bone-suture boundary and propagated back towards the 

point of impact. It is, however, currently unclear if this translates to 

infant human crania. 

The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations 

expressed in this presentation are those of the authors and do not 

necessarily reflect the views of the Department of Justice. 

Child Abuse, Fracture Patterns, Bone Biomechanics 

H33 Objective Interpretation of the Striation 



Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, and Sharon M. 

Derrick, PhD, Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old 

Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054; and Heather Backo, MA, Department 

of Anthropology, Tulane University, 1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, 

LA 70118 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce a quantitative method 

developed for the analysis of tool mark impression evidence in cut costal 

cartilage. The method is designed in consideration of the federal 

guidelines for admissibility of forensic evidence. 


a method that transitions a traditionally subjective analytical test to an 

objective test, an approach that can be translated to other areas of visual 

analysis, i.e., ballistic and fiber analysis. 

Published literature on tool mark impression examination 

demonstrates the generally accepted theory that class and individual 

characteristics of a weapon’s cutting edge are recorded in the cut surfaces 

of cartilage and bone and can be identified using microscopic analysis. 

Several studies have correlated variation in striation pattern observed in 

the cut surface to the cutting edge design and wear defects of a tool, 

while others have gone so far as to conclude the striation pattern is 

unique to the tool. Despite the general acceptance, limitations of the 

current methodology are lack of quantitative analysis, failure to measure 

error rate, and minimal independent testing. 

Federal guidelines regarding admissibility of forensic evidence 

have become more rigorous in recent years and as a result tool mark 

impression evidence has been found inadmissible on multiple occasions. 

A recent conviction was overturned by the Supreme Court of Florida 

because of what was determined to be the invalid admission of expert 

testimony regarding tool mark impression analysis. The expert witness 

identified a particular knife as a murder weapon based on a technique of 

microscopic analysis of the markings left by the knife in a piece of cut 

cartilage. The expert for the defense testified that the methodology used 

was not generally accepted as reliable and did not therefore satisfy the 

federal guidelines. The Florida Supreme Court ruled that while the knife 

itself was admissible, the interpretation of the cut marks provided by the 

witness was inadmissible. The Court found that no scientific precedent 

existed to support the opinion that a specific knife can be identified from 

marks made on cartilage (Ramirez I, 542 So.2d at 354-55). 1 

The inadmissibility of cut mark impression evidence is a threat to 

the successful adjudication of countless violent crimes. In 2008, Harris 

County Medical Examiner’s Office Forensic Anthropology Division 

received forty cut mark cases for tool mark impression evidence analysis 

and six suspect weapons for direct comparison. Given the limitations of 

the current methodology and need for admissible analysis, a quantitative 

method to analyze cut mark impression evidence in costal cartilage is 

developed. The goal of the project is to quantitatively discern between 

striation patterns made with knives of different cutting edge design. 

Experimental incised wounds were made in pig (Sus scrofa) costal 

cartilage using a serrated, non-serrated, and micro-serrated kitchen knife. 

Thirty incised wounds were made with each knife. Each cut surface was 

cast with [Mikrosil Casting Material.] Each cast was photographed 

using a digital camera attached to a stereomicroscope. The images were 

imported into [Adobe Photoshop CS Extended software.] Using the 

Ruler function of the Photoshop program, the distances between the 

striations were measured. Presence of striations, regularity of the 

striation pattern and presence of primary and secondary striation patterns 

were documented. Presence and absence of striation and distances 

between striations were statistically evaluated using [SPSS 16.0 Basic 

software.] 

A pilot study was conducted using ten cut marks. Four analysts 

(three practicing forensic anthropologists and one doctorate level 

anthropology intern) independently analyzed the ten cut marks (twenty 

cut surfaces). The results of the pilot study showed 100% agreement 

among the analysts for striation recognition and 85% agreement in 

regularity of the pattern (std. error 0.124). No correlation between the 

presence of serrations in the knife’s cutting edge and regularity of 

striation patterns was found (r = -0.05). In light of the very small sample, 

sampling error cannot be excluded as a possible cause. 

The pilot study shows striation patterns are easily recognized within 

cut costal cartilage surfaces. Evaluation of the correlation between the 

cutting edge design and striation pattern, observer error, and repeatability 

will be possible following the examination of the complete sample of cut 

marks. 

Reference: 

1 Ramirez v. State of Florida 2001 WL 1628609, 27 Fla. L. Weekly S 

18 Supreme Court of Florida, Dec. 20 

Forensic Anthropology, Tool Marks, Impression Evidence Analysis 

H34 The Contextual Nature of “Excessive 

Force”: Alcohol-Induced Osteopenia, 

Fracture Prevalence, and Healing Rates 

Among In-Custody and Homicide Deaths 

From the Harris County Medical 


Heather Backo, MA*, Tulane University Deaprtment of Anthropology, 

1326 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 


the mechanism by which alcohol affects bones, and what those effects 

are. In addition, they will understand the impact of alcohol-induced bone 

disease on fracture incidence rates in a medico-legal setting. 



reviewing the consequence of chronic ethanolism on bone health, and 

non-destructive techniques by which bone quality can be assessed. 

The effect of chronic ethanolism on the skeleton is well documented 

in the medical literature. Although the exact mechanism is unknown, 

excessive amounts of alcohol appear to inhibit the bone building 

capabilities of osteoblasts, leading to a noticeable decrease in bone 

density and a concomitant decrease in the mechanical strength of bone. 

Published rates of alcohol induced bone disease among chronic ethanol 

users vary from 25-100%, depending upon the type and size of the study. 

Comorbidity factors such as liver disease, smoking and malnutrition 

exacerbate this loss in bone capability, but are not uniformly present. 

This decrease in bone density and altered mechanical properties, 

including reduced load capabilities, increases fracture prevalence among 

chronic ethanol users, especially those diagnosed with clinical grade 

osteopenia and osteoporosis. The inhibition of osteoblast activity will 

also affect the healing rates of the fractured bones in the form of delayed 

union and non-unions. Chronic ethanol users with bone fractures may 

require increased time for healing, altering the rate at which the 

characteristic markers such as sub-periosteal bone deposition and callus 

formation will appear. 

Four cases of in-custody or unlawful death examined by the Harris 

County Medical Examiner’s Office in Houston, Texas are presented as 

examples of increased fracture incidence rates due to osteopenia among 

alcoholic individuals. These four cases consist of three men and one 

woman, all 50 years of age or older, with a known history of long-term 

excessive alcohol consumption. Each individual suffered multiple 

fractures, and the cause and manner of death is classified as blunt force 

trauma and homicide for each case. In addition, one of the individuals 

suffered fractures several weeks before death occurred, allowing some 

degree of healing to take place. 

Using radiographs and physical examination, the ribs from these 

four individuals are compared with individuals whose bone quality 

appears in the normal range (control group). The control group includes 

three individuals (2 males and 1 female, all 50 years of age or older) who 

have no known history of alcohol abuse. The weight, cortical bone 

quality, and trabecular bone density was assessed in each rib. Ribs were 

selected due to their availability and propensity to fracture in cases of 

interpersonal violence. 

The difference in weight, cortical quality, and trabecular density 

was remarkable between the chronic ethanol users and the control group. 

The ribs taken from the ethanol group are lighter in weight and have an 

almost translucent quality to them. The trabecular bone located in the rib 

head and neck area is notably decreased in the ethanol group when 

compared to the control group. In the case of the individual with 

antemortem fractures, the degree of bone repair visible on the ribs was 

also less than is expected from the reported interval between injury and 

death. 

The results of the study show that there is a qualitative difference 

between the bone strength of individuals with a history of chronic 

ethanolism, and individuals lacking such a history. The standard police 

procedures for controlling individuals who are resisting arrest or proving 

a danger to themselves and others may therefore, in ethanol abusers, 

cause a greater number of fractures and can lead to the death of the 

individual. This has prompted a reexamination of the concept of 

“excessive force” for individuals with known histories of alcohol abuse. 

In cases such as these, a proper evaluation by a physical anthropologist 

of the bone quality of the decedent will prove invaluable in determining 

whether or not excessive force was used to cause the injuries that may 

have led to the death of the individual, or if the injury was related to 


severely compromised bone quality. Bone quality and history of 

drinking should also be considered if the timing of antemortem fractures 

is of importance in a case involving a known alcoholic. 

Alcoholism, Osteopenia, Fracture Incidence 

H35 Patterns of Trauma on the Skeletal Remains 

of U.S. Soldiers in the Battle of East Chosin, 

North Korea 

James T. Pokines, PhD*, Kelly L. Burke, MSc, and Josephine M. 

Paolello, MS, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will examine a specific 

pattern of peri-mortem/early postmortem trauma detected on the skeletal 

remains of U.S. soldiers lost in the Battle of East Chosin, Democratic 

Peoples’ Republic of [North] Korea (D.P.R.K.). Multiple hypotheses 

regarding the possible sources of the majority of this trauma will be 

presented and examined. 


broadening the understanding of battlefield trauma derived during the 

Korean War, as it documents a pattern of apparent deliberate skeletal 

alteration of remains after death by non-U.S. forces. 

Attendees will examine a specific pattern of peri-mortem/early 

postmortem trauma detected on the skeletal remains of U.S. soldiers lost 

in the Battle of East Chosin, Democratic Peoples’ Republic of [North] 

Korea (D.P.R.K.). Multiple hypotheses regarding the possible sources of 

the majority of this trauma will be presented and examined. This 

research broadens our understanding of battlefield trauma derived during 

the Korean War, as it documents a pattern of apparent deliberate skeletal 

alteration of remains after death by non-U.S. forces. 

The mission of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) is to recover and identify the 

remains of U.S. servicemembers lost in recent conflicts, including the 

Korean War (1950-1953). Over 8,000 U.S. servicemembers are 

currently missing/unrecovered from this conflict. One of the largest 

battles occurred around the Chosin Reservoir. This large reservoir was 

the location of a U.S./Republic of [South] Korea (R.O.K.) advance far 

into North Korea at the end of November 1950. The night of November 

27 saw the beginning of a massive attack by divisions of the Chinese 

People’s Army, which over subsequent days led to over 3,000 U.S. and 

R.O.K. casualties as their forces were pushed back in disarray south of 

the reservoir and subsequently toward the current border with South 

Korea. The rapid withdrawal and loss of unit cohesion caused the 

majority of the dead to be left behind, either buried by U.S./R.O.K. 

forces or left for enemy forces. The severe winter cold and heavy snow 

further reduced opportunities for burial of these remains. 

Multiple recovery missions from 2001 until 2005 have excavated 

battlefield sites in the East Chosin Reservoir area and recovered skeletal 

remains and associated artifacts identified as U.S./R.O.K. in origin from 

primary and secondary burials. Bone preservation in most cases is 

sufficient to allow detailed analysis of skeletal trauma. Peri-mortem 

trauma, largely in the form of gunshot wounds, is common among the 

remains recovered from the chosin area and other locations in North 

Korea. An additional pattern of trauma has been identified: sawing or 

massive blunt force trauma to humeri, usually with the portion of the arm 

distal to the trauma still associated with the remains. The indications of 

sawing trauma include clear kerf formation, straight cuts, and residual 

striations. Blunt force trauma could have been caused by multiple 

implement types, with unknown duress applied to soft tissue to allow 

limb removal. These remains likely were in a frozen state when altered, 

with access to remains at the base of open burial features restricted and 

alteration possible only to those remains near the top. 

84

Of a sample of n = 26 left humeri, 12 (46.2%) exhibited this trauma 

pattern (three sawing/probable sawing, and nine massive blunt force). 

Of a sample of n = 24 right humeri, five (20.8%) exhibited this trauma 

pattern (three sawing/probable sawing and two massive blunt force). In 

addition, definite sawing trauma was detected on one femur and one 

nasal region, and similar blunt force trauma also occurred on three left 

and two right lower arm portions (radius or ulna). This pattern of 

differential peri-mortem arm trauma is mirrored in the larger sample of 

all U.S. remains recovered from North Korean battlefields or received by 

unilateral turnover, where a marked underrepresentation of lower arm 

portions (i.e., distal to the proximal humerus) has been detected 

previously. 

The origin of this trauma is most consistent with the deliberate 

cutting or other dismemberment of these remains by enemy forces, with 

the possible aim of trophy acquisition or other systematic defacement of 

U.S./R.O.K. remains. Rejected hypotheses include coincidental perimortem 

battlefield trauma, the removal of extended frozen limbs to 

expedite burial in small burial features, differential skeletal preservation 

of these elements, and battlefield amputations by U.S./R.O.K. medical 

staff. This trauma could have occurred immediately after the withdrawal 

of U.S./R.O.K. forces or months later, given the frozen state of these 

remains. 

Battlefield Trauma, Korean War, Chosin Reservoir 

H36 Peri-Mortem Skeletal Trauma in U.S. 

Korean War Soldiers: An Epidemiological 

and Historical Study of Prisoner-of-War 

and Battlefield Casualties 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 

Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 


The goal of this presentation is to review patterns of peri-mortem 

trauma documented on the skeletal remains of U.S. soldiers lost during 

the Korean War. Attendees will gain a greater awareness of the 

importance of documented historical context in the interpretation of warrelated 

skeletal trauma. 


increasing the understanding of war-related trauma in a historical context 

and documents patterns of skeletal trauma occurring under disparate 

circumstances of death. 

In a follow-up to our 2008 presentation (Baker and Christensen 

2008), data on peri-mortem trauma was collected from more than 200 

skeletons of U.S. casualties of the Korean War that were analyzed 

between 1996 and 2009. While the CIL does not conduct analyses of 

peri-mortem trauma in order to determine cause or manner of death, we 

have a unique chance to examine peri-mortem traumata in light of 

historically documented circumstances of death. In some cases, we may 

be able to gain insight into battlefield behavior. 

War casualties can generally be divided between battlefield 

fatalities and deaths that occurred elsewhere. For this study, battlefield 

casualties and Prisoners of War (POW) form the primary groups of 

interest. Remains came from three different sources: remains recovered 

from alleged battlefields during Joint Recovery Operations (JROs) 

conducted in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea from 1996 to 

2005, remains returned to the U.S. after the war by the Chinese 

government which were subsequently buried as Unknowns and later 

exhumed by the CIL for identification, and remains turned over to the 

U.S. by North Korean authorities between 1990 and 1994 from known 

POW cemeteries, as well as 2002 and 2004. The Killed-in-Action (KIA) 

sample included more than 130 individuals, while the purported POW 

sample comprised more than 50 individuals. Trauma patterns were 

compared between groups as well as to historical data, which was taken 

from reports of KIAs, those who were Wounded in Action (WIA), and 

those who subsequently Died of Wounds (DOW). 

Early in this study, it was noted that POWs had less peri-mortem 

trauma than KIAs. With a larger sample of POWs now available, that 

anecdotal observation has been confirmed. Peri-mortem trauma rarely 

occurred in POWs and was limited to three instances of cranial trauma 

and a single incidence of peri-mortem trauma to the femur. In one case, 

a POW was shot in the back of the head, and in the case of the femoral 

injury, the individual in question is known to have been killed in a 

strafing incident. This suggests that most of these men may have died of 

causes unrelated to trauma sustained in direct combat and provides 

support for the historical notion that most POWs died of disease, 

malnutrition, or exposure. 

Statistical analysis of trauma frequency revealed some interesting 

patterns. Disparities in trauma to the face, vault, and tibia between the 

two groups were significant at the p < 0.10 level, while trauma to the 

femur was significant at the p < 0.05 level. Humeral injuries in the two 

groups were significant at the p < 0.001 level. While calculation of the 

overall trauma rate assumes that the probability of trauma to all regions 

of the body is equal and is therefore not necessarily an accurate 

representation of reality, it does provide a sense of the magnitude of 

difference in susceptibility to peri-mortem skeletal injury between the 

two groups. The overall trauma rate, calculated as the number of 

elements with trauma versus the total number of elements present for 

examination, was significant at the p < 0.0001 level. 

During the 2008 research, it was discovered that a number of 

individuals experienced peri-mortem trauma to the humerus, including 

sharp trauma. A number of other individuals were missing either an 

entire arm or one or both humeri, despite the presence of distal arm 

elements. In this study, nearly one-third of the KIAs were classified as 

having missing arm elements (either with or without associated perimortem 

trauma in that region of the body). As noted above, the perimortem 

trauma rate in the KIAs was significantly higher than that seen 

in the POWs. In combination, these traits suggest that some remains 

were tampered with postmortem. 

POW, KIA, Fractures 

H37 Preliminary Studies of the Isolation of 

Drugs From Bone and Bone Marrow: 

A Broadened Role for the 

Forensic Anthropologist 

Maranda A. Kles, MA*, C.A. Pound Human ID Labortory, 1376 Mowry 

Road, Room G17, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610; Bruce 

A. Goldberger, PhD, Department of Pathology, University of Florida 

College of Medicine, 4800 Southwest 35th Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608; 

Michele Merves, PhD, University of Florida, Rocky Point Labs, 

Toxicology, 4800 Southwest 35th Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608; and 

Michael W. Warren, PhD, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 1376 

Mowry Road, Room G17, PO Box 113615, Gainesville, FL 32610, and 

John Krigbaum, PhD, University of Florida, College of Liberal Arts and 

Sciences, Department of Anthropology, 1112 Turlington Hall, Gainsville, 

FL 32611 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce attendees to a new 

analytical technique, Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE), and its 

potential to provide evidence of drugs and drug metabolites in bone 

and/or bone marrow. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by detailing a 

new analytical technique which provides a presumptive line-of-evidence 

towards determining the identity of a decedent based on drug or 

medication history by detecting certain classes of lipophilic drugs in 

decomposed or skeletonized remains. 


Toxicologists continue to develop methods for the detection of 

drugs and drug metabolites in various biological matrices other than 

blood and urine, including oral fluid, hair, and more recently, bone. The 

use of bone specimens for toxicological examination provides forensic 

anthropologists with an opportunity to collaborate with toxicologists in 

further developing techniques for detection of drugs and drug 

metabolites. A limited number of studies have been conducted; the 

majority utilize solvent extraction of analytes from bone specimens. 

However, these studies typically examine the whole bone and do not 

isolate the lipid portion of the bone only. This issue may be significant 

since many drugs are lipophilic and are more likely to be distributed to 

the lipid portion of bone and bone marrow. The typical method of 

soaking cut bone in methanol has not been thoroughly evaluated with 

regards to reproducibility or recovery. The current pilot study employs 

Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE) to separate the lipid portion from 

the non-lipid portion of the specimen, which reduces the potential for 

contamination and the volume of solvent required to perform the test. 

ASE is a reproducible, easily calibrated, and robust method, allowing for 

increased accuracy and reliability. ASE also requires only a few minutes, 

rather than twenty four hours, to complete the isolation process. 

This is a preliminary study of the isolation of drugs and drug 

metabolites from the lipid fraction of bone specimens obtained from rats 

administered drugs for various durations. The non-lipid portion of the 

bone remaining after ASE was also tested to determine the completeness 

of the extraction. The extractions performed by ASE were compared to 

extractions performed following a twenty four hour methanol soak. 

Amitriptyline, a tricyclic antidepressant, was detected in the lipid 

fraction of whole bone specimens following single-dose administration; 

however, single-dose methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 

Ecstasy) and repeated-dose cocaine were not detected. The lipophilicity 

of the drugs and/or experimental design may account for the lack of 

detection of these analytes. No drugs were detected in the non-lipid 

portion of the ASE extract, suggesting that ASE performed a thorough 

extraction of the lipids, and therefore, the drugs. 

Both methods resulted in the detection of amitriptyline, and the 

ASE technique yielded evidence that the extraction was complete. 

Additionally, ASE can allow for calibration and potential correlation of 

drug administered and concentrations found. Overall, the results of the 

study are promising, lending support to ASE as an analytical technique 

for the isolation of drugs and drug metabolites in bone. Future work 

must be conducted to elucidate the effectiveness of this method. 

The assessment of drug use through the analysis of bone for drugs 

and drug metabolites is an important tool in the investigation of 

skeletonized and decomposed cases, providing presumptive evidence of 

the decedent’s identity by correlation of the analytical findings with 

purported drug history. The results may also provide evidence 

supporting the cause and manner of death, particularly in cases involving 

drug use and misuse. 

Forensic Anthroplogy, Accelerated Solvent Extraction, Bone 

Toxicology 

H38 The Effects of Varying pH on Bone in 


Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, FBI Laboratory, Trace Evidence Unit - 

Anthropology, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Kevin 

J. Horn, JD*, FBI Laboratory, Evidence Response Team Unit, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and Sarah W. Myers, BA, 

Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322 


an experiment investigating the effects of varying pH solutions on bone 

segments submerged for a one-year period. Attendees will also learn 

some of the capabilities of the FBI’s Underwater Search and Evidence 

Response Team. 



providing empirical data on postmortem aquatic changes which may be 

extremely useful in forensic contexts for both improving time since 

death estimates, and also for providing better information to underwater 

recovery experts thereby potentially increasing the quantity and quality 

of remains recovery. 

In the summer of 2007, the FBI Laboratory’s Forensic 

Anthropology Program received an inquiry from a member of the FBI’s 

Underwater Search and Evidence Response Team (USERT) regarding 

the possible condition of missing human remains. The USERT assists in 

water-based searches for evidence, and divers are specially trained to 

locate and recover items of evidence that are believed to be underwater. 

The USERT also utilizes the most advanced underwater technology to 

assist in its searches, including side-scan sonar, sector scan sonar, and 

remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). While the USERT has been 

involved in several high-profile dive operations, the majority of USERT 

operations involve searches for handguns, knives, bodies, vehicles and 

similar items. The USERT also is capable of conducting hull and pier 

searches in support of counter-terrorism and counter-intelligence 

operations. FBI USERT also may be contacted for assistance in state and 

local police matters when there is a need for underwater evidence 

recovery. 

The question posed by the USERT diver in this case was: How well 

preserved would you expect a body to be after twenty years in a slightly 

acidic lake? Divers were curious whether, because of the acidity of the 

water, there would be enough of a skeleton remaining to warrant an 

underwater search. A review of the literature revealed that little is known 

about the decomposition of remains in aquatic environments of varying 

pH, and even less is known about the specific effects of these 

environments on bone. Documentation of postmortem changes in 

aquatic environments has been scant and consists primarily of general 

overviews, a few empirical studies, and case reports. Other reports 

emphasize the formation and preservation of adipocere, algae formation, 

invertebrate colonization, or fluvial transport, but little research has been 

done specifically on bone preservation in various aquatic environments. 

This discovery prompted the following pilot study. 

Bovine remains were obtained from a meat processing facility, and 

cut into approximately 3-5cm thick cylindrical discs using a table saw. 

Solutions were prepared to represent aquatic environments of pH1, pH4, 

pH7, pH10 and pH14 using nitric acid and sodium hydroxide. The 

specimens were placed into glass beakers and the solutions were added 

until the bones were completely submerged. The specimens were 

periodically removed from their solutions and photographed. After one 

year, the specimens were removed from the solutions, rinsed, 

photographed, and examined visually and microscopically. 

The pH7 and pH10 solutions had little effect on the bone, but all 

other solutions affected the bone to some degree. Extreme pH levels 

significantly affected the integrity and physical appearance of the bone, 

completely dissolving it in six days in the case of pH1, and degrading it 

considerably over one year in the case of pH14. Good to excellent 

preservation was observed in the solutions of pH4, pH7 and pH10, with 

the pH10 solution showing somewhat better preservation than the pH4 

solution. Given that the range for pH of water in the U.S. is around 

pH4.3-pH10, one would therefore expect the pH of the water to have 

little effect on bone preservation (at least over a period of one year or 

less). More information on the effects of pH levels on fully-fleshed 

remains would be needed to improve estimates of time since death, but 

the results observed here may be useful in making statements regarding 

time since skeletonization. 

Empirical data on postmortem aquatic changes may be extremely 

useful in forensic contexts for both improving time since death estimates, 

and also for providing better information to underwater recovery experts 

thereby potentially increasing the quantity and quality of remains 

recovery. While this study was rather small-scale and included pH 

extremes unlikely to be encountered in forensic contexts, it serves as one 

of the first controlled studies of its kind. It is hoped that results will 

86

prompt larger empirical studies to be conducted including the use of, for 

example, larger biological specimens, less extreme pH levels, and 

varying temperature and salinity. 

Water pH, Bone Preservation, USERT 

H39 Taphonomic Processes Involved With the 



Sarah M. Huntington, MSc*, PO Box 961, Kingston, WA 98346; and Tal 

Simmons, PhD, School of Forensic & Investigative Sciences, University 

of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, 



affect of factors (e.g., age, height, sex, position when recovered, amount 

of clothing at recovery, animal activities involving the remains, 

Postmortem Submergence Interval, and Accumulated Degree Days) on 

the decomposition of remains within the Puget Sound, Washington State, 

USA. Attendees will also have an understanding of Total Aquatic 

Decomposition Scores and Accumulated Degree Days and their utility in 

death investigation. 

This research provides equations for the calculation of the 

Postmortem Submergence Interval and Accumulated Degree Days from 

the Total Aquatic Decomposition Scores of remains recovered from the 

Puget Sound. This information is important for death investigators/law 

enforcement personnel as an aid to the identification of individuals 

missing in the interval predicted by the equation. The presentation will 

impact the forensic anthropology community by adding to knowledge of 

taphonomic processes within aquatic environments (specifically the 

Puget Sound) and contributing to any further studies on aquatic or 

marine decomposition. 

This research provides equations for the calculation of the 

Postmortem Submergence Interval and Accumulated Degree Days from 

the Total Aquatic Decomposition Scores of remains recovered from the 

Puget Sound. This information is important for death investigators/law 

enforcement personnel as an aid to the identification of individuals 

missing in the interval predicted by the equation. The findings presented 

also impact the forensic anthropology community by adding to 

knowledge of taphonomic processes within aquatic environments 

(specifically the Puget Sound) and contributing to any further studies on 

aquatic or marine decomposition. 

Factors affecting the decomposition of human remains have been a 

topic of interest to Forensic Anthropology since its inception. However, 

only recently have the taphonomic processes involved with aquatic 

decomposition become foci in forensic research. Several studies have 

been done on fluvial systems but research on marine systems is relatively 

scant as recovery of remains from the open ocean can be problematic due 

to factors such as depth, weather, currents, etc. The Puget Sound is a 

large (~135x76 km), mostly enclosed body of saltwater that facilitates 

the recovery of a considerable number of remains. The aim of this 

project was to collect and analyze data on the taphonomic processes 

involved with decomposition within the Puget Sound. 

Data from four of the eleven county coroner/medical examiners 

offices surrounding the Puget Sound, including Kitsap (N=5), Mason 

(N=3), San Juan (N=8), and Pierce (N=6) counties, were analyzed 

statistically for taphonomic processes which could affect the 

decomposition of human remains within the Puget Sound. Forty-four 

cases were originally examined; however, after the removal of cases 

from the sample due to extensive adipocere formation (N=3) and 

Accumulated Degree Days scores of less than ten (N=19), twenty two 

cases remained. Adipocere cases were removed as adipocere formation 

tends to retard decomposition. All cases were given Total Aquatic 

Decomposition Scores (TADS) and Accumulated Degree Days for the 

time of their submergence, from entry to recovery. The TADS are the 

sum of three Aquatic Decomposition Scores given based on the 

decompositional stage of an area of the body, these include Facial 

Aquatic Decomposition Score, Body Aquatic Decomposition Score, and 

Limb Aquatic Decomposition Score. The Accumulated Degree Days is 

the sum of the temperature (˚C) of the water each day (or as near the day 

as possible given obtainable data) that the remains were submerged. 

Both Accumulated Degree Days (p= 1.177x10 -10 ) and Postmortem 

Submergence Interval (p=2.026x10 -7 ) were found to have an affect on 

Total Aquatic Decomposition Score using linear regression models. 

Equations for determining Postmortem Submergence Interval and 

Accumulated Degree Days from the Total Aquatic Decomposition 

Scores of human remains recovered in the Puget Sound were created. 

The equation for establishing Postmortem Submergence Interval is: 

log 10 PMSI=((TADS+1.751)/5.649) +/- 3.047 and the equation for 

establishing Accumulated Degree Days is log 10 ADD= 

((TADS+5.6607)/ 7.4294) +/- 2.107. The results of this study were 

compared to similar studies done on fluvial systems in the United 

Kingdom (Heaton, et al., in press). No significant difference (p>0.01) 

was found between the decomposition rates within rivers in the United 

Kingdom and those seen within the Puget Sound when the data were 

subjected to an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test with 

Accumulated Degree Days as a control. 

Marine Decomposition, Postmortem Interval, Puget Sound 

H40 Microbial Marine Decomposition: Marine 



Gemma C. Dickson, BSc*, and Russell T.M. Poulter, PhD, University of 

Otago, Department of Biochemistry, PO Box 56, Dunedin, Otago 9054, 

NEW ZEALAND; Jules A. Kieser, PhD, University of Otago, Sir John 

Walsh Research Institute, Faculty of Dentistry, PO Box 647, Dunedin, 

Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND; Elizabeth W. Maas, PhD, National 

Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Ltd. (NIWA), Private Bag 

14901, Wellington, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND; and P. Keith Probert, 

PhD, University of Otago, Department of Marine Science, PO Box 56, 

Dunedin, Otago 9054, NEW ZEALAND 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a greater 

understanding of the involvement of marine bacteria important to the 

process of decomposition of bodies and/or body parts in marine 

environments, specifically a temperate New Zealand coastal 

environment. This presentation will provide marine bacterial succession 

data from pig (Sus Scrofa L.) heads submerged in this coastal region 

during autumn, winter, and summer and will demonstrate how such data 

may be used by forensic investigators to aid in submersion interval 

estimation. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by increasing 

forensic knowledge on the role of extrinsic microbes in the postmortem 

decomposition process, while introducing the concept of marine 

bacterial colonization and succession on bodies recovered from marine 

coastal contexts as a novel, and potentially valuable, tool with which to 

estimate the length of time of submergence and the postmortem 

submersion interval (PMSI) of a corpse or individual body part. 

Much is now understood regarding the involvement of 

microorganisms in taphonomic processes on remains in terrestrial 

settings, however very little is known about the role of bacteria and 

pattern of degradation of animal remains in aquatic environments. 

Because heterotrophic bacteria are ubiquitous in aquatic ecosystems and 

are ecologically important for the recycling of specific nutrients in the 

oceans, it is hypothesised that extrinsic bacterial action will mediate the 

progressive decomposition of remains immersed in the sea and that the 

actions of successive bacterial species may act as indicators as to the 


period of submersion. This is important for forensic professionals in 

coastal locations as bodies recovered from the sea form a significant 

portion of cases for PMSI determination. 

This study used adult domestic pig (S. scrofa L.) carcasses as 

models for human remains. Pig heads were placed in cages surrounded 

by mesh so as to exclude larger scavengers and gain the longest 

submersion period possible for bacterial colonisation. Cages were 

submerged in the Otago Harbour in water 3-5 m deep in March (autumn), 

July and August (winter) 2007 and January (summer) 2009. Bacterial 

samples were taken by swabbing the carcasses at two to four day 

intervals until skeletonisation. Total bacterial community DNA was 

extracted from the swabs and colonising marine bacteria identified by 

sequencing their 16S rDNA genes. On sampling days, observations of 

gross decomposition changes and the presence of any small marine 

scavengers in or on the cage were also noted. During the course of the 

experiments, environmental data such as seawater temperature were 

monitored daily. 

Marine bacteria rapidly colonised the submerged remains and did so 

in a successional manner. Marked differences were observed in the 

structure of microbial communities identified on the pig remains during 

the different seasons, thus showing a seasonal succession pattern, for 

which a significant difference in water temperature is likely to have been 

a contributing factor. Several bacterial species were present for much of 

the duration of the experiments while others only colonised after specific 

submersion intervals. 

Determining the length of time a body has been immersed in an 

aquatic environment is a crucial factor that must be determined in any 

death investigation. The dynamic shifts in marine microbial community 

composition over a submersion period, as seen in this study in the form 

of relatively early or late colonisers, may be useful as submersion 

indicators. The data generated now forms the basis for development of 

a novel indicator of PMSI in the sea and, with further study, may prove 

useful for PMSI estimation of bodies and/or body parts recovered from 

coastal marine waters in the Otago region and beyond in cases where a 

specific PMSI is in doubt. 

Marine Decomposition, Postmortem Submersion Interval, Bacteria 

H41 A Study of the Differences Between Fresh 


Establishing Time Since Death or Time 

Since Submergence 

Mallory S. Littman, BS*, and Peter J. Colleran, BS, Boston University 

School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; and Tara L. 

Moore, PhD, Boston University School of Medicine, 700 Albany Street, 

Boston, MA 02118; and Billie L. Seet, MA, Office of the Chief Medical 



for more research to in order to understand decomposition in aqueous 

environments. 


providing a better way to establish time since death or time since 

submergence in underwater death investigations. 

Forensic investigators frequently become involved with cases in 

which decomposing human remains are recovered from aqueous 

environments. One important task for these investigators is to establish 

time since death or time since submergence. This estimation is useful to 

law enforcement so they can narrow their search of possible victims in 

order to confirm the decedent’s identity. Time since death has been 

shown through previous research to be a tricky timeline to establish. 

Many environmental factors must be taken into consideration when 

establishing time since death and cases in which decedents have been 

submerged in water only serve to make this estimation more 


complicated. In addition to the usual suspects of ambient temperature, 

humidity, local insect activity and overall environment, the other factors 

that an aqueous environment introduce must be taken into account. 

These include, but are not limited to water temperature, water salinity, 

and micro and macro-organisms that already live in the environment that 

the decedent has been submerged in. To date, there have only been a 

small number of research projects conducted that detail the process of 

decomposition in aqueous environments. As a result of this, time since 

death determination in aqueous environments remains a tricky timeline 

to establish. 

This project is an experimental study conducted to: (1) document 

the differences in the overall process of decomposition between bodies 

that have been submerged in freshwater and saltwater environments; 

and, (2) test whether time since death or submergence can be accurately 

estimated using previous research conducted by Seet. 1 Fetal pigs were 

used as a replacement for human remains because of the similarities in 

muscle and tissue structure. Ambient air temperature, water temperature, 

the pig’s internal temperature, and pH were documented daily. Gross 

postmortem changes that occur throughout the process of decomposition 

as well as insect activity were also noted and documented with 

photographs. Bloating, purges, skin slippage, discoloration, maggot 

activity, fly, and beetle activity was documented in a present/absent 

context. The pigs were placed in buckets and kept in adequately vented 

cages. The cages were meant to keep out larger vertebrate scavengers 

while still allowing access to the invertebrate scavengers that play an 

active role in the process of decomposition. The freshwater was 

collected on site from a stagnant cranberry bog and the saltwater was 

collected from an urban beach in the city of Boston, MA. This research 

was conducted twice in two distinct seasons of spring and summer in 

New England. 

Preliminary results from this research indicate that the environment 

of saltwater versus freshwater does effect the process of decomposition. 

Decomposition was documented as occurring faster in the freshwater 

than in the saltwater. Results have indicated that the saltwater hindered 

the decomposition process by deterring insect activity. These results also 

indicate the importance of the role of forensic entomologists in time 

since death research. Other data collected from this project will be 

correlated with Seet 1 to test the results of the estimation of time since 

submergence based on gross morphological changes. Results from that 

research indicate that time since submergence can be established by 

using variables such as the presence or absence of purge and marbling. 

Reference: 

1 Seet, BL. Estimating the Postmortem Interval in Freshwater 

Environments. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. 2005. 

Forensic Anthropology, Aqueous Environments, Decomposition 

H42 Decomposition Patterns in Indoor 



Melissa A. Pope, BA*, University of South Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, FL 33612; and Erin H. 



The objectives of this study are to explore the patterns and timing 

of the effects of decomposition and to identify factors that may or may 

not play a prominent role in the decay of bodies within enclosed 

environments, by comparing these data to the stages created by Bass 

(1997) and Rodriguez and Bass (1983). 


data related to decay within an environment that has been largely 

unexplored. The patterns identified accentuate the need for generating 

88

comparative samples and engaging in collaborative research to create 

refined standards for estimating the postmortem interval within sheltered 

environments. This investigation retrospectively reviewed 69 cases to 

identify the presence and sequence of taphonomic effects of individuals 

who died within enclosed environments. The frequency of indoor 

decomposition and the patterns identified, such as the minimal role of 

necrophagy and sunlight on enclosed remains, underlines the need to 

generate comparative samples and generate context-specific standards 

for estimating the postmortem interval. 

Where do people die alone when they remain undiscovered for 

extended periods of time? The forensic literature implies that most cases 

involving decomposed remains occur in outdoor contexts, yet a review 

of 2003-2008 Nebraskan autopsy records demonstrates that most people 

dying alone are within their homes. Of 87 forensic cases reviewed, 69 

died within enclosed environments. For enclosed locations, men (n=49) 

and women (n=20) were represented (ranging in age from 2 months to 

90 years). Unsurprisingly, police are most often the ones to discover the 

remains (20.3%). Estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI) is critical 

to reconstructing the events surrounding a person’s demise and this is an 

area in which forensic anthropologists are increasingly playing a leading 

role. 

Rates of decay are context-specific and little attention has been paid 

to decomposition patterns within enclosed environments. This research 

aims to achieve a better understanding of decay rates by exploring 

contributing factors and the applicability of Bass’ stages to indoor 

decomposition cases. 

There is a plethora of experimental research devoted to quantifying 

the rate of human decay for PMI estimation. Specifically, Bass (1997) 

and Rodriguez and Bass (1983) have created decomposition stages that 

are widely used within medicolegal investigations, but are based on 

decomposition in the outdoor environments. The value of retrospective 

studies in combination to experimental research is that the large number 

of variables that affect decompositional rates may be explored. 

Rodriguez and Bass’s work encapsulates the process of 

decomposition into four phases: fresh (first day), bloated (first week), 

decay (first month) and dry (first year), each of which is associated with 

specific taphonomic effects. In this study, investigators rated the stage 

of decay that best fits the description of the remains, resulting in 50.7% 

(n=35) fresh, 36.2% (n=25) bloated, and 13.0% (n=9) advanced. The dry 

phase was not represented in this sample. Preliminary results show that 

with the passage of time, the likelihood of remaining undiscovered 

within an enclosed environment decreases. 

For fresh cases, the mean PMI was 1.4 days (range=1.0-7.5 days) 

and fell within the “first day” period 88.2% of the time. For bloated, the 

mean PMI was 5.0 days (range=1-17 days) and occurred within the first 

day to first week interval 73.9% of the time. For “advanced”, the mean 

PMI was 16.6 days (range=2-66 days) and correctly transpired within the 

first week to first month range 55.6% of the time. This demonstrates the 

problematic increase in variability of decay rates with extended PMIs. 

Investigators also documented the individual effects located on the 

remains and examined the frequency of necrophagy and climate on the 

rate of decay. Within the bloated stage, bloating of the abdomen was 

documented at a frequency of 91.7%; however, bloating was still present 

within 62.5% of the “advanced” cases, when putrefactive gases have 

supposedly been released. Skin slippage, a feature that is not expected 

to occur until the bloated phase, was also documented in 20% of the 

fresh cases. Partial mummification was identified in 17.4% of the 

bloated cases. Skeletonization was only found within one advanced 

case. 

Bass’ stages heavily emphasize the actions of insects in soft tissue 

removal, and there is debate within the field as to whether insects 

directly contribute to indoor decay. Only seven cases of fly colonization 

were documented in this sample: 11.1% within the bloated stage and 

71.4% within the advanced stage. No cases of beetle colonization were 

identified in the indoor records, which is consistent with the literature for 

enclosed spaces. The only documented case of carnivorous activity was 

found within the first week and “bloated” range. lt from the lack of 

necrophagous activity within enclosed settings. 

As an approximation of climate, seasons of deposition were 

analyzed with an odds ratio, showing that a decedent is 1.5 times more 

likely to undergo decomposition before discovery in the spring and 

summer than in the fall and winter. This indicates that while the bodies 

were in artificial environments, temperature does factor into their rate of 

decay. The frequency of indoor decomposition and the minimal role of 

necrophagy on enclosed remains underline the need to generate 

comparative retrospective samples and context-specific standards for 

PMI estimation in indoor environments. 

Postmortem Interval, Forensic Taphonomy/Decomposition, Indoor 

Environments 

H43 Differential Decomposition of Non- 

Traumatized, Blunt Force, and Sharp 

Force-Traumatized Buried Pig Carcasses 

Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Lindsay Sliwa, BS, and Cliff Boyd, PhD*, 

Radford University, Anthropological Sciences Program, School of 

Environmental and Physical Sciences, Radford, VA 24142 


understanding of the effect of peri-mortem trauma on decay of buried 

remains. The study will specifically address the research question: Does 

the presence of peri-mortem blunt force or sharp force trauma accelerate 

postmortem decay of buried remains? 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by comparing 

the differential effects of laboratory-induced blunt force and sharp force 

trauma on postmortem decay rates of stillborn pigs. These data will aid 

investigators’ understanding of differential decay of traumatized versus 

non-traumatized remains and may aid in the determination of 

postmortem interval for such remains. 

Forensic anthropologists have suggested that human remains 

manifesting peri-mortem trauma decay at a faster rate than nontraumatized 

remains (Mann et al. 1990). 1 Irregular or premature 

decomposition may occur due to injury which exposes underlying tissue 

to decomposition agents and insects (Rodriguez 1997). 2 In this pilot 

study, stages of decomposition are examined for non-traumatized buried 

newborn pig carcasses compared to carcasses subjected to blunt and 

sharp force trauma. We hypothesize that pigs with peri-mortem trauma, 

particularly that which involves exposure of underlying tissue (sharp 

force trauma), will decay more rapidly than non-traumatized or only 

minimally traumatized (blunt force) remains. 

Nine stillborn pigs (Sus scrofa) were obtained for this experiment. 

Each pig was numbered and its initial weight, maximum length, and 

width recorded. Pigs 1, 4, and 7 were not subjected to trauma. Pigs 2, 

5, and 8 were subjected to blunt force trauma, administered by placing a 

pig on a metal force plate and impacting the right head and shoulder with 

a concrete cylinder projectile, dropped through a 50 cm long PVC pipe. 

The left side of the head and shoulder were impacted by the same 

projectile dropped through a 108 cm long PVC pipe. A similar procedure 

was used on Pigs 3, 6, and 9 to simulate sharp force trauma but the 

projectile used was a sharpened iron wood-splitting wedge. Vertical 

vector force was recorded by the force plate and, along with impact time, 

was analyzed by [Logger Pro 3.2 software] to calculate the impulse, or 

change in momentum of the projectile after striking the carcass. As 

expected, impulse measurements were higher for projectiles dropped 

from the 108 cm pipe, since gravitational potential energy is directly 

proportional to height. Impulse was measured in Newtons/second. 

Pigs were then buried at a decay facility in the Spring season in 

uniform depths of 40 cm in two rows of pits placed at 2 meter intervals. 

An iButton in each pig’s mouth recorded temperature at four-hour 

intervals. Soil color and texture were described and soil samples 


collected for determination of pH and soil chemistry (using X-ray 

fluorescence). Non-traumatized pigs and pigs with blunt and sharp force 

trauma were alternately buried in individual pits by their number. 

The research plan involved exhuming Pigs 1 – 3 after one month, 

recording their stages of decay and reburying them. After three months, 

Pigs 1 – 6 were disinterred and described, then reinterred. After three 

additional months, all nine pigs were disinterred and their pit 

characteristics and decay rates described and compared. This staged 

exhumation and reburial was enacted to assess and control for the effects 

of burial disturbance on decomposition as a potential bias in this 

investigation. 

At one month exhumation, Pigs 1 – 3 had lost over 35% of their 

body weight. Stage of decomposition was assigned following Galloway 

(1997). 3 Pig 1 (non-traumatized) manifested the least decomposition 

(early Phase II) compared to Pigs 2 and 3. Pig 3 (sharp force trauma) 

showed a slightly higher rate of decomposition compared to Pig 2 (midlate 

Phase II). 

At the three month exhumation of Pigs 1 – 6, all six pigs manifested 

skeletonization with only a few portions of hair and tissue associated 

with bone. Acidic soil, higher summer temperatures, increased insect 

activity, and higher overall rainfall with retention of moisture in clay 

soils likely accelerated decay in all pigs. 

Results of this pilot experiment demonstrated differences in decay 

rates between non-traumatized and traumatized buried remains. 

Although sample sizes were small, pigs subjected to sharp force trauma 

manifested greater decay compared to other (blunt force-traumatized and 

non-traumatized) pigs. Factors which may be responsible for this 

differential decay are discussed and include internal (e.g., accelerated 

microbial activity) as well as external (increased accessibility to the 

physical and biological environment) influences. In future, experiments 

with larger sample sizes and more frequent monitoring through 

disinterment may enhance detection of variability in decay rates of 

traumatized and non-traumatized remains. 

References: 

1 Mann, RW, Bass WM, Meadows L. Time since death and 

decomposition of the human body: variables and observations in 

case and experimental field studies. J Forensic Sci 1990;35: 

103-111. 

2 Rodriguez WC. Decomposition of buried and submerged bodies. 

In Haglund WA and Sorg MH, editors. Forensic taphonomy: the 

postmortem fate of human remains. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 

1997;459-468. 

3 Galloway A. The process of decomposition: a model from the 

Arizona-Sonoran desert. In Haglund WA and Sorg MH, editors. 

Forensic taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. Boca 

Raton: CRC Press, 1997;139-150. 

Postmortem Decay, Peri-mortem Trauma, Postmortem Interval 

H44 Application of Geopedology to Forensic 

Anthropology: Can Vivianite Be a Marker 

of Burial in Soil? – Three Case Reports 

Stephania Ern, BSc, and Luca Trombino, Dipartimento di Scienze della 

Terra, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, ITALY; Daniele Gibelli, 

MD*, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze 

Biomediche, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; and Cristina Cattaneo, 

PhD, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, Sezione di 

Medicina Legale, Dipartimento di Morfologia Umana e Scienze 


The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the potential use of 

geopedologic analyses in determining the prior burial of human remains 

in cases of remains coming from an unknown context and which may 


have been previously buried and then exhumed. 


showing how the presence of vivianite inside the bone structure of buried 

bodies may be considered a marker of a previous burial, even if soil 

residues are no longer recognizable on the remains. 

Three cases were studied: the first case concerns the finding of a 

skeletonized corpse of an old woman wrapped in a blanket, who was 

buried by her daughter in the house garden seven years before; the 

second case concerns a corpse buried in a 80 cm deep grave in a wooded 

area 20 years before, following the indications provided by organized 

crime; the third case is that of a skeletonized human cranium found 

within a building site. 

Sections of samples of bone from the three cases underwent 

petrographic microscopy and composition microanalyses by scanning 

electron microscopy (SEM-EDS), in order to verify the presence of 

vivianite crystallization in bones. Vivianite is an iron hydrated 

phosphate (Fe 3 (PO 4 )2·8(H 2 O)) and a reducing agent, rich in organic 

material, usually observed in anoxic environments. In these conditions 

the ferrous ions (Fe 2+ ) in the soil combine with phosphorous from the 

surrounding environment, as seen in archaeological contexts (for 

example, in ancient latrines). In cases of buried corpses, the soil is a 

source of ferrous ions and bone provides phosphorous; the 

decomposition processes create the necessary reducing conditions. 

Therefore, the presence of vivianite within the bone structure may 

indicate that the corpse was previously under soil even if the 

skeletonized remains are found in a different environmental context. 

In all three cases analysis by petrographic microscopy showed bluegreen-violet 

shades in different bone districts, which indicate the 

presence of vivianite. Microanalyses by SEM-EDS confirmed that the 

chemical composition of this material is concordant with vivianite, 

although further analyses need to be performed. 

In addition, in the third case the SEM-EDS highlighted an inclusion 

of geopedologic material inside the diploe. This detail stresses the 

potential of microtrace analysis in verifying whether the skeleton has 

been in soil. In addition, geopedologic microtraces may allow one to 

compare the mineralogical residues with soil samples from the possible 

area of burial. 

This study showed the presence of vivianite inside the bone 

structure of buried bodies, which may be considered a marker of a 

previous burial, even if soil residues are no longer recognizable on the 

remains. 

Further analyses are needed, however, in order to improve the 

knowledge of this field of geopedology. 

Forensic Anthropology, Geopedology, Burial 

H45 Biometric Assessment of the Accuracy of a 



Terrie L. Simmons, MA*, Counterterrorism and Forensic Science 

Research Unit, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, 

VA 22135; Peter H. Tu, PhD, and Jeffrey D. Erno, MS, GE Global 

Research, One Research Circle, Niskayuna, NY 12309; and Philip N. 

Williams, BS, and Keith L. Monson, PhD, Counterterrorism and 

Forensic Science Research Unit, FBI Laboratory, 2501 Investigation 


The goal of this presentation is to assess whether three-dimensional 

computerized facial approximations generated by ReFace are 

biometrically similar to three-dimensional models of their corresponding 

known faces. This study is the first of its kind to evaluate such a large 

number of facial approximations (n = 288). 


providing the first large-scale evaluation of the accuracy of three- 

90

dimensional computerized facial approximations using objective 

biometric techniques. The establishment of biometric similarities 

between computerized facial approximations and known faces has 

implications for the application of computerized methods to solving 

unidentified decedent cases. 

ReFace is a computerized facial approximation program which 

generates faces for unidentified decedents using a large reference 

database currently populated by head CT scans of American males and 

females of African-, Asian-, and European-descent. An unknown skull is 

imported into the system as a 3D model, either as a CT scan or surface 

scan, and registered to the reference skulls within the user-specified 

sex/ancestry demographic in order to calculate a statistically likely face. 

Any known biological information, such as age, height, or weight can 

also be used to influence the final approximation. To date, evaluations 

of the accuracy of ReFace approximations have been carried out by 

human recognition studies using face pool selections and resemblance 

ratings and by computer recognition studies. 

In this study, the [ReFace] reference database, consisting of threedimensional 

bone and skin models, was used as the test sample in a 

leave-one-out validation in which one head at a time was excluded from 

the system and treated as an unknown. For each individual, average 

approximations were generated with only sex and ancestry specified and 

with no modifications for age, height, or weight. Because the reference 

faces within each demographic are topologically equivalent, landmarks 

of interest could be placed on one canonical face from which x-, y-, and 

z-coordinates could be generated for the corresponding landmarks on 

each known face and each approximation within a particular 

demographic. For this study, 34 anthropometric and constructed 

landmarks were chosen to evaluate the accuracy of the three-dimensional 

configurations of the most influential and centrally located facial 

features: the eyes, nose, and mouth. Landmarks along the perimeter of 

the face were avoided because they vary considerably with weight, and 

landmarks along the brow ridges were also avoided because they are 

essentially determined by the shape of the underlying supraorbital ridges. 

Three-dimensional coordinates were used to calculate all interlandmark 

distances (n = 561) for each known and approximated face. Euclidean 

distances were calculated for each pairwise combination of faces, and for 

each approximation, the rank of its corresponding known face according 

to the Euclidean distance was evaluated. 

When each demographic was evaluated separately, the rank 1 

recognition rate, or the percentage of known faces with the smallest 

Euclidean distance to its approximation, ranged from 6.25% for Africandescent 

males (n = 48) and females to 23.40% (n = 48) for Asian-descent 

males (n = 47). The average rank of the known face ranged from 8.33 

for European-descent females (n = 49) to 14.19 for African-descent 

females (n = 48). Average ranks of the known faces for all demographics 

were significantly higher than that expected by chance. In order to 

further assess the strength of association, each approximation was 

compared to all known faces (n = 288). The average rank of the known 

face when considering all individuals was 20.94 and the median rank 

was 7, meaning that for 50% of the approximations, the known face 

ranked somewhere in the top 7. The rank 1 recognition rate for the 

overall evaluation was 16.67%. 

The results of this study indicate that facial approximations 

generated by ReFace are biometrically similar to their corresponding 

known faces even when compared against a large face pool. Higher 

ranks than those obtained in this study may be obtained by including 

more landmarks, especially around the eyes. This study also suggests 

that the soft tissue structure of the face is highly influenced by the 

morphology of the underlying craniofacial skeleton and can be estimated 

fairly accurately by a statistically-oriented computerized facial 

approximation program, such as ReFace. 

Facial Approximation, Facial Recognition, Human Identification 

H46 Results From a Survey on Computerized 


Terrie L. Simmons, MA*, FBI Laboratory Division, Counterterrorism 

and Forensic Science Research Unit, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Quantico, VA 22135; Lisa G. Bailey, BA, FBI Laboratory, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, SPU/Room 1115, Quantico, VA 22135; and 

Melissa A. Torpey, MS, Philip N. Williams, BS, and Keith L. Monson, 

PhD, Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research Unit, FBI 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135 

The goal of this presentation is to provide the forensic identification 

community with feedback about opinions toward computerized facial 

approximation (CFA) programs and to promote an interdisciplinary 

discussion on the potential of CFA as a tool for solving unidentified 

decedent cases. 


presenting the varied opinions of identification specialists toward 

computerized facial approximation and the unidentified backlog. 

Recent advances in computer animation and three-dimensional 

imaging have stimulated developments in computerized facial 

approximation. Some programs are already being used for casework, 

while many others are still under development. Several advantages 

offered by CFA are: (1) shorter generation times as compared to 

traditional methods; (2) the possibility for non-artists to generate 

approximations, allowing agencies to do so with their own personnel on 

their own schedule; (3) the reduced handling of fragile remains, and with 

some programs the elimination of the need to de-flesh remains; and, (4) 

the digital archiving of unidentified cases for future analyses. The 

primary disadvantage is the need to digitize an unidentified skull using 

equipment that most forensic identification agencies do not possess. 

Despite this disadvantage, many agencies are seeking tools such as CFA 

in order to utilize as many resources as possible to re-evaluate and 

publicize cold cases. Given these recent efforts and the inevitable 

increase in the use of CFA programs, this survey was designed to 

investigate previously unaddressed issues regarding the facial 

approximation needs of the identification community. 

Email invitations were sent in the summer of 2008 to 764 forensic 

identification specialists in the U.S. asking them to participate in a webbased 

survey on CFA. The survey consisted of 29 multiple-choice 

questions concerning the use of facial approximation, interest in CFA, 

program features, and the unidentified backlog. An open comment box 

was provided at the end of the survey for additional comments about 

survey content. Eighty-six anonymous responses from medical 

examiners/coroners, forensic anthropologists, forensic artists, law 

enforcement officers, and other identification specialists were collected 

and evaluated. 

According to this survey, sixty six percent of respondents are 

interested in using a CFA program at their agency, while only 50% are 

currently producing approximations in the traditional methods. Only 

39.5% of respondents would be able to obtain a three-dimensional scan 

of an unidentified skull in order to use a CFA program. Fifty-one percent 

think CFA programs will play a significant role in reducing the backlog 

of unidentified decedent cases in the United States. Seventy-two percent 

answered that if a thoroughly tested CFA package were made available 

to their agency for no charge, their agency would use this system as its 

primary method of generating facial approximations for unidentified 

decedent cases. When asked to choose from among three types of CFA 

programs which one they thought would produce the most accurate 

images, fifty-five percent selected a program which calculates a facial 

approximation based on a large reference database of faces, thirty-five 

percent selected a virtual clay program based on traditional facial tissue 

depth markers and tables, and ten percent selected a program which 

allows you to paste three-dimensional eyes, noses, and mouths onto a 

skull (n = 83). When asked to select the primary reasons for the high 

number of unidentified decedent cases in the United States, seventy- 


eight percent selected no way to cross-reference unidentified cases with 

missing persons, seventy-one percent selected no centralized system to 

publicize approximations/images, and sixty-nine percent selected no 

centralized resources/guidelines for processing and analysis of 

unidentified cases (n = 72). 

The results of this survey indicate that a large proportion of the 

forensic identification community is interested in using CFA programs. 

While opinions about types of programs and features varied 

considerably, most individuals preferred a mathematically-oriented 

program that can address the ancestral diversity of unidentified 

decedents in the United States, including Hispanics. Regarding the 

unidentified backlog, survey respondents consistently emphasized the 

need for inter-agency cooperation The results of this survey will 

hopefully provide valuable information to individuals involved in the 

development of CFA programs and help promote a cross-disciplinary 

dialogue about facial approximation and how it can be used to help 

address the backlog of unidentified decendents in the United States. 

Facial Approximation, Human Identification, Survey 

H47 Integrative Measurement Protocol 

Incorporating Morphometric and 

Behavioral Research Tools From Forensic 

Anthropology, Human Biology, 

and Primatology 

Phoebe R. Stubblefield, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University 

of North Dakota, 236 Centennial Drive Stop 8374, Grand Forks, ND 

58202; Susan C. Anton, PhD*, New York University, Department of 

Anthropology, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; James J. 

Snodgrass, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, 

1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405-1218; Christian 

Crowder, PhD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 520 1st Avenue, New York, 

NY 10016; Anthony Di Fiore, PhD, Department of Anthropology, New 

York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; Dana L. Duren, 

PhD, Departments of Community Health, Neuroscience, Wright State 

Boonshoft School of Medicine, 3640 Colonel Glenn Highway, Dayton, 

OH 45435; Eduardo Fernandez-Duque, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 3260 South Street, 

Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398; William R. Leonard, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, Northwestern University, 1810 Hinman Avenue, 

Evanston, IL 60208-1330; Steve Leigh, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 109 

Davenport Hall, 607 South Matthews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801; Felicia 

Madimenos, MS, Department of Anthropology, University of Oregon, 

1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405-1218; Scott McGraw, 

PhD, Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 174 West 

18th Avenue Columbus, OH 43210; Emily R. Middleton, MS, and Chris 

A. Schmitt, MS, Department of Anthropology, New York University, 25 

Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003; Richard J. Sherwood, PhD, Wright 

State Boonshoft School of Medicine, 3640 Colonel Glenn Highway, 

Dayton, OH 45435; Trudy R. Turner, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, PO Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201; 

Claudia R. Valeggia, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Pennsylvania, 3260 South Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6398; and 

Francis J. White, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Oregon, 1218 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97405-1218 


with a new integrative measurement protocol designed to promote an 

understanding of the relationship between soft and hard tissue anatomy 

and scale, will have access to video and written measurement definitions, 

and will be familiar with how these protocols can enhance forensic 

anthropological work. 


This presentation will impact the forensic and biological 

anthropology communities by introducing a new integrative protocol 

that will enhance research designs for questions addressing human 

morphology and identification. 

In recognition of the interdisciplinary nature of the forensic 

sciences, and particularly of the subfield forensic anthropology, the 

Bones and Behavior Working Group presents a set of protocols for 

linking behavioral, biological, and skeletal databases. The goal of this 

protocol is to promote greater synthesis across biological anthropology 

and to facilitate estimates of living parameters from skeletal remains of 

forensic interest. The practice of forensic anthropology involves 

research into human skeletal, but also behavioral, variation across and 

within populations, requiring an understanding of human and nonhuman 

primate evolution. Similarly, other human biologists, primatologists, 

and evolutionary morphologists seek to understand the evolution of 

human adaptation. Yet despite the interdependence within an individual 

organism of physiology, behavior, and skeletal biology, each subfield of 

biological anthropology works in relative isolation. Although each 

subfield might address similar “umbrella questions” regarding 

adaptation and growth, which would be enhanced by, for example, the 

ability to estimate body weight or size from skeletal remains, these 

scientists generally do so without integration of protocols across 

subareas. 

A small group of scientists with expertise in each of the target 

subareas, particularly drawing from the fields of primatology, human 

biology, skeletal biology, and forensic anthropology, met to generate a 

set of interdisciplinary protocols. This set of protocols promotes the 

integration of data collection from living and skeletal specimens in order 

to enhance knowledge of biological variation and ultimately our ability 

to estimate aspects of living anatomy from an individual’s skeletal 

remains. Questions involving proximal life history variables or stressors 

will be more accessible, which is of particular interest to forensic 

anthropologists investigating human identification. The group culled a 

set of core measures from across the subdisciplines, measures that 

address issues of universal concern and that could be made maximally 

comparable. The resulting protocol is designed to provide a small core 

of standard measures that can be easily added to lengthier and more 

specific protocols generated to address targeted research questions. The 

protocol includes “nonskeletal” measures such as body weight and 

overall size (e.g., stature, sitting height) and “proxies for key skeletal 

measures” (e.g., body segment measurements, cranial circumferences), 

with definitions that can be approximated on both living and skeletal 

samples. 

To facilitate dissemination of the protocol and to obtain feedback 

for its refinement, this presentation demonstrates the protocol and 

examples of how it has been used in cross-disciplinary research and how 

it will benefit work in forensic anthropology. The presentation includes 

instructional videos of collection methods and tools, a sample database 

for entering protocol measurements, sample resources for acquiring 

research tools, and sample results of pilot research projects. Measures 

and proxies are demonstrated with written instructions, photographs, 

videos, and diagrams; users are assumed to have familiarity with skeletal 

landmarks and skeletal measurement technique. Pilot research projects 

include evaluation of how well skeletal proxies correlate with measures 

taken on living subjects, and consider the relationship between frame 

size (as measured from knee dimensions) and body weight. The group’s 

website, which can be viewed at www.bonesandbehavior.org, provides 

protocols and videos for free download, along with ancillary data 

protocols targeting more specific questions (e.g., dental anatomy, blood 

spot collection), archives of methods papers, and references to sources 

that provide equipment and additional background information. 

Morphometry, Protocol, Interdisciplinary 

92

H48 Evaluation of Bilateral Differences in 

Histomorphometry From the Anterior 

Cortex of the Femur of Korean Adults 

Seung Mook Jo, MD, PhD, Gachon University of Medicine and 

Science, Department of Anatomy, 1198, Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, 

Incheon, 405760, KOREA; and Yi-Suk Kim, MD, PhD*, Ewha 

Womans University, Departement of Anatomy, School of Medicine, 

911-1, Mok6-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158710, KOREA 


importance of bilateral differences in femur histomorphometry when 

it comes to applying to the practical forensic fields. The usefulness 

of age-predicting equations previously documented for Korean adults 

will be discussed. 


by verifying the usefulness of the microscopic age estimation method 

based on a sample of Korean adults and will provide the rationale for 

taking femoral specimens without distinction of sides. This study 

will be of greatest interest to forensic anthropologists in many 

countries, as well as Korea. 

The femur has an advantage in that it is often found in forensic 

context and can be used to provide basic skeletal materials for 

histomorphometric analysis. From this aspect, the microscopic age 

estimation equations from the right femur in Korean adults were reported 

in 2009. 1 However, a particular bone, such as right femur, to use for the 

histomorphometric analysis is not always found in the practical forensic 

fields. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the bilateral differences 

in histomorphometry from the anterior cortex of the femur of Korean 

adults. The right and left bone specimens of anterior femoral midshaft 

were removed from 21 Korean cadavers (14 males and seven females) in 

wedge form that one of the saw cuts was kept perpendicular to the long 

axis of the shaft. The age range for the sample is 46 to 94 years with a 

mean and standard deviation of 67.5 and 13.2 years, respectively. After 

cutting off the thick sections of 1-mm from each wedged femoral 

fragments using a diamond wheel, the thin sections (less than 100 um 

thick) were prepared for histological analysis by manual grinding 

method. Five subperiosteal areas of each thin section were analyzed 

microscopically by indicating points (the most anterior point and points 

10° and 20° to the left and right) on the glass cover slip of the bone slide. 

The number of intact osteon (Pi), number of fragmentary osteon (Pf), 

osteon population density (OPD), and average size of intact osteon (OA) 

were measured using an [Olympus BX-51] light microscope with simple 

polarizing attachment and image analysis solutions at a magnification of 

´100. The Paired samples T-test was performed to verify the differences 

between right and left histomorphometry and regression analysis was 

performed to test the accuracy of age-predicting equations previously 

documented by Han et al. 1 for Korean adults. As the results, Pi, Pf, and 

OPD, except for OA, showed no significant differences in paired 

samples T-test between right and left sides (P = 0.245, 0.901, 0.214, and 

0.002, respectively). Even though further testing on the femur 

histomorphometry is required and planned to evaluate more samples, the 

results of this study suggest minimal effect on bilateral differences of 

femur histomorphometry measured in Korean adults, thereby providing 

the reliability of taking femoral specimens without distinction of sides 

for histological age estimation techniques at the practical forensic fields. 

The results of the accuracy of age-predicting equations previously 

documented by Han et al. 1 for Korean adults using forensic specimens 

requested at National Institute of Scientific Investigation, Korea will be 

presented. 

Reference: 

1 Han SH, Kim SH, Ahn YW, Huh GY, Kwak DS, Park DK, Lee UY, 

Kim YS. Microscopic age estimation from the anterior cortex of the 

femur in Korean adults. J Forensic Sci 2009; 54(3): 519-522. 

Age, Histomorphometry, Femur 

H49 Forensic Anthropological Consideration of 


From Excavated Human Remains in Case 

of Burial Place at Daehak-Ro, Korea 

U-Young Lee, MD*, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The 

Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Soonchunhyang 

University, College of Medicine, Department of Anatomy, 366-1 

Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul 330946 KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, 

PhD, Ewha Womans University, Department of Anatomy, School of 

Medicine, 911-1, Mok6-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158710, KOREA; 

Sang-Seob Lee, DDS, National Institute of Scientific Investigation, 

Shinwol-7-dong, Yancheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, KOREA; Yong-Woo Ahn, 

DDS, PhD, Institute of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan 

National University, 1-10, Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, KOREA; 

Nak-Eun Jung, PhD, National Institute of Scientific Investigation, 

Shinwol-7-dong, Yancheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, KOREA; and Seung-Ho 

Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, 

Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 


procedures and forensic anthropologic considerations used to estimate 

the number of buried individuals in a commingled burial site. 


showing how anthropologic findings and methods helpful for estimation 

of the number of buried individuals can be enhanced by using with 

molecular (DNA) analysis. 

The minimum number of individuals (MNI) and the grand 

minimum total (GMT) have been the traditional parameters of 

quantifying individuals. However, these methods have limitations in 

quantifying the commingled osteological assemblages for two reasons: 

(1) Both traditional methods just estimate the number of individuals 

represented by the assemblage recovered; and, (2) the accuracy of 

estimation is determined by the number of skeletal elements to be 

completely recovered. The Lincoln Index (LI) and the most likely 

number of individuals (MLNI) were recently introduced as the methods 

of estimating the number of individuals throughout the excavated human 

remains. These recent methods can estimate the number of individuals 

by considering the bones unobserved, because the equation of estimation 

accounts for the number of skeletal elements on each side and the 

number of bones in each pair. Therefore, the LI and the MLNI have 

benefits to estimate the number of individuals in any types of 

commingled field. 

On November 27, 2008, 170 scattered human remains were 

recovered in a cave after the removal of buildings located at Daehak-Ro 

in Seoul. The femur was most commonly found and the number of left 

and right femora was 13 and 17, retrospectively. Nine pairs of femurora 

were matched through forensic anthropological analyses and the 

molecular works targeting DNA. The MNI was calculated as 17 (the 

maximum number in both sides) and the GMT was calculated as 21 

(accounts for the number of paired bones). Finally, the MNI and the 

GMT were calculated as 18 and 22, respectively, after adding some 

skeletal remains that might be from one infant. 

The scattered remains at the site indicated a secondary interment by 

the presence of commingled skeletons and absence of bones. For this 

reason, the LI or the MLNI was regarded as suitable methods to quantify 

the individuals in the current study. The LI was 25 and the MLNI was 

24. The DNA analysis detected 26 types of mtDNA from the skeletal 

sample that was available for the molecular experiment. In two cases, 


several bones with same mtDNA types were identified to be from the 

different individuals. As a result, 28 individuals were finally confirmed 

to be present at the site. 

The LI or the MLNI are conclusively the more valuable methods for 

quantification of commingled field than the MNI or the GMT, as 

indicated by verification using molecular analysis. However, significant 

error in determining the number of individuals present may result when 

only DNA analysis is used. 

Number of Individuals, Commingled Field, Daehak-Ro 

H50 Stature Estimation: Are There Any 

Advantages to Using Principal 

Component Analysis? 

Kalan S. Lynn, BSc*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Applied Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will develop a basic 

comprehension of principal component analysis (PCA) and methods 

used in stature estimation. Some disadvantages that exist in current 

stature estimation methods and how the current method remedies this 

situation will be discussed. Attendees will also learn whether PCA is 

advantageous to increase the precision of stature estimates. They will 

also learn whether using a greater number of osteometric measurements 

in a summation method used in Fordisc will result in more precise stature 

estimates. 

This presentatrion will impact the forensic science community by 

presenting a new method with which stature estimation equations may be 

created. It will discuss methods with which the most precise stature 

estimates may be obtained and how this would improve a biological 

profile and narrow down the list of missing persons in identification 

efforts. 

Stature estimation is an important component of the biological 

profile in forensic cases. Many methods for estimating stature have been 

published with various levels of accuracy and precision. Although many 

stature estimation methods are reasonably accurate, more precise 

methods would improve identification efforts by narrowing the list of 

missing persons who may be the deceased. When trying to use multiple 

correlated long bone measurements to construct stature estimate 

regression equations, at least one measurement is often found to be not 

statistically significant due to the effect of multicollinearity. Fordisc 3 

(Jantz and Ousley, 2005), as in previous methods, circumvents this 

problem by summing the measurements of several bones, and then 

regresses these against forensic stature (FSTAT). Fordisc provided the 

first method to add combinations of three measurements to estimate 

stature, which enabled narrower prediction intervals. Another solution to 

the problem of multicollinearity would be to analyze the principal 

components of several bone measurements. 

The present study investigated the use of principal component 

analysis (PCA) to estimate stature using a sample of 130 White males 

from the Forensic Data Bank. Ten data subsets were created and each 

included FSTAT as well as two to five of the following osteometric 

measurements: maximum length of the femur, condylo-malleolar length 

of the tibia, maximum length of the humerus, maximum length of the 

radius, and basion-bregma height. R (R Development Core Team, 2008) 

was used for all statistical analyses. Principal components were 

extracted from each data subset and regressed against FSTAT. In each 

situation, either the first principal component only, or the first and last 

principal components were found to be statistically significant (p < 

0.05). The raw measurements were also summed (creating a cumulative 

variable) and regressed against FSTAT. The precision of the estimates 

were determined by first using the 95% prediction interval at the mean. 


Because prediction intervals are narrowest at the mean, the prediction 

interval two standard deviations above the mean was also evaluated. The 

precision of the stature estimates obtained using PCA were compared 

with those obtained by using the summed measurements. Results were 

interpreted as practically significant if the decreases in the prediction 

intervals were great enough to affect the stature estimates, which are 

most often rounded to the nearest inch. Another factor taken into 

consideration was the great variability that exists in reported statures 

(Willey and Falsetti, 1991). Thus, the prediction intervals needed to 

decrease by at least one-half inch to be considered practically significant. 

In comparing summed measurements and PCA for stature 

estimation, PCA provided some small statistically significant prediction 

interval improvements that were not practically significant. This study 

also investigated whether there was greater stature estimate precision 

when using more osteometric measurements to create the cumulative 

variables. When considering mean values, using four measurements 

resulted in a prediction interval that was only 0.21 cm (0.1”) smaller than 

using three measurements (the Fordisc maximum) and this difference is 

not practically significant. When using values that were two standard 

deviations above the mean, an increase in precision of only 0.40 cm 

(0.2”) was seen using summed variables created from three and four 

measurements. These decreases in prediction intervals are not 

practically significant. 

While no practical differences in FSTATs were found when using 

PCA and summed variables, additional studies using cadaver lengths and 

measured statures are necessary to further investigate the relationship 

between physical stature and osteological measurements. Areas of 

further research may include investigating different populations (e.g., 

White females and Black males and females), both separately and 

combined, in which the methods above may be more useful. 

Stature Estimation, Biological Profile, Principal Component 

Analysis 

H51 An Investigation Into the Rate of 



Tal Simmons, PhD*, School of Forensic & Investigative Sciences, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, 

UNITED KINGDOM; and Elizabeth A. Walker, BSc, 3 Ruskin Road, 

Birtley, Co Durham, DH3 1AD, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the key 

factors involved in the rate of decomposition of the head and whether the 

rate of decomposition in the head alone varies significantly to the rate of 

decomposition in the head when attached to the rest of the body. 


data from a controlled experiment in an area where very little research is 

available. This presentation will further add to the important research 

being carried out in the area of forensic taphonomy by aiding the 

understanding of how carcasses decompose and thus enabling a better 

appreciation of the processes involved in human decomposition. 

It has been implied within taphonomic research that the head 

decomposes at a quicker rate than the rest of the body; however, the 

causes of this increase in rate are unknown and require investigation. 

This research explores whether the head decomposes more rapidly than 

the rest of the body and, if so, why this is the case. Previous work has 

suggested the advanced rate of decomposition of the head may be due to 

the preferential attraction of Diptera to the natural orifices of the head as 

a result of volatile gases emanating from these orifices (Cross and 

Simmons, in press). 

Volatile gases produced during putrefaction result in the release of 

liquids and gases which are in turn exuded through the body’s natural 

orifices. It has been established through previous research that the nose 

94

and mouth are the two main sites from which such odours emanate 

(Bass, 1997). Previous research also showed that that the attraction of 

carrion flies to these volatile gases results in preferential oviposition in 

the orifices of the head, especially the mouth. The preference of Diptera 

for head orifices was examined to determine whether this is due to 

protection from scavengers and the opportunity of a warm, moist shelter 

provided by such orifices or the presence of volatile gases. 

A control group of 24 whole domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) and an 

experimental group of 24 pig heads was used to carry out this research. 

Both groups were left to decompose in the same environment at the 

TRACES facility in North West England. Data were collected 

approximately every 50 accumulated degree days (ADD) until data 

collection ceased at approximately 750 ADD. The scoring system 

proposed by Megyesi, et al. (2005) was adopted to visually assess the 

decomposition rate of the heads; a score according to the rate of 

decomposition was assigned to the heads of both the control and 

experimental groups. Three pigs from each group were discarded every 

100 ADD to allow for additional data collection (e.g. weight and soil pH) 

whilst leaving the remainder of the carcasses undisturbed. 

It was observed that heads with an attached body decomposed at a 

quicker rate than heads alone (p ≤ 0.6140). This supports the paradigm 

that the expulsion of volatile gases released during the decomposition of 

the body is a key factor in influencing the rate at which the head 

decomposes. It was further noted that preferential oviposition occurred 

in the mouth of the heads with attached bodies, whereas the preferential 

oviposition on the heads alone occurred at the foramen magnum. A 

delay in oviposition of 26.85ADD was observed in the decapitated heads 

in comparison to the heads with an attached body. Moreover the 

decomposition rate of decapitated heads lagged behind heads with an 

attached body by a minimum ADD of 21.02 to reach a decomposition 

score of 2 and a maximum ADD of 103.06 to reach a decomposition 

score of 10 on the Megyesi, et al. (2005) scale. A score of 11 was the 

highest score attributed to the heads alone, whereas the heads with an 

attached body reached a score of 12. 

Such findings further support the importance of the presence of 

volatile gases in influencing attraction of insects and hence 

decomposition rate. 

In conclusion, this study provides evidence to support the primary 

role that volatile gases play in the rate of decomposition of the head. 

Furthermore, information gained from this research can be used to 

improve PMI estimation in cases of decapitation and thus aid in death 


Decomposition, Heads, Taphonomy 

H52 An Assessment of a Simple Model and 


Ana Del Alamo, BA*, 4521 Northeast 22 Road, Fort Lauderdale, FL 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce participants to an 

alternative method for osteometric sorting of paired elements. 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn that 

alternatives to the paired elements model and method introduced by 

Byrd (2008) will yield a higher percentage of correct classification. The 

aforementioned method is examined for the distribution of the parameter 

“D” as well as the percent correct classification in an independent 

sample. 

The assessment of whether two or more skeletal elements could 

correspond to the same individual is a relevant problem in a variety of 

forensic scenarios. Determining the number of victims contained in a 

feature, sorting commingled remains in mass graves or mass disasters, or 

simply assessing whether different sets of dismembered remains belong 

to the same victim, all require the matching of articulating or paired 

skeletal elements. Such assessments have traditionally relied on visual 

examination, based on the experience and expertise of the forensic or 

physical anthropologist. However, in the last decades, the availability of 

new comparative samples, and the quantitative requirements imposed by 

the Daubert standards, have resulted in the proposal of novel quantitative 

methods to approach this problem. Among them, Byrd (2008) 

contributes the most comprehensive approach both to discuss and 

systematize the conceptual problems attached to the different scenarios 

usually confronted in forensic settings, and to propose novel quantitative 

methods specific to each scenario. 

This study examines the simplest of these scenarios: “the 

comparison of left and right bones using models that key on shape” 

(Byrd, 2008, p. 200.) To confront this problem, Byrd (2008, pp. 201- 

204) proposes a model based on a parameter “D” (Byrd’s D, herein), 

calculated from the pooled linear differences in a set of variables of the 

two skeletal elements under study. Among other postulates, the model 

assumes a Student t distribution for this parameter, and recommends a 

diagnosis based on the 90% confidence interval for this distribution. 

The present study tests the distribution of Byrd’s D, as well as its 

percentage of correct classification using the same variables and 

parameters described by this author (Byrd, 2008), and based on a sample 

of 81 male individuals from the Todd Collection. A sample of 236 male 

individuals from the Forensic Data Bank (1) are also employed to assess 

the performance of Byrd’s D when standard measurements (sensu 

Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994) are employed. An alternative method 

based on Euclidean distances from Principal Component Analysis is 

proposed; and the effect of the number of variables and victims on both 

estimates is tested. 

Results suggest that, as assumed in the original model, the 

distribution of Byrd’s D neither departs from normality nor shows a 

mean significantly different from zero. The equivalence of the 90% 

confidence interval proposed by Byrd (2008) with a 0.05 alpha-level in 

a one-tailed conventional hypothesis test is also shown. However, the 

distributional parameters obtained by Byrd (2008) do not represent the 

best fit, which would render a negative mean and a larger standard 

deviation. As a consequence, the method results in a percentage of 

misclassification much higher than predicted by the model. It is 

therefore suggested that the larger standard deviation values should be 

used when applying Byrd’s method. 

Finally, the accuracy of the assessment is shown to depend heavily 

on the number of victims considered, so that simply selecting the skeletal 

element showing the smaller Euclidean distance in the phenotypic space 

renders percentages of correct classification above 90%, and superior to 

those attained by Byrd’s method, when two to four individuals are 

considered, and the true pair is present in the sample. 

Osteometric Sorting, Commingled Remains, Paired Elements 

H53 Improving Histomorphometric Age 



Sample Data 

Merissa Olmer, BA*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Maryland, 1111 Woods Hall, College Park, MD 20742; Sophia 

Mavroudas, BA*, Department of Anthropology, New York University, 25 

Waverly Place, New York, NY; Franklin E. Damann, MA, National 

Museum of Heath and Medicine, AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, DC 

20012-0685; and Christian Crowder, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 



benefit of the OPD variable in histological age estimation. 


demonstrating that Osteon Population Density (OPD) can simplify 

previously reported age estimation techniques by reducing observer error 

and eliminating the need to subjectively determine an age interval when 


multiple regression models produce overlapping prediction intervals 

from a single specimen. 

In 1965 Kerley developed age regression formulas from 126 

undecalcified cross-sections taken from the midshaft of the femur, tibia, 

and fibula. 1 These samples were of known age, sex, and clinical history. 

Kerley’s statistical models were based on four predicting variables 

including intact osteons, osteon fragments, non-Haversian canals, and 

percentage of circumferential lamellar bone. The variables were 

observed using four circular fields within the outer third of the cortex 

adjacent to the periosteal surface of the bone at 100x magnification. The 

individual variables (osteons, fragments, and non-Haversian canals) 

were counted within each field, including those partly obscured by 

periphery of the field, and then totaled across all four fields to create a 

composite value. The percentage of circumferential lamellar bone was 

averaged for all four fields. These raw counts were then used to develop 

four different regression models for estimating age from a single cross 

section of bone. Kerley and Ubelaker 2 revised the original Kerley paper 

warning investigators that the variance in field diameters of different 

microscopes would contribute to “apparent errors” and “unreasonable 

[age] estimates.” Kerley and Ubelaker 2 realized that using a smaller field 

size than Kerley’s original field size would underestimate age since the 

sum of recorded structures would be less than that recorded when the 

regression models were created. During this revision, it became 

apparent that the original microscopes were not available for inspection. 

A survey of available microscopes suggested that the field diameter used 

by Kerley 1 was most likely 1.62 mm at 100x magnification, rather than 

the previously reported 1.25 mm diameter. A 1.62 mm field diameter 

results in an area 2.06 mm2. 

Recognizing the contributions of earlier bone histology studies in 

age estimation, Stout and Paine 3 developed a histomorphometric variable 

that summed the intact and fragmentary structures over the observable 

cortical area. This single variable was used as a predicting variable for 

determining age-at-death, rather than developing multiple prediction 

models from each of the observed structures. Stout and Paine 3 suggested 

that combining the number of intact and fragmentary osteons reduced the 

potential for inter-observer error associated with individual differences 

in osteon interpretation. Later, Crowder evaluated the effectiveness of 

OPD and determined that it significantly reduces inter-observer error as 

had been suggested in the literature. 4 

Kerley’s original data from 126 specimens were used to calculate 

OPD by adding the raw composite values for intact and fragmentary 

osteons and dividing by the sum of the four 2.06 mm2 field areas (8.24 

mm2) as determined by Kerley and Ubelaker. 2 A statistical regression 

analysis was performed by plotting age-at-death against OPD using 

SPSS 15. Four separate regression models were created, one for each 

skeletal element tested and one that combined the data of all three 

skeletal elements. All models correlate well with age, with the femur 

analysis providing the strongest positive linear relationship between 

OPD and age-at-death (R2=0.912), followed by the combined analysis 

for femur, tibia, and fibula (R2=0.894), tibia (R2=0.889) and fibula 

(R2=0.888). The results of this study indicate that the OPD variable 

correlates better with age than the raw counts, and the new models 

alleviate the need to generate a subjective age interval due to overlapping 

prediction intervals of the constituent variables. Suggestions for future 

research in histomorphometric age determination are also discussed. 

References: 

1 Kerley ER. The microscopic determination of age in human bone. 

Am J Phys Anthropol 1965; 23: 149-63. 

2 Kerley ER, Ubelaker DH. Revisions in the microscopic method of 

estimating age at death in human cortical bone. Am J Phys 

Anthropol 1978; 49: 545. 

3 Stout SD, Paine RR. Brief communication: histological age 

estimation using rib and clavicle. Am J Phys Anthropol 1992; 

87:111-5. 


4 Crowder C. Evaluating the use of quantitative bone histology to 

estimate adult age at death. Doctoral Dissertation, University of 

Toronto, Ontario 2005. 

Histomorphology, Osteon Population Density, Age Estimation 

H54 Histological Age Estimation: Towards 



Meghan-Tomasita J. Cosgriff-Hernandez, MS*, The Ohio State 

University, Department of Anthropology, 4034 Smith Laboratory, 174 

West 18th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210; and Sam D. Stout, PhD, Ohio 

State University, Department of Anthropology, 4034 Smith Laboratory, 

Columbus, OH 43210-1106 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be familiarized with 

certain definitions of bone histological variables that pose interpretation 

problems when microscopic age estimation methods are employed; and 

which definitions may help reduce the amount of subjectivity and 

observer error leading to increased accuracy and reliability of such 

methods. 


enhancing the understanding of how to reduce differences in 

interpretations of various histological definitions, or descriptions, used in 

histomorphometric age-at-death estimation methods. 

The admissibility of expert testimony in federal courts is governed 

by the U.S. Supreme Court decisions made in Daubert v. Merrell Dow 

Pharmaceuticals and Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael. While the trial 

judge must function as a gatekeeper, it is the responsibility of experts in 

the forensic community to reach an agreement about the reliability and 

accuracy of scientific methods. Quantitative histological methods can be 

reliable for estimating age at death. Their reliability is contingent upon 

the accuracy and precision produced by the method of evaluation. The 

use of age at death estimations that employ histomorphometry rely on the 

definitions that the method in use presents. The descriptions, or 

definitions, of histological variables often differ between methods. 

These differences in definitions between researchers and methods leave 

the door open for one forensic expert’s testimony to be negated by 

another forensic expert who may use a method that uses different 

definitions of the same variables. Forensic scientists should be concerned 

with standardizing the specificity of these definitions. In doing so, the 

variation in interpretation of the variables will be reduced, and in turn, 

inter- and intra- observer error that results from such differences in 

interpretations can be addressed, and ultimately, disputes about 

definitions that are employed by forensic scientists in court may be 

reduced. 

This report presents the results of an inter-observer study testing 

how individuals interpret the definitions set out by the originators of two 

microscopic age estimation methods commonly used by forensic 

anthropologists. To explore how differences in definitions affect the 

identification of histological variables, three groups of readers carried 

out two age estimation methods: Kerley’s (1965) age estimation method 

was tested on femora cross-sections, and Cho et al.’s (2002) method on 

cross-sections of ribs. In testing these two commonly used methods that 

employ different bones, it is clear that the actual description, or 

definition, of the histological variables affect the accuracy and reliability 

of the method used. To ensure that the readers read the same defined 

area, duplicates of the same calibrated digital image of several different 

areas were taken from cross-sections of bone, as specified by the 

histological age estimation method being tested, and corresponding grid 

overlays for each method under review, were distributed to each reader. 

The readers were divided into three groups, composed of three 

96

individuals each, according to their respective levels of training in 

skeletal biology. The three groups were divided as follows: novice; 

intermediate; and advanced. The readers were given written instructions 

on how to carry out each method and provided with several different 

definitions of histological structures from different sources. In addition 

to receiving different definitions of these structures, the readers were 

provided with images of intact Haversian systems, osteon fragments, 

primary vascular canals, and primary osteons. 

Previous studies have examined the inherent deficiencies in 

microscopic age estimation methods. This study is unique in that it is 

concerned with definitions of variables relied upon when employing 

histomorphometric methods for age estimation. This study takes a step 

towards recognizing why the process of standardizing histological 

definitions is important. The standardization of these definitions will 

make future use of histomorphometric age estimation methods more 

reliable and easier to use. 

Forensic Anthropology, Bone Histology, Age Estimation 

H55 And Dens There Were Two: The Utility of 

the Second Cervical Vertebra as an 

Indicator of Sex and Age-at-Death 

Billie L. Seet, MA*, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 720 Albany 

Street, Boston, MA 02118; and Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, Pellissippi 

State Community College, 10915 Hardin Valley Road, PO Box 22990, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn that the 

second cervical vertebra is a reliable estimator of sex and age-at-death. 


illustrating the importance of continuing research and data collection 

from previously under-utilized elements in forensic anthropology 

because they may also yield reliable results. 

Medicolegal death investigation involving cases in which human 

remains have become skeletonized rely heavily on the preparation of a 

biological profile. This profile, consisting of age-at-death, sex, ancestry, 

and stature, serves to assist the investigator in the confirmation of a 

decedent’s identity. Several reliable methods for establishing a 

biological profile exist, however many of these methods rely on either 

the recovery of several specific bones or on fragile skeletal elements that 

are frequently lost or destroyed in archaeological context. It is for this 

reason new methods utilizing other previously under-documented bones 

should be established. 

In instances of skeletal remains recovery where the most reliable 

indicators of sex and age-at-death have been destroyed or lost, an 

investigator must rely on other, less commonly used elements. 1,2 

Previous research conducted by Wescott 3 suggests that the second 

cervical vertebra is a reliable predictor of sex (ranging from 81.7 to 

83.4%) while the work of Algee-Hewitt and coworkers 4 suggests that the 

element may also inform age-at-death estimates. Moreover, the second 

cervical vertebra has been shown to be more frequently recovered in is 

entirety than pelvic bones 5 ; therefore, warranting further investigation by 

the forensic anthropological community. 

In order to test the utility of the second cervical vertebra in forensic 

contexts, skeletons were drawn from the donated skeletal collection 

curated at the Hamilton County Forensic Center (HCFC) in Chattanooga, 

Tennessee (n=57). Data were collected from 19 adult females and 38 

adult males with an age-at-death for the pooled sample ranging from 21 

to 89 years with a mean age of 54.19 years. Following Wescott 3 , five 

dimensions of the second cervical vertebra were taken with digital 

sliding calipers and recorded to the nearest 0.1mm: (1) Maximum 

Sagittal Length (XSL); (2) Superior Facet Sagittal Diameter (SFS); (3) 

Superior Facet Transverse Diameter (SFT); (4) Length of Vertebral 

Foramen (LVF); and, (5) Maximum Height of the Dens (XDH). 

Measurements of bilateral landmarks were always taken from the left for 

consistency. In addition, lipping projecting from the superioanterior 

aspect of the dens was recorded as present or absent. Lipping projecting 

≥ 1mm was scored as present. 

Metric data collected from second cervical vertebrae were used to 

calculate five discriminant functions reported by Wescott. 3 These 

equations use as few as one and as many as five measurements to predict 

sex. Results mirror those of Wescott 3 and suggest that the second 

cervical vertebra is a dimorphic bone that can be used to predict sex in 

forensic anthropological contexts. The correct number of classified 

cases ranged from 80.7% (two variable model) to 87.5% (four variable 

model). Moreover, results demonstrated that a single measurement 

(XSL) correctly predicts sex in 84.2% of cases. 

The lipping data collected were used to calculate the age-attransition 

for which an individual passed from the absent to the present 

category. Nphases, a Fortran-based computer program written by 

Konigsberg 6 , was used to calculate the age-at-transition for this 

particular trait. Results indicate an age-at-transition of 35.3 years 

(sd=11.2). 

While additional analyses are required on a larger sample of 

documented individuals, these results indicate that in the absence of the 

os coxa, the second cervical vertebra is a good indicator of sex. Also, 

lipping, present on the dens, may have some utility as an age indicator in 

forensic contexts. This reality underscores the importance for 

researchers to continue developing novel approaches for documenting 

sexual dimorphism in skeletal remains as well as age-related skeletal 

change. 

References: 

1 Komar DA, Buikstra JE. Beginning the identification process 

developing a biological profile. In: Komar DA, Buikstra JE, 

editors. Forensic Anthropol. New York: Oxford University Press, 

2008; 115-153. 

2 DiGangi EA, Bethard JD, Kimmerle EH, Konigsberg LW. A new 

method of estimating age-at-death from the first rib. Am J Phys 

Anthropology 2009;138(2):164-176. 

3 Wescott DJ. Sex variation in the second cervical vertebra. J 

Forensic Sci 2000;45(2):462-466. 

4 Algee-Hewitt BFB, Weisensee KE, Milner GR. Age is Subjective: 

A Non-traditional Method of Age Estimation for the Adult 

Skeleton; 2008 Apr 7-13; Columbus, OH. Proceedings of the 

Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical 

Anthropologists. 

5 Pickering TR, Carlson KJ. Baboon taphonomy and its relevance to 

the investigation of large felid involvement in human forensic 

cases. Forensic Sci Int 2004;144:37–44 

6 Nphases [computer program]. Fortran version. 2003. 

Forensic Anthropology, Skeletal Biology, Second Cervical Vertebra 

H56 A Radiographic Assessment of Age Using 

Distal Radius Epiphysis Presence in a 


Christina L. Fojas, BA*, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Anthropology & Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be presented new 

standards for the appearance of the distal radius epiphysis as an age 

indicator for subadult remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by suggesting 

an age-at-death estimation approach by means of radiographic 

assessment that provides better predictions than the currently accepted 


standards. In conjunction with other methods, further research in this 

area may ultimately lead to more identifications of subadult remains by 

providing more precise age ranges. 

Due to the increasing number of missing children in the United 

States and the Daubert standards, better age estimation techniques are 

necessary for a forensic anthropologist presented with a set of 

unidentified subadult remains. The age indicators traditionally used 

include dental development, long bone length, and appearance of 

ossification centers and epiphyseal fusion. For instance, according to 

Greulich and Pyle (1959), the epiphysis of the distal radius first appears 

at 13.2 months ± 5.4 months (S.D.) in White males, and in White females 

at 9.8 months ± 4.1 months. Scheuer and Black (2000) report that the 

same epiphysis appears, on average, during the first year and is present 

in all individuals by three-and-a-half years old. However, currently used 

age standards for subadults derive from data that are at least sixty years 

old. With today’s children maturing faster, age estimations based on data 

from the early 20 th century will overage individuals. Additionally, most 

of the growth standards were based on middle- to upper-class White 

children, while forensic anthropologists are faced with a range of 

populations. Skeletal collections with large enough samples of modern 

subadults are difficult to obtain, but radiographic analysis of bone is 

more than manageable and can be used for research. This preliminary 

study examines the presence of the distal radius epiphysis as a means to 

estimate age. 

The sample consists of 160 radiographs with Black, White, Asian, 

Hispanic, and Native American populations represented. All individuals 

were positively identified. For the purposes of this preliminary study, 

children of different sex and ancestry were pooled. To ensure a modern 

subadult sample, all were born between 1998 and 2008 and were 

between 0 and 156 weeks (approximately 3 years old) at the time of 

death. In order to provide statistically appropriate age estimates, logistic 

regression using R (R Development Core Team, 2008) version 2.8.1 was 

employed. Naturally, the probability of having the distal radius 

epiphysis present increases as the individual ages. It was reasoned that 

age estimates should be qualified with a certain confidence level and 

provide, for example, the minimum or maximum age at death given the 

presence or absence of the epiphysis, respectively. 

In this preliminary study, it was determined with 95% probability 

that, if the epiphysis is present, the individual is older than 34 weeks (7.8 

months), and if the epiphysis is absent, the individual is less than 72 

weeks (16.5 months) old. These findings are significant because not 

only are they younger and narrower than the standards currently in place, 

but in using a statistical model, estimates with an explicit confidence 

level can be used. 

This research will be expanded to incorporate the appearance of 

other secondary ossification centers and epiphyseal union times to infer 

how much earlier modern populations are maturing and allow for better 

age estimates. In addition, sex and ancestry will be tested to evaluate 

their effects. 

Age-at-Death Assessment, Subadults, Secular Change 

H57 New York City Unidentified Decedents 

From 1980 – 2008 

Benjamin J. Figura, MA*, New York City Office of the Chief Medical 


The goal of this presentationr is to provide attendees with a unique 

perspective on unidentified decedents in New York City including 

historical and demographic trends. 

By presenting statistics relating to unidentified individuals in New 

York City for a period spanning nearly three decades, this presentation 

will impact the forensic science community by providing a better 

understanding of historical and demographic trends within this 


population. The presentation of these trends can provide direction for 

future research in identification techniques and allow for comparison 

with other large metropolitan areas. 

A recent report published by the Bureau of Justice Statistics puts the 

number of unidentified human remains in the United States at over 

10,000 cases during the twenty five year period from 1980 – 2004 

(Hughes 2007). 1 According to this study, the State of New York ranks 

second only to California in number of cases during this period with a 

total of 2,284. Because the majority of the cases in New York State are 

likely to originate in New York City, one can safely estimate that New 

York City accounts for nearly twenty five percent of all cases of 

unidentified individuals in the United States. The Forensic 

Anthropology Unit at the Office of Chief Medical Examiner in New 

York City (OCME-NYC) has recently begun an historical review of 

cases of unidentified individuals with the goal of collecting all relevant 

case data into a single location and disseminating that data to national 

databases such as NCIC and NamUs. 

This presentation provides a current assessment of unidentified 

individuals in New York City from the period spanning 1980 – 2008. 

The data are analyzed for trends based on a variety of variables including 

estimated age and sex, and year, month, and location of death. The data 

are also presented in relation to relevant milestones such as the full-scale 

use of DNA identification techniques. 

Materials and Methods: The data were collected from two 

sources: the current OCME-NYC case database system, which includes 

cases from 1998 thru the present, and the New York City Department of 

Health’s (DOH) logbooks of death certificates for the years prior to 

1998. The DOH logbooks were searched for cases listed as Unknown 

Male and Unknown Female. Other name combinations typically 

associated with unknown individuals were also searched including Jane 

and John Doe, Unknown Bones, Unknown Skeleton, Unknown Skull, 

and Unknown Torso. All case files were reviewed to ensure the 

individual was correctly listed as unidentified. Demographic 

information was recorded from the anthropology or autopsy reports 

when available. Reports were generally not available for cases obtained 

using the DOH logbooks. For these cases the demographic information 

was taken directly from the death certificates themselves. Sex was listed 

as Male, Female, or Unknown. Race was listed as White (including 

Hispanics), Black, Asian, or Unknown. Cases were grouped into three 

age categories based on the available age estimates: Infant (less than 1 

year), Subadult (1 to 18 years), Adult (19-49 years), Elderly Adult (50 

years or older), or Unknown. 

Results: There are a total of 3065 long-term unidentified cases for 

New York City during the period of 1980 - 2008, occurring at an average 

rate of 1.6 per 1,000 deaths. Overall there has been a gradual decline in 

the number of unidentified cases annually to the current rate of 

approximately 0.5 per 1,000 deaths. Annual totals do show a high degree 

of variability in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s, with fluctuations of 

around 50% between 1991 and 1995. It is possible that this variability is 

a byproduct related to the timing of death certificate filings or other 

factors, but it does appear to correspond with similar fluctuations in the 

overall death rate for the city. Within the five boroughs of New York 

City, Manhattan has the most unidentified cases in total, and averages the 

most cases each year except 1998, 2002, and 2004 when they are 

surpassed by Brooklyn. Staten Island has the fewest with only 50 cases 

during the 30 year period. 

The majority of cases are males (80%), with White males 

accounting for about 38% of all cases and 28% for Black males. This 

differs from the BJS report, which estimated Whites males to account of 

over 50% of unidentified cases nationwide. Females account for 20% of 

the sample with nearly equal distribution between White and Black (6% 

of cases). 35% of the sample is estimated to be in the Elderly Adult 

category and 60% are estimated as Adult. 3% are estimated as Subadult. 

Historical reviews such as this study are important because they 

allow for continued focus on cases of unidentified decedents that may 

have otherwise been forgotten about. The accurate accounting of these 

98

cases in the long-term is of vital importance to ensure that correct case 

data can be distributed to national databases (e.g NCIC and NamUs) and 

that potential matches with missing persons are not missed. In New York 

City, this historical review process has led to recent identifications in a 

number of long-term missing persons cases. The collection of this data 

also allows for comparison with other large jurisdictions. 

Reference: 

1 Hughes, K. – 2007Unidentified Human Remains in the United 

States, 1980-2004, edited by U. S. D. o. Justice. 

Unidentified Decedents, New York City, Missing Persons 

H58 Detecting Individuals With Reduced 

Mobility Using Femoral Morphology 

Stephanie L. Child, MA*, University of Missouri, 107 Swallow Hall, 

Columbia, MO 65211; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, Florida 

International University, Department Biological Sciences, 11200 

Southwest 8th Street, Miami, FL 333199 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the unique 

morphological characteristics associated with reduced ambulatory ability 

and immobility. Attendees will learn how to recognize characteristics of 

the femur that provide information about the mobility of individuals 

whose skeletons they are examining and how this information may 

provide unique clues to help in the identification process. 


demonstrating that femur morphology can be used to determine activity 

levels, including reduced ambulatory ability caused by disease or injury. 

Bone is an extremely plastic material that constantly modifies itself 

throughout life, and unique or distinguishing skeletal traits and activity 

markers, especially those that are likely to be recorded in medical 

records or observable in photographs, can provide valuable information 

leading to identification in medicolegal investigations. Osseous 

morphological features can often allude to distinguishing physical 

activities regularly conducted by an individual during life, especially if 

the activities require repetitive movement or commonly result in 

recognizable bony injuries. For decades physical anthropologists have 

been examining femur morphology to reconstruct activity patterns and 

intensity in past populations, and osteological changes expected with 

increases in particular activity are well known. Bony changes expected 

with decreased activity have received far less attention, but recent 

secular change studies demonstrate that Americans have undergone 

significant changes in femoral shaft morphology and strength over the 

past 150 years in large part due to reduced daily mobility. Likewise, 

numerous clinical studies have shown differences in the angle of 

inclination, angle of torsion, and bicondylar angle between ambulatory 

and nonambulatory individuals. Information gained from biomechanical, 

secular trend, and clinical studies can also be used by forensic 

anthropologists to not only recognize particular activities but also 

decreased ambulatory ability caused by disease or trauma. In this 

presentation we compare femur mid and subtrochanteric diaphyseal 

cross-sectional properties and three functional angles (inclination, 

torsion, and bicondylar) between normally ambulatory adult individuals 

and individuals known to have reduced mobility due to cerebral palsy. 

Reduced mobility or long-term immobility results in diminished 

musclar stress and normal weight bearing on the lower limb bones. 

Depending on the age of the individual when ambulatory problems arise, 

normal ontogenetic changes in femoral angles often do not transpire 

and/or wasting of the femoral shaft cortical bone occurs. The angle of 

inclination (angle between the long axis of the neck and long axis of the 

shaft), which ranges from 120 to 135 degrees in normal ambulatory 

individuals, is frequently coxa valga or greater that 135 degrees in 

individuals with reduced mobility due to decreased muscular and weight 

stress on the developing hip. The angle of torsion, a measure of the 

rotation of the femoral head and neck relative to the diaphysis that 

averages about 12 degrees in normally ambulatory adults, is commonly 

greater (shows antetorsion) in individuals with cerebral palsy due to 

differential proximal and distal muscle pull. The bicondylar or 

tibiofemoral angle results from differential forces on the medial and 

lateral condyles during normal walking causing greater growth of the 

medial than the lateral condyle forming the bicondylar angle during 

childhood. Consequently, the bicondylar angle does not form in nonambulatory 

individuals. The presence of the bicondylar angle is 

indication of at least early childhood ambulatory ability. Finally, wasting 

of the cortical bone associated with reduced mobility/immobility is 

reflected in bone strength and mediolateral diaphyseal dimensions. 

Individuals with reduced ambulatory ability associated with cerebral 

palsy, for example, are often more than two standard deviations below 

the average (size standardized) in the mediolateral midshaft dimension, 

but do not differ significantly from normal in anteroposterior 

dimensions. 

Bone is an extremely plastic material that constantly modifies itself 

throughout life. Many of the morphological features of the long bones 

have been used by physical anthropologists to reconstruct activity 

patterns and intensity in individuals and populations. Likewise, 

morphological features of the femur can also be used as evidence for 

reduced ambulatory ability or complete immobility. The unique 

combination of features may even provide information regarding when 

the ambulatory problems arose during life. 

Forensic Anthropology, Mobility, Femoral Antetorsion and Coxa 

Valga 

H59 Sociocultural Factors in the Identification 

of Undocumented Migrants 

Robin Reineke, MA*, The University of Arizona, School of 

Anthropology, 1009 East South Campus Drive, Tucson, AZ 85721; and 

Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner, 

2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714 

The goal of this presentation is to discuss the accuracy and utility of 

the “cultural profile” concept proposed by Birkby et al. (2008) from the 

cross-disciplinary perspective of a forensic anthropologist and a cultural 

anthropologist. 


proposing a precise language with which to discuss non-biological 

evidence utilized in forensic examinations of believed-to-be migrants 

from Mexico and Central America, a demographic that is steadily 

increasing within medico-legal jurisdictions throughout the United 

States. This presentation also aims to open a discussion within the 

forensic science community about the ways that regionally specific 

cultural information can be useful in death investigations, especially 

when antemortem data is incomplete or limited. 

Since 2001, the Arizona-Sonora portion of the U.S.-Mexico 

borderlands has seen a massive increase in the number of migrants dying 

in the desert while attempting to cross the border clandestinely. Since 

then, the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner (PCOME) has 

relied on non-biological evidence alongside biological evidence to aid in 

the identification of human remains. 

The unique situation on the U.S.-Mexico border poses particular 

challenges to forensic science. Because migrants are seeking to avoid 

detection, many are found in remote desert areas without identification 

media. Due to economics, fear, and the international nature of the 

migration issue, the acquisition of missing person’s reports is often 

delayed, and when missing person’s reports are filed, they rarely include 

dental or medical records. Undocumented Border Crossers (UBCs) are 

a regionally diverse yet socially distinct category–they are defined not by 

shared ancestry, nationality, or ethnicity, but by the act of crossing the 

border. Although most UBCs identified at the PCOME have come from 

Mexico or Central America, this is a region too large to be unified into a 


category with homogeneous biological (or cultural) traits (Spradley, 

2008 and Hefner, 2008). 

To respond to these challenges, the PCOME created a profile for 

UBCs in order to categorize unidentified human remains as either 

probable migrants or probable U.S. citizens. This was done so that: (a) 

the proper pool of antemortem records could be compared; and, (b) 

deceased migrants could be better counted (Anderson 2008). A 

significant part of the determination of a UBC relies on what Birkby et 

al. termed the “cultural profile,” referring to “the geographic context of 

recovery, personal effects, dental health, and cultural accoutrements” 

(2008). In the current paper, the authors expand on the notion of a 

cultural profile, arguing for use of the term “sociocultural” instead of 

“cultural” to better indicate the economic nature of much of this 

evidence. Additionally, a description is provided of the methods used at 

PCOME to assess the sociocultural profile, and consider the potential for 

more specific predictive categorizing based on regionally specific 

insights from a cultural anthropological approach to modern material 

culture. 

Migration, Material Evidence, Anthropology 

H60 What’s in a Number: Statistical Paradigm 


Natalie R. Shirley, PhD*, Alicja K. Kutyla, MS, and Richard Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 



with statistical paradigm shifts in forensic anthropology and understand 

how these shifts relate to greater philosophical trends prevalent during 

the major historical periods of the discipline. Additionally, attendees will 

learn about limitations of various statistical methodologies and current 

statistical requisites in forensic anthropology will be discussed. 


establishing a coherent statistical history of forensic anthropology and by 

offering suggestions at a time when the profession is working to 

recommend appropriate standards and best practices for age, sex, 

ancestry, and stature estimation. 

The history of forensic anthropology (FA) is divided into three 

periods based on the degree to which the field was organized as a 

professional discipline (i.e.; Formative, Consolidation, and Modern 

Periods). Notable statistical trends run throughout FA, and these trends 

follow a similar progression. The role of statistics in FA has elevated 

from insignificant (no pun intended) to prime player. This escalating 

emphasis on statistical rigor in FA is linked to intellectual, technological, 

and political stimuli. 

During the Formative Period, FA was primarily a descriptive 

discipline within osteology, wherein three of the four primary 

components of the biological profile (age, sex, and ancestry) were 

determined on the basis of descriptive parameters. Early descriptive 

methods of estimating age, sex, stature, and race are described by 

Thomas Dwight in 1878 (The Identification of the Human Skeleton: A 

Medicolegal Study) and in a series of papers from 1881-1905. H.H. 

Wilder and Bert Wentworth reiterate Dwight’s descriptions in Personal 

Identification (1918) and add criteria for sex estimation from the pelvis 

and skull. Shortly thereafter, Todd (1920) published his descriptive 

aging criteria on the pubic symphysis. Early methods of ancestry 

estimation focused on metric and non-metric traits. Although most of 

these methods were not developed for forensic utility (i.e., Hooton’s 

Peabody forms, Hrdlička’s Anthropometry, and Pearson’s Coefficient of 

Racial Likeness), they played a major role in later developments. 

Likewise, correlation coefficients and regression formulae for stature 

estimation were available as early as the late 1800s; these were not 

developed for forensic use, but influenced later developments in stature 

estimation. 


The Consolidation Period marked a turning point in FA history 

primarily due to the publication of Krogman’s Guide to the Identification 

of Human Skeletal Material in 1939. During this period, an increasing 

number of physical anthropologists became interested in its forensic 

application and began researching modern skeletal variation, especially 

during WWII. The influx of research literature provided the intellectual 

impetus for developing more accurate and objective methods. Trotter 

and Gleser (1952, 1958) developed regression equations for stature 

estimation using a young, modern sample. Giles and Elliot (1962, 1963) 

broke statistical ground in sex and ancestry estimation with their 

pioneering use of discriminant functions, thereby paving the way for 

decades of discriminant analyses on all imaginable bone measurements. 

Descriptive techniques gradually gave way to statistical methods, with 

the use of multivariate statistics advancing primarily due to readily 

available computing packages. Nonetheless, age estimation resisted the 

statistical pull, with seriation and accompanying sample descriptive 

statistics remaining an industry standard. 

The Modern Period began when the Physical Anthropology section 

of the AAFS was formed in 1972. By this time, modern computing 

power was opening up new statistical possibilities, and the growing 

understanding of the intricacies of modern skeletal variation explicated a 

need for quantification. Discriminant functions continued to be popular 

in sex and ancestry estimation and software development began in the 

1980s using Giles and Elliot’s functions. The 1993 release of FORDISC 

1.0 radically changed sex and ancestry estimation for forensic 

anthropologists and made easy computation available to anyone with a 

set of calipers and an osteometric board. However, greater statistical 

awareness also fostered an understanding of the limitations of some of 

these methods, and researchers sought alternatives to compensate for 

these weaknesses. Further stimulus was provided by the 1993 Daubert 

decision. The millennium marked a statistical turning point, and 

geometric morphometrics, maximum likelihood and Bayesian 

approaches began receiving considerable attention in the forensic 

anthropology literature. In addition, established error rates became a 

necessary focus in the field, along with developing objective and 

repeatable standards. 

For 2010, the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology 

is actively establishing “best practice” within the discipline. 

Consequently, it is imperative that forensic anthropologists are conscious 

of the statistical background in the field and are aware of current 

statistical trends as appropriate standards are recommended for age, sex, 

ancestry, and stature estimation. This presentation aims to acquaint 

attendees with statistical foundations in FA and to offer suggestions for 

future direction. 

Forensic Anthropology, Statistical Methods, Daubert Standards 

H61 The Use (and Abuse) of the Sacrum in 

Sex Determination 

Elizabeth A. Miller, PhD*, California State University at Los Angeles, 

Department of Anthropology, 5151 State University Drive, Los Angeles, 

CA 90032; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic, Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 



understanding of the use of the sacrum in sex determination, the most 

accurate measurements of the sacrum to use when determining sex, and 

the accuracy of the new measurements and techniques proposed. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by serving as 

a metric technique, cross-validated, for identifying sex in fragmentary 


The sacrum has long been thought to be sexually dimorphic. 

Anecdotal evidence that the male sacrum is “narrower, longer and more 

curved” than the “wider, shorter and less curved” female sacrum is 

100

taught in osteology courses, presented in forensic anthropology 

references, and generally used in the field. A search of the literature 

yielded six publications and three published abstracts in which the 

authors attempted to quantify these morphological differences. The 

results of these statistical studies were highly varied, and none were 

conducted on modern American skeletal populations, making them 

questionable for their used in modern forensic cases. 

The current study tests the validity of the use of the sacrum for sex 

estimation on two modern samples: the William Bass Donated Skeletal 

Collection at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville and the Maxwell 

Museum Documented Skeletal Collection at the University of New 

Mexico in Albuquerque. Both of these collections are of modern 

individuals who donated their bodies to the collections between the early 

1980s and today. Date of birth, date of death, ancestry, and sex are 

known for these individuals, and medical history is known for many of 

them. A total of 114 males and 61 females were used in the analysis. 

Measurements were checked for errors and outliers, and aberrant values 

were removed. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was performed on 

the data using Fordisc 3.0 (Jantz and Ousley 2005) and all reported 

classification percentages were cross-validated. 

Of twelve measurements taken, three variables were found using 

stepwise variable selection that classified the sample 83% correctly. The 

single best measurement was the antero-posterior diameter of the first 

sacral vertebra (AD), followed by the (left) maximum auricular surface 

length (LA), and the anterior width of the sacrum at the level of the 

inferior auricular surface (MWI). 

These measurements do not reflect the curvature of the sacrum, 

rather they reflect size and shape differences: males showed higher 

mean AD and LA but virtually the same MWI as females. Substituting 

the width of the sacral wings for MWI yielded the same correct 

classification rate of 83%. Further, the superior sacrum is dimorphic 

enough that using the transverse diameter of S1 (TD) and AD classified 

the sample 81% correctly. Using three variables that reflected sacral 

curvature (curved length, maximum depth of curvature and sacral length) 

did not classify the sample much better than by chance (61%). There 

appears to be too much overlap between the sexes in sacral curvature, 

which is overlooked when exemplary sacra are selected for teaching 

purposes. 

This study indicates that dimorphism in the sacrum is useful for 

estimating sex from skeletal remains, but sacral curvature does not 

appear to be useful, at least with the measurements used in this study. 

Sex Determination, Sacrum, Anthropology 

H62 Sex and Ancestry Estimation From 


Ashley H. McKeown, PhD*, University of Montana, Department of 

Anthropology, Missoula, MT 59812; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, 

Florida International University, Department of Biological Sciences, 

11200 Southwest 8th Street, Miami, FL 333199 

The goal of this presentation is to study the nature of morphological 

variation in the base of the human cranium and the utility of that 

variation for estimating sex and ancestry from skeletonized remains. 

Discriminant functions that accurately estimate sex and ancestry for 

American Whites and Blacks from the cranial base are presented. 


providing new tools for estimating sex and ancestry from skeletonized 

human remains, particularly in the case of fragmentary crania where 

portions of the cranial base remain intact. Sex and ancestry are 

important components of the biological profile that physical 

anthropologists seek to establish for unidentified individuals. Methods 

that are appropriate for use with fragmentary remains expand the range 

of tools available to practicing forensic anthropologists. 

It is well established that craniofacial morphology can be used to 

estimate sex and ancestry of human remains, but in some instances 

crania are not recovered intact. Building on earlier research by Holland 

(1985, 1986) that indicated dimensions of the cranial base can be used 

for sex and ancestry attribution, it is hypothesized that sex and ancestry 

can be more accurately estimated using the three dimensional 

morphology of the cranial base. 

A sample of 277 crania from individuals of known sex and ancestry 

from the Robert J. Terry (National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution) and William M. Bass (University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville) collections is used to test this hypothesis. A series of 12 

landmarks from the cranial base were observed as three dimensional 

coordinates and analyzed using geometric morphometric and traditional 

statistical methods. The Cartesian coordinates were fitted with general 

procrustes analysis, which brings the configurations into a common 

coordinate system, rotates and scales them. The fitted coordinates were 

then subjected to principal component analysis. Principal components 

representing ninety percent of the shape variation and the centroid size 

from the procrustes analysis were used to derive discriminant functions 

for classifying crania as to sex and ancestry (American Whites and 

Blacks). 

Using landmarks from this morphological region, both sex and 

ancestry can be classified with greater than eighty five percent accuracy. 

As seen in other studies, shape is the critical component for ancestry 

estimation, while sex estimation requires both shape and size for 

accurate classification. For estimating ancestry, only the principal 

components representing the shape variation between the American 

White and Black samples was necessary. Nevertheless, for estimating 

sex the addition of centroid size significantly improved the accuracy of 

the method. Based on this study, discriminant functions employing 

interlandmark distances that do not require a digitizer to observe are 

presented. 

Morphpometrics, Sex, Ancestry 

H63 Virtual Sex: Phenice and Metrics of the 

Pelvis From 3D Computed Tomography 

(CT) Models 

Summer J. Decker, MA, MS*, University of South Florida College of 

Medicine, Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, 12901 Bruce B. 

Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, FL 33612; Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, 

PhD, School of Biological and Earth Sciences, Liverpool John Moores 

University, Liverpool John Moores University, James Parsons Building, 

236, Byrum Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UNITED KINGDOM; and 

Jonathan M. Ford, MS, and Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, Deptartment of 

Pathology & Cell Biology, University of South Florida College of 

Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC11, Tampa, FL 33612 

The goals of this presentation are to introduce a new sample of over 

70 modern virtual skeletons with known biological profiles, as well as 

the results of a pilot study using three-dimensional (3D) medical imaging 

and computer modeling technologies to validate standard sex and novel 

sex estimation methods of the human pelvis. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by serving to 

increase scientific knowledge of new technologies and methods 

available to the forensic community for human identification. It will also 

attempt to add to the body of knowledge on sex estimation from the 

pelvis, as well as provide an example for a new source of data. 

The University of South Florida College of Medicine has 

accumulated three-dimensional (3D) data from medical scans 

(Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)) 

of donated cadavers and clinical scans into a collection of virtual bodies. 

Previous studies 1,2 have demonstrated that three-dimensional (3D) 

imaging technologies are allowing researchers to create virtual computed 


models of anatomical structures that go beyond traditional 

anthropological resources. Virtual models of skeletons from the scanned 

individuals have been made in order to test anthropological 

methodologies used in the creation of the biological profile. This study 

focused on the estimation of sex from the pelvic bones. The most widely 

accepted technique for sex estimation of the pelvis is based on 

multivariate evaluation of morphological traits. Sexually diagnostic nonmetric 

traits include the width of the greater sciatic notch, ventral arc, 

subpubic concavity, and medial aspect of the ischio-pubic ramus. 

Documented success rates of Phenice 3 and Phenice-derived methods 4,5 

consistently report accuracy rates in excess of ninety percent when 

performed by trained individuals. The goal of this project was to 

undergo a validation study to determine if sex can be estimated 

metrically and non-metrically from computed 3D models of the os coxa 

from a collection of known individuals. 

The accuracy of both visual and metric sex traits of the pelvis were 

statistically evaluated in comparison with antemortem biological 

profiles. Using a random selection from the 70+ known individuals, os 

coxa models were extracted from the CT scans and modeled in Mimics © 

version 13. The pelves were then registered against each other and 

pelvic sex traits were analyzed in 3D space in the software package. 

Phenice traits 3 were compared with metric curvature modeling of the 

sub-pubic concavity. All measurements were independently verified by 

two trained anthropologists with the inter- and intra-observer error 

calculations. Additionally, student data was also used to evaluate the 

effects of experience on correct classification and measurement 

techniques. 

This project demonstrates the potential for virtual data such as the 

USF College of Medicine’s Virtual Skeleton Collection to increase the 

resources available to researchers. With the addition of more modern 

human data, traditional methodologies such as those used to estimate the 

biological profile can be re-examined and the current knowledge base 

expanded. The virtual pelves can provide limitless opportunities for 

discovery of robust methods applicable to real-world problems in 

forensic anthropology. 

References: 

1 Decker SJ, Hoegstrom EJ, Hilbelink DR. Virtual skull anatomy: 

three-dimensional computer modeling and measurement of human 

cranial anatomy. In: Proceedings of the American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences 60 th Annual Meeting, Washington, DC 18-23 Feb. 

2008; (14)312. 

2 Decker SJ, Davy-Jow SL, Ford JM, Hilbelink DR. Maintaining 

Custody: A virtual method of creating accurate reproductions of 

skeletal remains for facial approximation. In: Proceedings of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences 61 st Annual Meeting; 2009 

Feb 16-21; Denver, CO: (15)334. 

3 Phenice TW. A Newly Developed Visual Method of Sexing the Os 

Pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1969; vol. 

30(2):297-301. 

4 Ubelaker DH, Volk CG. A test of the Phenice method for the 

estimation of sex. Journal of Forensic Sciences 2002; Vol. 47(11) 

19-24. 

5 Bruzek J. A method for visual determination of sex using the human 

hip bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2002; 

Vol.117, 157–168. 

Sex Estimation, Computer Modeling, Virtual Anthropology 


H64 Molar Crenulation as an Attribute of 


and Accuracy 

Christen E. Herrick, BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, Florida 

Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU 

Boulevard AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, 

Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU 

Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Marta U. Coburn, MD, 

District 20 Medical Examiner’s Office, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, 

FL 34104; and Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 


After this presentation, the attendee will gain understanding of the 

diagnostic accuracy of molar crenulation as a marker of African ancestry, 

as well as how to correctly classify and identify the condition. 

This presentation will impacts the forensic science community by 

providing guidelines for the identification of molar crenulation and its 

utility as a predictor of ancestry in forensic cases. 

Forensic anthropologists frequently rely heavily on metric 

assessment and morphological observation of the mid-face and cranial 

vault to determine ancestry. Often, dental morphological traits are used 

to bolster these skeletal ancestry assessments. On a macroscopic level, 

the differences in the size, contour, and shape of tooth enamel are 

integral variables used in the determination of ancestry. Well-studied 

dental characteristics such as the “shoveling” of the lingual surfaces of 

upper incisors or the presence of an additional lingual cusp adjacent to 

the protocone on any or all of the upper adult molars (e.g., Cusp of 

Carabelli) are often used as diagnostic markers of Asian or European 

ancestry, respectively. However, the complex wrinkling of molar 

occlusal surfaces (e.g., crenulation) coincident with African ancestry 

lacks the depth of lucubration evidenced by the shoveling and Cusp of 

Carabelli ancestry traits used in forensic anthropology. 

The dearth of scholarly research concerning molar crenulation 

provided us the opportunity to investigate the extent to which African 

ancestry groups expressed the condition relative to European and Asian 

ancestry groups. To this end, we reviewed forensic skeletal cases (n=85) 

that were placed within an ancestry group (i.e.; African, European, or 

Asian) based upon metric assessment using FORDISC 3.0 and/or 

positive identification through other scientific means (e.g., dental, 

fingerprints, DNA, or medical records/radiographs) from Florida 

medical examiner districts 4, 17, and 20. 

The forensic anthropologist inventoried each case and charted all 

teeth to ensure elements necessary to create a biological profile were 

present (i.e., cranium, mandible, ossa coxae, tibia, or femur). She then 

metrically and non-metrically analyzed each case to determine age, sex, 

ancestry, and stature using standard forensic anthropological methods. 

In order to determine the extent of crenulation necessary for this study, 

the upper and lower first, second, and third molars were scored for the 

presence and absence of occlusal crenulations when observable using a 

5x hand lens and the naked eye. Three investigators independently 

scored each case to minimize the propensity for interobserver error. The 

data was statistically analyzed using SPSS 15.0. Specifically, compared 

was the frequency of the condition between the three ancestry groups 

using chi square analysis of variance. 

Upon analysis of the data, it was found that molar crenulation was 

associated with individuals of African ancestry one hundred percent 

(100%) of the time, while fifteen percent (15%) of those with Asian or 

Native American descent presented with the condition. None of the 

individuals of European ancestry showed evidence of molar crenulation. 

These results were statistically significant (x 2 =19.429, df=2, p= 0.00), 

evidencing that while molar crenulation is an accurate indicator of 

African ancestry, this is not the only ancestral group that will exhibit this 

dental morphological characteristic. 

Forensic Anthropology, Dental Morphology, Molar Crenulation 

102

H65 Subadult Ancestry Determinations Using 



Anatomy, PO Box 100235, Gainesville, FL 32610-0235; and Ann H. 

Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, Sociology and 


The goal of this presentation is to explore the applicability of 

geometric morphometric techniques in subadult biological profiling. 


highlighting the importance of understanding biological variation in the 

determination of ancestry in unidentified subadult remains. 

Along with sex, age, and stature, ancestry determination is an 

essential component of the forensic toolkit. Several established metric 

and non-metric techniques exist which utilize the cranial and post-cranial 

skeleton to identify ancestry. However, all of these methods are limited 

to adult skeletal material, as ancestral differences, like sex differences, 

are believed to be indistinct in youth until stimulated by the differential 

growth of adolescence. As such, anthropological protocol tends to 

reserve judgment in regards to the ancestry of subadult material. 

However, the work of Strand Viðarsdóttir and colleagues (2002) found 

that, regardless of sex, population-specific facial morphology manifests 

at birth and is further modified during ontogeny. Buck and Strand 

Viðarsdóttir (2004) go on to suggest that geometric morphometrics (GM) 

is capable of identifying ancestry in subadult mandibles. The traditional 

metric analyses employed in ancestry determination apply discriminant 

functions to defined linear distances. Unfortunately, comparative 

datasets derived from these analyses cannot be applied to subadult 

material, as these datasets do not reflect the widespread allometric 

changes occurring during the growth period. Geometric morphometrics, 

on the other hand, is capable of partitioning biological size from shape, 

thereby circumventing this obstacle. Ross and Williams (2009) used GM 

to explore cranial size and shape differences in a single population of 

subadults and adults and found no significant differences between older 

subadults (mid-teens) and adults (≥18 years), suggesting that subadults 

reach their final form earlier than expected. 

In order to further elucidate the potential of GM in identifying 

subadult ancestry, the present study explores how successful GM 

methods are at correctly classifying ancestry in modern Portuguese 

subadults both as a group and individually. The sample used for group 

analysis of craniometric affinity includes Portuguese adults (n=53) and 

subadults (11 to 16 years-old; n=10) from the Luís Lopes Collection in 

Lisbon, Portugal; native adult African slaves who died in Cuba (n=15) 

from the Morton Collection at the University of Pennsylvania; modern 

adult Cubans (n=21) from a cemetery collection housed at the Museo de 

Montane, Havana; and, modern adult African-Americans from the Terry 

Collection at the Smithsonian Institution (n=48). Nineteen threedimensional 

type 1 and type 2 anatomical landmarks were collected. 

The landmark data were transformed by generalized Procrustes analysis 

(GPA) which optimally translates, scales, and rotates the points into a 

common coordinate system. In order to reduce dimensionality, a 

principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on the covariance 

matrix of the aligned coordinates. Group similarity was evaluated via 

pairwise tests with Bonferroni correction (α/n). The pairwise results 

found Portuguese subadults to be significantly different (Pr >F= 0.001) 

from all of the other populations except Portuguese adults (Pr >F= 

0.189). Additionally, ancestry assessment was performed on each 

subadult via 3D-ID (Slice and Ross 2009: www.3d-id.org), a software 

program which utilizes 3D cranial landmark data to classify an unknown 

specimen into a probable sex and ethnic affiliation. Although the 

software program does not yet include Portuguese among its 11 diverse 

reference populations, all 10 subadults were classified as European or 

European-American (average posterior probability: 0.741; average 

typicality=0.4621) and only one individual’s sex was misclassified. 

Although exploratory in nature, these results indicate that GM is 

capable of correctly capturing ancestry in subadult crania. This suggests 

ancestral differences are morphologically entrenched earlier in 

craniofacial development than conventionally believed. Moreover, GM 

allows comparative datasets of adult measurements to be directly applied 

to individuals who have not yet completed skeletal growth. 

Incorporating such information into standard forensic practice may allow 

for a more informative assessment of ancestry in unidentified human 

remains of all ages than is currently possible. 

Subadult, Ancestry, Geometric Morphometrics 

H66 Craniometric Variation in South African 

and American Blacks 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Ericka 

N. L’Abbe, PhD*, PO Box 5023, Pretoria, 0001, SOUTH AFRICA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand patterns 

of craniometric variation in two disparate populations with African 

ancestry and implications for individual identification. 

The presentation will impact the forensic community by 

emphasizing the morphological diversity in continental and regional 

samples. 

The estimation of ancestry is an important part of the biological 

profile, and in most cases up to the present, race or continental ancestry 

has been used to narrow down possible identifications. With increasing 

human rights work and the spread of forensic techniques to more parts of 

the world, finer-grained analyses will no doubt become important. The 

Rwandan genocide involving Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups is a recent 

example of the need for data specific to a particular forensic challenge. 

All human populations are relative, are often locally specific, and can be 

qualified in numerous ways. Spradley et al (2008) illustrated the value 

of regionally specific population samples in their analysis of ninetenth 

century enslaved Africans from Cuba. 

South Africa is a linguistically and ethnically diverse country, with 

eleven official languages and a history of immigrants from Europe, 

India, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Dark-skinned South Africans (blacks) 

are from many different indigenous groups and comprise approximately 

eighty percent of the total population, whites are about nine percent of 

the population, and people of Indian/Asian ancestry are about 2.5%. The 

other major ethnic group is the Coloreds, persons of mixed ancestry and 

lighter skin, who are descendants of slaves brought in from East and 

Central Africa, the indigenous Khoisan, and South African blacks and 

whites. Black Americans originated predominantly from West Africa 

and came to America through the slave trade, and show significant 

admixture with white Americans. Given their different origins and 

disparate histories, how does morphological variation in South African 

and American Blacks compare? 

The South African sample consists of 64 males and 27 females from 

the Department of Anatomy at the University of Pretoria, and the 

American samples of 61 males and 54 females come from the Forensic 

Data Bank. Virtually all individuals were positively identified and were 

born after 1930. Most crania were digitized using a Microscribe and 

Howells standard cranial measurements were calculated from the 

interlandmark distances, otherwise measurements were collected using 


craniometric instruments. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was 

performed on the data using Fordisc 3.0 (Jantz and Ousley 2005) and all 

reported classification percentages were cross-validated. 

In a four-way DFA for country and ancestry using 22 variables, 

seventy one percent were correctly classified, and using nine stepwiseselected 

variables, seventy-seven percent were correctly classified, 

indicating significant differences among all groups. South African 

blacks have relatively shorter and wider noses, longer, lower, and 

narrower crania, and wider interorbital breadths. Additionally, sexual 

dimorphism is lower in South Africans because South African black 

males are on the whole relatively smaller, and South African black 

females are relatively larger, compared to American blacks. However, 

despite their larger overall size, South Africans have remarkably smaller 

mastoid processes, with the South African male mean mastoid height 

lower than the American female mean. When American white males and 

females were added in a six-way DFA using eight variables, they were 

classified with seventy-two percent accuracy and the South African 

means were intermediate between the means for South African blacks 

and American whites. These results are not unexpected, given the 

documented gene flow between white and black Americans, though 

South African and American blacks originate from different regions in 

Africa. 

Sex-specific analyses also illustrated differences between the 

American and South Africans blacks. In males, ninety one percent were 

correctly classified by country using just three measurements (NLH, 

NOL, and OBB) and likewise in females, eighty five percent were 

correctly classified using BBH, NLB, and ZMB. 

These results illustrate the inherent diversity in samples grouped 

into traditional races, and complement studies of other Africans, 

Chinese, Native Americans, and Southeast Asians. The identification of 

ancestry is relative to the forensic questions asked, and fine-grained 

estimation of ancestry will likely be successful in many cases. Further, 

the South African sample itself is ethnically diverse, and with a large 

enough sample, the recorded ethnic groups can be studied separately. 

These results also highlight the usefulness of diverse reference samples, 

which will unfortunately be needed in the future. 

Craniometrics, Ancestry, Discriminant Function Analysis 

H67 Death on America’s Southern Border: 

A Summary of Five Years of Genetic Data 



Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Baylor University, Forensic Research Lab, One 

Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798-7388; and Yasmine M. Baktash, 

BA, Baylor University, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 76798 


understanding of the issues involved with the identification process of 

deceased undocumented immigrants in the United States. In addition, 

attendees will hear a summary of the cases submitted to Reuniting 

Families for the past five years. The data obtained from HV1 and HV2 

mtDNA analysis performed for these cases will be discussed. Of 

particular focus will be the mtDNA variation across Latin America and 

the utility of this data in future identification of remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community and humanity 

by providing valuable insight into the genetic variation of the 

undocumented immigrant community, its reflection of the larger source 

populations of Latin America, and its ability to aid forensic scientist in 

the identification and repatriation of these persons. 


Significant numbers of undocumented immigrants enter the United 

States each year. According to the Pew Hispanic Center, the average 

number of people entering the United States illegally was 800,000 per 

year from 2000-2004 and 500,000 per year from 2005-2008. Roughly 

77% of illegal entrants are Hispanic with 59% from Mexico, 11% from 

Central America and 7% from South America. While accurate statistics 

are difficult to ascertain, it is appropriate to assert that hundreds of these 

migrants die each year entering the United States from the southern 

border. Conservative estimates of deaths due to illegal immigration 

typically exceed 300 per year, with the U.S. Border Patrol reporting 472 

for 2005, for example. Due to a tightening of border security that began 

in the 1990s, undocumented entry into the United States is confined to 

areas of desolate, inhospitable terrain. As a result, the remains of many 

illegal entrants that die along the 2,000 mile U.S./Mexico border are not 

found for weeks or months if at all. The efforts of migrants to conceal 

their identities, the large number of migrants per year and the delayed 

recovery of remains make the identification process for deceased 

undocumented border crossers extremely challenging. 

In 2003 efforts began at Baylor University to assist in the 

identification process of undocumented immigrants by establishing the 

Reuniting Families project. In 2004, an online database was launched 

and cases for DNA analysis were accepted. In 2005, the project teamed 

with Mexico’s Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores to launch a new 

database, Sistema de Identificación de Restos y Localización de 

Individuos, or SIRLI, in an attempt to facilitate efforts of locating 

missing Mexican citizens abroad, both living and deceased. Since 2004, 

Reuniting Families has analyzed the mtDNA from the remains of 301 

individuals believed to be undocumented immigrants. The samples 

submitted consist of 294 bone samples, 5 tooth samples, 1 hair, and 1 

dried blood sample. The project has identified 69 individuals to date 

with several tentative identifications pending further analysis. 

The data has reached the critical mass required to appropriately 

analyze the genetic diversity of the source populations from which these 

cases are derived. Briefly, the majority of cases that have been 

genetically characterized have mtDNA types that fall into modern 

American Indian variation. In rank order, the majority of samples are 

from mtDNA haplogroup A and the next largest haplogroup is B. Very 

few samples fall outside of one of the 4 major American Indian 

haplogroups. In addition, the attempted use of this data will be discussed 

in order to speculate on the origin of unknown samples. By 

understanding the genetic diversity of the source populations that 

contribute to the undocumented migrant population, an attempt has been 

made to pinpoint potential origins for our individuals without identity. 

mtDNA, Identification, Immigration 

104

H68 The Scientific Working Group for 


Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, DoD JPAC, Central ID Lab, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, FBI 

Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Bradley 

J. Adams, PhD, New York Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic 

Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Hugh E. 

Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, Middle 

Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; John E. 

Byrd, PhD, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853- 

5530; Leslie E. Eisenberg, PhD, 6228 Trail Ridge Court, Oregon, WI 

53575; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Michael 

Finnegan, PhD, Kansas State University, Osteology Lab, 204 Waters 

Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506; Diane L. France, PhD, Colorado State 

University, Human Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, Fort 

Collins, CO 80523; Lisa M. Leppo, PhD, U.S. Army QM Center & 

School, Joint Mortuary Affairs Center, 1201 22nd Street, Fort Lee, VA 

23801-1601; Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996- 

0720; Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-5000; Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department 

of Anthropology/Archaeology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; 

William C. Rodriguez III, PhD, Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850; 

Paul S. Sledzik, MS, NTSB, Office ofTransportation Disaster Assistance, 

490 L’Enfant Plaza, Southwest Washington, DC 20594; Richard M. 

Thomas, PhD, FBI Laboratory, DNA Unit II, Room 3220, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, 

JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Douglas H. 

Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH - MRC 112, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; Michael W. Warren, 

PhD, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 1376 Mowry Road, Room G17, 

PO Box 113615, Gainesville, FL 32610; and P. Willey, PhD, Chico State 

University, Department of Anthropology, Chico, CA 95929-0400 


creation, goals, and current efforts of the Scientific Working Group for 

Forensic Anthropology (SWGANTH). 

This presentation will impact the forensic anthropology community 

by presenting draft procedural guidelines developed by the Scientific 

Working Group for Forensic Anthropology in an open forum for the 

purpose of eliciting comment and discussion prior to finalization. 

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the Department of 

Defense Central Identification Laboratory (DOD CIL) co-sponsored the 

creation of the Scientific Working Group for Forensic Anthropology, or 

SWGANTH. The 20-member Board consists of professionals from the 

forensic anthropological community invited by the sponsors to represent 

a broad spectrum of expertise and jurisdictional involvement. 

The charter of the SWGANTH is to identify and recommend “best 

practice” within the forensic anthropology discipline. The SWGANTH 

is not a regulatory board with any formal coercive authority. Rather, the 

SWGANTH aims to develop consensus guidelines for the discipline of 

forensic anthropology, and to disseminate those guidelines to the broader 

forensic community. To this end, the SWGANTH is attempting to 

identify and codify existing standards, or, where clear standards don’t 

exist, to formulate and establish them. The SWGANTH has created 

committees, which are populated by United States and international 

forensic anthropologists, to examine targeted issues for the purpose of 

identifying what is best practice today and what paths should be followed 

in the future. 

For the purpose of the Scientific Working Group for Forensic 

Anthropology, forensic anthropology is succinctly defined as: The 

application of anthropological methods, techniques, and theory to 

matters pertinent to civil or criminal law. This definition is inclusive, 

not exclusive. Historically, at least in the United States, these “methods, 

techniques, and theory” of forensic anthropology have been drawn 

almost exclusively from the anthropological sub-disciplines of human 

osteology and archaeology, and the “matters pertinent to civil or criminal 

law” have been largely confined to: (1) the detection of buried human 

remains; (2) the recovery of buried or scattered human remains; (3) the 

generation of a biological profile from skeletal remains for the purpose 

of individual identification; and, (4) the interpretation of hard-tissue 

trauma. Certainly, while these aspects remain the core of Forensic 

Anthropology, this historical view has too often served to restrict the 

scope of the discipline. 

But times are changing, and the field of forensic anthropology is at 

last emerging as a full-fledged discipline in its own right. Concomitant 

with this emergence is the rapid, and in many respects, uncontrolled, 

expansion of the role and scope of forensic anthropology. This 

expanding scope occurs at the same time as there is a growing 

acknowledgment by forensic anthropologists of the need for 

standardization of the procedures and protocols currently in practice— 

both in the “traditional” framework of forensic anthropology as well as 

in the expanding roles that the discipline is radiating into. Gone, or at 

least waning, are the halcyon days of individuals employing 

idiosyncratic techniques and methods that lead to findings by fiat. 

Already, many anthropologists are employed in laboratories where they 

are held to regulatory, statutory, and institutional guidelines that leave 

little room for deviation, and especially in light of the recent report by 

the National Academy of Sciences, forensic anthropologists in all venues 

will need to demonstrate adherence to established and standardized 

protocols. 

This paradigm shift of forensic anthropology should not be viewed 

negatively. It is a healthy evolution, and one, arguably, long overdue. 

The challenge facing its practitioners is not (or at least should not be) 

how to arrest the change, or failing to do that, to forestall it as long as 

possible, but rather the challenge should be to direct the field’s 

development into the most professional, efficient, and profitable 

pathway. 

This symposium will review the SWGANTH’s current efforts to 

meet this challenge and will present summaries of draft guidelines to the 

forensic anthropology community for review and discussion prior to 

finalization. The summaries will be presented in four groups, and will 

conclude with an overview of the SWGANTH. 

Forensic Anthropology, Scientific Working Group, Professional 

Standards 


H69 Developing a Regional Forensic 

Taphonomy: Environmental and 

Climatic Inputs 

Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center, 

University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; William D. Haglund, PhD, 

20410 25th Avenue, Northwest, Shoreline, WA 98177; Edward David, 

MD, JD, 498 Essex Street, Bangor, ME 04401; Sarah A. Kiley, MS, 235 

Forest Hill Street, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130; William Parker, BS, 

Margaret Chase Smith, Policy Center, University of Maine, Orono, ME 

04469; Harold W. Borns, PhD, Climate Change Institute, University of 

Maine, Orono, ME 04469; John Burger, PhD, Department of Zoology, 

University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03834; John Dearborn, 

PhD, School of Marine Sciences, University of Maine, Orono, ME 

04469; Ann Dieffenbacher-Krall, PhD, Climate Change Institute, 

University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; Deborah Palman, MS, Maine 

K-9 Services, PO Box 57, Aurora, ME 04408; and Touradj Solouki, PhD, 

Department of Chemistry, University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469 

The goal of this presentation is for the attendee to better understand 

the potential for interdisciplinary environmental data and geographic 

information systems to improve death investigation using a regional 

taphonomic approach. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science vommunity by 

assisting the attendee to consider how a regional taphonomic approach 

might be developed for his or her jurisdiction. 

Regionally specific taphonomic models are necessary in forensic 

death investigation to correctly interpret the condition of the body, 

estimate time since death, and interpret cadaver dog searches. This is 

particularly true in outdoor settings where weather, climate, and 

topography affect temperature, moisture, and scavenging, and hence 

decomposition patterns. In order to refine the forensic taphonomy model 

for northern New England, this research uses an interdisciplinary 

approach (anthropology, geology, botany, entomology, chemistry, 

cadaver K-9 use, and wildlife management) with a combined 

methodology of forensic case series analysis and Geographic 

Information Systems (GIS) mapping of environmental variables. The 

project will also test key components of the revised model using 

actualistic experimentation with pig cadavers. In addition to public-use 

GIS environmental data layers and local GPS point data from the case 

series, the model incorporates a measure of accumulated degree days to 

characterize cases in the reference series that have a known time since 

death. Additional refinements include consideration of the impacts of 

recent climate change on necrophagous insect metamorphosis and on 

decomposition patterns. 

Although it is readily acknowledged that taphonomic interpretation 

is ideally an interdisciplinary effort, forensic death investigation 

generally relies upon anthropology or entomology alone to contribute a 

taphonomic perspective. The very real limits of jurisdictional financial 

resources often prevent more elaborate approaches. However, 

taphonomic input can be critical for forensic investigations, especially in 

estimating time of death, place of death, and in differentiating trauma 

from postmortem artifact. Through a university-government partnership 

we are developing an interdisciplinary taphonomy reference database 

and model to improve the quality and uniformity of multidisciplinary 

data collection at outdoor scenes, and provide an evidence base for 

interpreting these taphonomic data. The initial focus is on the related 

goals of improving detection of remains and interpreting time since 

death. 

In Phase I of the project a Northern New England GIS-Taphonomy 

Reference Archive (“NNE GIS-Taph”) was created using publicly 

available datasets, including: topography; soil type and pH; geology; 

hydrology; vegetation; leaf cover; precipitation; and temperature. These 

GIS layers were added to statewide orthographic aerial photography data 

for both leaf-on and leaf-off views. The environmental layers provide an 


archive of generic data that can be used to inform an investigation of a 

new forensic site. Those preliminary data can be made more specific as 

a cadaver search or a body recovery is done. Point data (with specific 

GPS locations) have been added for cases already in our reference series, 

which have a known time since death; point data for cadaver dog finds 

are also included. When remains have been found, data describing body 

condition and spatial distribution are added to the GIS-Taph, which 

functions as a relational database. GIS software applications can also 

accommodate digital photographs linked to spatial locations. In this way 

the system accumulates case data, which provide an ongoing evidence 

base for forensic interpretation and modeling. 

Another component of Phase I is the development of 

interdisciplinary assessment and data collection protocols. Members of 

the team have provided draft standards for a “rapid assessment” of a 

forensic scene’s environmental characteristics: geology (topsoil, 

topography, drainage, pH), botany (plants, pollen), zoology (insects, 

scavengers), and aquatic site characteristics, as well as characteristics 

that potentially impact detection by cadaver dogs. The environmental 

assessment tools will include data collection protocols for insects, plants, 

soils, vertebrate and invertebrate scavengers, and volatile chemicals. 

Data collection protocols will be tested on the pig cadaver experimental 

sites as they become available. The pig cadaver test sites are each paired 

with an environmentally similar control site for which the same data 

collection protocols will be used. Pig cadavers at most sites will be 

protected from mammalian scavenging by custom-built cages; at other 

sites scavenging will be documented with video cameras. 

Taphonomy, Environmental Assessment, Geographic Information 

Systems 

H70 Human Decomposition Ecology at the 



Franklin E. Damann, MA*, National Museum of Health and Medicine, 

AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, DC 20012-0685; and Aphantree 

Tanittaisong, MS, AFIP Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 

1413 Research Boulevard, Rockville, MD 20850 

After attending this presentation attendees will understand the 

importance of ecosystem ecology to studies of human decomposition. 

This presentation impacts the forensic community by providing a 

framework for study in forensic taphonomy as those studies relate to 

understanding decomposition, microbial activity, and time since death. 

Microbially-mediated decomposition of a corpse impacts the body 

and the soil environment. Carter and colleagues 1 referred to microbiallymediated 

alteration of the landscape as a Cadaver Decomposition Island 

(CDI) since the normal processes of the terrestrial ecosystem change in 

response to a pulse of high-quality resource over a small area. The 

addition of a rich nutrient source is defined by an increase in total carbon 

and water that supports an increase in the carrying capacity of the niche. 

An increase in microbial biomass and energy transformation follows, 

until the substrate cache of energy-bound biomolecules and nutrients are 

depleted and the site of cadaver decomposition returns to a level 

consistent with the larger biogeographical footprint. 1,2 

In order to study changes in the ecological setting of human 

decomposition, research was conducted at the University of Tennessee 

Anthropology Research Facility (UTARF). The UTARF has been 

engaged in human decomposition research for 28 years. Between 1981 

and 2006, 782 bodies have decomposed over a small wooded 1.3 acre 

plot of land. 3 As such, the goal of this research is to identify variation of 

soil parameters as they relate to microbial biomass, microbial 

community structure, and human decomposition. To that end, the spatial 

distribution of soil conditions at was addressed. Specific attention was 

given to soil type, organic content, moisture content, and pH as these 

106

modulators contribute to the underlying chemical environment where the 

thermodynamic activities of energy transformations control microbial 

activity. 4 Total carbon, nitrogen, microbial biomass, and microbial 

community structure were evaluated in conjunction with these basic soil 

parameters. Soil samples were collected following a stratified random 

sampling strategy. Strata were determined based on cadaver 

decomposition density per unit. A negative control stratum was defined 

as the area adjacent to the facility, located no less than five meters 

beyond the outer perimeter. In total, 57 soil samples were collected from 

the A-horizon (zero to 10 cm) of five different strata; with 12 originating 

below actively decomposing corpses. The samples were sifted to 

remove large debris, homogenized, and stored at -20˚C until analysis. 

Results of soil analysis classify the soils as very deep, well-drained, 

clayey soils that are derived from calcareous sandstone and shale. 5 The 

area encompassing the decomposition facility consists of partially 

decomposed hardwood leaf litter and dark reddish brown loam (5 YR 

3/3) making up the major component, with minor components being 

composed of yellowish-brown loam (10 YR 5/4). The western half of 

the facility has less slope than the eastern half, which approaches 25% 

and also includes a greater concentration of rocks. Chemical analysis of 

the recovered sediments indicated an average soil pH of 6.6 that varied 

from 4.8 to 8.0. These recordings are consistent with that reported 

previously. 2,5 Soil organic matter (SOM) was determined by loss-onignition 

and is reported as a percentage. For the sampled areas, SOM 

varied from 0.68 to 4.37 percent, and showed only slight differences 

among the sampled strata. Soil moisture content determined by oven 

drying 3.0 g to 5.0 g varied from 3 to 27 percent and showed significant 

differences between low and high concentrations of decomposition 

density. Interestingly, differences in mean water content were best 

explained when the data were split by terrain (i.e., slope), rather than the 

distribution of cadaver decomposition density. 

This project evaluated physical and chemical constituents of 

UTARF sediments since these parameters affect microbial biomass and 

microbial community structure. As evidenced by the basic soil data 

collected for this study, soil factors such as water content, organic 

content, and pH are largely determined by state factors (i.e., climate, 

topography, parent material, time) of a temperate urban forest biome, 

rather than the ephemeral and localized pulses of a CDI that have a 

greater effect on the influx of carbon and nitrogen and the composition 

of the microbial community. 

References: 

1 Carter DO, Yellowlees D, Tibbett M. Cadaver decomposition in 

terrestrial ecosystems. Naturwissenschaften 2007;94:12-24. 

2 Vass AA, Bass WM, Wolt JD, Foss JE, Ammons JT. Time since 

death determinations of human cadavers using soil solution. J 

Forensic Sci 1992;37(5):1236–53. 

3 Jantz LM, Jantz R. The Anthropology Research Facility: the 

outdoor laboratory of the Forensic Anthropology Center, University 

of Tennessee. In: Warren MW, Walsh-Haney HA, Freas LE editors. 

The Forensic Anthropology Laboratory. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 

2008;7-21. 

4 Voroney RP. The soil habitat. In Paul EA editor. Soil Microbiology, 

Ecology, and Biochemistry 3rd edition. Amsterdam: Academic 

Press, 2007;25-49. 

5 Hartgrove NT. Soil Survey of Knox County, Tennessee. USDA: 

Natural Resources Conservation Services, National Cooperative 

Soil Survey, 2006. 

Decomposition Ecology, Microbe Community Structure, 

Taphonomy 

H71 Deep Coastal Marine Taphonomy: Interim 




Gail S. Anderson, PhD*, and Lynne S. Bell, PhD, Simon Fraser 

University, School of Criminology, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC 

V5A 1S6, CANADA 


effect of deep coastal marine submergence on carcass decomposition and 

the abiotic and biotic factors which impact it. 


showing some of the myriad factors which can affect the breakdown of 

a carcass in the marine environment as well as recognize some of the 

artifacts created by animal feeding. 

Marine decomposition is a little investigated area within 

taphonomy. The nature and speed of decomposition, the mechanisms by 

which decomposition occur, and skeletal survival and dispersal patterns 

have been the subject of an ongoing marine based high-resolution study 

of located at a coastal deep sea site within the Saanich Inlet, BC. The 

study is supported by the VENUS (Victoria Experimental Network 

Under the Sea) underwater observatory and allows for real time 

observation using a number of remotely controlled cameras and sensors. 

Methods: The initial study deposited three pigs at three differing 

time intervals onto the sea floor in the Saanich Inlet. The inlet is a deep 

water fjord with a maximum depth of 230 m and is separated from the 

Strait of Georgia by a sill, which restricts the flow of water into and out 

of the inlet. This results in the inlet being anoxic for the majority of the 

year. The site of the first two carcass placements was at a depth of 94 m 

and the third was approximately 65 m away at a depth of 99 m. The 

placement sites were fine silt with cobble, over rock. Each carcass was 

freshly killed, and weighed approximately 26 kg. A remotely operated 

video and still digital camera, with an array of lights, mounted on a 

tripod, was placed at the site a day earlier by ROPOS (Remote Operated 

Platform for Oceanic Science), and then the weighted carcass was 

positioned optimally under the camera remotely, by ROPOS. The 

camera site was close to an array of sensors measuring the physical 

conditions of the water, including a Seabird and a Falmouth CTD 

measuring conductivity, temperature, and depth at 1 and 60 second 

intervals, a gas tension device, an oxygen optode and a Sea-Tech 

Transmissometer. Data from these instruments can be downloaded at 

www.venus.uvic.ca. Three carcasses were placed over time, in August 

and September. The method of observation and data collection was 

undertaken by real time digital video feed, with desk top control of 

cameras, and sensor data of salinity, pressure, temperature and oxygen 

levels. 

Results: The results from our ongoing study to date, indicate that 

there is a key interplay between four key organisms, Dungeness crabs 

(Cancer magister Dana), three spot shrimp (Pandalus platyceros 

Brandt), squat lobsters (Munida quadrispina Benedict, Family 

Galatheidae), the amphipod Orchomenella obtusa Sars (Family 

Lysianassidae) and dissolved oxygen levels. Low dissolved oxygen 

levels did not prevent faunal colonization, even at levels considered 

below tolerance level, indicating that the carcass provided a very 

valuable resource. Fauna remained at the carcass, rapidly skeletonizing 

it, even when oxygen levels dropped to 0.2 mL/L. However, when a 

carcass was placed at the site during a time of extremely low oxygen 

levels, larger scavengers such as Cancer magister, were not attracted and 

smaller scavengers, such as squat lobsters, could not break the skin, 

leaving the carcass intact for months. 

Decomposition was seen to slow due to reduced faunal activity in 

borderline hypoxic levels and to be fully inhibited during hypoxic 

conditions. However, as soon as oxygen levels increased, a 

recommencement of faunal activity would reassert itself. This interplay 


with environmental conditions resulted in the pig carcasses skeletonizing 

at differing rates. Hence, we conclude, that oxygen is an important cofactor 

in skeletonization rates in concert with the dominant fauna at this 

experimental site. 

Faunal diversity was much less than at shallower depths in nearby waters 

although actual numbers were much higher and carcasses were 

skeletonized much faster, despite lower water temperatures and lower 

dissolved oxygen levels 1 . 

Conclusions This study has shown that decomposition and 

taphonomic changes in the marine environment are very variable and 

depend greatly on the abiotic and biotic factors of the surrounding area, 

in particular, oxygen levels. As long as scavengers are originally 

attracted to a carcass during times of adequate oxygen levels, they will 

remain despite drops to near anoxic levels. However, if the carcass is 

deployed during a period of very low dissolved oxygen, larger 

scavengers are unable to colonize. This is an ongoing study. 

Reference: 

1 Anderson GS, Hobischak NR. Decomposition of Carrion in the 

Marine Environment in British Columbia, Canada. Int J Legal Med. 

2004;118(4):206-9. 

Marine, Taphonomy, Oxygen 

H72 An Experimental Study of Putrefaction and 

Decomposition in Aqueous Environments 

Kristen E. Greenwald, MA*, 32 10th Street, Hermosa Beach, CA 90254 

After attending this presentation attendees will have a better 

understanding of the stages of decomposition in both salt and fresh water 

environments, helping them to determine a more accurate postmortem 

interval for submerged corpses. 


a controlled experiment recording the postmortem changes that occur 

during decomposition in aquatic environments during two seasons in 

Southern California. The majority of previous research conducted on 

decomposition in aquatic environments is primarily based on case 

studies, thus making this research invaluable for aquatic death 


Understanding the process of putrefaction and decomposition in all 

types of environments is crucial for both forensic anthropologists and 

law enforcement officials. Although the relationship between 

decomposition and postmortem interval has been well studied, actual 

controlled studies of the physical disturbances occurring as a result of 

decomposition of corpses in aqueous environments is rare. This 

represents an unfortunate lapse in research, because many forensic cases 

are recovered from marine, riverine, or lacustrine environments. Such 

cases tend to create considerable taphonomic difficulties, because the 

majority of forensic remains found in water are inextricably bound to 

their hydraulic behavior as carcasses, their loss of soft tissue and 

subsequent disarticulation, and the taphonomic environment in which 

these processes occur. 

To document differences in the stages of the decomposition process 

in salt versus fresh water, a controlled experiment was designed to mimic 

a submerged corpse in a forensic setting. Four adult swine (Sus scrofa), 

purchased and euthanized at the Meat Science Facility at California State 

Polytechnic University in Pomona, California, were used for the 

experiment. The swine were placed in four separate seventy-five gallon 

tanks. Tanks A and C were filled with saltwater obtained from a depth 

of ten feet off the coast in San Pedro, California. Tanks B and D were 

filled with freshwater from Lake Cahuilla in La Quinta, California. To 

account for the seasonal difference in California, the water in tanks A and 

B were chilled to pre-calculated temperatures that mimic California’s 

winter water temperatures while Tanks C and D were chilled to mimic 

California’s summer water temperatures. Data collected included visual 

observations and photographs made twice a day for the first four weeks 


and then once a day for the remaining six weeks of the study. The 

presence or absence of insect activity was also noted. 

At the end of the seventy-five day experiment significant 

differences in the stages of decomposition were observed between the 

saltwater and freshwater carcasses. In both the winter and summer 

carcasses in saltwater, the decomposition process was significantly 

slower than in the freshwater carcasses. 

• Pig A (Saltwater/Winter): The specimen in this tank was the 

most expressive of the impact of saltwater on the rate of 

decomposition. By day four of the study, the specimen 

showed very minor bloating in the abdominal region. On day 

twenty of the study, a bulge in the abdomen split exposing a 

minor section of the intestines. Deflation began on day fortyfive. 

Complete skeletonization did not occur during the 

duration of the study. 

• Pig B (Freshwater/Winter): Minor bloating began on day four 

of the study and the abdomen split revealing a large section of 

the intestines on day twenty. Deflation of the carcass began 

on day thirty-two. Complete skeletonization did not occur 

during the duration of the study. 

• Pig C (Saltwater/Summer): On day four of the experiment, 

the specimen began bloating slightly. By day eight, the 

abdominal region had opened exposing the intestines. Dead 

flies were found floating on the surface of the water on day 

twenty-four and deflation of the carcass began on day fortytwo. 

Complete skeletonization did not occur during the 

duration of the study. 

• Pig D (Freshwater/Summer): The bloat stage began on day 

three and continued for the majority of the experiment. The 

bloat was so severe that the carcass nearly fell out of the tank. 

On day seven of the study, the abdomen split completely, 

exposing the intestines and stomach. By day twenty-seven of 

the study, deflation of the abdomen and upper torso began. On 

day twenty-eight, skin slippage appeared on the exposed 

surface of the carcass. On day sixty of the experiment, 

disarticulation began and continued until the end of the study. 

Complete skeletonization of the carcass did not occur during 

the duration of the study. 

In addition to providing preliminary insight into the impact of 

saltwater and freshwater on decomposition, this study may be used as a 

catalyst for further study into aquatic decomposition and more 

specifically the stages of saltwater decomposition in comparison to 

freshwater decomposition. 

Decomposition, Aquatic, Putrefaction 

H73 Decomposition in Water: The Effects of 

Climate on the Rate of Decay in 

New England 

Peter J. Colleran, BS*, and Mallory S. Littman, BA, Boston University 

School of Medicine, 715 Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; Billie L. Seet, 

MA, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Boston, MA 02118; Tara L. 

Moore, PhD, Boston University School of Medicine, 700 Albany St., 

Boston, MA 02118; Debra A. Prince, PhD, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, Boston, MA 02118 

The goals of this presentation are to educate attendees on the 

differences in the rate of decay in New England versus regions with 

temperate climates and to bring to attention the gap in the literature in 

regards to both cold climate and water decomposition. 

108

This presentation will impact the forensic community by helping 

medical examiners and forensic pathologists become more accurate in 

their postmortem interval estimations. This will, in turn, aid lawyers and 

investigators because they can establish a more accurate timeline of 

events and corroborate alibis more efficiently. Families of victims will 

also be aided by this work because accurate time since death estimations 

can help medical examiners and medicolegal death investigators identify 

decedents that might have otherwise remained unidentified. 

New England experiences variable weather throughout the year. 

New England winters are often very cold and dry, while summers are 

mostly warm and humid. After attending this presentation, the audience 

will realize the significance of the gap in the literature about cold climate 

decomposition and decomposition in water. The audience will also 

understand the differences in the rate of decay in New England versus 

the hot, humid environments, in which much of the research on 

decomposition in the United States has taken place. 

Medical examiners, forensic pathologists, medicolegal death 

investigators, and forensic anthropologists benefit immensely from 

decomposition studies. 1 Previous research that has focused on 

decomposition has been conducted in different environments, which aids 

forensic investigators who recover human remains in trying to identify 

the decedents and estimate time since death. 2 Compounding variables, 

such as ambient temperature, geographic location, and predator activity, 

make the task of gleaning information from a body very difficult. 7 

Decomposition studies considering these real-life variables are essential 

for investigators to perform their duties most efficiently. 

Cold climate and water both serve to decrease the rate of decay 

significantly. 3 Ambient temperature influences the rate of decay 

dramatically; yet, decomposition studies have been performed mostly in 

temperate climates. 5 Similar experiments must be carried out in different 

regions of the world with differing environmental conditions. 4 In regard 

to water decomposition, much of what is known on the subject comes 

from case studies. Many bodies are found in water every year at 

different stages of decomposition. There is still much to be determined 

about how aquatic environments influence the process of decomposition 

on a stage-to-stage level. 6 Studies must be performed to determine what 

factors are affected and how when a body is found in the presence of 

water. Systematic studies on decomposition in water are also necessary 

to test and confirm hypotheses about how water affects the rate of decay. 

This presentation will exhibit the results of a systematic research 

project on fetal pig decomposition in water performed in two phases. 

Phase I was performed between the months of February and May of 2009 

in a wooded environment in New England. Phase II was performed in 

July of 2009 in the same environment. Four pigs were used in each 

phase of the project. Each pig was initially submerged in water in a 

plastic five-gallon bucket. In each phase, two pigs were placed in salt 

water and two pigs were placed in fresh water. The saltwater came from 

an urban beach in Boston, MA and the freshwater was taken from 

stagnant water in an old cranberry bog. The buckets were kept in aerated 

cages to prevent vertebrate scavenging; however, the cages permitted 

insect activity. The carrion in Phase II displayed a rapid rate of decay 

compared to the carrion in Phase I. Each pig decayed differently, but 

trends were recognized. Preliminary results indicate that water 

temperature is the most significant determining factor when considering 

the rate of decay. Results also showed that the water in each bucket (both 

fresh water and salt water) became more alkaline over time. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by helping 

medical examiners and forensic pathologists become more accurate in 

their postmortem interval estimations. This will, in turn, aid lawyers and 

investigators because they can establish a more accurate timeline of 

events and corroborate alibis more efficiently. Families of victims will 

also be aided by this work because accurate time since death estimations 

can help medical examiners and medicolegal death investigators identify 

decedents that might have otherwise remained unidentified. 

References: 

1 Bunch AW. The impact of cold climate on the decomposition 

process. J Forensic Identification 2009; 59(1):26-44. 

2 Vass, AA. Beyond the grave—understanding human 

decomposition. Microbiology Today 2001;28:190-192. 

3 Matoba K, Terawaza K. Estimation of the time of death of 

decomposed or skeletonized bodies found outdoors in cold season 

in Sapporo city, located in the northern district of Japan. Legal 

Medicine 2008;10:78-82. 

4 Mann RW, Bass WM, Meadows L. Time since death and 

decomposition of the human body: Variables and observation in 

case and experimental field studies. J Forensic Sci 1990;35: 

103-111. 

5 Komar DA. Decay rates in a cold climate region: A review of cases 

involving advanced decomposition from the Medical Examiner’s 

Office in Edmonton, Alberta. J Forensic Sci 1998;43(1):57-61. 

6 Anderson GS, Hobischak NR. Decomposition of carrion in the 

marine environment in British Columbia, Canada. Int J Legal Med 

2004;118:206-209. 

7 Prieto JL, Magana C, and Ubelaker DH. Interpretation of 

postmortem changes in cadavers in Spain. J of Forensic Sci 

2004;49(5):1-6. 

Forensic Anthropology, Aqueous Environments, Time Since Death 

H74 Dead on Time? The Repellent Effect of 

Liquid Petroleum Gas on Time Since 

Death Estimation 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, University of Bradford, Bradford, BD7 1DP, 


After attending this presentation, participants will have an 

understanding of the impact of liquid petroleum gas may have on fly 

colonization, and its potential to lead to an under-estimate of PMI in 

tested environments. 

The presentation will impact the forensic science by indicating 

possible variables affecting the level of accuracy of postmortem interval 

methods in domestic gas related deaths from a taphonomic perspective. 

The findings are relevant in eliminating foul play to include preventing 

insect colonization, or concealing a body in clandestine disposals. 

The succession pattern of Diptera calliphoridae in the presence of 

chemical attractants ethanethiol and sulphur, contained in Liquefied 

Petroleum Gas (LPG) was observed, with an aim to investigate whether 

traces of a gas leak can distort postmortem interval (PMI) estimations. 

After attending this presentation, participants will have an understanding 

of the impact this type of domestic gas may have on fly colonisation, and 

its potential to lead to an under-estimate of PMI in tested environments. 

The research will impact the forensic science by indicating possible 

variables affecting the level of accuracy of postmortem interval methods 

in domestic gas related deaths from a taphonomic perspective. The 

findings are relevant in eliminating foul play to include preventing insect 

colonisation, or concealing a body in clandestine disposals. 

The transformative process of taphonomic modifications during the 

decomposition process is universally accepted to depend largely on 

ambient temperature, with an optimal condition for the development of 

bacteria and insect succession between 20 C° and 30 C°. Chemical 

attractants tested are also significantly dependant on climatic conditions 

with high temperatures and dry climate causing LPG to evaporate at 

higher speed, effectively reducing its impact on Diptera colonisation. 

The effect of LPG gas leaks on decomposition rates was assessed with 

hypothesis testing by statistical analysis, assuming that LPG and ambient 

temperature will act in unison as main factors affecting Diptera 

colonization. 


LPG is commonly used in households as well as caravanning and 

vehicles. It is a low carbon emitting fuel, a mixture of gases primarily 

propane, butane with traces of ethanethiol, sulphur and mercaptan 

artificially added so that leaks can be detected easily. These components 

in domestic gas act as chemical attractants to flies, like decomposing 

corpses. Here, during the putrefactive process, similar gasses such as 

sulfur and methane compounds are released and appeal to various 

insects. Due to its scenting, LPG may have a repellant effect on fly 

attraction to cadavers during various stages of decomposition. Hydrogen 

sulphide alone is generally heavy with strong odour concentration and 

may distract the flies from the cadaver. 

Field experiments were carried out on the south Croatian coast 

(43.02° N, 17.57° E) over a period of 30 days in June 2007, and repeated 

in June 2008 to confirm previous observations. Fieldwork involved 

comparison of decomposition pattern between samples exposed to LPG 

leaks, and those not affected by it, in indoor and outer environments. 

This was achieved by means of recording and analysing fly succession 

and decomposition rates at the average ambient temperature of 25 C°. 

The sample size comprised eight adult carcasses of Sus scrofa ranging 

from 23 to 25 kg, and eight pig livers each weighting approximately 1kg, 

utilised as control samples. Carcasses tested for the effect of LPG gas 

leaks were placed in the direct vicinity of gas bottles with the minimum 

leak set up, whilst control samples were positioned three meters away 

from the gas bottles. Sticky tapes were placed on the gas bottles, to 

analyse flies attracted to the chemical attractants themselves. Carcasses 

were kept in metal cages to minimise interference by local scavengers. 

Sampling, recording and observation was conducted randomly twice a 

day during the first week, and once a day for the rest of the experiment. 

Environmental data was obtained from the local Hydro-meteorological 

Station. 

Statistical analyses confirmed that increased ambient temperature 

reduced the impact of a gas leak on decomposition rates in both 

environments (Mann-Whitney p=0.6772; p=0.6722). Statistically 

significant time of an average of 10 days in indoor ambient, and 7 days 

in outdoor setting in decomposition rates was demonstrated at an average 

of 20 C° (Mann-Whitney p=0.0331; p=0.41125), stated with 95% 

confidence. This way, the null hypothesis is accepted. The Putrefaction 

stage was the least affected as opposed to the Fresh stage and the late 

Decay in outdoor environment at an average of 27 C°. Fly succession 

was further statistically significant (ANOVA, Fisher test, α = 0.005), 

with the maximum delay of 6 hours (S.D. = 4.1) during the Putrefaction 

stage at 21 C° in outer environment, and maximum of 5 hours (S.D. 

=3.2h) at average of 20 C° during the Decay stage in indoor settings. No 

general relation was found between control samples and tested carcasses 

with regards to the distance of gas bottles. 

Variations in the rate of decomposition were associated with the gas 

leak and the effect of ambient temperature in both tested environments. 

These preliminary results demonstrate the need for further research in 

this area and caution when estimating postmortem interval for domestic 

gas related deaths, especially for subjects in advanced stages of 


Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Time Since Death, Taphonomy 

H75 Predicting the Postmortem Submersion 

Interval From the Adipocere Formation 

on Rabbits 

Marcella M.C. Widya, BSc*, 14 Stanleyfield Road, Preston, Lancashire 

PR1 1QL, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a new 

understanding of the early stages of adipocere formation in relation to 

accumulated degree days (ADD) in submersed remains. 


This presentation will impact the forensic community by assessing 

the link between adipocere formation and ADD, thus providing 

information that can assist in a more accurate estimation of postmortem 

interval (PMI). 

Adipocere is often present on decomposing bodies found in damp 

environments. The formation of adipocere is influenced by a number of 

factors such as the requirement of a moist and anaerobic environment. In 

some circumstances the presence of adipocere may retard 

decomposition. This has the potential to make PMI estimation in such 

cases difficult. Limited research has been conducted to assess the 

applicability of adipocere formation to the estimation of postmortem 

interval, or the impact of adipocere formation on decomposition in 

relation to ADD. This paper explores the correlation between ADD and 

the early stage formation of adipocere. 

This study, using 60 wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) carcasses, 

was carried out in northwest England. A control group (N=30) was 

deposited on the surface in direct contact with the ground. Chicken-wire 

cages were used to prevent scavenging. The rabbits of the experimental 

group (N=30) were submersed in water in individual buckets. Chickenwire 

fencing on top of the buckets was used to prevent carcass floatation 

and to ensure complete submersion throughout the duration of the 

experiment. Thermocouples and dataloggers were used to measure the 

water temperatures, individual inner body temperatures and ambient 

temperature at the site. Data collection protocol for both groups was 

carried out every 100 ADD. This included assigning a Total Body Score 

(TBS), taking soil and water samples for pH measurement and for the 

submersed group, examining the subcutaneous adipose tissue and the 

internal organs. 

The preliminary results of this experiment indicate that adipocere is 

more likely to form after 630 ADD on submersed remains. No adipocere 

was formed on any of the control group rabbits. The late occurrence of 

adipocere establishes the fact that its formation is a feature related to the 

advanced stages of decomposition. The adipocere found was in its early 

stage of formation, despite the advanced decomposition of the rabbit 

carcasses. Previously published case studies indicate that adipocere can 

also be found on submerged bodies in less advanced stages of 

decomposition (O’Brien & Kuehner 2007; Nishimura et al, 2009). This 

implies that there are multiple factors influencing its formation. 

An important factor in the formation of adipocere is the exposure of 

the adipose and other internal tissues to water. Intact skin prohibits this 

contact and therefore may inhibit adipocere formation. Skin slippage is 

a recognised feature in decomposition which can be used to establish 

PMI (Heaton, et al., in press). In cases where PMI estimation may have 

been complicated by adipocere formation, knowing that skin sloughing 

had to have taken place before the adipocere could have been formed 

could assist in establishing a more accurate PMI. 

More extensive research is needed to fully establish the linkages 

between adipocere formation and ADD. 

Adipocere, Postmortem Interval, Accumulated Degree Days 

H76 Differential Decomposition in Terrestrial, 

Saltwater, and Freshwater Environments: 

A Pilot Study 

Laura E. Ayers, BA*, 206 B Redbud, New Braunfels, TX 78130 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how 

decomposition rates can differ between terrestrial, freshwater, and 

saltwater environments in central Texas. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by helping to 

expand the knowledge base of information regarding rates of 

decomposition, which will in turn aid investigators in estimating 

postmortem interval in forensic settings. 

110

The study of decomposition is essential for any forensic 

anthropologist for estimating postmortem interval. While surface rates 

of decomposition are well studied, especially in certain areas (Mann et 

al. 1990), the decomposition rate of bodies submerged in water have not 

been well studied using controlled experiments (Haglund & Sorg 2002; 

Sorg et al. 1997). Most forensic anthropologists simply rely on the 

generalization that a body decomposing one week on land is equivalent 

to two weeks in the water (after Mann et al. 1990). In addition, there has 

not been much investigation into whether a saltwater environment affects 

decomposition differently than a freshwater environment. 

This study aimed to address three questions: (1) Does submersion 

in water affect the rate of decomposition compared to terrestrial surface 

decomposition?; (2) Does this effect support the longstanding 

generalization?; (3) Does type of water (salt or fresh) differentially 

affects the rate of decomposition? Following anecdotal evidence, it was 

hypothesized that the surface specimens would decompose the fastest, 

the specimens in freshwater would decompose slower, and specimens in 

saltwater would decompose the slowest of all. 

This study took place outdoors at the Forensic Anthropological 

Research Facility at Texas State University-San Marcos, Texas. Though 

human remains and pig carcasses do float differently in water (Haglund 

& Sorg 2002), pig carcasses were used in this experiment in lieu of 

human remains due to their similarity to human tissue, as well as for 

practical constraints. Six pigs (Sus scrota) with weights from 20-30 lbs 

(9-13.6 kg) were humanely euthanized following Institutional Animal 

Care and Use Committee guidelines. Carcasses were placed on the 

surface of the ground (N=2), in saltwater tanks (N=2) with water created 

by mixing freshwater with a purchased saltwater mix, and in freshwater 

tanks (N=2) with water from the local Edwards Aquifer. Salinity in the 

saltwater tanks was the same as the Gulf of Mexico (34-36 ppts; 

Boatman 2006). Air and water temperatures were recorded daily. The 

surface carcasses and tanks were penned to prevent animal scavenging. 

The study was completed when all specimens were fully skeletonized. 

While placement in water affected the rate of decomposition, 

placement in freshwater made the specimens decompose much faster 

than those on land or placed in saltwater, at least in the summer 

environment of central Texas. This was due to the high temperatures 

killing the maggot masses present on the surface carcasses only one day 

after hatching, while the maggot masses on the freshwater carcasses 

lived and thrived, possibly because the water was on average 8-12 

degrees Fahrenheit cooler than ambient temperature. Thus, the effect of 

water on decomposition did not support the longstanding generalization 

in the field, as the carcasses in freshwater decomposed much more 

quickly than the surface carcasses. In addition, the type of water 

differentially affected the rate of decomposition, as the carcasses in 

saltwater decomposed much more slowly than the carcasses placed in 

freshwater or on the surface. The reason for this slower rate is likely 

related to the fact that the carcasses in saltwater did not have burst 

abdomens with intestinal protrusion present in the carcasses in 

freshwater, which were most likely the result of osmosis. The intestinal 

protrusion on the freshwater specimens attracted blowflies, while the 

carcasses in saltwater did not, and thus with no insect activity the 

decomposition rate stagnated. This differential decomposition in diverse 

environments, whether open-air terrestrial or in fresh or saltwater, is 

important to consider in Texas because there because of an abundance of 

freshwater lakes and rivers and the proximity of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Forensic Anthropology, Decomposition, Postmortem Interval 

H77 Inter- and Intra-Element Variation in 

Carnivore and Rodent Scavenging Patterns 

in Northern California 

Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, 400 West First Street, Department of 

Anthropology, Butte #311, California State University-Chico, Chico, CA 

95929-0400; and Lisa N. Bright, BS*, 1259 Hobart, Chico, CA 95926 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a more 

complete understanding of postmortem artifacts from human remains 

created by animal scavengers, and their distribution in forensic cases 

from northern California. The goals of this research include: 1) an 

assessment of inter and intra-element patterning of postmortem 

modifications on human remains caused by animal scavengers; 2) a 

metric analysis of canine impact damage in relation to carnivore tooth 

dimensions; and 3) an evaluation of taphonomic models for predicting 

disarticulation sequences and time-since-death estimates in the western 

United States. 


a critical evaluation of the various taphonomic signatures caused by 

animal scavengers and their relationship to understanding sequences of 

disarticulation. 

Taphonomy has become an integral area of research within forensic 

anthropology since the late 1980s. Previous studies have generally 

focused on field or laboratory-based experiments, retrospective case 

reviews, or individual case reports. However, little recent attention has 

been devoted to more detailed study of postmortem damage created by 

animal scavengers in larger forensic collections. Throughout rural 

northern California, decomposed and skeletonized human remains 

recovered from outdoor contexts commonly show evidence of carnivore 

and rodent tooth impact damage. Although their distribution varies by 

region, key mammalian scavengers include black bears, coyotes, 

raccoons, opossums, squirrels, and various rodents. A previous survey of 

scavenged forensic cases from northern California indicated that 

medium-to-large bodied carnivores (canids and black bears) are 

responsible for the majority of the postmortem damage to skeletal 

remains (Bartelink and Bright 2009). 

This study examines twenty two forensic cases involving animal 

scavenging submitted for analysis to the California State University, 

Chico Human Identification Laboratory (CSUC-HIL). Sixteen of the 

cases are curated at the CSUC-HIL, with the remainder (n=6) 

documented from previous case reports. The cases derive from 13 

counties in northern California, and were originally submitted between 

1986 and 2009. With one exception, all cases derive from outdoor 

contexts. For each case, a complete inventory was conducted and the 

pattern of scavenging documented. Diagrams were used to record the 

completeness of all scavenged elements, and the distribution of tooth 

impact damage (e.g., furrows, pits, punctures, striations) and spiral 

fractures within each element. The percentage of bone missing due to 

scavenging was recorded for all appendicular elements using an ordinal 

scale as a measure of scavenging intensity. A second component of this 

research attempted to identify involvement of specific scavenger species 

associated with the tooth impact damage. Digital calipers were used to 

measure the maximum diameter of shallow pits as well as deeper 

puncture marks associated with carnivore scavenging. In addition, 

dental measurements were recorded for the canine teeth of several 

scavenger species from the CSUC zooarchaeology comparative 

collection (e.g., black bear, coyote, grey fox, mountain lion, and 

raccoon). The maximum diameter of the distal canine tip, maximum 

labio-lingual crown diameter, and maximum mesio-distal crown 

diameter was recorded with digital dental calipers for each specimen. 

Bivariate plots were used to compare distal canine diameters with 

shallow pits and maximum crown measurements with puncture marks. 

The results indicate that the most intensively scavenged 

appendicular segments are the pubis and ischium, followed by the 


proximal ulna, tibia, humerus, and radius. In general, distal and 

especially midshaft segments were less intensively scavenged. The 

pattern of more intensive carnivore involvement in proximal segments 

likely reflects differences in the amount of soft tissue available and the 

extent of decomposition and disarticulation at the time of discovery. 

Approximately 50% of all elements examined showed evidence of 

animal scavenging, with 98% of elements affected by carnivores and 

7.5% by rodents. Carnivore tooth impact marks were most common on 

the hand, ribs, and lower limb elements, and rarely observed in vertebrae, 

sterna, and in the skull. Rodent gnawing damage most commonly 

occurred on the skull, and along muscle attachment sites of the femora 

and innominates. Spiral fractures likely caused by scavengers were 

observed only in six cases, and most commonly affected humeri and 

ulnae. Preliminary analysis of pit and puncture diameters also appears 

promising for differentiating tooth impact marks caused by black bears 

versus medium-sized carnivores (coyote, grey fox, and raccoon). The 

implications of these findings for understanding disarticulation 

sequences and limitations of time-since-death estimates are discussed. 

Scavenging, Taphonomy, Postmortem Interval 

H78 Southeast Texas Applied Forensic Science 






Huntsville, TX 77340 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the new willed-body 

donor program and human decomposition facility at Sam Houston State 

University and discuss current research and training opportunities being 

conducted there. 


bringing awareness to this new research and training facility. This 

facility can be used by researchers to perform various types of research 

on human cadavers. 

In 2007, a proposal for the development of a willed-body donor 

program and forensic anthropology human decomposition facility was 

submitted to the administration of Sam Houston State University. The 

proposal was approved March 12, 2008 and internal funding was 

allocated for the construction of an outdoor facility and building. 

Construction of the outdoor facility began in early September 2008. The 

outdoor facility was completed in October 2008. The construction of the 

building began in January 2009 and was completed in July 2009. Nine 

acres of a 247 acre parcel, managed by the Center for Biological Field 

Studies, was dedicated to the STAFS facility. Both internal and external 

administrative and governmental requirements were satisfied during the 

latter part of 2008 and the beginning of 2009. 

This new facility is dedicated to research, education, and training 

for anthropologists, entomologists, other forensic experts, law 

enforcement agents and students. The College of Criminal Justice at 

Sam Houston State University is one of the oldest and largest criminal 

justice education and training facilities. It educates and trains both 

national and international graduate and undergraduate students and law 

enforcement agents. The College was established by the Texas 

legislature in 1965 under House Resolution 469, which directed the 

university to establish a program of excellence in research, training, 

technical assistance and consultant services, and continuing education. 

In 2001, the College of Criminal Justice began a Forensic Science 

Masters program which was accredited in 2009. In 2006, the College of 

Criminal Justice and the forensic science program began pursuing the 

development of the STAFS facility. 


Outdoor Facility: As stated above, the nine acre parcel is located 

within a 247 acre parcel owned by the university. It is restricted to 

authorized personnel only by a numerical code gate entry and fencing 

surrounds the whole 247 acre perimeter. A portion of the north, east, and 

south property borders abut to the Sam Houston State Park. The west 

property line abuts to privately-owned, undeveloped forest land. 

One acre of the nine acre parcel is enclosed with maximum security 

fence and is used for research on human cadavers that are donated to the 

facility. The maximum security fence consists of an 8’ chain link fence 

with privacy slats and razor wire attached to the top. Entry to the facility 

is restricted to a man and field gate, visible from the building. A variety 

of environmental settings are enclosed in the acre, such as open, 

unobstructed areas, wooded, shaded, and sun exposed areas. A creek 

runs through a corner of the acre and an area has been designated for 

automobile or small building structures for indoor body depositions. 

Indoor Facility: The building is located approximately fifty yards 

from the outdoor facility and is approximately 2,400 square feet. The 

building contains a necropsy suite, a lab prep room, a collection room, 

walk-in freezer and cooler units, a digital radiograph area, and an office. 

The building is equipped with sophisticated equipment, such as a digital 

radiograph unit and a SpecFinder microscope. It is also equipped with 

compound and stereomicroscopes, and multiple computer workstations. 

The facility has received six body donations as of July 2009 and 

multiple research projects are underway. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Decomposition, Willed-Body Donor 

Program 

H79 Establishing a Taphonomic Research 

Facility in the United Kingdom 

Tal Simmons, PhD, Peter A. Cross, MSc*, and Rachel E. Cunliffe, MSC, 

University of Central Lancashire, School of Forensic and Investigative 

Sciences, Preston, AS PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 


understanding of the ethical and legislative issues that impact the 

establishment of a taphonomic research facility using animal models in 

the United Kingdom. This will also enable comparison with the 

establishment of facilities using human cadavers within the United 

States. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by explaining 

the importance of and need for rigorous experimental taphonomy and the 

benefits which the uses of animal models bring to taphonomic research. 

This presentation will demonstrate that with the necessary resources, 

enthusiasm, commitment and determination, such centres of excellence 

can be established. 

A number of taphonomic research facilities, using human cadavers, 

have been established in the United States. The Anthropological 

research Facility at the University of Tennessee was the first contributor 

to research in this field. More recent facilities include Texas State 

University, Western Carolina University, and Wichita State University. 

In May 2009, The University of Central Lancashire, United Kingdom, 

established TRACES (Taphonomic Research in Anthropology – Centre 

for Experimental Study), the first United Kingdom facility dedicated to 

taphonomic research using animal models. 

While human cadaver use enables important direct comparisons to 

forensic cases, and facilitates small scale experimental study, the use of 

animal models enables much larger studies to be carried out and allows 

more robust experimental testing of factors that have been considered 

important influences of the processes of decomposition. 

Whether a facility uses human cadavers or animal models the issues 

that arise can be common to both. Considerable investment of financial 

resources is required, and this can only be realised with support and 

commitment from the university’s directorate level. A major factor 

112

encountered in the establishment of such a facility anywhere is local 

community concerns, and these necessitate the need for lengthy 

consultation with both immediate neighbours and the wider local 

community. In the United Kingdom planning legislation is complex, and 

the potential restrictions that result can take considerable time to 

negotiate. Local authority planning approval is required for any change 

of land or building use, as well as new developments. 

The use of animal models also poses specific ethical and legislative 

concerns, many specific to the United Kingdom, that require 

consideration. This begins at the university ethics board which will 

consider all research proposals relating to animal use. The production of 

animals specifically for taphonomic research is rarely allowed and such 

animals must have been bred and reared for commercial meat production 

and, therefore, destined for slaughter. Environmental protection, with 

particular emphasis on groundwater pollution is heavily regulated and 

will require both groundwater vulnerability assessments as well as 

liaison with external regulatory bodies. Veterinary input is essential to 

develop procedures and protocols to deal with animal welfare and 

slaughter. Recent events in the United Kingdom concerning outbreaks 

of Foot and Mouth, Avian Flu, and Blue Tongue Disease mean that a 

comprehensive bio-security protocol is required. Related to bio-security 

are the regulations relating the use of animal by-products and their 

disposal. 

Taphonomic research using animal models is an important 

contributor to the forensic community, but the establishment of such 

facilities is complex. However, with the necessary commitment, 

expertise, enthusiasm and determination, such centres of excellence can 

be established. 

Taphonomic Research Facility, Decomposition, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H80 Forensic Archaeological Recovery of the 

Victims of the Continental Connection 

Flight 3407 Crash in Clarence Center, 

New York 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Applied Forensic Sciences Department, 

Mercyhurst College, Glenwood Hills, Erie, PA 16546; Steven A. Symes, 

PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst 



After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how forensic 

archaeological methods were used to rapidly document the location and 

context of human remains within the crash wreckage. The benefits to 

minimizing further damage to human tissue during recovery and 

eventual victim identification will be discussed. 


describing in detail how a complex outdoor scene involving large 

numbers of fragmented and burned human remains can be processed 

efficiently and effectively by utilizing standard forensic archaeological 

scene recovery methods. 

On February 12, 2009 at 10:10 p.m., Continental Connection Flight 

3407 crashed on approach to Buffalo (NY) International Airport into a 

two-story house in the Buffalo suburb of Clarence Center, resulting in 50 

total fatalities (49 plane passengers and crew, and one house inhabitant). 

As one of the primary agencies responding to the incident, the Erie 

County Medical Examiner’s Office (ECME), Buffalo, NY, was presented 

with two primary responsibilities: (1) recovering the remains of the 

victims from the scene in a timely manner; and, (2) channeling them into 

the morgue for documentation and identification of the deceased. With 

respect to victim identification, existing morgue facilities were utilized 

and supplemented with professional forensic personnel and equipment 

supplied by the federal government’s Disaster Mortuary Operational 

Response Team (described in detail elsewhere). 

Most medical examiner’s offices are not prepared to handle disaster 

scene recoveries of this magnitude involving large numbers of victims. 

The ECME office solicited the assistance of forensic anthropologists 

from Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA. This presentation will focus on the 

evidence and victim recovery protocols employed at the Clarence Center 

crash site and benefits related to victim identification issues derived from 

the forensic archaeological methods used at this scene. 

In mass fatality situations, there is great pressure to quickly provide 

positive identification of the victims and return their remains to their 

families. Two options are available for a recovery in these situations. 

The first option is the immediate removal of the human remains and 

surrounding debris primarily by the first responders (i.e., firefighters and 

law enforcement officials), without further documentation of victim 

location and position, even if that involves mechanical means, such as 

backhoes. The benefit to this approach is that the remains can be 

removed from the scene very quickly, generally in 1-2 days, even when 

a large number of victims are involved. However, for the agency 

responsible for victim identification, this type of recovery comes at a 

high cost in terms of: (1) further destruction of human remains during 

recovery: (2) increased likelihood of missing tissue: and, (3) loss of 

contextual information that may aid in victim identification. Lost or 

missing information such as the proximity of potentially conjoining 

elements, and association of personal effects, or even key plane parts can 

potentially adversely affect or delay victim identification. In other 

words: days saved at the scene can easily result in days or even weeks, 

lost at the morgue. 

The second option is to employ forensic archaeological protocols. 

Detailed contextual data is recorded during victim recovery and the 

process includes professionals trained in the recognition and 

identification of fragmented and burned human remains. The result is an 

efficient and effective recovery that is conducted at a rapid and 

systematic pace. Further damage to human tissue is minimized. Key 

contextual and spatial information is recorded and preserved that may 

eventually aid in the identification effort. This latter approach was used 

during the recovery of the victims of the crash of Flight 3407. 

The forensic archaeological methodologies employed at the 

Clarence Center crash site are similar to those utilized on all outdoor 

crime scene recoveries conducted by the authors (described elsewhere). 

A “collapsing circle” excavation strategy was employed at this crash 

scene. Material was removed from the outer edges of the fuselage by 

hand, working inward in a more or less vertical (cake-cutting) orientation 

until human remains were encountered. Individual victims were 

carefully and fully exposed, their position noted via an electronic total 

station, photographed, placed in an individual body bag, and then 

removed from the scene. The recovery progressed at a rapid pace 

without compromising either the National Transportation Safety Board 

investigation or the condition of the remains. Several excavation teams 

worked concurrently and the entire recovery process was completed in 

four days. In addition to the in situ exposure and removal of all human 

remains, all of the fuselage debris was collected and screened through ¼ 

in mesh screens. The combination of excavation methodologies 

employed, screening efforts and the relatively small and confined debris 

field of this particular incident, suggests that nearly 100 percent of the 

recoverable human remains from this scene was recovered in an efficient 

and effective forensic archaeological recovery. 

Forensic Archaeology, Plane Crash, Excavation Protocols 


H81 Spatial Patterning of Clandestine Graves in 




Derek Congram, MSc*, 706-1850 Comox Street, Vancouver, BC V6G 

1R3, CANADA 

After attending this session attendees will understand the 

importance of studying spatial patterns in the location of clandestine 

graves in contexts of armed conflict. Attendees will learn about the 

primary factors that influence offender choice of burial site for victims 

of wide scale killings in repressive contexts. This method will help 

investigators conduct more effective searches for victims of forced 

disappearance. 


discussing effective methods in the search for clandestine graves in the 

investigation of Human Rights violations and forced disappearances. 

The creation of clandestine graves may be influenced by many 

factors but few are very influential and these few commonly reoccur 

across different cultural contexts. This means that grave locations can be 

reasonably well predicted in certain contexts as part of the search for 

missing persons, victims of human rights violations. 

In the context of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1942), over 100,000 

civilians were detained, executed and buried in anonymous, clandestine 

graves by rebel soldiers and militia members in the rearguard of the war 

and postwar repression. The lack of formal criminal investigations in 

this context, and the recent movement (2000-present) to find and exhume 

victims allows researchers to study various aspects of the crimes, 

including spatial patterns related to clandestine graves. Similar patterns 

have been observed by the author in quite different cultural and temporal 

contexts (e.g., Bosnia, Iraq) suggesting that there are broad factors 

influencing offender decisions (e.g., logistics, least effort principle, 

restriction of resources during periods of armed conflict). As 

anthropologists and archaeologists are commonly called upon to assist 

with the location and excavation of clandestine graves (both 

domestically and internationally), it is important to evaluate the context 

in which the crimes are taking place and the factors that may influence 

the decisions of those committing the killings. 

This study of spatial patterns will assist forensic anthropologists 

and archaeologists in their efforts to locate clandestine graves in similar 

contexts of internal armed conflict resulting in the forced disappearance 

of civilians. Preliminary analysis of results demonstrates that graves are 

typically located between 1 and 10 km of the location from which the 

victim was detained. Graves are almost never more than 50 metres from 

a road, with main roads being the principal route used (rather than 

secondary and minor roads). The physical locations of gravesites are 

typically in areas not visible from the point of origin, urban areas or even 

close surroundings (e.g., olive groves, low-lying basins). Commonly, 

pre-existing features are used, such as wells, mines and ravines. All of 

these features speak principally of the importance of cost in resources 

when having to dispose of victims. It appears that although the offenders 

are acting as the local authority and with consent from the governing 

military – and so acting with impunity – there is still a clandestine 

element in their behavior resulting in them committing killings and 

creating burials in places not easily seen but also those which are not 

costly in terms of time and energy. Despite the social disorder in armed 

conflict and the justification of killings in rhetoric employed by the 

military and civil authorities, there continues to be a degree of deliberate 

secretiveness when authorites choose where to dispose of the bodies of 

their civilian victims. There is also a fair degree of consistency in 

behavior across broad geographic areas governed by different 

individuals. A greater understanding of the factors that influence killer 

behavior will result in more effective searches for graves by forensic 

anthropologists and archaeologists involved in the investigation of 


crimes against humanity, genocide, forced disappearance and similar 

human rights violations. 

Clandestine Grave Prospection, Spatial Analysis, Forced 

Disappearance Investigation 

H82 Validity of Portable X-Ray Fluorescence in 

Assistance With Identification of 

Individuals in a Burial Setting by 

Comparison With mtDNA 

Jennifer F. Byrnes, MA*, SUNY at Buffalo, Department of Anthropology, 

380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 14261-0026; Peter J. Bush, 

BS, SUNY at Buffalo, South Campus Instrument Center, B1 Squire Hall, 

South Campus, Buffalo, NY 14214; Esther J. Lee, MSc, and D. Andrew 

Merriwether, PhD, Binghamton University, Department of Anthropology, 

PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000; and Joyce E. Sirianni, PhD, 

SUNY at Buffalo, Department of Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott 

Complex, Buffalo, NY 14261-0026 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to discuss 

practical usage of portable X-Ray fluorescence in a burial setting with 

unknown individuals. 


increasing knowledge of the application of new technologies to old 

questions to help thoroughly understand the limits of the technology 

itself, and what it can do in cases of unknown identity. 

The Jackson Street Burials were excavated in 1997 after being 

discovered during work on a road construction site in Youngstown, NY. 

The eleven burials (five adults and six children) under investigation have 

no known history either from physical evidence or from past burial 

records. Based on the likely association of artifact assemblage and the 

history of Fort Niagara, the cemetery was used sometime between the 

late 1700s and 1840. The individuals were buried in an extended 

(supine) posture, in an east/west orientation with the head towards the 

west end of the grave. Based on the orientation of the burials, 

preliminary analysis suggested these individuals may be of European 

ancestry or buried by Christians. The purpose of this study was to gain 

insight into the identity and relatedness of these unknown individuals by 

DNA analysis, and to explore the possible application of portable X-ray 

Fluorescence (XRF) in a burial setting. 

Certain trace elements in bone provide specific and pertinent 

information about the individual’s environmental exposure, diet and 

geographical location of residence. XRF is a nondestructive method for 

analysis of trace elements and portable instruments are available which 

allow trace element analysis of samples in the field or in collections. The 

remains of the eleven individuals were analyzed by portable XRF. The 

results show individuals can be divided into groupings based on 

statistical analysis using Ward’s agglomerative method, focusing on 

strontium readings from bones and teeth. Due to strontium’s 

incorporation in bone and teeth from the local environment, it is 

theoretically possible to assess if an individual moved between areas of 

different strontium levels. Teeth incorporate strontium during fetal 

(deciduous) and childhood (permanent) development, and represent the 

intake at that specific point in time. Bone is constantly remodeling 

throughout one’s life, and only represents the strontium intake for years 

before death. The hypothesis of this analysis was that the individuals 

may be related to one another due to dietary intake of strontium based on 

geographical location. Individuals 2, 10, and 13 had high bone strontium 

concentrations. Individual 2 had high teeth strontium concentrations. 

Individuals 7 and 13 had intermediate strontium concentrations in their 

teeth. Individual 7 had intermediate bone strontium concentrations. All 

others (1, 3-6, 8-10) had lower strontium in teeth, and intermediate in 

bones. This suggests groupings as follows for bone: Group 1 

(Individual 13), Group 2 (Individuals 2 and 10), Group 3 (Individuals 3, 

114

4, 7, and 8), and Group 4 (Individuals 1, 5, 6, and 9). For teeth, the 

groupings are as follows: Group 1 (Individual 7 and 13), Group 2 

(Individual 2), and Group 3 (Individual 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10). 

Advancements in DNA extraction and amplification techniques 

have produced successful studies utilizing ancient DNA (aDNA) in 

various anthropological studies. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has been 

more successful in genetic analysis of skeletal remains, due to its high 

copy number than nuclear DNA. Many studies have utilized the mtDNA 

in understanding population history based on its unique characteristics 

including no recombination, maternal inheritance, and higher mutation 

rate particularly in the non-coding, control region. We extracted DNA 

from teeth specimens from each individual and sequenced the mtDNA 

control region following standard procedures. Results show that six 

individuals (burials 3-6, 8, and 9) have Native American ancestry. Two 

individuals (burial 8 & 9) have the exact same haplotype, suggesting 

shared maternal ancestry. Other individuals are not maternally related. 

Burial 2 seems to be of European origin and we were unable to resolve 

burial 7, while three samples (burials 1, 10, and 13) failed to produce 

successful DNA results. 

Our study utilizing XRF and mtDNA analysis show conflicting 

results when compared with the osteological assessment with regards to 

geographical origins. The XRF groups formed based on strontium 

concentration compared to the related groups of mtDNA individuals 

presents some interesting scenarios. XRF may not be the best method to 

use for geographical region or relatedness within a group like this, but 

does offer insight into who these people may have been when used in 

combination with the mtDNA evidence. This study draws attention to 

problems that can arise from archaeological deductions and to the 

utilization of genetic analysis, which can validate or reject old 

conclusions to further our understanding. 

Forensic Anthropology, Portable X-Ray Fluorescence, 

Mitochondrial DNA 

H83 The Assessment and Determination 

of Forensic Significance in 


Lelia Watamaniuk, BSc*, University of Toronto, Department of 

Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road, North, NB 226, Mississauga, ON 

M4V 1R6, CANADA 


the theoretical groundwork from which to assess forensic significance 

via three models of decision making. 


examining and formulating more systematic, supportable investigative, 

and analytical processes; and, by developing a higher theoretical 

framework for the field of forensic sciences as a whole. 

The purpose of this presentation is to examine the decision making 

processes and underlying theory governing the determination of the 

forensic significance of human remains. Currently, decisions of forensic 

significance are made based largely on investigator experience, with 

little in the way of a systematic examination or discussion of the theory 

underlying conclusions. Attendees of this presentation will gain a 

theoretical groundwork from which to assess forensic significance via 

three models of decision making. The impact of this discussion on 

forensic anthropology will be felt not only in courtroom, by further 

codifying and systematizing our methods, but throughout the field of 

Forensic Science, by introducing a higher theoretical platform from 

which to unify its sub-disciplines. 

Forensic significance, the relevance of human remains or physical 

evidence to a medico-legal case, is the cornerstone of forensic 

investigation. Establishing the forensic significance of found human 

remains is often the first step in the investigative process and the basis 

upon which human and material resources are allocated in a death 

investigation. The determination of the forensic significance of human 

remains may seem to be an obvious decision, based on context or the 

investigator’s experience, but a closer examination of the decision 

making process is warranted in the age of Daubert and Mohan. 

Transparent, repeatable and statistically supportable methods of positive 

identification, assessment of the biological profile and trauma analysis 

have been required of the discipline as a result of these rulings, but the 

crucial step of establishing the need for a death investigation to begin 

have not. Rather, forensic significance is taken as the basis from which 

all other methods proceed. Authors such as Byers (2008), Rogers (2005) 

and Berryman (1991) have addressed specific issues of establishing 

forensic context, but the decision making process and the theory 

underlying it have not been examined systematically in the literature. 

Dawes et. al (1998) demonstrate the superiority of actuarial 

(information/calculation) over clinical (experience/discretionary) based 

methods of decision making in medicine and psychology. Klepinger 

argues; however, that age of automatic, formula based decision making 

in forensic anthropology has not yet arrived and may never (2006). In 

an attempt to bridge the gap between these approaches and to address the 

underlying theory behind the determination of forensic significance, 

three models are proposed for the decision making process: the Forensic 

Significance Paradigm, The Bayesian Model, and the Hierarchy Model. 

The Forensic Significance Paradigm borrows its structure from 

Inman and Rudin’s (2002) discussion of the origins of evidence. The 

focus in this model is the identification or inclusion of human remains 

within a class (modern, historic, archeological) along with the 

individualization of those remains by excluding specific characteristics 

(cemetery, autopsy, coffin artifacts). The Bayesian Model uses the 

concept of hypothesis formation followed by iterative decision making at 

each step of evidence collection and analysis (Taroni, 1998). The 

hypothesis of forensic significance is re-evaluated with each piece of 

evidence collected and at each step of the analysis of the remains. The 

Hierarchy Model, based on the Hierarchy of Propositions Model 

described by Cook et al (1998) requires a pair of opposing propositions 

at each of three levels of decision making. This model combines the 

identification/individualization process of the Forensic Significance 

Paradigm with the step by step deliberation of the Bayesian Model. 

By assuming that the determination of forensic significance is an 

obvious, experience based activity, without investigating the underlying 

theory and thought processes behind decisions of significance, forensic 

anthropologists run the risk of a lack of transparency in the courtroom 

and potentially incorrect judgment. Examining the processes by which 

we determine forensic significance serves two purposes: the formulation 

of more systematic, supportable investigative and analytical processes; 

and, the development of a higher theoretical framework for the field of 

forensic sciences as a whole. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Significance, Theoretical Models 

H84 A Radiographic Database for 


Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Kyra E. 

Stull, MS*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; 

and Kathryn L. Frazee, MS*, 351 West 22nd Street, Floor 2, Erie, 

PA 16502 


for updated aging standards in subadults and learn of a resource for age 

estimation methods in subadults. 


This presentation will impact the forensic community by informing 

practitioners of a future resource for researching skeletal development 

and methods of aging subadults. 

There are large numbers of children who are murdered or go 

missing every year in the United States. In analyzing modern subadult 

remains, it is surprising that few Daubert-compliant standards exist for 

skeletal or dental age estimation. Instead, forensic anthropologists 

estimating age in children rely uncritically on data that may have been 

collected over 80 years ago or from historic archaeology contexts. For 

instance, Scheuer and Black (2000), the standard anthropological 

reference text used in evaluating immature skeletal remains, provides 

average bone lengths by age, citing Maresh (1970). Although Maresh’s 

work was published in 1970, it was based on data collected in the 1930’s, 

as are most aging methods based on dental eruption and development. It 

has been well documented that American populations, and many others, 

have shown significantly greater early childhood growth, earlier 

development and maturation, and larger stature than in previous 

generations, so estimates for modern individuals using older data will be 

biased upwards. Further, growth and development varies by ancestry. 

The reference data come overwhelmingly from middle-class white 

children, while substantially more and more forensic casework involves 

non-whites. Therefore, the validity of current methods is in doubt. 

Additionally, statistical approaches using dental or skeletal 

indicators have rarely been employed, and anthropologists have instead 

used published mean bone lengths by age, as in Scheuer and Black 

(2000). Such age estimates are merely reasonable guesses based on 

subjecting weighing of indicators and an arbitrary age estimation range. 

Because the error rate of such a method can’t be reliably estimated, it 

also falls short under Daubert. Statistical approaches, including 

transition analysis and logistic regression, provide explicit confidence 

intervals, allowing errors to be controlled for, and address Daubert 

requirements for errors in estimation. 

Recognizing that methods for constructing the biological profile in 

modern adults were based on nineteenth century samples, the Forensic 

Data Bank (FDB) at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, was started 

in 1986 with a grant from the National Institute of Justice. Similarly, 

because the current methods used to estimate age in subadults are also 

outdated, funding was awarded for the creation of a digital radiographic 

database in October 2008. In the absence of modern subadult skeletal 

collections, forensic anthropologists must turn to radiographs. 

Data were collected from files in medical examiners’ and coroners’ 

offices and were limited to positively identified individuals born after 

1990 and less than 20 years old. Most medical examiner’s offices 

practice radiography in their daily protocol, and full body surveys are 

often performed on all infants. As of July 1, 2009, over 7,000 

radiographs had been scanned from over 1,500 children, and some 

offices will continue to contribute digital radiographs. The sampling 

method has produced samples that are geographically and ethnically 

diverse. Demographic information, including age, sex, ancestry, 

ethnicity, date of birth, date of death, and cause of death were collected, 

along with other routinely collected data (height, weight, other 

measurements, and other information) and entered into an electronic 

database. The scans and demographic information will be made 

available for online access in a manner similar to the National 

Biomedical Imaging Archive (http://ncia.nci.nih.gov/) thanks to 

additional funding. Making the database available online will allow 

researchers to develop new methods for identifying subadult remains and 

allow contributors to submit digital resources remotely. 

Some preliminary results have already revealed important benefits 

to collecting modern data and analyzing them in a statistical framework. 

For instance, as suspected, the initial appearance of certain epiphyses on 

radiographs occur earlier in the modern data, and using a ninety-five 

percent confidence interval produces narrower age predictions than 

previous estimates, which were apparently most often based on ages of 

earliest and latest appearance. Further research involves establishing 

new bone length standards, investigating changes in bone proportions 


during maturation, and adjusting for magnification and distortion effects 

when measuring radiographs. 

Subadult Age Estimation, Daubert, Secular Changes 

H85 New Scapular Measurements 

for Determining Sex 

Natalie Uhl, MS*, 308 North Orchard Street, Apartment 7, Urbana, 

IL 61801 


performance in sex estimation of eight new linear measurements on the 

human scapula. This research illustrates new scapular measurements 

that effectively discriminate between male and female scapulae. 


new linear measurements which correctly estimate sex from the human 

scapula using discriminant analysis. 

It has long been noted by physical anthropologists that the human 

scapula shows a large amount of variation (Dwight, 1887) yet typical 

osteological examination includes only two measurements of this bone 

(maximum height and scapular breadth). Not surprisingly, these 

measurements do not effectively capture scapular variation and generally 

fail to accurately estimate sex or ancestry. Uhl et al. (2007) noted that a 

discriminant function analysis using these two measurements yielded 

only 58% correct classification for ancestry between two groups for 499 

individuals in the Forensic Databank. Further, maximum height has 

shown only about a 30% classification rate when discriminating between 

males and females (Dabbs, 2009). Previously, Bainbridge and Tarazaga 

(1956) noted shape differences in several areas of the scapula, including 

the acromion process, scapular spine, suprascapular notch, superior 

angle, and vertebral and axillary borders. However, they treated these 

features as non-metric rather than metric variables, thus making 

quantification and application difficult. 

Recently, geometric morphometrics has allowed for the 

quantification and visualization of scapular variation for ancestry 

determination (Uhl et al., 2007). Unfortunately, to be of practical use to 

most forensic anthropologists, variation must be captured by linear 

measurements. Therefore the goal of this research is to develop new 

linear measurements to estimate sex based on areas that were previously 

shown to have the most shape variation (Uhl et al., 2007) 

Eight linear measurements were taken (medial muscle attachmentlateral 

muscle attachment, maximum height of glenoid, A-P size of the 

glenoid, superior glenoid border-superior scapular angle, lateral acromial 

angle-inferior acromial angle, medial acromial angle-inferior acromial 

angle, lateral acromial angle-medial acromial angle, coracoid rootcoracoid 

tip) on a sample of 51 individuals from the Hamann-Todd 

Collection, housed at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. 

These eight measurements were subjected to stepwise discriminant 

function analysis (DFA) with p(F) = 0.05 to enter and p(F) = 0.10 to 

remove. The DFA was significant (Wilk’s λ = 0.298, p

H86 Sex Estimation From the Calcaneus Using 


Daniel L. DiMichele, BS*, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, 

ELA 232, San Marcos, TX 78666 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be better informed 

of the importance of the uses that the calcaneus can serve in estimating 

sex during the creation of the biological profile. 


showing the importance the calcaneus can serve in providing an 

additional reliable method for sex estimation via discriminant functions 

based on an American forensic population. 

Reliable methods for sex estimation during the creation of a 

biological profile are important to the forensic community in instances 

when the common skeletal elements used to assess sex are absent or 

damaged. Sex estimation from the calcaneus has potentially significant 

importance for the forensic community. Specifically, measurements of 

the calcaneus provide an additional reliable method for sex estimation 

via discriminant function analysis based on a North American forensic 

population. 

The calcaneus was chosen for study because of its size and the 

durability, which permit it to withstand postmortem alteration (Drechsler 

et al 1996; Bidmos and Asala 2003, 2004; Introna et al 1997). Previous 

studies have estimated sex using the calcaneus and other tarsal bones 

(Bidmos and Asala 2003, 2004; Gualdi-Russo 2007, Introna et al 1997, 

Murphy 2002, Steele 1976; Wilbur 1998), However, these studies use 

populations from an older American sample (birth years from late 19 th - 

early 20 th century), Italy, South Africa, prehistoric Polynesian, and 

prehistoric Native American and thus are not applicable a modern North 

American population. It is important to take into account demographics, 

secular change and regional origin of the collection being used (Komar 

and Grivas 2008). Due to secular change and regional origin, previous 

studies must be revised and existing methods evaluated for populations 

of differing geographic origin. 

Research on a modern American sample was chosen in order to 

develop up-to-date population specific discriminant functions for sex 

estimation. The current study addresses this matter, building upon 

previous research (Bidmos and Asala 2003, 2004; Gualdi-Russo 2007, 

Introna et al 1997, Murphy 2002, Steele 1976; Wilbur 1998) and 

introduces a new measurement, posterior circumference that promises to 

advance the accuracy of use of this single, highly resistant bone in future 

instances of sex determination from partial skeletal remains. 

Data was collected from The William Bass Skeletal Collection, 

housed at the University of Tennessee. Sample size includes 260 adult 

American White individuals born between the years 1900 and 1985. The 

sample was comprised of 131 females and 129 males. Skeletons used for 

measurements were confined to those with fused diaphyses showing no 

signs of pathology or damage that may have altered measurements, and 

that also had accompanying records that included information on 

ancestry, age, and sex. Measurements collected and analyzed include 

maximum length, load-arm length, load-arm width, and posterior 

circumference. Posterior circumference was obtained by measuring the 

minimum circumference of the area between the dorsal articular facet 

and the most posterior point on the calcaneus avoiding the calcaneal 

tuberosity. 

The sample was used to compute a discriminant function, based on 

all four variables, and was performed in SAS 9.1.2. The discriminant 

function obtained an overall cross-validated classification rate of 

86.90%. Females were classified correctly in 90.08% of the cases and 

males were correctly classified in 83.72% of the cases. 

Due to the increasing heterogeneity of current populations, further 

discussion on this topic will include the importance that the re-evaluation 

of past studies has on modern forensic populations. Additionally due to 

secular and micro evolutionary changes among populations, future 

research must include additional methods being updated, and new 

methods being examined, both which should cover a wide population 

spectrum. 

Calcaneus, Sex Estimation, Discriminant Function 

H87 Sex Determination Using the Calcaneus 

in Koreans 

Deog-Im Kim, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University 

College of Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; 

Yi-Suk Kim, MD, PhD, Ewha Womans University, Department of 

Anatomy, School of Medicine, 911-1, Mok6-dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 

158710, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 Sangyong-dong, 

Cheonan-si, Seoul 330946, KOREA; and U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung- 

Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The 

Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA 


utility of sex determination using the calcaneus and an example of a 

practical application of unknown skeletal remains for sex determination. 


suggesting the possibility for sex determination using the calcaneus 

when analyzing a Korean skeletal sample. This study is the first to test 

use of the calcaneus for sex determination by discriminant function 

analysis in Koreans. The results will be helpful for sex determination 

and distinguishing population differences in the calcaneus. 

Sex determination from skeletal remains is of major interest to 

forensic anthropologist and important variable for personal 

identification. The calcaneus is the largest of the foot bones and is often 

recovered intact in forensic cases. The skull and many bones, such as the 

femur, tibia, and humerus, have been used for sex determination but the 

calcaneus has not been sufficiently assessed for use in individual 

identification. The aim of this study is to define an equation for sex 

determination using discriminant function analysis and compare with 

other populations. 

The sample consisted of 90 sets of the dry calcaneus of known age 

and sex at Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of 

Medicine in Korea. The calcaneal sample consisted of 63 males and 27 

females. The method was investigated based on 10 metric variables: 

three length measurements, three breadth measurements, and four height 

measurements. Data was statistically analyzed with the computer 

program SPSS 17.0. 

Bilateral asymmetry was assessed using paired t-tests. Four of the 

10 measurements differed significantly between the right and left sides 

(P < 0.05). Most measurements (nine of 10), showed statistically 

significant difference between sexes (P < 0.05). A discriminant 

function analysis was applied to assess accuracy for both the right and 

left sides. The accuracy of discriminant function analysis was 87.2% for 

the right side, and 81.6% for the left side. For the right side, the 

discriminant function is: D = 0.227 x (maximum height) + 0.227 x 

(cuboidal facet height) – 16.062. The sectioning point is -0.7296. The 

canonical correlation of discriminant function is 0.610, and Wilk’s 

Lambda is 0.627. For the left side, the discriminant function is: D = 

0.368 x (dorsal articular facet length) + 0.248 x (dorsal articular facet 

breadth) – 16.808. The sectioning point is -0.8047 and the canonical 

correlation is 0.66, and Wilk’s Lambda is 0.564. The statistical results 

indicate that it is possible to discriminate between males from females 

using measurement of the calcaneus 

Bidmos and Asala among other studies used measurements similar 

to this study. Bidmos and Asala (2003, 2004) 1,2 concluded that the 

calcaneus of a South African sample showed statistically significant 

differences between sexes. The accuracy of discriminant function 

analysis was 90.6% in South African White, and 85.3% in South African 

Black using stepwise discriminate function analysis. The discriminant 


equation was composed three variables in Bidmos and Asala and two 

variables in this study. The variables used are different between the 

South African and Korean samples. The results of the two studies 

indicate that the calcaneus is useful for sex determination of unknown 

skeletal remains. Furthermore, this study will be compared with other 

studies in detail, we can distinguish among populations. 

References: 

1 Bidmos MA and Asala SA. Discriminant function sexing of the 

calcaneus of the South African Whites. J Forensic Sci 2003; 

48:1213-8. 

2 Bidmos MA and Asala SA. Sexual dimorphism of the calcaneus of 

South African Blacks. J Forensic Sci 2004; 49:446-50. 

Calcaneus, Sex Determination, Korean 

H88 Postcranial Sex Estimation of Individuals 


Meredith L. Tise, BA*, Texas State University, Department of 

Anthropology, 601 University Drive, ELA 232, San Marcos, TX 78666; 

and Kate Spradley, PhD, Texas State University, Department of 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn which 

elements of the postcranial skeleton and specific measurements are the 

most accurate in estimating the sex of individuals considered Hispanic in 

the United States. 


discussing the rapidly growing Hispanic population within the United 

States and why it is important to provide population specific methods for 

sex estimation. 

According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2005, the Hispanic 

population in the United States represented the largest minority, totaling 

42.7 million individuals. This number continues to grow every year. It 

is critically important that forensic anthropologists are able to identify 

deceased individuals considered Hispanic, although currently, the field 

of forensic anthropology lacks the data needed to effectively do so. 

Today, the majority of identification methods currently used in the 

United States by forensic anthropologists were developed using 

American Black and White individuals. 

When unidentified skeletal remains are found, estimating sex is one 

of the primary aspects of the biological profile. To estimate sex, when 

bones of the pelvis are not present, the initial observations are typically 

aimed at the skull and the overall size of the skeleton. According to 

Spradley et al (2008), these observations cause Hispanic males to 

frequently be misclassified as female. Hispanic individuals have been 

described as smaller and more gracile than the groups to which they are 

compared, including American Whites, Blacks, and (sometimes) Native 

Americans (Spradley et al 2008). 

To help the forensic anthropological community more accurately 

estimate the sex of individuals considered Hispanic, this study used 

Hispanic individuals from the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank. Only 

positively identified individuals or individuals with known sex and 

ancestry were used, which consisted of a sample of 17 females and 70 

males. Further, only standard postcranial metrics were used in the 

analysis (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). First, a stepwise discriminant 

function was run in Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) 9.1.2 on each 

postcranial element to determine the best subset of variables for sex 

estimation, followed by a discriminant function analysis (DFA) on the 

stepwise selected variables. A comparison of the cross-validated 

classification rates, from the DFA, for each post-cranial element revealed 

that the radius and ulna are the best elements for sex estimation for 

individuals considered Hispanic. Cross-validated classification rates 

using the radius are 87.5% for females and 85.7% for males. Crossvalidated 

classification rates using the ulna are 88.9% for females and 

85.3% for males. 


Sex estimation rates from the radius and ulna are higher than when 

using metric methods derived from American Black and White 

individuals (Spradley 2008). The results from this study are considered 

preliminary due to the fact that the individuals used in the present 

analysis are not all from known geographic origins and the small female 

sample size. However, the results highlight that individuals considered 

Hispanic exhibit sexual dimorphism differently than American Blacks 

and Whites and require different methods of sex estimation. Forensic 

anthropologists are impacted by the growing Hispanic population in the 

United States, and studies, such as this one, are important to the growing 

field of forensic anthropology, as well as the changing dynamics of the 

United States. 

Forensic Anthropology, Sex Estimation, Hispanics 

H89 The Use of Geometric Morphometric 



Jennifer M. Vollner, MS*, 328 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, Okemos, MI 

48864-4200; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 


The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees about a new 

geometric morphometric analysis (GMA) approach to the estimation of 

sex of subadult skeletal remains via innominates. 


exploring the potential of sex estimation of subadult innominates using 

GMAs and discriminant function analysis. 

The estimation of the biological profile, particularly the estimation 

of sex, is notoriously difficult in subadults because of the immaturity of 

the skeleton. This issue affects both bioarchaeologists and forensic 

anthropologists working with juvenile skeletal remains. The difficulty in 

the estimation of sex is because the skeleton is not fully sexually 

developed before puberty and is therefore less sexually dimorphic. In 

skeletally mature adults; however, the innominate is recognized as one of 

the best indicators of biological sex. Due to the high reliability in sex 

estimation of mature adult skeletal remains, the innominate was selected 

as the focus of this study. 

Non-metric studies of juvenile innominates have been previously 

conducted with a wide range of accuracy rates from slightly better than 

chance, to almost perfect classification. However, most relate to the 

morphology of the sciatic notch and do not take other morphologies into 

account. Further, these subadult sex estimation accuracy rates often 

increase as the individuals’ ages increase, which may bias the results of 

the younger specimen estimates. Metric studies of subadults are difficult 

to conduct because of the age related variation in size and relatively 

small sample sizes available. The geometric morphometric study 

presented here provides a method to accommodate age related size 

variation thus focusing on shape. In addition, this research captures the 

morphologies of the innominate using 3D landmarks that have been 

shown to have a high accuracy of sex estimation in adults (Klales et al. 

2009; Vollner 2009). 

A sample of 36 left subadult innominates from the Hamann-Todd 

Osteological Collection, which is housed at the Cleveland Museum of 

Natural History, was utilized. The individuals were of known age, sex, 

and ancestry without any apparent pathological conditions. Age-at death 

of the individuals ranged from 4 to 19 years. A total of 18 landmarks 

were collected using a digitizer on each individual and analyzed in 

118

MorphoJ (Klingenberg 2008) to conduct a Procrustes’ fit. A discriminant 

function analysis with a Wilks’ stepwise option was then conducted to 

prevent overfitting and to generate classificaiton rates. 

The initial discriminant function analysis after the Procrustes’ fit in 

MorphoJ demonstrated that correct classification increased with the age 

of the individual. The shape differences as displayed by MorphoJ 

indicate that sub-adult pelvic sexual dimorphism is similar, yet more 

subtle, than adult pelvic sexual dimorphism. The discriminant function 

yielded a 75% correct cross-validated classification for the estimation of 

sub-adult sex using a Wilks’ stepwise function. Females were classified 

at a higher rate of accuracy at 81.8% correct, while males classified at 

64.3% correct. This high classification rate for females versus males 

may suggest that subadult innominates tend to illustrate more female 

morphologies before skeletal maturity. Further studies will be conducted 

using larger sample sizes to more conclusively analyze the geometric 

morphometric morphologies of subadult innominates. 

Geometric Morphometrics, Sex Estimation, Discriminant Function 

Analysis 

H90 Secular Trends in Cranial Morphological 


Angela M. Dautartas, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Kanya Godde, PhD*, University of 

Tennessee, 3904 Lonas Drive, Knoxville, TN 37909 

After attending this presentation, researchers will be aware of the 

metric changes in size of mastoid processes in American Whites from 

1829-1983. 


demonstrating how increasing the understanding in the changes a 

population has undergone since the inception of a particular sexing 

technique will strengthen the accuracy of the forensic practitioner by 

allowing them to adjust for skeletal changes over time. 

Cranial morphology has markedly changed over the last two 

centuries (Godde and Dautartas 2009; Meadows Jantz and Jantz 2000) 3,4 

causing contemporary American head shape and size to vary from earlier 

Americans. Both cranial nonmetric (Godde and Dautartas 2009) 3 and 

metric (Meadows Jantz and Jantz 2000) 5 morphology changes suggest 

that enough differentiation has occurred to render modifying current 

methods of sex estimation. This paper further explores the secular trends 

in cranial morphological traits for cranial sex estimation, specifically by 

metrically modeling the mastoid process. 

In 1920, Hrdlicka officially adopted cranial morphological traits as 

indicators of sex. He incorporated characteristics and research that he 

read about in French and German literature. Later, Buikstra and 

Ubelaker (1994) 1 included this methodology in their volume for 

standardization of skeletal data collection. However, both Hrdlicka 

(1920) 4 and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) 1 did not take a forensic 

approach; these methods were not tested on a modern American 

population. Walker (2008) 6 applied the cranial morphological sexing 

method on two relatively modern collections, the Terry Collection and 

Hamann-Todd Collection. He found that the method published in 

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) 1 could be applied by observers of various 

backgrounds and levels of experience with accurate results. However, as 

Godde and Dautartas (2009) 3 pointed out, there was a significant change 

in morphology from individuals born in the 1850s (Hamann-Todd 

Collection) to those born in 1930s and on (William M. Bass Donated 

Collection), indicating the cranial morphology for sex estimation has 

changed and forensic techniques that have been developed on 

archaeological populations (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Hrdlicka 

1920) 1,4 and tested on an almost contemporary American population 

(Walker 2008) 6 are not reflective of the current trends in cranial 

morphology. 

Godde and Dautartas (2009) 3 applied categorical time series 

techniques and teased out the patterns of secular change in their report of 

secular trends in cranial morphology from the 1820s through the 1980s. 

In order to support their prior study with continuous data, this project 

mathematically modeled the mastoid process for use in well-established 

continuous time series methods. Howells’ mastoid measurements, 

mastoid length and mastoid breadth, were collected along with a new 

measurement, mastoid width (defined in Dautartas and Godde 2008). 2 

These three measurements were selected as they can metrically model 

the mastoid as a cone, and thus volume of a mastoid can be calculated. 

Data was collected from two skeletal collections: Hamann-Todd and 

William M. Bass Donated Collection (Donated Collection). At the 

Hamann-Todd collection, 99 white females and 81 white males were 

measured that had documented birth years associated with the remains. 

Conversely, 55 white females and 55 white males with known birth years 

were observed at the Donated Collection. Collectively, the birth years of 

the individuals from both collections span 1829-1983, allowing for 

investigations into skeletal changes spanning 154 years. 

The best time series model applied to the data indicates that secular 

change has occurred over the time period represented in the sample. The 

results show that in the last century and a half, females have become 

larger, while males have become smaller. In other words, mastoid 

processes in both sexes of American Whites are beginning to resemble 

and overlap each other in size. It is important for forensic scientists to 

understand that mastoid size has changed, lending to more ambiguity 

among the sexes. Moreover, these changes also imply that techniques 

developed on archaeological populations need to be adjusted for 

application in a contemporary forensic context. 

References: 

1 Buikstra JE, Ubelaker D. 1994. Standards for data collection from 

human skeletal remains : Proceedings of a seminar at the Field 

Museum of Natural History. Fayetteville: Arkansas Archaeological 

Survey, 1994. 

2 Dautartas A, Godde K. 2008. Are cranial morphological traits 

population specific? A reevaluation of traditional sex estimation 

methodology. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic 

Sciences XIV: 349-50. 

3 Godde K, Dautartas A. 2009. Secular trends in cranial 

morphological sexing. Proceedings of the American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences XV: 311-2. 

4 Hrdlicka A. 1920. Anthropometry. Philadelphia: The Wistar 

Institute of Anatomy and Biology. 

5 Jantz R, and Meadows Jantz L. 2000. Secular change in craniofacial 

morphology. Am J of Hum Bio 12: 327-338. 

6 Walker PL. 2008. Sexing skulls using discriminant function 

analysis of visually assessed traits. Am J Phys Anthropol 136: 

39-50. 

Time Series, Mastoid Volume, Nonmetrics 

H91 Twentieth Century Change in Facial 

Morphology and Its Relationship to 

Metric Sexing 

Richard Jantz, PhD*, and Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 


The goal of this presentation is to bring attention to secular change 

over the past 80 years in the most dimorphic dimension in the skull, 

bizygomatic breadth. Attendees will learn the magnitude of secular 

change in this dimension and how it can influence sex assessments. 



demonstrating the changing nature of facial morphology and the need for 

appropriate data. 

Secular change in craniofacial morphology has been documented 

(Jantz and Meadows Jantz (2000). 2 The most pronounced changes are 

seen in vault morphology, and these have been seen to impact ancestry 

assessment, at least as far as Blacks and Whites are concerned (Ayres et 

al. 1990). 1 Facial morphology, especially bizygomatic breadth, is 

normally the most important dimension in metric sexing from crania. 

Trials with Fordisc 3 show that bizygomatic contributes from 30 to 50 % 

of sex discrimination, depending on number of variables, and is always 

chosen in stepwise procedures. Bizygomatic breadth alone can correctly 

sex over 80 % of crania. It is therefore important to understand the 

nature of secular change in facial dimensions. 

Measurements were taken from crania in the forensic anthropology 

data bank. Samples were available as follows: White males (N=436), 

Whites females (N=319), Black males (N=205), Black females (N=146). 

Individuals were limited to those with twentieth century birth years. 

Birth years range from 1900-1988. Analysis was focussed on 

bizygomatic breadth, because of its high sex dimorphism. Whites and 

Blacks were analyzed separately, be sex. The crania were grouped by 

decade of birth for purposes of analysis. Analysis of variance was run on 

nine decade of birth cohorts. 

Anova results on the decade of birth cohorts are as follows: 

White males F=2.96 P=0.0031 

White females F=1.61 P=0.121 

Black males F=0.83 P=0.580 

Black females F=3.43 P=0.0013 

The pattern among groups is inconsistent. White males exhibit a 

consistent decline in bizygomatic breadth, beginning about 1940. 

Maximum values prior to 1940 are about 131 mm., while by 1960 they 

have reduced to about 128. Black females exhibit a less regular pattern, 

but generally one sees a decrease in bizygomatic after 1920, followed by 

an increase after 1960. Black males and White females do not exhibit 

significant variation among decade of birth cohorts, and there is no 

pattern to be seen in the variation. 

The reduction in face breadth in white males influences sex 

classification using bizygomatic alone. There are 83 White males born 

1960 and after. One quarter of them are mislcassified using a sectioning 

point from Fordisc’s current data base. Misclassification is less 

pronounced in multivariate sexing, since other variables also contribute 

to the function. 

In both Blacks and Whites, significant change in one sex and not the 

other may suggest that sex dimorphism varies significantly among 

decade of birth cohorts. The interaction term of sex and decade of birth 

in two level analysis of variance is not significant, so that hypothesis is 

not supported. 

Insight into the relationship of bizygomatic breadth to other 

craniofacial features may be gained by observing its correlation with 

other dimensions. Bi-auricular breadth is the most highly correlated 

variable, followed by biorbital breadth. Both of these dimensions also 

show significant variation among decade of birth cohorts, which to a 

considerable extent parallels that seen in bizygomatic breadth. Maxillary 

breadth and face height have low correlation with bizygomatic and do 

not exhibit variation among decade of birth cohorts. 

These results demonstrate that secular change in face dimensions 

that influence metric sex estimation is continuing among modern 

Americans. This finding emphasizes the importance of continuing to 

collect information from skeletal remains of modern Americans. 

References: 

1 Ayers, HG; Jantz, RL; Moore-Jansen, PH (1990): Giles and Elliot 

race discriminant functions revisisted: A test using recent forensic 

cases. In: Skeletal Attribution of Race. (Eds: Gill, GW; Rhine, S) 

Maxwell Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers No. 4, 

Albuquerque, NM, 65-71. 


2 Jantz, RL; Meadows Jantz, L (2000): Secular change in craniofacial 

morphology. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12, 327-338. 

Sex Estimation, Secular Change, Cranial Morphology 

H92 Foramen Magnum Shape as a Potential 


Stephanie M. Crider, BA*, Louisiana State University, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe-Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803; and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Louisiana State University, 

Department of Geography & Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 


variation present in the shape of the foramen magnum and its potential 

as an indicator of ancestry. 


highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of using foramen 

magnum shape as an ancestry indicator when crania are fragmentary. 

Accurate assessment of ancestry is essential in forensic 

anthropology to lead to a positive identification of unknown remains. 

The cranium has been used for numerous studies and many researchers 

believe it to be an excellent indicator of ancestry based on metric and 

non-metric characteristics (Rhine 1990). 3 The cranial base also has been 

studied on several different occasions (Holland 1986a, Holland 1989) 1,2 

to determine ancestral similarities and dissimilarities and is the focus of 

this presentation. 

A total of 462 intact cranial bases for persons of known ancestry 

were measured and visually assessed during a blind study. The database 

included crania from four different collections: Louisiana State 

University’s Forensic Anthropology and Computer Enhancement 

Services (FACES) Laboratory, Pima County Office of the Medical 

Examiner, University of New Mexico’s Maxwell Museum of Osteology 

Laboratory, and University of Tennessee at Knoxville’s William M. Bass 

Donated Skeletal Collection. The crania in the sample set represent the 

major ancestral groups typically seen in forensic cases (white, black, 

Hispanic/Southwest Hispanic, Native American and Asian). First, 

twelve measurements were taken on each cranial base; then, the foramen 

magnums were assessed visually and were placed into different 

categories based on their respective shapes. The twelve measurements 

that were taken from each cranial base are: maximum length of the right 

occipital condyle, maximum width of the right occipital condyle, 

minimum width of the right occipital condyle, maximum distance 

between occipital condyles, minimum distance between occipital 

condyles, maximum interior distance between occipital condyles, 

maximum length of the left occipital condyle, maximum width of the left 

occipital condyle, minimum width of the left occipital condyle, 

maximum length of the foramen magnum, maximum width of the 

foramen magnum, and maximum length of the basilar process (based in 

part on Holland 1986). 1 The different shape categories that every 

foramen magnum was placed into are Arrowhead, Egg, Circle, Oval, and 

Diamond. 

Statistical results suggest some association between foramen 

magnum shape and ancestry. Of 334 skulls of known white ancestry, 

almost half (46.4%, N=155) possessed an arrowhead-shaped foramen 

magnum. Of 70 skulls of known black ancestry, 40% (N=28) also had 

an arrowhead-shaped foramen magnum. The other four shapes were 

somewhat evenly distributed throughout both groups. Of the 55 

Hispanic/Southwest Hispanic crania studied, none possessed the eggshaped 

foramen magnum. This suggests that the presence of an eggshaped 

foramen magnum has the potential as an eliminator for 

Hispanic/Southwest Hispanic ancestry. Both American Indian and Asian 

ancestries could not be categorized sufficiently due to the low number of 

each ancestry (three crania total) available for study. Results are also 

presented regarding measurements of the cranial base. 

120

Finally, in an effort to test the practicality of such a technique, one 

of the purposes of this research is to determine the amount of subjectivity 

and accuracy for this new method of non-metric ancestry determination. 

Conference participants are asked to fill out a short survey based on the 

example images on the poster and the different foramen magnum shapes 

on the survey to determine whether or not this method is user friendly or 

if it is too subjective for regular use. Results of the survey will be 

presented. 

References: 

1 Holland, T.D. “Race Determination of Fragmentary Crania by 

Analysis of the Cranial Base.” Journal of Forensic Sciences. Vol 

31, No 2. (1986): 719-725. 

2 Holland, T. D. “Use of the Cranial Base in the Identification of Fire 

Victims.” Journal of Forensic Sciences. Vol 34, No 2. (1989): 

458-460. 

3 Rhine, Stanley. “Non-Metric Skull Racing.” Skeletal Attribution of 

Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology. Albuquerque: Maxwell 

Museum of Anthropology Press, 1990. 

Ancestry, Foramen Magnum, Biological Profile 

H93 Prognathism and Prosthion in the 

Evaluation of Ancestry 

Rebekah K. Baranoff, BA*, 10 East 34th Street, Apartment #1, Erie, 

PA 16504 


advantages of another landmark, subspinale, as a valid substitute for 

prosthion in the estimation of ancestry. 


offering an alternative methodology for estimating ancestry via 

discriminant function analysis (DFA) of crania when prosthion, a major 

landmark currently used for this purpose, is unavailable. 

The estimation of ancestry is an essential part of the biological 

profile. Prognathism, expressed in cranial measurements involving 

prosthion—the most anterior point on the alveolus between the central 

incisors—is useful in estimating ancestry. American blacks are more 

prognathic than American whites, and this is especially clear in the 

relationship between basion-prosthion length and basion-nasion length. 

Crania that are edentulous or display antemortem loss of the central 

upper incisors with resorption, or postmortem damage, preclude the use 

of measurements involving prosthion. When unidentified human 

remains are concerned, using subspinale as a substitute for prosthion in 

such cases of edentulous crania has not yet been explored for ancestry 

estimation. Subspinale is defined by Howells (1973) as the most 

posterior point on the crest inferior to the anterior nasal spine. In 

analyzing differences due to ancestry, this study helps to define and 

identify prognathism and what it entails. 

FORDISC 3 (Jantz and Ousley 2005) was used for a Discriminant 

Function Analysis (DFA) of 102 adult Black males and 83 adult White 

males from the Terry Collection, a nineteenth century skeletal collection. 

All individuals were digitized and standard Howells measurements were 

calculated from the landmark coordinates. In the first set of tests, 

standard Howells craniometrics were evaluated, including cranial base 

length (BNL), maximum cranial breadth (XCB), maximum cranial 

length (GOL), nasal breadth (NLB), minimum frontal breadth (WFB), 

nasal height (NLH), basion-prosthion length (BPL), and nasionprosthion 

height (NPH) from black and white males. Using these 

measurements, which include ones involving prosthion, FORDISC 3 

correctly classified 88% of Black males and 86% of White males. In all, 

87% (161 out of 185 individuals) were correctly classified. Very similar 

results are obtained when using 20 th -century samples. When 

measurements involving prosthion were removed, simulating 

antemortem loss and resorption, the overall accuracy fell to 77%, 

confirming that measurements utilizing prosthion are especially valuable 

in estimating ancestry. 

Next, basion-subspinale (BAS_SSP) and nasion-subspinale 

(NAS_SSP) were substituted for BPL and NPH, respectively, and 

analyzed with the six other standard measurements previously used 

(BNL, GOL, NLB, NLH, WFB, and XCB). In this analysis, the sample 

size was 103 Black males and 95 White males. With the substitutes, 83% 

of Black males were correctly classified, while 88% of White males were 

correctly classified, and overall, 86% (170 out of 198) of individuals 

were correctly classified. Therefore, measurements using subspinale can 

be used in place of those involving prosthion with little or no loss in 

classification accuracy. 

In running more analyses with subspinale, morphological 

differences between Black male and White male subnasal regions 

became apparent. Black males showed a larger distance between 

nasospinale and subspinale when NLH and NAS_SSP measurements 

were compared. Additionally, morphological differences between Black 

males and White males were seen when basion was used as an anchor to 

compare relative projections of subspinale and prosthion. In Black 

males, the average BAS_SSP and BPL lengths are 97.1mm and 

104.6mm, respectively, a difference of 7.5mm. In White males, average 

BAS_SSP and BPL lengths are 92.4mm and 95.8mm, respectively, with 

a difference of about 3.4mm—less than half the distance seen in Black 

males. In other words, the average Black male displays about twice as 

much anterior dental projection, or prognathism, relative to the subnasal 

region than does the average White male. Another advantage to using 

subspinale is suggested by the fact that the total sample size increased 

from 185 to 198 individuals, because some of the sample included 

edentulous individuals. Additionally, results revealed more specific 

morphological differences in the expression of prognathism between 

white and black males. This is a proof of concept study, in that a 

technique based on a nineteenth century sample is of uncertain validity 

for twentieth century populations, though we anticipate that similar 

relationships will be found in twentieth century individuals, the subject 

of further research. 

Forensic Anthropology, Ancestry, Prognathism 

H94 Craniometric Variation Within 

Southeast Asia 

Michael W. Kenyhercz, BA*, 6327 Catawba Drive, Canfield, OH 44406; 

Michael Pietrusewsky, PhD, University of Hawaii, Department of 

Anthropology, 2424 Maile Way, Saunders 346, Honolulu, HI 96822; 

Franklin E. Damann, MA, NMHM, AFIP, PO Box 59685, Washington, 

DC 20012-0685; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 

Department of Applied Forensic Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, 



utility of discriminant function analysis, Mahalanobis’ Generalized 

Distance, and cluster analysis as a means of observing regional 

differences in supposedly homogenous “Asian” populations. 


proving that intra-regional differences can be seen in Southeast Asian 

populations, thus allowing anthropologists to create a more accurate 

biological profile which can aid in narrowing a missing persons list. 

Craniometrics are frequently used to investigate human variation 

within and among populations. Work by W. W. Howells (1973, 1993, 

1995) investigated craniometric variation among geographic areas 

worldwide. More recently, Pietrusewsky (1992) investigated 

craniometric differences in modern Southeast Asian populations. While 

his focus was population history, this study focuses specifically on 

regional differences in Southeast Asia. 


The ability to accurately discriminate between populations is 

beneficial in aiding in a more accurate biological profile which could 

potentially narrow down a missing persons list. In forensic 

anthropology, Ancestry is largely based on geographic origins, and 

Southeast Asian populations are generally considered “East Asian,“ 

though population differences are found among them (Ousley et al. 

2009). Forensic anthropologists should bear in mind the arbitrary nature 

of sample labels. For instance, a single sample from Laos, Cambodia, or 

Vietnam may be labeled “Southeast Asian,“ though it may not represent 

the variation present throughout the region. Further, samples may be 

labeled using nationality, language, tribe, or religion, with similar 

assumptions. FORDISC, for example, uses reference samples that are 

categorized by nationality or language. Southeast Asia’s recent, as well 

as past, population history has been dominated by wars and political 

unrest that may have modified earlier patterns of variation. This study 

explores craniometric variation in Southeast Asian populations to 

examine intra-regional differences. 

Craniometrics from 110 male skulls were collected by Pietrusewsky 

and samples are as follows: 15 from Hanoi, 34 from Ho Chi Minh City, 

and 51 from Ba Chuc, Vietnam, 10 from Cambodia, 29 from Laos, 50 

from Bangkok, Thailand, and 16 from Mandalay, Burma. All samples are 

from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and from dissecting rooms or 

cemeteries. The Ba Chuc sample is from a village located near the 

border with Cambodia that was part of the “Killing Fields” massacre. Its 

location was part of a frequently disputed border area between Vietnam 

and Cambodia. At the time of the massacre, its residents were citizens 

of Vietnam, though many were probably ethnic Khmer they were 

culturally and linguistically Cambodian. The Vietnamese sample in 

FORDISC 3 comes from Ba Chuc. It was hypothesized that North and 

South Vietnamese crania would be more morphologically similar to one 

another, while the crania from Ba Chuc would be more similar to 

Cambodia, which it was historically a part of until recent history. As 

these relationships were observed, data from surrounding countries was 

introduced and examined. 

Data were analyzed using FORDISC 3.0 (Jantz and Ousley 2005) 

and statistical program R (R Development Core Team 2008). The data 

were checked for normality and any outliers were removed. 

Discriminant Function Analysis (DFA) was employed using FORDISC, 

and R was used for cluster analysis. Analyses were conducted using 

variable numbers that were limited to one-third of the smallest sample 

size. This ensured that the data were not being over-fitted. Groups that 

did not prove to be significantly different using DFA were pooled and the 

analyses continued. As groups were pooled and sample sizes increased, 

the number of variables used in the discriminant function were increased 

in conjunction with the one-third rule. 

Results show the emergence of three distinct clusters, though with 

overlap, using 15 variables. The North and South Vietnam crania 

clustered together, as did Laos and Burma, while Ba Chuc, Cambodia, 

and Thailand formed a third cluster. Generally, the Vietnamese cluster 

showed longer crania with narrower palates, while the Ba Chuc, 

Cambodia, Thailand cluster and Burma and Laos cluster had crania with 

wider palates and shorter crania. The Ba Chuc sample was 

craniometrically more similar to the Cambodian and Laos samples. With 

three clusters, a random determination of geographic affinity would be 

33.3%, and these three clusters were classified with 69% accuracy when 

cross-validated. This function, then, proves to be more accurate in group 

assignment. This initial study has shown that it is possible to regionally 

differentiate Southeast Asian populations into more specific geographic 

entities. These results act as a reminder to not take DFA classifications 

too literally, because biological samples are always assigned labels that 

are considered meaningful, though they are often arbitrary. Additionally, 

the labels are most often based on cultural criteria, independent of the 

groups’ biological affinities. 

Discriminant Function Analysis, Craniometric Variation, Southeast 

Asia 


H95 Ancestry Trends in Trophy Skulls in 


Lisa N. Bright, BS*, California State University, Chico, 400 West First 

Street, Chico, CA 95928; Ashley E. Kendell, BS*, 808 West 2nd Avenue, 

Apartment 12, Chico, CA 95926; and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, California 

State University, Chico, Department of Anthropology, Chico, CA 

95929-0400 

The goals of this presentation are to: (1) document the ancestry of 

trophy skulls curated at the California State University, Chico Human 

Identification Lab (CSUC-HIL); and, (2) assess trends in the ancestry of 

trophy skull specimens between the 1970s and the present. After 

viewing this presentation, attendees will gain a greater understanding of 

the ancestral affiliations of trophy skulls. 


highlighting the broad range of ancestral affiliations that are associated 

with trophy skulls observed in forensic contexts. 

Although research involving human trophy taking has a long 

history within bioarchaeology and archaeology, few studies have been 

directed towards human trophies from forensic contexts. Prior studies 

have focused on trophy skulls brought back to the United States by 

service men after armed conflicts. However, trophy skulls are routinely 

submitted for analysis from a broad array of contexts. In many instances, 

it may be difficult to differentiate trophy skulls from those that derive 

from archaeological, forensic and souvenir contexts (Sledzik and Ousley 

1991). 1 This presentation will discuss osteological and contextual 

information that will aid in identification of trophy skulls. 

Willey and Leach (2003) 3 define human trophies as remains that are 

originally acquired under suspect circumstances and kept as a memento 

of the event. For this study, trophy remains are defined as skulls that 

show evidence of postmortem modification, including decoration. 

According to Sledzik (1991), 1 trophies also include the opportunistic or 

passive collection of human remains as well as the deliberate perimortem 

collection of skeletal material. Therefore, trophies should not 

include remains that were obtained unintentionally, or those that did not 

serve as a form of memento. For this study, one non-modified skull was 

included because contextual information indicated that the remains were 

displayed as a trophy. 

Eight forensic cases are examined involving trophy skulls 

submitted to the CSUC-HIL for analysis. Ancestry estimation was 

conducted using both metric and non-metric traits, and the data are 

addressed in light of contextual information for each case. Craniometric 

analysis was conducted using Fordisc 3.0. 

Of the eight forensic cases included in the analysis, four of the eight 

skulls were estimated to be female. This finding is inconsistent with the 

trends observed in trophies brought back to the United States during 

times of war, which typically are male (Taylor et al. 1984). 2 Only two of 

the eight skulls were brought back as mementos during times of war. It 

is worth noting however, that Fordisc is not always an accurate indicator 

of sex in gracile specimens and therefore non-metric analyses of sex 

were also taken into account. Also, postcranial remains were unavailable 

for analysis and were therefore not used to provide a secondary 

verification of sex assessment. 

The ancestral affiliation of these cases is highly variable. This may 

be explained by the fact that each trophy skull used in the analysis was 

122

drawn from a unique forensic context. This also may be attributed to the 

small sample size used for the study. This study highlights the broad 

range of ancestries that trophy skulls can be attributed to. Trophy taking 

of human skulls and body parts has a long history, and will continue to 

impact future forensic anthropological casework 

References: 

1 Sledzik, Paul S. and Stephen OusleyAnalysis of Six Vietnamese 

Trophy Skulls. Journal of Forensic Science 36(2):520-530. 

2 Taylor, James V., Louis Roh, and Arthur D. Goldman 

3 Metropolitan Forensic Anthropology Team (MFAT) Case Studies in 

Identification: 2. Identification of a Vietnamese Trophy Skull. 

Journal of Forensic Science 29(4):1253-1259. 

4 Willey, P, and Paulette Leach 

5 The Skull on the Lawn: Trophies, Taphonomy, and Forensic 

Anthropology. In Hard Evidence: Case Studies in Forensic 

Anthropology. Dawnie Wolfe Steadman, eds. Pp.176-188. New 

Jersey: Prentice Hall. 

Trophy Skulls, Postmortem Modification, Ancestry Estimation 

H96 Ancestry Estimation From the Tibia: Size 

and Shape Differences Between American 

Whites and Blacks 

Natalie R. Shirley, PhD*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Emam 

ElHak Abdel Fatah, BS, Center for Musculoskeletal Research, 

University of Tennessee, Department Mechanical, Aerospace, & 

Biomedical Engineer, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and 

Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, Center for Musculoskeletal Research, 

Department Mechanical, Aerospace, & Biomedical Engineer, University 

of Tennessee, 307 Perkins Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 


with size and shape differences between American Black and White 

tibiae. Attendees will also be provided with measurements that offer the 

highest discrimination between these two groups. 


providing criteria for determining ancestry from the tibia. 

Background: As the United States becomes more of a melting pot, 

ancestry estimation is an increasingly challenging task for forensic 

anthropologists. Consequently, gathering ancestry information from 

multiple skeletal elements can augment assessments based on cranial 

morphology. While significant ancestral differences exist in cranial 

dimensions, shape differences are substantial, as well. In addition, 

researchers have documented ancestry differences in the lower limb, 

focusing primarily on the pelvis and femur. Stewart (1962) suggested 

that American Black femora are straighter and less torqued than White 

femora. In addition, Trudell (1999) reported significant differences in 

length, curvature, epicondylar breadth, and torsion between American 

Blacks and Whites. Intercondylar notch height has been shown to be a 

useful discriminator, as well (Craig, 1995; Gill, 2001). The primary 

morphological difference in the innominate is that American Whites 

have wider hips than Blacks (Iscan, 1983; DiBennardo and Taylor, 1982, 

1983). 

These and other studies have captured size and shape differences in 

the hip and thigh, but few studies have addressed the leg. Since the 

lower limb is a functional anatomical unit, it follows that the morphology 

of the upper leg should influence the form of the lower leg. In fact, only 

one article has addressed ancestry differences in the tibia in the American 

population, noting differences in length, width, and proximal breadth 

between Blacks and Whites (Farrally and Moore, 1975). The present 

study aims to address the need for documentation of metric and 

geometric morphometric ancestry differences in the tibia in the modern 

American population by using three-dimensional bone modeling and 

automated measurements from computed tomography (CT) scans. 

Methods: A sample of 112 American Black and White males from 

the William M. Bass Donated Collection was used for this analysis. The 

DICOM image slices from the CT-scanned tibiae were manually 

segmented, and three-dimensional models were constructed of the right 

tibiae. A subset of the models was used to create ancestry-specific 

statistical bone atlases. A statistical atlas is an average mold that 

captures the primary shape variation in the bone and facilitates rapid and 

accurate generation of automated measurements. The final result is a 

sample of tibiae that all contain the same number of points and share the 

same spatial relationship. 

Shape analysis was conducted by performing Principal Components 

Analysis on the atlases to reduce the data space and then using Fisher’s 

Discriminant Ratio to pinpoint the areas of greatest difference. The 

resulting deviation vector magnitudes were subsequently applied to a 

color map in order to visualize the areas of greatest difference. Metric 

differences were evaluated by taking 28 computer-automated 

measurements on all of the bones in the atlases. These measurements 

include traditional measures of length and robusticity, as well as 

measurements of the intercondylar eminences, tibial plateau dimensions, 

cross-sectional areas of the midshaft, proximal shaft, and distal shaft, and 

indices and angles designed to capture information about shape, torsion, 

and position of bony landmarks. T-tests, power tests, and linear 

discriminant analysis (LDA) with cross-validation and stepwise variable 

selection was performed on the measurements. 

Results: The shape analysis of principal components 2-10 (95% of 

variation) shows relatively low magnitudes of difference in tibial shape 

between American Blacks and Whites. The area of highest difference is 

at the tip of the medial malleolus. -tests reveal that the there are 

significant differences in length and shaft robusticity (reflected by 

diameters and cross-sectional areas of the middle, proximal, and distal 

shaft). American Blacks have longer tibiae, larger antero-posterior and 

medial-lateral shaft dimensions, and larger cross-sectional areas. These 

results confirm Farrally and Moore’s (1975) earlier study. The crossvalidated 

LDA attained 78.6% accuracy with a 6-variable model; Blacks 

were misclassified more often than Whites. This could be an artifact of 

the smaller Black sample, but the authors hypothesize that it reflects the 

phenomenon that American Black skeletal morphology is becoming 

more similar to the American White morphology. These results indicate 

that the tibia is useful in ancestry estimation, but that the major 

differences are due to size, not shape. Combining tibia and femur 

measurements may offer discriminatory power approaching that of the 

cranium. 

Ancestry Estimation, Tibia, Discriminant Analysis 

H97 Recollected Versus Actual Stature: How 


Measure Up? 

Lauren J. Duhaime, BSc*, 1693 Virginia Drive, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 

4T7, CANADA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn of the 

inaccuracy and bias of the estimated heights of individuals obtained from 

their next of kin, how they compare to self-reported statures, what factors 

may influence accuracy and how useful these estimated heights can be in 

aiding in the identification of missing persons in post-conflict settings. 

This study proposes that recollected statures (RSTATs) obtained from 

next of kin can be useful in identification, as they are representative of 

actual height within defined limits. 

This research will impact the forensic science community by 

providing information on the reliability and validity of antemortem 

height information obtained from family. The usefulness of stature 

estimations in human identification at an international level has been 

questioned. A reason for this is that RSTATs are believed to be 

inaccurate and unreliable. Inaccuracy and bias are known to occur in 


heights that are self-reported, but those of recollected stature had not 

been extensively studied 

In human rights investigations, an integral role of forensic 

anthropologists is identifying the victims of mass graves. In order to do 

this, the creation of a biological profile (in which stature is a key 

component) is important so that it may be compared to antemortem 

(AM) information. In post-conflict areas, AM records are not always 

available and if they are, their reliability is often doubtful. In such 

circumstances, AM information of a missing person’s physical features, 

including their height, is obtained from interviewing their closest 

relatives and/or friends. Metric values may not be understood, or 

families may not be able to state the height of the missing person in 

metres. Because of this, the interviewer will ask the family member to 

indicate how tall the individual is compared to him/her. 

Volunteers were obtained from the City of Greater Sudbury, 

Ontario, Canada. A total of 367 RSTATs were collected (210 females, 

157 males, ages 18-85). Families were interviewed and each member 

was asked to fill out questionnaires about themselves (e.g. their age, sex, 

how tall they think they are, etc…) and the kin whose height they were 

estimating (e.g., their relation, how long they have known them, etc…). 

RSTATs were obtained following the guidelines of the Physician’s for 

Human Rights AM Data Collection protocol for Kosovo (1999). 

Participants were asked to indicate, using their hand, how tall they 

thought their kin were compared to the interviewer. A tape measure was 

used to take the measurement of the RSTAT from the floor up to the 

inferiorly facing palmar surface of the participant’s fingers, with their 

arm extended in front of them. The height of each participant was then 

measured using an anthropometer. 

The inaccuracy and bias of the self-reported heights and RSTATs 

were assessed in relation to the measured height of the individuals and 

then compared to each other. Accuracy is the average deviation of height 

estimation from actual height; bias is the direction of that deviation (i.e., 

over- or underestimation). Similar to other studies of reported stature, 

self-reported heights and RSTATs showed a correlation with measured 

height (r=0.97 and 0.87, respectively) but were significantly different 

and inaccurate (p

human rights issues and highlights the significant role forensics can play 

in monitoring health disparities and human rights. 

Morbidity Patterns, Age Estimation, Nigeria 

H99 Forensic Anthropology and Age-at-Death 

Estimation: Current Trends in Adult 


Heather M. Garvin, MS*, Johns Hopkins University, 1830 East 

Monument Street, Room 302, Baltimore, MD 21205; and Nicholas V. 

Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, Okemos, MI 48864-4200 

The goal of this presentation is to summarize the preferred skeletal 

age-at-death estimation methods across the field of forensic 

anthropology by analyzing forensic practitioner responses to a 

questionnaire. 


familiarizing attendees with the high degree of variation present in 

methods used to generate adult skeletal age-estimates, providing an 

opportunity to unite the field and discuss future improvements in 

standardization. 

Determining an accurate estimation of age-at-death from unknown 

adult skeletal remains continues to be a challenging responsibility of 

skeletal biologists. As the discipline of forensic anthropology continues 

to advance as a science it is crucial to be aware not only of one’s own 

methodological decisions, but how these decisions are being made 

throughout the field. This is a difficult task when different skeletal 

regions may be used to estimate age, and numerous aging methods for 

the same skeletal region/s are available. Each method may provide 

different forms of phases, mean ages, age ranges, standard deviations 

and/or standard errors which may be used to produce an age estimate. 

Many of these methods have been developed or tested on distinct 

temporal and/or geographic skeletal samples, resulting in inconsistent 

reports of accuracy and reliability. Furthermore, there is no standardized 

way of combining information from multiple age-estimation methods. 

These are all questions that could be raised in a court of law, especially 

in light of the Daubert Challenge. 

Given the variation of preferred skeletal aging methods and the lack 

of standardization to the age-estimation process, the authors were 

interested in understanding how forensic practitioners actually determine 

which age estimation method to use. A questionnaire was devised to 

determine if there is a universal set of methods used by all forensic 

anthropologists, or if methodological preferences are unique to each 

practitioner. The study investigated whether the accuracy and reliability 

of the techniques when applied to various age, sex, or ancestries of the 

individuals are considered? How much does personal experience weigh 

into these decisions? How are the results from multiple methods 

incorporated into a final age-estimate for the unknown set of remains and 

how discrepancies between two methods are resolved? Are the standard 

deviations, standard errors, age ranges, or means used when considering 

the possible age-estimate of the decedent? Is there pressure from 

officials to present unrealistically narrow age ranges and if so, how is this 

issue approached? 

An anonymous questionnaire was sent to members of the Physical 

Anthropology section of the American Association of Forensic Sciences 

as well as other skeletal biologists. Information regarding experience, 

preferred aging techniques, and methods used in producing a final ageestimate 

were blindly collected through the use of an online survey 

application. The results of more than 125 questionnaires were then 

analyzed, producing descriptive statistics to be used to inform the 

forensic society of the variation in currently practiced aging methods. 

From this knowledge, areas necessitating future advancements in ageestimation 

techniques can be identified, and improvements suggested. 

Preliminary results suggest that personal experience weighs very 

highly both in determining an age range within a single method and 

when combining results from multiple methods to obtain a final age-atdeath 

estimate. The Suchey-Brooks pubic symphysis method remains 

the most highly favored age-estimation technique, with cranial sutures 

and dental wear being reported as the least preferred, regardless of 

experience. The majority of respondents stated that they vary their 

skeletal age-estimation process case-by-case and ultimately present to 

officials both a narrow and broad possible age-range. Overall, however, 

respondents displayed a very high degree of variation in skeletal regions 

preferred, the methods chosen to age those regions, age information 

extracted from the methods, and ways in which information from 

multiple sources is pooled and contribute to a final reported age-at-death 

estimate. 

To maintain the reputation of forensic anthropology as a science, 

there should be standardized methods in determining accurate age 

estimates, which have been validated, and proven reliable and replicable. 

The first step of this process must be awareness of the current state of the 

discipline. 

Age-at-Death, Biological Profile, Standards 

H100 Understanding Uncertainty in Age 

Estimation: Error Associated With the 

Mann et al. Maxillary Suture Method 

Carrie A. Brown, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 


AFB, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain further 

understanding of the Mann et al. maxillary suture method, the types of 

error that are associated with adult age estimation methods, and ways to 

approach the estimation of uncertainty in measurement as required by 

the ISO and ASCLD/LAB. 


providing error rates for the Mann et al. maxillary suture method in 

response to critiques raised by the National Academy of Sciences 

concerning the need to evaluate the reliability and accuracy of methods 

used in forensic science. 

Age estimation using cranial sutures is not generally accepted as an 

accurate or reliable adult age estimation technique. Cranial suture 

obliteration is most commonly used to place an unknown individual into 

a general age group (e.g., young versus old adult) or when no other age 

indicators are present. While techniques utilizing cranial suture closure 

have come under significant attack, the perceived failure of these 

methods may also be due to the use of inappropriate statistics and 

problems with associated error intervals. 

The Mann et al. maxillary suture method is based on palatine suture 

obliteration. There are two versions of the method: the 1987 version 

relies on measuring the amount of obliteration and the 1991 version is 

the revised visual method of assessment. Gruspier and Mullen (1991) 

claim that the 1987 method is inaccurate and Ginter (2005) found that the 

revised method is more accurate than commonly used age estimation 

methods such as the pubic symphysis and sternal rib ends. Given these 

findings, an examination of the performance of the maxillary suture 

method and the error associated with its use is warranted. Error can 

result from the method itself (e.g., improper statistical basis for age 

intervals or the method does not express the total range of human 

variation possible) and human observer error (e.g., improper assignment 

of individuals to phases of a method or misunderstanding of 

methodology). 

This study was designed to examine the error associated with the 

1991 visual maxillary suture age estimation method. Error was analyzed 


y comparing the known and estimated ages-at-death of individuals 

identified at the JPAC/CIL between 1972 and 31 July 2008 whose case 

documentation referenced the revised maxillary suture method (n=55); a 

sample size of n=7for the 1987 method precluded error analysis. The 

following calculations were employed: correct classification (percent of 

individuals whose known age fell within the assigned age interval), 

inaccuracy (average error in years), bias (directionality of the error), and 

Pearson’s r (strength and direction of the relationship between known 

and estimated age-at-death). To further test error associated with 

application of the visual maxillary suture method, volunteers in 

attendance at the 2009 AAFS Annual Meeting and JPAC/CIL 

anthropologists (n=38) were asked to age two individuals. 

The sample for the visual maxillary suture method (n=55) has a 

mean age-at-death of 23.9 years, an age range of 18 years (youngest 

individual=18, oldest individual=36), and is entirely male. There is a 

statistically significant difference (p=0.003, ANOVA) in mean age-atdeath 

between this sample and the total known age-at-death sample 

(n=979, =27.2). The visual age estimation method has a correct 

classification rate of 87.3%. Only those age estimates reporting closed 

intervals (e.g., 25-30 and not 30+) were further analyzed (n=27). The 

method has an average inaccuracy of 2.3 years, a negligible tendency to 

over-age (bias=0.1), and a statistically significant positive relationship 

between estimated and known age-at-death (r=0.8, p

H102 Using the Acetabulum to Estimate Age: 

A Revised Method 

Stephanie E. Calce, BSc*, University of Toronto, Department of 

Anthropology, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, ON L5L1C6, 

CANADA 

The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the Rissech et al. (2006) 

method of estimating skeletal age using the acetabulum and to 

demonstrate the benefits of simplifying the technique for use in a 

forensic context. This is the first step in a two-stage process involving 

the recognition of potential problems with the Rissech et al. (2006) 

method and the development of effective solutions. The second and 

future stage of the research will include devising and testing specific age 

ranges to accompany the modifications. At this juncture, emphasis is on 

the need to alter the criteria utilized by Rissech et al. (2006) and to 

demonstrate the resulting improvements to precision in scoring traits, 

while maintaining the potential for accuracy in age estimation. 

Attendees will gain a better understanding of how morphological 

features of the acetabulum change with age, as well as some of the 

difficulties in distinguishing states within each criterion in the original 

method. Participants will be introduced to a new, more effective 

approach to acetabulum age estimation. 

This presentation will impact the forensic field and larger 

community by providing a new, reliable age estimation technique to 

increase the likelihood of identifying human remains in forensic practice. 

In this study, Rissech and colleagues’ (2006) existing scoring 

method was analyzed using multiple stepwise regression to identify the 

traits that contribute most to age estimation. Through this process, the 

technique was simplified to reduce the number of morphological features 

and scoring states. Three variables were found to account for most of the 

variation associated with age. These traits were tested on males and 

females to determine if the simplified method does in fact increase 

precision, while maintaining the potential to accurately reflect age 

changes. Because Rissech and colleague’s (2006) method relies on the 

use of a known comparative collection to generate age ranges for the 

scores obtained by examining an unknown skeleton, there are no fixed 

age categories in the original method. The current research was designed 

to simplify the scoring and to assess the potential of the modified traits 

to reflect age consistently, regardless of the ancestry of the individual, 

thereby eliminating the need for a reference population. For this 

purpose, it was necessary to first determine the ability of the modified 

method to simply reflect broad age changes. 

The revised non-destructive method to estimate broad categories of 

age was developed on two twentieth century anatomy series, the 

University of Toronto Grant Skeletal Collection (males) and the William 

M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection (females). Based on trait 

occurrence, broad definitions of age were established: Young Adult (17- 

39 years); Middle Adult (40-64 years); and, Old Adult (65+ years). 

Descriptions distinguishing key features for phase identification are 

defined in this manner to reflect the greatest variation observed among 

individuals. The method was tested blind on two contemporary North 

American skeletal populations – the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal 

Collection and the University of New Mexico Documented Collection 

(n=249). Both collections contain complete skeletons from donated 

persons and positively identified forensic cases with documented 

demographic information, representing diverse socioeconomic classes 

and ethnic affinities. This study utilized 85 individuals from the William 

M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection and 164 from the University of 

New Mexico Documented Collection, ranging in age from 19 to 101 

years, who died between 1984 and 2006. The left os-coxa of each 

specimen was examined one at a time, to mimic forensic situations. 

Individuals with non-inflammatory osteoarthritis or diffuse idiopathic 

skeletal hyperostosis were not excluded since such manifestations are 

related to age. Known ages for each individual were not documented 

until each specimen had been examined in order to eliminate observer 

bias. 

Although males (n=189) and females (n=60) were examined 

separately, non-significant sex-specific differences were found. The 

inaccuracy of the modified method is 8 years. The direction of bias 

indicates this acetabulum technique tends to underestimate age. Three 

statistically significant characteristics are highly correlated with age 

(p

assigned means was analyzed in terms of bias (directionality of error) 

and inaccuracy (absolute mean error in years). Percent of correct age 

classifications (i.e., the method’s predicted age range included the 

individual’s actual age) was also calculated. 

The Suchey-Brooks (1990) and Lovejoy el al. (1985b) methods 

show low mean positive biases for the group of individuals between the 

ages of 20 and 39. The Osborne et al. (2004) method shows a low mean 

negative bias for this age group. The Buckberry and Chamberlain (2002) 

method shows a substantial positive bias for individuals between 20 and 

39. All four methods have substantial negative biases for individuals 40 

years of age and older. In all four methods, the differences between 

mean bias in individuals under 40 and individuals 40 years and older are 

significant at the p ≤ 0.001 significance level (Student’s t-test). 

For the Suchey-Brooks, Lovejoy et al., and Osborne et al. methods, 

mean inaccuracy approximates four years in individuals between the 

ages of 20 and 39. For the Buckberry and Chamberlain method, mean 

inaccuracy is greater than 13 years. In all four methods, mean 

inaccuracy is never less than 11 years for individuals 40 years and older. 

In all four methods, all differences between inaccuracy in the younger 

and older age groups are statistically significant at the p ≤ 0.001 

significance level (Student’s t-test). 

For the Suchey-Brooks and Osborne et al. methods, percent of 

correctly classified individuals is approximately 95% for individuals ≤ 

39 and 85% for individuals ≥ 40. For the Buckberry and Chamberlain 

method, percent of correctly classified individuals is approximately 94% 

for individuals ≤ 39 and 95% for individuals ≥ 40. For the Lovejoy et al. 

method, percent of correctly classified individuals is approximately 63% 

for individuals ≤ 39 and 31% for individuals ≥ 40. 

Full ranges of error (in years) for each method for individuals ≤ 39 

are as follows: Suchey-Brooks (-8.3 to 28.2); Lovejoy et al. (-6.5 to 16); 

Buckberry and Chamberlain (-1.7 to 35.7); Osborne et al. (-10.9 to 18.8). 

For individuals ≥ 40, full ranges of error (in years) are as follows: 

Suchey-Brooks (42.4 to 20.2); Lovejoy et al. (-44 to 22); Buckberry and 

Chamberlain (-22.6 to 29.3); Osborne et al. (-40.2 to 15.9). 

This study indicates that pelvic aging techniques estimate age in 

young adults (≤ 39) with lower error than older adults (≥ 40). The error 

of the Suchey-Brooks method increases with age, suggesting 

modifications of upper phases are warranted. However, auricular surface 

methods are problematic regardless of age group. Narrow age intervals 

in the Lovejoy et al. method result in low percentages of correctly 

classified individuals. The Buckberry and Chamberlain method 

frequently results in extreme overaging of the young and has the highest 

error for every age class under fifty. Of the three auricular surface 

methods, the Osborne et al. method has the broadest applicability. 

There will always be error associated with age estimation; the focus 

now should be on understanding and quantifying error so as not to 

overstate method performance. 

Adult Male Age Estimation, Pelvis, Error 

H104 The Impact of Obesity on Morphology of 

the Femur 

Gina M. Agostini, MA*, 205 Middle Street, Hadley, MA 01035 

After attending the presentation, attendees will better understand 

how differences in bone shape between weight classes might be 

explained by biomechanical adaptations used by overweight individuals 

to cope with increased adiposity. Additionally, attendees will see key 

theories behind adaptive cellular bone remodeling, and how direct, 

noninvasive bone measurements can be used to make inferences into 

activity and mechanical load. 


illustrating how weight can indirectly alter bone shape. As obesity 

clearly affects how an individual appeared to others in life, this has great 


potential to aid in efficient identification of the deceased using skeletal 

remains. 

The goal of this project was to evaluate whether adult weight 

(specifically obesity), impacts the human skeleton. The project design 

operated under the null hypothesis that biomechanical adaptations made 

by overweight individuals would not trigger adaptive cellular bone 

remodeling and therefore would not result in significant alteration of 

long bone shape or size. External measurements of diaphyseal crosssection 

were used as an indication of morphology, as these properties are 

said to be influenced by load and mechanical action. Using standards 

largely devised by Ruff (1983), anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral 

(ML) dimensions were measured at 20%, 35%, 50%, 65% and 80% of 

diaphyseal length, measuring superiorly from the distal end. 

The left femur was used as it possesses two unique properties: (1) it 

is a weight bearing bone; and, (2) its unique articulation with the pelvis 

results in forces that do not travel longitudinally through the diaphysis 

(as in the tibia). The latter property offers greater potential for 

morphology to reflect differences in force movement between weight 

classes due to biomechanical modification of overweight individuals. 

Three categories were formed based on body mass index (BMI): 

underweight (BMI < 17.5), normal weight (BMI between 19.5 and 24.5) 

and overweight (BMI < 26.5). To ensure each category was distinct, 

individuals with intermediate BMI scores were not included for analysis. 

To control for morphological differences due to ancestry and sex, only 

males of European ancestry were evaluated. To control for the effect of 

age on cross-sectional geometry, individuals in all three groups were 

age-matched to within one year, and age was included in all statistical 

analyses. The sample consisted of 184 individuals, 67 of whom were 

overweight, 59 normal weight, and 58 underweight. 

After controlling for age, multivariate statistics show significant (pvalue 

< 0.05) elongation of the ML dimension of the proximal and 

midshaft femur in overweight individuals, with t-tests confirming that 

ML dimensions are significantly large in this weight class (p-value < 

0.05). These results suggest that femora of overweight individuals 

undergo abnormally high rates of sagittal stress. These findings correlate 

well with biomechanical gait analyses, which show that overweight 

individuals display significant increases in step width and hip abduction, 

disproportionately large ML ground reaction forces, and longer periods 

of stance when compared to normal weight controls. These activities, 

especially when coupled with movement of excess mass, could explain 

abnormal sagittal stress of the proximal femur. 

In addition, size and shape variables were computed according to 

Mosimann and colleagues (Mosimann 1979; Darroch and Mosimann 

1985); however, they were not log transformed. The ANOVA results 

show that BMI has a significant effect on overall ML size (p-value < 

0.05). However, these same tests show no significant effect of BMI on 

bone shape. This suggests that increases in BMI are associated with 

increases in ML size, but do not appear to be associated with a change in 

shape. 

As the prevalence of obesity in the American public continues to 

increase, so too does the need to estimate weight in forensic contexts. 

The implication that weight can indirectly alter bone shape has great 

potential to aid in efficient identification of the deceased, as obesity 

clearly affected how an individual appeared to others in life. 

Additionally, these findings can contribute to public health and outreach 

endeavors related to health implications of obesity. 

Obesity, Bone Morphology, Biomechanics 

128

H105 Mortality Structure and Age Estimation in 



Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820; and John 

O. Obafunwa, MD, JD, Department of Pathology and Forensic 

Medicine, Lagos State University College of Medicine, Ikeja, Lagos, 

NIGERIA 

The goal of this presentation is to analyze the morbidity and 

mortality structure of a modern Nigerian population to aid in the 

development of age estimation formula for the population. Further, 

population variation among Nigerian and American populations is 

discussed and the affects of nutritional disease and pathology on aging is 

explored. 

This analysis reviewed the morphological changes of the pubic 

symphysis and sternal rib ends for more than 300 identified cases in 

Nigeria. This presentation will impact the forensic science community 

by presenting the outcome of a detailed analysis of the age at death 

distributions for males and females which will aid in the development of 

age estimation methods for West Africa and enable further study of 

human variation throughout the region. 

The ability for authorities to identify unknown decedents in cases of 

homicide, human rights abuse, enforced disappearances, or extrajudicial 

executions is contingent in large part on a system for human 

identification that includes a protocol based on population specific 

standards. Nigeria’s population is more than 150 million people, 

representing just over twenty-five percent of Africa’s inhabitants. 

Nigeria also has a global population with a large number of international 

workers, refugees from neighboring countries, and migrant workers. 

The life expectancy for males and females are only 46 and 47 years, 

respectively. A high number of infectious diseases, deaths related to 

child birth, and a low prevalence of medical care contribute to the low 

life expectancy. Additionally, in the past several years, there have been 

over 10,000 extrajudicial killings of suspects, innocent civilians, multinational 

oil workers, and politicians by the police, the military forces, 

vigilante groups, and armed militants in various parts of Nigeria. More 

recent sectarian violence has claimed more than 1000 lives in the past 

year. 

Transitional justice initiatives in Nigeria are transforming the 

coroner laws which now require medico-legal death investigations. 

Currently, the College of Medicine at Lagos State University in Nigeria 

is one of the only forensic pathology programs in the country and 

performs about 3,000 autopsies each year. The facility also houses the 

Office of the Chief Medical Examiner for Lagos State. Basic biological 

information such as age and sex are the first parameters for establishing 

the identification process among unknown decedents. The assumption 

that one protocol is efficient across global populations is at times 

challenged because of both biological and social factors. 

To study population variation and the applicability of applying 

American based aging methods to Nigerian populations, the mortality 

structure of the Nigerian population autopsied and contributing factors 

influencing this structure are investigated. Demographic data for 

n=2650 cases and biometric scores (n=300) for the pubic symphysis and 

fourth ribs, scored in the manners of Suchey-Brooks and Iscan and coworkers, 

were collected for identified individuals autopsied at the 

College of Medicine, Lagos State University in Nigeria. Additional 

comparative data for identified American males and females were 

collected for 2,078 pubic symphyses and 250 fourth ribs. American data 

comes from numerous American forensic and anatomical reference 

collections including The University of Tennessee Forensic Data Bank 

(FDB) and William M. Bass Donated Collection, Gilbert-McKern 

skeletal data, McKern-Stewart Korean War Dead data, Los Angeles 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, and the Robert J. Terry Anatomical 

Skeletal Collection. 

Hazard analysis is used to model mortality and survivorship among 

Nigerian and American samples. Age related changes of the pubic 

symphyses and sternal ribs are also compared for each population 

through an analysis of deviance calculated using an improvement chisquare 

to test for population variation. The outcome is a detailed 

analysis of the age at death distributions for males and females which 

will aid in the development of age estimation methods for Nigerian 

populations and enable further study of human variation throughout the 

region. 

Age Estimation, Population Variation, Human Rights 

H106 Dead Man’s Curve: How Scoliosis Affects 

Rib Aging 

Nicole M. Webb, BS*, 19760 Osprey Cove Boulevard, Apartment 136, 

Fort Myers, FL 33967; Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, Katy L. 

Shepherd, BS, and Christen E. Herrick, BS, Florida Gulf Coast 

University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 Florida Gulf Coast 

University Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Alyssa L. 

Butler, BA, 9795 Glen Heron Drive, Bonita Springs, FL 34135; Marta U. 

Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner’s Office, 3838 Domestic 

Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; and Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206 

The goal of this presentation is to present gross and radiographic 

methods used in the identification of abnormal spinal curvature, e.g., 

scoliosis, and the possible effects this condition has on the accuracy of 

rib aging estimation from skeletal remains. 

The presentation will impact the forensic community by elucidating 

the possible effects scoliosis has on rib aging criteria developed for the 

analysis of skeletal remains. 

Abnormal lateral curvature of the vertebral column, or scoliosis, 

currently affects 2-3% of the United States population. Due to its fairly 

uncommon occurrence, the presence of the condition may help to 

establish a positive identification from unidentified skeletal remains 

when medical records or radiographs are available. In the absence of 

antemortem medical information, scoliosis becomes one aspect of the 

broader biological profile (i.e., age, sex, stature, and ancestry) used to 

compare the unknown individual with NCIC and NamUS missing and 

endangered persons profiles. 

Two types of scoliosis are identified in clinical settings—adolescent 

scoliosis and adult degenerative scoliosis. Clinicians visually identify 

both types through the presence of asymmetric shoulders, scapulae, and 

hips. The diagnosis is then confirmed through antero-posterior 

radiographs. Once the displaced vertebrae are radiographically 

identified, the degree of the abnormal curvature is calculated using the 

Cobb angle. On the radiograph, one line is drawn from the superior 

vertebral body of the uppermost-displaced vertebrae. A second 

intersecting line is drawn along the inferior vertebral body of the most 

inferiorly displaced vertebra. The angle between these two lines as 

measured by a protractor is the Cobb angle. A 10° curvature is the 

minimum angulation required for a clinical diagnosis of scoliosis with 

most scoliotic spinal deformities falling between 10° and 30°. 

The postmortem skeletal identification of scoliosis is typically 

determined through gross analysis of the ribs (e.g., asymmetrical length 

and shape of rib antemeres), isolated vertebrae (e.g., deflected transverse 

processes, lateral wedging, rotation, and/or torsion of vertebral bodies, 

asymmetrical presence of sclerotic bone, and/or ossified intervertebral 

disc spaces), as well as the abnormal appearance of the articulated 

vertebral column. These changes to the ribs and vertebrae may cause the 

analyst to over estimate the age of the individual if the scoliotic 

pathology is present but slight in its expression or if the analyst does not 

recognize the condition. It is hypothesized that the loss of rib symmetry 

caused by the curvatures, which is attributed to the adaptation the ribs 


must make to accommodate spinal deformities, as well as the potential 

ossification of spinal ligaments and intervertebral disc space, results in 

changes to the sternal rib ends that inevitably complicate age assessment. 

For this study, a series of skeletons (n=44) under the jurisdiction of 

various medical examiners, including the offices of District 4, 17, and 

20, were evaluated for scoliosis indicators. Twenty-five percent (n= 11) 

of the forensic skeletal sample revealed scoliotic curvatures upon 

reconstruction. Left and right fourth ribs were aged of each individual 

and assigned a phase score using the Iscan and colleagues technique. In 

addition, the Cobb angle was calculated for each reconstructed skeleton 

within our forensic sample. Lastly, five analysts were used in this study 

in order to account for interobserver error. 

It was found that the more severe instances of spinal curvatures 

were caused by underlying congenital defects, the most common being 

hemivertebrae. Most instances of scoliosis observed presented with a 

double curvature and exhibited osteoarthritis; thereby, suggesting the 

curvature was attributed to age-related changes. In general, rib ends did 

not necessarily age older, but in some cases sustained such a high degree 

of distortion they appeared more flattened or youthful as defined by the 

Iscan and colleagues’ technique. Therefore, we suggest that when 

skeletal analysts age scoliotic individuals shape criteria should be deemphasized. 

Rather, features such as porosity and pitting criteria should 

supplant shape changes when using Iscan and colleagues aging 

technique on scoliotic skeletal remains. 

Forensic anthropology, Scoliosis, Fourth rib end aging 

H107 The Effect of Axial Developmental Defects 


Katy L. Shepherd, BS*, Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, and Christen E. 

Herrick, BS, Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 

10501 Florida Gulf Coast University Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, 

FL 33965-6565; Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; and Margarita 

Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, 

Jacksonville, FL 32206 

The goal of this presentation is to explore how the presence of axial 

developmental defects affects living stature estimates. 


helping to establish methodological standards when calculating living 

stature estimates from human skeletal remains that evidence vertebral 

developmental defects. 

The accurate estimation of stature is vital to the establishment of an 

individual’s identity in medicolegal investigations involving human 

skeletal remains. In forensic anthropological analyses, stature is 

commonly estimated by: (1) combining the measurements of those bones 

responsible for living stature (i.e., anatomical method); or, (2) using 

regression equations based on intact long bone measurements (i.e., 

mathematical method). The use of Fully’s anatomical method to 

estimate living stature, for example, involves the measurement of cranial 

height, maximum anterior height of the vertebrae C2 through S1, 

bicondylar length of the femur, physiological length of the tibia, and the 

maximum height of the articulated calcaneus and talus. Conversely, 

stature estimates derived solely from long bone measurements, with the 

occasional addition of sacral height, do not consider the entire vertebral 

column. 

Congenital anomalies or malformations are produced by 

pathological changes in the normal development during intrauterine life. 

Specifically, axial developmental defects affect the skull, vertebral 

column, ribs and sternum. Because a major component of skeletal height 

is the combined length of C2 through S1, vertebral agenesis, 

supernumerary vertebrae and irregular vertebral segmentation such as 

those seen in axial developmental defects may influence stature. It is 

hypothesized that using stature estimations based solely upon long bone 


measurements may under or overestimate stature, depending on the type 

of axial developmental defect present. Very little research has been 

conducted on how these anomalies, especially those involving the 

vertebral column, affect the estimation of living stature. To this end, 

stature was estimated using both anatomical and mathematical methods 

for skeletal remains with and without the presence of axial 

developmental defects in order to determine the variance, if any, between 

the two methods. 

Study materials for this research came from skeletal cases under the 

jurisdiction of Florida medical examiner districts 4, 17, and 20. The 

sample consisted of 32 adult individuals, of which 23 were male and nine 

were female. At least 50% of each individual was present, including the 

elements necessary to ensure accurate sex, age, ancestry, and both 

anatomical and mathematical stature estimates. Each case was 

inventoried, a biological profile was determined, and the remains were 

analyzed for vertebral developmental defects. The presence or absence 

of vertebral anomalies such as irregular vertebral segmentation (e.g., 

block vertebrae), vertebral border shifting (e.g., lumbarization, 

sacralization, etc.), supernumerary vertebrae and vertebral agenesis was 

recorded. Interobserver error was minimized by having three 

investigators estimate the stature on all individuals. Stature was 

determined using both anatomical (i.e., revised Fully method) and 

mathematical (i.e. regression equations from long bone measurements 

using FORDISC 3.0) methods. Data using chi square analysis of 

variance. 

Upon analysis, eight of the 32 individuals presented with at least 

one axial developmental defect. Most individuals exhibited only one 

type of developmental defect; however, two individuals had defects in 

multiple vertebral regions. Overall, there were three instances of 

irregular vertebral segmentation, four instances of general vertebral 

border shifting, one instance of supernumerary vertebrae and two 

instances of vertebral agenesis. The chi square analysis of variance 

revealed a significant difference in mean stature, as well as standard 

deviation within each stature estimate for those sets of remains with axial 

developmental defects (df = 7, p = 0.005). The difference in mean 

stature for the remains without axial defects was not significant (df = 23, 

p = 0.619). In individuals with vertebral agenesis and block vertebrae, 

the mathematical method tended to overestimate stature, thereby 

emphasizing the vertebral column’s impact on living stature. 

Forensic Anthropology, Stature Estimation, Axial Developmental 

Defects 

H108 Automatic Skull Landmark Determination 

for Facial Reconstruction 

Jeffrey D. Erno, MS*, and Peter H. Tu, PhD, GE Global Research, 

Imaging Technologies, 1 Research Circle, Niskayuna, NY 12309; and 

Terrie Simmons, MA, and Philip N. Williams, BS, FBI Laboratory, 

CFSRU, Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

The goal of this presentation is to present new methods for 

determining landmark positions on skeletal remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by making 

the facial reconstruction process more objective by lessening the 

requirement for user judgment in determining the initial landmark 

locations. 

When building a computer based facial reconstruction in ReFace, 

key locations need to be indentified on the questioned/found skull. 

These key locations, or landmarks, are used in the reconstruction and are 

historically selected manually by the ReFace user. After attending this 

presentation, attendees will understand a number of principles regarding 

the automatic determination of landmarks on skulls or any similar threedimensional 

shapes. 

The automatic landmark determination will also reduce the time 

and effort required to set up a facial reconstruction. The goal is not to 

130

take the user out of the loop. To this end, the user will be able to review 

and override any or all automatically determined locations. This may be 

necessary for unusual skulls or where skull material is missing. 

Automating the detection of key locations involves the use of a 

prediction algorithm that is trained using existing data. For the purposes 

of skull landmark determination the ReFace database of known skulls 

(over 400 CT scans containing both skull and soft tissue information) are 

used as the training data. The known skull landmark locations have been 

previously entered into ReFace by the system developers using their best 

judgment regarding these locations. 

A three-dimensional shape descriptor was developed to characterize 

any point on the skull and provides a training basis for the prediction 

algorithms. The shape descriptor is generally spherical and has sub 

regions separated by angles and radial layers. At any location on the 

skull the shape descriptor counts the number of three-dimensional model 

points in each sub region, with the result being an array of numeric 

values. The quantity, shape, and size of the shape descriptor sub regions 

are controlled by control variables with inputs for the initial radius, the 

number of angular sectors and the number of layers. Different 

configurations of the control variables were evaluated based on location 

determining capability. Performance and other results will be presented. 

When a new questioned skull is to be analyzed by ReFace, the 

system can compare the results of the shape descriptor evaluation at 

various points on the questioned skull with the algorithms trained by 

similar evaluations on the known skulls. Several different algorithms 

were evaluated and will be reviewed during the presentation, including 

boosting and cost based methods. 

Depending on the concentration of points on the three-dimensional 

model, skull data can be large in size. Larger models will take longer to 

process so the algorithm needs to perform efficiently and the amount of 

the skull that is evaluated should be reduced as much as possible. Using 

information about the known skulls in the ReFace database, the 

landmarks were normalized within the skull’s bounding region in order 

to provide an initial guess with respects to the location of the landmark 

and the volume of possible locations. The normalized estimate allows a 

region much smaller than the overall skull to begin a more detailed 

exploration of the location. Other methods to address and improve 

performance will also be presented. 

An example case in which the methods described are used to build 

a successful face reconstruction will be presented. The presentation will 

show the capability of automatically determining the location of the skull 

landmarks within a few millimeters of the correct location. 

Skull, Reconstruction, Algorithmnstruction, Algorithm 

H109 In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth Measurements 



Meaghan A. Huculak, BSc*, Saint Mary’s University, 923 Robie Street, 

Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3C3, CANADA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be aware of 

groundbreaking research that has expanded the facial tissue depth data to 

include African Canadians. They will also learn the significance of 

collecting data that is specific for similar ancestral populations living in 

different geographical regions. 


increasing the facial tissue depth data available in Canada to include 

African Canadians, and thus helping forensic artists generate more 

accurate 3-D forensic facial reconstructions. Consequently, a more 

accurate facial reconstruction will increase the likelihood of recognition 

and positive identification. As a result, this research will impact 

humanity by providing data that may help alleviate the psychological, 

emotional, and physical suffering endured by relatives and friends of 

missing persons. 

The purpose of this research is to expand the facial tissue depth data 

available in Canada to include African Canadians. Population specific 

facial tissue depth data helps increase the accuracy of three dimensional 

forensic facial reconstructions as well as the chance for establishing a 

positive identification for unknown individuals. Specifically, this study 

involves collaborating with the African Nova Scotian community to 

create the first African Canadian tissue depth database to help identify 

missing children of African Nova Scotian descent. 

The specific goals of this research are to: (1) report standard 

summary statistics, including means, standard deviations, and ranges of 

tissue thicknesses for both sexes and varying sub-adult age groups; (2) 

determine if there is a relationship between age and tissue thickness for 

males and females; (3) determine if there are significant differences of 

facial tissue depths between and within sexes of differing sub-adult age 

groups; (4) compare the results of this study to contemporary data for 

African American children (Manhein et. al., 2000); and, (5) provide 

sonographic training for African Nova Scotian students. 

This study utilizes ultrasound technology to collect the facial tissue 

depth measurements since it is the most accurate method of measuring 

tissue depth; it is non-invasive, safe, and portable. Tissue depth 

measurements are collected from fifty living volunteers of African Nova 

Scotian descent. Participants included males and females between three 

and 18 years of age. Height and weight were recorded and photographs 

of the front and right side were taken of each participant. To maintain 

consistency in locating the nineteen anatomical landmarks on living 

individuals, the protocol developed by Manhein and colleagues (2000) 

was followed. 

The participant was seated in the upright position, facing forward, 

with facial muscles and jaw relaxed. The transducer was coated with a 

non-allergenic gel and lightly applied to the skin at a 90° angle to the 

underlying bony landmark. To prevent depression of the soft tissues, the 

gel was the only substance in contact with the skin. 

The participant remained still while the measurement was being 

taken to ensure an accurate reading. Once the coated transducer was in 

the correct position, the image was frozen on the monitor and the 

participant was able to relax for a few moments prior to the next 

measurement. An ultrasound output was generated and the depth of the 

soft tissue was measured using calipers built into the computer system. 

This process was then repeated for all nineteen anatomical points. 

Averages of each point were taken for males and females of specific age 

groups and a reference table was generated. Statistical analyses were 

used to analyze the data. Results and preliminary findings will be 

presented. 


increasing the facial tissue depth data available in Canada to include 

African Canadians, and thus helping forensic artists generate more 

accurate 3-D forensic facial reconstructions. Consequently, a more 

accurate facial reconstruction will increase the likelihood of recognition 

and positive identification. As a result, this research will impact 

humanity by providing data that may help alleviate the psychological, 

emotional, and physical suffering endured by relatives and friends of 


African Canadian, Tissue Depth, Facial Reconstruction 

H110 Skeletal Identification by Radiographic 

Comparison: Blind Tests of a 

Morphoscopic Method Using Antemortem 

Chest Radiographs 

Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, and Andrew J. Tyrrell, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 310 



appreciation for how identifications can be established using the bone 


morphology depicted on chest radiographs, what error rates can be 

expected, and why the methods form the last viable modality for the 

identification of many United States personnel unaccounted for from the 

Korean War. 


providing data for the most rigorous validation test of a non-dental 

radiographic comparison method that has so far been undertaken (see 

methods reported below). Additionally, it demonstrates the potency that 

normal radiographic anatomies of the claviculae and C3-T4 vertebrae 

hold for the correct identification of unknown human skeletons (when of 

course, antemortem [AM] chest radiographs are available). 

Radiographs of the chest form the second-most frequently captured 

x-ray image after dental radiographs; however, chest radiographs are 

typically easier to locate (i.e., they form part of the medical record) and, 

therefore, they hold greater potential forensic value. Despite this, 

research on chest radiographs (at least from an identification 

perspective) has been limited and past validation studies have been 

hampered by the use of simulated AM radiographs and relatively easy 

test protocols (multiple pair matching tasks from the same, typically 

small, simultaneous array [n1390 non-matching individuals), 

postmortem radiographs taken and utilized by independent examiners, 

and a radiographic comparison method that employs the claviculae and 

C3-T4 vertebrae. Rigorous method assessments were undertaken by 

using: examiners who operated in the blind; a single target individual in 

each identification test; new non-target individuals across all tests; up to 

1000 radiographs in any single simultaneous array; sequential arrays in 

some trials (= examiners blinded to identification universe size, no 

opportunity for examiners to compare array radiographs side-by-side, 

and no opportunity for examiners to review decisions and/or 

radiographs); < quarter-size 50-year-old radiographs of suboptimal 

image quality; skeletons in various states of preservation (including 

varied states of erosion/completeness, two very poorly preserved 

skeletons and four other skeletons that had fifty percent of one clavicular 

shaft missing due to prior mtDNA sampling), back-to-back tests 

wherever possible (to encourage examiner fatigue), and time pressures 

for some trials. Thus, the performance levels observed in this study 

should represent baseline values. Eight examiners took part in the study: 

two trained on the radiographic images/methods and six other untrained 

examiners (= persons not receiving in-depth training on methods and 

additionally with limited radiographic experience [especially for the 

chest]; and/or limited knowledge of the in vivo position of the thoracic 

human skeleton; and/or limited understanding of x-ray 

principles/equipment operation). 

Only true positive identifications were made for the simultaneous 

arrays (accuracy = 100%, sensitivity = 100%; n = 6 trials). While 

erroneous identification responses were made during the sequential trials 

they were almost exclusively made by untrained examiners. That is, the 

accuracy, sensitivity and specificity for trained examiners was 90%, 80% 

and 100% respectively (n = 10 trials), whereas the accuracy, sensitivity 

and specificity for the untrained examiners was 35%, 50% and 29% 

respectively (n = 20 trials). Furthermore, untrained examiners took 

twice as long as trained examiners to reach identification decisions 

during the sequential trails, even though they performed with less 

accuracy (mean = 68 sec compared to 34 sec for trained examiners). 

Method limits were established by the very poorly preserved remains in 

conjunction with the sequential trials administered under an 

identification context; but when these very incomplete remains were 

tested using simultaneous arrays and/or sequential trials under 

exclusion/inclusion contexts, the methods retained their value in the 

hands of trained examiners (accuracy = 100%, specificity = 100%, n = 2 

trials). In view of the purposefully imposed stringency of this study, 

these results indicate that AM chest radiographs hold value for skeletal 

identification when implemented by trained examiners, especially for 

moderate-to-well preserved skeletal remains. Moreover, since 


benchmark accuracies for other radiographic identification methods have 

been set using more lenient tests, we suspect that the identification power 

of the method reported here at least rivals (and possibly even surpasses) 

that for higher esteemed body regions. These results justify the 

employment of the method in future forensic casework and should 

encourage attempts to make future improvements to these methods. 

Additionally, the results underscore the danger for untrained 

practitioners to employ the technique in its current unquantified state, but 

they also indicate that competency can be quickly induced by training 

with practice sets of images (c. 100-200 individuals) administered under 

simultaneous formats. 

Skeletal, Identification, Radiographs 

H111 Positive Identification Using Radiographs of 

the Lumbar Spine: A Validation Study 

Jane C. Wankmiller, MA*, Michigan State University, Department of 



a validation study/survey that was carried out to establish accuracy and 

error rates among practicing forensic anthropologists with regard to 

positive identifications made by comparing “antemortem” and 

“postmortem” radiographs of the lumbar spine. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by adding to 

the existing literature on validation, accuracy rates and the potential risk 

of arriving at false positives when using radiograph comparison as a 

means for arriving at positive identifications of unknown decedents. 

Following court rulings, such as Frye v. United States (1923), 

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993) and Kumho Tire Co. 

Ltd. v. Carmichael (1999), in addition to the recent recommendations 

included in the 2009 report from the National Academy of Sciences, the 

forensic community is increasingly mindful of the importance of 

evaluating, improving, and standardizing the methods employed by 

scientists practicing in all disciplines of forensic science. Specifically 

with regard to the Daubert ruling, guidelines were established for 

admissibility of expert witness testimony: a method must have been or 

have the potential to be empirically tested, there must be established 

error rates, it must have been subjected to peer review, and it must be 

generally accepted in the relevant scientific community. As a result, 

several studies have been published to validate identification methods 

used by anthropologists. Existing publications on methodology and 

validations studies involving comparative radiography include, among 

others: Christensen 2004; Hogge et al. 1994; Hulewicz and Wilcher 

2003; Kahana et al. 2002; Koot et al. 2005; Kuehn et al. 1997; Mundorff 

et al. 2006; Quatrehomme 1993; Telmon et al. 2001; Weiler et al. 2000. 

Though several published case reports and studies involve the use of 

lumbar spine radiographs, none have sought to validate the comparisons 

of antemortem and postmortem x-rays of the lumbar region with the 

specific goal of establishing the method as admissible evidence in a court 

of law. 

This project was designed to evaluate the validity of rendering 

positive identifications by comparing antemortem and postmortem 

radiographs of the lumbar spine, and to evaluate the specific features 

anthropologists most often employ when carrying out such 

identifications. With permission from the Willed Body Program and the 

Department of Radiology at Michigan State University, the research 

being presented made use of cadavers from the MSU Gross Anatomy 

Laboratory. To mimic the antemortem condition, A-P abdominal x-rays 

were taken of 29 cadavers, using standard clinical procedures. Five of 

those individuals were then randomly selected to have their lumbar 

spines extracted, defleshed, rearticulated and x-rayed a second time to 

mimic the postmortem condition. Careful attention was paid to orient 

these “postmortem” images as closely as possible to the “antemortem” 

images. 

132

After duplicating the radiographs and selecting suitable images, 

packets of materials containing sets of 20 “antemortem” and 5 

“postmortem” radiographs, along with a letter to participants, the 

project’s abstract, consent forms, and data sheets were sent to the study 

subjects (practicing anthropologists and forensic anthropology graduate 

students) who participated voluntarily. The first portion of the data 

sheets contained questions asking personal information such as highest 

degree, whether the participant was a graduate student or a professional, 

years of experience each participant has practicing forensic 

anthropology, whether they had experience using radiographs to make 

positive identifications, whether any of those identifications were made 

based on radiographs of the spine, and approximately how many of their 

cases have involved such identifications. The second portion of the data 

sheet asked the study participants to identify which “antemortem” 

radiographs corresponded to the “postmortem” radiographs, how many 

similarities they found between the radiographs, and which specific 

features they took into consideration. 

Analysis was carried out using contingency tables to evaluate the 

relationships between the independent variables (i.e. level of education, 

years of experience practicing forensic anthropology, number of cases 

involving radiographs, and number of cases involving radiographs of the 

spine) and the dependent variable (% correct of the five simulated 

identifications). Results suggest that level of education and years of 

professional experience may be unrelated to the accuracy rates 

associated with this type of identification. However, there appears to be 

a significant relationship between the amount of experience observers 

have with making identifications using radiographs and the number of 

identifications they made correctly. 

Identification, Validation, Radiographs 

H112 Hand Comparison: The Potential for 

Accurate Identification/Recognition in 

Cases of Serious Sexual Assault 

Xanth Mallett, PhD*, University of Dundee, Centre for Anatomy & 

Human Identification, Dow Street, Dundee, UK DD1 5EH, SCOTLAND 

After attending the presentation, attendees will have an 

understanding of the differences between human identification, 

recognition, and comparison in forensic body mapping scenarios, 

forensic photographic comparisons methods, as discussed in relation to 

body mapping – using the human as example, and different geometry 

and biometric identifiers, in terms of developing multi-modal systems. 


providing an overview of a new and innovative human 

identification/recognition system which does not require the offender’s 

face to be visible, offering another mechanism for the detection and 

confirmation of the identity of serious sex offenders, including members 

of international paedophile rings, providing inter-agency and crossboundary 

support to investigative agencies outside of the United 

Kingdom investigating serious sex crimes in which faces are not visible, 

and making the system details available to other law enforcement 

agencies, with a view to increasing the number of successful 

prosecutions of serious criminal, including those guilty of sexual 

offences. 

This presentation will summarize a number of high profile cases 

that have been heard recently in the United Kingdom courts – one of 

which was described by the residing judge as Scotland’s worst child sex 

abuse trial – which have utilized a novel and innovative hand comparison 

method to identify and corroborate the identify several pedophiles. 

Researchers at the Centre for Anatomy & Human Identification, 

University of Dundee, Scotland, have developed the world’s first large 

database for hand recognition and identification, with thousands of 

images which can now be used as a reference sample to show the 

occurrence of features within a discrete population. This database was 

developed as a direct result of a case that was presented the 

anthropological team at the Centre by the Metropolitan Police Service 

(MPS), London, which consisted of an offender taking illegal 

photographs of under-aged children while on a business trip to Thailand 

– who was careful not to catch his face on camera; however, his hands 

were in clear evidence. Previous to the Dundee team’s work, only 

circumstantial evidence linked the suspect to the offender in the images. 

The resulting report showed that it was unlikely that the hand in the 

photographs could have belonged to anyone else; that there was more 

variation between the suspects’ two hands than there was between the 

suspect’s left hand and the hand in the offender image. This result was 

achieved by comparing multi-modal features, such as overall finger size 

and shape, in addition to more individualistic characteristics such as scar, 

moles, freckles, etc. When confronted with the evidence the suspect 

confessed, and was subsequently found guilty of indecent assault of 

children under the age of 14 years, together with other serious sexual 

assault charges. This ground-breaking forensic identification case was 

revealed to the media by the MPS (2009) and the British Crown 

Prosecution Service (2009). 

Subsequently, a second hand comparison was undertaken for 

Lothian and Borders Police, Scotland, which resulted in the successful 

conviction of a pedophile ring, with eight men being found guilty of 

child pornography and sex abuse charges. Since this time, and a 

considerable media attention, an increasing number of similar scenarios 

have been presented to the team for analysis, demonstrating that there are 

significant applications for the work being undertaken in Dundee. This 

presentation will summarize the methods under development, and detail 

the most significant cases reviewed by the team to date. 

References: 

CPS (2009) Paedophile Sentenced after Hand Evidence Secures 

Conviction. Crown Prosecution service. Available from: 

http://www.cps.gov.uk/london/press_releases/paedophile_sentenced_ 

after_hand_evidence_secures_conviction/. 

MPS (2009) Freckles Prove Child Abuse. Metropolitan Police Service. 

Available from: 

http://cms.met.police.uk/news/convictions/freckles_prove_child_abuse. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Hand Comparison, Body Mapping 

H113 Forensic Characteristics of Hand Shape: 

Analysis of Individuation Potential 

and Sexual Dimorphism Using 


Patrick Randolph-Quinney, PhD*, Centre for Anatomy and Human 

Identification, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, 

DD1 5EH, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation attendees will learn of the issues 

surrounding the biometric use of hand geometry and its forensic 

anthropological basis, and methods which may be applied using 

advanced shape analysis statistical techniques in order to standardize the 

individuation of hand shape. 


presenting a novel standardization method for the quantitative analysis 

of hand morphology as an aid in individuation and sex assessment. 

The human hand is often used for verification of identity only 

(using one-to-one comparison), as the dimensions of hands have been 

considered to be too alike to individuate based on a one-to-many 

comparison. Past research has often focused solely on lengths and 

widths of the fingers and palm to compare variation in the hand, and this 

has led to the belief that hand dimensions are insufficiently individuating 


for human identification. The research here presented utilizes geometric 

morphometric techniques to investigate and quantify shape and size 

variation in the human hand, and consequently the potential for forensic 

human identification and recognition. The results are presented of a 

novel hand biometry study, the goal of which was to develop a 

methodologically and statistically robust means of investigating the 

individuating potential of the human hand by studying the extent of 

morphological variation within a sample population. It was imperative 

the developed technique was simple and highly repeatable, as currently 

there is no universally accepted method for hand comparison capable of 

facilitating a systematic assessment of individuation. 

Simultaneous digital images were acquired of the dorsal and palmar 

surfaces of the left & right hands of male and female participants. Ten 

repeat runs were acquired with varying time-lapses between image 

capture in order to assess variation due to hand placement. Nine 2D 

landmarks were selected on both surfaces of both hands, and were 

subsequently digitized using [TPS Digit.] The resulting landmark 

configurations (n=720) were subjected to Generalized Procrustes 

Analysis (GPA) with Full Tangent Space Projection in [Morphologika 

2.5.] Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was applied in order to 

assess individual and populational variation. Factor loadings were 

subject to Canonical Variates Analysis with stepwise and leave-one-out 

classification in order to assess individuation potential and the effects of 

sexual dimorphism on hand shape. The results showed individuals to be 

correctly classified in 95.3% of cases, with 87.5% being correctly 

classified by sex (males were correctly classified in 91.9% of cases, and 

females in 83.1%). These results are strongly significant and suggest the 

human hand offers significant individuating power for forensic 

identification purposes. They also indicate male and female hands to 

have sufficient shape variation for sex-based discrimination with the 

effects of allometry being strongly implicated. These and other 

implications of the shape analysis will be discussed. 

Hand Biometrics, Geometric Morphometrics, Sex Assessment 

H114 Bionic Remains: Positive Identifications 


Alison E. Jordan, BS*, Forensic Institute for Research and Education, 

PO Box 89, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 

37132; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & 

Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, 

TN 37132 

After attending this presentation, attendees should appreciate the 

forensic potential of surgical implants in making positive identifications. 

The attendees will become aware of the forensic and future 

bioarchaeological implications of the information presented, the types of 

procedures that require surgical implants, and a novel method for rapid 

identification of the implants and their uses. 

This research will benefit the forensic community by facilitating 

positive identifications of victims who possess surgical implants. 

Additionally, this research may provide future bioarchaeologists a 

valuable single-source reference on twentieth and twenty-first century 

medical procedures. 

Surgeries as treatments and preventative medicine have been 

around almost as long as man has had ailments. From trepanation in 

prehistoric times to complex neurosurgery in modern times, surgeries of 

all sorts (preventative, treatment, or cosmetic) have left their mark on 

human skeletal remains for millennia. Increasingly, surgeons are relying 

upon devices—from simple to electronically or mechanically driven—to 

replace or enhance organs and organ systems. Medical implants are now 

used in surgeries involving all major organ systems and are a frequent 

find in decomposed, burned and skeletal remains. Their significance in 

life as a medical aide is transformed in death to a tool for identification. 

This paper proposes to provide a single-source compilation (i.e., printed 


and/or online reference manual) of common surgical implants along with 

their forensic significance for identification. 

The presence of an implant of any type tells the investigator that 

medical records exist on the questioned remains. The presence of certain 

types of remains (e.g., testicular implants, breast implants, fallopian tube 

rings or clips, etc.) may provide an indication of the sex of the questioned 

remains, or, in some cases, the preferred sex of the questioned remains. 

A general indication of age may be revealed by the presence of implants 

such as porcine verses mechanical heart valves, since porcine heart 

valves are at risk of calcification and breakdown and are not commonly 

placed in the young. The postmortem interval (PMI) may be garnered 

from the style of the implant as the manufacturer frequently modifies or 

redesigns them, varies manufacturing materials through time as research 

dictates, or the implant may contain power sources with known limits. A 

baseline for time since death (TSD) can be determined through 

identification of the implant and when it was manufactured. Finally, the 

morphological uniqueness of the implant may provide a means of 

specific identification from comparisons of antemortem and postmortem 

radiographs. 

When analyzing forensic remains to determine identity, specific 

information on an implant is a valuable source of information, but is 

often problematic and time consuming to find. Although many implants 

possess manufacturer names and logos, contact information for the 

manufacturer may not be readily obtainable and may require library or 

computer searches. The purpose of this paper is to provide a convenient 

source of information on implants commonly used in a variety of 

medical specialties, including orthopedics and sports medicine, 

cardiothoracic surgery, bariatric surgery, and cosmetic surgery. 

Specifically, under each specialty the name and representative 

photographs or illustrations will be provided of the more common 

implant, a description of their function, the manufacturers’ logos when 

present, contact information for the manufacturer, whether lot numbers 

are present on the device, and any known forensic value. 

Forensic Anthropology, Surgical Implants, Positive Identification 

H115 Epidemiology of Homicide in the Spanish 

Civil War 

Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD*, Binghamton University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000; Camila 

Oliart, MA, Universidad Autònoma de Barcelona, Department of 

Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 08193, SPAIN; Elena Garcia-Guixé, 

MA, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya, Laboratori de 

Paleoantropologia i Paleopatologia, Barcelona, SPAIN; María Inés 

Fregeiro, MA, and Elena Sintes, MA, Universitat Autonoma de 

Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 08193, 

SPAIN; Jennifer Bauder, MA, and Aimee E. Huard, MA, Binghamton 

University, Department of Anthropology, Binghamton, NY 13902; Jorge 

Jiménez, MA, Universidad Autònoma de Barcelona, Department of 

Prehistory, Barcelona, 08193, SPAIN; and Carme Boix, PhD, Badley 

Ashton & Associates Ltd., Winceby House, Winceby, Horncastle, 

Lincolnshire, LN9 6PB, UNITED KINGDOM 


archaeological and forensic anthropological data can be used to 

reconstruct the manner in which extrajudicial executions occurred during 

the Spanish Civil War and how the execution modes varied by 

perpetrator group. 


showing how multidisciplinary cooperation among historians, 

archaeologists, forensic anthropologists, pathologists, and ballistic 

experts excavate seventy-year-old mass graves in Spain to reconstruct 

historic memory of the Spanish Civil War. 

Forensic scientists involved in the exhumation, recovery, and 

analysis of victims of human rights atrocities are often tasked with 

134

evaluating opposing testimonies concerning the number and identity of 

the victims as well as the nature of the event(s) surrounding the deaths. 

While investigators working on many sites within a single conflict may 

informally comment on a recognized pattern of execution and disposal, 

the modus operandi of perpetrators has received little formal attention. 

This is in large part because of the perceived heterogeneity of conflict 

behavior across space and time. However, patterns can arise within 

conflicts. The focus of this paper is to apply archaeological and physical 

anthropological data from a number of well-documented human rights 

investigations around the world, as well as Spanish historic information, 

to help define who was targeted for execution and define the manner of 

executions in recently excavated mass graves from the Spanish Civil War 

(1936-1939) and subsequent period of Franco rule (1939 – 1975). The 

epidemiology of homicide focuses on who was targeted for execution 

and how the process by which executions were carried out varied over 

space and time and whether the perpetrators were military or civilian. 

Despite the death of Franco in 1975, Civil Society in Spain is still 

struggling with when and how to reclaim historic memory of the Civil 

War and investigations of the atrocities committed by both sides are only 

recently underway. Most graves investigated to date are of the political 

left who were killed by the military as well as civilian Fascist groups. It 

is predicted that there will be distinct differences in the modus operandi 

between army and civilian perpetrators. Published and unpublished 

reports on documented clandestine execution methods from Iraq, 

Argentina, Guatemala, the former Yugoslavia, and several other conflict 

zones are compared to reports of controlled excavations of mass graves 

in Spain to establish the procedures to target, capture, and execute 

noncombatants during the Spanish Civil War and to document any 

regional or temporal variation. 

The data collected for this study focus on the grave, any activities 

associated with the execution event at the site, and detailed information 

about the victims. The first dataset provides information concerning the 

actions of the perpetrators and includes: (1) geographic location of the 

graves; (2) the number of graves at the site (e.g., a single mass grave or 

multiple contiguous or nearly contiguous pits that may indicate use over 

a period of time); (3) dimensions of the grave(s); (4) evidence of primary 

or secondary interment; (5) evidence of postmortem disturbance of 

graves; (6) presence or absence of ballistic evidence in and around the 

grave (e.g., shell casings, bullets); (7) presence or absence of ballistic 

evidence near likely execution sites (e.g., cemetery walls); (8) type and 

number of firearms used; and, (9) position of individuals within the 

grave. 

The second dataset focuses on the remains of the victims to examine 

who was targeted, whether it is likely they were combatants or unarmed 

civilians, the nature and frequency of peri-mortem trauma, and the 

positional relationship between the victim and perpetrator at the time of 

execution. Such data include: (1) number of individuals per grave; (2) 

demographic profile of victims; (3) date of execution; (4) number of 

individuals with peri-mortem gunshot, sharp or blunt force trauma; (5) 

number of individuals with multiple forms of peri-mortem trauma; (6) 

spatial relationship between perpetrator and victim (as determined by 

direction of gunshot fire and/or blunt force blows); (7) anatomical 

location(s) of peri-mortem trauma; and, (8) presence or absence of 

bindings (blindfolds, ligatures). 

The results demonstrate that the mass graves investigated by our 

team, as well as most graves throughout Spain, involved little 

construction effort and that the majority of the victims were males who 

did not support the military revolt. Two or more types of bullets are 

recorded for most of the mass graves. The distribution of gunshot 

wounds on the skeletons are largely confined to the torso and entered the 

bodies from multiple directions. While some bullets entered the skull, 

the evidence is most consistent with death by firing squads as 

documented in Iraq. Importantly, the physical evidence of the graves and 

bodies is inconsistent with claims of battlefield deaths and support the 

local oral histories indicating unarmed men were rounded up and 

illegally executed by both military and civilian firing squads. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights, Spanish Civil War 

H116 Forensic Anthropology in Colombia: 


Isla Yolima Campos Varela*, Institute of Legal Medicine, Calle 7A #12- 

61, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Elizabeth A. DiGangi, PhD*, ICITAP, 

Calle 125 #19-89, Of. 401, Bogota, COLOMBIA 

The goal of this presentation is to describe the current status of 

forensic anthropology in Colombia and its challenges. Forensic 

anthropology efforts are conducted amidst on-going armed conflict, as 

opposed to other Latin American countries. 


providing an overview of the obstacles posed by armed conflict in terms 

of forensic anthropology activities. 

Since the twenieth century, Colombia has been going through an 

armed conflict among various players: leftist insurgents, rightist 

paramilitary groups, drug traffickers, and the government itself. The 

conflict has resulted in countless deaths, displacements, and missing 

persons. These cases need to be resolved in court and victim reparation 

is essential. 

In 2005 the law offered benefits to illegal group members who were 

willing to surrender and provide useful information. It was required that 

illegally obtained assets had to be returned to contribute to the victim 

reparation process and perpetrators had to give up their criminal 

activities. This strategy resulted in the discovery of countless 

clandestine graves. Investigating and processing these graves required 

additional forensic teams and the strengthening of anthropology teams 

existing at government agencies. These teams are responsible for 

exhuming remains and collecting evidence to support identification 

processes and help establish the truth. 

Forensic anthropology in Colombia is unique. Despite multiple 

legal, military, and diplomatic efforts, armed conflict is an on-going 

problem that forces anthropologists to continue working amidst conflict. 

As a result of the continuing state of conflict, forensic anthropology 

emerged as a government initiative. 

Working amidst conflict creates some unique problems for the 

investigating forensic teams which may bring about legal and historical 

challenges in the future. Some of these problems include: 

1 Collection of Victim Information: No precise information 

is available on the actual number of deaths or missing and 

displaced persons. These figures are constantly growing and 

there is no consensus between victim organizations and state 

agencies. Victims are reluctant to provide information 

because of their fear of retaliation from armed groups that are 

still operating in conflict areas. It if very difficult to locate 

civilians who may provide information about the death of 

their loved ones because most of them have been displaced 

by violence, live away from their place of origin, or their 

whole families have been exterminated. 

2 Exhumation of Clandestine Graves: In many cases the 

parties to the conflict state that bodies of the victims were 

disposed of to avoid prosecution. Exhumations are 

frequently conducted in a very short time and there is the risk 

of missing essential evidence to help clarify the 

circumstances of the victims’ death. 

3 Laboratory Analysis and Victim Identification: Due to 

difficulty gathering antemortem information about missing 

persons frequently results in a lack of information to 


compare against the evidence obtained from the skeletal 

remains. This situation delays identification and creates a 

backlog of unresolved cases. 

The above represents multiple challenges for Colombian forensic 

anthropologists. Fieldwork and laboratory protocols based on the 

country’s reality must be developed and adapted. Further research is 

required to develop standards specific to the Colombian population. 

Additionally, the modus operandi of armed groups must be understood to 

interpret field and laboratory findings. 

Colombia has a long way to go. Even though the country has 

received invaluable support from nations such as the United States, 

which have made significant financial and logistic contributions to 

victim search and identification processes, work teams still need training 

and laboratory and field standards need to be developed. Such 

advancements would not only help solve cases, but contribute to the 

construction of the country’s historical memory. It would be the first 

step towards justice and reconciliation, which will ultimately lead to 

lasting peace. 

Forensic Anthropology, Armed Conflict, Colombia 

H117 Ten Years On: Problems Relating to Victim 

Identification in Timor Leste 

Debra Komar, PhD*, United Nations Mission in Timor Leste, UN House, 

Dili, EAST TIMOR 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn of the specific 

factors limiting the efforts of the United Nations Forensic Team in 

identifying victims of the 1999 conflict in Timor Leste. 


providing vital information on standards and practices associated with 

human rights investigations. 

In the fall of 1999, a referendum was held to determine whether the 

area known as East Timor (now Timor Leste) should seek independence 

from Indonesia. The Timorese voted overwhelmingly for independence. 

The Indonesian militia responded with a scorched earth policy, during 

which over 1,000 Timorese were reportedly killed. In the decade since, 

the United Nations has been responsible for investigating and 

documenting the offenses committed in 1999. The current unit, known 

as the Serious Crimes Investigation Team or SCIT, is given jurisdictional 

authority to investigate by, and reports directly to, the Office of the 

Prosecutor General of the Timorese government. The SCIT contains a 

Forensic Unit that is responsible for the exhumation and autopsy of 

victims of the 1999 conflict. 

To date, personal identification of the victims is not DNA based, 

despite the considerable efforts of all anthropologists associated with the 

mission and offers to conduct DNA testing from numerous 

organizations. The decision to utilize DNA testing rests with the 

Prosecutor General. As a result, the identification of victims remains 

presumptive and the process is suspect because of the following 

confounding factors: the requirement of family consent to exhume; the 

practice of monetary incentives; reliance on family identification; and, 

the use of North American methodological standards. Each of these 

factors will be examined in detail: 

1 Family Consent to Exhume: The Office of the Prosecutor 

General requires written family consent prior to any 

exhumation or examination of purported victims. While the 

practice shows respect for local custom and family wishes in 

cases involving individual and consecrated burials, the 

requirement becomes burdensome and limiting in the case of 

mass internments, clandestine burials and unidentified 

remains. Investigations were curtailed in cases of multiple 

burials because some families agreed to the exhumation 

while other families withheld consent. Exhumations 

authorized by one family member would be canceled when 


another family member withdrew consent. Unidentified 

remains unearthed during construction projects or in similar 

circumstances could not be examined by the SCIT Forensic 

Unit until the victim was tentatively identified or the death 

could be shown to be from 1999. All forensic and 

medicolegal investigations, particularly those involving 

large-scale human rights violations, must be able to operat 

independently and without constraint in order to produce 

unbiased results. The family consent requirement in Timor 

Leste violates this principle. 

2 Monetary Incentives: Timor Leste is the poorest nation in 

Asia. Local mortuary customs require elaborate rituals, 

including village feasts associated with burial, exhumation, 

and reburial. To assist with the costs associated with the 

rituals, the United Nations introduced a stipend to families 

consenting to exhumations. The stipend, originally $40.00 

U.S. dollars, has now grown to $150.00. Personal 

observations include continual family demands for more 

money and, on one occasion, the family withdrew their prior 

consent, demanding thousands of dollars to examine the 

remains. The investigative process relies on families to 

identify potential victims to the investigative team. In such a 

harsh economic environment, paying families to exhume 

their loved ones creates an ethically questionable situation. 

What began as a well-intentioned practice is now suspect and 

subject to abuse. 

3 Reliance on Family Identifications: The identification 

process in Timor begins and ends with the family of the 

deceased. While cases exist in which a family member was 

present when the victim was killed, providing a reasonable 

visual identification of the remains, a significant proportion 

of the “identifications” are based on local folk traditions. 

Personal observations include witnessing family members cut 

themselves and bleed on the bones of their purported loved 

ones, in the belief that only family blood will be absorbed 

into the dry remains and the identification of skeletonized 

remains based on the dreams of the supposed victim’s 

grandmother. As anthropologists, local traditions must be 

respected; however, as forensic scientists, more must be 

required. Most troubling are cases in which the biological 

profile generated at autopsy does not match the family’s 

description of the victim. Given the requirement of family 

consent and the family’s belief that the remains are those of 

their loved one, there is little that can be done in such cases 

beyond informing the family of the findings. 

4 The Validity of Applying North American Standards to 

the Timorese Population: Even casual observation 

indicates that the Timorese are significantly smaller than their 

North American counterparts. A pilot study using 

presumptively identified individuals was conducted and will 

be presented in an upcoming article. The sample included 26 

individuals, all male, with an age range of 2 to 52 years. All 

metric forms of analysis were shown to be inaccurate. For 

example, metric sex determination methods using femoral 

and humeral head dimensions misclassified 100% of the adult 

male sample as “unambiguously female.“ Pubic symphysis 

aging methods also appeared to be incorrect. The need for 

regionally specific standards is great, yet would require a test 

population of positively identified individuals with 

documented age and stature (a problem in a country where 

many individuals do not know how old or tall they are). 

Currently, the ambiguity of family reported data, combined 

with the knowledge that our anthropological standards are 

inaccurate for the population under study, results in an 

identification process fraught with error. When the biological 

profile and the family description of the victim do not match, 

136

is it because the identification is incorrect, the family is 

mistaken about the age or stature of the victim, or because our 

methods are inaccurate? 

The cumulative effect of these factors is an identification process 

that is scientifically unacceptable. DNA testing must be utilized in 

Timor Leste. There is no other means of addressing issues of victim 

identification. The current procedure does little more than apply a false 

veneer of scientific credibility to an otherwise invalid exercise. The 

complete reliance on families as both the sole source of identification 

and access to the remains compromises investigative efforts and provides 

no means of addressing cases where the presumptive identification is 

incorrect. 

Professional standards and practices benefit from review, critique, 

and reevaluation. This presentation is not intended as an indictment of 

the current investigation in Timor Leste, but rather as an opportunity to 

learn from past experiences, to reconsider practices that introduce 

monetary or resource incentives into forensic investigations, and to 

identify the need for research into regional standards for all 

anthropological methodologies. 

Personal Identification, Biological Profile, International Human 

Rights 

H118 Personal Identification from Skeletal 

Remains in Human Rights Investigations: 


Luis Fondebrider*, Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), 

Rivadavia 2443, 2do piso, dpto.3 y 4, (1034) Capital Federal, Buenos 

Aires, ARGENTINA; and Soren Blau, PhD*, Victorian Institute of 

Forensic Medicine, 57-83 Kavanagh Street, Southbank, Melbourne, 

Victoria 3146, AUSTRALIA 


complexities of personal identification from human skeletal remains in 

cases of political violence (human rights cases) where traditional 

antemortem records are rarely available. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by examining 

some of the problems with presumptive identification techniques and 

posing questions about reliance on DNA identification methods. 

The personal identification of an individual(s) from skeletal 

remains poses a number of difficulties for forensic specialists. The 

absence of soft tissue, including skin (with possible tattoos, scars, or 

birthmarks) and fingerprints, limits the possibility of making a 

presumptive (e.g., based on visual assessment) or a positive (based on 

fingerprints) identification, and consequently, augments the role of the 

forensic anthropologist. 

The forensic anthropologist may assist by providing a biological 

profile (that is, the ancestry, sex, age, and stature of an individual) as well 

as identifying any skeletal anomalies, defects and/or pathologies. Such 

information is lead-generating and may narrow down the search. 

However, even with the formation of a biological profile, an attempt at 

identification rests on antemortem records being obtainable for 

comparison with the postmortem data. Adequate antemortem records 

may not always be available. This is particularly true in cases of political 

violence (human rights cases), where the affected population rarely visit 

a dentist or doctor. 

While fingerprints, DNA, and dental/medical information are the 

only evidence accepted in most countries by the legal authority to make 

a positive identification, other “unofficial” antemortem information may 

exist. For example, the mother of a victim may remember very well that 

her son had a missing upper lateral incisor even though no dental records 

exist. Is this information acceptable for identification? How is such 

information to be evaluated in the context of a lack of official dental 

records? Is a fracture in a bone or a pathological change to a limb that 

produces an unusual gait enough to identify an individual despite the 

lack of medical reports or x-rays? 

And how useful are personal belongings in the identification 

process? Presumptive identification based on associated clothing and/or 

personal property has been criticized as being unsystematic and 

providing high failure rates (Simmons and Skinner 2005; Simmons 

2007). 1,2 However, in many contexts the relatives of the missing and/or 

their friends may recognize clothing and/or property and there will not 

be funding and/or DNA facilities available to undertake positive 


While discussions about acceptable levels of identification are 

common in contexts where legal and medical standards have not been 

established and geopolitics dictates international will and funding to 

investigate the missing, “acceptable” means of identifying deceased 

individuals need to be rethought and redefined. Does the forensic 

community have to adapt their practice to fit available resources? The 

obvious question following this is does such adaptation result in the 

lowering of standards? Such questions need to be addressed as the 

families of victims will continue to claim the remains of their loved ones. 

References: 

1 Simmons T, Skinner MF. The accuracy of antemortem data and 

presumptive identification: Appropriate procedures, application and 

ethics. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences; 

2005 Feb 20-25; Seattle, USA. 2006. 12;H51:303. 

2 Simmons, T. 2007. Presumptive (mis)identification rates for the 

Balkans. Paper presented at the 9 th Indo-Pacifica Congress on Legal 

Medicine and Forensic Sciences of The Indo-Pacific Association of 

Law, Medicine and Science 22 nd -27 th July Colombo, Sri Lanka. 

Positive Identification, Standards, Skeletal Remains 

H119 The International Commission on Missing 

Persons and an Integrated, 

Multidisciplinary Forensic Approach to 

Identification of the Missing From the 1995 

Srebrenica, Bosnia Mass Execution Event 

Thomas Parsons, PhD*, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, Andreas Kleise, LLM; Adam 

Boys, MA, and Asta Zinbo, MA; Forensic Sciences International 

Commission on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, 

BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD, Simon Fraser 

University, Department of Archeology, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, 

CANADA; and Kathryne Bomberger, MA, Forensic Sciences 

International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will gain an overview of 

the mission and role of the International Commission on Missing 

Persons (ICMP), and an introduction to the integrated forensic sciences 

that the ICMP has employed in a massive and complex effort to identify 

and repatriate the victims of the 1995 mass killing associated with the 

fall of Srebrenica, Bosnia. 


the understanding of the success that can be achieved in large scale 

missing persons identification, and the range of technical processes and 

complex considerations that must be taken into account when attempting 

such an undertaking. 

After the breakup of the former Yugoslavia, and the resulting armed 

conflicts from the period 1992-1995, there were some 40,000 persons 

missing and unaccounted for, many as a result of severe human rights 

violations involving civilians. The International Commission on 

Missing Persons was established in 1996 to ensure the cooperation of 

governments in locating and identifying those who have disappeared 

during armed conflict or as a result of human rights violations. Since 

2003, ICMP has been active in regions outside of the former Yugoslavia 


and has played a substantial role in addressing the issue of persons 

missing from armed conflict and human rights violations in such 

countries as Chile, Colombia and Iraq, and in Disaster Victim 

Identification efforts such as the 2004 SE Asian tsunami, Hurricane 

Katrina, and the 2008 Typhoon Frank ferry disaster in the Philippines. 

In the former Yugoslavia, the ICMP integrates the disciplines of 

forensic archaeology, forensic anthropology, pathology, high throughput 

DNA testing and informatics to achieve identifications on a massive, 

regional scale. Between 2001 and August 2009, the ICMP has made 

over 14,700 DNA matches between victim samples (recovered mainly 

from mass graves) and family members of the missing, through 

comparison with a regionally comprehensive database of over 86,400 

DNA profiles from family members of missing persons from this region 

(representing over 28,700 missing persons). In addition to forensic 

assistance, a central role of the ICMP is to promote governmental and 

legal structures to responsibly deal with missing persons issues and to 

foster justice and civil society initiatives in support of victims’ families. 

One of the ICMP’s biggest forensic challenges in terms of 

complexity and scale has related to the mass killings associated with the 

July, 1995 fall of the United Nations’ “Safe Haven” in Srebrenica to the 

Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) forces. This event is the largest mass 

murder in Europe since World War II and has been designated as 

genocide by the International Criminal Tribunal of former Yugsolavia 

(ICTY). Approximately 8,100 men and boys were killed, either during 

flight from Srebrenica on foot across mountainous terrain, or when 

separated from a larger civilian contingent and systematically executed. 

The detainees were taken to various execution sites where the majority 

of victims died from gunshot wounds and were buried in large primary 

mass graves within or near the executions sites. In order to hide 

evidence of the killings and prevent discovery of the remains of the 

victims, over the ensuing several months the primary graves were 

crudely exhumed by heavy machinery and the victims reburied in 

multiple secondary mass graves scattered throughout remote 

countryside. This caused the remains of the victims to become 

commingled and fragmented, with the partial remains of many victims 

being desposited in two or more separate secondary graves. Repatriation 

of identified mortal remains to families thus also requires re-association 

of remains, as well as primary identification through a “DNA-led” 

process. As of August, 2009, the ICMP has provided technical assistance 

to Bosnian and international authorities in the assessment and excavation 

of some 250 Srebrenica-related grave sites and established DNA matches 

for almost 6200 individuals missing from the fall of Srebrenica. 

This presentation will serve as an introduction to a following series 

of presentations that will detail the intregrated forensic sciences which 

the ICMP brings to bear on the massive and complex undertaking of 

identification of the missing from Srebrenica, and associated evidentiary 

analysis and documentation that contributes to an objective forensic and 

historic record of this event. In addition, this presentation will outline 

policy issues that arise in large scale forensic missing persons 

identification from armed conflicts. Also highlighted will be how such 

a forensic undertaking is dependent on interactions and issues 

concerning victim families, family organizations, larger society, and 

legal and governmental structures. 

Missing Persons Identification, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Srebrenica 


H120 The Work of the ICMP in the Detection, 

Excavation, Documentation, and Analysis of 

Clandestine Graves Relating to the 1995 

Fall of Srebrenica: A Review of Activities 

and Challenges Encountered 

Renée C. Kosalka, MA*, Sharna Daley, MSc, and Jon Sterenberg, MSc, 

Forensic Sciences International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A 

Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Rick 

Harrington, PhD, PO Box 40191, Tucson, AZ 85717; Hugh Tuller, MA, 

JPAC CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI; Cecily Cropper, 

PhD, Forensic Sciences International Commission on Mission Persons, 

45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark 

Skinner, PhD, Simon Fraser University, Department of Archeology, 

Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, CANADA; and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic 

Sciences International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, 

Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 


forensic activities conducted by the International Commission on 

Missing Persons (ICMP) have contributed to the detection, excavation, 

documentation, and analysis of clandestine graves relating to the Fall of 

Srebrenica 1995. 


understanding of how best practices in forensic archaeology and 

evidentiary recording can be applied to a complex series of mass graves 

to result in historical documentation and enable the large scale reassociation 

and identification of victims. 

Investigations into alleged mass killings related to the Fall of 

Srebrenica in Eastern Bosnia began in earnest following the release of 

aerial imagery by the U.S. Government. Evidence collected through 

humanitarian and judicial inquiries confirmed that several mass 

executions had occurred in areas surrounding the town of Srebrenica 

which were at the time under the control of Bosnian Serb forces. Each 

execution was reported to have involved many hundreds of individuals 

with an overall estimate of ~8,000. The victims were subsequently 

buried in various primary mass graves located at or in the near vicinity 

of the execution sites. The following months saw Bosnian Serb forces 

return to the primary sites and, in an attempt to destroy any potential 

forensic evidence, the graves were crudely exhumed using heavy 

machinery and the victims reburied in multiple clandestine secondary 

graves in many different locations throughout Eastern and North Eastern 

Bosnia. This resulted in significant postmortem trauma demonstrated by 

high fragmentation, disarticulation, and commingling rates amongst the 

remains and between different graves and deposits. 

For over a decade, graves have been located mainly by testimonies 

provided by survivors, eyewitnesses, and also perpetrators. Technical 

strategies employed by the International Criminal Tribunal for foramer 

Yugoslavia (ICTY), the ICMP, and other investigative teams to detect 

and confirm sites have included the use of invasive techniques such as 

probing and test trenching, as well as non-invasive techniques such as 

aerial and satellite imagery analysis. Ground teams have primarily relied 

on the visual identification of disturbance patterns during systematic 

ground searches, GIS analyses, and to a lesser degree, the use of 

selective geophysical techniques such as resistivity and ground 

penetrating radar. 

The excavation of Srebrenica-related graves has enabled the 

implementation of a significantly standardized yet methodologically 

flexible set of procedures based on integrated principles of forensic 

archaeology, forensic anthropology, and crime scene processing. The 

overall goal of this approach is to maximize the collection and 

documentation of all human remains, forensic artifacts and site features 

for the purposes of establishing an objective historical record, supporting 

the criminal justice process, and contributing to the victim identification 

process. 

138

Accurate and detailed documentation is critical to the excavation 

process and is implemented by the ICMP via the application of global 

positioning systems, 3D surveying, and a suite of tailored recovery and 

chain of custody forms, supplemented by digital imagery and extensive 

note taking. Substantial post-excavation data management and analysis, 

together with computer-generated mapping results not only aids in 

accountability of the excavation strategy itself but also in the 

determination of intra- and inter- grave characteristics and variability, 

and ultimately in event reconstruction. The ICMP has developed a 

comprehensive forensic database software application (fDMS) which 

includes a module to manage all data related to field activities. 

Despite the significant progress made towards the excavation of all 

known Srebrenica-related graves over the years, there have arisen a 

number of political, operational, and technical obstacles and limitations 

– many of which persist to the present day. Some relate to difficulties 

inherent in working in an immediate post-conflict environment, with the 

necessary and desirable involvement of nascent 

governmental/institutional structures that provide the context of rule of 

law and applicable jurisdictional standards. Others are based purely on 

practical aspects of the infrastructure required to excavate and process 

several thousand sets of remains. It is important to note that in its 

forensic archaeological work, the role of the ICMP is to provide 

technical assistance to authorities under whose auspices the excavations 

are officially conducted. 

For the past nine years, the ICMP has provided technical assistance 

to local and international authorities in the assessment and excavation of 

over 250 Srebrenica-related sites. This has resulted in the recovery of 

thousands of partial and complete sets of human remains and artifacts of 

forensic significance. This presentation will review the sources of 

background information, utility of detection methods, benefits to 

standardized yet flexible excavation and documentation strategies, and 

results of field activities as they pertain to the most complex grave 

assemblages relating to the Fall of Srebrenica. 

Forensic Archaeology, Srebrenica, Mass Grave 

H121 The Podrinje Identification Project: 

A Dedicated Mortuary Facility for the 

Missing From Srebrenica 

Rifat Kešetović, MD*, Laura Yazedjian, MSc, Dragana Vučetić, MSc, 

Emina Kurtalić, Zlatan Šabanović, Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA, Adnan 

Rizvić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 



The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees of the limitations 

of traditional identification methods and the importance of a DNA-led 

system in a large-scale identification project. 


providing information that will add to the understanding and capabilities 

of the forensic science field to deal with large scale identification 

projects. 

Exhumations of victims from the Srebrenica massacre began in 

1996 by multiple international teams with varying mandates and little 

coordination. In response, the International Commission on Missing 

Persons established the Podrinje Identification Project (PIP) in 1999 and 

built a facility for the systematic examination and identification of 

recovered mortal remains. 

Until the first “blind” DNA match on November 16, 2001, the PIP 

had achieved only 222 identifications. Fifty-one were classical 

identifications based on excellent circumstantial evidence and the 

remaining 171 cases were presumptive identifications with subsequent 

confirmation through DNA testing by out-of-country laboratories. All of 

these identifications were virtually complete bodies recovered from 

primary graves. 

Classical identifications were further attempted with the aid of 

photos of clothing and personal effects presented to the families of the 

missing. The “Book of Photos II” project collected 2,702 photos relating 

to 483 exhumed complete bodies from primary mass graves. Two 

hundred fifty copies of the book were distributed by specially trained 

teams across the country, and families were requested to view the book 

for possible recognition of items. In total, 2,767 family members 

responded, representing about 4,000 missing persons. Of 69 recognized 

cases, 44 (30%) were excluded based on negative antemortempostmortem 

comparison and only 17 (less than 15%) were positively 

confirmed by DNA testing. 

It became clear early in the identification process that classical 

methods of identification, including the use of dental records, medical 

records, and biological profiles resulting from the anthropological 

analysis of remains, were inadequate to determine the identity of the 

recovered mortal remains. There are several reasons that classical 

identification of the victims from the fall of Srebrenica is particularly 

problematic. These include the lack of antemortem information, the lack 

of associated clothing and personal effects, the similar demographic 

composition of missing persons, and the very large number of 

individuals. Moreover, the majority of mortal remains from Srebrenica 

are disarticulated and/or commingled due to various taphonomic factors, 

especially as the result of the creation of secondary mass graves in a 

deliberate attempt to hide evidence. Natural dispersion occurred in many 

cases when individuals were not buried, which included scattering by 

weather conditions, rivers, and animal scavenging. These circumstances 

have proven challenging not only for the identification process, but also 

in determination of a cause of death. In almost 30% of cases, a definitive 

cause of death cannot be determined due to missing body parts and/or 

post-mortem damage. 

With the adoption of a large-scale DNA-led identification system, 

the PIP has identified more than 5,000 missing persons to date. Final 

identifications are DNA-based but include consideration of all available 

evidence such as place of last sighting/site of recovery, associated 

clothing and personal effects and antemortem/postmortem comparison 

of biological attributes. 

The PIP comprises a range of professionals: a project manager, a 

team leader, case managers, a criminologist, a pathologist, and 

anthropologists. All of these individuals have specific roles in the 

identification process, and each case file (representing a missing person) 

follows a series of stages as different components of the case are 

completed. This presentation will illustrate the process of identification 

from receipt of a DNA match report to final identification. 

Physical Anthropology Examination, Pathology, Srebrenica 

H122 The Lukavac Re-Association Center: 

A Model for a Multidisciplinary 

Approach in the Examination of 


Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA*, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, 

Edin Jasaragić, René Huel, BA, Jon Sterenberg, MSc, and Adnan Rizvić, 

BSc, International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, 

Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Mark Skinner, PhD; Simon 

Fraser University, Department of Archeology, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, 

CANADA; and Thomas Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences International 



The goal of this presentation is to increase the understanding of the 

challenges associated with the identification of fragmentary and 

commingled human remains. 



increasing the understanding and capability of the forensic science 

community to deal with the complex challenge of identification in cases 

of large scale fragmentation and commingling of human remains. 

The Srebrenica massacre involved the execution of ~8,100 people, 

mainly men and boys, who were deposited into primary mass graves, 

then relocated to numerous secondary graves. The exhumation and 

relocation resulted in disarticulation, fragmentation, and commingling of 

body parts within and between multiple graves. In 2005, the 

International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) established the 

Lukavac Reassociation Center (LKRC), under the auspices of the 

Podrinje Identification Project, to process the most complex grave 

assemblages related to the fall of Srebrenica. 

To ensure adherence to an evidence-based approach, standard 

anthropological procedures were defined at the beginning of the effort. 

In almost every instance, anatomical continuity of the remains was a 

condition of acceptance of association of skeletal remains. These body 

parts were confirmed by age consistencies, evaluation of antimeres, and 

assessment of non-biological evidence supporting the association such as 

reference to in-situ documentation and consideration of remains found 

within clothing. Anthropological practices, such as fracture matching 

and articulation of synchondroses, were used to physically reassociate 

previously unassociated remains; however, its application was limited 

due to the high number of remains and the extensive commingling within 

and between graves. Pair matching of sided elements was used 

infrequently and articulations of flexion and extension joints were only 

considered with corroborating evidence. These conservative criteria 

resulted in a massive amount of isolated skeletal elements, but were 

necessary to avoid incorrect associations in such a large set of cases. 

The ICMP DNA laboratory developed a custom STR multiplex with 

7 loci (including sex determination) for cost-effective use in DNA-based 

re-associations. The LKRC has extensively sampled dissociated remains 

for this “mini-STR” testing, specifically for the purpose of reassociation. 

This approach is complemented by the use of Powerplex16 © DNA 

testing for kinship matching to family reference samples to establish 

identity. DNA sampling guidelines were developed and implemented, 

and in general, all isolated long bones, relatively complete crania, and 

dental arcades were routinely tested. The composition of a body part, 

defined as one or more associated skeletal elements, dictated which 

optimum bone or tooth sample would be taken, as determined by 

extensive experience in DNA typing success rates. 

This large-scale reassociation effort, based on DNA typing results, 

requires anthropological expertise to ensure the anatomical consistency 

of the remains. The development of individual biological profiles, using 

population-specific standards, allows for comprehensive 

antemortem/postmortem comparisons as an additional corroboration of 

identity. The detection and documentation of individualizing 

characteristics has also played a key role in the acceptance of the 

identification by families of the missing person. 

A massive reassociation effort of highly commingled remains 

cannot be conducted without the integration of several sources of data. 

This is particularly important since the Srebrenica massacre is 

characterized by a high number of first-degree relatives reported missing 

and, in some cases, family groups representing several generations. At 

the ICMP, pathologists, anthropologists, and DNA scientists work in 

tandem to ensure the physical reassociations have a sound scientific 

basis. This multidisciplinary approach has also allowed the ICMP to 

address the challenges associated with the use of mini-STRs in 

bone:bone and bone:blood matching that includes evaluation of allelic 

dropouts and the possibility of adventitious matches among related 

victims. 

Srebrenica, Reassociation, Integrated Forensic Methods 


H123 The Use of Population-Specific Standards in 

Anthropological Examination and Their 



Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA, and Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, Forensic Sciences 

International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 

71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; Senem Skulj, MSc*, 17 VKB 19/11, 

Sanski Most, 79260, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA; and Laura Yazedjian, 

MSc, Dragana Vučetić, MSc, Adnan Rizvić, MA, and Thomas Parsons, 

PhD, Forensic Sciences International Commission on Missing Persons, 


The goal of this presentation is to present an overview of how 

population-specific standards are incorporated in anthropological 

examinations and the use of a custom mortuary database module for 

reassociation and case tracking. 


illustrating the benefits of population-specific standards and a multidisciplinary 

database. 

As a result of the high instance of fragmentation and commingling, 

cases recovered from Srebrenica graves and received by the International 

Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) mortuary facilities may include 

the mortal remains of more than one individual. Standard 

anthropological practices are applied to sort the skeletal assemblage and 

a preliminary biological profile is created for each bone, body part, or 

body. Upon the receipt of DNA match results, a final biological profile 

is developed for the DNA-identified complete or reassociated skeleton. 

In general, the blind-matched Powerplex 16© DNA typing results 

establish a probable identity for a set of remains. The identity is 

subsequently corroborated by anthropological data based on the sex, ageat-death, 

estimated stature, and individualizing characteristics then 

compared with information provided by the family. The ability to 

support the DNA identification with anthropological data is directly 

dependent on the amount and type of skeletal remains presented for 

examination and the appropriateness of published anthropological 

standards. In response to the paucity of literature related to Balkanspecific 

anthropological standards, the ICMP has supported development 

of such standards to ensure greater accuracy of developed biological 

profiles. 

It is important to note that the Srebrenica graves are characterized 

by numerous instances of first-degree relatives among the victims, and 

as such, there is a high incidence of childless brothers reported missing. 

Thus, independent, evidence-based parameters of age-at-death 

estimation are necessary to ensure the greatest level of confidence in 

determining a certain identity. Circumstantial evidence, such as clothing 

and personal effects is always considered as part of the overall case, but 

does not stand as a scientifically-based identifier. In many cases 

involving childless siblings, a final determination cannot be ascertained 

due to the lack of remains present for examination. 

Tracking anthropological reassociations within commingled cases 

has proven to be challenging and, in response, the ICMP has developed 

a skeletal inventory and mortuary management database module, within 

the larger Forensic Data Management System (fDMS). This module 

allows any bone or associated body part to be accurately inventoried in 

its original case, and then informatically reassociated to one or more 

DNA-matched bones or body parts, following the physical reassociation 

of the skeletal remains. This informatic tool greatly simplifies what 

otherwise is a challenging and complex case tracking task. This is vital 

in the mortuary examination of Srebrenica remains as the “building” of 

individuals involves multiple reassociations, in some situations from 

twelve different commingled cases, each of which requires a clearly 

retrievable case history and chain of custody. Furthermore, this database 

140

allows for the addition of appropriate analytic methods, with populationspecific 

standards, as they become available. 

Srebrenica, Anthropology, Mortuary Database 

H124 High Throughput DNA Typing for 

Degraded Skeletal Remains and Victim 

Reference Samples in a Large Scale “DNA- 

Led” Missing Persons Identification and 

Re-Association Project: The ICMP Work 

on the Missing Recovered From Srebrenica 

Mass Graves 

Rene Huel, BA*, Ana Miloš-Bilic MSc, Sylvain Amory PhD, Stojko 

Vidović, Tony Donlon, BSc, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, 




understanding of the protocols, workflow, and challenges involved in 

operating a quality-controlled, high throughput laboratory specialized 

for challenging skeletal remains samples. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by furthering 

knowledge on the technical details and laboratory management practices 

that allow DNA typing to be used cost- and time-efficiently on a large 

scale in missing persons identification casework. 

The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) DNA 

laboratories were brought online in late 2001 to assist authorities in a 

blind DNA lead identification process in the former Yugoslavia. Since 

its inception the laboratories have successfully profiled close to 30,000 

bone samples and over 85,000 family reference samples resulting in 

DNA matches to over 15,000 unique individuals. 

The laboratories utilize a modular approach in which analysts play 

a specific role in each part of the process as opposed to processing the 

sample from start to finish. This approach allows maximal throughput 

which can process up to 105 bone sample extractions per day. Typically 

bone samples tested are between 10-17 years old but can range up to 65years-old 

in other projects. For most cases performed over the years, an 

extraction protocol involving overnight digestion in protease K, followed 

by a silica-based purification has been used. The results of multiple 

thousands of DNA tests have permitted a detailed evaluation of the 

relative preservation of DNA in various skeletal elements. The overall 

success rate on the >15,000 skeletal and tooth samples submitted from 

Srebrenica-related graves has been 83%. 

Recently, the DNA laboratories have validated a new extraction 

protocol based on a complete demineralization of the bone sample, 

coupled with silica based clean up. This new protocol requires 

significantly less starting material, and requires fewer manipulations 

throughout the procedure, and provides higher DNA yields. The 

purification portion of this new protocol has the potential to be 

automated. 

Typing of bone/tooth sample extracts is primarily done with the 

Promega PowerPlex © 16 STR multiplex. Amplification conditions for 

optimal success with degraded samples, as well as profile interpretation 

criteria will be discussed. Additionally, the ICMP has developed a series 

of short-amplicon multiplexes, one of which (6 loci plus amelogenin) has 

been widely applied for cost-effective DNA-based re-assocation of 

dissociated body parts from Srebrenica-related graves. Other multiplex 

kits and Y-chromosomal testing are also applied as needed to resolve 

family relationships. 

The ICMP DNA Laboratory system is accredited to ISO-17025 and 

ILAC standards, and the role of key elements of the ICMP Quality 

Management System in assuring accuracy and chain of custody in such 

a large scale system will be discussed. 

DNA Typing of Skeletal Remains, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Mass Grave 

H125 The ICMP Identification Coordination 




Edin Jasaragic, BA*, Zlatan Bajunovic, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and Thomas 

Parsons, PhD, Forensic Sciences International Commission on Missing 

Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have learned how a 

centralized DNA matching, sample, and information coordination 

facility can assist in making missing persons identifications on a large 

scale. 


the knowledge base of how large scale missing persons identification 

programs may be structured efficiently. 

The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) 

conducts large scale missing persons identification using an integrated, 

multidisciplinary approach that is anchored by a “DNA-led” blind DNA 

matching system that compares DNA profiles from victims (usually 

skeletal remains from mass graves) to a database of DNA profiles from 

family members of the missing. At the heart of this system is the ICMP 

Identification Coordination Center (ICC), where victim and reference 

samples are received and accessioned, distributed to the DNA laboratory 

system, DNA profiles are received back from the laboratory, and DNA 

matching and reporting are performed. In the former Yugoslavia, as of 

August 2009, the ICC has collected over 87,000 family reference blood 

samples representing 28,783 missing persons, and maintains a database 

of 29,748 DNA profiles obtained from victim bone or tooth samples. 

DNA database comparisons have resulted in issuing 24,741 DNA match 

reports representing 14,741 different individuals. Many match reports 

involve reassociation of dissociated body parts which are common 

among remains recovered from the secondary mass graves associated 

with the 1995 Srebrenica mass killing event. 

The ICC is responsible for the collection of blood samples from 

family members of the missing, and recording relevant information on 

both the missing person and the family members to permit establishing a 

DNA match. Antemortem information on the missing person is 

recorded, and informed consent is established to assure participants of 

genetic data protection and the use to which their sample will be made. 

Participants may indicate their willingness to have their sample used for 

the purposes of war crimes trials or other such criminalistic proceedings. 

Large scale family reference collection efforts by the ICC involve public 

information campaigns, and have been conducted throughout the former 

Yugoslavia and globally. 

Victim samples, usually bone or teeth, are obtained by the ICC 

either from ICMP field or mortuary teams, or by other contributors. 

Both victim and reference samples are accessioned at the ICC in strict 

accordance with chain of custody, and are immediately assigned bar 

codes which remain their sole identifier throughout the DNA testing 

procedure. A complete lack of information regarding sample origin or 

presumption of identity during DNA testing contributes to the objectivity 

of the process. 

Once DNA profiles are obtained from the DNA laboratory, they are 

entered into a central database and candidate matches to any existing 

profiles are determined using internally developed DNA Matching 

software. The DNA Matching module conducts pairwise comparisons, 


outputting results based on direct match, half allele share (maternity or 

paternity indices), or sibling indices. Once candidate matches are 

discovered, final kinship statistics involving all family reference samples 

are generated using the commercial software DNAView. DNA match 

reports are issued by ICC when the final surety of identification exceeds 

99.95%, with prior probabilities ascribed based on the number of 

individuals missing in a particular region or event. Statistical 

comparison reports are also generated to report possible DNA 

associations of lower surety, which can be used in combination with over 

evidence under well defined policy. 

All data storage and analysis functions of the ICC are managed by 

an internally developed forensic data management system (fDMS). In 

this system, missing persons information, family reference information, 

the DNA Matching Module, and DNA report generation and tracking 

functions are efficiently integrated to result in a fast, flexible, and userfriendly 

system. 

ICMP, Missing Persons Identification, DNA Matching 

H126 An Innovative Software Solution for Large 


Adnan Rizvic, MA*; Azra Aljić, MSc; Djordje Badza, BsC; Damir Bolić, 

BsC; Goran Jotanović, BsC; Muris Pucić, BsC; Amir Mandzuka, PhD; 

Zoran Cvijanović, PhD; Edin Jasaragić, BA, Zlatan Bajunović, Cheryl 

Katzmarzyk, MA, Kerry-Ann Martin, MSc, Sharna Daley, MSc, Reneé 

Kosalka, MA, René Huel, BA, Tony Donlon, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, 




integrated informatics systems can be developed and used to greatly 

facilitate complex forensic identification efforts. 


increasing the understanding and capacity of the forensic science 

community to deal with large scale identification projects. 

More than 40,000 persons went missing as a result of the conflicts 

in former Yugoslavia from 1992-1995. The International Commission 

on Missing Persons (ICMP) was established in 1996 with a primary goal 

to assist local governments to resolve the matter of missing persons. As 

part of its technical assistance, the ICMP applies an integrated approach 

involving advanced forensic disciplines, such as forensic archeology, 

forensic anthropology, forensic pathology, and DNA matching. This 

generates and utilizes vast amounts of data, which much be archived, 

tracked, accessed, and reported. Due to the limited availability of 

suitable software solutions, ICMP has committed itself to development 

of a software solution to support all its forensic activities. 

A group of software engineers started with development of an 

integrated software solution now known as Forensic Data Management 

System (fDMS) in the beginning of 2006. As a result of interaction and 

cooperation with ICMP and other forensic experts in their respective 

fields of expertise, the team analyzed, designed, developed, tested, and 

deployed a set of applications for support of all forensic activities. The 

fDMS enables DNA-led identification process in the large scale. 

Each application can be used as stand-alone individually or as a part 

of integrated system. The fDMS supports entering, storing, and 

processing data about missing persons, relatives, field activities, and 

forensic archaeology, anthropological examination and skeletal 

inventory process, chain of custody, DNA analysis, DNA matching, and 

identification. This presentation will present an overview of both the 

development and capabilities of the fDMS system and illustrate how the 

integrated database and software package facilitates the effective 

conduct of forensic sciences in a large scale identification system. 

Data Management, Forensics, DNA Identification 


H127 Mapping Forensic Evidence Onto the Stor 

of Srebrenica: Augmenting the Historical 



Renee Kosalka, MA*, Cheryl Katzmarzyk, MA*, Sharna Daley, MSc, Jon 

Sterenberg, MSc, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Laura Yazedjian, MSc, René 

Huel, BSc, Edin Jasaragić, Adnan Rizić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, 




forensic activities, conducted by the International Commission on 

Missing Persons (ICMP) since 2001, are integrated to augment the 

historical record relating to war crimes and human rights violations 

resulting from the fall of Srebrenica 


an example of multi-disciplinary amalgamation of data to objectively 

reconstruct a large-scale genocidal event within a post-conflict setting. 

By July of 1995, over 25,000 Bosnian Muslim refugees had 

overwhelmed the United Nations designated “Safe Haven” in 

Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). On July 11, the United 

Nations controlled zone fell to the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) 

forces, resulting in the largest mass murder in Europe since World War 

II. According to many witnesses, investigative reports and accumulated 

lines of evidence – and as detailed in multiple war crimes/crimes against 

humanity indictments – approximately 8,100 men and boys were killed, 

either during flight from Srebrenica on foot across mountainous terrain 

or when separated from a larger civilian contingent and systematically 

executed. The detainees were taken to various execution sites and killed, 

mainly by gunshot. The victims were buried in large primary mass 

graves within or near the executions sites. In order to hide evidence of 

the atrocities and prevent discovery of the remains of the victims, the 

primary graves were crudely exhumed, over several months, by heavy 

machinery and the victims deposited in multiple secondary mass graves 

scattered throughout remote countryside. This caused the remains of the 

victims to become fragmented and commingled, with the partial remains 

of many victims being deposited in two or more separate secondary 

graves. These actions significantly confounded the detection and 

recovery effort and have necessitated an integrative approach in the 

detection of mass grave locations and the determination of linkages 

between graves. 

The ICMP has provided technical assistance to the BiH and 

international authorities in the assessment and excavation of some 250 

Srebrenica-related grave sites since 2001. This has resulted in the 

recovery of thousands of partial and complete sets of human remains and 

artifacts of forensic significance. Furthermore, the ICMP has provided 

technical assistance in the application of a DNA-led process towards 

identification that integrates pathology, anthropology, DNA, and 

circumstantial evidence (such as personal effects). As of August 2009, 

the ICMP has revealed the identity of 6,186 persons missing from the fall 

of Srebrenica, by analyzing nuclear DNA profiles extracted from bone 

samples of exhumed mortal remains and matching them to the DNA 

profiles obtained from blood samples provided by relatives of the 

missing. 

The complex nature of the Srebrenica graves has defined all aspects 

of the search, recovery, and identification efforts. Since the remains of 

single individuals may be scattered amongst numerous locations, there 

are profound consequences for reassociation of body parts, with 

concurrent repercussions regarding legal case closure, family 

notification and acceptance of the identification, repatriation, and 

dignified burial. Thus, analysis of evidentiary linkage between graves is 

important not only in establishing a historical record, but in prioritization 

of grave excavation, so that series of interconnected graves are 

completed together to enable closure of individual cases. 

142

This presentation will outline the patterns of evidentiary 

connections within and between Srebrenica-associated graves that have 

been documented as a result of the ICMP’s work, and summarize how 

this evidence contributes to and fits with the larger reconstruction of the 

events associated with the fall of Srebrenica that comes from a variety of 

sources. More detailed analysis of selected grave assemblages will be 

highlighted as examples with focus on DNA-matched body parts 

recovered from specific deposits within graves to assist in reconstructing 

the sequence of events. These links have served in criminal justice 

proceedings as supplementary evidence supporting the scale and 

organization of the executions and the subsequent attempts to conceal the 

evidence. 

Srebrenica, Event Reconstruction, Integration of Forensic Sciences 

H128 Identifying the Missing From Srebrenica: 

Family Contact and the Final 

Identification Process 

Nedim Durakovic, BSc*, Rifat Kešetović, MD, Emina Kurtalić, Amir 

Hasandžiković, BSc, Adnan Rizvić, BSc, and Thomas Parsons, PhD, 

Forensic Sciences International Commission on Missing Persons, 45A 


The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees of the 

importance of communicating with family members in complex 

identification projects relating to armed conflict/human rights abuses. 


emphasizing the role of family members in the identification process. 

The Podrinje Identification Project (PIP) was established by the 

International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) as a centralized 

effort for the identification of victims of the mass killings associated with 

the fall of the United Nations “Safe Haven” in Srebrenica. From the 

beginning of the project, the families of the missing were involved in the 

identification process. The participation of families is vital at the outset, 

in order to obtain information about the missing person and obtain 

genetic samples from relatives to permit DNA matching. In these 

activities, the PIP staff members work closely with teams from the ICMP 

Identification Coordination Division to ensure that family members are 

properly informed of the identification process. To this end, the ICMP 

conducts public information campaigns, sponsors and meets with 

numerous family organizations to explain the identification process and 

informs them of the particular challenges associated with identifying the 

victims from the fall of Srebrenica. On an individual level, the PIP case 

managers communicate daily with family members providing 

information on the progress of specific cases. 

Most importantly, the case managers interact with families during 

the process by which identifications are finalized and the identified 

person is repatriated for burial. This is a stressful process for families. 

Confirmation of their loved one’s death represents terrible news, though 

the recovery of their loved one’s remains has been anxiously awaited. To 

these surviving family members, the case manager is a combination of a 

social worker and grief counselor. 

The first contact with family members informing them of 

identification does not occur immediately when a DNA report is 

received, as a case file must be prepared. Initial contact, and any 

subsequent contacts, can take place either at the PIP office or at the home 

of the family member. There are several circumstances, related to the 

nature of the Srebrencia event, which are particularly difficult to present 

to family member, including when fragmentary and commingled 

remains are recovered and may result in a final case that consists of 

incomplete remains or a small body part. In situations where further 

graves remain to be exhumed or examined, it is necessary to explain that 

there is the possibility of locating additional body parts. Alternatively, 

families must be informed when no further remains are expected to be 

recovered, such as in situations of surface recoveries or a completed 

series of graves despite that the final case consists of an incomplete 

skeleton. 

The final disposition of the identified person is exclusively the 

family’s decision. The vast majority choose to bury their loved ones at 

the annual commemoration at the Potočari Memorial, which takes place 

in July each year. However, a few families choose to bury their relatives 

in family cemeteries. 

A case study of a family with multiple missing first-degree relatives 

will be presented. 

Srebrenica, family contact, case managers 

H129 The Social Effects of Recognizing 


Sarah Wagner, PhD*, University of North Carolina Greensboro, 

Department of Anthropology, 437 Graham Building, Greensboro, North 

Carolina 27410 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain insight into 

how the successful identification and reburial of victims of the 

Srebrenica genocide have affected the lives of surviving families and 

influenced the political discourse in postwar Bosnia and Herzegovina. 


demonstrating the interface between science and society through the 

example of the DNA-based identification efforts developed to counter 

the devastating effects of the July 1995 genocide at the United Nations 

“Safe Haven” of Srebrenica. 

For the Srebrenica victims whose remains have been unearthed, 

examined, sampled, and stored by forensic experts over the past fourteen 

years, identification has been the primary goal—that is, re-attaching 

individual identity to a set of previously unrecognizable remains. Yet the 

biotechnological innovation that has successfully returned names to 

remains and coffins to grieving families involves layers of recognition, 

from the instant of the “blind” DNA match to the moment a relative spies 

a still familiar piece of clothing. Identifying the missing thus 

encompasses both scientific and social recognition. 

Nowhere is this more apparent than at the culmination of the 

identification process: the annual commemoration ceremony and mass 

burial held at the Srebrenica-Potocari Memorial Center on July 11 of 

each year. Once complete, the results of identification, namely 

individual coffins placed in individual plots, enable families and friends 

to care for the souls of their loved ones, knowing at long last where their 

bones rest. At the same time, the effects of identification, of recovery 

and reburial, radiate beyond the most intimately connected, entering into 

the political discourse of postwar Bosnia as recognition of social identity 

is demanded in the prayers and political speeches that preface the mass 

burials. Indeed, individual identity at times becomes subsumed in the 

ceremony’s rhetoric of collective victimhood and, by extension, 

collective responsibility. In response, Bosnian Serbs in the region 

counter the scientifically-backed evidence of the scale and intensity of 

the Srebrenica genocide by tabulating their own losses and erecting their 

own memorials, chief among them the commemorative site in the village 

of Kravica at which Bosnian Serbs gather on the very next day, July 12. 

Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in eastern Bosnia 

since 2003, this paper examines the sociopolitical significance of the 

DNA-based identification process developed to recognize the Srebrenica 

missing, juxtaposing the expectations and responses of surviving 

families with those of Bosnian political and religious leaders, both 

Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) and Bosnian Serb. Three arguments emerge: 

(1) for the surviving relatives of the missing, the identification process 

succeeds in bridging painful gaps of knowledge and in reconstituting 

families (if only metaphorically) torn asunder by mass violence through 

sanctified, witness burial; (2) tempering conventional assumptions that 

identification brings about social repair, an analysis of the multivalent 

meanings of the Srebrenica-Potocari Memorial Center and its rapidly 


expanding cemetery illustrates that political manipulation of the 

identification efforts has often exacerbated rather than assuaged tensions 

in postwar Bosnia; and, (3) the intervention of forensic science into the 

missing person issue, manifest in the capacity of the DNA-based 

identification system to identify Srebrenica’s missing, has raised the 

stakes of facticity, forcing both Bosniaks and Bosnian Serbs to document 

their losses in increasingly quantifiable terms. Thus when indicted war 

criminal Radovan Karadzic attempts to discredit the numbers and types 

of victims of Srebrenica July 1995 he must do so—however 

problematically—through the language of DNA. These three outcomes 

of the identification process remind us that the scientific and the social 

cannot be separated out from one another, just as individual identity 

cannot exist apart from social identity. In these ways, postwar Bosnia 

and specifically the case of Srebrenica’s missing reveal the powerful role 

genetic science has come to play in grappling with the devastating effects 

of mass violence. 

DNA Identification, Social Repair, Commemoration 

H130 Lessons and Challenges From Srebrenica: 

A Summary and Future Perspectives 

Thomas Parsons, PhD*, Andreas Kleiser LLM, Adnan Rizvić BSc, and 

Kathryne Bomberger MA, Forensic Sciences International Commission 

on Missing Persons, 45A Alipasina, Sarajevo, 71000, BOSNIA- 

HERZEGOVINA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain information 

and perspectives relating to the large and complex undertaking of the 

ICMP in the application of integrated forensic sciences to the 

identification of the missing from the 1995 fall of Srebrenica. 


an understanding of the success that can be achieved in large scale 

missing persons identification, and the range of technical processes and 

considerations that should be taken into account when attempting such 

an undertaking. 

This presentation is intended as a conclusion to a series of 

presentations in a multidisciplinary symposium highlighting the 

integrated forensic sciences that the International Commission on 

Missing Persons (ICMP) has employed in a massive and complex effort 

to identify and repatriate the victims of the 1995 mass killing associated 

with the fall of Srebrenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Discussion will 

focus on some of the central and ongoing challenges of the undertaking, 

and attempt to draw lessons that may be more widely applicable in other 

contexts. 

The nature of the Srebrencia “event”—the mass killing of ~8,100 

men and boys that occurred in July 1995 as result of the fall of the United 

Nations “Safe Haven” in Srebrenica to the Army of Republika Srpska, 

and the subsequent distribution of the mortal remains throughout a large 

series of secondary mass graves—poses a formidible challenge in an 

attempt to scientifically identify the victims. Elements adding to the 

challenge include: the very large number of victims, of a relatively 

uniform demographic; a systematic lack of antemortem medical or 

dental records; the relative lack of distinctive clothing and personal 

effects among the refugee victims; the distribution of fragmented and 

commingled remains in either secondary graves and surface 

environments; and the clandestine nature of the graves that complicates 

full recovery. 

It is through the novel use of DNA typing on a very large scale, and 

blind DNA matching in a “DNA-led” identification process, that the 

ICMP has been able to, as of August 2009, establish a named DNA match 

on over 6,100 individuals missing from the Srebrenica event. More than 

4200 of these cases have been closed, with repatriation to family 

members. The discrepancy between these numbers is again due to the 

nature of the event, with many cases awaiting recovery of additional 

portions of the mortal remains prior to case closure. This underscores 


some of the policy challenges that will be discussed in this presentation, 

and that become more acute as the number of remaining known unexcavated 

Srebrenica graves dwindles. 

While Srebrenica is in many ways unique, each of the component 

challenges involved are present to one extent or another in almost any 

large scale forensic identification undertaking. This presentation will 

discuss how the approach used to achieve large scale success in the case 

of Srebrenica is applicable elsewhere, and the variables that condition 

such considerations. Other policy issues that are of general relevance 

relate to personal data protection in various contexts, and the 

presentation of forensic identification casework in the support of 

criminal justice proceedings. 

Srebrenica, ICMP, Missing Persons Identification 

144

Denver ‘09 Denver ‘09 

H1 Assessment of Differences in Decomposition 

Rates of Rabbit Carcasses With and 

Without Insect Access Prior to Burial 

Jutta Bachmann, MSc*, Postweg 2, Fellbach, Baden-Wuerttemberg 

70736, GERMANY 


understanding of differences in decomposition of buried remains with 

and without insect access prior to burial. This will assist in forensic 

cases where victims are frequently buried to remove traces of evidence, 

to conceal the crime itself, and to delay discovery and identification. 


regression formula for buried remains with insect and without insect 

access to allow a more precise estimation of the PMI. It will underline 

the fundamental importance of insect impact on decomposition rate and 

pattern. 

Although progress in estimating PMI for surface remains has been 

made (Megyesi, et al. 2005), no previous studies allow this to be 

accomplished for buried remains. 

Limited research has been conducted to assess decomposition 

pattern of buried remains, or the impact of insect access on burial 

decomposition in relation to Accumulated Degree Days (ADD). 

Considering the well-known importance of insects on the progress of 

surface decomposition, it was expected that pre-burial insect access to a 

carcass would equally result in enhanced decomposition rates. 

A burial study on 60 rabbit carcasses was carried out in northwest 

England to assess differences in decomposition rates in carcasses with 

insect access prior to burial, and those without. Individually buried 

cadavers in 35 cm soil depth were exhumed at 50 ADD intervals, and 

Total Body Score (TBS), weight loss, carcass/soil interface temperature, 

and underneath carcass soil pH were assessed. 

A comparison between decomposition rates between the two groups 

in relation to log ADD indicated a highly significant faster 

decomposition rate (p < 0.001) in the Insect group than the Non-Insect 

group. The following regression formulae were developed by statistical 

Analysis of Co-variance (ANCOVA): 

Insect group: TBS = -39.4+23.38 x log ADD 

Non-insect group: TBS = -29.49+17.63 x log ADD 


Figure 1: Regression lines of TBS against log ADD of Insect 

(indicated by circles) and Non-Insect group (indicated by triangles), 

showing enhanced decomposition in the Insect access group. 

Preferred initial oviposition sites of blowflies in the genital area 

coincided with further localized decomposition progress, 

skeletonization, and disarticulation. Basic decomposition patterns in 

both groups were similar, but first appearance of hallmarks of the various 

decomposition stages in the Insect group preceded their appearance in 

the Non-Insect group by 200 ADD. At a total study interval of 641.87 

ADD this represented an approximately 30% enhanced decomposition in 

the carcasses with insect access prior to burial. Thus, the effectiveness 

of TBS in precisely reflecting decomposition stages in relation to ADD 

is confirmed. 

Intra-abdominal liquefaction occurred during advanced 

decomposition stages, exhibiting an ADD-related pattern. Parallel to 

external decomposition characteristics, the Insect group preceded the 

Non-Insect group by approximately 200 ADD. There is potential to 

refine the TBS scoring system by incorporating features of internal 


True larval masses were never observed during the course of this 

study, thus interface temperatures did not exhibit significant differences 

from reference soil temperatures. Correspondingly, there were no 

significant differences between interface temperatures in the Insect and 

Non-Insect groups. 

Weight loss between the two groups presented significant 

differences of low magnitude, but was subject to measurement bias due 

to soil adherence. Soil pH was shown to peak at 311.12 ADD, parallel 

to increased weight loss, but did not closely reflect earlier or later 

decomposition rates or patterns. 

Insect stages were collected and reared to adulthood and included 

mainly the order Diptera, family Calliphoridae (C. vomitoria spp., C. 

vicina spp.); there was sporadic presence of few insects of the order 

Coleoptera, family Carabidae. 

The results of this study must be further tested, as thus far there is 

paucity of data on ADD in decomposition, which does not allow useful 

comparisons between studies. 

Burial, Decomposition, Insects 

H2 Bugs Bunny? No Bugs Bunny 

Tal Simmons, PhD*, Peter A. Cross, MSc, Rachel Adlam, MSc, and Colin 

Moffatt, PhD, University of Central Lancashire, School of Forensic and 

Investigative Sciences, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, 



understanding of the impact of insects on the decomposition process in 

relation to accumulated degree days (ADD) regardless of the 

environment in which the carcass is deposited. 


influencing the way in which postmortem interval (PMI) estimates are 

constructed. The data presented show that, when time/temperature is 

standardized as ADD, it is the presence of insects alone that accelerates 

decomposition. This holds true for both surface-deposited remains and 

for buried remains. Burial is a factor in decomposition solely because it 

normally excludes (or reduces, depending on the duration of the 

exposure interval between death and burial) oviposition by Diptera 

species. ADD can be used to estimate the PMI in burials (using an insect 

exclusion model) in the same manner as it is in surface depositions. 

When temperature/time is standardized as Accumulated Degree 

Days (ADD), insect access is the most influential factor affecting 


decomposition rate. Carcass size is of secondary importance, with 

smaller carcasses decomposing faster than larger ones, mainly due to 

insect clutch size, which affects larval numbers and the amount of heat 

generated by the larval mass, which in turn accelerates insect 

developmental trajectory. Carcass disturbance is also a factor affecting 

decomposition, particularly when measured via percent weight lost, as 

movement of a carcass disrupts the insect feeding activity and delays 

skeletalization. 

This paper explores the effect of insect exclusion on decomposition 

rate in a direct comparison of insect accessed and insect excluded 

carcasses of the same size class, using a wild rabbit (Oryctolagus 

cuniculus) model. All rabbits were killed as part of the annual cull and 

their use was approved by university animal research ethics committees 

and official veterinarians of the United Kingdom Meat Hygiene Service. 

The studies were conducted primarily in the Northwest of England 

during the months May to July of 2008. Comparative data from Adlam 

and Simmons (2007) was used for insect exposed surface decomposition. 

Insect accessed surface (N=24) and buried (N=30) carcasses as well 

as insect excluded surface (N=30) and buried (N=30) carcasses form the 

study set (total N=114). Insect excluded rabbits were placed in plastic 

bags immediately following culling, thus precluding oviposition. Buried 

rabbits were placed into graves immediately following weight recording 

and thermocouples were placed under the trunk of each rabbit to record 

changes in carcass temperature during underground decomposition. Two 

thermocouples were used to record ground temperature external to the 

graves. The burial depth for all rabbits was 30-35 cm, thus mimicking a 

shallow, clandestine grave. Similar protocols were followed with regard 

to the surface insect excluded rabbits, which were placed into raised 

cages screened with 1mm aluminum mesh and thermocouples were 

inserted subcutaneously in the abdomens of 7 randomly distributed 

carcasses. A thermocouple and data logger were also used to 

continuously record ambient temperature at the site. Carcasses 

becoming visibly infested with larvae were discarded from the 

experiment with no further data collected and appropriate control 

measures were taken to prevent further spread. For the buried, insect 

exposed carcasses, carcasses were left on the ground surface near the 

graves and exposed to normal insect activity for approximately five 

hours prior to burial. Insect exposed surface rabbits were laid on the 

surface under chicken wire fencing to prevent scavenging for the 

duration of the experiment. 

The data collection protocol for both the buried and surface rabbits 

was carried out approximately every 50 ADD. This included weighing 

the rabbits, assigning a Total Body Score (TBS); and, for all groups 

except insect excluded surface depositions, taking soil samples for pH 

measurement. 

The results indicate that oviposition occurred successfully on both 

insect exposed groups and was prevented (or delayed substantially) in 

the insect excluded groups. The rate of decomposition as measured by 

TBS in insect exposed carcasses exceeded that of insect excluded 

carcasses throughout the decomposition process with no overlap 

between the two groups. Furthermore, any difference in rate of 

decomposition between insect excluded groups (buried and surface) was 

not significant; the slopes of the regression lines (Figure 1) are not 

significantly different (p

emoved. Initial tests show no difference in Sharpey’s Fibers 

decomposition rates between the two initial preparations. The test 

subjects were placed in a rural outdoor environment with mixed 

exposure to sun and shade. Large wire dog kennels which are open to 

the elements protect the test specimens. Two locations have been used 

to date, one being on the margin of a wooded area, the other in a more 

open pasture area. Each site was established with a DS1921G 

Thermochron from iButtonLink, which recorded outdoor temperature at 

hourly intervals from the initial positioning. Test specimens were 

checked on a daily basis for the first two weeks, and every three days 

subsequently. During the course of the check, each test subject was 

examined to identify whether the anterior teeth were still in place. The 

checks did not involve any contact with the test subject. Research to date 

suggests that at Sharpey’s Fibers may decompose after only 3000 o F 

accumulated degrees. Initial data shows decomposition of the alveolar 

Sharpey’s Fibers sufficient for the loss of anterior dentition can occur in 

as few as 40 days of exposure during June and July (daily temperature 

average of 75.55 o F). Further tests are currently being planned to support 

this data and identify which environmental conditions, besides 

temperature, have effects on the decomposition rates of alveolar 

Sharpey’s Fibers. It is expected that this research will be useful in 

making more precise estimations of postmortem interval when that 

period is longer than can be measured using currently available methods. 

Forensic Anthropology, Postmortem Interval, Decomposition 

H4 Year-of-Death Determination Based Upon 



Gregory W. Hodgins, PhD*, University of Arizona, Department of 

Physics, 1118 East Fourth Street, Tucson, AZ 85721 


above-ground nuclear testing in the 1950s and early 1960s dramatically 

increased environmental levels of radiocarbon. These elevated levels 

have been incorporated into all organisms living since that time and thus 

can serve as temporal markers. Potentially, radiocarbon measurements 

of postmortem human tissues can be used forensically to establish Yearof-Birth 

and/or Year-of-Death. One advantage of this approach is that it 

functions independently of chemical or biological methods for the 

determination of Postmortem Interval, or Age-at-Death, and thus might 

augment current methods for establishing these parameters. 


data to assess the method’s ability to predict Year-of-Death based upon 

soft tissue radiocarbon levels. The study quantifies precision and 

accuracy when applied to soft tissues from 36 known-age/known yearof-death 


Environmental levels of radiocarbon spiked upwards from 1955 to 

1963 due to above-ground nuclear testing and have been descending 

back towards natural levels ever since. It enters human tissues through 

diet; and growth and normal metabolic tissue replacement leads to the 

continuous incorporation of radiocarbon throughout life. Replacement 

rates vary between different tissues and so radiocarbon is unevenly 

distributed within the various tissue compartments of late 20 th /early 21 st 

century humans. Moreover, the distribution of radiocarbon in a specific 

individual is related to when he or she lived and died relative to the 

atmospheric radiocarbon spike and so the phenomenon has potential 

forensic applications. This particular study hypothesized that tissues 

with high replacement rates should have radiocarbon levels closest to the 

contemporary environment. Therefore, postmortem measurement of 

radiocarbon levels within such tissues should mark the Year-of-Death. 

Radiocarbon levels were determined in blood, hair, nails, skin 

collagen, skin lipid, and bone lipid obtained from 36 individuals 

deceased in 2006. Levels were found to be lowest in blood, hair and nail 

samples and progressively increased in skin lipid, bone lipid, and skin 

collagen. Variation in radiocarbon levels within a tissue type was found 

to be surprisingly low, perhaps reflecting similarities in the diet of the 

sample population. Significantly, the magnitude of variation within the 

tissue populations was similar to the magnitude of the variation found in 

direct atmospheric radiocarbon measurements. Together, these 

observations allowed estimation of the method’s precision. The best 

case measurement precision based upon fingernail radiocarbon 

measurements was a two sigma uncertainty of ± 2.5 years. However, 

precision varied considerably between tissues and is sensitive to death 

year. The accuracy of the method could not be quantified due to 

limitations of the published atmospheric radiocarbon data sets, however 

this is relatively straightforward to overcome. 

This study is the most comprehensive empirical investigation of 

Year-of-Death estimation based upon tissue radiocarbon measurements 

to date. The method shows promise, however a broader study is 

necessary. Measurements of carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes in bone 

collagen purified from the study population indicated a surprising 

homogeneity in diet. This fact might have generated a spurious 

overestimation of the method’s precision. Certain diets can alter tissue 

radiocarbon levels so it must be determined whether the observed dietary 

homogeneity was a quirk of the sample population or if it reflects widely 

shared behaviors. A second caveat is that published data on atmospheric 

radiocarbon levels extends only to 2003. Thus the present study 

estimated contemporary levels by extrapolation. Clearly the way 

forward is to expand the cultural and geographic diversity of test 

population and extend the reference data sets of atmospheric radiocarbon 

measurements up to the present. 

Radiocarbon, Year-of-Death, Human Tissues 

H5 The Effects of Coverings on the Rate of 


Angela M. Dautartas, BS*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 



the principles of human decomposition; specifically how decomposition 

can be affected by the presence of different materials surrounding a body. 


expand the knowledge base of factors that influence the rate of human 

decomposition. This additional information will in turn aid investigators 

in more accurately predicting time since death in forensic settings. 

A multitude of factors can affect each stage of the decomposition 

process, either accelerating the process or slowing it down, depending on 

the specific agent at work. Some of the most frequently observed 

variables are temperature, moisture, insect activity, and sun or shade 

exposure. 

Coverings can impact several of these factors in the decomposition 

process, and are found frequently in forensic cases. In a survey of New 

Mexico cases, Komar [2] reported that sixteen individuals were found 

wrapped in plastic; and twenty were noted as wrapped in a cloth or 

blanket. 

Variation in body coverings spans a wide spectrum. A case from 

Singapore involved the remains of a child found wrapped in nine layers 

of plastic and then placed in a plastic bag. [1] In this instance, the body 

was reportedly in a state of much higher preservation than expected for 

the climate; [1] illustrating how coverings can affect estimation of 

postmortem interval. In another survey conducted of eighty-seven cases, 

fifty-four of the bodies were wrapped in some covering prior to burial. 

Plastic was the most common, but a variety was noted, including rugs, 

sleeping bags, blankets, and clothing. [3] 

In order to document how coverings could affect the decomposition 

process throughout the sequence, an experiment was designed to mimic 

a covered body in a forensic setting. Three human cadavers were used 


in each repetition of this experiment. Two of the cadavers were covered, 

one in a plastic tarp, the other in a cotton blanket, while the third was left 

uncovered as a control. The selection of materials was based on case 

reports of cadavers wrapped in plastic and blankets (Komar, 2003, 

Derrick, 2007 personal communication). The cadavers were placed at 

the same time and in close proximity to ensure that all were exposed to 

similar environmental conditions. The cadavers used were also of the 

same sex and ancestry, and the age range and body weight variation was 

kept to a minimum to avoid extraneous influences on the decomposition 

process. All demographic information was recorded. 

Data collected included daily minimum and maximum temperatures 

and two daily temperature point comparisons. The maximum and 

minimum temperatures allowed for calculation of accumulated degree 

days. The bodies remained covered and undisturbed for thirty days. At 

the end of that period, the bodies were uncovered, the amount of 

decomposition was recorded and the presence or absence of insect 

activity was noted. 

Using the recorded temperature data, the accumulated degree days 

(ADD) was calculated and compared to the actual number of days 

postmortem. This technique provided a standard basis of comparison 

between the temperature data recorded from each individual and how 

temperature differences affected decomposition, particularly in the 

earliest stages. 

Significant differences in temperature were found between the 

covered bodies and the uncovered cadavers through the use of paired ttest 

analyses. This indicates that the presence of a covering on a body 

will have a noticeable effect on the rate of decomposition. Differences 

were also identified in moisture content between the various shroud and 

surface environments. Variation between the calculated accumulated 

degree days and the actual number of days postmortem was less 

significant, but still showed marked differences. This again suggests that 

special consideration should be taken when estimating time since death 

in cases involving covered bodies. 

References: 

1. Chui PPS. 2006. An unusual postmortem change in a child 

homicide-leaching. Proc. American Association of Forensic 

Sciences. 12:247 (Abstract). 

2. Komar DA. 2003. Twenty-seven years of forensic anthropology 

casework in New Mexico. J Forensic Sci 48: 1-3. 

3. Manhein MH. 1997. Decomposition rates of deliberate burials: a 

case study of preservation. In Haglund WD, Sorg, M. (eds). 

Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains. 

New York: CRC Press, 469-482. 

Decomposition, Time Since Death, Coverings 

H6 Modes of Mutilation in Taphonomic 

Context: Can Sharp Force Trauma 

Decelerate the Decomposition Process? 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, Department of Archaeology, Sheffield 

University, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UNITED KINGDOM 

The goal of this presentation is provide attendees information on the 

impact of mutilation practices on decomposition rates during the summer 

period in a terrestrial environment in a Mediterranean coastal region. 

The study will address aspects of dismemberment types that may delay 

decay rates, a process that is generally uncharacteristic for sharp force 

trauma. 

Given favorable taphonomic conditions, body tissue incisions by 

sharp objects can significantly accelerate decomposition by attracting 

higher insect and scavenger succession, and by aiding more rapid 

internal and external bacterial action. It is however uncertain whether 

severing the limbs can affect decay rates in the reverse manner. Because 

the absence of the taphonomic model may pose a challenge to the 


estimation of postmortem interval (PMI) of mutilated remains 

discovered in advanced stages of decomposition, the consequent answers 

will impact on the forensic community and humanity by addressing the 

utility of taphonomic profiling in reconstructing postmortem histories. 

By providing a more coherent understanding of the decomposition 

processes involved, this study will consequently impact the forensic 

community by providing more precise estimations of PMI for the most 

frequent types of dismemberment. 

The scientific justification of the research is based on the hypothesis 

that a different taphonomic model for mutilated body parts is possible, 

due to putrefaction being altered in the absence of the necessary gastrointestinal 

organs responsible for bacterial activity. The alteration of 

intrinsic factors through dismemberment may cause more dependency 

on external factors in decomposition, consequently affecting rates of 

decay. This is because microscopic decomposers that are introduced 

from both the intestine and the outer environment are reduced mostly to 

the latter in the case of single-limb decay. 

This experimental study involved a decomposition analysis of 

mutilated body parts in the terrestrial habitat in summertime on the south 

Croatian coast (43.02° N 17.57° E). It was conducted in June 2008 over 

a period of 30 days. Samples were completely exposed to the sun, 

deposited on salt marsh soil. Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) were utilized as 

animal analogs to mimic human decomposition. The sample size was 

twelve animals: three whole carcasses (S1) were compared to three 

decapitated samples (S2), three animals with all limbs and the head 

severed (S3), and three samples mutilated in transverse plane (S4). The 

carcasses ranged in sizes from 21 to 23 kg., and they were kept in metal 

cages for the duration of the experiment to protect them from large 

scavengers. Temperature data were obtained from the local Hydrometeorological 

Station. Once a day, micro-organisms were extracted and 

insects collected from the “drip zone.” 

The results demonstrated differences in the decomposition pattern 

between whole carcasses and within the three types of dismemberment. 

While all samples reached the decay stage, the bloating stage was 

omitted by S3 and S4. Significant differences in decay rates were 

noticed, with S3 reaching the decay stage within the first week followed 

by S4, S2, and S1 decomposing at the slowest rate. Entomological 

analysis indicated the highest succession on S3 with the intestines and 

the head being the preferred body parts in all three mutilated samples, 

followed by the body-tissue incision area. Most taxa were of the Diptera 

Order, belonging to seven Families and twelve species. Based on the 

microbial analysis, the species associated with decomposition on the 

mutilated remains was higher in number and more diverse than with 

whole corpses, with the highest fungal succession (Ascomyceteous 

fungion; Aspergillus fumigatus; Aspergillus flavus) on the surfaces of S3 

heads and torsos and mostly torsos on S4. The analysis of small 

scavenger succession further exhibited preference to intestines and was 

highest with S3 and S4. Regression and correlation analyses 

demonstrated a significant positive correlation between temperature and 

weight loss for all carcasses and body parts ranging from r+0.90, r 2 = 0.81 

to r+0.91, r 2 = 0.82, with intestines of S3 yielding a perfect correlation 

(r+1.00, r 2 =1.00). Statistical analysis suggested that relative humidity 

would also be appropriate to be used as a variable to detect the 

relationship with rates of decay ranging from r=0.87 to r=0.94 for most 

body parts. 

The results in this study demonstrate significant differences 

between the tested types of mutilation. The variations concerning the 

rate of decomposition were due to the internal and external microbial 

processes between different types of dismemberment caused by sharp 

force trauma, and aided by temperature and humidity variables, and 

entomological and small scavenger succession. These preliminary data 

will be useful for further research for assessing the PMI of the most 

frequent types of criminal mutilation in a terrestrial environment. 

Mutilated Body Parts, Postmortem Interval, Taphonomy 

148

H7 Living With Corpses: Case Report of 



William C. Rodriguez III, PhD*, Armed Forces Medical Examiner, 1413 


After attending this presentation, attendees will possess a better 

understanding on the importance of scene and behavioral evidence in the 

examination of mummified remains in which there is no clear anatomical 

evidence relating to cause and manner of death. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by educating 

attendees on the examination of mummified remains and various testing 

methods which may be utilized to possibly determine cause and manner 

of death. Furthermore, the presentation will focus on the psychological 

aspects of individuals who co-habitat with remains of the deceased, and 

the use of entomological and other evidence to determine the length of 

co-habitation with the dead. 

In June of 2004 the mummified and partially skeletonized remains 

of a 56-year-old Japanese mother and her 33-year-old daughter were 

discovered in a mobile home in south eastern Idaho. The partially 

preserved remains were located lying next to each other in a bed with 

blankets and sheets positioned neatly up to the level of their chest. 

Appearance of the women which included their position next to each 

other, clothing, and intact styled hair with hair bands gave the impression 

that both died naturally in their sleep. 

The decompositional stench of the bodies was so strong within the 

mobile home that investigators had to wear masks including oxygen 

packs. Upon continued examination of the scene, investigators noted 

that another individual had continued to live at the residence, that being 

the husband/father of the deceased. Several dozen solid, air deodorant 

devices were found throughout the mobile home. The deodorizing 

devices were noted on multiple tables and shelves in every room, in 

hallways, and within all of the air vents located in the floor of the mobile 

home. In addition to the solid air deodorizers, multiple cans of various 

aerosol based deodorizers were found scattered around the residence. 

The husband/father of the deceased was later picked up by police as 

a possible suspect in the deaths. Interviews of the suspect revealed that 

he was a senior engineer at local nuclear plant, who also possessed a high 

level security clearance in relation to his employment. Interviews with 

his employer also revealed the subject to have received graduate degrees 

in engineering and science from Cornell University. 

Forensic examination of the mother found her to be in a completely 

mummified state. No evidence of abrasions, bruising, skin discoloration 

or other injury was discovered upon external examination of the remains. 

Internal examination of the body revealed the presence of decomposed 

remnants of the lungs, kidney and liver. Examination of the inner skull 

revealed no evidence of tears or hemorrhage to the dried remains of the 

dura. A small amount of highly decomposed brain and no fractures were 

present on the inner as well as the outer table of the skull. Dissection and 

inspection of the mummified tissues of the neck revealed no evidence of 

hemorrhage or significant discoloration. Similar findings were noted 

upon examination of the trachea, and the hyoid and ossified cartilages of 

the neck were undamaged. No injuries were found on any of the 

postcranial elements. Toxicology findings on the recovered organs were 

negative. 

Forensic examination of the daughter found her to be in an 

advanced state of skeletonization with partial mummification. 

Significant mummified epidermal tissue covered the anterior plane of the 

body with skeletonization primarily observed on the posterior plane. 

The only evidence of damage to the mummified epidermal tissues was in 

the area of the right shoulder and left abdominal area, which was 

identified as the result of carrion insect activity. The internal chest wall, 

including the ribs and costal cartilages, could be viewed from the back 

of the deceased due to the lack of soft tissues. No tears or separation of 

the ribs and costal cartilages were noted and there was no evidence of 

discoloration of the internal chest wall suggestive of hemorrhage. No 

discernable tears, abrasions, or discolorations were present on the 

mummified epidermal tissues of head. The skull was absent of fractures 

or other injuries and the same was true for the postcranial skeleton. 

Based on the mummified state of the deceased and the absence of blow 

fly activity, death was estimated to have occurred either in the winter of 

2004 or 2003. 

Continued investigation by police revealed the daughter would lock 

herself in her room when her father was in the house and that the father 

last reported seeing the daughter alive in April of 2001. Diary entries in 

April of 2001 by the wife make reference to the daughter needing to eat. 

A later entry by the wife notes the screaming sound of killdeer (a 

common bird species) and the awful smell of something dead in the 

house. Later the father admitted that in June of 2001, as the result of a 

bad smell, he broke into his daughter’s room and found her dead and 

decomposing on the bed. Later in February of 2003, the husband found 

his wife dead, placed her next to his daughter, and pulled the blanket and 

covers up neatly. The suspect never informed anyone of the deaths, and 

continued to live at the house and to go to work daily. 

Although homicide could not totally be ruled out in this case, the 

absence of external and skeletal trauma to the remains of the deceased 

and negative toxicological findings lead to the conclusion that death 

possibly resulted from either illness or starvation, or a combination of 

both. In either possible case, medical attention was not sought by the 

mother, daughter, or the husband/father. The psychological state of the 

mother and daughter may have well contributed to their demise; 

however, the burden of care fell to the responsibility of the 

husband/father. In conclusion, the husband later pleaded guilty to two 

counts of involuntary manslaughter. 

Mummification, Psychological, Scene Investigation 

H8 Creating an Open-Air Forensic 

Anthropology Human Decomposition 


Jerry Melbye, PhD*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD, Texas State 

University-San Marcos, Department of Anthropology, 601 University 

Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666-4616 


understanding of the problems and limitations associated with 

establishing an open-air human decomposition facility. 


the need to establish more open-air human decomposition stations in 

North America. This presentation will demonstrate to the scientific 

community that through dogged determination and lessons learned, it 

can be done. 

Over twenty-five years ago, Dr. William M. Bass created the first 

formal open-air decomposition facility at the University of Tennessee. 

He realized that more information about time since death estimations 

was needed. The Tennessee facility continues to serve as a major 

contributor to knowledge of human decomposition rates to this day. 

Many researchers, including Dr. Bass, have noted that more of these 

facilities are needed to help more accurately understand the postmortem 

interval in different environmental conditions. Many researchers have 

tried to start a facility of this kind, but nearly all have failed, most as a 

result of lack of administrative and/or community support. Two recent 

success stories include Western Carolina University and Texas State 

University-San Marcos. The San Marcos facility serves as the focus for 

this paper. It has taken four years of hard work and doggedness to 

establish the facility at Texas State University, where a number of lessons 

have been learned along the way, all of which will be outlined in this 

paper as encouragement and a path for others to follow. 


Depending on the university viewpoint, this may be the first hurdle 

to overcome: enthusiasm must be shown for the end result to gain full 

support of the Chair, the Dean, the Provost, and others high-up in the 

administrative echelon. Without administration support, the project will 

be abandoned before it can even begin. Once one understands what 

administrators want to hear, the “soft sell” can begin. 

Gaining support from the law enforcement community can be 

another difficulty. By offering workshops, it will establish to law 

enforcement that the university is a valuable place for training and to 

university administrators that the project is a source of revenue. Now the 

argument can be made that a facility would generate even more income 

for research! 

Public reaction can be a major issue that must be overcome at the 

onset. By and large, the public will support the project as long as it is 

located far away from their home. Therefore, the facility location may 

have to be a compromise between where you want it and where you can 

build it. It is imperative that the facility be located in an isolated area 

with an unoccupied buffer zone between the facility and the public. 

Individuals who are not familiar with research involving human 

decomposition will have to be educated on how to differentiate between 

fact and fiction. Most people are concerned about wafting odors, 

disease-carrying flies, birds dropping body parts on doorsteps, and 

decreased property values. Simple, straightforward, honest answers at 

public forums can be offered to satisfy all of these questions. A very 

large concern from the public in the case of Texas State was the idea that 

decomposing bodies would pollute the environment. The response to 

this issue has led Texas State University to offer a new perspective on 

this environmental issue by turning this specific area of concern into a 

center-piece of the program; environmentally sound research and 

laboratory practices, and an eco-friendly solution to traditional funeral 

burials. 

There is a need to establish more open-air human decomposition 

stations in North America. This presentation will demonstrate to the 

scientific community that through dogged determination and lessons 

learned, it can be done. 

Decomposition Facility, Time-Since-Death, Forensic Anthropology 

H9 Metacarpal and Metatarsal Histology of 


Brannon I. Hulsey, MA*, Walter E. Klippel, PhD, and Lee Meadows 

Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 



histological differences in the metacarpals and metatarsals of human 

hands and feet and black bear (Ursus americanus) paws. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by aiding in 

the separation and identification of morphologically similar osseous 

human and nonhuman remains. 

The similarities between the bones of human hands and bear paws 

have been noted by numerous authors, and the morphological similarities 

and differences have been described extensively. While useful when 

whole bones are discovered, gross morphological characteristics may fail 

in the context of damaged or fragmented bones. In these situations, an 

alternative method of identification is necessary. Histology has been 

used to describe both human and nonhuman bones, and can be employed 

in separating bones as similar as those in this study. The histology of 

bear bones has been limited to femur and tibia midshaft cross sections, 

so descriptions of bear metapodials are needed in order to differentiate 

them from metacarpals and metatarsals in humans. 

The human sample consists of two unprovenienced feet and an 

unprovenienced hand from the University of Tennessee’s 

Anthropological Research Collections. The bear sample consists of 

sixteen paws from four bears (eight front and eight back) obtained in 

Minnesota, Wisconsin, Maine, and Tennessee, one back paw obtained in 


Georgia, one front paw obtained in Wisconsin, and a back paw that came 

in as a forensic case to the University of Tennessee, giving a total of 9 

front paws from 5 bears and 10 back paws from 6 bears. 

Cross sections were made at midshaft of all bear metapodials and in 

5 mm increments proximally and distally from midshaft on the second 

metapodials of one front paw and one back paw from a single bear. This 

allows for examination of variation both within and across metapodials 

in a single bear and across metapodials in multiple bears. Cross sections 

were also made at midshaft of all human metapodials and in 5 mm 

increments proximally and distally from midshaft on the second 

metapodials of one hand and one foot. All thin sections were cut 15 µm 

thick and ground. Slides were viewed using a light microscope and 

photographed using the computer program ImagePro Express. 

Several quantitative variables were examined in order to determine 

the difference between human and bear metapodials at the histological 

level. Quantitative measurements included maximum osteon diameter 

(µm), osteon area (µm 2 ), maximum Haversian canal diameter (µm), and 

Haversian canal area (µm 2 ). One to four osteons were measured per thin 

section and the values averaged for each species. The means were then 

tested using ANOVA to see if they differed between human and bear. In 

addition, the percentage of overlap in osteon and Haversian canal sizes 

was calculated between the two species. The incidence of several 

qualitative features was also noted when encountered, including osteon 

banding, resorption spaces, and plexiform bone. 

Results show that human osteons and Haversian canals are larger in 

both diameter and area than those found in bears. The mean human 

osteon area and diameter are 39,081µm 2 and 249 µm, respectively, while 

the mean bear osteon area and diameter are 21,421 µm 2 and 183 µm, 

respectively. The mean human Haversian canal area and diameter are 

2,160 µm 2 and 58 µm, respectively, while the mean bear Haversian canal 

area and diameter are 580 µm 2 and 29 µm, respectively. In addition, the 

qualitative features of osteon banding, resorption spaces, and plexiform 

bone are more prevalent in bear metapodials than human metacarpals 

and metatarsals. These results indicate that it is possible to differentiate 

between fragmented bear and human metacarpals and metatarsals using 

a combination of qualitative and quantitative microscopic features. 

Black Bear, Human, Metacarpals/Metatarsals 

H10 The Effects of Papain and EDTA on Bone in 

the Processing of Forensic Remains 

Bobbie J. Kemp, MS, Michael I. Siegel, PhD, Margaret A. Judd, PhD, 

and Mark P. Mooney, PhD, University of Pittsburgh, Department of 

Anthropology, 3302 Wesley W. Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, and 

Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 


The goal of this presentation is to assess the effects of papain and 

EDTA on bone as well as determine an effective, cost-efficient 

concentration of papain for the removal of soft tissue from bone. 


a method for soft tissue removal that is quick, efficient, and 

nondestructive to bone. 

It is essential in forensic anthropology to employ a defleshing 

method that is both efficient and nondestructive to bone tissue or fine 

trauma marks, while working within time constraints imposed by law 

enforcement. Results from a previous study (Kemp et al. 2008) 

suggested that papain solutions fulfill these conditions, representing a 

viable method which can be utilized in forensic contexts. However, 

other studies have found that papain can be destructive to bone. 

Papain is a proteolytic enzyme (protease) derived from the 

unripened papaya fruit (Carica papaya). Proteases are specific enzymes 

that induce protein decomposition (proteolysis) by promoting hydrolysis 

of the peptide bonds that link amino acids. Therefore, these enzymes 

would primarily target the protein content of muscle and connective 

150

tissue (ligaments, tendons, and cartilage), rather than the mineral or 

tightly packaged organic matrix of the bone. Other benefits of the 

enzyme are that optimal activity occurs at low temperatures (45°-65°C), 

thus remains need not be subjected to boiling, and it works so effectively 

that no harsh instrument is required to remove soft tissues. 

Papain can be inactivated by metal ions, so commercial papain 

solutions normally contain ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid (EDTA), as 

a chelating agent. EDTA binds to metal ions, including calcium, forming 

metal complexes with very high stability constants (pK-values). Thus, 

EDTA can bind to and remove calcium from bone tissue. Due to this 

property, EDTA is commonly used to decalcify bone for the preparation 

of histological slides or the retrieval of DNA. Therefore, it is proposed 

that the destruction of bone tissues reported in other studies may in fact 

be attributed to EDTA rather than papain. 

The present study addresses three primary questions: (1) What is the 

most effective, cost-efficient concentration of papain for soft tissue 

removal? (2) Is papain destructive to bone at this concentration? and (3) 

Is EDTA destructive to bone? 

A sample (n=16) of New Zealand white rabbits (Oryctolagus 

cuniculus) was obtained from a colony housed at the University of 

Pittsburgh (all individuals in the study came from previously approved 

protocols). The skulls, forelimbs, and hindlimbs of each rabbit were 

removed following standardized procedures. All remains were weighed 

prior to and following processing, recording any differences in wet or 

dry weights. The subsequent steps of the study were conducted in two 

phases. The first phase of the study focused on the effectiveness of 

papain and its effect on bone, while the second focused on the effect of 

EDTA on bone. 

Phase 1 samples (12 forelimbs, 15 hindlimbs, and 11 skulls) were 

placed in stainless steel pots in solutions consisting of 10g, 8g, 6g, 4g, 2g 

or 0g (control group) of papain in 3.8 10 3 ml (1gal) of distilled water. 

Solutions were heated on electric burners, then heated to and maintained 

at 55°-65° C. The condition of the remains was documented every 30 

minutes. Results suggested that the 4g solution was the most efficient 

and cost-effective, based on variables such as the time-to-completion, 

final dry weight of the bones, and efficacy of the enzyme on varying 

tissue types. Hence, this concentration was employed in the EDTA 

solutions analyzed in Phase 2 of the study. 

Phase 2 samples (7 forelimbs and 6 hindlimbs) were placed in 

solutions consisting of 3.8 10 3 ml (1 gal) of distilled water, 4g papain, 

and 10g, 6g, or 2g of EDTA. The same procedures were followed as 

described above in Phase 1. 

Gross bone destruction was not noted in any of the Phase 1 samples, 

whereas severe destruction was observed on several bones in the Phase 

2 EDTA samples. The thin bone of most of the scapulae was eroded 

through, and some subchondral bone was also destroyed. These results 

strongly suggest that EDTA, rather than papain, is highly destructive to 

bone and should be avoided in defleshing protocols. The developed 

protocol reduces the amount of free metal ions in the solution by using 

distilled water rather than tap water and stainless steel pots rather than 

aluminum, therefore, EDTA is not required for proper activity of papain. 

The enzyme was found to work quickly and effectively with the 

proposed protocol, without EDTA significantly affecting the time-tocompletion. 

Reference: 

1 Kemp BJ, Cabo-Perez LM, Matia J, Dirkmaat DC. 2008. The 

effectiveness of papain in the processing of remains. Poster 

presented at the 60 th annual meeting of the American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences. 

Maceration, Papain, EDTA 

H11 Practical Considerations in Trace 

Element Analysis of Bone by Portable 

X-Ray Fluorescence 

Jennifer F. Byrnes, BS*, SUNY University at Buffalo, Department of 

Anthropology, 380 MFAC, Ellicott Complex, Buffalo, NY 14261-0026; 

and Peter J. Bush, BS, SUNY at Buffalo, South Campus Instrument 

Center, B1 Squire Hall, South Campus, Buffalo, NY 14214 

The goal of this presentation is to discuss analysis parameters in the 

use of portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF) in the analysis of trace element 

levels in human bone. 


information on possible error factors in XRF analysis of bone. 

Bone chemistry can reveal much about an individual’s life history. 

Certain trace elements can give specific and pertinent information about 

environmental exposure, diet, and geographical location of residence. 

X-Ray Fluorescence is a nondestructive method for analysis of trace 

elements. Portable XRF instruments now available allow trace element 

analysis of samples in the field or in collections. The use of such 

instruments requires knowledge of analysis parameters such as x-ray 

penetration and exit depth. This is especially important if nonhomogenized 

whole bone samples are to be analyzed. In a forensic or 

burial setting where the bone sample has been exposed to the 

environment, the elements being studied may be altered due to 

diagenetic changes. Depending on a variety of factors such as soil and 

ground water composition, the observed reading may not fully represent 

the actual bone chemistry composition of the individual. The structure 

of cortical bone is another important factor because the newly deposited 

bone layers on the outer surface may have different values of a given 

element than an older deposited layer deep to the surface, as bone 

undergoes constant remodeling throughout one’s life. Cortical bone is 

more conducive to use with this portable XRF, as trabecular bone has a 

number of inconsistencies such as an unsmooth surface, which can 

inhibit the analytical performance of the procedure. 

Two experiments were carried out to understand how analysis depth 

and removal of surface layers of bone affect analytical results. Analysis 

depth was determined by examining selected pure elements through 

varying known thicknesses of cow tibia cortical bone slices. This 

showed a correlation between the element’s x-ray emission energy and 

the depth of reading by the device. In the second experiment, a small 

human population from an unknown graveyard found in Youngstown, 

NY was studied. The burials were discovered and excavated in 1997; 

very little is known about who these individuals were other than what the 

osteological analysis has revealed, as few artifacts were recovered from 

the graves. The surfaces of the bones from this collection were analyzed 

before and after sanding, to observe if sanding the immediate surface of 

the analyzed area alters the results. In a burial setting, the way the bones 

were positioned in the grave can affect the readings taken from one side 

of the bone to the other. This may result from contact with soil or ground 

water intrusion in the gravesite. This research has concluded that it is 

important to take these factors into consideration when performing bone 

analysis. When determining what areas of the bone to analyze for a 

particular element under study (a skull fragment versus a long bone 

fragment) cortical bone thickness and the emission energies of the 

element of interest should also come into consideration. These results 

validate the portable XRF device as a powerful and convenient 

instrument for nondestructive analysis, while highlighting a number of 

limitations and considerations for its use in obtaining data from bone 

samples. 

Portable XRF, Trace Elements, Bone 


H12 Field Contamination of Archaeological 

Bone Samples Submitted for Mitochondrial 

DNA (mtDNA) Analysis 

Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853; Suni M. Edson, MS*, Armed Forces DNA ID Lab, 1413 Research 

Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Erica L. Chatfield, 

MFS, AFDIL, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 

20850; Audrey L. Meehan, BGS, JPAC-CIL, 91-1074 Anaunau Street, 

Ewa Beach, HI 96706; and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, AFDIL, Armed 

Forces DNA ID Lab, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, 

MD 20850 

After attending the presentation, attendees will understand the 

importance of field and laboratory procedures that minimize the 

potential for DNA contamination, and will be briefed on analysis 

procedures to enable detection of contamination that does occur. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by illustrating 

how DNA samples may be contaminated in the field even when stringent 

laboratory procedures are followed to avoid such contamination. It will 

also demonstrate how such contamination may be detected. 

The Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL) has 

been generating mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) profiles from the osseous 

remains of missing U.S. service members and civilians in support of the 

mission of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command–Central 

Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) since 1992. Extensive 

precautions are taken in order to assure that the sequences generated are 

authentic and not that of an outside or modern contaminant. 

Once remains are accessioned at the JPAC-CIL, they are housed in 

secure storage and checked out to a specific analyst for each stage of 

analysis. All analysts wear personal protective equipment (PPE) during 

analysis to reduce the risk of contamination. Remains are sampled for 

mtDNA analysis as soon as possible after accessioning. Samples are 

obtained using single use rotary blades that have been sterilized in 20% 

bleach solution and with an ultraviolet crosslinker, and bleach and 

ultraviolet light are applied to the interior of the sampling hood prior to 

each sample being cut. Samples are individually bagged and sent to 

AFDIL for analysis. 

At AFDIL, samples are similarly accessioned and checked out for 

analysis. Details of internal protocols at AFDIL can be found in Edson, 

et al., 2004. Methods taken to avoid contamination include, but are not 

limited to, the following: the removal of the outside surface of the bone 

by sanding and subsequent washing in diH 2 O and EtOH, preparation and 

extraction of the samples in “clean” rooms using individual hoods, and 

the wearing of multiple layers of PPE. Profiles are generated from the 

extracts using a redundant amplification strategy of overlapping primers 

and a subsequent comparison to an internal database of staff profiles, 

including both AFDIL and JPAC-CIL staff, in addition to any laboratory 

visitors. Profiles generated from remains are not reported until they meet 

the internal criteria of multiple, consistent amplifications and are proven 

not to be consistent with any staff members at either laboratory who had 

a potential exposure to the samples (as tracked by the laboratories’ 

computerized accession records). 

While extensive care is taken once the remains are received at JPAC 

and AFDIL, there is limited control of possible contamination events in 

the field while remains are being recovered. On average, over 750 

osseous samples are processed at AFDIL each year, and such field 

contamination events have proven to be rare. However, in recent years, 

two field contamination events have occurred. Both of these cases 

involved historical aircraft crash sites, in which the anthropologist 

directing the recovery contaminated a bone fragment in the field. In the 

first case, five samples were submitted to AFDIL for processing. Three 

of the samples were reported and were consistent with the two 

individuals presumed to be on the aircraft. No data was generated from 


one sample; but the fifth sample showed a mixture of the endogenous 

sequence (consistent with one crewmember) and that of the field 

anthropologist. The sample was exceptionally small, only 1.1 g, and cut 

into two pieces upon submission. In the second case, many of the bone 

samples were burned. One of the samples produced a high-quality 

sequence that appeared to be endogenous and met the reporting criteria. 

However, upon comparison to the sequence database, it was found that 

this profile was consistent with the field anthropologist and inconsistent 

with references for any of the crewmembers, and the sample was not 

reported. 

These two cases demonstrate the importance of selecting samples of 

good quality and of sufficient size for cleaning. While the cleaning 

protocols are certainly more than adequate under normal conditions, both 

of these samples had limitations which prevented the cleaning protocol 

from being sufficiently applied; the first sample being very small and 

difficult to hold during sanding and the second having been subjected to 

burning and therefore having an extremely friable surface. Smart sample 

selection, coupled with reduced handling of samples in the field will help 

to eliminate possible contamination events and/or false reporting of 

results. 

The above described events occurred in 2006 and 2007 respectively. 

While other contamination events have occurred at a low-level, these are 

the only two instances of the field anthropologist introducing modern 

DNA to the entire sample, a failure rate of 0.14% and 0.12%, 

respectively. This presentation will focus on the details of the protocols 

used at AFDIL and JPAC-CIL for the processing of degraded osseous 

remains. Attendees will learn how to perhaps implement these protocols 

into their own laboratory use for prevention and detection of field and inhouse 

contamination of mtDNA samples. 

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and not 

necessarily those of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, the US Army Surgeon General, nor 

the US Department of Defense. 

Reference: 

Edson, S.M., J.P. Ross, M.D. Coble, T.J. Parsons, and S.M. Barritt 

(2004). Naming the Dead: Confronting the Realities of the Rapid 

Identification of Degraded Skeletal Remains. Forensic Science Review 

16(1): 63-90. 

Mitochondrial DNA, Contamination, Human Skeletal Remains 

H13 Training in Forensic Archaeology and 

Anthropology on a Shoestring: Is It 

Possible? Is It Sensible? 

Roland Wessling, BSc*, and Ambika Flavel, MSc, Inforce Foundation, 

Cranfield University, Cranfield Forensic Institute, Shrivenham, SN6 

8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 


understanding of the challenges and possibilities involved in providing 

training in forensic archaeology and anthropology around the world, as 

well as the various cost implications of such training. 


a series of real examples that show the overall structure of operational 

budgets, as well as the individual aspects of planning training programs. 

The presentation will close with a series of conclusions and propositions 

which are aimed to trigger more discussion regarding funding and the 

cost of training and exercising in forensic archaeology and anthropology. 

This will, in turn, hopefully lead to more training programs. 

Many countries have been, and still are, affected by atrocity crimes. 

Often such crimes have not been investigated enough or at all due to 

political, security, or other reasons. In some countries, for example 

Guatemala and Argentina, teams of forensic anthropologists have a 

tradition of investigating these atrocity crimes. These teams consist 

152

mainly of scientists from that particular nation, although most teams 

have had some international individuals working with them for certain 

periods of time. In contrast, countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, 

Croatia, and Kosovo have had international forensic teams investigating 

their atrocity crimes with national teams continuing the work later. 

Whichever model an investigation takes, the thorough training of all 

team members is of vital importance. 

Every aspect of atrocity crimes investigations has a significant 

impact on many peoples’ lives: relatives of the missing who may learn 

what truly happened to their loved ones; nations that have to come to 

terms with what atrocities have been committed in their name; criminal 

court proceedings; insurance claims; etc. The people who have been 

affected by atrocity crimes through the loss of relatives have experienced 

extensive emotional trauma. Facing this reality, forensic teams must 

ensure that every process within their work is carried out to the highest, 

internationally recognized standards. If a victim is misidentified and 

repatriated to the wrong family, the trauma the relatives have to go 

through is simply unacceptable. It is therefore essential that all 

personnel working on atrocity crime investigations are properly trained 

in their specific tasks, have up-to-date and comprehensive knowledge of 

everyone else’s roles, and completely understand the overall process and 

their place within it. This involves significant theoretical knowledge as 

well as relevant and well-structured training and exercising. 

There are a number of organizations in the world that have the 

expertise and experience to provide high quality training in atrocity 

crime investigations; and there are many countries that have a substantial 

need for such training. Why then does so little take place? The answer 

lies in part in the cost of such training. Other factors, such as security 

problems or political interference, can rarely be addressed and never 

solved by forensic archaeologists or anthropologists. The issue of costs, 

however, may be mitigated. 

During this presentation, a series of real examples will be presented 

that show the overall structure of operational budgets, as well as other 

individual aspects associated with the planning of forensic training 

programs. In conclusion, the presentation hopes to trigger more 

discussion regarding funding and the cost of training in forensic 

archaeology and anthropology such as: Why is forensic training 

expensive? Does it have to be? Where can costs be reduced? Where can 

they not be? This will, in turn, hopefully lead to the creation of more 

training programs. 

Forensic Archaeology, Forensic Anthropology, Training 

and Exercising 

H14 Ground Penetrating Radar: A New Tool in 


Donna M. MacGregor, MSc*, Queensland Police Service, Scientific 

Section, 200 Roma Street, Brisbane, 4001, AUSTRALIA 


search techniques employed to locate buried bodies or items within 

Queensland, Australia, and how new techiques are being evaluated. 


illustrating the role that the Queensland Scientific Police serve and the 

equipment and techniques utilized to locate various buried items. These 

techniques are now being evaluated in Queensland in order to offer better 

service delivery to plain clothes investigators. 

Recently the Queensland Police Service (QPS) considered the 

purchase of a ground penetrating radar (GPR) system. The current 

practice within the QPS with regards to GPR is to employ the services of 

a private operator and GPR system on a case-by-case basis. As the call 

for GPR services increases, it may be more cost effective for the QPS to 

acquire the GPR equipment and skill base as a service resource. 

GPR operates by radiating short pulses of energy into a medium, 

usually soil, via a transmitter antenna and then receiving the energy 

reflected back from geological, or forensic, features with varying 

electromagnetic properties. By recording the propagation time delay 

between the transmitted and received signal, the distance to subsurface 

features such as rocks, tree roots, and objects of forensic interest can be 

determined. 

GPR has many benefits compared with traditional search 

techniques. GPR is nondestructive, relatively portable, self-contained, 

and can readily provide high resolution data in real time on the radar 

display unit. The availability of real time data provides investigators 

with vital information about subsurface features while in the scene and 

greatly assists the forensic personnel by identifying specific areas of 

interest for excavation. 

The use of GPR by law enforcement agencies is extensively 

documented in the forensic literature; however, most of this literature is 

derived from international experiences. It is not a tool routinely utilized 

within Australia for crime scene examinations. Prior to the purchase of 

any GPR unit, validation trials were required to be conducted. 

Several burials sites were established based on simulated crime 

scene scenarios. These burial sites were positioned beside each other in 

a row. The scenarios represented included: 

1. Non-disturbed soil (Control), 

2. Disturbed soil to 300mm with no object, 

3. Disturbed soil to 500mm with no object, 

4. Disturbed soil to 300mm with mixture of plastic skeleton and 

bovine skeletal elements, and 

5. Disturbed soil to 300mm with metal weapon. 

The GPR unit utilized in the trials was the GSSI SIR-3000, loaned 

from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research 

Organization (CSIRO) Mining Automation. Two antennas were trailed 

in association with this system. These were the GSSI 900MHz and GSSI 

400MHz antennas, both of which are interchangeable with the SIR-3000 

system. 

The various burial sites were contained within an area 

approximately 4m x 8m. During the first trial an X-Y grid was 

established for a survey pattern. A series of runs or scans were 

conducted at regular intervals along the X-axis and then along the Y-axis. 

A total of 27 scans were obtained for the study area. Each scan provided 

information on subsurface items on the display unit. Sites 2-5 were 

readily identified by the disturbances in the soil, represented on the 

display screen as hyperbola. The raw data displayed a significant 

difference between the reflection of the metal weapon (Site 5) and all the 

other sites, with the metal weapon displaying a stronger hyperbola. The 

raw data also displayed a difference between Site 2 and Site 3, with Site 

3 exhibiting a disturbance further into the soil than Site 2. Interestingly 

the scans obtained during this trial could be refined at a later time during 

subsequent processing to provide 3-D images of the study area. These 

3-D scans will be presented during the presentation. 

A second trial was conducted using the same burials pits however 

30mm cement pavers were placed on the soil surface above each burial 

site. The GPR was subsequently run over each burial site again using the 

same X-Y grid pattern. The results displayed during this trial were 

similar to the results of trial 1 in terms of the differences between Sites 

1-5 discussed above. The concrete pavers over the soil surface simply 

added an additional feature within each scan. These pavers were 

reinforced with steel which is represented in each scan as regular spaced 

dots along the top of the images. The disturbed soil below the concrete 

pavers was still able to be observed as hyperbolas. The metal weapon in 

Site 5 again produced the strongest hyperbola. 

The 400 MHz antenna provided the best resolution for the 

visualization of the subsurface features compared to the 900 MHz 

antenna. The 400 MHz antenna is commonly referred to in the literature 

as the antenna of choice for burial work. The results of the trial 

concurred with this observation. 

Crime Scene, Recovery, Search Techniques 


H15 Forensic Field Radiography: In the 

Trenches With MacGyver 

Gerald J. Conlogue, MHS*, c/o Diagnostic Imaging Program, 

Quinnipiac University, 275 Mt. Carmel Avenue, Hamden, CT 06518; and 

Mark D. Viner, MSc, Inforce Foundation, Forensic Science Institute, 

Cranfield University, Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, 



radiological imaging is a very useful tool in forensic and archaeological 

investigation. However it is often not deployed in circumstances where 

it would be very useful due to perceived practical, financial, and 

logistical concerns. This presentation will demonstrate that with prior 

planning, many of these concerns can be easily overcome and that a field 

radiography facility can be swiftly and economically established even in 

remote areas. 


demonstrating how radiography is a very useful tool in forensic 

investigation. With prior planning it can easily be deployed in field 

conditions, offering the opportunity to gather and preserve evidence in 

difficult or complex situations. 

Hypothesis: The potential value of obtaining radiological images 

using state-of-the-art facilities in hospitals and established research 

centers cannot be denied. However, access to such facilities is not 

always possible or desirable. In such circumstances, employing 

conventional radiography in a field situation offers a viable alternative, 

particularly in anthropological and forensic applications. 

Methods & Results: Establishing a radiographic facility at or 

close to the site at which remains are recovered and/or stored has a 

number of advantages. These include: (1) minimal disruption of the 

taphonomic context, (2) minimal disruption of foreign bodies and/or 

artifacts that could potentially compromise the evidential value of the 

data, (3) radiography can be used to triage remains in order to select 

those for transportation to an imaging facility with advanced modalities 

such as computed tomography, (4) imaging can be performed in 

circumstances where transportation is impossible for physical or 

logistical reasons, and (5) in the case of sensitive human rights situations, 

there may be security considerations preventing transportation, and/or 

making it difficult to secure a separate mortuary facility. 

Conventional radiographic equipment is highly mobile and a field 

radiographic facility can be easily established even in remote areas 

provided that a number of factors are taken into consideration. The 

objectives of the study or investigation must first be clearly defined, 

detailing the number and type of specimens to be examined and the aim 

of such examinations. An experienced radiographer should then develop 

the radiographic design of the project in conjunction with the 

investigating team. Project design will include: (1) development of the 

imaging protocol and selection of appropriate radiographic unit and 

image recording method, (2) site survey and risk assessments, (3) facility 

design including x-ray, image processing, image storage and viewing 

facilities, (4) facility construction, (5) development of schemes of work 

and health and safety rules, (6) development of a quality control plan and 

procedures, and (7) facility commissioning including staff 

familiarization and training. 

Conclusion: Radiological imaging is a very useful tool in forensic 

and archaeological investigation. In certain situations the establishment 

of a field radiography facility may offer significant benefits to the 

investigation and should not be discounted on logistical, organizational 

or financial grounds without a feasibility study being concluded by an 

experienced radiographer. 

Field Radiography, Forensic Radiography, Mass Fatality Incidents 


H16 Hispanic: History and Use of a 

Generic Term 

Ashley E. Shidner, BA*, and Heidi S. Davis, BA, BS, University of West 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, 11000 University Parkway, 


The learning objective of this presentation is to discuss the basic 

definitions of social race and ethnicity as they relate to the term 

Hispanic. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by discussing 

the history of the term Hispanic and its common use as a social race and 

ethnic category. 

Using the basic definitions of social race and ethnicity as they relate 

to the term Hispanic, this presentation will demonstrate that the term 

Hispanic does not fit into either category, further perpetuating confusion 

regarding use of the term. 

Hispanic is a term that was adopted and poorly defined by the 

United States government in order to address a minority population 

comprised of various national origin groups. The term Hispanic is 

thought to be a derivation of the Latin word Hispania, used to refer to 

region of modern day Spain or the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans 

(Marín and Marín 1991). When Spanish settlers arrived in New Mexico 

they were referred to as Hispanos. This term was later rejected in the 

southwest after Mexico won independence from Spain in lieu of the term 

Latino, because it rejected the Spain of the conquistadors (Melville 

1988). In 1968 congress authorized President Johnson to declare the 

week including September 15 and 16 as National Hispanic Heritage 

Week. It was after this declaration the term Hispanic became more 

widespread. 

Based on a 1977-1978 government order, Hispanic was defined as 

“a person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central, South American, or 

other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race” (Forbes 1999:62). 

This definition distinguished Hispanic as an ethnicity, attempting to 

suggest a common cultural or language origin, rather than a racial 

category. According to Melville (1988), the most common practice for 

an individual is to refer to themselves as based on their national origin. 

However, in official government reporting, the U.S. Census Bureau 

considers Hispanic as an ethnicity to be selected in conjunction with a 

racial category of Black or White. Thus, while many individuals from 

Spanish-speaking countries would not refer to themselves as Hispanic in 

their native country, they are forced to do so in the United States. 

Despite governmental mandates and personal choice, Hispanics are 

continually referred to as both a racial and an ethnic group. Further, 

these terms are often used interchangeably despite significant differences 

between their meanings. Social race in the United States is based on skin 

pigmentation and other phenotypic characteristics that are believed to 

reflect ones ancestral genealogy. However, these phenotypical 

characteristics continually fail to “identify” Hispanic individuals. For 

example, in Puerto Rico, many individuals would be racially classified 

as White or Black in the United States, or even a third racial category 

within their own country (Rodríguez 2000). 

Race and ethnicity can be differentiated on the idea that ethnicity is 

strictly based on the idea that the group of individuals share some 

cultural ancestry or heritage. Brazilians, who speak Portuguese, and 

Guatemala Mayans, who speak unique Mayan dialects, are often referred 

to as Hispanic in the United States. The discordance of language and the 

unique population histories of these groups reject the U.S. government’s 

designation of Hispanic of belonging to a shared Spanish culture or 

origin. Due to confusing and misguided terminology, it is not surprising 

that anthropologists are not able to define this term accurately due to the 

conflicting differences between self-identification and governmental 

identification. This presentation concludes that when conducting 

forensic anthropological research using Hispanic individuals, 

anthropologists must clearly define their population groups, using 

154

national origins, language, and self-described identity. Defining 

population groups will enable a better understanding of the unique 

population groups that are often referred to as Hispanic. 

Hispanic, Race, Ethnicity 

H17 Cephalic Index of Gurung Community of 


Stany W. Lobo, MSc*, Department of Anatomy, Melaka Manipal Medical 

College, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, INDIA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand why the 

Gurung community of Nepal is classified as brachycephalic. 


introducing the first study on Cephalic Index of the Nepalese Gurung 

community. 

Morphological differences between people can be recorded by 

measurements and based on these measurements different indices are 

calculated. Cephalic Index (CI) is one such index that can be used in 

differentiation of racial characteristics. Comparison of CI between 

parents, offspring, and their siblings can give a clue towards the genetic 

transmission of inherited characteristics. Cephalometry is also important 

in forensic science for facial reconstruction of disputed identity. 

Nepal is a land-locked country with China and Tibet on its north and 

India on its south. The people of the Gurung community are the original 

inhabitants of the Himalayan Republic of Nepal and maintain tradition, 

customs, and social order of ancient Nepalese. This is the first 

cephalometric study of Gurung community of Nepal. A comparison of 

the CI of the Nepalese Gurung community with the studies done 

elsewhere is made. The present cross-sectional study was conducted in 

Gandhruk village of Western Development Region of Nepal which is 

predominantly inhabited by Gurung community. Individuals with any 

craniofacial abnormality were excluded from the study. 

All the measurements were taken with the subjects sitting on a chair 

with their head in the anatomical position. The measurements were 

taken to the nearest mm using a spreading caliper. The anatomical 

landmarks considered for measurement of the head length and head 

breadth were glabella, inion, and euryon. The head length was measured 

from glabella to inion. The head breadth was measured as the maximum 

transverse diameter between the two euryons. Data thus obtained were 

computed and analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social 

Sciences) version 10. The CI was calculated using the formula: (head 

breadth/head length) x 100. The differences in means of head length, 

head breadth, and CI between male and female were tested for statistical 

significance by independent sample “t” test. A total of 267 adults 

comprising of 157 (58.8%) males and 110 (41.2%) females in the age 

range 25 to 45 years were studied. The mean head length of the whole 

sample was 17.7 cm (SD, 0.88). The mean head breadth of the sample 

was 14.9 cm (SD, 0.76). The mean CI of the sample was 83.7 (SD, 5.69). 

For males, the mean head length was 18 cm (SD, 0.85) and the mean 

breadth was 14.9 cm (SD, 0.83). For females, the mean length and mean 

breadth were 17.4 cm (SD, 0.78) and 14.7 cm (SD, 0.6), respectively. 

The mean CI for males and females was 83.1 (SD, 6.08) and 84.6 (SD, 

5.14) respectively. 

Attendees will learn from the results that the Nepalese Gurung 

community can be classified as brachycephalic. In tropical zones the 

head form is longer (dolichocephalic), but in temperate zones the head 

form is round (mesocephalic or brachycephalic). Since Nepal is in the 

temperate zone, the present classification of the Nepalese Gurung 

community as brachycephalic is in accordance with the geographical 

variations of CI. 

Cephalic Index, Gurung Community, Brachycephalic 

H18 Ancestry Estimation Using the Femur: 

A Pilot Study 

Sarah E. McManus, BA*, 2019 Stonybrook Road, Louisville, TN 37777 


utility of metric analysis of the femur in the estimation of ancestry. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by assisting 

with the ancestry estimation of unidentified human remains. 

Estimation of ancestry is an important part of the creation of a 

biological profile for unknown skeletal remains. As techniques for 

ancestry estimation have primarily focused on the cranium, reliable 

methods using postcranial elements are both few in number and 

underutilized. Craig (1995) presented a method of ancestry estimation 

utilizing measurement of the intercondylar shelf angle from radiographs. 

While this study presents highly accurate classification rates, Berg et al. 

(2007) found statistically significant differences for intra- and interobserver 

error using this method, placing its reliability in question. 

Craig (1995) states that intercondylar shelf angle correlates with 

intercondylar notch height, with an acute angle corresponding to a higher 

notch height and an obtuse angle corresponding to a lower notch height. 

Baker et al. (1990) investigated the determining power of intercondylar 

notch height, producing accuracy rates between 76.92% and 82.5% using 

sectioning points. In addition to adapting measurement of intercondylar 

notch height from Baker et al. (1990), Gill (2001) also describes 

differences in femoral platymeria and torsion (evaluated from 

measurements of subtrochanteric diameter and maximum head height) 

that are potentially useful in the estimation of ancestry. 

In order to examine the validity of the femur as an estimator of 

ancestry using a suite of measurements designed to incorporate all 

potential variation, a sample from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal 

Collection at the The University of Tennessee consisting of 36 

individuals (10 white males, 10 black males, 10 white females, and 6 

black females) was selected. Ten measurements designed to assess the 

intercondylar notch, variation within the distal femur, platymeria, and 

torsion were taken from the left femur of each individual. 

Analysis was then conducted to determine the measurements 

producing the most statistically significant differences between the 

groups used in this pilot study. Based on regression analysis in NCSS 

(NCSS LLC) five measurements were selected in order to conduct linear 

discriminant analysis on the data. For females the measurements 

selected were intercondylar notch height, medial condyle width, lateral 

condyle width, transverse subtrochanteric diameter, and epicondylar 

breadth, while for males the measurements selected were intercondylar 

notch height, medial condyle width, maximum head height, anteroposterior 

subtrochanteric diameter, and epicondylar breadth. 

Preliminary results of linear discriminant analysis in SAS 9.1 (SAS 

INSTITUTE) using these measurements indicate cross-validated 

accuracy rates of 90% for males and 100% for females. 

Based on the preliminary findings of this pilot study the femur 

appears to be of valid use in the estimation of ancestry and warrants 

further study. 

References: 

1 Baker SJ, Gill GW, Kieffer DA. Race and sex determination from 

the intercondylar notch of the distal femur. In: Gill GW, Rhine S, 

editors. Skeletal attribution of race. Albuquerque, NM: Maxwell 

Museum of Anthropology, 1990;91-5. 

2 Berg GE, Ta’ala SC, Kontanis EJ, Leney SS. Measuring the 

intercondylar shelf angle using radiographs: intra- and interobserver 

error tests of reliability. J Forensic Sci 2007;52(5):1020- 

24. 

3 Craig EA. Intercondylar shelf angle: a new method to determine 

race from the distal femur. J Forensic Sci 1995;40(5):777-82. 

4 Gill GW. Racial variation in the proximal and distal femur: 

heritability and forensic utility. J Forensic Sci 2001;46(4):791-799. 

Femur, Ancestry, Forensic Anthropology 


H19 Evaluation of Enamel Short Chemical 

History as a Forensic Tool: A Comparative 

Study of Six Countries 

Khudooma S. Al Na’imi, BSc*, University of Central Lancashire, United 

Kingdom, Um Ghafa, Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, Box 16584, UNITED ARAB 

EMIRATES 

The goal of this presentation is to present the method of enamel 

surface microsampling for acid etching for trace element analysis in the 

identification of an individual’s geographical affiliation. 


introducing a non-destructive and quick sampling tool. It will also 

contribute to the body of literature concerning enamel surface trace 

element studies. 

The enamel surface of teeth is complex: internally, it is highly 

chemically active (e.g., remineralization), whereas externally it reacts 

with the oral, or the burial, medium. Its inorganic chemical elements 

vary due to factors such as age, sex, oral cavity activities (e.g., food and 

drink) and environment. In forensic identification, it is important to 

examine the enamel surface both chemically and morphologically (e.g., 

microwear) for indicators of an individual’s health and place of residence 

as well as taphonomic conditions which may be identified and 

reconstructed. There is, however, little research concerning the study of 

the enamel chemical history of individuals over a short duration. 

Extracted tooth samples were collected from the United Kingdom 

(n=14), the United Arab Emirates (n=11), the Sultanate of Oman (n=11), 

Iraq (n=10), Yemen (n=15), and Iran (n=15). The sources of teeth were 

from dental clinics and from Iraq they were derived from the 

Medicolegal Institute in Baghdad. The Iraq sample included postmortem 

teeth from forensic cases which had been subjected to explosive and 

burial conditions. Teeth were washed with tap water and subsequently 

in distilled water. The enamel surface was sampled, using the acid 

etching method, by applying a perforated adhesive tape (with 2mm 

diameter circular hole) and etching that area of the surface with 5 µl of 

1.6 N HCL in 70 % glycerol for 35 seconds. The biopsy solution was 

analyzed for trace elements by the ICP-MS system. Neither the tooth 

type nor site of sampling were controlled, rather this was dependent upon 

individual tooth features (e.g., caries, enamel surface cleanliness, 

smoothness). The elements analyzed included Li, Mg, Al, P, K, Ca, Ti, 

V, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Sr, Mo, Cd, Sb, Ba, and Pb and 

overlapped ratios between them. The relative prevalence of these 

elements was used to assess the variability between the groups. Enamel 

etching depth was calculated mathematically using the phosphorus 

concentration. The enamel was examined by stereo microscope and 

SEM-EDXA system. 

Enamel etched depths resulting in high element concentrations were 

approximately between 5 µm and 35µm. Regression analysis indicated 

that 11 element concentrations were significantly (p < 0.05) related to the 

etched depth. The relationship was strong with Ca (R2= 0.9) but was 

weak with other elements (R2= 0.5 to -0.04), so this was ignored. Some 

elements distinguished between countries, such as As which has the 

highest range in the United Kingdom and the lowest in Iran; whereas the 

Sr range is highest in Yemen and lowest in the United Kingdom clearly 

reflecting the pollution (e.g., food, air and water) and dietary condition, 

respectively. 

The concentration of the elements Al, Ni, and Se were found to be 

related significantly (p

soldiers. Results from the stature comparisons reveal that U.S. born 

Hispanics, at least those of Mexican heritage, are taller on average than 

migrants born in Mexico. U.S. foreign-born stature differences were the 

largest for civilian males (89.2 mm), with a mean difference of 24.7 mm 

for civilian females and 28.3 mm for Army males. The Army female 

sample included only three foreign born soldiers, and so its mean 

difference is not reported although it follows the same directional trend 

as the other samples. Results from the dental health comparisons reveal 

that U.S. Hispanics of Mexican heritage have better dental health than 

the Mexican Nationals who have died while attempting to migrate. It is 

postulated that because many of the deceased migrants examined at the 

PCOME come from impoverished areas of Mexico and Central America, 

their lower socioeconomic standing prevents them from have an 

optimum diet and from seeking adequate medical and dental care. 

Because U.S. Hispanics apparently have a better standard of living than 

this, their stature is greater and their dental health is better. One 

implication of these findings is that a “socioeconomic profile” can be 

generated from the unidentified individuals to gauge whether they are 

more likely U.S. citizens or foreign national migrants. This profile is one 

line of several that is utilized in classifying some unidentified individuals 

as probable migrants. 

Dental Health, Stature, Socioeconomic Status 

H21 Past or Present? An Empirical Basis 

for Quantitatively Distinguishing Between 

Prehistoric and Modern Forensic 

Cases Using a California Native 

American Population 

Cris E. Hughes, MA*, and Chelsey Juarez, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of California – Santa Cruz, Social Science 1, 

1156 High Street Room 435, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; and Lauren Zephro, 

MA, Santa Cruz Sheriff’s Office, 701 Ocean Street, Room 340, 


The goals of this presentation are to discuss the need for a Daubert 

standard method for assessing the forensic significance of skeletal 

remains, and to determine the discriminatory statistical power of metric 

variations among prehistoric California Native American remains, 

indigenous Central American skeletal populations, and skeletal 

populations common in the forensic and archaeological context. 


the general lack of qualitative and quantitative data available to identify 

the range of Native American populations aside from indirect expertise 

gained from case work. This clearly limits the confidence/ability of the 

forensic anthropologist in correctly allocating possible Native American 

remains to the forensic or prehistoric context. Metric and non-metric 

analyses are needed to distinguish between Native American populations 

and any potentially confusing cases of modern indigenous populations 

that may exhibit similar characteristics such as tooth wear, Inca bones, 

etc. The continuing influx of indigenous immigrants into California and 

other U.S. areas warrants the attention and refinement of forensic 

anthropological methods. 

The goal of this presentation is to provide new data and statistical 

analyses for differentiating between prehistoric Native American 

remains and modern forensic remains. Presently, forensic 

anthropological standards for identifying Native American remains are 

based on metric and non-metric data collected on prehistoric and 

contemporary Native American populations from the American 

Southwest (see Rhine 1990, Ousley and Jantz 2005). While quantitative 

data are accessible for these populations, forensic criteria used to identify 

prehistoric Native American remains are largely dependent on field 

assessments of contextual information such as body position, grave 

goods, tooth wear, bone color, and bone texture/quality. However, as the 

postmortem interval widens, it becomes more difficult to apply these 

contextual criteria to determine antiquity, and the forensic anthropologist 

must rely on skeletal characteristics to determine if the remains are firstly 

Native American, and secondly if they are of prehistoric or forensic 

context. 

The University of California at Santa Cruz forensic anthropological 

team has collected metric data on prehistoric California Native American 

remains. The data were analyzed to be integrated into current forensic 

anthropology statistical methodology for estimating the forensic 

significance of skeletal remains that apply to this geographical region of 

casework. From this presentation, attendees will better understand of the 

discriminatory statistical power between Prehistoric California Native 

American remains, indigenous Central American skeletal populations 

and skeletal populations common in the forensic and archaeological 

context. 

Forensic Anthropology, Native American, Metric Analysis 

H22 Frequencies of Non-Metric Characteristics 

in Northern California Native Populations: 


Cris E. Hughes, MA*, and Chelsey Juarez, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of California – Santa Cruz, Social Science 1, 

1156 High Street Room 435, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a clear 

understanding of the frequencies of commonly utilized non-metric traits 

present in northern California Native Americans, and how these 

frequencies compare to published literature on other Native American 

populations and modern Latino populations. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by initiating 

the creation of new non-metric standards on large samples of modern and 

non-modern populations. 

The goal of this presentation is to present a comparison of 

frequencies for commonly utilized non-metric traits in Northern 

California Native Americans, United States Latinos, and indigenous 

Guatemalans. 

As forensic scientists we produce legal documents, the foundations 

of which must be based on empirical studies. Non-metric ancestry data 

are often included in these reports; however, these data are based on 

inadequate samples either due to sample size or population 

representation. Despite the fact that non-metric assessments are still 

common place in forensic case reports on Latino groups there is little 

basis for these assessments in the published literature. In effect, nonmetric 

analyses conducted on these remains are based on frequencies 

founded on potentially non-similar populations. 

Recently, the frequencies and utility of non-metric features 

associated with specific races/populations have been challenged (Hefner, 

AAFS abstract 2007). These studies suggest that forensic 

anthropologists cannot rely on older studies to provide accurate 

information on frequencies for certain populations such as Latinos and 

that the overall utility of non-metric data must be further investigated. 

This work demonstrates the need to make new standards on large 

samples of modern populations and to simultaneously investigate the 

utility of non-metric analysis. The research discussed in this 

presentation will contribute to this goal. 

Members of each mentioned group were analyzed for 33 common 

non-metric traits as established by Rhine (1990). Two observers made 

all observations and were tested periodically throughout the analysis for 

inter-observer error in trait assignment. The Native Northern 

Californians represent both a spatial and temporal analysis of non-metric 

characteristics for the region. The United States Latino and Indigenous 

Guatemalan populations represent a modern forensic context. The 


collected data was analyzed to develop an empirical, quantitative 

methodology for estimating the forensic significance of non-metric traits 

within these Asian stem groups and then compare them to previously 

reported frequencies. 

From this presentation, the audience will take away a greater 

understanding of the empirical utility of non-metric analysis of traits in 

Prehistoric California Native American remains, indigenous Central 

American skeletal populations, and modern U.S. populations. 

Non-Metrics, Ancestry, Standards 

H23 A New Metric Procedure for the 

Estimation of Sex and Ancestry From 

the Human Innominate 

Alexandra R. Klales, BA*, Jennifer M. Vollner, BS*, and Stephen D. 

Ousley, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of Anthropology & 

Applied Forensic Science Program, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn of a new 

metric approach to estimate sex and ancestry of the human innominate 

that utilizes both easily repeatable measurements and well defined 

landmarks. Attendees will also learn of the benefits of using a 

Microscribe digitizer to calculate the aforementioned measurements and 

for data collection. 

Sex and ancestry estimation are essential for the assessment of 

biological profile in both forensic cases and in bioarchaeological 

analysis. In turn these estimations are necessary to asses other aspects of 

biological profile such as stature and age. This presentation will impact 

the forensic community by demonstrating an approach that combines 

both old and new metric sex and ancestry estimation techniques of the 

human innominate which are both more reliable and more accurate than 

previously published methods. 

The human innominate has previously been examined through 

multiple metric and non-metric studies and, based on morphological 

characteristics, has been determined by many to be the most accurate 

bone for sex estimation. However, in light of Daubert vs. Merrell Dow 

Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993), most previous methods fail to meet the 

Daubert requirements or are of questionable reliability and validity; 

therefore, an opportunity to improve upon past research is presented. In 

addition, an attempt was made to examine the usefulness of these 

measurements for ancestry estimation. 

A sample of 77 left innominates from the Hamann-Todd Collection, 

housed at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, was utilized in this 

study. All individuals were adults, at least 19 years of age, of known sex 

and ancestry. A total of 22 measurements were taken by two observers, 

first as a preliminary study using sliding calipers, and then at a later date 

using a Microscribe G2 Digitizer to acquire 21 landmarks representing 

the previous 22 measurements. All data was then entered into Fordisc 

3.0 (Jantz & Ousley, 2005) and analyzed through discriminant function 

analysis (DFA) with forward stepwise selection for sex, ancestry, and for 

joint sex-ancestry estimation. 

This study used a sample of individuals of documented sex, 

ancestry, and age to achieve the following goals: (1) to qualify 

previously studied non-metric sex estimation traits through metric 

analyses, (2) to test previously defined metric methods for reliability and 

validity, (3) to refine previously published measurements by developing 

new landmark definitions that are easily understood and landmarks that 

are easily identifiable and produce reliable measurements, (4) to analyze 

the significance and utility of the new measurements through 

discriminant function analysis, and (5) to compare the concordance of 

measurements taken with calipers to those taken with a Microscribe 

digitizer. Furthermore, this study investigates the effectiveness of these 

measurements in ancestry estimation and also in joint sex-ancestry 

estimation. 


Initial results indicate that measurements from the current study 

show greater reliability and validity with the use of discriminant function 

analysis than previously published measurements, while also producing 

a known error rate in accordance with the Daubert requirements. 

Benefits of using the digitizer include: increased data recording 

efficiency, fewer data entry errors, and the localization of landmarks in 

3-D space. The current study will positively benefit future sex 

estimation using the innominate and will demonstrate the advantages of 

digitizing the innominate over the use of sliding calipers, though either 

can be used for sex estimation using DFA. In addition to sex estimation, 

the current study will also discuss the effectiveness of using the 

innominate to estimate ancestry and simultaneous sex and ancestry. 

Innominate, Sex and Ancestry Estimation, Discriminant 


H24 Secular Trends in Cranial 

Morphological Sexing 

Kanya Godde, MA*, and Angela M. Dautartas, BS, University of 

Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 


changes in cranial morphological sex characteristics between individuals 

with birth years from the 1840s through the 1960s. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by extending 

an anthropologist’s ability to properly assess sex in an unidentified 

individual. Awareness of the changes over time in skeletal morphology 

will strengthen skills for accurate construction of the biological profile. 

Hrdlicka (1920) originally created the now popular cranial 

morphological sexing criteria based on his reading of various German 

and French papers. He did not standardize his method; rather, he mostly 

described the morphological features with size terms, such as “medium,” 

and no sketches (Hrdlicka 1920: 91). In 1994, Buikstra and Ubelaker 

published sketches and descriptions of each morphological characteristic 

in order to standardize the method. Other than Buikstra and Ubelaker’s 

(1994) contribution, 74 years after Hrdlicka’s descriptions, the method 

has not been officially outlined. 

Despite its lack of formal definition until 1994, the technique was 

used in anthropology since Hrdlicka’s (1920) adoption of the 

methodology. Application of the technique has been taught with the 

caveat of needing to understand the variations in size and morphology in 

the population with which it is utilized. However, there has been little 

research on how cranial characteristics in the American population have 

changed over the last century and thus there is little insight into 

American morphological variation over time. Since the method was 

originally adopted in 1920, the American population has changed greatly 

due to proper nutrition and better healthcare, among other factors. These 

changes include increases in average weight, stature, and overall health. 

In order to properly employ the cranial morphological sexing technique 

in a forensic setting, anthropologists need to be aware of potential 

changes in morphology over time. This knowledge will help with 

assessing sex in forensic cases where bones are discovered decades after 

the individual’s demise, as well as with contemporary cases. Thus, it is 

hypothesized that secular trends have also occurred in cranial 

morphology in Americans, which affects the utilization of the sexing 

technique. 

In order to test the hypothesis, 516 male and female American 

Blacks and Whites from two skeletal collections (the Hamann-Todd 

Collection and the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection) were 

observed for each of the five cranial morphological sexing 

characteristics. These traits include: mental eminence, supraorbital 

margin, supraorbital ridge, nuchal crest, and mastoid process. 

Additionally, Howell’s mastoid measurements (mastoid length and 

mastoid breadth), and a new measurement, mastoid width, were 

158

collected in order to calculate the volume of mastoids. Mastoids 

resemble cones more than any other geometric shape, and thus the three 

measurements collected in this analysis were selected and designed to 

simulate this form. The birth years from these collections span more 

than a century; they range from the 1840s to the 1960s. The data were 

split into two samples based on sex (Cridlin et al. 2008), and each of 

these two samples was independently analyzed. 

A time series statistical analysis was executed on transformed 

categorical and untransformed continuous variables for both sexes. The 

results indicate that over time the variables exhibited either a positive or 

negative trend. Most notably, supraorbital ridge increased over the last 

century. 

The results here suggest that the secular trends in American Whites 

and Blacks warrant modifying the application of the technique to 

accommodate change over time in the American population. 

Recognition of these changes will strengthen the methodology behind 

building a biological profile. While these results reflect secular trends in 

the American population, they are not meant to be extrapolated to other 

populations. Each population has its own respective history and changes 

in skeletal morphology reflect events and trends within it. 

References: 

1 Buikstra JE, Ubelaker D. 1994. Standards for data collection from 

human skeletal remains: Proceedings of a seminar at the Field 


Survey, 1994. 

2 Cridlin S, Seaver WL, Jantz RL. 2008. Change is good: using 

advanced statistical methods for the identification of secular change 

in femoral head size. Am J Phys Anthropol Supp 135: 84. 

3 Hrdlicka A. 1920. Anthropometry. Philadelphia: The Wistar 

Institute of Anatomy and Biology. 

Cranial Sexing, Secular Trends, Cranial Morphology 

H25 Determination of Sex Using Metric Data of 


U-Young Lee, MD*, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The 

Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA; In-Hyuk Chung, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Yonsei 

University College of Medicine, 134 Sinchon-dong, Seodaemoon-gu, 

Seoul, 120752, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 

Sangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 330946, KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, Gachon University of Medicine & Science, 

1198 Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Sang-Seob 

Lee, MSD, National Institute of Scientific Investigation, Shinwol-7-dong, 

Yancheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, KOREA; Yong-Woo Ahn, PhD, Institute of 

Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan National University, 1- 

10, Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University College of Medicine, 

522, Naegok-dong, Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; and Je-Hoon Lee, MSc, 

and Seung-Ho Han, PhD, The Catholic University of Korea, Department 

of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 

137701, KOREA 

The goal of this presentation is to suggest that the greater sciatic 

notch could be helpful for sex determination in forensic anthropology. 

The metric data of the greater sciatic notch are highly dimorphic between 

Korean males and females and a discriminant function analysis was 

found to classify sex with high accuracy. 


how it is straightforward to measure the width and depth of the greater 

sciatic notch. Moreover, metric analysis for the determination of sex 

from the greater sciatic notch was found to be highly accurate. These 

results are helpful in the determination of sex in Korean skeletal remains 

by utilizing more objectivity than non-metric traits for the greater sciatic 

notch. 

The hip bone is very helpful in the determination of sex of unknown 

human remains. In many cases the morphology of the greater sciatic 

notch (GSN) is used for sex determination through non-metric 

observation according to five grades. Non-metric observation is good 

for obtaining an immediate result; however, the result strongly depends 

on the experience of the observer and it is sometimes inaccurate. Recent 

study has shown that the non-metric method has the potential for 

conversion into a metric method, which provides objectivity for forensic 

anthropological analyses. To this end, the morphology of the GSN was 

investigated metrically in order to determine sex by numeric standards. 

From the human bone collection of Yonsei University College of 

Medicine, 164 GSNs with known sex and age information at death were 

measured using digital calipers. GSNs were obtained from 112 male 

cadavers and the remainder were from females. Width and depth of the 

GSN were measured and the depth-width index of the GSN was 

calculated. The angle of the GSN was computed using measurements 

and a trigonometric function. The accuracy of sex determination was 

analyzed statistically by discriminant function analysis in SPSS (version 

13, IL, USA). 

Metric data of the GSN are highly dimorphic between Korean 

males and females. Width of the GSN in males was narrower than in 

females. Depth of the GSN in males was longer than in females. The 

accuracy was 84.6% for the depth-width index of the GSN and 89.5% for 

the calculated angle of the GSN. The demarking point was 65° for the 

calculated angle of the GSN and 68 for the depth-width index. 

It is straightforward to measure the width and depth of the GSN. 

Moreover, metric analysis for sex determination from the GSN was 

found to be highly accurate. These findings are useful in the 

determination of sex from the GSN of Koreans, and the results provide 

more objectivity than with non-metric trait methods. 

Greater Sciatic Notch, Sex Determination, Korean 

H26 Sexual Dimorphism of Joint Surface Area 


Denise To, MA*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will gain insight into the 

sexual dimorphism of the surface area of four skeletal articular elements, 

learn of the feasibility of using this method to determine sex of an 

unknown skeleton, and gain a better understanding of the research 

potentials of 3-D modeling and digital data acquisition. 


elucidating the variation of an easily observed variable that is rarely used 

in osteological research and by fostering interdisciplinary research 

approaches in physical anthropology by incorporating 3-D technologies. 

The surface area of skeletal features is easily observed but because 

its quantification is difficult to capture by traditional approaches, it is 

rarely included in osteological research. As a result, variation in the 

surface area of human skeletal features has never been thoroughly 

investigated. This study investigated the relationship of joint surface 

area with sex by applying three-dimensional modeling and digital data 

collection techniques normally used in engineering and computer 

science applications. In physical anthropology, research designs that 

have employed 3-D techniques (mostly in the analyses of primates and 

fossils) are limited. In addition, many studies that have included 

observations of surface area have quantified it through indirect 

expressions. Here, laser-assisted stereo modeling was utilized to reverse 

engineer skeletal features that allowed for accurate and reliable digital 

quantification of joint surface area. 

A total of 810 virtual models of joints were stereologically created 

with an optical laser scanner from 211 adult skeletons drawn from the 

Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection. Four surfaces from three joints 


(femoral head, humeral head, glenoid fossa of the scapula, and auricular 

surface of the ilium) from each skeleton were modeled with a Cyberware 

Inc., Model 15 scanner. A watershed-based segmentation software was 

used to isolate the articular surface of each joint, and a region editor 

program was used to measure the isolated joint surface. 

All four surfaces were found to be sexually dimorphic. Univariate 

discriminant function analyses on each variable produced crossvalidation 

accuracies between 69.4% using the auricular surface area and 

87.2% using the humeral head area. Only the area of the humeral head 

and the glenoid fossa were selected for determining sex with a 

multivariate linear discriminant function analysis. Correct classification 

using this function was found to be 90.0%. Surface area was found to be 

a better indicator of size and sexual dimorphism than linear long bone 

dimensions. 

This project has significant ramifications. First, its focus on surface 

area addressed research questions of an easily observable, yet largely 

ignored biological feature. The high accuracy percentage found in 

determining sex with a multivariate discriminant function with the area 

of the humeral head and glenoid fossa indicates that these are highly 

useful criteria. In contrast, the exclusion of the area of the femoral head 

from the function suggests that perhaps further research into its human 

variation is warranted given its highly-used linear variables in 

determining sex. Second, this project made effective use, on a large 

scale, of a relatively new method of 3-D digital data acquisition that has 

only begun to demonstrate its vast applications. While time consuming, 

the virtual methods used here may serve as a springboard for other 

studies to incorporate 3-D quantification of surface area into their 

research designs. This technology presents physical anthropologists 

with much-needed innovation to conduct research. Finally, 3-D digital 

modeling can produce such an accurate virtual model of a bone that a 

quasi-permanent replica can be made available to students and 

researchers instead of the actual specimen. The ramifications are 

substantial as 3-D digital modeling can create a virtual library for future 

generations that can help preserve priceless skeletal collections, such as 

the Terry Collection. While a virtual model may not always be a perfect 

replacement for the real thing, this research project demonstrates that, in 

some cases, a virtual model is arguably better than the real thing. 

Surface Area, Sexual Dimorphism, 3-D Imaging 

H27 Sex-Determination of Koreans Using Metric 

Analysis of Vertebrae 

Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

Soonchunhyang University, Department of Anatomy; U-Young Lee, MD, 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of 

Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; Yi-Suk 

Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Gachon University of Medicine & 

Science, 1198 Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; 

Deog-Im Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University 


Seung-Ho Han, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The 


137701, KOREA; and In-Hyuk Chung, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Yonsei University College of Medicine, 134 Sinchon-dong, 

Seodaemoon-gu, Seoul, 120752, KOREA 


results of sex determination of Koreans using metric analysis of 

vertebrae from the documented skeletal collection housed at Yonsei 

University in Korea. 


the results of metric analysis about the cervical, thoracic and lumbar 

vertebrae, and the usefulness of the documented skeletal collection 


housed at Yonsei University for determination of the biological profile in 

Koreans. 

Physical anthropology is a branch of anthropology concerned with 

the study of human evolution and human biological variation, including 

the investigation of the morphological characteristics of the human body 

including bone. There are two main ways to collect anthropological 

data: metric and non-metric. Through this process, physical 

anthropologists interpret and understand the characteristics of a 

population, such as biological evolution and genetic inheritance. In 

order to appreciate the characteristics of a population, it is important to 

statistically study documented human skeletal specimens. On the basis 

of these results, a reconstruction of the biological profile for unidentified 

skeletal remains can be possible. The Department of Anatomy, Yonsei 

University College of Medicine in Korea has collected skeletons after 

anatomy class since the 1990’s, and about 100 specimens have been 

collected. This study will present the results derived from the 

documented skeletal collection at Yonsei University, which pertains to 

sex determination in Koreans based on metric study of vertebrae. 

For this study, 34 whole vertebral columns were selected out of the 

total Yonsei sample since many cervical vertebrae were missing from the 

anatomy class and skeletal preparation. These consisted of 22 males and 

12 females, and the average age was 54 years (from 18 to 88 years). For 

the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae there were a total of 9 measurements: 

upper & lower end-plate width, depth of upper end-plate and lower endplate, 

anterior height and posterior height of vertebral body, transverse 

diameter of vertebral foramen, sagittal diameter of vertebral foramen, 

and width of vertebra. In the cervical region, measurements were taken 

of the length of the spinous process instead of the depth of the upper endplate 

and lower end-plate because the vertebral body of the cervical 

vertebrae have the uncinate process. Measurements for atypical 

vertebrae (i.e., the atlas and axis) consist of 23 and 13 measurements, 

respectively. All measurements were taken with a digital caliper 

(Mitutoyo Co., Japan) and statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 

(version 13.0). 

The measurement values related with the vertebral body 

dimensions, such as upper & lower end-plate width, were highly 

dimorphic between males and females. Also, results show that the 

measurement values were related to the size of the vertebrae, such as 

width of vertebra. The discriminant function equations were obtained by 

univariate, bivariate, and step-wise methods. The range of accuracy of 

the cervical vertebrae was from 78.8 to 100%, and accuracy for the 

thoracic vertebrae was from 86.1 to 100 %, and for the lumbar vertebrae 

it was from 76.5 to 97.1%. The accuracy of the 5 th cervical vertebra, 3 rd 

and 11 th thoracic vertebrae, and 1 st lumbar vertebra showed the highest 

accuracy of sex classification. 

This presentation could indicate that metric data of vertebrae are 

useful for sex determination in Koreans, especially in the vertebral 

region where movement is frequent. However, further investigation is 

necessary to increase the sample size and work will continue in order to 

study the vertebrae from the digital Korean human model established by 

Computer Tomography (CT). Finally, the documented skeletal 

collection at Yonsei University is a useful resource for research related to 

the Korean biological profile. 

Koreans, Sex-Determination, Vertebrae 

H28 Tarsal Measurements to Estimate Sex for 

Use in a Forensic Setting 

Vanessa L. Aziz, BA*, 11735 Bergamo Court, Las Vegas, NV 89183 


osteometric analysis of the tarsals can produce accurate determination of 

the sex of the decedent in forensic cases. While previous studies in the 

160

past have utilized the calcaneus and talus for osteometric analysis to 

determine sex in both modern and prehistoric populations, this study has 

utilized all seven and found that higher levels of accuracy are achievable 

using all seven tarsals in the sample population studied. Attendees will 

also learn how to accurately measure all seven tarsals to reproduce the 

results of this study. 


new ways of determining the sex of the decedent. This study contributes 

to the forensic community, and specifically the forensic anthropology 

community, as the identification of an individual based upon skeletal 

traits is of primary concern. This study does just that by helping to 

predict with a certain amount of accuracy the sex of an individual based 

upon the tarsals alone. 

Identification of an individual based on skeletal traits is of primary 

concern in forensic anthropology. A basic antemortem profile should 

include age, ancestry, and sex; factors that can help law enforcement 

identify the decedent (Bass 2005). Although there has been extensive 

research and testing of many bones as indicators of age and sex, often 

these bones are not available in a forensic setting. More research is 

needed on those bones which can withstand greater extremes such as 

weathering and fire, since these elements are often those encountered in 

forensic settings. The irregular bones of the ankle fit such criteria, as 

they are relatively dense in some areas (White 2000). While several 

studies have been done using the calcaneus and talus, (Gualdi-Russo 

2007, Steele 1976, Murphy 2002, 2005) no significant contribution to the 

study of modern populations have been published concerning all seven 

tarsals (Bass 2005; Bidmos and Asala 2003, 2004; Gualdi-Russo 2007; 

Murphy 2002a, 2002b; 2005; Steele 1976; Wilbur 1998). This current 

project advances these previous studies by publishing data and analysis 

of tarsal dimension patterns for a museum population of individuals who 

died within the last 25 years and are curated at the University of New 

Mexico. 

Several sources have studied the measurements of the calcaneus 

and talus in relation to sex on prehistoric populations. Murphy (2002a, 

2002b, 2005) studied the talus and calcaneus of prehistoric New Zealand 

Polynesians. Wilbur (1998) published on the subject of hand and food 

bones for the determination of sex in a prehistoric population from West- 

Central Illinois. 

Modern population specific research has been done on the 

calcaneus and talus as well. Using five measurements each from the 

talus and the calcaneus on a modern American ancestral white and black 

population, Steele (1976) accurately predicted sex 79% to 89% using a 

discriminant function analysis. Gualdi-Russo (2007) has produced a 

high percentage of correct classification of sex (87.9-95.7%) within a 

modern northern Italian population. The tali and calcanei from the 

Raymond A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons were utilized in two 

studies by Bidmos and Asala (2003, 2004) to determine sex in South 

African black and whites and Bidmos and Dayal (2004) applied a 

discriminant function analysis to the tali of a South African white 

population, yielding 80% to 82% accuracy for the univariate method, 

85%-88% for the stepwise method, and 81% to 86% for the direct 

method. 

The purpose of this study was to see if sexual dimorphism in all 

seven tarsals among a modern North American documented skeletal 

collection was statistically viable, and if so, how this might aid the 

forensic community. In this current study, all seven tarsals from a 

modern North American population were measured – the calcaneus, 

talus, navicular, 1 st - 3 rd cuneiforms, and the cuboid – to determine if 

there is a clear discrimination between the sexes. These measurements 

were subjected to univariate and stepwise discriminant function analysis 

to determine the percentage of accuracy achievable. 

Utilizing a selection of 69 adult male and female individuals 

ranging in age from 18 to 101 from the modern documented skeletal 

collection housed within the Maxwell Museum at the University of New 

Mexico in Albuquerque, NM, this study has found that an accurate sex 

assessment of 94.24% can be achieved utilizing measurements from all 

seven tarsals, and that single measurements can predict sex up to 

88.41% accurately. 

Tarsals, Sex Determination, Osteometric Analysis 

H29 An Evaluation of Facial Features Used for 



Samantha M. Seasons, BA*, and Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of 

South Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, 


The goals of this study are to demonstrate a simple method for 

creating 2-D composites for facial reconstructions and to evaluate the 

accuracy of this method through both qualitative and quantitative 

methods. This research identifies what facial features are most 

recognizable and key components for successful recognition. 


several important outcomes that are noted from the study. First, 2-D 

composites are shown to be accurate with a high rate of recognition 

among people who did not know the victim. It also highlights which 

facial features are most important in facial recognition and the 

differences among males and females in how they recognize faces. One 

critical outcome of this research is that it demonstrates that the quality 

and intrinsic properties of the reference photograph given by families to 

law enforcement may also play a role in recognition among cases of 

missing persons. Therefore, the image obtained by police in missing 

persons is as important as accuracy in facial reconstructions created for 

unidentified decedents. The importance of accurate and time efficient 

methods for facial reconstructions, which are based on an understanding 

of how specific facial features impact facial recognition and the variation 

among observers, may aid law enforcement agencies and increase the 

number of identifications for missing and deceased persons. 

The problem of missing persons and unidentified decedents, 

specifically how to link individuals within these two arenas, is critically 

important for families and for judicial accountability in cases of 

homicide. Due to the increased demand to identify missing persons 

globally, the role of forensic anthropologists in those types of 

investigations is expanding. Forensic anthropologists construct a 

biological profile including the sex, ancestry and the approximate age of 

the decedent, which provide the foundation for facial reconstructions. 

Facial tissue depth data along with the biological profile are used to 

create composite images using computer software programs such as 

Photoshop CS and FreeFormÒ Modeling Plus. TM Recent advancements 

in 3-D imaging have resulted in virtual applications of facial 

reconstructions. Such technologies, however, may not always be 

available to all investigators particularly in human rights investigations. 

The purpose of this study is to: (1) evaluate the accuracy of 

craniofacial reconstructions created through 2D composites, (2) identify 

what facial features are most recognizable, and (3) identify patterns 

among respondents that may influence recognition such as gender, age, 

or the quality of the reference (missing person) photograph. For this 

study, four composite images were created for three skulls, using photo 

superimposition techniques. A total of 120 students from the University 

of South Florida were asked to match the composite image with the 

picture of who he most looked like (out of six possible choices). Among 

the comparison images, one image was the actual decedent. Participants 

were randomly surveyed about the likeness of the images and the ranked 

order of likeness. Demographic data about the participants was also 

collected. Qualitative descriptions about similarities and differences 


were collected from each participant. Further, Pearson’s Chi Square 

tests were used to test the significance of the likeness among the 

composite and photographs and the responses from the survey. 

In two of the four cases, the composite image and the actual 

decedent photograph were said to be very similar. In one case, the same 

composite image was used but the missing person image was changed. 

In this case, it was said to be not at all similar. This highlights an 

important point - that recognition is not only important on the level of the 

created composite but also in the intrinsic factors of the missing person 

photograph (i.e., the presence of a hat, certain clothing, the angle of the 

face, background, or shading contrast). It is shown that by changing the 

picture of the missing person that is used to elicit recognition, the 

outcome varies. Therefore, the picture families give to law enforcement 

in missing persons cases may affect the how likely someone is to 

recognize that person. 

Other patterns are also discussed, such as differences among males 

and females in recognizing the same faces. For example, out of 52 male 

participants and 68 female participants, 25% (13/52) of males ranked a 

composite photograph as the most similar whereas in the same case, only 

7.4% (5/68) of the females ranked it as the most similar. Among traits 

that are used to evaluate the likeness of two images, the nose was the 

most common trait used according to 76.5% of participants, followed by 

the eyes. Interestingly, the nose and eyes are largely subjective areas in 

creating composite images since the particular morphology and color can 

not be estimated from skeletal remains. Yet, participants who said those 

were the most important traits still correctly matched the composite 

images with the actual photograph of the deceased. It is evident that the 

relationship between different facial features and the overall composition 

of the face does influence the rate of facial recognition. 

Facial Reconstruction, Recognition, Missing Persons 

H30 The Reliability of Visually Comparing 

Small Frontal Sinuses 

Victoria A. Smith, MA*, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Federal 

Bureau of Investigation Laboratory TEU, 2501 Investigation Parkway, 

Quantico, VA 22135; Angi M. Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 

22135; and Sarah W. Myers, Emory University, 201 Dowman Drive, 

Atlanta, GA 30322 

The goal of this presentation is to provide attendees with 

information about the reliability and validity of visually comparing and 

correctly matching small, less-featured frontal sinus outlines as seen in 

radiographs. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by further 

emphasizing the reliability of personal identification through matching 

frontal sinus radiographs. 

Several studies have investigated frontal sinus comparison for 

personal identification. Many of these studies, however, involved small 

sample sizes both in terms of the number of radiographs examined and 

the number of participants. One study addressed the statistical reliability 

of correct identification using Elliptic Fourier Analysis and Euclidean 

distance models on digitized images which resulted in a 96% accuracy 

rate. The remaining 4% largely represents the inability of the 

computerized models to correctly match small, less-featured frontal 

sinuses. [1] The present study investigates the hypothesis that human 

examiners will be able to more accurately identify correct matches both 

because of the discriminating ability of the human eye as well as the 

potential to take other features of the radiograph image into 

consideration. 

Radiographs were obtained from the University of Tennessee and 

represent specimens from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal 

Collection taken as part of a previous study. A random sample of 60 


pairs of radiographs was selected from the collection. From these 60, the 

radiographs with the smallest frontal sinuses and lacking visible dental 

restorations were used for this study, thus creating a sample specifically 

aimed at making the matching process as difficult as possible. 

Participants of varying backgrounds and levels of experience were 

solicited to participate in the study including Federal Bureau of 

Investigation scientists and attendees of the 2008 annual meeting of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences in Washington, D.C. 

Participants were provided two sets of 28 radiographs labeled A through 

BB and 1 through 28, an answer sheet, and a light box. They were 

advised that matches consisted of one letter or letter combination plus 

one number, and that not all radiographs necessarily had a corresponding 

match present. 

Participants were also asked to provide information regarding their 

education and background. Further, they were asked to rate their level 

of experience in both examining radiographs and performing 

anthropological or skeletal examinations. Finally, participants were 

asked to list any characteristics besides the frontal sinuses that they used 

to determine matches. 

The exercise contained 26 matched pairs and four radiographs that 

did not have a match. Overall, error rates were very low. False negative 

associations were significantly more common than false positive 

associations and errors generally occurred less frequently among 

participants with more experience. Of note is the fact that one particular 

association appeared to be the most difficult to identify and was missed 

most frequently. Most participants reported using features in the 

radiographs in addition to the frontal sinuses to make identifications. 

Results support previous assertions that frontal sinus radiographs 

are a reliable means of personal identification. Moreover, while previous 

studies have statistically evaluated the technique’s reliability using 

computerized models, the results of this study indicate that traditional 

visual comparison fares exceptionally well, even when frontal sinus 

projections are small. 

Reference: 

1 Christensen AM. Testing the reliability of frontal sinus outlines in 

personal identification. J Forensic Sci 2005;50(1):18-22. 

Forensic Anthropology, Frontal Sinus, Personal Identification 

H31 Three-Dimensional Computer Modeling 

and Anthropological Assessment of the 

National Library of Medicine’s Visible 

Human Male 

Summer J. Decker, MA*, Jonathan M. Ford, BA*, and Don R. Hilbelink, 

PhD, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, University of South 

Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 

11, Tampa, FL 33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department of 

Chemical Engineering, University of South Florida College of 

Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the ability to 

establish a biological profile used by forensic anthropologists in human 

identification from three-dimensional (3-D) image data. Using 

previously validated methodologies, [1] it will also compare the computed 

models of the cranial and post-cranial skeleton to those printed by a 3-D 

rapid prototyping machine. 


scientific knowledge of new methods available for use in training and the 

identification of human remains. 

Using three-dimensional (3D) imaging technology, researchers 

have been able to create virtual computed models of anatomical 

structures for a wide range of educational and research activities. The 

purpose of this study was to demonstrate the potential for establishing an 

162

accurate biological profile of a human skeleton solely from reconstructed 

3-D data of the National Library of Medicine’s Visible Human 

Project®. [2] 

This study began by utilizing the Visible Human Male’s (VHM) 

anatomic serial sections to isolate the skeletal tissue from each slice. 

Every anatomical structure in the digital image set was assigned a unique 

color and isolated using Adobe Photoshop CS3©. These image files 

(.tiff) were then imported into the software package, Mimics© version 

12 (Materialise) for reconstruction and 3-D visualization. 

After the complete skeleton of the VHM was reconstructed, 78 

anthropometric cranial and post-cranial measurements were selected 

from an index of standard anatomical landmarks based on their 

effectiveness in establishing a biological profile in skeletal analysis. [3] 

Additionally, non-metric traits commonly used in the assessment of age, 

sex and ancestry were also examined to complete the biological profile. 

Once the anthropological data was collected, the biological profile was 

then compared to the known values of the subject documented by 

Spitzer, et al. [2] 

The 3-D virtual models of the skeleton were exported as 

stereolithographic (STL) files and a select series of bones were printed 

using a Zcorp 3-D ZPrinter© 310 Plus rapid prototype machine. The 

prototype bones were then measured with traditional caliper methods 

using the same indices as the virtual skeleton and compared to the 

previous results. 

In this study, the biological profile generated from the virtual 

skeleton was consistent with the known information about the Visible 

Human Male. Statistical analysis of the data comprising the samples 

(virtual and prototype), confirmed the accuracy of the computer 

modeling and measurement technologies. Additionally, this study found 

the prototype bones to be valuable reproductions, even taking into 

consideration artifacts from the printing process. 

This study demonstrates that 3-D datasets of different kinds (digital 

images and serial sectioning) can be useful tools in the study of human 

anatomy for clinical, educational, and forensic purposes. Data sets that 

are public domain such as the National Library of Medicine’s Visible 

Human Project® have proven to expand the accessibility of anatomical 

specimens beyond actual contact. The data resulting from the Visible 

Human Project® has allowed for the possibility of creating reliable 

virtual models for teaching purposes as well as models for testing 

fundamental anthropological methods, like establishing a biological 

profile, through the use of 3-D volumetric data reconstruction. 

References: 

1 Decker SJ, Hilbelink DR, Hoegstrom EJ. Virtual skull anatomy: 


cranial anatomy. Proceedings for the 60 th Annual AAFS Meeting, 

Washington, DC 18-23 Feb. 2008; (14)312. 

2 Spitzer V, Ackerman MJ, Scherzinger AL, Witlock D. The Visible 

Human Male: A Technical Report. Journal of the American 

Medical Informatics Association, 1996; 3:118-130. 

3 Buikstra JE, Ubelaker DH (eds.) (1994) Standards for Data 

Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological 

Survey Research Series No. 44. 

3-D Imaging, Computer Modeling, Human Anatomy 

H32 The Reproducibility of Results From Facial 


Face-Arrays 

Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 


96853-5530; Jody Cicolini, BSc, The University of Queensland, 

Brisbane, 4072 AUSTRALIA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain insights into 

the differences that can be expected when accuracy tests of facial 

approximations are conducted using different groups of assessors but the 

same face-array test. 


demonstrating the reliability of the most favored method for assessing 

facial approximation performance. 

The use of facial approximation methods in the forensic arena 

makes knowledge of these methods accuracy and reliability pertinent. In 

the recent scientific literature it is now common for the face-array test to 

be advocated as the most favored form of performance assessment. If, 

however, the results from face-arrays are to be confidently interpreted 

then their reproducibility must be known. So far, repeatability studies 

using the same facial approximations but different assessor groups have 

not been performed. Clearly, more reliable results are expected with 

larger samples, but what numbers of assessors are needed and how 

reliable the results are for any sized assessor sample is currently 

unknown. 

This study investigates the repeatability of face-array results for 

three previously published facial approximations by employing three 

new groups of assessors in addition to the original study’s sample. In 

each case, face-arrays consisted of ten faces (including the target 

individual) with retest assessor sample sizes approximating 40, 75, and 

115 individuals. The results show that fluctuations in the recognition 

rates up to 20% were not uncommon for single faces between samples, 

even when large assessor groups were employed (75-115 assessors). 

These data thereby suggest that recognition rates for single faces should 

only be considered to be approximate and that heavy weight should not 

be assigned to isolated recognition rates for single faces. If marked 

peaks are present in the recognition profile of the array, reliable 

indications to a facial approximation’s accuracy may be gleaned from 

even small sampled studies, however, if such peaks are absent repeated 

tests using different assessor groups or a single large assessor samples (at 

least >75 individuals) are advisable. Since it appears that fluctuations 

in recognition rates between groups are not dramatically reduced with 75 

to 114 assessors, it seems that much larger sample sizes might be needed 

to generate more reproducible results (but how large these samples must 

be is currently unknown). Future research must address this issue. Also, 

since recognition rates generated from face-arrays are expected to be 

heavily influenced by which foil faces are selected for inclusion into the 

array (in addition to the quality of the facial approximation), future 

research should examine methods for measuring and optimizing photospread 

fairness. 

While face-array recognition tests are time intensive to conduct, the 

results of this study demonstrate value for obtaining larger assessor 

samples to run repeat face-array tests with multiple (independent) 

assessor groups. Repeat tests might be superfluous if very large numbers 

of assessors are used in any one pass at a face-array, but the exact number 

of assessors required to generate such robust results is currently 

unknown and could be unexpectedly large. 

Facial Approximation, Facial Reconstruction, Facial Reproduction 


H33 Cranial Fracture Patterns in Pediatric 




Marcus B. Nashelsky, MD*, Department of Pathology - 5244 RCP, 

University of Iowa Hospitals & Clinics, 200 Hawkins Drive, Iowa City, 

IA 52242; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, 354 Baker 

Hall, Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824; Nicholas V. 

Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, Okemos, MI 48864; Carolyn V. 

Hurst, BA, 3303 Wharton Street, East Lansing, MI 48823; and Timothy 

G. Baumer, BS, and Roger C. Haut, PhD, Orthopaedic Biomechanics 

Laboratories, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 


characteristic fracture patterns that result from bilateral “crushing” 

(quasi-static loading) injuries of the subadult cranium by presenting 

several case studies of such insults and a simple biomechanical model 

that replicates and helps explain these patterns. 


demonstrating the type of fractures that can be expected in cases of 

bilateral crushing in subadults and attribute these characteristic patterns 

to the stresses developed in the cranium. 

Bone fracture analysis is an integral component of some forensic 

casework. In terms of determining cause and manner of death, the 

forensic professional must possess a working knowledge of not only the 

forces involved in fracture production and propagation, but also the 

effects of geometry and stress concentrations. Most often blunt cranial 

injuries involve dynamic forces characterized by large energy changes 

generally due to rapid changes in velocity over the loading duration. 

Conversely, crushing injuries involve quasi-static forces that are applied 

slowly across broad aspects of the skull. The understanding of typical 

fracture patterns based on common scenarios and biomechanical 

modeling may be pertinent to the evaluation of cranial injuries sustained 

by subadults and attempts to determine circumstances of the injury 

(accident vs. abuse). If a fracture pattern is found which does not 

correspond to the adult’s account, there may be need to inquire further to 

ascertain the true nature of the injury. 

For this study, four cases are presented in which young children of 

various ages (from 1.5 to 6 years of age) have sustained fatal cranial 

crushing injuries from the tire of a slow moving motor vehicle or a 

heavy, non-motorized farm trailer. In each case the cranium was 

entrapped between the ground and the tire. In all four cases, the major 

bone fractures occurred in the basilar region of the cranium that bridges 

and links the loading sites (the tire and the ground) and traverses the 

middle cranial fossa in the area of the sella turcicum. Biomechanical 

engineering was then utilized in efforts to explain the mechanism of this 

fracture pattern using a mathematical model. 

A model of a simplified cranium was constructed with symmetry 

about the sagittal plane, but not about the coronal or transverse planes. 

The base of the cranium was modeled as a flat surface with the same 

thickness as the dome and the primary landmarks in the basal region. A 

hole was added to simulate the foramen magnum, two dense spheres 

were placed anterior to the foramen magnum to represent the petrous 

portion, and the thickness in a section of the cranium between the petrous 

portions was hollowed out to represent the region of the spheno-occipital 

synchondrosis. 

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was conducted on the model by 

applying quasi-static, bilateral pressures. The pressures were applied to 

the model in such a way as to simulate the crushing forces reported in the 

four cases. The stress pattern developed in the simplified model 

revealed significant stresses on the base of the skull with areas of lower 

stresses on the cranial vault. The stress pattern corresponded well with 

the fracture pattern documented in the four cases. Further analysis 


revealed that tensile stresses were generated in the region of high stress 

that correlated with and explained the observed fracture pattern. This 

suggested that the quasi-static (slow) loading of the cranium leads to 

fracture in predictable ways. 

The computational model suggests that the reason crania fracture 

through the basicranium is largely due to the concentration of tensile 

stresses due to the geometry of the cranium. Based on these pilot studies, 

it would appear that a simplified cranial model of a slow, “crushing” 

force could be used to help explain fracture patterns seen in typical case 

situations. 

Pediatric Fracture Patterns, Bilateral Crush Injuries, Finite 

Element Modeling (FEM) 

H34 Shark-Inflicted Trauma on Human 


Maria T. Allaire, MA*, Louisiana State University FACES Laboratory, 

Louisiana State University, 227 Howe-Russell Building, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803; and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of Geography & 

Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 


with shark-inflicted trauma on human skeletal remains. This type of 

trauma may be unfamiliar and/or not commonly seen by the forensic 

community. 


awareness and knowledge of a unique type of sharp trauma rarely 

encountered or observed by forensic anthropologists and other forensic 

scientists. 

On August 16, 1997, the Jefferson Parish Coroner’s Office was 

notified about the recovery of an unidentified male in a shrimper’s trawl 

net in the Gulf of Mexico. At the time of recovery, the shrimp boat was 

30 miles offshore at longitude 2829.9N and latitude 09026.3W. The U.S. 

Coast Guard retrieved the body from the shrimp boat and an autopsy was 

conducted at the Jefferson Parish Forensic Center on August 18, 1997. 

According to the autopsy report, the body measured 5’11” in length 

and weighed approximately 83 pounds. The condition of the body was 

described as having “marked decompositional type changes present” 

with the head, right chest and back, left upper extremity, and both lower 

extremities being skeletonized. The right upper extremity was absent. 

“Irregular” gnaw-like marks were noted on the remaining tissue. 

Partially digested food was found in the stomach. The heart, lungs, liver, 

kidneys, spleen, esophagus, thyroid, pancreas, and adrenals were 

present. The brain was noted as being “generally liquid in nature.” No 

definite signs of fractures, hemorrhage or other trauma, other than gnawlike 

marks on the soft tissue, were identified. Based on the autopsy 

report, a postmortem interval of less than 48 hours from date of recovery 

was estimated. 

On August 22, 2007, ten years after initial recovery, the unidentified 

remains, and associated clothing were picked up at the Jefferson Parish 

Forensic Center by the Louisiana State University Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) 

Laboratory personnel and transported to the FACES Laboratory at LSU 

for analysis and inclusion in a cold case database. Upon arrival at the 

FACES Laboratory, the partially skeletonized remains were processed 

and cleaned. 

Results of the forensic anthropology analysis revealed that the male 

decedent’s ancestry was more consistent with black; however, due to 

some white and Amerindian characteristics, a Hispanic ancestry is 

possible. The decedent was 5’8” – 6’2” tall and between 30 – 45 years 

of age at the time of his death. Antemortem fractures were present on the 

nasal bones, the left frontomalare suture and the left zygomatic arch. 

The presence of bone remodeling and smooth edges indicated that all 

three fracture sites were in the process of healing prior to death and that 

164

these fractures could have been the result of a single traumatic event for 

which the decedent may or may not have received medical treatment. 

The analysis also revealed that the decedent had an edentulous maxilla 

with pronounced bone resorption and remodeling, indicating that he had 

worn upper dentures for a long time. His mandible was toothless, except 

for the lower canine teeth, and vertical remodeling and thinning of the 

alveolar bone for all of the incisors were present. The decedent’s lower 

canines, which were lost postmortem, had mechanically supported a 

partial lower denture by means of a “Dolder Bar” or similar oral 

reconstruction apparatus (Dr. Robert Barsley, Forensic Odontologist, 

personal communication). 

Analysis of the postcranial elements revealed a remarkable and 

unusual series of individual incisions, overlapping striations, and 

punctures with or without associated fractures. The trauma was 

concentrated on the clavicles, right, and left ribs, on all three of the left 

arm bones, the left femoral head, the right hip bone, and along the entire 

shaft of the right femur. Based on the recovery location in the Gulf of 

Mexico, these types of trauma were probably caused by a combination 

of marine scavengers and predators. In fact, the overall pattern of the 

individual incisions, overlapping striations, and punctures, with or 

without associated fractures, are common bite mark artifacts produced 

by sharks (Dr. George Burgess, Director, Florida Program for Shark 

Research and International Shark Attack File, personal communication). 

When a shark attacks, either as a scavenger or predator, water is 

displaced and pushed out in front of the shark like a wave. This sharkinduced 

wave will cause the potential prey’s body to move in the same 

direction as that wave. Just prior to their bite, sharks will close their eyes 

and rely solely on electromagnetic field sensing, which is not as accurate 

as sight orientation. The accuracy of the shark’s bite is dependent on 

several variables. One variable is the water’s natural wave motion. 

Another variable is the shark-induced wave, which is based on the size 

of the shark and its speed and direction of attack. A third variable is any 

movement(s) of the potential prey by its own volition or by either of the 

wave motions. Finally, the number of sharks and other marine life 

present will also affect the accuracy of a shark’s bite. In deep water, the 

three most common shark species to attack humans are the White shark, 

the Tiger shark and the Bull shark. Bite trauma on the victim suggests at 

least one large, adult Bull shark and several other smaller species of 

sharks were involved (Dr. George Burgess, Director, Florida Program for 

Shark Research and International Shark Attack File, personal 

communication). 

To assist with the identification of this individual, a clay facial 

reconstruction was completed. To illustrate both black and Hispanic 

ancestry, the clay facial reconstruction was then computer enhanced. 

The boots being worn by this male could also assist in his identification 

by way of a possible occupation. He was wearing steel-toed Tingley 

brand “Over-The-Sock Snugleg” boots. The manufacturer recommends 

this type of boot for the following applications: food processing, dairy, 

chemical, and petrochemical (exploration and production). 

In the past, cases such as this had little opportunity for 

identification. With the current interest in creating and updating cold 

case databases across the country, the potential for positive identification 

of this victim is greatly enhanced. Finally, this presentation will provide 

forensic scientists with a better understanding of shark-inflicted trauma 

on human skeletal remains where case histories are sometimes unknown. 

Shark-Inflicted Trauma, Shark Attack, Human Skeletal Remains 

H35 Patterns of Blunt Force Trauma Induced by 

Motorboat and Ferry Propellers as 

Illustrated by Three Known Cases From 

Rhode Island 

Dominique S. Semeraro, MS*, Office of State Medical Examiners, 48 

Orms Street, Providence, RI 02904; Nicholas V. Passalacqua, MS, 

Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, 354 Baker 

Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 

16546-0001; and Thomas P. Gilson, MD, Office of State Medical 

Examiners, 48 Orms Street, Providence, RI 02904 


understanding of the typical locations and injuries induced by motorboat 

and ferryboat propellers. 


three cases of propeller-associated fatalities. This information can be 

used as exemplar patterns of trauma when dealing with cases of remains 

recovered from marine contexts with unknown circumstances 

surrounding the death. 

Understanding patterns of trauma is important when dealing with 

skeletonized remains as it may influence the determination of cause and 

manner of death. Further, an understanding of taphonomy and bone 

fracture mechanics is necessary in order to reconstruct the timing of 

injuries (peri- vs. postmortem) and establish or rule out fatal injuries. In 

cases of decomposed bodies recovered from marine environments, 

skeletal trauma analysis can be even more significant because of the 

multitude of confounding variables affecting the soft tissue. In these 

cases, it is the ability to recognize patterns of skeletal injuries and 

reconstruction of the taphonomic history of the individual that can be 

most helpful in understanding the circumstances of the death event. 

Previously, Kroman et al. (2007) discussed experimental patterns of 

injury and injury mechanics from propellers in relation to speed at 

impact and propeller style. Their research discussed trauma in terms of 

blunt and sharp force trauma to human cadavers and euthanized pigs in 

an experimental setting. The present paper will attempt to further 

examine the skeletal trauma caused by similar mechanisms in terms of 

wound characteristics and location. With this information investigators 

may be able to identify propeller trauma, even in severely decomposed 

bodies. 

In 2007, the Rhode Island Office of State Medical Examiners 

investigated three unrelated cases involving decedents who had been 

struck by boat propellers. 

Case 1: A young male decedent was struck by the propeller of an 

open motorboat as it approached him at a reportedly low 

speed in the water. 

Case 2: A young male decedent was struck by the propeller of an 

open motorboat traveling at a relatively high speed after 

falling overboard at the front of the boat. 

Case 3: An elderly male decedent fell from a pier and was struck 

by the propeller of a ferry as it was leaving the dock. 

The first two cases exhibit similar patterns with longitudinal 

parallel propeller blade impacts that traverse portions of the body. In 

each case the propeller impacted the cranium and the extremities. While 

impacts to the extremities and torso created skeletal trauma easily 

recognizable as blunt force, impacts to the cranium created somewhat 

linear fractures with primarily smooth fracture edges that could be 

mistaken for sharp force. However, they are considered the result of 

blunt impacts because the shape of the edge on a standard propeller blade 

is “squared-off,” rather than beveled, which would result in sharp 

trauma. Due to the squared edges of the propeller blade, “scoring” can 

and does occur on the bone, however, this is not true sharp force trauma 

because of the lack of edge bevel. The decedent in Case 2 sustained 


lunt force lacerations to the lungs and liver which appear as linear 

defects, yet are the result of tears in the soft tissue rather than 

incised cuts. 

In Case 3, the impact from the ferry propeller caused significant 

damage to the decedent. In this case the body was completely severed in 

the abdominal region and only the upper portion was recovered. The 

torso showed fractures to every rib as well as both forearms; the left 

radius displayed a classic butterfly fracture. In this case, the blade of the 

propeller also impacted the cranium and caused delamination of the 

outer table, a characteristic of slow load blunt force trauma to the cranial 

vault. Vital organs were no longer present to evaluate at autopsy and 

cause of death was undetermined, however it was determined that the 

injuries caused by the ferry propeller were sustained postmortem. 

These case studies review the traumatic blunt force characteristics 

caused by propeller injuries as well as highlight the anatomic regions 

most likely to sustain skeletal trauma. The first two cases exhibit blunt 

skeletal injuries caused by standard propellers at different speeds 

reflecting similar patterns of trauma. The third case sustained blunt 

trauma to the majority of the body due to the greater sized blade and 

energy associated with the large ferry propeller. 

These case descriptions, coupled with an understanding of blunt 

force trauma biomechanics to bone, should allow the examiner to 

compare injuries, even in severely decomposed bodies, to patterns of 

documented propeller blade trauma as an aid to determining cause and 

manner of death in marine fatalities. 

Blunt Force Trauma, Propeller Injuries, Case Study 

H36 Cervical Vertebrae Entrapment in the 

Noose as Evidence of Cause of Death by 

Hanging in Skeletal Cases: Three 

Remarkable Finds 

Jennifer A. Ledford, BS*, Barrett Gobelet, BS*, and Hugh E. Berryman, 

PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, Middle Tennessee State 

University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be shown examples 

of cervical vertebra entrapment in ligatures as evidence of cause of death 

by hanging. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by stressing 

the importance of thorough recoveries at skeletal crime scenes, 

especially in areas where bone and culturally pertinent associations are 

scattered among extraneous debris. 

Cause of death by hanging may be difficult to determine from 

decomposed or skeletal remains alone, and may have to be inferred from 

evidence at the scene. The purpose of this paper is to present three 

remarkable skeletal cases, each exhibiting a cervical vertebra entrapped 

in a noose as unambiguous evidence of cause of death by hanging. 

The first case involved human skeletal remains found in a wooded 

residential area in Middle Tennessee. Dr. Hugh Berryman, two members 

of the Forensic Anthropology Search and Recovery Team and a death 

investigator from the State Medical Examiner’s Office processed the 

scene. The remains were clothed and largely held in articulation by dried 

soft tissue. No ropes or other indicators usually associated with hanging 

were found upon initial examination. Remnants of a dark colored woven 

belt tied to a wide strip of white cloth were found among other 

unassociated debris on the ground near the remains. When collected, it 

was discovered that the D-shaped metal buckle facilitated a loop that 

enclosed a skeletonized 5 th cervical vertebra and hair. The metal buckle 

was positioned on the posterior side of the neck and the size of the loop 

was exceedingly small, indicating that it became reduced in size as the 

body decomposed. 


A second case was discovered in eastern Louisiana in April 2006 

and was presented at the 2008 annual meeting of the American Academy 

of Forensic Sciences by Dr. John Verano. The remains were recovered 

from a wooded area and were largely skeletonized, with some dried soft 

tissue, and clothed. The majority of the remains were found hanging in 

a partially fallen tree with the skull and other bones scattered in the area. 

In this case, a nylon rope with a simple slipknot was found to encircle the 

skeletonized 3 rd cervical vertebrae and hair. The position of the knot is 

posterior and to the right of the spinous process, but due to 

decomposition, the knot may have slipped from its original position. 

The third case from Pinellas, Florida dates to October 1990 and was 

examined by Drs. Douglas Owsley and Robert Mann. At the scene, 

police found human skeletal remains and what appeared to be men’s 

clothing lying on the ground at the base of a tree from which a rope and 

noose still hung. A 4 th cervical vertebra with a crushed right vertebral 

foramen was found encircled by the noose. Since this foramen was 

crushed, the position of the noose at the time of death could be 

determined and is said to indicate homicide as the manner of death. 

In anthropological cases involving hanging where the bones and 

associated cultural items have been scattered, cause of death may be 

difficult to determine. This study presents three cases where the 

presence of a cervical vertebra entrapped in a noose provides clear 

evidence of hanging as the cause of death. Such findings argue for the 

thorough processing of skeletal crime scenes, especially in areas where 

bone and pertinent cultural associations are scattered among extraneous 

debris. 

Hanging, Cause of Death, Crime Scene Recovery 

H37 Diagnosing Peri-Mortem Blunt Force 

Trauma in Burnt Remains 

Aimee E. Huard, MA*, Binghamton University, Jeremy J. Wilson, MA, 

and Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Binghamton University, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000 

The goal of this presentation is to utilize photographic and 

radiographic overlays enabling the participants to form their own 

opinion(s) regarding the etiology of observed fracture patterns (i.e., blunt 

force trauma vs. heat and fire-induced fractures). 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by focusing 

on the combined effects of blunt force trauma plastic deformation and 

subsequent heat exposure on bone. Attendees will be provided with a 

basic model for reconstructing and differentiating fracture patterns. 

Intentional clandestine burning is a relatively common manner of 

inhibiting discovery and identification of a murder victim. Forensic 

anthropologists may be called upon to distinguish between perimortem 

injuries and taphonomic modification (burning) of bone that confounds 

trauma interpretation. Controlled experiments are an ideal way to 

understand the fracture pattern of blunt trauma and burning. Previous 

themed experiments have focused on questions regarding bone 

shrinkage, alteration of bone histology, the relationship of discoloration 

to intensity of fire, and heat-induced fracture patterns. This experiment 

specifically explores gross radiographic and microscopic differences in 

peri-mortem blunt force trauma fractures as compared to those fractures 

that are the product of intense heat and fire. 

This study focuses on the combined effects of plastic deformation 

of blunt force trauma and subsequent heat exposure on bone. 

Identification of plastic deformation in burned bone can be vital to 

understanding peri-mortem trauma, as the morphology of fractures 

indicates the forces involved and the direction of the mechanical loading. 

Damage to bone from fire has been described, but the conditions and 

causes that produce cracking, checking, transverse splitting, warping, 

longitudinal fractures, curved transverse fractures, straight transverse 

166

fractures, patina fractures, and delamination fractures of burnt bones are 

not completely understood. Many characteristics, including the 

freshness of the bone, the amount of soft tissue, temperature of the fire, 

and duration of exposure cause variation in the expression of the 

diagnostic characteristics of fire damage. 

Twenty deer humeri were used in the experiment: 16 experimental 

and 4 controls (Control A: burned but no blunt force trauma; Control B: 

blunt force trauma but no burning). Defleshed deer humeri were chosen 

as a model given their local availability and similarity in cortical 

thickness to human humeri (white-tailed deer proximal/distal mean: 3.1 

mm, 3.5 mm, human proximal/distal: 3.6 mm, 3.9 mm). Radiographs 

and photographs were taken before and after trauma infliction, at 10 

minute intervals during the burning process, immediately after burning, 

and following reconstruction. The experimental humeri were suspended 

at both ends, fractured with a lead pipe, and burned in a fire pit for a 

minimum of 120 minutes at a temperature of at least 200°C. To create a 

more realistic scenario, common fuels and accelerants were used 

including hickory wood chips, newspaper, and an ethanol-based lighter 

fluid. Temperature recordings were taken every 10 minutes with an 

EDL® E-Z Probe pyrometer with an air cage probe to ensure the fire was 

above 200°C. The temperature of the fire fluctuated throughout the 

burning period. The observed temperature fluctuations were reflected in 

the variation in discoloration on the bones. All ash was screened after 

burning for maximum recovery. Each humeri was independently 

described by the second and third author and compared. The 

temperature and duration of the fires were modeled against the final 

morphological state of the humeri using ordinal and logistic regression. 

Comparison of both the radiographs and descriptions of the five 

major heat-induced fracture patterns (longitudinal, patina, delamination, 

curved transverse, and straight transverse) to the traumatic fracture 

patterns observed in the experimental humeri illustrates the fundamental 

morphological differences between traumatic and heat-induced fractures 

that are distinguishable in a forensic context. When a blunt impact 

causes a butterfly fracture, the sharp and symmetrical fractures remain 

distinguishable following burning. In contrast, heat-induced fractures 

rarely traverse the bone and instead create short segments that flake off 

during the burning process. Recovery yield after burning affected the 

number of features available to describe; moreover, humeri with lower 

recovery yields had much more ambiguous descriptions and diagnoses. 

Blunt Force Trauma, Burned Bone, Radiograph 

H38 A Forensic Pathology Tool to Predict 



Fracture Initiation and Interface Dependent 


Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, 

Department of Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824; Nicholas V. 

Passalacqua, MS, 3518 Hagadorn Road, Okemos, MI 48864; and 

Timothy G. Baumer, BS, Brian J. Powell, BS, and Roger C. Haut, PhD, 

Orthopaedic Biomechanics Laboratories, Michigan State University, 


The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees about the initial 

findings of fracture pattern analysis studies caused by impulsive loading 

of the parietal bone in a developing porcine (pig, Sus scrofa) model of 

the human. 


the expected fracture patterns and sites of fracture initiation in the 

developing porcine model. It will also serve as a prototype for future 

skull fracture modeling efforts for the pediatric human victim. 

In fatal cases of violence against infants and young children, it is the 

job of the forensic specialist to determine the true cause and manner of 

death. While this is sometimes possible by establishing a “history of 

abuse,” in other instances the ability to determine child abuse from 

accidental injury may be difficult. Because there is a lack of skull 

fracture standards for infants and young children, pediatric deaths 

involving single event head injuries with associated cranial fractures 

represent one of the greatest challenges to forensic pathologists and 

anthropologists. 

The ultimate goal of this multiphase, interdisciplinary research 

project is to develop and validate a computational human head model 

that will predict skull fracture patterns in the human pediatric skull for a 

variety of impact interface conditions. Such data may be gathered from 

witnesses, defendants, and investigators in any given crime scene setting. 

Unfortunately, the ability to produce experimental skull fracture data is 

limited by ethical considerations surrounding experimentation on human 

pediatric cadavers, even if available tissue were to exist. Thus, the 

porcine head is being used to develop a computer-based technology that 

may ultimately help predict various skull fracture patterns in human 

infants and young children as a function of age, impact velocity, energy, 

and interface condition. 

Using an experimental facility in which an impact mass is dropped 

from a specified height onto the parietal bone with different interface 

conditions, fracture patterns and sites of initiation have been collected on 

more than 80 porcine specimens. In order to understand the mechanisms 

of skull fracture to be incorporated in the computational model, it is 

important to first document sites of fracture initiation. All specimens 

were impacted in the central parietal region at an energy level that caused 

the initiation of a linear fracture. The locations of initial fracture (in the 

order of decreasing frequency) were: on the parietal bone at, and 

perpendicular to, the lambdoidal suture; on the parietal bone at, and 

perpendicular to, the coronal suture; on the frontal bone at, and 

perpendicular to, the coronal suture; and on the frontal bone at the 

superior orbit and parallel to the coronal suture. The results of this study 

showed that in the porcine model all major fractures on the cranium 

initiate away from the point of impact at the parietal suture margins, and 

radiate back toward the center of the parietal. This phenomenon has 

occurred with regularity regardless of the type of interface (rigid or 

compliant). 

The fracture patterns caused by the different interfaces (rigid and 

compliant) were different and varied with animal age. On the skulls of 

animals aged under seven days there is significantly more suture damage 

caused by the compliant interface than by the rigid interface, which may 

be a function of the suture and bone properties in these young specimens. 

Another significant finding at this point in the study seems to be that 

there is more overall skull damage being generated in impacts from the 

same height with a compliant surface (carpeting, sod, etc.) versus a rigid 

interface (concrete, wood floor, etc.). 

These results identified multiple fracture initiation sites on the 

porcine skull away from the impact site and showed that the compliant 

interfaces caused relatively more fracture damage to the developing 

porcine skull than did rigid interfaces. The next phase of the project will 

be to elaborate on these results, specifically investigating energy 

dependent fracture propagation, and developing a scaling scheme to 

compare anatomical growth patterns in the human skull and the porcine 

model. 

The National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, United 

States Department of Justice. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or 

recommendations expressed in this publication/program/exhibition are 

those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the 

Department of Justice. 

Child Abuse, Bone Fracture Patterns, Bone Biomechanics 


H39 And a Little Child Shall Lead Them.... 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, Forensic Anthropology Lab, Lucas County Coroner’s 

Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; Frank P. Saul, 

PhD, U.S. HHS DMORT 5, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614- 

2674; and Allan J. Warnick, DDS, Wayne & Oakland Counties Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 31632 Schoolcraft Road, Livonia, MI 48150 

After attending this presentation, attendees will recognize the 

limitations of presently available skeletal aging standards for infants and 

young children. Attendees will also be made aware of some of the 

approaches utilized in assessing abuse in immature skeletal remains. 


emphasizing the need for caution when applying currently available 

immature skeletal age standards to contemporary forensic cases, and 

hopefully, encourage the acquisition of more appropriate skeletal data 

from present day populations of varying ancestry and socioeconomic 

backgrounds. 

In past cases involving child abuse, the authors’ primary focus has 

been on analyzing trauma. The chronological age of the victim at death 

has always been known. In 2007, a request was made for a 

determination of age at death, as well as a review of the remains for 

possible trauma. The parents of the dead infant gave conflicting stories 

in regard to when the child had died. Relatives were similarly uncertain. 

Examination of the dentition provided a dental developmental age 

estimate of 12-20 months. While attempting to establish a skeletal 

developmental age, the paucity of data for this portion of the life cycle 

was noted (see Scheuer and Black 2005 for a summary of the little that 

is available). Based on the available data, the skeletal developmental age 

estimate for this child appeared to be 12-24 months. Although the 

estimated skeletal developmental age was consistent with the dental 

developmental age, it was apparent that the data used for the age estimate 

were from children of an earlier time, as well as different ancestry and 

socioeconomic status. 

These concerns regarding the lack of appropriate data were further 

emphasized upon attempting to use long bone diaphysial length age data 

to confirm the dental and skeletal developmental age estimates. Most 

available dry bone data were based on archaeological individuals whose 

so-called “known age” was based on dental developmental age estimate. 

A few were from historic cemetery collections with ages from cemetery 

records. Radiographic bone length data from immature living 

individuals of known age at death were scarce and from inappropriate 

populations (“white”, “middle class”). The child in this case was “black” 

and “lower class.” 

For example, the radial and tibial diaphyseal lengths, when 

compared with the tables in Gindhart (1973 AJPA 39: 41-48) are 

consistent with those of a much younger child (radius: 8-12 months, 

tibia: 6 months). The Gindhart series consists of males and females of a 

mainly white middle class background from the Fels Research Institute 

Longitudinal Growth Study in Yellow Springs, Ohio that began in 1929. 

The time period for Gindhart’s sample is 1930-1967. Comparison with 

tables in Ruff (2007 AJPA 133:698-716) yielded ages at the lower end of 

the range for 12 months (humerus, radius, tibia) and under the range for 

12 months (femur). Ruff utilized Denver Growth Study data collected 

from a primarily white middle/upper middle class. It should be noted 

that more recent and appropriate samples are not available. 

The observed secular increase in stature during recent years 

magnifies the significance of the comparative “shortness.” Given the 

above limitations, the long bone lengths of this individual, lagging well 

behind skeletal and dental developmental age, are suggestive of growth 

deficiency due to malnutrition and/or disease. 

The possibility of malnutrition and disease was further reinforced 

by the radiographic presence of multiple lines of increased density 

(“growth arrest,” or “Harris” lines) at the growing ends of several long 

bone shafts (distal tibia, femur, fibula, radius). Growth arrest lines 


represent a cumulative deposition of bone salts laid down during periods 

of protein deficiency as growth of metaphyseal cartilage is reduced. 

Causative factors may include malnutrition and/or disease and/or abuse. 

Traumatic child abuse was specifically suggested by the discovery 

of healed “bucket handle” (or “corner”) fractures of the distal tibiae, 

visible only in radiographs. These fractures, which differ from “normal” 

toddler injuries, are strongly associated with child abuse. 

Technical Note: Because full body standard x-ray equipment was 

not immediately available (the office uses fluoroscopy), a portable, 

digital dental x-ray unit routinely used by forensic odontologists 

provided excellent radiographs. This machine has also been used in 

child abuse cases involving rib fractures. The resulting digital 

radiographs of these small and often difficult to image bones are easily 

acquired and of very high quality. 

There is a great need to gather more appropriate contemporary 

immature skeletal data. Due to continuing concern regarding x-ray 

dosage in the living, it would be helpful if forensic practitioners would 

obtain and share x-ray studies of immature individuals whose 

chronological age at death is known. Warren (1999), for instance, has 

done so for fetuses and stillborns. This approach should be extended into 

early childhood. 

Child Abuse, Infant Skeletal Age, Radiology 

H40 Callus Treatment: Collaboration Between 


Pathology to Improve the Recognition and 


and Children 

Julie M. Fleischman, BA*, Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, and Jeffrey S. 

Johnston, MD, Maricopa County Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 


After attending this presentation, attendees will gain an appreciation 

of the significance of cooperation between disciplines in the medicolegal 

arena and how this cooperation can improve the quality and scope of 

investigations into child death. When forensic anthropologists and 

pathologists combine their skills and expertise, the result is a more 

thorough and complete investigation. 


demonstrating that increased cooperation between disciplines results in a 

better understanding of complex forensic cases, in particular those 

involving suspected child abuse cases. 

The syndrome of child abuse (first defined and its causes identified 

by Kempe in 1962) refers to cases in which children are beaten, burned, 

shaken, thrown, hit, or dropped. These actions may result in the child’s 

death. Without physical abuse, fractures in infants and young children 

are rare. When children become active in school and sports, around the 

age of five, they develop greater risks for accidental skeletal fractures. 

Most skeletal fractures related to child abuse occur in children younger 

than 18 months. Repeated fractures in varying stages of healing may be 

present in the same infant; when this occurs, the term “battered child 

syndrome” is applied. In these cases, a complete understanding of the 

fracture pattern, timing, and stage of healing for each fracture is critical. 

Collaboration between the pathologist and the anthropologist can 

enhance this understanding as demonstrated by the cases discussed 

below. 

On January 30, 2008, a three-month-old male child was admitted to 

the hospital after sustaining injuries due to suspected child abuse. He 

was transported from a county in Northern Arizona to a regional trauma 

center in Phoenix, Arizona where radiographs and blood tests were 

obtained. The infant subsequently died from his injuries. An autopsy 

was performed at the Maricopa County Office of the Medical Examiner. 

168

The antemortem radiographs were obtained and they revealed the 

presence of multiple fractures, including comminuted, healing fractures 

of the left humerus and multiple ribs. The humerus and exemplars of the 

ribs were removed at autopsy for maceration and examination by the 

anthropologist. After a subsequent consultation and further examination, 

the pathologist and anthropologist removed the right innominate and the 

remainder of the rib-cage, all of which were macerated. 

After maceration, additional radiographs were obtained to assist 

further examination. These radiographs, as well as those obtained prior 

to the autopsy, were used to place the ribs into anatomical order so that 

the injuries could be enumerated by joint effort of the pathologist and the 

anthropologist. The findings of osseous traumata were as follows: the 

right ribs had 14 well-established calluses, 3 acute, re-fractured calluses, 

1 traumatized callus, 1 acute, non-healing fracture, and elaboration of 

bone on the sternal end of the first rib. On the left ribs there were 13 

well-established calluses, 5 acute re-fractured calluses, and elaboration 

of bone on the sternal end of the first rib. The left humerus had a wellestablished 

callus, which encompassed nearly three-quarters of the distal 

shaft, with two complete fractures of the shaft; one fracture was grossly 

visible and the other was embedded in the callus. The superior ramus of 

the right os coxa exhibited one less well-established callus and one acute 

injury immediately lateral to the callus with associated hemorrhage. 

Additional fractures were noted on the radiographs. 

Several other complex cases involving acute, healing, and healed 

fractures of the ribs and long bones in infants under the age of one year 

also resulted in maceration and examination of the injured bone by both 

the anthropologist and pathologist. In all cases, maceration allowed for 

better follow-up radiography and examination with a dissecting 

microscope to enhance understanding of the injuries. These cases will be 

used to demonstrate that collaboration between the forensic pathologist 

and forensic anthropologist can lead to a higher degree of understanding 

for complex cases involving suspected abuse of children. 

Interdisciplinary Collaboration, Skeletal Traumata, Suspected 

Child Abuse 

H41 Eaten or Attacked By His Own Dogs? 

From the Crime Scene to a 


João Pinheiro, MD, MSc*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Instit 

Nacional Medicina Legal, Delegação do Centro, Largo da Sé Nova, 

Coimbra, 3000, PORTUGAL; Eugenia Cunha, PhD, Departamento De 

Antropologia, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, 

PORTUGAL; Hugo Pissarra, DVM, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária 

da Univsersidade Técnica da Lisboa, Av. da Univsersidade Técnica da 

Lisboa, Lisbon, AL, PORTUGAL; and Francisco Corte Real, PhD, 

Insituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé Nova, 3000, Coimbra, 

AL, PORTUGAL 

The goal of this presentation is to encourage attendees to use all the 

resources they may have to solve difficult cases of decomposed bodies 

or human remains they may encounter. These resources include: 

different experts, techniques, and ancillary examinations. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by appealing 

for multidisciplinary approaches at the crime scene including various 

areas of expertise (e.g., entomological, pathological, or other areas of 

expertise such as veterinary in this case), as the key to answer the 

medico-legal questions often presented by decomposed bodies. 

Additionally, emphasis is given to the importance of the presence of a 

forensic anthropologist or forensic pathologist at the crime scene 


Although the presence of a forensic pathologist (FP) at a crime 

scene it is not uncommon, a forensic anthropologist (FA) coming to the 

scene in routine cases can be considered a rarity in most jurisdictions. 

However, their usefulness is undeniable and sometimes represents a 

unique source of information to understand the circumstances of death. 

A multidisciplinary approach is another requisite frequently 

recommended for the autopsy of bodies in different states of 

decomposition. Occasionally, more experts than the usual FA and FP are 

necessary, as in the case presented here. 

Part of a decomposed human body from an individual, missing for 

one and a half months, was found locked in his home along with the 

decomposed bodies of the three dogs that lived with him. The rooms 

were in disarray with overturned furniture, signs of intense movement 

and dog excrement everywhere. No weapons or other evidence of a 

struggle were found. All the bodies were recovered for autopsy. 

The human cadaver was reduced to the right humerus, scapulae, 

pelvis, and distal lumbar vertebrae. The remains were mainly 

skeletonized with the lower limbs showing mummification with some 

adipocere. The disarticulated skull (actually only the cranial vault) was 

lying on the floor two meters away from the remainder of the body. 

Multiple larvae continued their work on the human remains and pupae 

were also present. The long bones and particularly the scapula showed 

typical animal bite marks consistent with dogs. The skull, apart from the 

tooth marks, also exhibited a regular round defect on the anterior and 

middle cerebral fossas which may have resulted from dog clawing. All 

the facial bones and mandible were absent. Dog hair was spread all over 

the trousers of the victim. 

Positive identification was achieved through anthropological 

features (Caucasoid, short stature, male, 55-60 yrs.) and subsequent 

confirmation by DNA analysis. Furthermore, entomological analysis 

estimates time of death to be around 1 month before discovery. 

Because no peri-mortem injuries were found, cause of death could 

not be assessed. Furthermore, the disappearance of half of the body was 

difficult to explain. It was decided to autopsy the dogs and the 

collaboration of a veterinarian was requested. The dog cadavers were 

putrefied, and a cause of death could not be ascertained: no traumatic 

injuries, cancer, or other noticeable conditions were found. But in one of 

the dog’s stomachs were small fragments of bone, most likely from the 

hand bones and vertebrae of the man. 

These features, and their relationship with the crime scene 

investigation and police information, are discussed. Taking all the 

elements into account, it is concluded that the man likely died of natural 

causes and later he was eaten by his own famished dogs. The pattern of 

the bone lesions are discussed and are compared to the dog’s 

characteristics. 

This case shows the importance of the crime scene investigation. If 

this examination had not been undertaken, the understanding of cause 

and manner of death would have been extremely difficult, pointing out 

the necessity of both FA and FP being present at the scene. Finally, a 

multidisciplinary approach, in this case integrating the FA, the FP, police, 

veterinarians and entomologists, is the key to answer the questions that 

decomposed bodies often generate. 

Eaten, Dogs, Death 


H42 Solving Medical Examiner Cold Cases: 



Christen E. Herrick, BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, Florida 


Boulevard AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Margarita Arruza, MD, 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 

32206; Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical Examiner, 3838 

Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; E.H. Scheuerman, MD, 1856 

Colonial Drive, Green Cove Springs, FL 32043; Jennifer L. Anderson, 

BS, BA, 4632 Deleon Street, #129, Fort Myers, FL 33907; Jeffrey J. 

Brokaw, BA, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 32206; Brian 

Womble, BS, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104; Katy L. 

Shepherd, BS, Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 

10501 FGCU Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Laura E. 

Gibson, BS, 2040 Larchmont Way, Clearwater, FL 33764; and Minas 

Iliopoulos, BS, 10501 FGCU Boulevard, South, Division of Justice 

Studies, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965 


understanding of the processes involved in the reanalysis of unidentified 

remains that may lead to positive identifications, removal of nonforensic 

cases from national databases, and the reanalysis of skeletal 

trauma often essential in the adjudication of homicide trials. 


standard operating procedures that prioritize the reanalysis of trace 

evidence from medical examiner cold cases through the effective use of 

state-of-the-art technologies in the following fields: anthropology, 

DNA, fingerprinting, odontology, facial reconstruction, tool mark 

analysis, digital photography and documentation, and the productive use 

of missing persons databases (e.g., NCIC, NamUS, NCMEC, NCMA, 

CODIS, FLUID DB, and other databases). 

Medical examiner cold cases often remain in dry storage or 

refrigeration for years to decades without the benefit of reanalysis. 

However, President Bush’s DNA Initiative, the Joint Initiative of the 

Florida Department of Law Enforcement Missing Children Information 

Clearinghouse, and the Florida Medical Examiner’s Commission have 

helped to re-focus an over-taxed medical examiner system and 

underscored the importance of medical examiner cold case reanalysis. 

To this end, this study presents cold casework from Florida Medical 

Examiner Districts 4 and 20. The pairing of these two medical examiner 

districts was prudent because of the disparity in case loads between these 

two entities (e.g., Homicides District 4 = 148; Homicides District 20 = 

5) and because they share a forensic anthropology consultant. 

Additionally, District 20 provided supplementary evidence storage space 

for District 4 and quick access to Florida’s Unidentified Decedent’s 

Database (FLUIDDB) which was housed therein. 

For this study, the standard operating procedures for the reanalysis 

of unidentified remains and those remains retained for trauma analysis 

was in accordance with Florida State Statute 406.11. As such, the 

following standard order of operations was applied (when applicable): 

collection/resubmission of blood and fingerprint cards, odontology 

charting and radiography, exhumation, metric and non-metric 

anthropological analysis, and 2-D or 3-D facial reconstructions. These 

new data were input into the following databases: NCIC, NamUS, 

NCMEC, NCMA, CODIS, AFIS, and FLUIDDB databases. 

Data were pooled from the eighty-seven medical examiner cold 

cases in order to identify trends in the sample (e.g., peaks in numbers of 

unidentified, completeness of remains, and biological profiles). Results 

show that the lowest numbers of unidentified remains occurred from 

1974 to 1979 which represented 7% (n=6) of the sample. The number of 

unidentified remains peaked between 1985 and 1989 (31%; n=27). 

Lastly, the numbers of unidentified remains was constant from 2000 to 

2004 (15%; n=13). These findings were compared to statewide and 


national trends presented in the Bureau of Justice Studies’ 2007 Fact 

Sheet (a public domain document). Florida’s numbers of unidentified 

peaked from 1980-1984 (24%; n=230) and had the fewest numbers of 

unidentified from 1990 and 1994 (17%; n=157). Florida’s numbers of 

unidentified has continued to rise for the last 15 years. The national 

trend in numbers of unidentified remains was lowest from 1980 to 1984 

(15%; n=1,516), peaked from 1990 and 1994 (26% (n=2,686) and 

remained constant from 1995 to 2006 (19%; n=1,956). Interestingly, the 

research sample was in keeping with the nationwide trend in numbers of 

unidentified remains when analyzed by 5 year periods. However, while 

Florida’s statewide numbers of unidentified continue to rise, the sample 

compiled for this study continues to drop as a result, in part, of our 

reanalysis of medical examiner cold cases. 

The numbers of non-forensic and forensic cases within the sample 

were also noted. The authors observed 15 (17%) archaeological cases 

(e.g., the decedent was dead for greater than 75 years; FL statute 872.05). 

There were 2 anatomical specimens (2%) as evidenced by screws and 

plasticized veins and arteries, and sixty-seven cases (77%) were of 

forensic significance. Of the medical examiner cold cases presumed to 

be forensic and unidentified, at least five (6%) were isolated mandibles 

and maxillae, 22% (n=19) represented nearly complete skeletons, 37% 

(n=32) were comprised largely of long bones and postcrania, and 57% 

(n=50) had a cranium or cranial fragments present. 

Through the analysis of these cases, this research emphasizes the 

various challenges facing the procedures used to solve medical examiner 

cold cases. Thus far, significant strides have been made in the resolution 

of medical examiner cold cases through the (1) modernization of 

standards in several forensic disciplines, (2) the effective use of missing 

persons databases, and (3) the collaboration of multiple agencies and 

resources. 

Cold Cases, Missing Persons, Forensic Anthropology 

H43 What Lies Beneath: Re-Examining a 

Cold Case Homicide From a Forensic 

Anthropological Perspective - A 

Case Report 

Joan A. Bytheway, PhD*, Sam Houston State University, 1003 Bowers 

Boulevard, Huntsville, TX 77340; Kathryn E. Moss, BS*, 4800 Calhoun 

Street, Houston, TX 77004; and Stephen M. Pustilnik, MD*, Galveston 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, 6607 Highway 1764, Texas City, TX 

77591 

The goal of this presentation is to bring continual awareness to the 

need for collaboration in the various fields of forensic science such as 

forensic pathologists and forensic anthropologists. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by showing 

how a recent collaboration between the medical examiner and forensic 

anthropologist revealed significant new evidence that warranted the 

revision of the crime reconstruction. 

Within the last decade in the United States forensic anthropologists 

have become more prominent participants in the analysis of cases that 

are brought to the medical examiner’s office. Forensic anthropologist’s 

participation often leads to the discovery of significant information that 

aids in the identification of an individual and/or aids in the medical 

examiner’s opinion of death. Now, with supported efforts by medical 

examiners, well-trained forensic anthropologists located in proximity to 

or within medical examiner’s offices are re-examining human remains 

from numerous cold cases to perhaps discover additional evidence 

previously not found. 

This case presentation gives a strong argument for the need for 

collaboration between various forensic experts, such as the forensic 

pathologist and forensic anthropologist. This case report shows how the 

170

forensic anthropological analysis disclosed significant additional 

evidence in this homicide case. Initially, the external examination 

revealed the predominance of sharp force trauma; however, after the 

anthropological examination it was clear that blunt force trauma was 

equally prevalent. The anthropological report was significant enough to 

warrant changes in the reconstruction of the activities of the crime. 

In 2007, the present Chief Medical Examiner of Galveston County, 

Texas requested an anthropological examination of the desiccated 

remains of an unidentified individual whose medical examiner’s report 

fourteen years ago stated cause and manner of death as homicide by 

multiple stab wounds. Multiple stab wounds were found on the 

desiccated tissue of the neck, chest, and abdominal regions. The medical 

examiner’s opinion of death is not refuted by the present Chief Medical 

Examiner; however, it was believed identification information or 

evidence of additional trauma could be obtained by a more detailed 

analysis of the skeletal remains. 

A detailed examination revealed that, in addition to multiple stab 

wounds, the individual had multiple bone fractures as a result of blunt 

force injuries. Fractures were identified on the mandible, hyoid bone, 

mineralized portion of the thyroid cartilage, left and right ribs, cervical 

and thoracic vertebrae, left scapula, the ilio- and ischiopubic rami of both 

os coxae, and the sacrum. An excessive amount of force is required to 

produce fractures of both the sacrum and the os coxae and, typically, 

massive intra- and retroperitoneal hemorrhaging occurs. The 

comminuted fracturing of the pubic bone and both rami can be 

categorized as crushing fractures and have been noted in vehicular 

impacts. Cervical vertebrae fractures are also associated with violent 

force. This additional information was of significant importance in the 

continual resolution of the case and is another example of the synergistic 

relationship needed between forensic pathologists and forensic 

anthropologists in the analysis of human remains in the later stages of 


Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Pathology, Blunt Force Injury 

H44 Age-Related Change in Adult Orbital Shape 


Anatomy, PO Box 100235, Gainesville, FL 32610-0235; Dennis E. Slice, 

PhD, Department of Scientific Computing, Florida State University, 

Tallahassee, FL 32306; and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, CA Pound Human 

Id Lab, C/O Cancer/Genetics Research, PO Box 103615, Gainesville, FL 

32610 

After attending this presentation, attendees will better appreciate the 

impact of age on adult orbital shape. 


highlighting the importance of considering age when utilizing orbital 

shape in the identification of unknown remains. 

The orbital region conveys a wealth of information about sex, 

ancestry, and age. This is thanks in large part to its topological 

complexity, which is a consequence of soft and hard tissue interactions. 

With age, the smooth appearance of youthful skin is replaced with 

deepening lines of demarcation (e.g., crows’ feet) as the soft tissue 

around the orbits descends. As interrelated entities, internal hard tissue 

(i.e., bone) modification in this region may impact the manifestation of 

external soft tissue change over time. However, alterations in 

craniofacial bone structure post-adulthood are not as well understood as 

those witnessed on the soft tissue level. At present, adult orbital shape is 

known to vary both metrically and non-metrically with sexual 

dimorphism and ancestry (Krogman 1962; Rhine 1990; Bass 1995), but 

the impact of the aging process on this region remains a relative mystery 

(Williams 2008). 

The present study addresses this complex issue by applying threedimensional 

semi-landmarks to the orbital rims of 664 crania embodying 

a mix of socially-determined race (Black, White) and biologicallydetermined 

sex from the Terry, Hamann-Todd, Maxwell Museum, and 

W.M. Bass skeletal collections of known individuals. The crania were 

parsed into three overarching age groups (young adult: 18-39 years; 

middle-aged adult: 40-59 years; elderly adult: 60+ years). In 

craniometric analyses, semi-landmarks are often employed in regions 

lacking distinct landmarks, such as boundaries and surface curvature. 

Superior and inferior orbital rim curvature was gathered as continuous 

stream data using a portable digitizer. Semi-landmarks were then 

extracted utilizing a beta program (Slice 2005), which applies an 

algorithm that re-samples each curve into a user-defined number of 

evenly-distributed points (10 points per curve; four curves). 

The resultant semi-landmark data were fit into a common 

coordinate system via a generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA), which 

filters out the effects of location, scale, and rotation. In order to reduce 

dimensionality, a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on 

the covariance matrix of the GPA-aligned coordinates and the resulting 

principal component (PC) scores, which accounted for 95% of the total 

variance, were utilized in subsequent multivariate statistical analyses. A 

multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) of the PC scores detected a 

significant age effect (F=1.98; df= 64; Pr>F=F=0.0156) and race*sex*age interaction 

(F=1.65; df=64; Pr>F =0.0012). The specific age groups contributing to 

the three-way interaction were evaluated by conducting contrast tests, 

which compared the age group means for each subpopulation (e.g., 

White females) within MANOVA. Contrast tests found several 

significantly different age pairings in the subpopulations (Black males: 

young versus elderly F=2.59; df=30; Pr>F=F=0.0058; young versus 

elderly F=1.90; df=29; Pr>F=0.0078, White females: young versus 

middle-aged F=1.63 ; df=27, Pr>F=0.0415, middle-aged versus elderly 

F=2.10; df=27; Pr>F=0.0038). These age-related orbital differences 

were visualized in terms of spatial distinctions using vector plots which 

compared the mean shapes between age pairings that were found to be 

significantly different. While a specific pattern did not always manifest 

in these plots, the eye orbits did exhibit such shape changes as superoinferior 

expansion, supero-inferior compression, and medio-lateral 

compression depending on the subpopulation and age groups analyzed. 

These results indicate that adult skeletal orbital shape does in fact 

change with the aging process. Moreover, orbital shape is influenced by 

the interaction between age, sex, and ancestry. Thus, it is inappropriate 

within a forensic context to treat the orbital shape differences typically 

associated with sexual dimorphism and ancestry as static. Instead, age 

should be factored into sex and ancestry determinations of unknown 

remains which rely on orbital shape. 

Eye Orbits, Semi-Landmarks, Geometric Morphometrics 

H45 Craniofacial Growth, Maturation, and 


Ann H. Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, Sociology and 

Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and Shanna 

E. Williams, PhD, University of Florida, Department of Anatomy, PO 

Box 100235, Gainesville, FL 32610-0235 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn that the 

craniofacial skeleton attains adult size and shape at a much younger age 

than previously assumed. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by adjusting 

current perceptions in regards to the age at which adult craniofacial 

dimensions are reached. 

The different structural units which constitute the craniofacial 

complex develop and grow under differential mechanical forces. 

Replacement of cartilage to bone, sutural deposition, and periosteal 


emodeling are the three principal processes which drive craniofacial 

skeletal growth. The bones of the cranial base develop through 

endochondral ossification, which is preceded by a hyaline cartilage 

precursor largely confined to the spheno-occipital synchondrosis. The 

vault, facial, and mandibular bones, per contra, develop through 

intramembranous ossification or tissues that are of neural crest origin. 

The neurocranium develops earlier and faster than the craniofacial 

skeleton in newborns and infants, approaching adult size and 

configuration by age 10. The slower growing craniofacial skeleton is 

influenced by tooth eruption, which drives alveolar process 

development. Thus, an increase or decrease in tooth number or tooth 

loss during growth will have a direct effect on the shape of the facial 

skeleton. Craniofacial growth is thought to cease around 17 years of age 

following eruption of the permanent dentition 

Strand Viðarsdóttir and colleagues (2002) found that populationspecific 

facial morphologies are present at birth regardless of sex and are 

modified during ontogeny, thus suggesting that ancestry can be 

determined in subadults. Meanwhile, in their cephalometric study of 

craniofacial changes in the third decade of life, Akgül and Toygar (2002) 

found significant changes, which were more pronounced in women and 

the lower region of the face. In order to further examine developmental 

shape and size differences in the craniofacial skeleton and the potential 

for the identification of subadults, as well as their possible inclusion in 

population studies, the present study used geometric morphometric 

methods to compare individuals from a single population partitioned into 

four age groups: 14, 16, 20, and 25+ years. Twenty-six type 1 and type 

2 standard coordinate landmarks were used in this study. The sample 

consists of 4 fourteen-year-olds, 5 sixteen-year-olds, 3 twenty-year-olds, 

and 12 twenty–five-year-olds and is derived from an African slave 

population housed in the Morton Collection at the University of 

Pennsylvania. After GPA superimposition of the raw coordinates, the 

resulting shape variables and Centroid Size were utilized in the 

subsequent multivariate analyses. A multivariate analysis of variance 

(MANOVA) test using the first ten principal component scores 

corresponding to 83% of the total variance detected significant shape 

differences among the age groups (F= 1.92; df = 30, 32.96; Pr > 0.0355). 

In addition, the “contrast” statement d in the proc GLM procedure was 

used to detect the specific groups that differed. Surprisingly, the groups 

that differed significantly were the 20 and 25+ age groups (F= 3.64; df = 

10, 11; Pr > 0.0224). In addition, a Pearson Correlation Coefficient was 

used to examine the relationship between shape variation using the 

Principal Component scores and Centroid Size. No significant 

correlation was detected between the PCs and Centroid Size for the 

sample as a whole, meaning no significant scale differences were 

detected. These results suggest that there is no significant shape or size 

differences between older subadults in their mid teens and adults, thus 

signifying that subadults reach their final form earlier than expected. 

The significant difference between 20-year-olds and the over 25 group 

concurs with the study by Sarnas and Solow (1980) who found 

displacements in nasion and sella between 21 and 26 year olds. The 

changes between the 20 and 25+ age groups are probably multifactorial 

in nature and related to the eruption of the third molars and/or possibly 

alveolar remodeling due to the aging process. These studies have 

clinical as well as forensic implications for the identification of subadult 

and adult crania. 

Craniofacial Growth, Teens, Adults 


H46 Estimating Advanced Adult Age-at-Death in 

the Pelvis: A Comparison of Techniques on 

Known-Age Samples From Iberia 

Allysha P. Winburn, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 

Hickam Airforce Base, HI 96853; and Carme Rissech, PhD, Universitat 

de Barcelona, Avd. Diagonal, 645; 08028, Barcelona, SPAIN 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the difficulty of 

estimating age in elderly individuals by comparing the performances of 

four age-estimation methods on skeletal samples of advanced age. This 

study examines factors undermining successful age estimation, and 

investigates whether new techniques may have the potential to advance 

the study of aging in elderly individuals. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by exploring 

the utility of various aging techniques to the forensic anthropological 

community - specifically, by testing and comparing traditional aging 

techniques with a new Bayesian method of age estimation that may 

prove valuable to the forensic anthropologist. The presentation focuses 

on the as-yet-unsolved problem of estimating advanced adult age. Thus, 

it will provoke discussion on whether accurate age estimates for the 

elderly are a worthwhile goal or a biological impossibility, and stimulate 

future research on the forensic applicability of both new and traditional 

methods of age-at-death estimation. 

An accurate adult age-at-death estimate is the goal of much forensic 

anthropological research; it is a crucial component of the biological 

profile that facilitates skeletal individuation and victim identification. 

However, accurate age estimates into the decade of the 60’s and beyond 

are rarely achieved with current methods. Historically, morphological 

age-at-death estimation techniques have focused on the articular surfaces 

of the bony pelvis. The Suchey-Brooks pubic symphysis method, and 

the Lovejoy et al. and Buckberry and Chamberlain auricular surface 

methods, have been tested on many populations worldwide. However, 

even these widely-used techniques can result in estimation errors and 

broad age ranges that prove forensically uninformative. Because of the 

irregularity of skeletal degenerative change, such errors are often 

exaggerated in individuals of advanced age. 

These three methods are tested on modern Iberian skeletal samples 

of known age from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (N=34) and 

the Universidad de Valladolid (N=80) which include an abundance of 

elderly individuals (>60 years) and therefore highlight the hazards of 

applying traditional age estimation techniques to individuals of advanced 

age. The Rissech et al. method, a Bayesian age estimation technique 

based on the acetabulum, is also tested. When tested on these samples, 

the three traditional methods perform with similar but high degrees of 

inaccuracy and bias, sometimes overestimating the ages of young adults 

by up to 20 years and underestimating the ages of older adults by up to 

35 years. In estimating the ages of elderly Iberian individuals, the three 

methods perform equally poorly. In contrast, the Rissech et al. method 

estimates male age with significantly lower inaccuracy and bias than do 

the three traditional techniques. In addition, its population-specific point 

age estimates and narrow confidence intervals suggest its utility to the 


Differences in ancestry, activity levels, and rates of skeletal 

degeneration continue to make skeletal estimation of advanced adult age 

problematic. However, accurate age estimates and biological profiles, 

even for the elderly, remain a goal for forensic anthropologists. These 

results suggest that Bayesian techniques like the Rissech et al. method 

may have the potential to improve age estimation among elderly 

individuals. 

Age-at-Death, Pelvis, Iberia 

172

H47 The Sacral Auricular Surface: A New 


Alicja K. Kutyla, MS*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Department 

of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Department Sociology & Anthropology, 

Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; 


potential of the sacral auricular surface as an additional means of age 

estimation. A different, customized approach to aging the human 

skeleton will be presented along with its potential. 


a new means of estimating age from the human skeleton and a new 

methodology that has the potential, with further research, to lead to a 

more individualized approach for estimating age at death. 

This study proposes to identify and define morphological 

characteristics of the sacral auricular surface that correlate with age. 

Character selection began with a survey of those described by Lovejoy 

et al. (1985) and culminated with the refinement of modified characters. 

These were then tested for correlation with age using the Robert J. Terry 

Anatomical Skeletal Collection (n=410), housed at the National Museum 

of Natural History. Corresponding sacral and iliac surfaces were 

evaluated for reciprocal age changes; however, none were identified. 

The characteristics defined for the sacral auricular surface are 

modifications of those described by Lovejoy et al., but also include new 

characters specific to the sacral auricular surface. Billowing, striations 

and transverse organization as described by Lovejoy et al. were omitted 

as they did not appear on the sacrum. Surface characters adapted from 

Lovejoy et al. include granularity (three grain types are observed on the 

sacral auricular surface) and retroauricular activity (surface 

characteristics differ significantly from Lovejoy et al.). Microporosity, 

macroporosity, and density were adapted without change from Lovejoy 

et al.; however, a new scoring system was devised for the expression of 

these characters. Newly devised characteristics involving the border of 

the auricular surface include thickened, arthritic sharp and arthritic 

lipped margins. 

The sacral auricular surface was divided into four regions or 

quadrants. Each surface characteristic was then defined individually for 

each region and assigned a score based on presence, absence and degree 

of expression in keeping with Buckberry and Chamberlain (2002). The 

division of the sacral auricular surface into quadrants allowed an 

evaluation of the progression of degenerative changes over the entire 

sacral auricular surface. 

The aging method developed in this study involves bracketing 

whereby the minimum and maximum ages of occurrence of particular 

characters define the upper and lower limits of the estimated age interval. 

This approach is more individualized, allowing the examiner to delimit 

an age interval based upon surface characters specific to the sacrum 

being examined, as opposed to identifying a phase with a set age interval. 

For example, traits that do not occur before a certain age can be used to 

set the lower limit to the age interval (e.g., a score of 1 for microporosity 

in region 1 does not occur before age 22) and traits that do not occur after 

a certain age can be used to set the upper limit (e.g., a score of 3 for 

primary grain in region 2 does not occur after age 38) resulting in an 

individualized age interval, of 22-38 years. This is particularly useful in 

instances where a surface may be in between two classically defined 

phases. 

This aging method was tested using the William M. Bass Donated 

Collection (n=100), housed at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

Results indicate accurate placement of individuals in 70% of the cases. 

Although not particularly high, accuracy may be improved with further 

research and incorporating other established aging methods to this 

individualized method of age estimation. The age ranges formulated 

from this customized method are from five to fifty years and are 

particularly useful in aging older individuals, even beyond the fifth 

decade. Additionally, the sacral auricular surface method, when used in 

conjunction with other established aging methods, may be of value in 

narrowing large age ranges. 

This research was supported by the Smithsonian Institution’s 

Graduate Student Fellowship and the Department of Biology, Middle 

Tennessee State University. 

Sacral Auricular Surface Aging Method, Age at Death Estimation, 


H48 Cranial Suture Closure as a Reflection of 


Osteopathic Medicine Applied to 


Anne M. Kroman, PhD*, and Gregory A. Thomspon, DO, Lincoln 

Memorial University, De-Busk College of Osteopathic Medicine, 6965 

Cumberland Gap Parkway, Harrogate, TN 37752 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a great 

appreciation of anatomy and physiology of the cranium and potential 

factors that may influence adult cranial suture fusion. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by drawing 

attention to potential hazards of utilizing a well-known method of 

determining age in adult skeletal remains. 

The construction of an accurate biological profile has long been a 

cornerstone of physical and forensic anthropology. Among the diverse 

components of the analysis, the correct determination of age at death has 

long been considered one of the most challenging. Adult, or 

degenerative aging, can be fairly ambiguous with large ranges in 

variation, as seen by the large ranges of standard deviations in a majority 

of the methods. The foundation behind estimation of age at death 

determined from mature skeletal remains is anchored on the core 

principle that the degenerative changes are both uniform and predictable. 

One of the most controversial methods of adult age estimation is 

assessment of cranial suture fusion. Since its conception and 

application, the technique has been fraught with controversy. Initially, 

two “rival” schools of thought existed regarding sutural ossification; that 

they were either a normal progression of age or the manifestation of 

pathological condition (Hershkovitz et al 1997). The former theory 

prevailed in the literature, and the work of Todd and Lyon set the 

standard for utilizing cranial suture ossification as a viable method for 

aging adult skeleton remains in physical anthropology (1924). However, 

several issues regarding the methodology and analysis of some of the 

earlier techniques have recently been called into question (Hershkovitz 

et al. 1997, Meindl and Lovejoy 1985). Numerous researchers have 

attempted to refine the method and identify possible confounding 

factors, with varied results (e.g., Hershkovitz et al. 1997, Nawrocki 

1998, Zambrano 2005). 

The “confounding factor” at work may be no other than the basic 

principles of anatomy and physiology of the cranium. The regard for the 

skull as a static, immobile entity is a view point that is long overdue an 

intellectual overhaul. Joints, by inherent nature, are designed to provide 

movement to some degree, and the cranial sutures are no exception. 

They, like all joints, will remain patent as long as there is motion, and 

fuse only when the motion has ceased. While the degree of motion 

present between the cranial bones is small, it has been well documented 

in medical and neurological studies (Heisey and Adams 1993). It is also 

noted that severe changes to the skeleton, or somatic dysfunction, can 

have an effect on the patency of the cranial sutures and may lead to 

pathological fusion. 

Cranial suture fusion and obliteration is best explained as a 

mechanism of somatic dysfunction rather than a linear, predictable 


degenerative consequence of aging. To assess the effect of skeletal 

somatic dysfunction on the fusion of cranial sutures, analysis was 

conducted utilizing the William M. Bass donated skeletal collection 

housed at The University of Tennessee. From the collection 100 

individuals of known age, race, and sex were randomly selected for 

inclusion. The analysis was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, 

each of the crania was scored for cranial suture closure following the 

methodology outlined in Meindel and Lovejoy (1985). The second 

phase included a more in-depth analysis of the cranial and post cranial 

skeletal remains by a physician. The strain pattern, if present, was 

identified and scored for each crania, along with other areas of somatic 

dysfunction in the skeleton (e.g., sacroiliac fusion, ankylosing 

spondylitis, severe scoliosis). A stronger correlation was found between 

skeletal dysfunction, either cranial or post cranial, and cranial suture 

fusion than between age at death and fusion rates. Furthermore, the 

patterns of cranial suture fusion were highly correlated with the 

identified strain pattern in the cranium, as previously suggested in the 

neurological literature. 

The results from this analysis clearly show a correlation between 

skeletal dysfunction and cranial suture obliteration, supporting the theory 

that sutural obliteration is under the influence of a variety of factors, and 

is not a simple, linear predicator of age. Physical and forensic 

anthropologists should be cognizant of the possibility that pathological 

processes may be present that could potentially alter results from age 

estimation by means of cranial suture fusion. 

References: 

Heisey SR and Adams T. Role of cranial bone mobility in cranial 

compliance. Neurosurgery.1993;33(5):869-876. 

Hershkovitz I, Latimer B, Dutour O, Jellema LM, Wish-Baratz S, 

Rothschild C. 1997 Why do we fail in aging the skull from the sagittal 

suture? Amer J Physical Anthrop 1997;103:393-399. 

Meindl RS, Lovejoy CO. Ectocranial suture closure: A revised method 

for the determination of skeletal age at death based on the lateral anterior 

sutures. Amer J Physical Anthrop 1985;68:57-66. 

Nawrocki SP. Regression formulae for estimating age at death from 

cranial suture closure. In: Forensic Osteology: Advances in the 

Identification of Human Remains (2nd ed.) Reichs KJ. (ed.). 1998 

Todd TW, Lyon DW. Endocranial suture closure, its progress and age 

relationship: Part I Adult males of the while stock. Amer J Physical 

Anthrop 1924;7:325-384. 

Zambrano CJ. Evaluation of Regression Equations Used to Estimate 

Age at Death from Cranial Suture Closure. Masters Thesis. 2005. 

Age Estimation, Cranial Sutures, Suture Fusion 

H49 A Multidisciplinary Test of the 

Lamendin Age Estimation Method 

Ann W. Bunch, PhD*, 164 Albert Brown Building, Department of 

Criminal Justice, SUNY Brockport, Brockport, NY 14420; Mary I. 

Jumbelic, MD, Onondaga County Medical Examiners Office, 100 

Elizabeth Blackwell Street, Syracuse, NY 13210; Robert D. Willis, DDS, 

7282 Oswego Road, Liverpool, NY 13090; Ronald Brunelli, Onondaga 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 Elizabeth Blackwell Street, 

Syracuse, NY 13210; and Jennifer J. VanWie-Dobson, BA, 403 Robinson 

Road, Durham, NC 27705 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be informed of the 

results of the first multidisciplinary test of the Lamendin age estimation 

method which has been described as “simple,” “fast,” and “easy to use” 

by its developer. 


insight into the utility of this purportedly simple method at scenes that 

require forensic identification. Such scenes could be in a classic morgue 


situation or in a large temporary facility functioning as a mass disaster 

response. 

This presentation will summarize a study funded by the National 

Institute of Justice in 2006-2007 designed to test the Lamendin (1992) 

age estimation technique. This method puts to use single-rooted teeth to 

determine age at death. Lamendin and his co-authors described their 

technique as “simple,” “fast, easy to use, and reasonably accurate” 

(1992: 1373). It appears to be an attractive method for predicting age at 

death, especially in rapid-response morgue situations, since it requires 

very little technology and calls for little to no damage to the unidentified 


Lamendin et al.’s original research, as well as others’ later followup 

studies, explored interobserver error and came to different 

conclusions. Lamendin et al. (1992) concluded that interobserver error 

was not significant, yet Prince and Ubelaker (2002) discovered that the 

experience of the observer can indeed affect the age assessments. Using 

40 and 30 teeth respectively, Prince and Ubelaker (2002) discovered that 

the intra-observer test showed a mean error of 6.5 years. The 

interobserver test included three participants, one with some experience 

with the technique (profession not specified) and two without any prior 

exposure to the method (graduate students). There was a difference 

between the experienced and non-experienced results, with a maximum 

mean error of 13 years, and a maximum range of 0 to 37 years reported. 

These results indicated that the “features described on some teeth are 

subject to varied interpretation and this can lead to variable age 

estimates” (2002:116). The Prince and Ubelaker study demonstrated that 

there may be some difficulty practicing the method for the first time, thus 

experience may have an impact on results and overall accuracy. 

More recently, the Lamendin method has been used in combination 

with other age estimation methods (Martille 2005), and has shown 

effectiveness for the age group between 40 and 60 years (ibid). This is 

notable since other methods, such as those involving the pubic 

symphysis or the sternal end of the fourth rib, are more applicable to 

younger individuals. In addition, practitioners have suggested 

refinements to the method to obtain more accurate results, either by 

adding a new dimension to measure (Prince and Ubelaker 2002) or by 

devising new formulae for specific single-rooted teeth (Prince and 

Ubelaker 2002; Sarajlic 2005). 

This project differs from any done to date since it included more 

observers (five) and a larger tooth sample (over 150 teeth rather than a 

small subsample). In addition, the observers in this study differed from 

prior studies since they were four practicing professionals from different 

fields in the medico-legal community – anthropologist, pathologist, 

odontologist, and death investigator – as well as one forensic science 

master’s level graduate student. Furthermore, qualitative data were 

gathered along with the required quantitative data. This qualitative data 

assisted in the understanding of discrepancies between observers and the 

reason for them. No prior studies make mention of collection of such 

data from participants. 

The preliminary results suggest that the Lamendin technique has its 

strengths and weaknesses with users from various disciplines. 

Qualitative data revealed that periodontosis proved to be the most 

ephemeral variable to be measured. It was described as “difficult to see” 

or “visualize” in numerous specimens measured in this study. 

Quantitative data suggest that differences exist between observers (mean 

error of 7.9 years), and that observers had consistent difficult correctly 

estimating the age of younger adults, such as those in their late teens and 

twenties. However, this method appears to be useful and helpful 

between differently-trained practitioners. This would certainly be the 

case in a mass disaster situation when general triaging by age categories 

was an initial goal in the identification process. 

Given these results, the application of the Lamendin method to 

mass disasters with high numbers of unidentified victims may be 

recommended. The lack of damage done to remains, the rapidity of the 

data collection, the minimal equipment requirements, and the simplicity 

174

of training multiple individuals to use the method make it ideal for 

triaging and processing of remains. 

Lamendin Age Estimation Method, Mass Disaster, 

Forensic Identification 

H50 Full Time Employment of Forensic 


Examiner’s/Coroner’s Offices in the 

United States—A History 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD*, Department Sociology & Anthropology, 

Middle Tennessee State University, Box 89, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 


understanding of the development and expansion of forensic 

anthropology in the United States and its relationship with Medical 

Examiner’s/Coroner’s Offices. 


demonstrating a slow but steady increase in the demand for forensic 

anthropologists within the United States. 

The second Luetgert murder trial in 1894 and the expert testimony 

of George A. Dorsey of the Columbia Field Museum in Chicago 

launched physical anthropology as a valuable judicial tool. Throughout 

the early and middle 20th Century, physical anthropologists employed in 

academic settings were increasingly called upon by law enforcement 

agencies to examine skeletal remains to ascertain identity. Wilton 

Krogman’s 1939 publication in the FBI Bulletin entitled A Guide to the 

Identification of Human Skeletal Material stimulated interest in the 

medico-legal potential held by physical anthropology, and served as the 

earliest material evidence of a new specialty taking root. Krogman’s 

expanded version of this bulletin appeared in 1962 under the title of The 

Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine, and provided a formal literary 

toolkit for early practitioners. In 1972, the American Academy of 

Forensic Science introduced Physical Anthropology as a new section and 

during the 1970’s forensic anthropology courses began to appear on 

many campuses and graduates began to look beyond academia for 

employment. By 1980, physical anthropologists were being considered 

for employment in medical examiner and coroner offices, although their 

employers often struggled for justification considering the infrequent 

and sporadic nature of anthropology casework. 

In September 1980, Hugh Berryman was employed as Director of 

the Shelby County Medical Examiner’s Morgue in Memphis, Tennessee 

marking the first full-time employment of a forensic anthropologist in a 

medical examiner’s office in the United States. The position of Morgue 

Director, with its administrative duties, provided justification for the 

position and insured the presence of a forensic anthropologist for the 

intermittent skeletal casework. In 1981, the New Jersey Medical 

Examiners Office hired Donna Fontana as full-time Forensic 

Anthropologist and Forensic Microscopist. She assisted with 

radiographs, identifications, and facial reconstruction. Currently, she has 

two interns and is the only anthropologist in the United States with direct 

access to a National Crime Information Center terminal. 

In 1977, the Beverly Hills Supper Club disaster in Southgate, 

Kentucky claimed 165 lives and was the deadliest nightclub fire in 

United States history. This disaster provided the Kentucky Medical 

Examiner’s Office the impetus to seek physical anthropological 

assistance from David Wolf between 1979 and 1980. From July 1980 to 

1982, he worked under a personal service contract. In 1982, Wolf was 

employed full-time as Kentucky’s and the nation’s first State Forensic 

Anthropologist. In 1983, Berryman reorganized the Shelby County 

Morgue, eliminating two autopsy technician positions, and hired 

physical anthropologist Craig Lahren as Assistant Director to interface 

with the physicians and technicians, to bring an anthropology influence 

to the autopsy, and to facilitate research. 

In 1984, William Rodriguez completed his pioneering work at the 

Anthropology Research Facility at The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville and was employed as Deputy Chief Coroner at the Caddo and 

Bossier Parish Coroner’s Office in Louisiana. In addition to forensic 

anthropology casework, he oversaw investigations including death 

scenes, and, as Deputy Chief Coroner, was responsible for psychiatric 

commitments. In 1986, Rodriguez left Louisiana for Syracuse, New 

York to become Forensic Anthropologist for the Onondaga County 

Medical Examiner’s Office. 

Also in 1986, Craig Lahren left Memphis opening the position of 

Assistant Morgue Director. The vacancy was immediately filled by 

Robert Mann who, after eight months, left for a position at the 

Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. Earlier that year, Steve 

Symes had been hired as Morgue Director for the Metropolitan 

Nashville/Davidson County Medical Examiner’s Office only to leave 

that position late in 1986 to fill the Assistant Director’s vacancy left by 

Robert Mann in Memphis. By 1987, Craig Lahren, who started this 

domino effect, became Coordinator of Forensic Services and forensic 

anthropologist for the Hamilton County Medical Examiner’s Office in 

Chattanooga, Tennessee. 

In 1979, when William Haglund began his career as one of thirteen 

Medical Investigators at the King County Medical Examiner’s Office, 

Seattle, Washington, he was not an anthropologist. His duties required 

him to respond to all deaths occurring in his jurisdiction, collect 

evidence, interview families, perform death notifications and write 

reports. In 1983 he advanced to Chief Medical Investigator. However, 

it was the Green River Killings that began in 1982, and continued with 

42 associated murders, that attracted him to forensic anthropology. With 

the completion of his Master’s degree in physical anthropology in 1988, 

he added forensic anthropology to his duties as Chief Medical 

Investigator. After completing his PhD in physical anthropology in 

1991, he worked four more years for the medical examiner’s office 

before being employed in 1995 by the United Nations as Senior Forensic 

Advisor. 

In 1989, William Rodriguez left Syracuse to accept a position as 

Chief Forensic Anthropologist and Deputy Chief Medical Examiner for 

Special Investigations for the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 

Washington, DC. The position of Kentucky State Forensic 

Anthropologist, left open by the untimely death of David Wolf in 1992, 

was filled in 1994 by Emily Craig. 

For physical anthropologists, the 1980’s marked the beginning of a 

shift in employment from academic to applied opportunities. That shift 

has continued and the numbers of forensic anthropologists employed full 

time in medical examiner’s offices continues to increase, and their duties 

are more focused on their training. Austin and Fulginiti (2008) note that 

there are currently 19 forensic anthropologists hired in full-time 

positions with medical examiner’s offices within the United States and 

an additional nine who are hired with shared duties. Encouragingly, 

Bradley Adams was hired as Forensic Anthropologist for New York City 

in 2004. He now has seven anthropologists that he directs—two with BA 

degrees, three with MA degrees, and two PhDs. 

Forensic Anthropology, Medical Examiner, History 

H51 Death Investigation for Anthropologists: 

Examining an Alternative Role for Forensic 

Anthropologists in Medical Examiner’s and 

Coroner’s Offices 

Gina O. Hart, MA*, Regional Medical Examiner’s Office, 325 Norfolk 

Street, Newark, NJ 07103-2701 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how Forensic 

Anthropologists can use their training in alternative or dual roles at 

Coroner’s or Medical Examiner’s Offices and how Coroners and 


Medical Examiners can benefit from having an anthropologist at their 

offices. Attendees will also learn what the typical role of the 

Medicolegal Death Investigator entails. 


demonstrating various ways that Forensic Anthropologists can use their 

training in alternative professions. 

The purpose of this presentation is to demonstrate how forensic 

anthropologists can use their training in alternative or dual roles at 

coroner’s or medical examiner’s offices. Specifically, the author will 

focus on the typical role of a medicolegal death investigator, and 

illustrate what anthropologists should expect when entering into a career 

as a death investigator. Additionally, medical examiners will be 

informed how they can benefit from hiring forensic anthropologists in 

various roles in their offices. 

The relationship between the pathologist and the forensic 

anthropologist has become vital in multiple medical examiner’s and 

coroner’s offices around the United States. These medical examiners 

and coroners have seen the added benefit of having a forensic 

anthropologist on staff in their offices, and have hired anthropologists to 

supplement their staffs. Unfortunately, medical examiners and coroners 

often have problems justifying a full-time anthropology position and 

have begun to hire forensic anthropologists in other areas within their 

offices. 

Furthermore, the current popularity of forensic sciences in the 

media has caused students to enter forensic related programs at an 

increased rate. Therefore, the number of forensic anthropology students 

has reached an all time high while Anthropology positions at academic 

institutions have only slightly increased. As a result, current and future 

forensic anthropologists must investigate alternative career options if 

they wish to find employment in a related field. Medical examiner’s 

offices offer several potential employment options for the 

anthropologist, including autopsy technician, compliance officer, 

photographer, and death investigator. 

This presentation will focus specifically on the role of the 

medicolegal death investigator and how anthropologists can use their 

training in this role. The death investigator serves as the front line in 

medical examiner’s and coroner’s offices, investigating all cases that are 

reported and determining which ones will be accepted for examination. 

Tasks of medicolegal death investigators include performing scene 

examinations, collecting evidence that is directly related to the body, 

obtaining medical and social histories on decedents from family 

members and friends, and any other information that may help the 

pathologist to determine the cause and manner of death. Medicolegal 

death investigators come from a myriad of backgrounds, and they are 

expected to have a basic knowledge in medicine, medications, local 

legislation, and forensic sciences. 

The experiences of working as a medicolegal death investigator and 

anthropologist at a medical examiner’s office in a large urban area of 

New Jersey, covering four counties, are discussed. In 2007, 4,689 cases 

were reported and investigated by a 24-hour staff of 13 investigators. Of 

these cases, 1,825 were accepted and 1,249 were autopsied. From all the 

reported cases of 2007, manner of death included natural (3721), 

accidental (508), suicide (123), homicide (207), undetermined (30) and 

other types of cases (100). The other types of cases handled include nonhuman 

remains (18), cases transferred out of the jurisdiction (66), fetuses 

(14) and body parts (2). 

In addition, the continuing education opportunities available to 

anthropologists who are interested in pursuing a career in medicolegal 

death investigation are discussed. A wide range of short courses are 

offered by numerous agencies throughout the United States providing the 

basic knowledge in Death Investigation. Training, publications, and 

other potential areas of continuing education will also be highlighted. 

Anthropologists working as medicolegal death investigators have 

the unique experience of handling the typical death investigator cases 

and any anthropology cases from the initial stages of scene investigation. 


This allows anthropologists a multi-dimensional perspective into the 

cases that they handle both as an investigator and a forensic 

anthropologist. Additionally, the medical examiner or coroner will 

greatly benefit by having a forensic anthropologist on staff, even if they 

are not able to justify having that person in a full-time forensic 

anthropology position. 

Medicolegal Death Investigation, Forensic Anthropology, 


H52 Identification of Multiple Cranial Traumas 

in a Recently Closed Homicide Investigation 

Thomas A. Furgeson, MA*, University of Wyoming, 1002 South 3rd 

Street, Laramie, WY 82070; George W. Gill, PhD, University of 

Wyoming, Department of Anthropology, Laramie, WY 82071; and Rick L. 

Weathermon, MA, Department of Anthropology, University of Wyoming, 

10 East University Avenue, Department 3431, Anthropology, Laramie, 

WY 82071 

After attending this presentation, attendees will come away with an 

understanding of the value of using forensic anthropologists in 

investigative contexts involving human skeletal remains. This will be 

achieved through an overview of a recently resolved homicide case from 

southeastern Wyoming that contrasts and evaluates the assessments 

offered to law enforcement by forensic anthropologists and other 

forensic investigators involved in the case. 


a direct illustration of the power of employing forensic anthropological 

techniques in crime investigations, in service to law enforcement as a 

means for remains identification and for analysis of human skeletal 

trauma. 

Attendees will be presented with a case study of an actual homicide 

investigation involving human skeletal remains. This case serves as an 

example of the benefits of applying forensic anthropological techniques 

to the identification of remains and in analyses of bone trauma. In the 

initial stages of this investigation, which began in December 2002, both 

anthropologists and forensic pathologists were approached and engaged 

by law enforcement to provide analyses of an unidentified, partial human 

skeleton. This set of remains, found through extensive, coordinated 

searches conducted over a period of several months in 2002 and 2003 by 

volunteers and multiple law enforcement agencies and rescue and 

recovery groups, consisted of a partial cranium, both femora, a humerus, 

and an ulna. These skeletal elements were scattered over an area of 

roughly one square mile on the ground surface in a remote recreational 

area. The authors will present the osteological evidence available to 

investigators at the outset of this homicide investigation, and will detail 

the course and outcome of the case. The specific evidence emphasized 

will be multiple traumas to the recovered portion of the cranium of the 

victim, including a unique penetrating fracture to the occipital region, 

and several other perimortem traumas to the mid-facial and orbital 

regions of the skull. The hypotheses offered to law enforcement by 

anthropologists and pathologists differed markedly in terms of the 

suggested mechanisms of injury and in the suggested relationships, both 

temporal and physical, of the observed cranial traumas. 

Subsequent case evidence and testimony provided investigators 

with detailed information regarding the true mechanisms of the various 

injuries, as well as the relationships between these observed and 

documented traumas. This information provides a unique opportunity to 

present both a comparison of the hypotheses offered by the 

anthropologists and other forensic investigators to the actual chain of 

events for this homicide, and an evaluation of the accuracy of these 

hypotheses, which were based solely on the initial osteological evidence. 

It will be shown that the hypotheses offered to law enforcement by the 

176

case forensic anthropologists correlate most closely with the actual 

mechanisms and sequence of traumas for this homicide case, which was 

closed in early part of 2008. This will be made explicit through the 

presentation of the information contained in the documented statements 

provided to law enforcement by the perpetrators of the crime. 

Osteology, Homicide, Anthropology 

H53 Anthropologist/Medical Examiner 

Collaboration at Isolated, Inaccessible, 

or Disrupted Crime Scenes 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, Medical Examiner’s Office, 100 Sower 

Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY 40601 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate some cases of 

unusual and difficult body recovery scenarios wherein the on-site efforts 

of the forensic anthropologist helped the consulting medical examiner 

correlate autopsy findings with the death scene. The interplay of 

innovative and traditional techniques will be discussed as well as the 

inseparable disciplines of forensic anthropology, musculoskeletal 

anatomy, and anatomical pathology. 


one aspect of the symbiotic relationship between forensic anthropology 

and forensic pathology. 

The Commonwealth of Kentucky combines a coroner system with 

a single state-wide medical examiner system which is under the ultimate 

control of the Justice and Public Safety Cabinet within the State 

Government system. There is an elected coroner in each of Kentucky’s 

120 counties and there are four separate medical examiner offices, all 

under the direction of a chief medical examiner. By statute (KRS 72) the 

state provides medical examiner services to all county coroners, and this 

provision includes the services of the state’s forensic anthropologist. 

The forensic anthropologist is employed full–time within the medical 

examiner’s office and has dedicated laboratory and office space in the 

Centralized Laboratory Facility in Frankfort, Kentucky. This 

anthropologist is on call for response to any of the county coroners for 

on-site investigations and will demonstrate how the timely arrival at the 

crime scene and almost simultaneous integration of information to and 

from the consulting pathologists proves to be advantageous. 

It almost goes without saying that each death scene needs thorough 

documentation and analysis in order to explain some of the disarray and 

damage seen at autopsy, but it is the anthropologist’s on-site analysis on 

cases with varying degrees of disruption and/or decay (not just skeletal 

remains) that has helped integrate information from the scene and 

autopsy. The number of disrupted human remains in each jurisdiction is 

probably not out of proportion to the overall number of autopsies 

performed each year (3.5 to 4%) but because of the geography of the 

state, the range of weather conditions, and varied carnivore predation 

patterns, on-site analysis by a forensic anthropologist proves especially 

helpful in cases wherein any combination of taphonomic events may 

have modified the death scene. Although the primary focus for 

anthropologist’s crime-scene response is skeletal remains, a thorough 

knowledge of overall soft tissue gross anatomy in addition to osteology 

has proved to be invaluable for the documentation and collection of 

evidence with any disrupted remains, regardless of the amount of decay. 

A working knowledge of entomology, botany, and wildlife biology has 

also been necessary to incorporate associated evidence into the overall 

death investigation. 

The cases to be discussed in this presentation are those in which the 

forensic anthropologist assisted with the scene recovery and site analysis 

while in contact with a morgue-based medical examiner, thus 

demonstrating the symbiotic relationship between the two. In addition to 

standard image transfer through phone systems, some of the other scene- 

to-morgue procedures used in Kentucky involve hand held 3-D 

microscopes with internet connections and radiographic identification 

capabilities through mobile data terminals. 

Fire-related deaths also comprise a number of the cases to be 

discussed; from an underwater structure recovery to incidents with 

multiple homicides disguised by fire. Since the percentage of overall 

homicides disguised by fire has reached as high as 21% per year, there 

remains a high level of suspicion in nearly all fire-related deaths across 

the Commonwealth. Here, as with any skeletonized remains, 

anthropological recovery techniques help preserve evidence. Therefore 

the anthropologist’s on-site protocol ensures a thorough transfer of 

information and remains to the pathologist. 

Anthropology, Medical Examiner, Crime Scene Investigation 

H54 The Role of Forensic Anthropology in 


Christian Crowder, PhD*, Benjamin J. Figura, MA, Bradley J. Adams, 

PhD, and Frank DePaolo, MS, New York City, Office of Chief Medical 



growing role of forensic anthropologists in disaster operations within the 

medical examiner system. 


demonstrating the growing role of anthropology and the additional 

training necessary in being a part of disaster operations. The diverse 

educational and professional backgrounds of anthropologists make them 

strong candidates for taking on roles that may seem less traditional for 

anthropologists in this setting. 

The skills of forensic anthropology are essential components in the 

normal operations within the medical examiner or coroner’s office. 

More recently, however, the importance of integrating anthropology in 

disaster operations has been noted. Such an instance was exemplified 

following the renewed recovery efforts of the World Trade Center site in 

2006 in which the Office of Chief Medical Examiner-New York City 

(OCME-NYC) recognized the critical role of anthropology for these 

types of operations. The OCME-NYC is spending considerable time and 

resources in developing operational teams that specialize in recovering, 

processing, analyzing, identifying and managing remains from mass 

disasters. The goal of this presentation is to discuss the multi-level 

operations and highlight the role of forensic anthropology in each area of 

fatality management. 

Field Operations: The recovery of human remains following an 

incident is a multi-agency effort that, depending on the nature of the 

disaster, involves forensic anthropologists working in different 

capacities. The OCME-NYC has established a forensic anthropologist in 

the role of the Fatality Management Branch Director within the National 

Incident Management System – Incident Command Structure. This role 

is a lead player within the operations section and to relay scene 

information to the OCME Incident Commander, Investigative and 

Recovery Teams, and to other city agencies involved in supporting 

fatality management. The more common role of the anthropologist in 

field operations involves the application of archaeological methods (i.e., 

survey, mapping, excavation). It is in this role that training in 

archaeology is the essential component for ensuring that the most 

appropriate, comprehensive and accurate recovery techniques are 

utilized during this stage of the operation. Due to the potential hazards 

in mass disaster incidences, recovery operations might need to be 

conducted under HAZMAT conditions. Forensic anthropologists 

involved in these operations must have specialized training to work 

under these conditions and be familiar with appropriate personal 

protective equipment. Furthermore, the anthropologist must be able to 


ecognize potential hazardous materials in order to alert specialists that 

characterize and mitigate such hazards. At the OCME-NYC, forensic 

anthropologists have also been integral part of developing specialized 

equipment for disaster field operations. For example, the OCME has 

developed a mobile sifting platform to expedite the recovery of remains 

from large volumes of soil, while maximizing forensic integrity. 

Morgue Operations: Following recovery operations, remains are 

accessioned into the disaster morgue. Before the remains can be 

processed through the various stations of the morgue they are triaged. In 

the case of fragmented or commingled remains, anthropologists are wellskilled 

to associate or segregate remains and establish appropriate case 

numbers. The anthropological analysis station within the disaster 

morgue is where the typical role the forensic anthropologist is instituted. 

The anthropologist works along side the medical examiner to develop 

biological profiles, conjoin fragmented bone, and assist with trauma 

analysis. The anthropologist may also assist Forensic Biology in making 

hard tissue selections for DNA analysis. 

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) operations: The DVI 

process reconciles postmortem data from the recovered remains with 

antemortem data related to the victims. DVI at the OCME-NYC is 

operated by the Forensic Anthropology Unit with an anthropologist in 

the position of DVI Manager. The role of the DVI Manager is to review 

the collective work of the identification teams (e.g., DNA, odontology, 

fingerprints) and oversee the identification process. The DVI Manager 

also coordinates the Identification Review Board, which provides the 

final recommendation on all identifications. Anthropologists on the DVI 

staff may also be present in the morgue and the Family Assistance 

Center. Additionally, the DVI group has played a major role in the 

development of the Unified Victim Identification System (UVIS), a 

program developed at the OCME-NYC that allows access to all data 

related to an incident. 

The diverse educational and professional backgrounds of 

anthropologists make them excellent choices for work associated with 

disaster operations. The skills, knowledge, and training of personnel 

within New York City’s Forensic Anthropology Unit play an integral role 

in the City’s mass fatality response plan. 

Mass Disaster, Disaster Operations, Anthropology 

H55 The Forensic Anthropologist, the National 

Crime Information Center (N.C.I.C.), 

and National Missing and Unidentified 


Donna A. Fontana, MS*, New Jersey State Police, Office of Forensic 

Sciences, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, 1200 Negron Drive, 

Hamilton, NJ 08691 


forensic anthropologist can be an active and effective participant in 

utilizing the national informational databases in the investigation of 

unidentified persons. 


highlighting the key points of the National Crime Information Center 

(N.C.I.C.) and National Missing and Unidentified Persons System 

(NamUs) databases, and the challenges faced by the forensic 


In this age of instant communication, public opinion expects 

investigations to be completed in a 60-minute time frame. Some of the 

primary tools used by law enforcement for gathering and organizing the 

immense amount of information and scientific data collected in the 

course of an unidentified person investigation are the N.C.I.C. and 

NamUs databases. 


N.C.I.C., maintained by the F.B.I., is a nationwide online 

computer/telecommunication system, which contains millions of records 

of persons and property records from across the United States. N.C.I.C. 

was established in 1967 and at the current time is used by all 50 states, 

Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, Canada, and federal agencies. It 

is accessible only by criminal justice and law enforcement agencies. 

Medical examiner/coroner agencies can have access if they meet certain 

criteria set through shared management between FBI and state and local 

law enforcement. 

In unidentified person investigations, N.C.I.C. captures identifying 

information such as personal descriptors and dental data, which is 

entered by the investigating law enforcement agency. N.C.I.C. will 

automatically cross-match this information against missing and wanted 

persons’ records. This comparison is performed on a daily basis on the 

records that have been entered or modified the previous day. A list of 

potential matches is generated for each agency that enters information. 

These entries and matches are restricted to the agencies that have access. 

Verification of scientific data entered on unidentified person cases by the 

forensic science community is usually not routine. 

The medical examiner/coroner, or their designee, controls the case 

information entered or edited into the NamUs unidentified database, 

after an online registration. Unlike N.C.I.C., NamUs is web-based, 

though not all uploaded information on the case is viewable by the 

public. Personal descriptors and dental information are entered into the 

NamUs database, after review by a member of the forensic science 

community, such as the forensic anthropologist. NamUs has strived to 

simplify its entries, making it user-friendly to the public. Active 

participation by the forensic anthropologist, medical examiner, or 

forensic odontologist in the entry, modification, and comparison of 

unidentified person data ensures that accurate information is entered into 

the database. This process is imperative in the comparison with missing 

persons’ information. 

This presentation will demonstrate how the active participation by 

the forensic anthropologist can ensure accuracy of database information, 

which may increase the number of individuals who could be identified. 

It is recommended that those in the forensic science community working 

with unidentified persons become an active participant with the national 

databases used in these investigations. 

Forensic Anthropology, N.C.I.C., NamUs 

H56 The Role of the Harris County Medical 



Jason M. Wiersema, PhD*, Harris County Medical Examiner, 

Anthropology Division, Houston, TX 77054; and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County, 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the role 

of the Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office Forensic Anthropology 

Division in scientific identification. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by outlining 

the contribution made by Forensic Anthropology to the scientific 

identification of unknown and tentatively identified decedents. 

The Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office (HCMEO) Forensic 

Anthropology Division (FAD) is a relatively new division, established in 

November of 2006. Scientific identification of unknown and tentatively 

identified decedents is one of the core responsibilities of the Medical 

Examiner’s Office and has become a central component of the daily 

activities of the FAD. 

HCMEO standard operating procedures require scientific 

confirmation of identification of all homicide cases and all cases 

178

endered unsuitable for visual identification by decomposition, 

disfigurement and thermal injury. 

All cases in which scientific identification is not confirmed by 

fingerprints or dental comparison become the responsibility of the FAD. 

When available, the FAD scientifically confirms identification through 

radiograph comparison and facilitates identification through DNA by 

collecting family reference samples and interpreting DNA kinship 

indices. When antemortem records or DNA samples are unavailable, the 

FAD facilitates the identification through the collection and presentation 

of circumstantial evidence to the responsible pathologist. In the case of 

unknown decedents, the FAD compiles an unknown decedent 

description; disseminates it to law enforcement, media, and the 

Unidentified Decedent Reporting System; submits DNA to CODIS; and 

follows up on all generated leads. 

Since its inception, the FAD has significantly reduced the number 

of cases that remain unidentified. The number of decedents who remain 

unknown for greater than six months decreased 40% from the three-year 

average prior to the inception of the FAD to 2007 (the first full year of 

operation). This number decreased substantially (90%) again in the first 

half of 2008. The success is a result of a dedicated team of professionals 

that can focus on the follow-through with law enforcement, media, and 

the community to identify the unknown and to notify the next-of-kin. 

Furthermore, an audit of all of the unknown decedent case files that 

predated the FAD has yielded identifications of 30 previously unknown 

decedents. 

Anthropologists have significantly reduced HCMEO DNA costs. 

Prior to the FAD, cases without dental records were scientifically 

identified through DNA. A majority of these cases are now identified 

through skeletal radiograph comparison. The FAD completed a total of 

31 scientific identifications in its first full year of operation, 2007, and 

had completed 22 during the first half of 2008. Identifications are 

routinely performed using an array of radiograph types. 

Fourteen (45%) of the 31 identifications in 2007 were made based 

on chest radiographs. Five comparisons were made between lumbar 

spine images, and the remainder of the 2007 cases involved skull, hip, 

knee and wrist images. Thirteen (62%) of the 21 2008 cases for the first 

half of 2008 involved chest radiograph comparison, and the remaining 

eight were completed with head, pelvis, foot, wrist and shoulder films. 

Each of these identifications was completed at the request of the 

responsible pathologist. 

Another beneficial by-product of the increased efficiency in 

decedent identification has to do with morgue capacity. The increase in 

efficiency necessitates the curation of fewer remains and a shorter 

curation period for unidentified decedents. This represents a 

considerable benefit to the HCMEO’s disaster preparedness by 

increasing on-site surge storage capacity. 

Forensic Anthropology, Scientific Identification, 


H57 Forensic Anthropology at the Pima County 



Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, and Walter H. Birkby, PhD, Forensic Science 

Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714 


understanding of some of the issues involved in the identification 

process for a large number of foreign nationals. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by sharing 

lessons learned through the identifications of hundreds of foreign 

nationals over the past eight years. 

Over the past eight years, the caseload of the forensic 

anthropologists at the Pima County (Arizona) Office of the Medical 

Examiner (PCOME) has changed considerably due to the dramatic 

increase in the number of migrants who have perished in the Sonoran 

Desert while attempting a clandestine entry into the United States. The 

last eight years have witnessed greater than a ten-fold annual increase in 

the number of these deaths and required forensic anthropological 

examinations for nearly half of the 1100 migrant cases through 2007. 

Approximately one-quarter of all of the anthropological examinations 

within our office during 2000 involved migrants, but by 2007 more than 

three-quarters of our exams were on these foreign national cases. This 

increase in the annual casework involving foreign nationals takes on 

greater importance when Tucson’s rapidly-growing metropolitan area is 

considered. Add to this the fact that the PCOME provides medicolegal 

examinations for ten of the fifteen counties in Arizona, including one of 

the fastest growing counties (Pinal) in the U.S., and one begins to 

appreciate that the two forensic anthropologists employed at the PCOME 

have more than enough work to do. The analyses of cremains, personal 

identification through radiographic comparisons, trauma analyses, the 

generation of biological profiles, and legal testimony are some of the 

varied duties that the forensic anthropologist performs on the nonmigrant 

cases. However, the migrant cases have required more effort, on 

average, and not merely because of their greater number but also because 

of the challenges encountered in attempting to effect an identification. 

Adequate antemortem records are non-existent in many instances, at 

times necessitating that the generated biological profile must be the 

primary means of comparison to family recollections and reconstructed 

antemortem records. These circumstantial identifications that are 

partially based on the anthropological results are not ideal but necessary 

given the constraints of time and funding. DNA analyses have been 

utilized in more than sixty cases over the past seven years, but the cost 

and the wait have at times proved prohibitive. Even utilizing 

circumstantial identifications, our overall rate of identification still 

hovers around 70%. On the plus side, this rate may be expected to 

increase as DNA databases are created that compare sequences or 

profiles from postmortem samples of unknowns to those of family 

reference samples from missing migrants. Another plus is that much has 

been learned from the anthropological research conducted on many of 

these foreign nationals, whose ancestry appears to be overwhelmingly 

Southwest Hispanic (defined here as ancestry relating to Mexico and 

Central America, and excluding the Caribbean). Researchers have 

collected data on more than 500 of these individuals, with slightly less 

than half being identified. Data collected include craniometrics, 

infracranial metrics, cranial discrete traits, stature, dental health, and 

mtDNA sequences. By analyzing the skeletons of more than 200 

identified foreign national Southwest Hispanics over the past eight years, 

our office is now better able to characterize the more than 300 

unidentified presumed migrants as likely being Hispanic. Forensic 

anthropologists around the U.S. may benefit from this increase in 

knowledge because Hispanics, from both Meso-America and the circum- 

Caribbean, can be expected to continue migrating throughout the lower 

48 states. Undoubtedly, some of these individuals will be encountered in 

future forensic anthropological examinations. 

Forensic Anthropology, Foreign Nationals, Identification 

H58 Forensic Pathology and Anthropology: 

A Collaborative Effort 

Kathryn H. Haden-Pinneri, MD*, Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Jason M. 

Wiersema, PhD, and Sharon M. Derrick, PhD, Harris County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 


diverse roles served by the Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office 

Forensic Anthropology Division and the spectrum of trauma casework 

the division receives. 



introducing students and academically based forensic anthropologists to 

the roles served by forensic anthropologists working within the medical 

examiner’s office and the versatility of forensic anthropology to assist 

medical examiners in the determination of cause and manner of death. 

The Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office Forensic 

Anthropology Division (FAD) is a relatively new division, established in 

November of 2006. Since the division’s inception, the FAD has 

developed into a three-pronged service: Skeletal Recovery Team (SRT), 

Identification Unit (ID Unit), and Forensic Anthropology Services 

(FAS). As the SRT, anthropologists attend crime scenes requiring 

specialized skills for processing such as scenes of skeletal, burned, 

dismembered, commingled and buried remains. As the ID Unit, 

anthropologists create and disseminate unidentified decedent 

descriptions; facilitate identification on difficult cases through skeletal 

radiograph comparison, interpretation of DNA kinship indices, and 

collection and review of circumstantial evidence; and track and refer 

decedents for county burial. Through the FAS, the anthropologists serve 

as consultants on medicolegal cases by developing skeletal profiles, 

interpreting bone trauma, and assessing bone pathology. Although the 

skills required to serve in all three roles are based in the fundamentals of 

physical anthropology, each role requires flexibility and adaptability. 

The purpose of this presentation is to demonstrate the diverse role taken 

by forensic anthropologists at the Harris County Medical Examiner’s 

Office (HCMEO) through an overview of trauma cases received by the 

FAS. 

Prior to the development of the FAD, the HCMEO outsourced 

skeletal remains for analysis to academically based forensic 

anthropologists. Previous to outsourcing, skeletal remains were 

analyzed by forensic pathologists and either released for burial or 

archived in the morgue. Consultation was not typically sought for bone 

trauma analysis. When the FAS was established, the first task was to 

reexamine skeletal remains archived at the HCMEO. These remains 

represented unidentified decedents and required skeletal profile 

development and trauma analysis. In addition to the archived remains, 

the FAD received 154 cases in 2007, the first complete year the division 

was in operation. Of these incoming cases, only nine required the 

development of a skeletal profile. One hundred and forty-eight cases 

required trauma analysis and/or skeletal radiograph comparison. The 

breakdown of these cases is as follows: 6 non-human or non-forensic, 30 

skeletal radiograph comparisons, 11 bone pathology, 42 blunt force 

trauma, 16 child abuse, 33 sharp force trauma (impression evidence 

analysis), 9 ballistic trauma, and 1 combined sharp and blunt force 

trauma. Nine of the 154 cases involved thermal trauma. 

Analysis of trauma and bone pathology occurs either in situ or by 

removing and processing elements for more detailed analysis. 

Determination of the necessity of an anthropologic consultation takes 

place in the autopsy suite. Joint discussion regarding the case and the 

finding(s) in question between the anthropologist and the pathologist 

determine whether a complete anthropologic consultation with removal 

of skeletal elements is warranted. This joint determination has proved 

invaluable on numerous occasions. Techniques utilized for the analysis 

include gross documentation and inspection, examination under a 

dissecting microscope, and when necessary, casting for tool mark 

interpretation. 

The interpretation of trauma often contributes to the reconstruction 

of events surrounding death, classification of manner of death, and 

ultimately, the adjudication of the case. For example, differentiating 

between a simple fracture pattern associated with a fall and a complex 

fracture pattern associated with multiple impacts may add pivotal 

support for case classification: homicide vs. accident. With child abuse 

cases, recognizing remote and acute injury, interpreting fracture 

distribution and aging fractures can reveal a pattern of abuse as well as a 

timeline of traumatic episodes, all critical elements in the prosecution of 

the case. Evaluation of rib fractures has been invaluable in the 

documentation of a new artifact of resuscitation related to the use of an 


automated chest compression device. Interpreting impression evidence 

can provide a description of a weapon’s cutting edge, enabling exclusion 

or inclusion of a possible suspect weapon. 

Cases that require anthropologic consultation range from the 

obvious, such as skeletal remains or abused children to the innocuous, 

such as an alcoholic homeless man found dead near his makeshift 

residence. The make-up of the casework received by the FAS 

exemplifies the knowledge base a forensic anthropologist must have to 

operate in a medical examiner’s office. A strong working knowledge of 

bone biomechanics, impression evidence interpretation, and bone 

pathology and healing is as important as aptitude in standard methods to 

estimate age, ancestry, sex, and stature of skeletal remains. Fiscal 

restraints may inhibit medical examiner’s offices from securing a fulltime 

anthropology position; however, the variety of skills an 

anthropologist possesses to assist with the entire death investigation 

process should justify the expenditure. 

Forensic Anthropology, Medical Examiner’s Office, 

Trauma Analysis 

H59 Maintaining Custody: A Virtual Method of 

Creating Accurate Reproductions of 

Skeletal Remains for Facial Approximation 

Summer J. Decker, MA*, Jonathan M. Ford, BA, BA, and Don R. 

Hilbelink, PhD, Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, University 

of South Florida College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs 

Boulevard, MDC11, Tampa, FL 33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, 

Department. of Chemical & Biomedical Engineering, University of 

South Florida College of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612 


new computerized methodologies that will assist local law enforcement 

and forensic facial approximation specialists by providing the results of 

a unique three-dimensional pilot study conducted by a team of 

researchers. 


increase scientific knowledge of new technologies and methods 

available to the forensic community for human cranial identification. It 

will also attempt to advance the state of facial approximation methods 

which are commonly utilized by law enforcement to identify unknown 

individuals. 

Facial approximation is a common analysis requested by local and 

national law enforcement agencies for human identification. Evidentiary 

chain of custody concerns by law enforcement have led agencies to 

search for technological alternative methods that can allow the agency to 

maintain custody of critical evidence while getting cutting edge forensic 

analyses. Three-dimensional imaging technologies allow researchers to 

go beyond traditional anthropological methods to now create virtual 

computed models of anatomical structures. [1] The goal of this project 

was to provide accurate skull models to forensic identification specialists 

and Medical Examiner’s Offices for forensic facial approximation 

without taking custody of the skeletal material itself. 

In this pilot study, unidentified skulls were taken by several Medical 

Examiner’s Offices in the state of Florida to local radiology centers 

where the skulls were scanned on a 64-slice high resolution computed 

tomography (CT) scanner at a slice thickness of 0.5mm. The CT data 

was then given to the researchers to compute anatomically accurate 

virtual models of the skulls. It should be noted that the researchers never 

took custody of the remains and in many cases never had physical 

contact with the remains at any time. The volumetric data from the scans 

were taken into the visualization software package Mimics© version 12 

(Materialise). A FloodFill method of seeding the image was done to 

model the bone pixels in the data set. This 3-D volumetric pixel 

grouping was then filtered of artifact holes and closed to create one 

180

unsegmented structure. The data set was then rendered into a 3-D Model 

and exported as a Stereolithographic file (STL). After a biological 

profile was created from the virtual skull data by a forensic 

anthropologist, [1] the STL models were exported for rapid prototyping. 

Accurate full size prototypes of the skulls were then produced from the 

computed virtual skull model using a 3-D ZPrinter 310 (© ZCorp) 

printer which was then submitted to the forensic facial clay modeling 

specialist. [2] 

The clay modeling specialist and anthropologist worked with the 

researchers on highlighting key facial regions used in facial 

reconstruction that are critical in approximating the soft tissue features. 

From their input, focus was turned to regions such as the vomer for the 

estimation of the nose shape and length and suture lines for the 

estimation of age. Due to the lack of objective criteria for analyzing the 

facial approximations themselves other than superimposition, the 

researchers are currently focusing on developing methodologies to 

interpolate the soft tissue relationships from the surface voxels on the 

computed representation of the skulls. 

This project demonstrates the potential for high-end forensic 

analysis to be conducted remotely without assuming custody of the 

evidence. This also allows local law enforcement agencies to have 

access to experts beyond their geographic location. While there is a wide 

range of variation between commonly used facial identification 

methods, 2 the benefit of this study is that there is an open discussion of 

the strengths and weaknesses at each stage of the analysis which will in 

turn increase the understanding and scope of forensic facial 

approximation from 3-D data. 

References: 

1 Decker SJ, Hilbelink DR, Hoegstrom EJ. Virtual skull anatomy: 


cranial anatomy. Proceedings for the 60 th Annual AAFS Meeting, 

Washington, DC 18-23 Feb. 2008; (14)312. 

2 Decker, SJ, Hilbelink DR, et al. Who is this person? A Comparison 

Study of Current 3-Dimensional Facial Approximation Methods. 

Proceedings for the 60 th Annual AAFS Meeting, Washington, DC 

18-23 Feb. 2008; (14)338. 

3-D Modeling, Evidence, Human Identification 

H60 The Role of Adult Age-Related Craniofacial 

Changes and the MORPH Database in 

Computer Automated Face Recognition 

Research and Development 

A. Midori Albert, PhD*, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 

Department of Anthropology, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, NC 

28403-5907 

The goal of this presentation is to present how osteological and 

anatomical knowledge, in terms of adult age-related craniofacial 

morphologic changes, are used in computer science research for forensic 

purposes. 


the key ways in which craniofacial morphologic changes occur across 

the adult age span and will provide information of the relevance of this 

information to computer automated face recognition technology through 

a discussion of how these data are currently being used. 

First, attendees will gain an understanding of the key ways in which 

craniofacial morphologic changes occur across the adult age span, in 

terms of the general sequence and pattern of change due to normal aging 

effects. Secondly, attendees will be informed of the relevance of the 

above information to computer automated face recognition technology 

through a communication of how these data are currently being used, 

namely through research conducted using the MORPH database. 

Further, attendees will be updated on the status of the dynamic 

MORPH database, founded in 2003, and currently expanding. Recently, 

the MORPH database has had a significant impact internationally as well 

as domestically, mainly within the computer science arena, but its 

existence still remains largely unknown to many practitioners and 

researchers within the forensic anthropology community, and the 

forensic science community at large. This presentation will help 

disseminate features of this ongoing work. 

An awareness and understanding of the application of knowledge 

stemming from studies related to craniofacial age changes, bone 

remodeling of the skull, and so forth, has been raised within the 

computer science community. In turn, an awareness of the ways in 

which the computer science community is using osteological and 

anatomical information of this nature is critical for those forensic 

anthropologists who might presently, or in the future, desire to conduct 

individual or collaborative research involving adult age-related 

craniofacial remodeling and or forensic face recognition/facial 

reconstruction methods and technologies. 

For example, within the security and law enforcement venues, face 

recognition research typically involves testing the efficacy of computer 

algorithms to match later-obtained digitized images of individuals’ faces 

(usually perpetrators of crime, terrorists, missing persons, or fugitives) 

with existing or earlier-obtained images of the same individuals 

(digitized mug shots, photographs, and the like). A further step in 

research of this nature has been to explore the capabilities of computer 

algorithms to match faces after a significant period of time has passed 

between facial images, or rather, after a number of years have passed, 

after the individual in question has aged, five, ten, twenty, or more years. 

This is where understanding the sequence, pattern, and variation of agerelated 

craniofacial morphologic changes comes into play. 

A synopsis of the ways in which the computer science community 

is using information and about how the craniofacial complex remodels 

during the adult decades of life will be presented, followed by an 

overview of the current status of the MORPH database. The MORPH 

database comprises thousands of images of thousands of individuals and 

has played a vital role in our understanding of face recognition and how 

faces age from late adolescence through senescence, given that large 

sample sizes of known faces aged across the adult lifespan have now 

become available for study. 

Age-Related Craniofacial Remodeling, Computer Automated Face 

Recognition, MORPH Database 

H61 Skull/ Photo Superimposition 

Validation Study 

Audrey L. Meehan, BGS*, 91-1074 Anaunau Street, Ewa Beach, HI 

96706; and Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Acct Command, 


96853-5000 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate a unique method of 

validation using skull models from living subjects. 


how advances in technology can provide new validation methods from 

living subjects. 

The mission of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification Laboratory (CIL) in Hawaii is to search for, recover, and 

identify missing U.S. service personnel from past wars. 

Difficulties in identification present themselves when the skeletal 

remains are of similar biological profiles, commingled, and when 

mtDNA testing is not possible due to poor preservation of the osseous 

remains or the lack of comparative family reference samples (buccal 

swabs or blood drop cards). A quantitative Cranial/Photograph 

Superimposition technique has been developed at the CIL to support 


vetted identification methods (anthropological analysis, dental record 

and historical record comparisons) and as a means of probable exclusion 

when inconsistencies in congruity can not be explained. The quantitative 

Cranial/Photograph Superimposition incorporates a line-up of 

photographs for blind analysis comparison to the crania. Using videocamera 

overlays, each photo is aligned to the ‘best possible fit’ by 

resizing each photo and adjusting/aligning the skull to fit with the 

subject’s facial orientation as depicted in the photo. Alignment criteria 

scoring is used to rate the congruity of ten features of the 

superimpositions. Each feature is scored as a +1 (good fit), -1 (lack of 

alignment), or 0 (for areas not seen in the photograph or if there is trauma 

to the skeletal remains). This scoring procedure results in a final 

comparison sum, with a maximum of ten points for each photographic 

and skull comparison. 

As with all new methods, validation is crucial in determining the 

accuracy and scope of use, and requires a known-error rate of the method 

or procedure based on known comparatives (crania). This research will 

demonstrate the use of CAT scan data to generate precise 3-D copies 

(“models”) of skulls of known individuals (living CIL staff members) 

that are then used in a comparative study of cranial alignment using 

skulls and photographs as developed at the CIL. Ten current and former 

CIL employees with like gender and ethnic affiliation were chosen for 

the known sample group. All subjects were CAT scanned using the 

lowest slice rate possible in order to optimize the detail of their cranial 

features. The raw x-y-z data from each CAT scan were converted to a 3- 

D print file. Three dimensional replicas of the ten skulls were produced, 

cleaned, infused with a hardening agent, and assigned bar codes (for 

concealing the skull identities). Scoring sheets with matching bar codes 

were provided to the test participants for each skull’s comparison. 

CIL summer interns and new employees were chosen to perform the 

validation study. All participants were individually taught the CIL’s 

quantitative scoring, blind photo line-up procedure, and were given an 

opportunity to practice the method on various non-study related material 

prior to beginning the validation study. The participants aligned, 

compared, and scored ten photographs with each skull. 

Preliminary results indicated that intern examinees at the CIL 

selected the correct photograph in 40% of cases examined (i.e., found no 

inconsistencies between the corresponding/actual photograph and skull) 

and eliminated all other photographs in the blind “line up.” The false 

positive rate in this study was 60%. Additional work by researchers 

beyond the novice level and with varying experience is necessary before 

drawing final conclusions on the accuracy or utility of photo 

superimposition. 

Superimposition, 3-D Models, Validation Technique 

H62 The Importance of Morphological Traits in 


Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, LABANOF, and Danilo De Angelis, DDS*, 

Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, via Mangiagalli 

37, Milan, 20133, ITALY; Peter Gabriel, MD, Institut für Rechtsmedizin, 

im Uniklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Arnold-Heller-Str. 12, 

D-24105, Kiel, ITALY; Stefanie Ritz-Timme, MD, Institut für 

Rechtsmedizin, im Uniklinikum Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, 

Arnold-Heller-Str. 12, D-24105, Kiel, , GERMANY; Janine Tutkuviene, 

MD, Department of Anatomy, Histology and Anthropology, Faculty of 

Medicine, Vilnius University, Vilnius, , LITHUANIA; and Daniele 

Gibelli, MD, LABANOF, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia 

Forense, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY 

The goal of this presentation is to show the first results of a research 

project concerning visual identification for forensic purposes funded by 

the European Union (AGIS 2005) and involving the University of 

Dusseldorf, Milano and Vilnius. 


This presentation will impact the forensic community by exposing 

the importance of facial morphological traits for personal identification. 

Identification of the living is a complex procedure which is 

becoming more and more requested by judicial authorities (e.g., for 

individuals observed on video while they are perpetrating a crime). 

Forensic scientists are therefore frequently requested to identify faces, 

for example, to tell if a suspect can be identified from a picture based on 

facial morphology and characteristics. Literature shows that the use of 

facial indices may be extremely dangerous and lead to erroneous 

identifications, whereas the potential of simple facial morphology, for 

which several classifications exist (Interpol, Vanezis, Assmann et al.), 

has never been studied in depth. This is mainly because no large scale 

study on the distribution of specific facial morphological traits has been 

previously performed. 

The initial task was to verify the distribution and frequency among 

a European male population of about 1,000 individuals (20-30 years of 

age) of 43 specific facial traits (e.g., facial form, nose tip shape, philtrum 

shape, head shape, frontal height, eyebrow edge, lid axis, nasal root, 

labial breadth, etc. as in the Assmann et al. classification which 

contemplates a larger number of characteristics), and observe their 

discriminant value and inter and intra observer error. A group of over 

900 faces was photographed and then the traits were classified with the 

Assmann atlas by recording the different shape of every one of the 43 

relevant facial characteristics. This process was completed twice by the 

same observer and every face was also classified by two different 

observers, a layman and an expert. Results have shown the homogeneity 

of facial traits among the German, Italian and Lithuanian population, 

especially the head and chin shape, whereas the frontal and nasal 

characteristics seem to present larger variation. Classification of the 

results showed low interobserver and intraobserver errors for some traits 

but fairly large for others, for example the evaluation of chin and facial 

shape. A mean of 39% interobserver and 30% intraobserver error was 

recorded. Moreover, the high inter-individual variability was 

highlighted, with significant differences between analyses from the same 

individual and between laymen and experts. Although slight differences 

can be observed between the judgments from the same observer, the 

most relevant discordances were recorded between laymen and experts. 

These results highlight the importance of experience in analysis and 

interpretation of morphological traits. This study also shows some of the 

pitfalls concerning the mechanisms of facial identification through 

morphological facial traits. Although there is no common 

standardization, the use of references helps in the description of 

morphological traits. The description and judgment concerning the 

specific shape and appearance of each facial trait; however, remains a 

subjective process which may present significant differences between 

different observers. 

The results have shown an interesting scenario of the respective 

frequencies of different facial traits which may be useful for 

identification. Nonetheless, the high subjectivity in face evaluation 

requires caution in considering morphological classification as a crucial 

tool in facial identification. These results, therefore, suggest a prudent 

approach to visual identification where classification of facial 

morphology may be useful in narrowing down a list of possible matches, 

but cannot be a model to prove identity. Identity should be proven, when 

possible, by implementing general morphological data with a more 

detailed analysis of facial forms, for example by procedures such as 

superimposition. 

Forensic Anthropology, Personal Identification, Facial Identification 

182

H63 Fingering a Murderer: 

A Successful Anthropological and 

Radiological Collaboration 

B.G. Brogdon, MD*, University of South Alabama Medical Center, 

Department of Radiology, 2451 Fillingim Street, Mobile, AL 36617; 

Marcella H. Sorg, PhD*, Margaret Chase Smith Policy Center, 

University of Maine, Orono, ME 04469; and Kerriann Marden, MA, 

c/o 23 Flicker Drive, Topsham, ME 04086 


validity of small, but unique, trabecular patterns in bones or bone 

fragments for purposes of positive identification of unknown burned 

remains. 


emphasizing the value of radiological evaluation of incinerated skeletal 

fragments where DNA extraction is impossible, and the meticulous 

anthropological work essential to provide identifiable specimens for 

radiological study. 

A 24-year-old man reported missing by his mother was last seen on 

a rural “horse farm” in New Hampshire in the company of the somewhat 

reclusive female owner. She had a history of multiple tumultuous 

relationships and a previous assault charge. A warrant was obtained to 

search the property. Burned bones, a burned mattress, a burn-barrel and 

other burn sites were eventually discovered, yielding 30 five-gallon 

buckets-full of burned material. After initial screening by the New 

Hampshire Medical Examiner’s Office, several hundred burned bone 

fragments and other artifacts were sent for analysis to a physical 

anthropology team in an adjoining state. 

Several hundred hours were consumed in separating and 

photographing human bones and teeth fragments from those of at least 

eight non-human species. There was evidence that there had been 

intentional mixing and scattering of remains between the several burn 

sites. This substantially increased the difficulty of the anthropological 

task. When feasible, the fragments were identified as to anatomic site 

and laterality, individually numbered and labeled, packaged in small 

plastic specimen bags for DNA-protocol handling, individually boxed 

and labeled, then sorted for analysis by odontology, radiology, and 

mitochondrial DNA. 

Anthropological examination produced the biological profile of a 

male, in his early 20s, of indeterminate stature and ancestry, with no 

evidence of pathology or perimortem trauma. The odontologist found 

the dental remains to be consistent with the presumed victim’s age and 

previous dental radiographs, but insufficient for positive matching. 

Least burned fragments of bone and teeth were sent for mitochondrial 

DNA testing, but too much organic material had been lost to produce a 

signal. 

Antemortem radiographs of the missing person were obtained 

including images of the dental arches, facial bones and lower half of the 

skull, the right shoulder, the lumbosacral spine and the left hand and 

wrist. All were normal. These were sent along with the boxed and 

labeled fragments for radiological evaluation. Each specimen was 

visually compared with the antemortem images. Promising fragments 

were painstakingly positioned to replicate the projection of that part on 

the antemortem study. Since the victim had been young and healthy, 

there were no skeletal features of disease, degeneration, tumor or trauma. 

Therefore, comparison was limited to the external configuration and 

internal trabecular pattern of each specimen. Most of the fragments were 

devoid of even these features when radiographed with fine detail using a 

mammography x-ray unit and film. After multiple re-positioning and reexamination 

of fragments, positive matches were found in unique 

trabecular patterns in the terminal phalanges of the index and ring fingers 

and a partial fragment of the middle phalanx of the index finger. Thus, 

the victim was positively identified with absolute medical certainty. 

Shortly before trial, the defendant stipulated to the murder and to 

the identity of the victim; a plea of insanity was entered. A jury found 

her sane and, therefore, guilty of first-degree murder. 

Murder, Identification, Burned Remains 

H64 Material Culture Analysis in Forensic 

Cases: A Call for Formal Recognition by 

Forensic Anthropologists 

Mark Skinner, PhD, Simon Fraser University, Department of 

Archeology, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, CANADA; and Ariana Fernandez, 

MPhil, and Derek Congram, MSc*, 706-1850 Comox Street, Vancouver, 

BC V6G 1R3, CANADA 


precedents of anthropologists conducting material culture analysis for 

forensic identification and humanitarian investigations, they will 

appreciate the particular challenges faced, skills, and knowledge 

required and importance of both formal training and formalization of 

expertise in this endeavor. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by publicly 

addressing an aspect of forensic anthropological practice that has yet to 

be acknowledged and discussed in a detailed manner amongst 

practitioners. Continued neglect of the methods and objectives of 

material culture analysis by forensic anthropologists may lead to false or 

unwarranted conclusions in court or accusations of malpractice. It will 

be argued that standardized training and methodology are lacking and 

should be instituted to meet court requirements not only as they pertain 

to expertise but also to address concerns highlighted in rulings such as R 

v. Mohan and Daubert v. Merrell Dow. 

This presentation advocates enhanced material culture analysis by 

forensic anthropologists for medico-legal investigations of identity, 

criminal, and civil investigation. Material culture, particularly that 

associated with other cultures and countries but also marginalized 

members of our own society, is currently practiced though poorly 

documented and rare discussion by anthropologists or other forensic 

scientists. Exceptions include early experimentation on decomposition 

by Morse and Daily (1985) and publications of this past year by 

Baraybar (2008), Birkby et al. (2008) and Daéid et al. (2008). The study 

of clothing and personal objects compliments other analyses performed 

by forensic anthropologists towards the determination of time since 

death, personal identification, and wound type. The examination of 

these materials can also contribute to a determination or estimation of 

sex, gender, stature, physique, age, ancestry/ethnicity, and minimum 

number of individuals. Analysis can validate or call into question 

physical anthropological methods and results. 

Anthropologists have, can, and should conduct material culture 

analyses to various degrees. The level of action and participation is often 

dependent upon the context in which anthropologists are employed. At 

the Centre for Forensic Research at Simon Fraser University in British 

Columbia, clothing is often passed to the anthropologists along with the 

remains, following inspection by police, a pathologist, and the coroner. 

Results of analyses of these associated objects are included in forensic 

anthropology reports. Similar efforts are discussed—albeit in little 

detail—by Birkby et al. (2008) to establish a “cultural profile.” They use 

information gleaned to help distinguish unidentified remains of illegal 

border crossers from Hispanics that are legally within the U.S. 

In the investigation of wide-scale human rights violations, Baraybar 

et al. (2007) and Baraybar (2008) demonstrate the success and 

limitations of such analysis by anthropologists but also the necessity in 

environments where resources, including DNA technology, antemortem 

medical and dental records, may not be available for personal 

identification efforts. In the experience of these authors, even in wealthy 


countries medical or dental records may be non-existent or unavailable 

due to jurisdictional concerns and protocols or legal obligations of the 

protection of privacy of personal information. Thus the role of material 

culture plays a greater role. The same challenges that had been 

experienced in Kosovo, Peru, and Guatemala were also true in Iraq, 

despite the exceptionally generous funding from the United States 

government. In Iraq, however, the employment of a cultural 

anthropologist to examine material culture appears to have been an 

appropriate precedent. 

In the context of repatriation of soldiers who have died in combat, 

where criminal prosecutions do not apply, police and pathologists are 

typically not involved. Drawing conclusions about identity (e.g., nation, 

military unit or division, rank, etc.) is therefore left to those conducting 

recovery and analysis of remains based on material culture and 

osteological analysis (e.g., archaeologists and anthropologists). 

In such instances where a significant amount of time has passed or 

in conditions that promote quick decay of a body, material objects may 

preserve longer and/or better than osteological remains. The extended 

preservation of material remains may occur in regions with acidic soils, 

local conditions that promote dynamic site transformation, and places 

where perpetrators or civilians seeking the remains of loved ones have 

disturbed graves. Thus, where the condition of human remains is such 

that osteological analysis is severely limited, material culture analysis 

again becomes of primary importance and yet experience has shown that 

it is sometimes neglected by other professionals of various 

specializations and appears to be the formal domain of none. 

For those with experience in these contexts it stands to reason that 

they have the requisite experience to conduct similar analyses in the 

context of domestic forensic investigations. It is argued that the person 

with the expertise, and thus responsibility for examining clothing and 

personal objects, is not well established; at times being performed by the 

police, pathologist, anthropologist or, in some cases, not at all. 

Anthropologists and archaeologists are generally trained and have 

experience in the analysis and interpretation of material culture created 

by various sectors of different societies. Forensic anthropologists are 

urged to assume a larger, more comprehensive role in the documentation 

and analysis of material culture. 

Forensic Anthropology, Material Culture, Identification 

H65 Training the National Disaster Victim 


Lucina Hackman, MSc*, Dundee University, WTB/MSI Complex, 

Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 4AH, UNITED KINGDOM 


understanding of the reasons why the training for the National Disaster 

Victim Identification Team was established within a United Kingdom 

university and how this training has helped to move the United Kingdom 

to the forefront of mass disaster preparation. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by giving 

those at the forefront of the response to mass disasters another 

perspective on how training can help to prepare teams for these 

unexpected and often devastating events. 

The Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification at the University 

of Dundee hosts the advanced course in Disaster Victim Identification 

for the United Kingdom police. The 500 officers who have completed 

this course continue on to become members of the National DVI Team. 

The course offers a postgraduate award in DVI for those who complete 

the program successfully. 

Each mass disaster occurs through a unique set of circumstances 

and, therefore, requires an individual, tailored response. Every disaster 

response shares the need to identify those who have lost their lives 

during, and as a direct result of, the disaster. The identification of the 


victims of any disaster is vital for both legal and ethical reasons and 

helps to provide closure for those families that have been affected. 

Under the Civil Contingencies Act 2004 the police in the United 

Kingdom are considered to be one of the primary responders to any 

disaster involving British nationals and, as such, form the core of any 

multidisciplinary team whose efforts are aimed at furnishing the 

identities of those who have died, both nationally and internationally. 

Other members of the team can include, as required, pathologists, 

odontologists, and anthropologists. In the past, training for the police 

has fallen to officers who have gained experience during a response to a 

previous disaster. This has resulted in a tendency to train as if 

responding to that most recent disaster, and has also led to a gradual loss 

of skills through the retirement of those officers. The Centre for 

Anatomy and Human Identification has moved away from this approach 

by providing a course which not only aims to produce a cadre of omniskilled 

officers, but which also allows police officers to train alongside 

the specialists, such as the pathologists and anthropologists with whom 

they will be deployed. 

The immediacy of response to these disasters, which is driven by 

the unexpected nature of the incident, means that police officers must be 

prepared and trained to the highest standards. This training must be 

consistent, robust, and fit for purpose. The events of 2005, which 

included the aftermath of the Asian Tsunami, the London bombings, 

hurricane Katrina, and the Pakistan earthquake, underlined the need for 

a recognized group of police officers who would be able to respond to 

disasters both abroad and on the United Kingdom mainland. In the 

United Kingdom a cadre of 500 officers has been identified who will 

form the National DVI team in the event of a deployment. These officers 

are chosen from all of the police forces in the United Kingdom and 

proportional representation allows for all of the forces to take an equal 

share in the provision of officers. The Centre for Anatomy and Human 

Identification at the University of Dundee provides core training for 

those officers who have been identified as members of the National 

United Kingdom DVI Team and who would be required to respond in the 

event of both national and international disasters. This training also 

brings together the specialists who would make up the DVI team in the 

event of a disaster, allowing these two disparate but essential groups of 

professionals to meet and develop skills together. 

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI), Training, Police 

H66 The Need for Holistic Investigations of 

Human Rights Violations: An Example 

From Peru 

Jose P. Baraybar, MSc*, EPAF, Av. Mello Franco 341, Jesus Maria, 

PERU; and Ellen Salter-Pedersen, MA, Department of Anthropology, 

Indiana University, 701 East Kirkwood, SB130, Bloomington, IN 47405 

The goal of this presentation is to discuss a context based approach 

to a forensic investigation of human rights violations. The case example 

from Peru illustrates a comprehensive investigation by a team of forensic 

anthropologists which was carried out with limited access to resources, 

facilities, and technology. 


an alternate approach to the highly specialized and compartmentalized 

investigations done in North America and Europe. 

This approach has been used in Peru where resources and political 

will are limited. Exhumations are frequently carried out in remote 

settings; technology and facilities both in the field and the lab are limited 

to the most basic equipment. Experts are often trained in the field rather 

than in academic settings and are required to fulfill multiple investigative 

roles rather than specialize in one area. These challenges require a 

different approach than the highly specialized, compartmentalized 

investigations done in North America and Europe; thus, forensic 

184

anthropologists in Peru have developed a creative approach relevant to 

the situations in which they work. 

A case study is presented based on an investigation carried out in 

early 2008 by the Equipo Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF). The 

site is located in a remote part of the Andean highlands of Peru; in 1984 

during the internal conflict (1980-2000), over 100 peasants who had 

been displaced by the terrorists were relocated by the military. They 

were later killed and buried in a mass grave. 

Anthropologists began the investigation with the collection of 

antemortem data from the friends and relatives of the victims. 

Antemortem data includes physical descriptions of the victims, the 

clothes that they were last seen in, any personal effects they possessed, 

details of their life such as accidents and injuries that may be reflected in 

the skeletal remains, and details of their disappearance or execution. The 

information was collected using standardized forms including drawings, 

images, and color charts. DNA samples were also collected from family 

members. Interviews with family members were carried out in their 

native language, Quechua. The data is stored in EPAF’s Forensic 

Anthropology Database which allows for complex searches and protects 

the identities of the informants. 

The goals of the fieldwork were not simply to recover the human 

remains and evidence; but to reconstruct the most probable scenario. 

The remains were exhumed using traditional archaeological techniques, 

commingled bodies were separated in the field before recovery, and 

skeletal remains were recovered within the clothing when possible. The 

area surrounding the grave was searched for evidence and to identify 

possible access routes. Bullets and casings were flagged in the field and 

were identified as belonging to two types of military issue weapons. The 

angle of ejection of casings from a similar weapon was tested in both 

single shot and burst and the results were extrapolated to the evidence 

found at the site to identify the locations of the shooters and reconstruct 

the scenario. 

Laboratory work included analysis of skeletal remains to develop a 

biological profile. Trauma analysis was complemented by macroscopic 

examination of the clothing in order to ascertain the most probable cause 

of death. Gunshot wounds and sharp force trauma frequently penetrate 

the clothing; thus, proposed trajectories may be substantiated. Bullets 

and casing were also found within the clothing. In some cases, 

pseudotrauma in the bones was confirmed by the lack of evidence in the 

clothing; conversely, possible injuries were identified in clothing when 

skeletal remains were incomplete. Detailed descriptions and photos of 

the clothing were also made for identification purposes. 

After laboratory analysis was completed, the antemortem and 

postmortem profiles were compared to establish putative identifications. 

These identifications will be confirmed through DNA whenever 

possible, but frequently immediate family members are not available to 

provide reference samples. In this case, entire families were killed and 

DNA may identify relatives among the victims. Exhibitions of victims’ 

clothing and personal effects for recognition by family members may 

also confirm putative identity. 

The holistic approach employed by EPAF has resulted in 

identifications in multiple cases from the internal conflict in Peru. Once 

identified, the remains can be repatriated to family members, an 

important step in the reconciliation process. The recent sentence against 

the Colina group operatives in the La Cantuta case was a hallmark in 

Peruvian history as it was the first conviction for human rights violations 

based on forensic evidence. These achievements indicate that forensic 

anthropology can succeed in spite of limited resources to funds, 

specialized expertise, facilities and technology. Further, forensic 

investigations do not always need to be conducted by highly specialized 

academics; context based expertise often provides a more 

comprehensive perspective. 

Human Rights Violations, Forensic Anthropology, Peru 

H67 Reconciling the Discrepancy in Victim 



Debra Komar, PhD*, International Criminal Tribunal for the Former 

Yugoslavia, Van der Heimstraat 64, The Hague, NETHERLANDS 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn of on-going 

investigations relating to the Cambodian conflict of the 1970s and how 

the minimum number of individuals can be determined in specific mass 

death scenarios. 

This presentation will benefit the forensic community by 

contributing to the understanding of genocidal conflicts and international 

human rights investigations. 

In 1975, the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) overthrew Lon 

Nol’s Republican regime, ending Cambodia’s civil war. The CPK, 

known as the Khmer Rouge, assumed power led by the notorious Pol 

Pot. Over the next four years, the CPK inflicted a cultural revolution of 

forced “Khmerization” on the Cambodian population, which targeted all 

other ethnicities, nationalities, religions, and languages for eradication. 

Pol Pot’s revolution resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,100,000 

Cambodians. On January 7, 1979, Vietnamese forces reached Phnom 

Penh, Cambodia’s capital, effectively ending Pol Pot’s reign. 

Negotiations between Cambodia and the United Nations to strike a 

formal investigative tribunal have finally reached fruition. The first 

court of its kind in the world, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts 

of Cambodia (ECCC) is a hybrid tribunal that uses local law but 

incorporates international judges and staff. The ECCC indictment of 

Kaing Guek Eay (a.k.a “Duch”), the commander of the S-21 prison, has 

prompted a reexamination of the documentation and forensic evidence 

associated with his command. One question raised is the apparent 

discrepancy between the number of victims reportedly processed and 

killed in S-21 and the number of individuals recovered from the 

purported burial site, a Chinese graveyard near Choeung Ek. At least 

12,499 individuals were reportedly killed following their incarceration at 

S-21, while the remains of only 8,895 victims have been recovered to 

date at Choeung Ek. This discrepancy raises multiple possibilities, 

including the potential of alternative burial sites or a greater number of 

survivors than previously believed. 

References to S-21 first appear in September 1975 in Khmer Rouge 

documents but the facility did not become operational until May or June 

of 1976. Kaing Guek Eav arrived at S-21 in June 1976 and retained 

control of the facility until the arrival of the Vietnamese in January 1979. 

Duch also served as the Security Chief of the CPK’s state security 

organization known as the Santebal. No specific documents directly 

linking Pol Pot to orders to torture or execute individuals at S-21 have 

been found, although links between S-21 and the Party Center (Angkar) 

have been established conclusively. 

All prisoners at S-21 were killed not only because of their perceived 

crimes but also to maintain secrecy regarding the prison’s existence. The 

number of prisoners executed at Choeung Ek fluctuated daily from a few 

dozen to over three hundred. A review of the confessions and other 

documents recovered from S-21 placed the total number of prisoners at 

12,499. Of the thousands of prisoners processed at S-21, only seven are 

known to have survived. Given the uncontested link between S-21 and 

Choeung Ek, why are more than 3,500 victims still unaccounted for? A 

review of the available evidence reveals the following: 

1. When S-21 first opened in 1976, prisoners were clubbed to 

death in the field to the west of the compound and buried 

where they fell in shallow graves. This impromptu cemetery 

quickly filled and by 1977, Choeung Ek became the killing 

field and burial facility for S-21. Remains from the S-21 

compound have been recovered and in 2008, additional 

remains were found during construction at the property 

adjacent to the prison. A formal estimate of the minimum 


number of individuals (MNI) represented by these remains has 

not yet been calculated. 

2. Mass graves at Choeung Ek were exhumed beginning in 

January 1979 under the auspices of the government’s 

Genocide Research Committee into Khmer Rouge crimes. 

Local communities also exhumed mass graves, and a small 

number of graves were robbed in search of valuables. Of the 

130 purported mass graves at Choeung Ek, only 89 have been 

formally excavated. An up-to-date survey of Choeung Ek 

using more advanced imaging techniques is warranted. 

3. Exhumations at Choeung Ek have uncovered a total of 8,895 

individuals. However, this MNI was calculated by counting 

complete skulls. A more exacting method of determining MNI 

is needed to accurately estimate the victims represented. 

Despite the initial perception of a significant number of missing 

victims, it is highly probable that the overwhelming majority of reported 

victims from the S-21 prison can be accounted for, provided additional 

forensic investigations are carried out at both the S-21 prison and the 

Choeung Ek killing fields. In spite of the more than 30 years that have 

past since these events took place, scientific examination of physical 

evidence can play a vital role in answering crucial questions in the 

upcoming legal proceedings. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights Investigations, Genocide 

H68 Forensic Findings on Illegal Burials 

in Colombia 

Claudia M. Briceno*, Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad, 

Carrera 28 # 17a-00, BOGOTA, COLOMBIA 

The goals of this presentation are to: (1) present significant forensic 

findings on illegal burials secondary to the armed conflict in Colombia, 

(2) describe the types of illegal burials specific to different illegal groups 

involved in the armed conflict in Colombia, and (3) to analyze illegal 

burials in a sociocultural context. 


the analysis performed on illegal burials by forensic experts under the 

context of the armed conflict in Colombia, and the sociocultural 

characteristics of the population that allowed the detection of forensic 

evidence on the victims of illegal groups. 

The armed conflict in Colombia started over 50 years ago involving 

several illegal groups, including left-wing guerrillas (Revolutionary 

Armed Forces of Colombia, FARC; National Liberation Army, ELN) and 

right-wing paramilitaries (United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia, 

AUC). Over 30,000 people have disappeared over the last two decades 

secondary to the action of these illegal groups. For that reason, forensic 

experts in Colombia are challenged with unusual findings in illegal 

burials, including countless types of death, funerary rituals, and 

entombments. This presentation has the objective to show and describe 

some of the more important findings revealing several sociocultural 

traditions on illegal burials, including religious beliefs and magical 

thoughts. In addition, illegal burials have revealed that specific groups 

adopt different criminal methods and techniques (apparently during their 

basic induction to the armed group) including anatomic disarticulation of 

the bodies recovered in different geographical places from Colombia. 

Several findings on illegal burials are important for the forensic 

experts in Colombia: When a member of the guerrilla group dies, the 

funerary ritual depends on their rank inside the organization, taking into 

account their religious and magical beliefs, and commonly emphasizing 

eternal life and revenge. 

There are reports of illegal groups collecting anatomic parts 

(usually bones) of kidnapped people who died in captivity. Their 

objective is to collect money from the victim’s family in exchange for 

information of the exact place of inhumation. These anatomic elements 


and the information given by the family are very key elements in the 

preliminary identification of exhumed remains. 

Human bodies belonging to important members of the illegal group 

are often covered using five layers of different materials to ensure a 

longer preservation period. This practice has also been documented in 

cases of illegal burials of important persons in the society. Additionally, 

materials like bullets, ropes, handcuffs, knifes, clothes, liquor bottles, 

syringes, gauzes, and bandages are frequently found in the site of burial. 

These elements are very important to determine the circumstances of 

death. 

Analyses of illegal burials by forensic experts are critical in 

determining the illegal groups involved in the crime and the 

identification of the disappeared persons. Proper knowledge of the 

groups participating in the armed conflict, as well as the diverse 

sociocultural patterns of the population living in Colombia, are important 

elements in the forensic field. 

Colombian forensic experts are working hard to return the remains 

of missing persons to their families and are collecting evidence for 

criminal justice. Forensic sciences are essential to investigating the truth 

about the violent crimes in Colombia. 

Colombia, Illegal Burials, Armed Conflict 

H69 Evolution of Forensic Archaeology 

and Anthropology in Italy: Three 

Criminal Cases 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Dominic Salsarola, BSc, Davide J. Porta, PhD, 

Pasquale Poppa, BSc, and Daniele Gibelli, MD*, Laboratorio di 

Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, V. Mangiagalli, 37, Milan, ITALY; 

Giovanna Sansoni, BE, Laboratorio di Optoelettronica, Via Branze 38, 

25123 Brescia – Italy, Brescia, ITALY; and Enrico Silingardi, 

Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense, V. Mangiagalli, 37, 

Milan, ITALY 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be briefed on the 

first three cases where forensic archeology was applied in Italy for the 

search and recovery of victims of organized crime, and how the scenario 

is evolving. 


the application and advantages of archeological methods to the search 

and recovery of buried corpses. 

Forensic archeology applies the techniques of search and recovery 

commonly performed in the archeological context to forensic cases, and 

aims at the best possible conservation of the deposition site and the 

human remains. Thus it should be considered of primary importance by 

police and judicial authorities in cases where a body needs to be found 

and adequately recovered. Nevertheless, in Italy and in southern Europe 

this discipline is still rarely applied in real cases, with obvious disastrous 

outcomes. 

The first case occurred in October 2001 in a wooded area at the 

outskirts of Milan. Children from a nearby nursery school found a boot 

emerging from the ground that appeared to contain several bones. The 

skeletal remains were recovered as indicated by archeological 

recommendations; a conservative recovery of all the skeletal elements, 

clothes, and personal belongings was then performed. The area was 

recorded by topographical methods, and tree roots crossing the 

deposition site were sampled, which made a postmortem interval 

estimation (PMI) possible. The botanical and product analysis of clothes 

limited the PMI estimation to between 1995 and 1998. The 

reconstruction of biological data revealed that the skeletal remains 

belonged to a 20-25 year old female subject. A facial reconstruction was 

performed and the resulting broadcast helped a prostitute from Kosovo 

recognize the subject as a friend called Viola, but at the present time a 

186

positive identification has not yet been achieved. The anthropological 

analysis pointed out a cut mark with peri-mortem characteristics at the 

lower margin of the 10 th left rib. 

The second case concerns the corpses of two missing adolescents 

found in May 2004 in a wooded area near Varese. The discovery came 

after a confession from their murderers, called “Satan’s Beasts” because 

of their devotion to drugs and Satanism, who indicated the woods in 

which the victims had been buried. The first recovery procedures were 

conducted by cadaver dogs, followed by field walking, and the use of a 

metal detector/georadar. After no signs of burial were found, the 

murderers were led to the site and indicated a new field, where the 

application of archeological methodology led to the appearance of a 

ditch. The fill was then removed and on the bottom two skeletonized 

corpses were found. The first subject was male, 15-18 years old, and the 

second one was female, 17-22 years old. The two corpses were 

identified as the missing adolescents according to odontological and 

anthropological methods. The female subject was hit at least 11 times by 

a sharp force tool (a large knife). The male subject was hit at least 12 

times and was also hit by a mallet in the facial region. The lesions 

observed were consistent with the events referred to by the murderers. 

The third case concerns the search of a buried body (a victim of a 

mafia execution) which, according to the murderer, took place in 

December 2006 in a wooded area in the outskirts of Milano. His 

accomplices reported he had shot and beheaded the victim, although he 

had always denied it (he in fact had said that he was only responsible for 

burying the body, not for the murder). Thus, the magistrate wanted to 

verify whose version was true. At the beginning of the search, a 10 x 10 

m area was defined the analysis of soil anomalies went on until 

excavation activities revealed the cranial vault. The human remains in 

the fill were cleaned, photographed, sketched, and then a 3-D digitizing 

analysis of the site was performed. Close to the cranium, a dental 

prosthesis was found. The subject was male, 20-28 years old, according 

to anthropological analyses. Positive identification was reached by 

odontological data based on the prosthesis found during the excavation 

procedure. The cranium, severely fractured, was finally cleaned and 

reassembled in order to verify the presence of lesions. The analysis of 

the cranium pointed out that the victim was hit by two gunshots. No 

lesion consistent with a possible beheading was observed. 

These cases show how, at least in northern Italy, judges and police 

authorities are beginning to employ anthropologists and archeologists for 

the retrieval and recovery of buried bodies. Among pathologists and 

magistrates, these cases have also strengthened the theory that only by 

proper archaeological methodology can proper reconstruction of identity, 

mode of deposition and trauma analysis be performed. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Archeology, Buried Corpses 

H70 Sexual Dimorphism of Index to Ring 

Finger Ratio in South Indian Children 

Tanuj Kanchan, MD*, Kasturba Medical College, Department of 

Forensic Medicine, Light House Hill Road, Mangalore, 575 001, INDIA 


index and ring finger ratio as a possible sex indicator in South Indian 

children. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community in the 

identification of victims from dismembered human remains encountered 

in cases of mass disasters and explosions, and assault cases where the 

body is dismembered to conceal the identity of the victim. When an 

individual hand is recovered and brought for examination, index and ring 

finger ratio may prove to be a useful tool for sex determination of the 

dismembered remains. 

Definitive sexual traits are not manifested until after the full 

development of secondary sexual characters that appear during puberty. 

Thus sex determination from prepubertal human remains is a challenge 

for forensic experts and physical anthropologists worldwide. The 

research was undertaken to investigate sexual dimorphism of the index 

and ring finger ratio in South Indian children. 

The study was conducted on 350 children (175 males and 175 

females) of South Indian origin aged 12 years and below at Manipal in 

coastal Karnataka, South India. The index finger length (IFL) and the 

ring finger length (RFL) were measured in millimeters in each hand. The 

distance between the mid point of the proximal most flexion crease at the 

base, and the most forward placed point (tip) of each finger in the 

midline on the ventral (palmar) surface were recorded for each hand. 

The index and ring finger ratio was computed by dividing index finger 

length by ring finger length. The data obtained were analyzed 

statistically using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 

10.0) computer software. Student’s t-test was performed to compare the 

index and the ring finger lengths and the ratio in the two hands, and 

between both sexes; a p-value ≤ 0.05 was considered as significant. 

Mean IFL and RFL values were significantly higher in males for 

both hands. Difference in mean RFL between males and females was, 

however, more than the difference in mean IFL in both hands. In all the 

hands that were examined, mean RFL was greater than mean IFL in both 

males and females. Index and ring finger ratio derived from the finger 

lengths ranged from 0.89 to 1.02 in males with a mean of 0.9500, and 

from 0.90 to 1.06 with a mean of 0.9887 in females for the right hand. 

For the left hand, the index and ring finger ratio ranged from 0.89 to 1.02 

in males with a mean of 0.9488, and from 0.90 to 1.06 with a mean of 

0.9864 in females. The derived ratio showed a statistically significant 

difference between males and females (p < 0.001). The index and ring 

finger ratio did not show any significant differences between the two 

hands in males and females. 

The study reveals that the index and ring finger ratio shows sexual 

dimorphism in the South Indian children and thus may prove useful to 

determine the sex of an isolated hand when it is submitted for 

medicolegal examination. The index and ring finger ratio is found to be 

higher in females when compared to their male counterparts in both 

hands. The study suggests that ratio of 0.9700 and less is suggestive of 

male sex for both hands, while a ratio of more than 0.9700 is suggestive 

that the hand is of female origin. Similar studies are proposed to confirm 

the findings of our study and find if sexual dimorphism in the index to 

ring finger ratio is a constant feature in other population and age groups. 

Forensic Anthropology, Sex Determination, Index to Ring 

Finger Ratio 

H71 Subadult Sexual Dimorphism in Long Bone 


Miriam E. Soto, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, 1425 South Stadium Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996 


significant sexual dimorphism is present in subadult long bone 

dimensions. Attendees will also learn that the development of a new sex 

determination method for subadults, utilizing long bone dimensions, 

may be a possibility in the future. 


contributing to the available research on subadult sex estimation. This 

research is important because sex estimation is an important aspect of the 

biological profile. However, when dealing with subadult remains sex 

assessment is still very difficult. Development of a reliable sex 

determination method for subadults would aid in the identification of 

unidentified juvenile remains. 

The purpose of this study is to evaluate sexual dimorphism of long 

bone dimensions in a sample of 72 individuals ranging in age from birth 

to 17 years. The sample was obtained from the Luís Lopes collection 


curated at the Bocage museum in Lisbon, Portugal. The subadult sample 

consisted of two groups, one group ranging in age from birth to 11 years 

and the second group ranging in age from 12 to 17 years. In order to test 

whether significant sexual dimorphism was present in the long bones, 

MANCOVA tests were performed on the following measurements: 

maximum clavicle length, maximum diameter of the clavicle, minimum 

diameter of the clavicle, circumference of the clavicle, maximum 

glenoid cavity breadth, maximum diameter of the humerus, minimum 

diameter of the humerus, circumference of the humerus, maximum 

breadth of the distal humerus, maximum diameter of the radius, 

minimum diameter of the radius, circumference of the radius, maximum 

diameter of the ulna, minimum diameter of the ulna, circumference of 

the ulna, maximum diameter of the femur, minimum diameter of the 

femur, circumference of the femur, maximum breadth of the distal femur, 

maximum diameter of tibia, minimum diameter of the tibia, 

circumference of the tibia, maximum breadth of the proximal tibia, 

maximum diameter of the fibula, minimum diameter of the fibula, and 

circumference of the fibula. Results of the analysis indicate that 

significant sexual dimorphism was detected in the clavicle, radius, and 

tibia of the young subadult group. In the older subadult group, 

significant sexual dimorphism was detected in the clavicle, humerus, 

ulna, femur, and tibia. Logistic regression tests were also performed on 

the data to determine the probability of classifying an individual into the 

correct sex group. Cross-validation was not available due to small 

sample sizes. Therefore, all probabilities are inflated and results should 

be considered preliminary. Although the probabilities are inflated, the 

results suggest that the sexual dimorphism in subadults may be 

significant enough to differentiate between the sexes. Clavicle 

measurements proved to be fairly accurate sex predictors for young and 

older subadults. Models constructed from clavicle measurements 

correctly sexed ~83% of the young subadult sample (≤11 years) and 

~95% of the older subadult sample (≥12 years). Humerus, tibia, and ulna 

measurements were more accurate at predicting the sex of older 

subadults than younger subadults. Humerus measurements correctly 

classified ~77% of the younger subadult sample and ~94% the older 

subadult sample. Ulna measurements correctly classified 74% of the 

younger subadults and 86% of the older subadult sample. Although only 

~72% of the young subadult sample was correctly sexed using tibia 

measurements, they appear to be very effective (~92% accurate) for 

predicting the sex of older subadults. Overall, the most accurate models 

for sexing subadults in this sample were constructed from the 

measurements of several long bones, but this greatly reduced the sample 

size. Approximately 91% of the young subadult sample was accurately 

classified using a combination of measurements from different long 

bones. 

This research suggests that sexing subadults from long bone 

dimensions could be a possibility in the future. Further research should 

be conducted on sexual dimorphism in subadult long bone dimensions. 

Such research could lead to the development of a sex determination 

method for subadults. 

Subadult, Sexual Dimorphism, Long Bone Dimensions 


H72 Sex Estimation From the Clavicle in 

Modern Americans: Traditional Versus 

Alternative Approaches 

Natalie R. Shirley, MA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Brandon 

C. Merkl, MS, University of Tennessee, Department of Mechanical, 

Aerospace, and Biomedica, 414 Dougherty Engineering Building, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Richard Jantz, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate several approaches to 

quantifying sexual dimorphism in the human clavicle: linear 

discriminant functions, neural networks, and curvature analysis with 

medial axis representation. 


discriminant functions for sex estimation from the clavicle in modern 

Americans. Additionally, this research aims to combine information 

about size and shape to achieve maximum accuracy in sex estimation and 

to provide a model for similar analyses of other skeletal elements. 

Traditionally, linear discriminant functions are used to discriminate 

among the sexes. However, neural networks offer the power of multiple 

non-linear discriminant functions and often provide superior 

discriminatory capabilities. Furthermore, capturing shape offers an 

additional method of discriminating sex that, when combined with either 

of the methods above, can assist in making accurate assessments. This 

presentation will examine each of these methods and propose the most 

accurate and precise method for sex estimation. 

The William F. McCormick Clavicle Collection at the University of 

Tennessee contains clavicles from approximately 2,000 individuals from 

East Tennessee. In order to facilitate rapid data collection from a sample 

of this size, the entire collection was scanned with computed tomography 

scanning, and three-dimensional computer models were created. 

Scanning the bones also enabled the exploration of a number of 

alternative measurements and way to standardize the curvature analysis. 

A subset of 1,407 adults was used in this study. The sample was 

comprised of 53 African Americans and 1,354 Caucasians. 

Measurements analyzed include maximum length, sagittal midshaft 

diameter, vertical midshaft diameter, maximum midshaft diameter, 

minimum midshaft diameter, two diameters from the lateral end, and two 

diameters from the medial end. Curvature was analyzed by making 

angular measurements on a medial axis representation of the clavicle 

shaft. 

The sample was analyzed with pooled and separate ancestries, and 

all discriminant analyses were performed in SAS 9.1 using crossvalidation. 

Overall, the hit ratios were the same with both approaches, 

but separate discriminant functions are provided for whites and blacks. 

The best classification rate was 92.22% using maximum length, 

maximum and minimum midshaft diameters, and maximum and 

minimum diameters of the lateral end. A simple three-variable model 

with maximum length and maximum and minimum midshaft diameters 

discriminated with 91.44% accuracy. The new measurements from the 

lateral clavicle discriminate 77.72% accurately alone. The medial 

measurements did not perform well (62.38%) and were omitted from all 

final models. Maximum and minimum midshaft diameters performed 

equally as well as sagittal and vertical midshaft diameters; since 

maximum and minimum midshaft diameters are easier to measure 

precisely, these measurements offer a way to reduce inter-observer error. 

The same sample was subsequently classified using a Feed-Forward 

Backpropagating Neural Network (NN). A network was constructed 

using all nine measured variables plus one binary variable indicating side 

(L = 0, R = 1) as input nodes, followed by a layer of eight hidden nodes, 

and finally an output layer of two nodes (one per sex). The network was 

trained using random subsets of the clavicle sample, where 30% were 

used for training, 30% were used for validation, and 40% were used for 

188

testing. Neural networks are ideal for a sample of this size because they 

are robust to assumptions of normality and equality of variancecovariance 

matrices. The final testing classification rate was 94.58%, 

while the overall classification (including the whole sample) was 

94.22%. The three-variable model with maximum length and maximum 

and minimum midshaft diameters resulted in a testing classification rate 

of 93.48%. 

Analysis of curvature was performed using a medial axis 

representation of the clavicle. The bone models were divided into 8-16 

sections perpendicular to the shaft. The midpoint of the section was 

selected as one vertex of the medial axis. Subsequently, line segments 

connecting the medial axis points were connected to form an 

approximation to the shaft curvature. By analyzing the angular 

deviations between adjacent sections, quantitative shape information is 

acquired in a compact format. Distinct shape trends between the sexes 

were noted, but require further analysis before they can be suitably 

integrated into the classification procedures. 

Sex Estimation, Clavicle, Neural Networks 

H73 The Impact of Racial Metric Variation in 

the Pelvis on the Morphological Assessment 

of Sex 

Ginesse A. Listi, PhD*, Louisiana State University, 1723 Lombard 

Drive, Baton Rouge, LA 70810 

The goal of this presentation is to explore whether or not racial 

metric variation in the pelvis affects the morphological assessment of 

sex. 


demonstrating that quantitative variation in the pelves of white and black 

Americans does not affect the accuracy of sex determination. 

Previous research on determining race from the pelvis generally has 

focused on quantitative variation. Based on certain measurements of the 

pelvis, or of the os coxa, researchers have been able to discriminate race 

between white and black Americans in test samples with overall 

accuracies ranging from 58% to 83%. Also, several of these studies have 

found that the pelves of black Americans tended to be “smaller” or 

“narrower” than those of white Americans, though such differences were 

not always statistically significant. 

Determination of sex from the morphology of the pelvis is based on 

the premise that, in many of the traits, females are larger (longer, wider, 

broader) than males. Yet, few studies have assessed whether the 

quantitative differences between the races affect, or are apparent in, the 

morphological traits used by anthropologists to determine the sex of the 

individual. In one notable exception, Patriquin et al. (2003) found 

significant differences between white and black South Africans in the 

accuracy of morphological traits for sex determination. 

The purpose of the present study is to examine whether or not sex 

determination based on morphological traits is impacted by racial 

quantitative variation. Nineteen morphological traits were evaluated by 

two different observers in 876 os coxae. For this study, a random sample 

of 400 individuals was selected, composed of 100 of each race and sex 

category. Chi-square was used to assess the impact of race on: (1) the 

accuracy of sex determination based on all 19 traits collectively, (2) the 

evaluation of sex for the individual traits, and (3) inter-observer variation 

in sex assessment. The level of significance for all tests was p < .05. 

Results indicate that race did not impact the accuracy of sex 

determination for either observer when all traits were considered 

together. However, race did affect the evaluation of sex for some 

individual traits. For Observer “A,” significant variation existed in sex 

assessment between black and white individuals in 6/19 traits for males 

and 1/19 traits for females. For Observer “B,” no significant difference 

in sex assessment between black and white males was noted for any trait; 

however, significant differences in sex determination existed in 3/19 

traits in females. In the analysis of inter-observer variation, significant 

inter-observer differences were noted between the races for females 

when all traits were considered together, but not for males. When traits 

were assessed individually, 2/19 traits in males and 4/19 traits in females 

had significant inter-observer differences in sex determination between 

the races. 

Though race affected the evaluation of sex in certain individual 

traits, the accuracy of sex determination was not impacted when all traits 

were considered collectively. Additionally, the traits that showed 

significant variation in sex assessment between the races generally were 

not related to the size of the pelvis, or to the pelvic inlet or outlet, as 

might be expected considering the reported size differences between 

white and black pelves. Instead, the traits affected by race were 

“discrete” (i.e., they are commonly evaluated as “present/absent”). 

Furthermore, of the nine traits that showed significant differences in sex 

assessment between the races, none overlapped between the observers; 

however, five of these traits were significant in the analysis of interobserver 

variation. These results may indicate that the disparity in sex 

determination found in certain traits may be due as much to interobserver 

differences in trait interpretation as to morphological 

dissimilarities between the races. 

In conclusion, the objective of this research was not to be able to 

determine race from the pelvis, but to explore whether or not the 

quantitative differences in the pelves of white and black Americans 

affect the morphological assessment of sex. Results from this study 

indicate that they do not. 

Reference: 

Patriquin ML, Loth SR, Steyn M. Sexually dimorphic pelvic 

morphology in South African whites and blacks. Homo 

2003;53(3):255-262. 

Race, Sex Assessment, Pelvis 

H74 Bilateral Asymmetry in Historic Versus 

Modern Skeletal Remains: Activity 

and Identification 

Shannon E. May, MA*, 250 South Stadium Hall, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37966 

The goal of this presentation is to determine the presence of 

bilateral asymmetry in two temporally and geographically diverse 

skeletal collections, and to compare and contrast these values. Levels of 

lateralization are then considered in terms of activity, sex, and age. 


demonstrating the utility of bilateral asymmetry in modern forensic 

casework and in skeletal biological contexts. Furthermore, the 

population-specific nature and sexual dimorphism of side-dominance is 

addressed. 

Bilateral asymmetry is defined as metric and morphological 

differences in paired biological structures, and may be used to infer 

various forms of environmental and mechanical stress imposed upon the 

skeletal system. [1] Directional asymmetry, also termed lateralization or 

side-dominance, is observed most often in human skeletal remains, and 

occurs when unimanual loading induces bone modification on a 

particular side. This typically results in larger size, cortical thickness, 

and greater robusticity of bones from the side receiving the greater stress. 

Anthropological studies have used bilateral asymmetry to establish 

activity patterns, [2] differentiate between the sexes, [3] and assign 

handedness to an unknown set of skeletal remains. [4] 

The current study investigates the level of asymmetry in two 

diverse skeletal collections: (1) The New Lisbon Collection sourced 

from Lisbon, Portugal, representing a historic European sample, and (2) 

The William M. Bass Skeletal Collection, sourced primarily from the 


southeastern United States, representing a modern skeletal set born 

during the twentieth-century. Equal sample sizes of 250 individuals 

from each collection were used. Postcranial long bone measurements 

were taken on each sample according to standards created by Moore- 

Jansen et al. [5] A total of seventeen measurements were taken, evaluating 

maximum and minimum length, diameter, and areas of muscle 

attachment. Both right and left elements were measured, using an 

osteometric board and digital calipers. An asymmetry index was also 

calculated as the difference between right and left elements of a pair, 

standardized by the mean of both components: [(R – L) x 100] / [(R + 

L)/2]. This formula preserves both direction and magnitude of 

asymmetry, while standardizing for size, thus allowing comparison 

between skeletal areas and individuals. Extensive biographic 

information has been documented for each skeletal sample, allowing 

additional demographic analysis. 

Paired T-tests revealed significant side-difference (p ≤ 0.05) in 

twelve measurements in the New Lisbon Collection but only five 

variables in the Bass Collection. While the Lisbon samples 

demonstrated significant side discrepancy in variable dimensions, Bass 

samples were primarily bilateral in terms of maximum length. The New 

Lisbon Collection also showed a greater sex-specific concentration in 

asymmetry: female asymmetry located in the mid-arm (measurements of 

the elbow-joint) and male asymmetry concentrated in the shoulder 

girdle. Sexes were separated for between-collection comparisons, and 

only shared asymmetrical variables were utilized. Multivariate 

Hotellings 2-sample T-tests showed Lisbon males having significantly 

higher levels of asymmetry in all variables except ulna length (p = 0.002 

– 0.01), as did Lisbon females (p = 0.001 – 0.04). In two measurements, 

the average Bass male asymmetry fell within the range of the Lisbon 

females, underscoring the importance of source/context when 

investigating sex and asymmetry in unknown remains. Additional 

analysis on the New Lisbon Collection reveals that Portuguese juvenile 

remains demonstrate lateralization by ten years age-at-death, with 

subadult males having higher asymmetrical values. 

It may be concluded that bilateral asymmetry is population-specific 

and most likely related to the amount and degree of mechanical loading 

experienced by the group. Modern groups like the Bass Collection 

represent a more sedentary lifestyle, resulting in less activity-induced 

modification. Conversely the historic Portuguese represent a group 

habitually engaged in heavy labor. While sexual dimorphism in 

asymmetry exists for each group, it is crucial to discern the potential 

sample populations and the inherent levels of asymmetry before 

assigning sex or handedness to an unknown set of remains. Finally, 

analysis of juvenile remains indicates that lateralization in long bones 

may be apparent at a young age, particularly in highly active groups. 

This may provide another approach to the difficult task of determining 

sex in subadult remains. 

References: 

1 Dangerfield PH. 1994. Asymmetry and Growth. In: Ulijaszek SJ, 

Mascie-Taylor CGN, editors. Anthropometry: The Individual and 

the Population. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 

1994;7-29. 

2 Fresia AE, Ruff CB, Larsen CS. Temporal decline in bilateral 

asymmetry of the upper limb on the Georgia coast. Anthropological 

Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 1990;68:121- 

135 

3 Stirland AJ. Asymmetry and activity-related change in the male 

humerus. Int J Osteoarcheol 1993;3:105-113. 

4 Steele J. Handedness in past populations: Skeletal markers. 

Laterality 2000;5:193-220. 

5 Moore-Jansen PM, Ousley SD, Jantz RL. 1994. Data Collection 

Procedure for Forensic Skeletal Material. Knoxville, TN: Forensic 

Anthropology Center, University of Tennessee. 

Asymmetry, Handedness, Mechanical Loading 


H75 Observer Error Analysis Trends in 


Megan Ingvoldstad, MA, Ohio State University, Department of 

Anthropology, 244 Lord Hall, 124 West 17th Avenue Columbus, OH 

43210; and Christian Crowder, PhD*, Medical Examiner’s Office, 520 

First Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

After attending this presentation, attendees will recognize research 

trends in the evaluation and reporting of observer error in the forensic 

anthropological literature. 


demonstrating the lack of observer error analysis in the anthropological 

literature over a 28-year period. Furthermore, this research indicates the 

trends in types of statistical analyses used for observer error analysis, 

when they are performed. As issues of professional standards continue 

to be addressed in the courts, it is imperative that anthropologists be 

proactive by increasing the scientific rigor in developing, comparing, 

and testing anthropological methods. 

Forensic anthropology has recently emerged from a transitional 

period in which it has been described as the application of physical 

anthropological analyses in the medico-legal setting. Methods 

developed within physical anthropology typically explore research 

questions at the population level, while forensic anthropology focuses 

more on the individual of a given population. Furthermore, methods of 

analysis used in the forensic context must meet specific demands due to 

the evidentiary nature of the results. While methods developed within 

physical anthropology have little need to recognize the potential legal 

and social ramifications of unreliable or inaccurate results, the scientific 

method (regardless of field) demands a certain level of scientific rigor in 

method development. Since the Daubert court ruling, many forensic 

disciplines have begun to critically evaluate the methods used in their 

examinations. The ruling has likely contributed to the increased 

awareness and interest in quantifying, critically assessing, and reevaluating 

some of the techniques most often used by forensic 

anthropologists. The issue of error rates; however, have been less often 

addressed. This presentation has two goals: (1) evaluate the trends in 

the types of statistical analyses used for observer error analysis, and (2) 

demonstrate the overall deficiency in observer error analysis within the 

literature to encourage discourse among anthropologists in establishing 

guidelines in this type of analysis. 

Anthropological articles from 1980 through 2008 in the Journal of 

Forensic Sciences were evaluated. Keyword searches (e.g., method, 

technique, statistics, error, bias) were utilized initially, followed by 

manual reviews of all anthropological articles to determine if an analysis 

of observer error was warranted for the studies. Any paper that 

introduced, compared, validated, or modified anthropological methods 

and techniques was considered as potentially needing observer error 

analyses. Overall, 269 articles fit the criteria for inclusion in this survey. 

Each article was evaluated and the inclusion or exclusion of intra- and 

inter-observer error was recorded. In the event that an observer error was 

evaluated, the statistical technique was recorded. 

Out of 269 articles, 189 (70%) provided no analysis of observer 

error leaving only 80 (30%) that have performed or presented observer 

error analyses. Furthermore, only 25 studies (9%) performed both intraand 

inter-observer analyses. Twenty-nine studies (11%) only 

documented results from inter-observer analyses, while 26 studies (10%) 

only provided intra-observer analysis results. Papers reviewed prior to 

1986 did not include any analyses of observer error and papers prior to 

1990 did not include any analysis of inter-observer error. While it was 

hypothesized that the amount of studies performing analyses of observer 

error would increase over time relative to the amount of total research 

papers published per year, it was discovered that the frequencies simply 

rise and fall over the years. The types of statistics used over the years to 

evaluate observer error prove to be just as variable and do not 

demonstrate any selection trend over time. 

190

As the courts continue to raise the bar regarding professional 

standards, forensic anthropology must be committed to providing 

analyses that are of the highest quality. Researchers should carefully 

select statistical techniques for evaluating observer error and strive to not 

only identify the error, but explore the cause. Researchers need to be 

versed in the concepts of bias, repeatability, precision and accuracy so as 

not to conflate the terms and use them interchangeably. Analyses of 

observer error are a basic component of the scientific method and assist 

in evaluating the reliability of our methods. Human variation is a 

frequent complication in the development of methods within biological 

anthropology. Differentiating method error from biological variability 

will assist in providing a baseline interpretation of methods and their 

variables as useful predictors in skeletal analyses. 

Daubert, Observer Error, Statistics 

H76 Prediction of Shoe Size From Tarsals 

and Metatarsals 

Paul D. Emanovsky, MS*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


The goals of the presentation are to explore the relationship 

between various elements of the foot and overall foot length, to create 

regression equations for prediction of foot length in unknown cases, and 

to assess the correlation of predicted foot length with reported shoe size. 


how estimation of shoe size can potentially be a valuable addition to the 

standard biological profile. Notably, it can help limit the number of 

antemortem searches required to narrow a pool of potential individuals. 

It will also assist with issues such as commingling as well as re-associate 

material evidence from recovery scenes to specific individuals. 

Regression formulae have been derived using a sample of white and 

black males from the Hamann-Todd Collection (HTH) housed at the 

Cleveland Museum of Natural History. These formulae were tested for 

efficacy on a subsample of individuals identified at the JPAC-CIL for 

whom the proper antemortem records and postmortem measurements 

were available. Currently, footwear vendors provide tables that correlate 

maximum foot length to shoe size. Although there is some variability in 

the size of ones’ shoe due to manufacturing and stylistic differences, 

investigators can confer with specific manufacturers to account for such 

differences in size. 

Bony foot elements were measured on a sample of 123 white and 

black males from the Hamann-Todd Collection for whom antemortem 

foot length data was available. Twenty-four measurements of various 

foot elements were collected on the HTH sample for ongoing research 

projects involving sexual dimorphism and ecogeographical patterning. 

Logistic regression (LR) was used to create population specific (white or 

black) and generic (combined white and black) regression models for the 

prediction of overall foot length. These formulae were then evaluated to 

determine which single element or combination of elements provided the 

best predictions of foot length. 

For the current study, variable selection from the 24 available 

measurements followed a heuristic protocol. Elements of the foot are 

commonly well preserved in archeological and forensic contexts. 

Among the best preserved elements of the foot typically encountered in 

JPAC-CIL cases are the calcaneus, first metatarsal, and the cuboid. For 

example, each of these elements are present in at least 15 individuals out 

of a 20 individual subsample of identified CIL accessions. This 

subsample includes foot size data (via shoe size recorded in the 

individual’s medical records) and postmortem bony measurement data. 

This sample involves individuals from a variety of distinct time periods 

and, as such, it was used to evaluate the regression equations and assess 

its broad utility. The potential variable list was further shortened by the 

requirement of having a high correlation coefficient with foot length. 

While all of the metatarsals were found to have higher correlations than 

tarsals, it is desirable to include a model that incorporates hind, midfoot, 

and forefoot components. These three components then can be summed, 

entered using stepwise LR, or used independently in the absence of 

better correlated elements. The maximum lengths of the calcaneus, 

cuboid, and first metatarsal were all found to be well correlated with 

overall foot length. For instance, in the white and black male combined 

sample the two-tailed Pearson correlations are 0.639, 0.563, and 0.773 

respectively. All are statistically significant correlations at the 0.01 level. 

Using the sum of the cuboid and first metatarsal lengths (sumcubfstmax) 

the following equation is derived: 

Predicted foot length = -6.046 + (sumcubfstmax) 1.333 (r 2 = 

.63, Inaccuracy = 7.16 mm, Bias = -8.85 mm, standard error of 

model = 9.964). Standard errors of the models as well as 

correlations are typically improved with population specific 

equations. 

Regression methods for estimating foot length and subsequently 

shoe size data have been found to be statistically viable. Standard errors 

of the equations are on par with estimates of stature from tarsals which 

has proven to be highly useful in variety of forensic and archeological 

contexts. It is anticipated that prediction of shoe size can become a 

useful forensic tool within the investigators toolkit if proper antemortem 

records are available. 

This research was funded in part by the Oak Ridge Institute of 

Science and Education (ORISE) research participant program and the 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command. 

Logistic Regression, Biological Profile, Pedal Analysis 

H77 Radiography as a Tool for Contemporary 


Melissa A. Pope, BA*, University of South Florida, Anthropology 

Department, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33613; and 

Liotta N. Dowdy, BA*, University of South Florida, 3115 Palmira Street, 

Tampa, Florida 33629 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain knowledge of: 

the role of radiography in forensic anthropology, the potential 

contribution of radiography as a tool for deriving quantitative 

measurements in the research setting, problems associated with this 

application, and potential areas of death investigation that may be 

improved through research using radiography for quantitative analysis. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by enabling 

better standards for human identification and by showing that 

anthropological methods are founded in science, there is a need to 

validate all methods. 

This study assessed whether radiographs can be used to generate 

accurate and reliable morphometric data, or whether they introduce too 

much error. This presentation is an effort to uncover research that relates 

to this topic, and to determine whether radiographs are a valid tool 

(accurate and reliable) for anthropometric analyses of contemporary 

populations. 

This research will help substantiate the use of radiography to 

facilitate the generation of population-specific standards for the 

biological profile that may be used to facilitate forensic death 

investigations and investigations into war crimes. Radiographs have 

been used extensively as a means for generating osteological data 

because of their many advantages, including cost effectiveness and 

simplicity. In anthropology, radiography has recently and less 

conventionally been used as a tool to generate samples of contemporary 

people for developing new quantitative standards. Advantages of this 

application include: non-invasiveness, the potential for longitudinal 

research, and the accessibility of skeletal data in fleshed remains. During 

death investigations, the methods of the investigators invariably fall 


under scrutiny, and must be shown to be accurate, reliable and 

appropriate for what is being analyzed. Therefore, it is necessary that the 

standards used to build the biological profile are based on samples that 

are representative of the populations being analyzed. This research will 

ultimately aid in the development of new and more reliable methods that 

will contribute to making positive identifications and will withstand 

scrutiny during trial. 

This study derived linear measurements (maximum length, 

midshaft width, and diameter of the head) from ten femurs, ten humeri, 

nine ulnae and nine radii (total n=38). The sample was generated from 

dry bones belonging to USF’s anthropology department. The bone 

measurements were then compared to their corresponding radiographs. 

The bones were filmed in antero-posterior view, except for the ulnae, 

which were filmed in medio-lateral view. Specific measurements were 

selected based on landmark visibility on the radiograph, their ability to 

be combined into one sample, and their utility in anthropological 

investigation. Measurements were taken blindly by both authors so that 

inter-observer error could be identified. Magnification error was 

accounted for, and problems associated with accounting for the threedimensional 

shape of the bone were identified. The samples were 

combined and Mann-Whitney tests were performed to determine if there 

were significant differences between the dry bone and the radiograph 

measurements. These measurements were plotted against each other to 

see whether or not there was a clear relationship. The distances were 

then correlated using a Spearman’s correlation test. Finally, the 

differences between the radiograph and the dry bone measurements were 

computed for all distances and descriptive statistics were calculated for 

overall assessment of accuracy and precision. 

The Mann-Whitney found all three distances to be highly 

insignificant (p=0.499, 0.884, 1), indicating that the dry bone and 

radiograph measurements were similar. The plots indicated a fairly clear 

relationship between measurements, although less so for the width of the 

head. Spearman’s correlations showed all measurements to be 

significantly correlated (p=0.01; r=0.999, 0.974, 0.98), indicating that 

the radiograph measurements were accurate. Descriptive statistics of the 

differences showed that on average the measurements were fairly 

accurate, but not within the ±2mm range that is preferable for 

anthropometric analyses. 

Despite the lack of accuracy, the results are promising. It is 

anticipated that the results may improve as this study progresses. This 

study will be furthered by: quantifying inter- and intra-observer error, 

analyzing each bone separately, and analyzing whether certain portions 

of the bone or types of measurements yield more accurate results (as 

these are affected by difficulties in accounting for magnification error). 

More accurate ways to account for magnification error and distortion are 

needed for this methodology. An elaboration of this problem will be 

provided in the presentation. 

Radiography, Metric Analysis, Osteometry 

H78 Can Bilateral Joint Asymmetry Be Used as 

an Estimation of Handedness? 

Kathryn R.D. Driscoll, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand whether 

bilateral asymmetry of the humeral, femoral and tibial joints should be 

used to estimate handedness. 


the statistical validity of using joint asymmetry as an estimation of 

handedness. 

In order to develop a comprehensive biological profile, forensic 

anthropologists depend on the ability to identify skeletal characteristics. 

Determining handedness from skeletal material is one tool that would 


enhance the effectiveness of the biological profile. While bilateral 

asymmetry has traditionally been used as an indicator of handedness, the 

statistical significance of this practice needs to be examined. This 

research examined the statistical significance of bilateral joint 

asymmetry as an indication of handedness or hand dominance. 

Bilateral asymmetry of the long bones has historically been used as 

a possible indicator of handedness. Longer right humeri were thought to 

indicate right handed dominance as were longer left lower limbs 

(specifically the tibiae). Differential use was assumed to manifest in 

bilateral asymmetry. Kerley (1972) also indicated that the clavicles 

could be used in handedness determinations. In 2007, the statistical 

significance of length and weight asymmetry was examined using a 

skeletal sample of known handedness. Results indicated that asymmetry 

existed in the sample; however, only the clavicles were clearly correlated 

with handedness. In 2004, Plochocki examined differential loading of 

the joints as a result of differential hand dominance; he concluded that 

environmental activity does result in asymmetry; however, the 

handedness was unknown for the individuals in Plochocki’s sample. In 

an effort to further examine the relationship between bilateral 

asymmetry, joint asymmetry, and handedness, the current study 

examined the proximal and distal epiphyses of the humeri, femora and 

tibiae of a sample with known handedness. 

The William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection housed at the 

University of Tennessee in Knoxville was utilized for the 2007 study as 

well as for this study. Whenever possible, a biological questionnaire is 

completed when an individual is donated. These include a question 

related to handedness. This information in conjunction with the skeletal 

remains presented a good opportunity to examine the actual statistical 

correlation between handedness and bilateral asymmetry. 

For this study, the humeral head diameter, humeral epicondylar 

breadth, femoral head diameter, femoral epicondylar breadth, tibial 

proximal epiphyseal breadth, and tibial distal epiphyseal breadth were 

measured. The measurements of 107 individual donations with known 

(self-reported) handedness were examined. When the sample was 

pooled, paired t-tests of each individual’s measurements indicated 

significant (α =0.05) asymmetry sans the femoral head diameter and 

distal tibial epiphyseal breadth. When the samples were grouped by 

handedness, the lefties were only asymmetrical in the humeral 

epicondylar breadth and proximal tibial epiphyseal breadth while the 

righties were asymmetrical in the same measurements as the pooled 

sample. Statistically significant differences favored the right skeletal 

element in each case. Therefore, when both groups were asymmetrical, 

they were asymmetrical in the same direction. This was not particularly 

supportive of the handedness-use hypothesis. 

While asymmetrical significance was difficult to tease apart, the 

results of discriminant analyses testing the six measurements’ 

classification ability were promising. Preliminary results indicated that 

discriminant analyses correctly classified 74% of individuals into 

handedness groups when utilizing all of the measurements. When the 

groups were separated by sex, the classification rates improved to 88% 

for females and 80% for males. The percentage of directional 

asymmetry {DA = (right-left)/(average of left and right) *100 } was also 

calculated for each individual. The results of these calculations 

supported those calculated using the paired t-tests. 

Significant bilateral asymmetry is present, but simply using one 

measurement fails to adequately classify an individual. However, 

preliminary classification results using all of the measurements are 

cautiously optimistic. Of note, there is a sampling bias that is present in 

the sample which may be the cause of apparently conflicting results. Of 

the 107 individuals, only 15 individuals were classified as left handed; 

however, this ratio does mimic that found in the general population. 

Bilateral Asymmetry, Handedness, Joints 

192

H79 Forensic Anthropology Academic and 

Employment Trends 

Gina M. Agostini, BS*, and Emily J. Gomez, BA, 4500 Manor Village, 

Apartment 316, Raleigh, NC 27612 

The goal of this presentation is to offer valuable insight into the 

current trends of the profession, to students seeking higher education in 

forensic anthropology, and to professionals in the field. 


employment and academic trends directly affecting the future of the 

field. 

The goal of this project was twofold: (1) to evaluate current 

physical anthropology graduate programs affiliated with AAFS 

members, and (2) to evaluate the type and frequency of employment 

opportunities available in forensic anthropology. 

For the first objective, 41 anthropology programs were evaluated. 

Forensic science programs including those with an anthropologist on 

staff were not evaluated as they are under the purview of the Forensic 

Science Education Program Accreditation Commission (FEPAC). This 

project was accomplished with assistance from members of the AAFS 

Physical Anthropology Section Ad-Hoc Education Committee. Of these 

46 programs, 32 were highlighted as having a learning environment bestsuited 

to forensic anthropology students. Criteria for recommendation 

included the availability of a graduate program in anthropology, presence 

of an AAFS member on staff who is available to serve as mentor, and 

availability of a specified Master’s or PhD concentration or degree track 

in forensic anthropology. This review process is ongoing based on 

changes including individual retirement, membership status in the 

AAFS, and the development of new programs. The number of 

recommended programs is expected to change in the future. 

For the second objective, members of the AAFS Physical 

Anthropology section were invited to participate in an anonymous, 

broad-spectrum survey which addressed key issues concerning academic 

background, employment, and professional affiliations. The survey 

responses were then compiled to assess the range of employment options 

available to those who specialize in forensic anthropology. Nontraditional 

or non-academic opportunities were also included. The 

survey encompassed issues seen as relevant to students, educators and 

professionals. Topics addressed included the number, size and location 

of universities staffed with forensic anthropologists, the size of the 

graduate program offered and any relevant short courses or workshops 

offered. Topics regarding professional and educational background of 

the instructors were also addressed, as well as the extent to which 

students were included in relevant research and/or presentations. 

Sixty-nine percent of AAFS members participated in the survey. 

Results showed that 54% of those who participated held a doctoral 

degree, 34% held a MA/MS or MSc degree, and 7% held a BA/BS 

degree. Eighty-five percent of all participants held a degree in 

Anthropology. Reported employment affiliation included academia 

(44.5%), medicolegal agencies (19.1%), federal agencies/institutions 

(12.7%), museums (2.7 %), non-profit/non-governmental (2.7 %), selfemployed/consultant 

(5.5%), and unemployed, retired or students 

(12.7%). Of those who had an academic position, 26.9% were assistant 

professors, 25% were full professors, 19.2% were tenured Associates, 

25% were adjunct professors and 3.8% were untenured associates. Over 

half of those who participated in the survey reported regularly including 

students in their research and/or mentored graduate students. 

Approximately 46% responded that they did not have any graduate 

students with a concentration in forensic anthropology. Results also 

showed that the states with the most forensic anthropologists were 

California, Hawaii, New York, and Texas. Thirty-seven percent of 

survey participants reported earning between $50,000-$75,000 annually, 

28.6% between $75,001-$100,000, 16.9% over $100,000, 11.7% 

between $25,000-$50,000, and 5.2% reported earning less than $20,000. 

In addition, a survey was taken of job advertisements posted on the 

AAPA website from the last six years. This showed a wide range of 

career opportunities available to individuals with specialized training in 

forensic anthropology. Of 839 job listings, 321 or 42.3% could be filled 

by someone with training in forensic anthropology. Listings for 

specialists in physical/biological anthropology were the most prevalent 

(187), followed by positions in anatomy (82) and forensic anthropology 

(32). Osteology (14) and skeletal biology (6) positions had the fewest 

listings. Thirty-four post-doctoral positions were available in forensic 

anthropology and 72.3% were tenure-track positions. 

Forensic Anthropology, Employment, Education 

H80 Biology and Culture in the Modern Era: 

How Cultural Evidence Can Conflict With 


Clarissa R. Dicke, AD*, 1325 East Orange Street, Tempe, AZ 85281; 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD, Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 

Phoenix, AZ 85007; and Mark A. Fischione, MD, Maricopa County 

Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson Street, Phoenix, AZ 

85003 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have seen an 

extreme case of ankylosing spondylitis. Attendees, most importantly, 

will understand that pathology and individual circumstance can help 

solve a case, but can also be greatly misleading. This presentation will 

demonstrate how evidence, circumstance of burial, and burial artifacts 

must be analyzed in both biological and cultural contexts. 


demonstrating the importance of the cultural assessment of evidence, 

determining forensic significance in the face of conflicting evidence, and 

the presentation of a rare and extreme case of ankylosing spondylitis. 

One of the responsibilities of a forensic anthropologist is to 

determine the forensic significance of unknown human remains that are 

presented to the Office of the Medical Examiner. Often times the 

biological conditions and cultural circumstances of the case can be 

misleading. The analysis of evidence, circumstance of burial and burial 

artifacts must be done in both biological and cultural contexts and is 

required to understand whether a forensic case falls into the purview of 

the medical examiner. In the case described below, the remains were 

recovered from a shallow grave near Flagstaff, Arizona. The Federal 

Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had concerns that the grave might be 

clandestine and an attempt to hide a homicide. The recovery of the 

remains followed standard forensic protocols and revealed interesting 

clues to the identity of the individual. 

In April 2005, the FBI in Coconino County, AZ recovered 

skeletonized human remains from a shallow grave. The remains were 

consistent with those of an adult male of Asian ancestry (including 

Native American ancestry) and appearing to be 40-55 years old at the 

time of his death. Artifacts including a pair of black, lace top boots, two 

clear colored bottles, and a silver colored spoon were also submitted. 

The analysis of the decedent revealed that he had an advanced and severe 

case of ankylosing spondylitis. 

Ankylosing spondylitis is a chronic disease that causes 

inflammation of the joints between the vertebrae and the joints between 

the spine and the pelvic girdle. Over time, if it progresses, it will 

eventually cause the affected vertebrae to fuse by means of a layer of 

additional bone connecting the vertebrae. This condition is sometimes 

referred to as dripping candle wax because of its appearance. There is 

no known cause of ankylosing spondylitis, but heredity seems to play a 

role. The disease most frequently begins between ages 20 and 40, but can 

initiate before age 10. It affects more males than females and the risk 

factors include a family history of ankylosing spondylitis and male 

gender. Some symptoms include hip and back pain that may begin in the 


sacroiliac joints and involve all or part of the vertebral column, chronic 

stooping, fatigue, joint pain and joint swelling in the shoulders, knees, 

and ankles, limited expansion of the chest, and limited range of motion 

(especially involving spine and pelvic girdle). 

The location and manner of the individual’s burial prompted the 

FBI to treat this case as a possible homicide. The artifacts and some of 

the biological evidence, at first, led the forensic anthropologist to deem 

the case historic. However, when dealing with Native Americans living 

on or near the reservation, it is imperative to consider that Native 

Americans lived in “historic” conditions well into the modern age. It is 

the forensic anthropologist’s agenda to consider all evidence in an 

appropriate manner in order to determine forensic significance. The 

authors will present literature and photographs of the decedent and the 

evidence recovered from the grave to illustrate the conflicting evidence 

and the extent of the disease in this individual and to give participants in 

the meeting the opportunity to examine an advanced case of the disease. 

Ankylosing Spondylitis, Biology vs. Culture, Forensic Significance 

H81 Analysis of Thirty-Three Years of Forensic 

Anthropology Casework at California State 

University, Chico (1975-2008) 

Ashley E. Kendell, BS*, 1253 West 5th Street, Apartment 85, Chico, CA 

95928; and Ashley Hutchinson, BA, James Brill, BA, Eric J. Bartelink, 

PhD, Turhon A. Murad, PhD, and P. Willey, PhD, California State 

University-Chico, 400 West First Street, Department of Anthropology, 

Butte #311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

The goal of this presentation is to summarize and assess statistical 

patterns in the forensic anthropological cases examined at California 

State University, Chico (CSUC) from January 1975 to April 2008. 


demographic information on cases examined at the CSUC Human 

Identification Laboratory (CSUC-HIL) that will aid in evaluating trends 

in forensic anthropological casework in northern California. This study 

will provide comparative data for evaluating temporal and regional 

trends in forensic casework in North America, and also will shed light on 

the changing applications within forensic anthropology since the 1970s. 

The research is modeled after a similar study conducted at the 

Smithsonian Institution (Grisbaum and Ubelaker 2001). Case reports 

spanning 1975 to 2008 were examined, and a total of 319 cases were 

entered into the project database. For each case, the date of arrival, 

anthropologist, trauma type, age, sex, ancestry, and MNI were recorded. 

Cases were categorized as representing human or non-human remains, or 

both. 

Of the 319 cases recorded, 18.8% (n=60) were non-human or 

included non-human remains. Of the 264 human remains, 18.2% (n=48) 

were positively identified through efforts of the CSUC-HIL. Biological 

profiles were determined on an individual basis, when possible, as 

several of the cases were determined to have an MNI greater than one. 

These cases typically involved buried remains (e.g., archaeological), in 

which commingling was a hindrance to creating individual biological 

profiles. 

A MNI of 328 was determined for the 264 cases that were 

determined to be human remains. Of these 328 individuals, 43.3 % 

(n=142) were male and 28.9% (n=95) were female. In the remaining 91 

individuals, sex could not be determined due to the incomplete or 

fragmentary nature of the remains. Of the 328 individuals analyzed, 

10.4% (n=34) represented subadults. 

The frequency and regional distribution of casework were also 

analyzed. The majority of cases are from five northern California 

counties: Shasta (13.2%), Butte (9.1%), Tehama (8.2%), Nevada (6.6%) 

and El Dorado (6.6%). The remaining cases came from one of 27 

additional counties in California or from Nevada. 


The extensive data set from CSUC (n=319) will provide an 

interesting temporal and regional perspective for comparison to other 

studies, specifically: Hrdlicka’s 37 cases from 1938-1942, Stewart’s 167 

cases from 1946-1969, Angel’s 646 cases from 1962-1986, and 

Ubelaker’s 667 cases from 1975-2000 (Ubelaker 2000). At CSUC, the 

number of case reports of remains determined to be human and nonhuman 

were examined by decade. Nonhuman remains comprised 28.6% 

of cases in the 1970s, although this includes only two cases. In the 

decades following, the percentage of nonhuman cases increased from 

13.3% (n=4) in the 1980s, to 18.8% (n=26) and 20.6% (n=28) for the 

1990s and 2000s, respectively. The frequency of human cases increased 

dramatically from five cases in 1970s to 108 cases from 2000-2008. 

This study provides an assessment and summary of the casework 

conducted at the CSUC-HIL, which will serve as a basis for comparison 

with other regions of North America. The results of this study indicate a 

dramatic increase in the use of forensic anthropologists in Northern 

California beginning in the 1990s. 

References: 

Grisbaum, Gretchen A. and Douglas H. Ubelaker 

2001 An Analysis of Forensic Anthropology Cases Submitted to the 

Smithsonian Institution by the Federal Bureau of Investigation 

from 1962 to 1994. Smithsonian Contributions to 

Anthropology; 45. 

Ubelaker, Douglas H. 

2000 A History of Smithsonian-FBI Collaboration in Forensic 

Anthropology, 

Especially in Regard to Facial Imagery. Forensic Science 

Communication 

2(4).http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID 

=240569 

Demographic Analysis, Biological Profile, Northern California 

H82 Detecting Buried Metallic Weapons 

in a Controlled Setting Using a 

Conductivity Meter 

Charles A. Dionne, BS*, University of Central Florida, Department of 

Anthropology, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, FL 32816 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the attendees to the 

utility of the conductivity meter as a geophysical instrument used by 

forensic investigation teams in the search for buried weapons. 

Participants will gain a better understanding of how law enforcement 

agencies can benefit from the use of a conductivity meter when searching 

for buried metallic weapons. 


demonstrating how the use of geophysical technologies by law 

enforcement for evidence searches is becoming more frequent. The field 

of forensic archeology has proven important for the improvement of 

forensic searches by performing controlled research with various 

geophysical technologies. By conducting controlled research, it is 

possible to test the applicability of geophysical instruments during 

194

searches for buried evidence at potential crime scenes or areas of 

disposal. 

This research project will involve the use of a conductivity meter to 

test the applicability of this instrument to detect buried metallic weapons. 

Overall, this project is one aspect of a larger project which includes 

multiple geophysical tools and tests their ability to detect buried metallic 

weapons. This presentation will solely focus on introducing the 

attendees to the conductivity meter and to the extent of its applicability 

for buried weapon detection. The overall objectives of the research were 

to: (1) investigate the capability of the conductivity meter to detect 

weapons of various metallic components and sizes at depths up to 

approximately 75cm, and (2) to create some guidelines on the proper use 

of a conductivity meter in a forensic setting. 

The conductivity meter chosen for this research was the portable 

Geonics EM38. This model is approximately 1m in length, has a 

maximum detection depth of 1.5m, and can provide preliminary results 

in the field. For purposes of this research project, the conductivity 

readings were recorded while the instrument was on the ground by 

pressing a trigger button on the handle. The conductivity values were 

saved using a portable data logger attached to the conductivity meter and 

were first uploaded into data management software provided by Geonics 

Limited. Next, the conductivity data was imported into Golden 

Software’s Surfer 8 (version 8.4) for analysis of the conductivity values 

for each data collection depth, and presentation of the data as contour 

maps. 

A mixture of 32 metallic items was specifically chosen for this 

research project representing three categories: firearms, miscellaneous 

metals, and blunt and sharp force objects. The items used include 16 

street-level decommissioned firearms (including pistols, revolvers, 

shotguns, and a rifle) that are constructed from various metals, 6 

miscellaneous pieces of metals (including copper and aluminium), and 

10 blunt or sharp force weapons (such as a hammer and a machete). The 

weapons were chosen to represent an assortment of various sizes and 

compositions. The research site was located in a flat and grassy area that 

was regularly mowed. The items were buried in 7 rows over a data 

collection grid measuring 15 by 19m. The size of the grid ensured that 

the weapons were evenly spaced with enough distance between each to 

avoid false results. Each burial hole was marked with an orange, plastic 

stake to easily identify each burial location. The conductivity values 

were obtained by recording data every 25cm along transects also 

separated by 25cm. Conductivity data was first collected when the 

weapons were buried at a depth of 30-35cm. The weapons were then 

reburied 5cm deeper each time data collection was performed down to a 

maximum depth of approximately 75cm. 

Initial results show that the conductivity meter is able to detect 

multiple targets from all 3 categories at several depths. For example, at 

a depth of 45-50cm, 10 of the 16 firearms, 2 of the 6 miscellaneous 

metals, and 6 out of 10 blunt or sharp force items were detected. The 

items that were not detected were mostly the smallest items in the grid 

such as the small revolvers, the copper tube, the piece of rebar, the knife, 

the screwdriver, and the brass knuckles. At deeper depths, the 

conductivity meter was still obtaining strong signals from the larger 

weapons such as the shotguns, the rifle, the machete, the hammer, the 

mallet, the prybar, the scissors, and some of the larger hand guns such as 

the magnum and the Ruger. It is also important to note that the control 

hole was never detected and therefore the positive results were the result 

of the detected weapons and not the disturbed soil. Overall, the 

conductivity meter provided strong results at all depths tested with large 

weapons and would be a viable geophysical instrument for law 

enforcement agencies that are searching for large hand guns, shotguns, 

or rifles. 

Forensic Archeology, Conductivity, Controlled Research 

H83 The Effects of Ethanol Abuse on 

Bone Mineral Density in the 

Proximal Femur 

Bridget Algee-Hewitt, MA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Rebecca J. 

Wilson, MA*, 3108 Rennoc Road, Knoxville, TN 37918; and Megan 

Katrina Moore, PhD, University of Tennessee, University of Tennessee, 

Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996 


understanding of secondary osteoporosis and the relationship between 

bone mineral density and alcoholism. 


that the results of this study using ANOVA showed no significant 

difference between the BMD of ethanol abusers and the control group. 

The authors conclude that it is preemptive at best to state whether or not 

a skeleton with a younger age and bone de-mineralization was possibly 

alcoholic. 

This research explores the effects of alcoholism on bone mineral 

density of the proximal femur using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry 

(DEXA). The clinical consequences of excessive alcohol consumption 

have been well documented in the medical literature. The goal of this 

research is to test the assumption that bones from a sample of known 

ethanol abusers will have reduced bone density compared to an agematched 

control sample. 

Due to confounding effects of alcohol related illnesses, research 

evaluating the changes in bone density related to chronic ethanolism has 

been limited. Moreover, population-based analyses of alcohol-related 

bone loss are hindered by a lack of control for patient ages, sex and age 

specific hormonal effects, variability in the duration and patterns of 

alcohol abuse, and questionable self-reporting, which yield obscured and 

contradictory results. 

Purportedly, it is common knowledge among forensic 

anthropologists that chronic alcoholics frequently present characteristics 

similar to those observed in individuals of advanced age or 

“osteoporotic” skeletons. This information is often inherited from 

mentors or practically acquired while working with skeletal collections 

for which medical history is reported or in similar “known” contexts. 

Alcoholism has received little attention in discussions of forensic 

anthropological method and theory. A recent literature review of AJPA 

and JFS shows an absence of empirical investigation and published 

documentations. As a result, suggestions of alcoholism are commonly 

relegated to side notes (possible alcoholic?). For example, the assessed 

age indicators do not warrant an assignment of “old age” for the 

unknown individual and do not support age-related diagnosis for the 

skeletal demineralization, especially if pathological explanations are not 

logical. 

The sample consists of the femora of 35 white males from the 

William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection at the University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville between the ages of 20 and 70 years old. Fifteen 

of the males reportedly suffered from alcoholism. This collection offers 

a unique opportunity to study skeletons known individuals with medical 

histories. Only males were sampled in order to reduce the effect of sexspecific 

risks typically found in the female skeleton. Due to the small 

sample of ethanol abusers, the control sample is age-matched. DEXA is 

a simple and inexpensive means of establishing bone mineral content 

(BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD = BMC/area) at different 

regions of the body. Each femur was placed in a plastic container filled 

with dry white rice to a depth of approximately 12 cm. The rice served 

as a soft-tissue density equivalent for the DEXA scans, as suggested by 

GE, the producer of the DEXA Lunar scanner. A 2 cm thick cube of lowdensity 

foam was placed under the lesser trochanter to approximate 

anatomical position. Standard measurements of bone mineral density 


(BMD)(g/cm2) were calculated automatically for the femoral neck, 

Ward’s triangle, the greater trochanter, proximal shaft and total BMD. 

The results of this study using ANOVA showed no significant 

difference between the BMD of ethanol abusers and the control group. 

The authors conclude that it is preemptive at best to state whether or not 

a skeleton with a younger age and bone de-mineralization was possibly 

alcoholic. There exist too many confounding factors related to chronic 

alcohol abuse to clearly state whether loss of bone mineral density is the 

direct result. Confounding variables include the effects of body mass, 

nutritional deficiencies and hormone balance, among others. For clinical 

applications, it is important to predict osteoporotic fracture and for the 

development of orthopedic devices. Bone density analysis may be of 

interest to forensic anthropology and bioarcheology in order to 

individuate human skeletal remains for other purposes, but low BMD 

does not conclusively suggest alcoholism in the current study. 

Alcoholism, Bone Mineral Density, DEXA 

H84 Geophysical Remote Sensing Applied to 

the Forensic Search for WWII Graves 

in Guadalcanal 

Rhett Herman, PhD, Radford University, Department of Chemistry and 

Physics, Radford University, Radford, VA 24142; Cliff Boyd, PhD, 

Radford University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Radford 

University, Radford, VA 24142; Jarrod Burks, PhD, Ohio Valley 

Archaeological Consultants, 4889 Sinclair Road, Suite 210, Columbus, 

OH 43229; Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Department Sociology & 

Anthropology, Radford University, Radford, VA 24142; and Doug 

Drumheller, MBA, Greatest Generation MIA Recoveries, 2187 Ben 

Franklin Drive, Pittsburg, PA 15327 


understanding of the use of selected remote sensing techniques (Ground 

Penetrating Radar and a capacitively coupled resistivity system) applied 

to the search for clandestine graves, including those from historic 19th 

and 20th century Virginia as well as covert mass graves from WWII in 

Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands. Recommendations for future forensic 

searches will be provided. 


demonstrating remote sensing investigation of clandestine mass graves 

in a variety of diverse environmental and temporal periods. Advantages 

and limitations of these techniques in specific burial environments (e.g., 

Central and Eastern Virginia and Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands) and 

19th and 20th century temporal contexts are highlighted, as are 

applications of these techniques in multidisciplinary forensic 


Geophysical remote sensing techniques have been applied to the 

forensic search for clandestine graves for more than 15 years. Recently, 

Schultz 1 has cited the need for additional controlled remote sensing 

research to elucidate the effectiveness of these techniques in different 

micro-environments and longer interment periods. The current research 

does just that, by applying Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and a 

capacitively coupled resistivity system (i.e., Ohm Mapper) to mid-19 th 

century and mid-20 th century sandy and clay as well as wet and dry burial 

contexts in both the northern and southern hemispheres. 

The ill-fated U.S. Marine Goettge Patrol was ambushed by the 

Japanese on the evening of August 12, 1942, in Guadalcanal, Solomon 

Islands. Only three of the patrol survived; Japanese accounts indicate 

that 17 of the dead Marines, along with some dead Japanese soldiers, 

were buried in a group of Japanese rifle trenches. Their remains have 

never been recovered, although there is much speculation about the 

probable location of their interment. 

In July, 2008, an interdisciplinary team of forensic anthropologists, 

archaeologists, historians, and physicists conducted the Goettge Patrol 


Guadalcanal survey. The goal of this survey was to locate the Japanese 

defensive trenches where members of the patrol were supposedly buried 

by using geophysical remote sensing equipment (GPR, Ohm Mapper), 

followed by archaeological test excavations of the identified anomalies. 

Two GPR systems were used: the Noggin Plus 250 Smartcart with a 250 

MHz antenna and the Pulse Ekko GPR system with both 100 MHz and 

500 MHz antennae. The Ekko Mapper 3 and Voxler software programs 

were used to visualize and process the data. Nearly 7,000 square meters 

of the most likely target area (based on historical and archival research) 

were surveyed. In addition, a capacitively coupled resistivity system 

was used to survey a 2,400 square meter area of high burial probability 

(also surveyed by the GPR), which, when processed using Mag Map 

2000, produced a three-dimensional plan view of the data. 

Anomalies identified through these remote sensing techniques were 

then tested by hand excavation of standard archaeological test units and 

trenches. Although the clandestine graves of the Goettge Patrol were not 

identified, interpretation of the anomalies was instructive in 

understanding the history and soil stratigraphy of the site and the impact 

of natural and human factors on the area since WWII (e.g., ground water 

accumulation and depositional fill). These investigations also helped 

narrow the search area in terms of where the Goettge Patrol is not. 

The Guadalcanal remote sensing survey highlighted the 

complexities of using remote sensing techniques in sandy, wet soil and 

extended interment periods. Further elucidation of these variables was 

accomplished by applying the same technology to 19 th and 20 th century 

historic graves in Arlington, Virginia and at the R.J. Reynolds 

Homestead in Critz, Virginia. From these investigations, it was learned 

that identification of graves of considerable postmortem interval was 

possible, but necessitated the use of a multidisciplinary team approach 

integrating the specialized skills of archaeologists, forensic 

anthropologists, physicists, and historians. 

Reference: 

1 Schultz J. Sequential monitoring of burials containing small pig 

cadavers using ground penetrating radar. JFS 2008; 53; 279-287. 

Forensic Archeology, Remote Sensing, Clandestine Graves 

H85 Necessary Breaks With Conservator 

Standards: Cranial Reconstruction in 

Forensic Cases 

Laura E. Gibson, BS*, 2040 Larchmont Way, Clearwater, FL 33764; 

Heather A. Walsh-Haney, and Christen E. Herrick, BS, Florida Gulf 

Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard 

South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Katy L. Shepherd, BS, Florida 


Boulevard, South, Fort Myers, FL 33965; Gertrude M. Juste, MD, 

District 15 Office of the Medical Examiner, 3126 Gun Club Road, West 

Palm Beach, FL 33406; and Margarita Arruza, MD, Medical Examiner’s 



understanding of the advantages of various methods used in the 

reconstruction of fragmentary skulls and teeth, when particular 

techniques are appropriate, and solutions to common problems that result 

from plastic deformation, missing fragments and taphonomy. 


differentiating between processes that are better suited for forensic 

settings as opposed to museum/conservation contexts. Special attention 

to also paid to adhesive variables, such as pH, solubility, flammability, 

tensile/shear strength, and reactivity/stability. 

Most protocols used in skeletal reconstructions are rooted in 

methods created for museum curation and conservation laboratories 

where bone stabilization, preservation, aesthetic appeal, and future study 

are emphasized while timeliness and cost are less important. These latter 

196

two factors are extremely vital to forensic investigations, however, 

where funding is limited and time is in short supply. Also in forensic 

settings and in contrast to museum/conservation objectives, the 

completed skeletal reconstruction does not need to be indefinitely stable 

and destructive procedures are often acceptable. As such, forensic 

practitioners have broken from some museum/conservation standards 

while still maintaining many of the basic procedures necessary to ensure 

that osteological analyses lead to victim identifications and establishing 

a profile of trauma. To this end, the step-by-step forensic process is 

presented for use in the successful reconstruction of cranial bones and 

teeth that have been fragmented from peri- and/or postmortem trauma. 

This survey of conservator and forensic methods found that prior to 

cleaning and reconstruction, the standard procedures were markedly 

similar and included: the documentation of the fragmentary bones in situ 

(e.g., at the scene, transport containers, or soil matrix), radiography of 

the materials before processing, and localized evaluation of the bone to 

ensure it was structurally sound and therefore could withstand cleaning. 

Conservator and forensic methods also differed when the process of 

cleaning was surveyed. Cold water maceration, hot water maceration, 

and dry brushing were successful. Strong chemical regents (e.g., 

hydrochloric acid, hydrogen peroxide, ethyl alcohol, methylated spirits, 

household degreaser, or household detergents) were rarely used. While 

this method of cleansing the bone was fast, cost effective, and did not 

tend to warp the bone, the bones remained slightly greasy and fatty 

thereby requiring suitable adhesives for reconstruction. 

Acid-free adhesive composed mostly of acetone and nitrocellulose 

(e.g., Duco TM cement) was ideal for forensic casework because it set 

quickly, was easily reversible (with acetone), and had moderate adhesive 

strength. On the contrary, conservators tended to use Acryloid B-72 or 

Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) because long term strength and preservation 

was the main objective. Other factors that were considered when 

choosing an adhesive included: pH level, stability, solubility, and 

flammability. An adhesive that was pH neutral (or acid free) was 

imperative as an acidic or alkaline adhesive would damage bone. 

Selecting an adhesive that was stable under temperature and humidity 

fluctuations was also necessary in forensic contexts, but less important in 

museums, as humidity and temperatures were strictly controlled. 

Because forensic remains often retain some internal moisture through 

grease or fat, an ideal adhesive should be insoluble in water. Due to the 

adhesive properties necessary in forensic contexts, obtaining a 

flammable adhesive was sometimes unavoidable. However, 

practitioners should use caution and be aware of their adhesive’s 

flammability rating. 

Several cases are presented that sustained perimortem fractures via 

gunshot wound, burning, or blunt force trauma. Postmortem fracturing 

from removal of the calotte and jaw during autopsy was also present. 

Issues that arose from these types of trauma included disassociation of 

the teeth from their crypts, plastic deformation (e.g., a series of 

microfractures that causes warping), bone loss, and delamination. In 

order to ensure accurate cranial measurements and trauma analysis the 

vault and face were reconstructed separately. In addition, the vault and 

face were not fixed together with glue. Rather, inert dental wax was used 

allowing the calotte, basicranium or splanchnocranium to be moved in 

order to ensure the accuracy of the various measurements. In addition, 

replacing bone with dental wax along autopsy dissection lines increased 

our accuracy as the reciprocating saws removed from 2mm to 8mm of 

bone. As cases in point, this study presents examples in which 

classification of sex, ancestry, wound diameters, and numbers of impact 

sites changed based upon the reconstruction processes used. 

Anthropology, Fragmentary Remains, Reconstruction 

H86 Anthropology for Breakfast: 

A Semi-Cautionary Tale 

John A. Williams, PhD*, Anthropology & Sociology, Western Carolina 

University, 101 McKee Hall, Cullowhee, NC 28723 


understanding of the triage and decision making process that forensic 

anthropologists experience when confronted with an atypical item. 


demonstrating why forensic specialists should be consulted, no matter 

how mundane the case may appear. 

Forensic anthropologists routinely are asked to identify non-human 

bone, and sometimes items that are not bone at all. 

A graduate student at a southeastern university made, what to her 

was, a disturbing discovery in her breakfast cereal. A store brand box of 

raisin bran contained an item that at initial observation appeared to be a 

piece of bone with dried, attached flesh and connective tissue. For 

reasons never stated the student approached the biology department of 

the university and asked for an identification of the unknown object. (It 

is surmised that legal action would be taken should the item be identified 

as animal in origin.) The biologist she contacted is a microbiologist with 

no hard or soft tissue anatomical background. Despite this, he confirmed 

that the item was some form of animal anatomy. Fortunately, the biology 

professor suggested that the student get a second opinion from a forensic 


The errant breakfast food item was brought to a forensic 

anthropologist at the university. After relaying the story of the discovery, 

the forensic anthropologist made a gross macroscopic examination of the 

item. The item was small (18.5 mm x 7.8 mm x 5.0 mm) and slightly Lshaped. 

The exterior texture was soft but not sticky. The visual 

appearance did strongly resemble a piece of dried flesh, not unlike jerky. 

The item, however, failed the first basic test, the “sniff test.” It did not 

smell like flesh, if anything the smell was neutral. This led to the 

conclusion that the item was not likely animal in origin. 

To confirm this initial conclusion, permission was obtained to 

examine the item in more depth. Only limited dissection was granted by 

the student, however. Using a Keyence digital microscope the item was 

examined thoroughly at various levels of magnification. Using a scalpel, 

a small area was dissected. All in all, the item had the appearance of 

dried or semi-dried flesh complete with dried blood. Digital x-rays were 

taken using a Faxitron unit to examine the internal structure. The 

radiographs indicated that the central core of the item had a different 

density than the outer surface. This inner core, however, was uniform in 

density and did not display the compact-cancellous bone contrast 

expected of bone. To confirm this, a rodent femur and a tree stem of 

similar size were also radiographed. The rodent femur had the 

radiographic signature of bone. The tree branch, like the unidentified 

item, displayed a uniform density with little distinction between the outer 

and inner surfaces. 

With this information it was concluded that the item was a piece of 

vegetative matter. It is likely a piece of grape vine with crushed red 

raisins adhering to the outer surface. No doubt “quality control” at the 

cereal factory was not at peak performance. The student was assured that 

there was no biological hazard created by the presence of this item in the 

cereal. 

Despite the knowledge of a forensic anthropologist on campus the 

biologist with no anatomical background made a determination as to the 

origin of this item. This is a dilemma forensic anthropologists continue 

to face; non-anthropologists (and in some cases anthropologists) 

stepping beyond their training and expertise. Fortunately for all 

involved, the correct origin of the item was ascertained, avoiding no 

doubt, later embarrassment. It is not known whether a new box of cereal 

was provided as a result of this discovery. 

Triage, Identification, Non-Human 


H87 Unusual Skeletal Variations Observed in 

an Adult Aboriginal Male: Case Study from 

Brisbane, Australia 

Donna M. MacGregor, MSc*, Queensland Police Service, Scientific 

Section, 200 Roma Street, Brisbane, 4001, AUSTRALIA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the role 

of police crime scene examiners in Queensland with relation to skeletal 

recovery and the unique role they serve in Coronial investigations. 

Attendees will also understand that standard age techniques were unable 

in this instance to assist with determining a reasonable age range for this 

individual. 


the unique role of police officers and routine variations encountered 

during skeletal casework within Queensland, Australia. 

On July 1, 2007, forensic scientists from the Queensland Police 

Service Physical Evidence Unit went to a bushland location within an 

industrial area approximately 18 kilometers southwest of Brisbane, 

Australia in response to the discovery of human remains. The remains 

were located on a vacant block of land surrounded by a heavy industrial 

area. This area was routinely used by truck drivers to park heavy 

vehicles. The human remains were completely skeletonized, devoid of 

tissue, and had associated items of clothing. The remains were located 

within a small area and exhibited limited scattering effects by local 

predators. Flyscreen spline containing cervical vertebrae looped around 

a tree was also located. A humpy (small, temporary shelter) was located 

near the site. Almost all of the skeletal elements were recovered. This 

included most of the long bones, disarticulated pelvis, cranium and 

mandible, ribs, vertebral bodies, sternum, thyroid cartilage, and hyoid 

bone. All of the teeth were also present. 

On the 3 rd of July 2007, a forensic osteologist from the Queensland 

Police Service went to the Queensland Health Forensic & Scientific 

Services morgue to assist with the postmortem examination of the 

skeletal remains. The remains were consistent with an Aborignal male 

with an approximate living stature of 173 +/- 3.91cm. The determination 

of age was difficult using traditional aging techniques. All long bones 

had fused. The sternoclavicular joint had fused. The thyroid cartilage 

was almost completely ossified and consistent with Stage 8 of Vleck’s 

method corresponding to an range of 51-58 years. However, the pubic 

symphysis was consistent with the Suchey-Brooks method Phase II 

suggesting an age range of 19-34 (95%). Extensive pathology and a wire 

was observed within the sternum and manubrium indicating previous 

thoracic surgery. The age range given to investigators at the time of the 

autopsy was 25-58 years at the time of death. 

The details of the biological profile obtained during the autopsy 

were supplied to the investigators to compare against the Missing Person 

Database. No links were obtained, and therefore no possible identity was 

forthcoming. 

During subsequent examinations of the recovered clothing, 

deterioated paperwork was located within an item of clothing. This 

paperwork provided crucial information which aided in the identification 

process. These documents included a bail conditions release form with 

a name believed to be that of the deceased. DNA taken at the time of 

autopsy confirmed the identity of the remains. The deceased was 27 

years of age. It was discovered that the deceased had been involved in a 

stabbing incident two years earlier and had undergone thoracic surgery. 

Also of interest was that no missing person reports had been lodged for 

this person. A search of police computer systems revealed that the 

deceased had been last involved with police approximately 8 months 

earlier. 

Forensic Osteology, Age Estimates, Scene Recovery 


H88 Estimation of Age at Death From the 

Juvenile Scapula 

Natalie Uhl, MS*, 308 North Orchard Avenue, Apartment 7, Urbana, IL 

68101 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand a 

method for estimating age at death from the juvenile scapula. 


a method for age at death estimation that can be utilized when juvenile 

remains are incomplete or fragmented. 

Age estimation in juveniles has traditionally focused on long bone 

lengths, epiphyseal union, and dental development, but when presented 

with fragmented or partial remains, other skeletal elements must be 

employed. Rissech and Black (2007) included an age estimation method 

that uses scapular measurements as a part of a broader study on the 

development of the scapula in juveniles. In that study, the authors 

utilized nine measurements and polynomial regression to explore and 

explain the growth of the scapula from birth to sexual maturity in a 

sample of 31 juveniles drawn from the Scheuer Collection housed at the 

University of Dundee. In order to estimate the age-at-death of an 

unknown individual, the Rissech and Black study presents eight 

regression equations derived from inverse functions of a simple linear 

regression. A ninth equation utilizing the measurement “acromial width” 

uses the inverse of a second order polynomial regression for age 

estimation. Because the study sample includes individuals past the age 

of sexual maturity each of the nine equations falls into one of two 

groups. The first group of equations is for individuals before the 

development of secondary sexual characteristics while the second group 

is for older individuals. Although it may seem appropriate to consider 

the sex of the individual, particularly in older individuals, their study 

pools males and females of all ages. 

The purpose of the current study is to test the applicability of the 

equations published by Rissech and Black (2007) for estimating age-atdeath 

in a sample of 19 th century Americans. The study sample consists 

of 40 individuals (19 males, 21 females) ranging from 0 to 22 years of 

age (mean = 9.9 years) from the Hamann-Todd Collection housed at the 

Cleveland Museum of Natural History in Cleveland, Ohio. 

Acquisition of the nine scapular measurements was fairly 

straightforward, with the exception of “glenoid mass” which is difficult 

to measure after age 16 or 17 when the coracoid process fuses to the 

superior margin of the glenoid. The results of the Rissech and Black 

study include positive correlations between actual and estimated age that 

range from 0.78 to 0.91. The results from this study were comparable to 

their findings, with correlations ranging from 0.83 to 0.92. Bias statistics 

indicate each equation is underaging the individuals on average, but the 

low inaccuracy values indicate that the overall estimates are accurate. 

The Rissech-Black method of juvenile age estimation is simple and 

applicable. This test indicates that their equations are highly correlated 

with age. While correlations are not necessarily the most appropriate 

way to judge the effectiveness of an aging method, highly positive 

correlations do indicate that the scapula can provide important 

information pertaining to age estimation. Long bone length, epiphyseal 

union, and dental development are generally the aging indicators of 

choice when dealing with juvenile remains, but this method offers an 

alternative for anthropologists when faced with fragmented or 

incomplete remains. 

Age Estimation, Juveniles, Scapula 

198

H89 Forensic Age Estimation of Living 


Antonio De Donno, PhD*, and Valeria Santoro, PhD, Section of Legal 

Medicine - DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; 

Carlo P. Campobasso, PhD, University of Molise, via De Sanctis, snc, 

Campobasso, 86100, ITALY; Nunzio Di Nunno, PhD, via Guido Dorso 9, 

Bari, 70125, ITALY; and Francesco Introna, PhD, Section of Legal 

Medicine - DiMIMP, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate that it is necessary to 

standardize the methods used in the age estimation of living subjects, and 

that prudence is also necessary in the approach to age determination. 


demonstrating the necessity of formal training in this area. 

Age estimation of living individuals undergoing criminal 

proceedings or requesting asylum is one of the most difficult problems 

in forensic medicine. It is a prerequisite for personal identification and 

it is increasingly important in criminal matters. In fact, if doubts arise 

regarding the age of a person suspected of a crime, forensic age 

estimation is promptly requested by authorities to ascertain whether the 

person concerned has reached the age of imputability (criminal 

responsibility). On the other hand, if an asylum seeker is a minor, his 

request must be granted. 

In Italy, the age limit for which a person is considered to have legal 

responsibility is 14 years, and the age to determine if an individual 

should be tried under juvenile delinquency laws or general criminal laws 

is 18 years. 

Particularly between the ages of 14 and 18 years, juvenile 

delinquency laws in Italy may be applied and it is possible for children 

to be incarcerated in juvenile detention centers if their responsibility for 

a crime is determined. The need for accurate techniques of age 

estimation has never been greater than it has been in the last two decades 

due to the increase in international migration. Most young immigrants 

have no valid proof of their date of birth (legal age) upon arrival in this 

country. They usually lack valid identification documents and often 

provide an incorrect age. 

This study is a retrospective review of a sample of 53 immigrants 

(32 males and 11 females) coming from two geographic areas which are 

centers of important world conflicts: the Balkan Peninsula (Slovenia, 

Belgrade, Zagreb, Albania) and the Middle East (Palestine, Lebanon, 

Iraq, Egypt). 

In these particular cases, forensic age estimation was requested of 

the Department of Legal Medicine at the University of Bari by local 

authorities in order to either ascertain criminal responsibility, provide 

temporary shelter, and/or diplomatic asylum. The period in question is 

from May 1989 through September 2007. 

The age estimation process began with a clinical examination of the 

individuals which consisted of recording the stature and weight of the 

individual, along with a description of his or her secondary sex 

characteristics, such as the presence of pubic and underarm hair, the 

development of the external genitalia, and breast development. With the 

aim of making an age estimate as precise as possible, 

ortopantomographs, and x-rays of the left hand and wrist on almost every 

subject were carried out in order to evaluate skeletal and dental age. In 

23 cases, pelvic x-rays were taken, and in a few other cases 

supplementary examinations were performed (vertebral x-rays, knee xrays, 

and shoulder x-rays). 

In the retrospective analysis of a sample of 53 subjects, 22 of these 

demonstrated a possible correspondence between the declared age and 

the biological age obtained through evaluation by the specialists. 

However, there was no correspondence for the other cases. In 11 cases 

the declared age was less than or equal to 14 years, and only 5 of these 

11 cases were confirmed by radiographic examination (OPG and 

hand/wrist X-rays). 

Similarly, there were only 27 cases in which the declared age and 

biological age corresponded. Another interesting finding was the 

correspondence between the results obtained from the analysis of the xrays 

of the left hand and wrist and the results obtained by the analysis of 

the ortopantomographs in almost all subjects. Statistical analysis was 

performed and the results showed a significant statistical difference 

between declared age and the assessed biological age (p

photographed before being placed into the two inch round jars with the 

various liquids. Observations were made at specified intervals 

depending on the agent under consideration. For example, muriatic acid, 

which is also known as hydrochloric acid, consumed all human tissue 

types very rapidly so observations were made at half hour intervals until 

the specimens were no longer present. For those specimens that were not 

completely consumed, a designation of “no longer recognizable” was 

assigned. Initially, two runs of muriatic acid were completed to ensure 

that there was consistency in the observed changes. The results of these 

two tests were indistinguishable. 

The results of the testing varied from consumption of human hair by 

household lye in three minutes to no observed change in all specimens 

placed into the natural organism product or water. Muriatic acid 

consumed all samples (except hair) in 24 hours or less. The rate of loss 

was steady over the course of the experiment. Sulphuric acid consumed 

the bone and the tissue over a period of several days while making the 

bone and tooth soft and viscous. Bleach consumed the hair in 20 

minutes, the fingernails in several days and merely whitened the bone 

and tooth. The cola darkened the bone, nails and tooth but had no 

measurable effect on any of the specimens. The fingernails turned 

fluorescent yellow in the lye but the bone and tooth were unaffected. 

While some of the substances were effective on individual 

specimens, the muriatic acid was the most effective across all of the 

tested material. The result of this experiment suggests that muriatic acid 

is the most likely agent used in the case described above. Future 

experiments will include more extensive testing of complete body parts 

as well as testing human blood and skin with the agents used in this 

study. 

Corrosive Substances, Human Bone, Human Tissue 

H91 Aquatic Taphonomy in a Lacustrine 



Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, The University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996; and 

Murray K. Marks, PhD*, University of Tennessee, Graduate School of 

Medicine, 1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920-6999 


characteristic taphonomic changes brought about after long-term 

submersion in a lacustrine environment. 


a rare taphonomic context and adding to a growing body of literature on 

the subject of aquatic taphonomy. 

In addition to standard components of the biological profile, 

forensic anthropologists are often called to analyze taphonomic changes 

of ossified tissue from many types of environments. Though recent 

developments in forensic taphonomy have described numerous possible 

alterations to human remains, several types of taphonomic modification 

are poorly documented by forensic practitioners. For example, few 

studies have reported findings of skeletal remains recovered from vessels 

submerged in aquatic environments. The case study presented here 

describes the condition of one set of skeletal remains recovered from an 

automobile submerged for over half a century in a lacustrine setting. 

On February 22, 1956, a young adult female disappeared from 

Bradley County, Tennessee. Family and friends had no communication 

with her after this date and she was subsequently declared dead in 1975. 

Numerous scenarios surrounding the disappearance were discussed by 

members of her family and local community; however, none of these 

hypotheses offered any physical proof as to the missing woman’s 

whereabouts. The case remained unsolved for over fifty years and 

received little attention until local law enforcement recently dedicated a 

substantial portion of time to retracing her last known activities. 


After the case was reopened, interest soon turned to an alleged car 

trip taken by the missing woman that February morning. Investigators 

traced the alleged route along the rural state highway and noticed the 

roadway’s proximity to a 1,900 acre lake. A diving team was assembled 

to search the lake bottom and subsequently found a vehicle that matched 

the description of the missing woman’s 1951 Chevrolet BelAire 

approximately 45 feet below the lake surface. Upon searching the 

interior of the automobile, divers located and recovered numerous 

skeletal elements and remnants of clothing. All items were then 

transported to the Forensic Anthropology Laboratory at the Regional 

Forensic Center in Knoxville, Tennessee for analysis. 

After a thorough drying period of several days, available skeletal 

elements were inventoried and it became clear that the remains of a 

single individual had been recovered from inside the automobile. The 

difficult scene prohibited a total recovery, as numerous portions of both 

the cranial and post-cranial skeleton were missing. It also became 

apparent that the lacustrine environment had a remarkable taphonomic 

effect on the skeleton, as numerous elements presented heavy 

taphonomic alterations. 

Taphonomic changes to the skeleton were pronounced. Most 

notably, portions of the skeleton comprised primarily of trabecular bone 

were heavily abraded and eroded. In addition, commonly damaged 

elements such as the scapulae and ribs were heavily fragmented and 

poorly represented. With the exception of the radii and ulnae, all long 

bone epiphyses were highly eroded or absent altogether. Of the six 

recovered vertebrae, none had complete bodies and all but one was 

represented exclusively by the neural arch. Pubes and ischia were absent 

while ilia presented a highly weathered appearance akin to long-term sun 

exposure. 

Though hindered by recovery and taphonomy, standard osteometric 

methods were used to develop the biological profile of the decedent. Sex 

was estimated from portions of the os coxae and metric analyses of the 

right radius and ulna. These data, along with an overall gracile 

appearance, led to a female sex diagnosis. Age-at-death was estimated 

from available portions of the auricular surface. Though portions of the 

retroauricular area were not present, the absence of billowing and 

presence of striae produced an age-at-death estimate of 25-34 years. 

Stature was calculated using the maximum length of the right radius and 

ulna. Ancestry was not definitively determined as the craniofacial 

skeleton and cranial base were entirely absent. Though no positive 

means of identification were possible from the available skeletal 

elements, available osteological data indicated the missing woman could 

not be excluded as a possible match. Given that the remains of a young 

adult female were recovered from the same type of automobile the 

missing woman drove, and was located in close proximity to a route she 

was known to travel,, it is argued that a presumptive identification is 

possible at this time. 

Aquatic Taphonomy, Lacustrine Environment, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H92 Recovery of Human Remains From Vehicles 

Submerged in Fresh Water 

Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD*, and Anthony J. Koehl, BS*, University of 

Indianapolis, Archeology & Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna 


After attending this presentation, attendees will begin to appreciate 

the unique difficulties and specialized procedures involved in conducting 

controlled recoveries of decomposed or skeletonized human remains 

from vehicles submerged in fresh water rivers and lakes. Two recent 

examples from Indiana are used to illustrate how anthropologists modify 

traditional techniques of archeological excavation and taphonomic 

reconstruction to fit these unusual circumstances. 

200

This presentation will impact the forensic community by using two 

recent examples from Indiana to illustrate how anthropologists modify 

traditional techniques of archeological excavation and taphonomic 

reconstruction to fit these unusual circumstances. 

The first case involved an automobile submerged in a major western 

Indiana river. The car was discovered by local authorities and linked to 

an individual who had been missing for five years. Divers verified the 

presence of human remains by retrieving a femur through the partially 

opened driver’s side window. The automobile was removed from the 

river and subsequently stored in a secure evidence bay. The University 

of Indianapolis Archeology and Forensics Laboratory (AFL) was 

contacted to assist in recovery of the remains from the car. The members 

of the AFL team were the first individuals to see the car’s interior since 

its retrieval from the river. Even though this forensic scene was confined 

to the automobile’s interior, it still required thorough and systematic 

processing. The driver’s side window was open approximately six 

inches and had faced up-river prior to discovery. Large deposits of river 

sediment had washed into the vehicle, mixing and burying the remains. 

Pneumatic “jaws of life” were used to open the passenger door, where 

the sediment was less pronounced. Excavation was conducted using a 

mix of hand trowels and plastic and wooden tools in order to minimize 

damage to the bones. Sediment was transferred to a wet-screening 

station to find small elements. While no formal mapping was conducted, 

the locations of bones were recorded as discovered, and a field inventory 

of the remains was conducted throughout the excavation process. The 

distribution of the individual bones allowed for a reconstruction of the 

likely original position and location of the decedent at the time of the 

crash. The body was completely skeletonized and the bones presented 

taphonomic modifications typical of fresh water interment, including 

sediment staining and superficial erosion. 

The second case involved a jeep submerged in a retaining pond in 

central Indiana. The vehicle was registered to an individual who had 

been missing for 1.5 years. It was removed from the water and initial 

investigation of its interior produced a partial corpse. The individual’s 

postcranial elements were articulated due to the protective nature of the 

clothing still on the body as well as by thick adipocere formation. The 

head and hands were fully skeletonized and dispersed throughout the 

sediment, which had accumulated along the floorboards. Similar 

recovery techniques were applied in this case, as described above. 

However, fewer elements were missing and the jeep had an open design 

that allowed water and sediment to flow more freely without being 

trapped. 

Both cases presented unique challenges and required the 

anthropologists to adapt and modify their archeological recovery 

strategies. Facilities and equipment for water screening large amounts of 

sediment are essential, and the local authorities will have to find a way 

to dispose of this material. Special safety procedures are required to 

protect the investigators from sharp, rusty metal, glass fragments, and 

even tiny fish bones, which can be incredibly sharp. Water action makes 

it difficult to reconstruct the original position of the body within the 

vehicle, information that may be essential to understanding the nature of 

the accident. Lastly, the taphonomic processes that modify human 

remains submerged in deep water are very different from those that affect 

remains on the surface or buried in the ground. 

Submerged Vehicles, Human Remains, Forensic Archeology 

H93 Decomposition Variables: A Comparison 

of Skeletal Remains Recovered After 

Long-Term Submersion in Florida 


Katy L. Shepherd, BS*, and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, Florida Gulf 

Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard 

AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; Valerie J. Rao, MD, District 4 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 2100 Jefferson Street, Jacksonville, FL 

32206; Khalil S. Wardak, MD, 5301 SW 31st Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, 

FL 33312; Predrag Bulic, MD, District 7 Office of the Medical 

Examiner, 1360 Indian Lake Road, Daytona Beach, FL 32124; and 

Christena Roberts, MD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of 

Virginia, Western District, 6600 Northside High School Road, Roanoke, 

VA 24019 

The goal of this presentation is to establish baseline data that will 

serve to determine postmortem submersion intervals from subaqueous 

death scenes within Florida’s waterways. 


medical examiner personnel, law enforcement agencies, and 

anthropologists with resources that will enable them to collect and 

analyze data concerning taphonomic variables specific to aquatic 

submersions. The presentation also demonstrates how these data are 

essential for the estimation of an accurate postmortem submersion 

interval (PMSI) by presenting several cases involving aquatic 

submersion. 

Subaqueous death scenes pose myriad investigative challenges 

including the accurate estimation of postmortem submersion interval 

(PMSI). The forensic standard in subaqueous PMSI has been broadly 

defined as one week on the ground’s surface equals two weeks in the 

water—no matter the geographic location. Many specific extrinsicenvironmental 

variables, however, are easily identified and data-mined 

from water management district environmental station websites that can 

yield relatively more precise estimation of PMSI specific to the 

geographic area of interest. To this end, both extrinsic environmental 

and intrinsic corpus delicti data were collected and analyzed to create 

PMSI for several forensic death scenes within Florida’s waterways in 

order to establish a PMSI baseline for the state. 

For this study, the extrinsic environmental variables included 

ambient and water temperature, salinity, pH level, presence or absence of 

flora and fauna, depth of immersion, subaqueous substrate (e.g., sand, 

soil, and cement), bacterial content, algal growth, water current speed, 

and trace mineral content. These data were easily accessed because of 

the State of Florida’s Water Resource Act which requires water 

management districts (Northwest Florida, Southwest Florida, St. Johns, 

Suwannee River, and South Florida) to manage and protect water and 

related natural resources through monthly (sometimes daily) data 

collection. As such, most of the extrinsic environmental data was 

obtained through water management districts’ websites 

(http://www.nwfwmd.state.fl.us/, http://www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/, 

http://sjr.state.fl.us/, http://www.srwmd.state.fl.us/, 

http://www.sfwmd.gov/). Additional extrinsic variables included the 

presence or absence of clothing, footwear, and other personal effects, as 

well as whether the remains were found within vehicles or other humanmade 

structures. 

Intrinsic corpus variables included the presence and absence of 

adipocere, location of adipocere, presence or absence of skin and muscle 

tissue, location of skin and muscle tissue, organ weights, organ histology, 

and skeletal inventory and analysis of bone integrity (e.g., cortical bone 

flaking, trabecular bone wasting, etc.). 

The study materials came from forensic cases distributed through 

several counties across the state of Florida, including Broward, Lake, 

Lee, and Suwannee counties. For each case, the forensic anthropologist 


conducted osteological analyses of identity, trauma, and time since death 

and the forensic pathologist conducted his/her own analysis. Three of 

the victims were discovered within structures, such as vehicles or boats. 

The submersion intervals ranged from a few days to approximately 30 

years. As such, the decomposition observed on the remains varied but 

provided a taphonomic baseline for PMSI to be created. 

Upon analysis, the data culled from the three types of variables 

(extrinsic environmental, extrinsic corpus, and intrinsic corpus) were 

consistent with expected patterns of decomposition. Skeletal inventories 

demonstrated an expected negative relationship between submersion 

interval and percentage of body recovered, with the exception of those 

remains contained within structures. Remains with the shortest 

postmortem submersion intervals exhibited soft tissue and organ 

retention, while those with the longest submersion intervals exhibited 

bone free from soft tissue. Remains displaying extensive adipocere, and 

thus delayed decomposition, encountered factors conducive to adipocere 

formation, including neutral or mildly alkaline pH levels and warm 

temperatures (between 15-30° C), around the time of initial submersion, 

which was consistent with previous research. Bone that was exposed to 

adipocere evidenced greatly reduced bone integrity through cortical 

flaking and trabecular bone wasting. Variables which appeared to 

greatly impact the rate of decomposition with relation to submersion 

interval included the following: water temperature, pH level, depth of 

immersion, presence/absence of clothing, and whether the remains were 

submerged within a structure (protected from flora, fauna, and water 

currents). 

Therefore, when medical examiners, anthropologists, and law 

enforcement recover remains after long-term aquatic submersion, the 

creation of a subaquatic taphonomic baseline is essential to establishing 

an accurate postmortem submersion interval. 

Forensic Anthropology, Decomposition, Postmortem 


H94 Taphonomic Degradation to Bone 

Through Scavenging by Marine Mollusks 

of the Class Polyplacophora 

Audrey L. Scott, MA*, Simon Fraser University, Department of 

Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 

1S6, CANADA 


understanding of an underreported type of marine scavenging, the 

damage caused to skeletal elements by marine mollusks, and the 

characterization of such with special regards to differentiation from other 

types of scavenging. Specifically, mollusk scavenging has been 

compared to rodent gnawing; attendees will learn characteristics 

differentiating these two distinct processes. 


forensic knowledge on the taphonomy of long-term marine exposure, 

while contributing to the growing body of information regarding time 

elapsed time since deposition, and providing forensic practitioners with 

“real-life” examples of taphonomic processes which have previously 

only been discussed without adequate visual documentation. 

Knowledge of taphonomic processes is essential to the forensic 

anthropologist in estimating elapsed time since death and postmortem 

influences on remains. Terrestrial taphonomy is well understood and the 

subject of numerous experimental and regional studies, and yet marine 

taphonomy in comparison is relatively unexplored. This is problematic 

for forensic professionals in coastal areas, where marine contexts play a 

significant role in the postmortem interval. 

In February 2007, recreational divers off the coast of British 

Columbia, Canada recovered skeletal elements from a depth of 

approximately 20 meters / 60 feet below sea level. Suspecting them to 


be human, the divers turned over the skeletonized elements to the local 

police (RCMP), who contacted forensic anthropologists at the Centre for 

Forensic Research at Simon Fraser University for examination of the 

remains. 

The skeletal elements were clearly of non-human origin. However, 

the unique taphonomic modification to the bone inspired further 

examination and consideration. Significant cortical bone mass was 

removed in deep, wandering channels and concavities. Several mollusks 

of the class Polyplacophora were adherent in the concavities at the time 

of recovery. Within the concavities, minute lines are etched in roughly 

parallel, though undulating, striations. These are likely the result of 

scavenging by the associated Polyplacophora who, like other mollusks, 

constantly expand and remodel their protective shells with calcium 

carbonate, requiring a high intake of nutritional minerals. 

Polyplacophora feed with a long, tooth lined radula used for scraping up 

sediments and substrates for their nutritional content. The microscopic 

teeth lining the radula are tipped with magnetite and must be constantly 

produced. As teeth are damaged and lost during feeding, new teeth are 

continuously mineralized and advanced into position. This constant 

need for dietary minerals suggests that submerged skeletal elements may 

be an ideal substrate for scavenging by various Mollusca species. 

This case review highlights how long-term scavenging by marine 

mollusks, specifically of the class Polyplacophora, influences the 

taphonomic degradation of the skeletal element. Photographic and 

radiographic documentation illustrate the characteristic nature of damage 

to the bone and provide a visual example of a regionally unique 

taphonomy which, until now, has only been superficially discussed in 

forensic taphonomic literature. 

Marine Taphonomy, Scavenging, Forensic Anthropology 

H95 Skeletal Remains in a Fluvial Environment: 

Microscopic Evidence of Glycoproteinous 

Adhesive of Balanus Improvisus on the 

Occlusal Surface of Mandibular Teeth 

Amanda Johnson, MPA*, Sam Houston State University, PO Box 2296, 

Huntsville, TX 77340; Joan A. Bytheway, PhD*, 23936 Northcrest Trail, 

New Caney, TX 77357; and Stephen M. Pustilnik, MD, Galveston County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 6607 Highway 1764, Texas City, TX 77591 


microscopic analysis can detect glycoproteinous adhesive of barnacles 

and may help determine placement of remains in a fluvial environment. 

This study may help determine the placement of mandibular or maxillary 

teeth, and possibly skeletal elements, in a fluvial environment even when 

only one or a few teeth are present and, with further research on the 

glycoproteinous adhesive, it may help determine postmortem interval in 

fluvial environments. 


the necessity of microscopic analysis of the human skeleton even if 

macroscopically it appears nothing is present on the remains. 

Microscopic analysis revealed this mandible had been in a fluvial 

environment even though there were no visual indicators it had been. 

Barnacles are crustaceans that typically inhabit shallow salt waters 

with 75% living in water depths of less than 100 meters and 25% 

inhabiting intertidal zones. During the larval stage, the cypris antennae 

secretes a glycoproteinous adhesive that attaches to a hard substrate prior 

to metamorphosing to an adult form. Barnacles adhere themselves to 

substrates such as rocks, ship hulls, and oyster beds. 

In a recent microscopic examination of human dentition from 

skeletal remains brought to the Galveston County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, Texas City, Texas, the adhesive protein of Balanus improvisus, an 

acorn barnacle, was found on the occlusal surfaces of left PM 1 , PM 2 , and 

202

M 1 of the mandible. Other than the mandible found separate from the 

remaining skeletal elements, no other fluvial indicators, such as algal 

staining, circumferential staining, silt staining, or matrix compaction 

were present on the mandible. Without the microscopic analysis of the 

dentition, the presence of the adhesive protein and ultimately the 

determination that this mandible had been in a fluvial setting may not 

have been discovered. 

B. improvisus found on PM 1 measured 1.99mm in diameter. Two 

small adhesions of B. improvisus were found on PM 2, one measuring 

4.09mm and the other measuring 1.82mm. The adhesion on M 1 

measured 1.55mm. 

The adult B. improvisus lays eggs which hatch into the larval stage. 

In the initial larval stage, the nauplius larva has a pelagic swimming 

period before it molts into a bivalve larva, known as a cypris. The cypris 

searches for a short period of time for a settlement spot and eventually 

settles on a substrate where it lives out its adult life. In general, most 

barnacles live two years. The larva of B. improvisus typically settles 

during the late summer or early fall months and grows into an average 

diameter size of 10mm but can reach diameters of 20mm. B. improvisus 

has been found in the estuarine system in Galveston Bay, Galveston, 

Texas. 

Research shows that B. improvisus prefers smooth surfaces with 

which to attach. The highly cross-linked proteins deposited to attach to 

the substrate are so strong that they can remain on the substrate even 

after the carapace (body) of the barnacle is gone. 

This case report will show how the detection of the glycoproteinous 

adhesive of the barnacle may: (1) help determine placement of remains 

in a fluvial environment sometime during the taphonomic process, (2) 

help determine placement of mandibular or maxillary teeth, and possibly 

skeletal elements, in a fluvial environment even when only one or a few 

teeth are present, and (3) with further research on the glycoproteinous 

adhesive, it may help determine postmortem interval in fluvial 

environments. 

Balanus Improvisus, Glycoproteinous Adhesive, Human Dentition 

H96 Cremated Tooth Morphology: A User’s 


Elizabeth M. Danner, BA*, School of Forensic and Investigative 

Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, PR1 2HE, 



identify burnt and fragmented dentition using external crown and root as 

well as internal pulp cavity and root canal morphology. 


a detailed methodology for the identification of cremated dentition and 

by enabling practitioners to rapidly identify cremated dentition for the 

estimation of the minimum number of individuals, creation of 

postmortem dental records and interpretation of burn patterns. 

Conventional dental identification focuses on crown morphology as 

the most unique and most easily observed dental trait, but is of little use 

in cremations where the crown enamel commonly shatters into tiny 

shards. Dentine roots survive cremation and may even survive 

pulverization in a modern crematorium, but few authors address the 

subject of how to identify cremated dental fragments. 

To create a stringent identification system for forensic applications, 

this study applied population frequencies of both external and internal 

dental morphology to identify the dentition of the Late Bronze Age West 

Overton G 19 Cremation Cemetery housed at the University of Central 

Lancashire. An archaeological sample was chosen because the 

implantation of dental appliances alters tooth morphology and has been 

documented to impact cremation fragmentation patterns. Fragments 

from a previous analysis were observed with the aid of a magnifier and 

macroscope. 

Though a text book will picture the average tooth, actual teeth 

exhibit a great degree of variation in cusp, root and root canal number 

due to individual and regional differences. To account for this variation, 

identification was broken into six levels of certainty from broad traits 

shared by several teeth to very specific traits unique to a single tooth. 

The “uniqueness” of each trait was determined by White population 

frequencies reported in the dental literature and observations of British 

Medieval, Bronze Age and Victorian skeletons housed at the University 

of Central Lancashire. 

Fragments were identified to 6 increasing levels of certainty: (1) 

Position as anterior or posterior was determined by the number of cusps, 

roots, and pulp horns and the curvature of the cementum enamel 

junction, (2) Tooth type of incisor, canine, premolar or molar was based 

on the number and shape of cusps, pulp horns, roots, and root canals, (3) 

Differences in morphology, size and thickness of dentine and enamel 

between permanent and deciduous teeth identified dentition set, (4) Jaw 

as maxillary or mandibular was determined by differences in root, cusp, 

pulp horn and root canal shape, (5) Side determination as left or right 

was only possible when the arrangement of cusps or roots identified the 

mesial or distal side, such as the placement of the hypoconulid distally in 

mandibular molars, and (6) Identification of tooth number as first, 

second or third was also difficult as many teeth vary little or 

inconsistently between sequential teeth. 

The analysis of 479 dental fragments of 18 individuals (8 juveniles 

and 10 adults) identified the majority of fragments (74%) to position, 

most (66%) to dentition set and type, about half (45%) to jaw, and some 

to side (15%) and number (10%). Of the 479 fragments, only 26% did 

not contain enough features for identification, compared to the 50% not 

identified in a previous analysis using external morphology alone. 

In forensic applications, this marked increase in identification may 

improve the estimation of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) 

and reconstruction of perimortem events. Anterior teeth have been 

observed to suffer a higher degree of fragmentation and burning in 

vehicular crashes, but survive intact when the body decomposes prior to 

incineration. The high identification rate (74%) of fragment position 

may then indicate the timing of cremation in relation to time of death. 

The identification of fragments to dentition and type (66%) is used in 

estimation of the MNI through repetition of teeth and presence of 

deciduous teeth. 

Dentition, Cremation, Identification 

H97 Going Green: Environmentally Sound 

Practices in Human Decomposition 

Research and Laboratory Settings 

Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD*, and Jerry Melbye, PhD, Texas State 

University-San Marcos, Department of Anthropology, 601 University 

Drive, ELA 273, San Marcos, TX 78666-4616 


understanding of specific policies and procedures that can be 

implemented in their own practices to establish ecologically sensitive 

protocols for both forensic anthropological laboratory and research work 

in the handling, processing, and curation of human remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community and the 

broader public at large by introducing ecologically-friendly approaches 

that researchers working with fresh and decomposing human remains 

can utilize in order to lessen the impact of harmful chemicals and 

products on the surrounding environment, and will identify areas where 

these changes can be made cost-effectively and with a minimum of 

interference or disturbance in already established practices. 


The Forensic Anthropology Center at Texas State (FACTS) is now 

host to one of the largest outdoor human decomposition laboratories in 

the world. As a result of initial negative public reaction towards the 

establishment of this facility, the initially perceived negative concern 

(the introduction of decomposition, pollutants, and other harmful 

contaminants into the environment) was turned into a positive attribute. 

A “green” strategy has been consciously applied in as many aspects of 

the program as possible. The location of the Forensic Research Facility 

is just a few miles south of Austin, Texas, a city often ranked within the 

top ten of America’s greenest communities in terms of recycling, energy, 

natural space, and transportation statistics. 

In order to incorporate this same spirit of environmental 

responsibility, FACTS is making a concerted and systematic effort to 

incorporate various aspects of eco-friendly practice at multiple levels, 

including: (1) in addition to previously established avenues in the 

acquisition of body donations, the targeting and soliciting anatomical 

gifts from ecologically-minded citizens, (2) the acquisition of an 

alternative flex-fuel vehicle to use for both body donation retrieval and 

transportation to forensic anthropological crime scenes, (3) an 

adjustment of the procedures employed during the placement of human 

bodies for open-air, buried, covered, or surface decomposition scenarios 

to reflect the most environmentally safe options, (4) the products used in 

the cleaning and processing of human remains are largely composed of 

biobased, biodegradable enzymes, degreasers, and other naturallyderived 

products for body processing and skeletal preparation, and (5) 

the equipment and materials used in the archiving and curation of 

skeletal remains are specifically chosen to represent those items that are 

multiple-use, recyclable, or otherwise environmentally responsible 

options. FACTS is situating its anatomical body donation program into 

the bigger picture of ecological awareness by also promoting it to those 

individuals looking into “green burial” options, a newer trend in funeral 

services viewed as a natural alternative to traditional chemical 

embalming and coffin burials. In addition, in an effort to avoid the use 

of dangerous substances and to reduce the release of harmful chemicals 

into the soil and groundwater at the open-air decomposition facility, 

FACTS will not accept bodies into the body donation program that have 

been previously embalmed or preserved. 

While FACTS has not achieved a completely green operation (and 

will never do so based on the realities of dealing with biohazardous 

waste, the need to observe universal precautions, and other intractable 

practicalities of forensic anthropological work), the laboratory is striving 

towards incorporating a full-range of alternatives and options that take 

advantage of newer products, technologies, and trends in the move 

towards a more ecologically-minded approach to research, community 

service, and laboratory protocol in forensic anthropological settings. 

Green Practice, Human Decomposition, Forensic Anthropology 

H98 A Study of the Human Decomposition 


Connie L. Parks, BA*, 8802 Featherhill Road, Austin, TX 78737; 

Elizabeth T. Brandt, BA, 232 Evans Liberal Arts, Anthropology 

Department 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666; Michelle D. 

Hamilton, PhD, Texas State University-San Marcos, Department of 

Anthropology, 601 University Drive, Austin, TX 78666; Jennifer Pechal, 

MS, TAMU 2475, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843- 

2475; and Jeffery K. Tomberlin, PhD, Department of Entomology, 

TAMU 2475, College Station, TX 77843-2475 


decomposition sequence for human remains found in the context of this 

study in the late spring and early summer seasons of South Central 

Texas. Professionals regularly involved in investigations of unidentified 

remains will benefit from the decomposition information and visuals 

presented. 



establishing a preliminary decomposition baseline for human remains in 

Central Texas and regions of similar climate and geography. This study 

provides the forensic community with the foundation for a new and 

original data source tailored to specific environmental conditions and 

compared against previously published descriptive and quantitative 

studies. 

Understanding the human decomposition sequence from varied 

geographic locations provides those charged with the investigation of 

unidentified human remains a tool for more accurately estimating the 

postmortem interval. Attendees of this presentation will gain insight into 

the timing and mechanisms of the decomposition sequence for human 

remains found within the context of this study during the late spring and 

early summer seasons of South Central Texas. Professionals regularly 

involved in time since death estimations of unidentified remains found in 

outdoor settings will benefit from the decomposition information, 

timelines, and visuals presented. 

The outdoor decomposition of human remains involves a suite of 

complex, highly variable processes. Early processes including autolysis, 

putrefaction, and insect activity are dependent on environmental 

conditions, particularly temperature and humidity. Other decomposition 

processes, such as animal scavenging, are also site specific to the local 

environment and its faunal constituency. Due to such dependencies, a 

“one size fits all” decomposition model is unrealistic. It is imperative 

that ecologically distinct regions establish specific benchmarks by 

conducting controlled analyses that consider local conditions. Although 

retrospective and experimental human decomposition studies have 

established decay rates for specific eco-locations, such studies have been 

limited and primarily confined to the Southeastern and Southwestern 

United States. In Central Texas similar studies have been performed 

using pigs (Sus scrofa) and other nonhuman substitutes; however, no 

study to date has utilized intact human remains. This report provides 

summarized data from the first controlled field study involving human 

remains at the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility, Texas State 

University-San Marcos. 

A donated human cadaver was placed at the open-air laboratory and 

regularly observed over a ten-week period. Data collected included the 

visual assessment of the stages of decomposition, insect specimens and 

observations of insect activity patterns, and weather conditions recorded 

at the permanent weather station located at the research facility. 

Additionally, the data were utilized to test a recently developed 

quantitative method for estimating the postmortem interval. Although 

two unexpected events occurred during the study, general results indicate 

a high degree of similarity with decomposition studies originating in the 

Southwestern United States, as well as preliminary support for a 

quantitative approach. 

The purpose of this study was to establish a preliminary 

decomposition baseline for human remains in Central Texas and regions 

of similar climate and geography. This study provides the forensic 

community with the foundation for a new and original dataset—one 

tailored to these specific environmental conditions, and compared 

against previously published descriptive and quantitative studies. 

Further research is critical for the continued refinement of this initial 

study, and future studies should include observations in different seasons 

and varying depositional and burial contexts. 

In addition to presenting the results of this study, the authors will 

briefly report on the current state of the Forensic Anthropology Research 

Facility, the largest and newest open-air decomposition laboratory in the 

world, and the third facility in existence explicitly utilizing donated 

human remains along with the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, and 

Western Carolina University. Expansion, construction, and current and 

future services will also be outlined, as will ongoing and future research 

designs which will build upon and complement this project to provide a 

better overall picture of the human decomposition sequence in Central 

Texas. 

Decomposition, Postmortem Interval, Accumulated Degree - Days 

204

H99 Forensic Osteology Research Station 


Cheryl A. Johnston, PhD*, Western Carolina University, Department of 

Anthropology & Sociology, 101 McKee Building, Cullowhee, NC 28723 


enhanced view of human decomposition in the Blue Ridge 

Physiographic Province of North Carolina based on a case study of the 

first donation to be placed in the Forensic Osteology Research Station in 

Cullowhee, North Carolina. 

The expected impact of this presentation on the forensic community 

is to begin to fine tune our understanding of human decomposition via 

research focused on patterns of decomposition and their environmental 

specificity. Instead of waiting until sufficient data are generated to report 

large scale patterns in more than one physiographic zone (which could 

take decades), this presentation will benefit the forensic community by 

reporting observations as they are made in hopes that each individual 

donor can inform our audience in some way. An additional impact of this 

work is that collaborations will be sought with researchers at other 

institutions with outdoor decomposition laboratories and those planning 

future decomposition laboratories. 

The purpose of this study is to document the decomposition of the 

body of an adult male in the Blue Ridge physiographic province of North 

Carolina during the summer of 2008. On June 24, 2008, the clothed 

body was placed directly on the soil in the supine position on a south 

facing slope with the head inclined above the feet. The donor was placed 

in an area that is partially shaded by the forest canopy much of the day. 

Observations of decomposition and the environment were made and 

photographs were taken daily or every other day for the first month and 

weekly thereafter. Average temperatures during late June and July 

ranged from highs in the mid eighties to lows in the upper fifties and just 

over five inches of rain fell. 

After 48 hours, fly eggs began to hatch and exposed areas of skin 

were in the beginning stages of sloughing. There was little odor until the 

fifth day and the odor never became strong. By the third day the skin had 

begun to darken and two days later the lips had turned black and parted. 

First and second instar fly larvae and adult beetles were observed on day 

five. Bloating was noted after one week and at this point tissue reduction 

of the head and neck was well under way. Third instar fly larvae were 

present in large numbers by day eight. Portions of the facial skeleton, 

left clavicle and left first rib were exposed by the ninth day. Migration 

of fly larvae began on the twelfth day and bloating began to recede. 

Numerous beetle larvae were present early in the third week and fly 

activity slowed. By week four the soft tissues of the skull and left upper 

thorax were greatly reduced but much soft tissue remained on the right 

shoulder, abdomen and appendages and arthropod activity was minimal. 

During weeks five and six the tissue of the arms and legs reduced, but no 

bone was exposed. 

Prior to placing the donation and in order to collect terrestrial 

arthropods six pitfall traps were installed in the area where the body was 

to be placed, three pitfall traps were installed in other areas of the facility, 

and six pitfall traps were installed well outside the facility. The pitfall 

traps were collected at various intervals before and during 

decomposition. Prior to placing the donation as well as during 

decomposition, leaf litter samples for the collection of leaf litter fauna 

were collected in the facility and surrounding area. Leaf litter samples 

were processed in the laboratory using a Berlese funnel. Additional 

collections were made using sweep nets and forceps during 

decomposition. Arthropods observed include members of the families 

Calliphoridae, Silphidae, Staphylinidae, Histeridae, and Vespidae, 

among others. 

Decomposition, Environment, Arthropod 

H100 Taphonomic Signatures of Animal 


Eric J. Bartelink, PhD*, and Lisa N. Bright, BS, California State 

University-Chico, 400 West First Street, Department of Anthropology, 

Butte #311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 


understanding of animal scavenging patterns on human remains from the 

Western U.S. The goals of this research are to: (1) document 

taphonomic signatures on human remains due to carnivore and rodent 

scavenging in northern California, and (2) address challenges in timesince-death 

estimates using taphonomic indicators. 


highlighting important considerations for assessing taphonomic 

signatures on human remains due to animal scavenging, as well as 

implications for time-since-death estimations. 

Although taphonomic research involving animal scavenging has 

had a long history in paleontology and archaeology, only a handful of 

studies have focused on the scavenging of human remains from forensic 

contexts. Many of the forensic cases submitted to the Human 

Identification Laboratory at California State University, Chico (CSUC- 

HIL) derive from outdoor contexts and show extensive evidence of 

scavenging by carnivores and rodents. Northern California’s extensive 

forests and rural landscape are home to a number of key scavengers, 

including black bears, coyotes, squirrels, opossums, raccoons, and rats. 

The especially high frequency of carnivore gnawing marks on bone 

indicates that bears and canids (coyotes and dogs) are among the most 

active scavengers of human remains in the area. However, rodents also 

play a significant role in the scavenging of human remains. 

This study examines 21 forensic cases involving animal scavenging 

submitted to CSUC from 1986 to 2008. The majority of cases (n=16) are 

curated at the CSUC-HIL, with the remaining (n=5) examined through 

previous case reports. Each case was inventoried in detail, and all 

skeletal elements were examined for the presence of tooth impact marks. 

Elements that showed clear evidence of pits, punctures, and furrows 

were scored as carnivore gnawing damage. Similarly, linear, parallel 

striations were scored as evidence of rodent gnawing damage. To 

facilitate analysis, crania, ribs, hands, and feet are treated as single units 

rather than as separate elements. The frequency of each element 

represented was compared with the frequency affected by scavenging to 

evaluate the relationship between element survivorship and scavenging 

frequency. General patterns of involvement for carnivores and rodents 

are documented. 

Because the recovery of remains was primarily conducted by law 

enforcement, the representation of elements may be more informative of 

the recognizability and size of skeletal elements than actual element 

survivorship. For example, 95.2% of crania, 88.1% of femora, and 

83.3% of innominates were recovered, all which represent large elements 

easily recognizable as human. In contrast, small elements of the feet, 

hands, and the patella are the least represented (52.3%, 33.3%, and 28.6 

%, respectively). When elements were ranked by their representation 

and compared by scavenging frequency, no correlation was found (rho = 

0.162, p = 0.535). 

Overall, 31.2% (n=205) of the 658 total elements show evidence of 

animal gnawing, with carnivore damage accounting for 27.5% and 

rodent gnawing for 3.6%. Of the elements with evidence of scavenging, 

the majority are associated with carnivore damage (carnivore = 88.3% 

vs. rodent = 11.7%). For carnivore scavenged remains, the highest 

prevalence is found for elements of the lower limb. Although smaller 

elements are more likely to be consumed during scavenging activity, all 

element types are well-represented in the dataset. Of particular note is 

that rodent scavenging is primarily found on the skull and large 

appendicular elements. For example, rodent gnawing was not observed 

on ribs, scapulae, clavicles, patellae, or the vertebral column. 


Within-element patterns of carnivore scavenging are consistent with 

that reported in the literature—chewing activity is focused on nutrientrich 

cancellous portions of proximal and distal segments of long bones, 

the pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle. For rodents, chewing behavior 

is guided by both the need to sharpen continuously growing incisors and 

also the need for minerals (e.g., calcium). Due to functional constraints 

of the rodent jaw, gnawing is often directed toward portions of elements 

that have sharp crests, ridges, or borders. The data indicate that rodent 

gnawing damage is mainly associated with regions of the skull such as 

the superior borders of the eye orbit, nuchal lines, mastoid processes, 

mandibular rami, and crests and muscle attachments of large 

appendicular elements. 

The present study highlights the need to examine large samples of 

scavenged remains from different environments. The preliminary results 

of this study suggest that large carnivores (bears and canids) are the 

primary agents that modify human remains in outdoor contexts in 

northern California. Although rodents play a smaller role, nearly 12% of 

elements had significant damage due to rodent activity. Variation in the 

distribution of animal scavengers should be taken into account in timesince-death 

estimates. 

Taphonomy, Animal Scavenging, Time-Since-Death 

H101 Raccoon (Procyon Lotor) Soft Tissue 


Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, The University of Tennessee, The University 

of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be visually exposed 

to the unique scavenging strategies employed by the common raccoon; 

and the soft tissue manifestations thereof, over the course of soft tissue 

decay. 


the theory that postmortem scavengers are said to be attracted to open 

wounds. Animal depredation can quickly destroy evidence of 

perimortem soft tissue injuries. While canid soft tissue modification of 

human remains is generally recognized, procyonid (e.g., raccoon) 

modification has not been described. Given the unusual dexterity of its 

forepaws, the soft tissue artifacts produced by the scavenging raccoon 

are unlike canid depredation patterns. Recognition of raccoon 

modification of human remains may be crucial for the interpretation of 

soft tissue injuries thereby assisting the medicolegal investigator in the 

assignation of the manner of death. 

This paper characterizes the soft tissue artifacts produced by the 

scavenging common raccoon (Procyon lotor), as photographically 

documented at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropological Research 

Facility. From September 2003 through July 2004, multiple digital 

cameras were stationed at the Facility—a 2½ acre plot of land set aside 

for human decomposition research—to record the nocturnal behavior of 

small mammal scavengers. Post-July 2004, the cameras were 

sporadically operated through spring 2006. Near daily visits to the 

facility in daylight enabled detailed photographic, and written, 

documentation of soft tissue changes due to any previous night’s activity. 

The accumulation of digital video, and photography, has produced an 

archive of imagery documenting the condition of the body at the time of 

placement and the location, and timing, of soft tissue modification. 

Raccoons (Procyon lotor), in the order Carnivora, can be found 

throughout much of the United States. Although highly adaptable to 

diverse habitats, they prefer hardwood forests near streams, lakesides, or 

other bodies of water. They may establish dens in hollow trees, 

abandoned ground burrows, brush piles, caves or rock piles, drain pipes, 

and in, or under, buildings and structures. Urbanization has attracted 

many raccoons into metropolitan areas due to easily obtainable food, 


water, and shelter. Exceptionally inquisitive, their unique dexterity 

enables them to manipulate objects and probe crevices extracting 

contents within reach for examination. The raccoon is highly 

omnivorous and forages at night for a variety of foods including fruit, 

berries, nuts, fish, mollusks, snails, earthworms, insects, crayfish, clams, 

frogs, turtles, carrion, and small rodents and birds as well as their eggs. 

By watching the behavior of other raccoons, they may incorporate new 

foods into their diet—such as corn, grain, vegetables, pet food, birdseed, 

and garbage. As an urban pest, they are known to uproot lawns while 

‘grubbing’ for insects and their larvae. Melon growers recognize 

signature raccoon damage by the single hole cored through the rind with 

extraction of the interior’s fleshy fruit. 

The body donation program at the University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville provides for the unique opportunity to view nocturnal 

scavengers undeterred by chain link and privacy fencelines. As an 

excellent climber and an acceptable digger, raccoons have been frequent 

visitors to the Facility for several years. Human donors, and/or donor 

families, are aware that bodies decompose in a natural outdoor setting. 

Taphonomy, Postmortem Scavenging, Common Raccoon 

H102 Estimating Ancestry Through Nonmetric 

Traits of the Skull: A Test of Education 

and Experience 

Amber D. Wheat, BS*, 232 Evan Liberal Arts, 601 University Drive, San 



effects that education, experience, and the geographic region in which 

one works have on the accuracy of nonmetric ancestry determination. 

Statistical research results pertaining to the nonmetric method of 

determining ancestry will also be presented. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by making 

the forensic anthropological community aware of the effects that 

education and experience in forensic anthropology have on the accuracy 

of ancestry estimation using nonmetric traits. 

The identifying characteristics of any unknown skeleton are age, 

sex, height, and ancestry. Among these four biological identifiers, 

ancestry is possibly the most difficult to assess. There are two main 

ways of estimating the ancestry of a skull: metric and nonmetric. The 

metric method involves twenty-one standard measurements that are 

entered into a computer based program (FORDISC 3.0). The program 

compares the measurements to those in a database containing 

measurements of known skulls from twenty eight populations. The 

program then classifies a particular skull into a population group. The 

nonmetric method involves a visual assessment of the skull, using the 

overall structure of the skull to classify it into an ancestral group. These 

two methods are often used together to determine the most precise 

ancestry of a skull. 

Many of the methods used for ancestry determination are 

considered subjective, especially methods of nonmetric visual 

assessment. Therefore the nonmetric method should be tested not only 

for the precision of each trait (intra- and inter-observer error), but also for 

the accuracy of these commonly utilized nonmetric traits among forensic 


This study used three blind tests presented to professional forensic 

anthropologists as well as students of forensic anthropology. These three 

tests were conducted in different geographic regions of the country. A 

total of twenty-seven people participated in the study. Of the twentyseven 

participants, six were in the PhD level, nine in the Master’s level, 

ten in the Bachelor’s degree level and two were currently in their 

undergraduate year studying physical anthropology. A questionnaire 

presented to each participant was used to determine a variety of things 

such as level of experience in forensic anthropology, level of education, 

206

familiarity with nonmetric traits, and estimated number of forensic 

anthropological cases on which the participant has worked. Eight 

complete skull casts of known ancestry and identity were used to obtain 

a broad number of responses. The skull casts consisted of four Asian 

skulls, two European skulls, and two African skulls. Each skull was 

placed next to a poster that listed nonmetric traits for the three main 

ancestral groups: European, African, and Asian. Each participant 

determined the ancestry of all eight skulls and classified each into one of 

the three ancestral categories. If the participant could be more specific 

in determining ancestry (narrowing the ancestry down from Asian to 

Native American), they did so. Also, each participant listed the 

nonmetric traits he/she used to determine the ancestry of each skull. 

The results of this study indicate there is no correlation between 

education level and/or professional expertise in the accuracy of using 

nonmetric skull traits to estimate ancestry. Based upon regression 

analysis, there is no significant difference between the accuracy rates of 

professional forensic anthropologists with a high level of experience and 

those with a low level of experience in determining the ancestry of a 

skull. Despite the fact that there is no difference in accuracy rates, those 

with higher levels of education were able to narrow down the ancestry of 

a skull more than those with lower levels of education. The first group, 

comprised of individuals with a PhD, correctly identified 68% of Asians, 

64% of Africans and 75% of Europeans. The second group, consisting 

of individuals with MA degrees, correctly identified 76% of Asians, 61% 

of Africans and 76% of Europeans. The third group, consisting of 

students with a BA degree and students pursuing a BA degree, correctly 

identified 71% of Asians, 58% of Africans and 83% of Europeans. 

Overall, participants were able to correctly identify 79% of the 

Europeans, 72% of the Asians and 60% of the African skulls. This study 

is ongoing and an increase in participant sample size will further refine 

these results. 

Ancestry Determination, Nonmetric Traits, Biological Profile 

H103 A Statistical Assessment of Cranial and 

Mandibular Morphoscopic Traits Used in 


Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, University of Florida, CA Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, 1305 NE 6th Terrace, Gainesville, FL 32601; 

and Joseph T. Hefner, PhD, Statistical Research, Inc., 6099 East 

Speedway Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85712 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the 

importance of utilizing a combination of both cranial and mandibular 

morphoscopic traits for ancestry determination. 


demonstrating the advantages of using statistical modeling and 

multivariate statistics for the determination of ancestry. 

The determination of ancestry from the human skeleton is one of the 

most difficult and least precise aspects of the biological profile. 

However, an assignment of ancestry is of utmost importance for limiting 

the number of antemortem records used to compare with a postmortem 

profile and establish a positive identification. Ancestry is determined 

using a combination of craniometric analysis and an anthroposcopic 

assessment of a suite of morphological characteristics (morphoscopic 

traits) of the skull. Traditionally, emphasis has been placed on the 

cranium as the most diagnostic area of the skull, however, researchers 

have recently also turned to the mandible as a valid indicator of ancestry. 

This study looks at morphoscopic traits from the cranium and the 

mandible to see if, when used in combination, these traits increase 

accuracies in ancestry prediction. A second goal was to provide insight 

into the distribution of these traits among groups, with a careful 

consideration of the clinal distribution of morphological characters. 

Finally, several multivariate classification statistics were used to explore 

these distributions and select the methods and variables with the lowest 

classification errors. 

A total of 11 cranial traits and 12 mandibular traits were examined 

for 94 individuals (European Americans, n=48; African Americans=46) 

from the Terry Anatomical Collection housed at the National Museum of 

Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Data were collected following 

standard descriptions and illustrations of each trait. Several statistical 

methods were used to verify the applicability of these traits for ancestry 

determination. Ordinal regression was used to determine the effect, if 

any, of ancestry, sex, and the interaction between ancestry and sex on 

each trait. The ordinal regression analysis suggests that ancestry has a 

significant effect on 8 cranial traits and 5 mandibular traits. Following 

the ordinal regression analysis, quadratic discriminant function analysis, 

CAP, logistic regression, and k-nearest neighbor statistics were generated 

to determine the classification accuracies of the combined cranial and 

mandibular traits. Cross-validated, stepwise classification accuracies 

ranged between 73% and 91%, depending on the variables used and the 

selected method of analysis. Logistic regression had the highest 

classification rate using these variables. A stepwise logistic regression 

analysis selected 5 cranial traits (IOB, MT, NAW, NO, and PBD) and 

three mandibular traits (torus development, chin prominence, and chin 

shape) and misclassified only 8% of the total sample (ρ=0.805, df=18, 

p>0.001). This level of accuracy is higher than previous studies using 

only cranial or mandibular traits, suggesting that the combination of 

these two regions of the skull should be considered during ancestry 

determination. 

The error rates generated using these methods greatly enhance our 

ability to predict ancestry from the skull. Added benefits of using 

statistical modeling to predict ancestry from the skull include the 

removal of subjectivity from the analysis (i.e., the experience-asevidence 

process) and the proper selection and weighting of the variables 

most useful for ancestry prediction. 

Ancestry, Nonmetric Traits, Multivariate Statistics 

H104 Morphological Variations of the 

Cervical Spine as Racial Indicators: 

A Validation and Observer Error Study 

Using the Terry Collection 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853; and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National Transportation Safety Board, 

Office of Transportation Disaster Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza, SW, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn to recognize 

the degree of bifidity in the cervical vertebrae and its relative utility as a 

racial indicator in building a biological profile. 


a validation study of a previously developed but infrequently used tool 

in forensic racial classification. 

Constructing a biological profile from skeletal remains relies upon 

metric and morphological examinations. The frequency of certain 

morphological features may help forensic anthropologists assess sex and 

ancestry. Many of the methods used to assess ancestry are based on 

observations and measurements of the skull. When such remains are 

lacking, forensic anthropologists must look to measurements and 

observations of the postcranial skeleton. 

This study undertook the validation of a method developed by 

Duray, Morter, and Smith (1999) in which the spinous processes of the 

second through seventh cervical vertebrae (C2 through C7) were 

assessed for one of three classifications of bifidity: bifid, partially bifid, 

and nonbifid. Their study relied upon the Hammann-Todd skeletal 


collection. Their results indicate that C2 and C7 showed, respectively, 

91% bifid and 98% nonbifid spinous processes for both ancestry groups 

(black and white), so the utility of other cervical vertebrae were 

examined. C3 and C4 were shown to be the most useful in determining 

race, with 76% of the study subsample being correctly classified (80% 

for white and 72% for black). 

For the current study, a sample of 591 randomly selected skeletons 

from the Terry Collection was analyzed for the degree of bifidity using 

the system developed by Duray et al. In a blind analysis the authors 

scored C2 through C7 for degree of bifidity as indicated above. Results 

indicated that C2 and C7 showed, respectively, 87% bifid and 88% 

nonbifid spinous processes for the combined (black and white) groups. 

Highly significant differences (p = < 0.01) were found between the 

ancestry groups at C3 through C6, whereas a significant difference (p = 

< 0.01) between males and females was found only at C5. As with the 

original study, C3 and C4 appear to be the best predictors of race. 

To test the repeatability of the method, two untrained observers 

assisted in assessing a subsample of 28 sets of vertebrae after reading the 

study by Duray et al. Prior to making their own observations, each 

untrained observer was also shown a sample of cervical vertebrae from 

the Terry collection to demonstrate the range of variation. Overall, 

classification disagreements between untrained and trained observers 

were noted in approximately 23% of observations. The authors also 

conducted tests of intraobserver and interobserver error by scoring a 

subset of 28 sets of vertebrae. Intraobserver error for the trained 

observers occurred in 8% to 12% of observations. All of the 

intraobserver errors involved discrepancies in the degree of bifidity 

(partial versus bifid or partial versus nonbifid) rather than strictly 

presence/absence (bifid versus nonbifid). Interobserver error occurred in 

11% of observations and included several instances of disagreement in 

presence/absence. 

In sum, bifidity in the cervical spine appears to be a useful method 

for racial assessment of the postcranial skeleton. 

Race, Vertebrae, Ancestry 

H105 Hispanic Affiliation: Definitions, 

Assumptions, and Biological Reality 

Kate Spradley, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Texas State 

University - San Marcos, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666; 

and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East 


The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic 

anthropological community with the inconsistencies in the usage of the 

term Hispanic and to review the current methods used when attempting 

to identify individuals considered Hispanic. 


discussing the importance of consistency, use, and meaning of the term 

Hispanic within the forensic science community in general and the 

forensic anthropological community in particular. The learning 

objectives are to present the forensic anthropological community with 

the inconsistencies in the usage of the term Hispanic and to review the 

current methods used when attempting to identify individuals considered 

Hispanic. 

Hispanic individuals make up the fastest growing population within 

the United States and are now the largest minority group therein. The 

term Hispanic is officially considered an ethnicity by the U.S. Census 

Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget directive No. 15. On 

the U.S. Census, an individual must specify a race of Black or White and 

then indicate whether or not they are Hispanic or non-Hispanic. Further, 

the term Hispanic is based on a linguistic classification of the Spanish 

language and encompasses many different countries separated by major 

geographic and cultural boundaries. Moreover, many individuals that 


would be considered Hispanic in the U.S., indigenous Mayans for 

example, are not Spanish-speaking peoples. 

In spite of widespread utilization, no accurate or accepted use of the 

term Hispanic exists within the forensic anthropological community. 

This paper will review the use of the term Hispanic by the forensic 

anthropological community and will review the current methods used 

when attempting to recognize and identify Hispanic individuals. Based 

on an evaluation of the forensic anthropological literature, there is no 

agreement on the meaning or usage of the term Hispanic. In the Journal 

of Forensic Sciences and in the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 

Proceedings, the term Hispanic has been previously described by 

forensic anthropologists as a race, an ethnicity, an ancestry, a biological 

category, and as biologically meaningless. More specific terminology 

has been used to describe this biological heterogeneous group including 

Southwest Hispanic, Mexican-American, migrant workers, or border 

crossers, while still others use terms relating to national origin. 

How can forensic anthropologists tell the difference between a 

Southwest Hispanic, Mexican-American, a migrant worker, or a national 

origin group considered to be Hispanic when working with unknown 

skeletal remains? Hefner et al. (2007) presented results from a blind 

study that suggest forensic anthropologists have a difficult time 

recognizing and ascribing a racial or ancestry category to an individual 

self-described as Hispanic. Thus, the problem may not only lie with 

inconsistent and confusing terminology, but also with methods of 


Sledzik et al. (2007) suggested that in the 21 st century forensic 

anthropologists will abandon racial classifications in lieu of geographic 

origins or population groups. This goal is certainly realized in research 

articles working with known populations, which are described by their 

geographic or national origins. However, when faced with an unknown 

set of skeletal remains, using a geographic origin in lieu of a generic term 

seems unlikely, especially for individuals considered Hispanic simply 

because the data is not available. Until more data become available that 

describe the range of variability that is inherent within the group 

currently known as Hispanic, applying a geographic label to an unknown 

set of skeletal remains will continue to be difficult. Differentiating 

southwest Hispanics from southeast Hispanics is currently possible in 

some situations due to contextual inferences, although further national 

and geographic separation is currently problematic. 

Hispanic, Biological Affiliation, Biological Profile 

H106 Morphoscopic Traits: Mixed Ancestry, 


Joseph T. Hefner, PhD*, Statistical Research, Inc., 6099 East Speedway 

Boulevard, Tucson, AZ 85712 

The goal of this presentation is to highlight several multivariate 

statistical approaches that are useful for classifying these seemingly 

heterogeneous populations, which are often described as hybrid groups 

evincing cranial morphologies shared between multiple ancestries. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community in general, 

and the forensic anthropological community in particular, by exploring 

the distribution of morphoscopic traits in groups with complex 

population histories. 

The past decade has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of 

research articles and presentations on cranial morphoscopic (nonmetric) 

traits within populations in the United States. Sadly, methodological and 

interpretative strategies applying these traits to predict ancestry in a 

forensic context remain largely unexplored. Previously, Ousley and 

Hefner presented multiple statistical methods appropriate for use with 

morphoscopic traits, yet the approach most often used by forensic 

anthropologists still relies almost exclusively on the experience of the 

observer rather than the distribution of these traits within populations. 

208

Recent research in the Journal of Forensic Sciences and in the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences Proceedings underscores the ubiquity of 

the experience-as-evidence approach without acknowledging any 

inherent shortcomings. 

By exploring the range in variation of several commonly used 

morphoscopic traits using a large, worldwide sample (n=845) that 

includes individuals of self-identified mixed-ancestry, Hispanics, 

Africans, Europeans, and American Whites and Blacks, this presentation 

will demonstrate that the old assumptions of trait distribution, and the 

emphasis given to the experience of the observer, are not only 

typological, but also lead to unempirical and often incorrect 

classifications of mixed ancestry. The results of this study suggest that 

classifying an individual to “mixed” ancestry based on discordant trait 

values would only be tenable if all ancestral groups have been “mixed” 

for some time. If that is the case, then forensic anthropologists can 

correctly conclude that every decedent is of “mixed” ancestry, although 

this would negate the role of ancestry prediction in the biological profile. 

Thus, what are forensic anthropologists to do when confronted with 

Hispanics—a population often described as a hybrid group evincing 

morphologies shared between American Whites, Native Americans, and 

Africans—if these seemingly isolated populations also present 

discordant trait values? Several statistical methods that account for 

variation in trait frequencies have cross-validated classification 

accuracies nearing 87 percent. In a three-way analysis (i.e., Native 

Americans, American Whites, and Hispanics) using 12 variables with an 

overall correct classification of 87%, the Hispanic sample had a crossvalidated 

correct classification rate of 90 percent. The benefit of a 

statistical approach is thus twofold. First, the importance placed on the 

subjective experience of the observer is reduced, an attractive attribute in 

light of the Daubert ruling. The second benefit of a statistical framework 

is the attachment of variable weights in the analysis, empirically 

supporting and strengthening classification accuracies using 

morphoscopic traits, while accounting for the true nature of biological 

variation. 

Morphoscopic trait analysis remains an essential factor in the 

prediction of ancestry because of the emphasis and importance forensic 

anthropologists have historically placed on these slight variations in 

cranial form. However, when the actual distribution of these traits is 

understood, the discordance of multiple traits should come as no surprise 

and should not be treated as evidence of admixture or hybridity. On the 

contrary, discordance is evidence against the typological approach to 

ancestry prediction and represents the true nature of the distribution of 

morphoscopic traits among human groups. 

Morphoscopic Traits, Quantitative Methods, Ancestry 

H107 Shifting Morphological Structure: 

Comparing Craniometric Morphology 

in Founding and Descendant Populations 


Anatomy and Cell Biology, PO Box 100235, Gainesville, FL 32610- 

0235; and Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, Sociology 

and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

The goal of this presentation is to explore the applicability of using 

cross-population data for individual biological profiling. 


highlighting the importance of understanding biological variation in the 

determination of ancestry in unidentified remains. 

The Americas experienced an influx of morphologic diversity with 

the arrival of African slaves in the 17 th Century. Derived primarily from 

countries along Africa’s west coast, millions of Africans were 

transported in slave ships across the Atlantic Ocean, to either the 

Caribbean islands or North and South America. At present, more than 38 

million U.S. residents are of African descent (U.S. Census Bureau 2007). 

Moreover, autosomal DNA markers suggest this segment of the 

American population exhibits 22.3 +/- 15.9% European admixture 

(Wassel Fry et. al 2007). Despite several generations of intermarriage 

and interbreeding between African-American and European-American 

populations, however, African-Americans are often treated as 

morphologically analogous to their founding population (i.e., Africans) 

in forensic analyses, particularly those which are nonmetric in nature. 

The conflation of these two populations may very well obscure patterns 

of morphological variation unique to African-Americans and thus could 

have major medicolegal implications for the identification of unknown 

remains. 

The present study addresses this issue by applying geometric 

morphometric methods to the question of craniometric affinity in 

founding and descendant populations. The populations under 

investigation include native African slaves who died in Cuba (n=15) 

from the Morton Collection; modern Cubans (n=21) from a cemetery 

collection housed at the Museo de Montane, Havana; and, modern 

African-Americans from the Terry collection (n=47). Nineteen threedimensional 

type 1 and type 2 anatomical landmarks were collected. 

The landmark data were transformed by generalized Procrustes analysis 

(GPA) which optimally translates, scales, and rotates the points into a 

common coordinate system. Multivariate statistical analysis was then 

conducted on the newly derived shape variables. In order to reduce 

dimensionality, a principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on 

the covariance matrix of the aligned coordinates. A multivariate analysis 

of variance (MANOVA) test, performed on the first 14 principal 

component scores accounting for approximately 83% of the total 

variation, detected significant shape differences among the groups (F 

=14.38; df=28, 134; Pr >F=

H108 Non-Metric Trait Expressions Most 

Prevalent in Undocumented Border 

Crossers of Southwest Hispanic Descent 

From the Pima County Office of the 

Medical Examiner 

Carolyn V. Hurst, BA*, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 


prevalence of certain non-metric traits in Hispanic individuals found in 

the desert near Tucson, Arizona. 


a suite of features that can help characterize individuals of Southwestern 

Hispanic ancestry. 

One of the foremost goals of forensic anthropology is to obtain a 

positive identification for a set of remains. This process begins with the 

assessment of the biological profile, including sex, age, stature, and 

ancestry, that can be used to delimit the list of missing persons that may 

potentially match the John or Jane Doe. While methods for determining 

sex, age, and stature have been standardized and accepted by the 

scientific community, ancestry remains a subject of contention. Much of 

this controversy is related to the stigma surrounding the subject of race 

and the reality that biological races do not exist. Although humanity 

varies along a continuum, ancestry is a socially assigned category that is 

based on an individual’s physical appearance. While forensic 

anthropologists recognized this fact, they also realize the utility of such 

assessments as descriptive aides in the forensic context. 

The issue of ancestry is further complicated by admixture that 

increasingly blurs the already arbitrary lines separating groups. One 

particular group that is characterized by admixture is Hispanics whose 

gene pool consists of variable influences from American Indian, 

Caucasian, and African ancestries. With this group rapidly growing and 

becoming the largest minority in the United States, it is important that 

forensic anthropologists can accurately classify these individuals. In 

2008, Birkby et al. published a paper describing the nonmetric skeletal 

traits that were utilized at the Pima County Office of the Medical 

Examiner (PCOME) to identify Southwest Hispanic ancestry in the 

biological profile of undocumented border-crossers (UBCs). These traits 

include: shoveling of the anterior teeth, anterior malar projection, a short 

occipital shelf, less elaborate nasal sill, partial or no oval window 

visualization, molar enamel extensions, nasal overgrowth, a wide 

zygomatic frontal process, and femoral platymeria in the subtrochanteric 

region. 

The goal of this investigation is to evaluate the prevalence of the 

traits proposed by Birkby et al. in identifying Southwest Hispanics. In 

addition, other nonmetric traits were also scored to assess how 

commonly they occur in this group. Overall, 28 nonmetric traits were 

scored on the remains of 65 suspected UBCs from the PCOME. These 

traits included nine traits from Birkby et al. (2008), 12 traits from Hefner 

(2007), and several others from multiple sources. The frequency of these 

traits was then evaluated in order to ascertain their prevalence in 

populations of Southwest Hispanic descent. 

Results indicate that all of the trait expressions described by Birkby 

et al., except for nasal overgrowth, occurred in higher frequencies in the 

sample than alternative manifestations of those features. In addition, it 

was found that other traits may also be characteristic of those of 

Southwest Hispanic ancestry, like the presence of Wormian bones, 

venous markings, moderate interorbital breadth, lack of post-bregmatic 

depression, and moderate posterior zygomatic tubercle. 

Establishing a suite of features that can be used to identify 

individuals of Southwest Hispanic ancestry is an important endeavor to 

aid in the identification of a growing group of people in the United 

States. Despite the admixed nature of this group, certain trait 

expressions hold potential to accurately assess their ancestry. 

Nonmetric Traits, Ancestry, Southwest Hispanics 


H109 Skeletal Fracture Patterns in 

Documented Cases of Torture, 

Assault, Abuse, and Accidents 


Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820; Matthias 

I. Okoye, MD, JD, The Nebraska Institute of Forensic Sciences, 5925 

Adams Street, Lincoln, NE 68507; John O. Obafunwa, LLB, 5540 South 

72nd Street, Lincoln, NE 68516; Thomas L. Bennett, MD, Yellowstone 

Pathology Institute, 2900 12th Avenue, North, Suite 260W, Billings, MT 

59101; and Paul F. Mellen, MD, East Central Indiana Pathologists, PC 

& PA Labs, LLC2401 West University Avenue, Muncie, IN 47303 

The goal of this presentation is to provide a comprehensive analysis 

of skeletal fracture patterns and associated soft tissue lesions resulting 

from inflicted and accidental injuries. The patterns of injuries based on 

a variety of mechanisms are described to aid in a differential diagnosis 

of the cause and manner of death when confronted only with skeletal or 

decomposing remains. 

This presentation will impact the community by reviewing more 

than 200 cases of blunt force trauma from a variety of mechanisms 

including torture, assault, and accidents to demonstrate intrinsic and 

extrinsic patterns that lead to a differential diagnosis of cause and 

manner of death. The outcome is a detailed analysis of the specific 

distribution and types of injuries resulting from a variety of blunt force 

mechanisms. This information is particularly critical in cases of 

enforced disappearances, extra-judicial execution, and torture as 

investigations into such cases often lead to multiple autopsies and 

varying opinions. The context of these types of investigations is further 

discussed. 

Medico-legal death investigations into enforced disappearances and 

extra-judicial executions provide critical physical evidence that 

corroborates witness and survivor testimony about the crimes 

committed. One of the most ubiquitous forms of human rights violations 

globally is torture and is often associated with extra-judicial executions. 

In these types of investigations it is common that multiple autopsies may 

be preformed at the request of various stakeholders such as law 

enforcement, prosecutors, and families. Multiple autopsies often lead to 

conflicting opinions about the cause and manner of death, further 

complicating the investigation. 

A 2005 investigation into a possible extra-judicial execution from 

Lagos, Nigeria resulted in three autopsies and the disappearance of 

critical skeletal evidence. It is an example of multiple opinions on the 

cause and manner of death ranging from ‘suicide by jumping from a 

window’ to a ‘gunshot injury to the head with staging of the body to 

appear as though the victim fell from a window.’ Police torture and 

deaths in custody in Nigeria have been documented by Human Rights 

Watch, Amnesty International, and even the government of the Federal 

Republic of Nigeria. The types of torture or cruel, inhumane, and 

degrading treatment of the victims most often includes repeated and 

severe beatings with rods, sticks, and other implements and may be 

associated with fatal gunshot injuries. The critical need for pathologists 

and anthropologists to be able to differentiate mechanisms of death from 

skeletal fracture patterns is exemplified by this case and discussed in 

greater detail. 

The purpose of this paper is to investigate specific fracture patterns 

that resulted from various forms of blunt force trauma to identify patterns 

of injuries that will aid in the diagnosis of abuse, assault, or torture and 

help differentiate inflicted from accidental trauma as in the Nigerian 

example. Data for 200 cases are presented. The ages at death range from 

infants to 89 years old and include data from several sources. Skeletal 

fracture data comes from autopsy records dating 1987-2008 from the 

Lancaster County Coroner’s Office in Lincoln, Nebraska; the Cook 

County Medical Examiner’s Office in Chicago, Illinois; and the Knox 

County Medical Examiner’s Office in Knoxville, Tennessee. 

210

Documented cases of torture come from medico-legal investigations in 

Lagos, Nigeria and published case studies from a variety of scientific 

sources. In all of these cases, the mechanism of death was attributed to 

blunt force trauma (BFT) or gunfire injuries associated with BFT at the 

time of death. 

The number and distribution of soft tissue injuries and skeletal 

fractures are documented for each mechanism of injury; documented 

torture (n=52), assault (n=8), child abuse (n=5), falls (n=12), crushing 

injuries (n=5), motor vehicle accidents (MVA, n=114), blasting injury 

(n=2), and small aircraft accidents (n=6). Further, the specific aspects 

and regions of bone fractures are summarized for each category. Distinct 

patterns of injuries for each of the listed mechanisms and best practice 

recommendations for differential diagnoses are provided. Further, the 

association between soft tissue lesions and skeletal fractures among 

various mechanisms of injury are discussed. 

Trauma, Skeletal Fractures, Torture 

H110 Assessing Directionality of Low Velocity 

Gunshot Wounds to the Vertebrae: 


Julie A. Henderson, BA*, PO Box 125, 130 4th Street, Morton, WA 

98356 


importance of experimental research to determining the bullet trajectory 

in the vertebrae as well as main components that can be employed to 

determine the direction of fire: beveling, fragmentation, and fracturing. 

Incorporating all three factors is the most efficient method for 

determining direction of fire. 


introducing a method for determining direction of fire developed from 

experimental research as opposed to case studies. This will, in turn, give 

forensic practitioners additional ways to reconstruct the events of a 

crime, confirm or contradict a witness statement, and differentiate 

between homicide and suicide. 

Firearms, handguns in particular, are common weapons used in 

violent crime in the United States and around the world. Penetrating 

trauma is the second leading cause of spinal injuries, and of the two 

major types of penetrating trauma to the spine (gunshot and stab 

wounds), the majority are gunshots. This prevalence amplifies the 

importance of stringent scientific investigations examining bullet 

trajectory in the vertebrae. 

Publications on bullet trajectory in postcranial bones tend to be case 

studies rather than controlled experiments. Therefore, an experiment 

was designed to produce gunshot wounds from known directions in the 

vertebrae of domestic pigs (Sus scrofa). The hypothesis was that the 

determination of bullet trajectory in vertebrae shot with a low velocity 

weapon is possible using a method modified from that developed for the 

cranium. 

Six vertebral columns from recently deceased pigs were shot with a 

9mm full metal jacket bullet, three each a minimum of three times from 

the anterior and the posterior directions: once in the cervical, once in the 

thoracic, and once in the lumbar vertebrae. Another two vertebral 

columns were shot from directions unknown to the researcher in order to 

permit a blind study of the method developed from the wounds of known 

directions. A total of 23 gunshots of known direction to various sections 

of vertebrae made up the known sample. 

Zones were assigned to each type of vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, 

and lumbar) based on the developmental anatomy of the pig vertebrae 

(Figure 1). In each zone, the researcher recorded the following categories 

of trauma: undamaged, fracture lines, comminuted, trabeculae exposed, 

obliterated, and unconnected piece. 

Figure 1: a) Zone assigned to the anterior side of the cervical vertebrae, 

b) Zones assigned to the posterior side of the cervical vertebrae 

The results indicated several general trends: (1) vertebrae shot from 

posterior-anterior were more fragmented and evinced more fracture lines 

on the neural arches and spinous processes, (2) the lumbar vertebrae 

were the least damaged overall, having the least number of adjacent 

vertebrae affected from each shot, and (3) although more cervical 

vertebrae were affected by each gunshot wound, the thoracic vertebrae 

displayed the most damage overall. 

It was concluded that a method incorporating all of the factors 

(beveling, fragmentation, and fracturing) was effective for determining 

direction of fire. A blind study was conducted consisting of three trials: 

(1) determining direction of fire using only previous knowledge, (2) 

using examples from the known sample to assist, and (3) using the 

criteria developed by the researcher along with the examples to 

determine direction of fire. 

The results of the blind study (Table 1) indicated a correlation 

between experience with gunshot trauma and the percent of cases the 

participants would successfully determine in Round 3. It also illustrated 

the complexity of determining trajectory on vertebrae and highlighted 

the potential benefits of future research with a larger sample size and 

human vertebrae. 

Table 1: Summary table of the results from the blind study. 

Participants with “No Experience” had Master’s or Doctoral level course 

work without any experience with gunshot wound cases. Participants 

who were “Experienced” had practical experience with gunshot wound 

cases 

Gunshot, Postcranial, Trajectory 

H111 A Radiographic Assessment of Pediatric 


Christina A. Malone, BHS, BA*, Michigan State University, Forensic 

Anthropology Lab, A-439 East Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 


understanding of the bone repair process, radiographic manifestation of 

fracture healing in children, and the time schedule this healing process 

requires. 


demonstrating a schedule for fracture healing in children. Through the 

results presented, the schedule may enable forensic anthropologists to 

supply information on the timing of injuries to skeletonized remains that 

exhibit varying degrees of healing. 

Although the physiological process of fracture healing has been 

well studied, there is little information available on the radiographic 

assessment of the rates of pediatric fracture healing. As children are still 


in the formative phase of bone growth, healing of bone may occur at a 

faster rate than seen in adults. The goal of this study is to determine the 

applicability of radiographic assessment to pediatric cases involving 

fractures, produce stages of radiographic healing and descriptions, and 

provide a timeline for the stages of healing in infants and young children. 

It is expected to observe variation in the timing of healing based on the 

age of the individual and the bone injured. 

This study aims to develop a series of stages to describe and 

measure the typical bone fracture repair process and to evaluate, for each 

subject, the timing of the repair of each fracture. This study examines a 

collection of radiographs (n=345) of lower limb and forearm bone 

fractures from 116 individuals between the ages of 0 and 5. A series of 

stages is developed to describe and measure the typical bone repair 

process for these individuals. The sample is segmented into age groups 

(0-1 years, 2-3 years, and 4-5 years), and the variation in fracture healing 

rates is examined among these groups. Within each age group, the 

variation in fracture healing between the lower leg and forearm is 

determined. ANVOA is performed on the mean number of days that it 

took for healing to attain specific stages in each of the groups. 

The results of this project present a schedule of pediatric fracture 

healing, both through written descriptions of expected patterns in the 

healing process and in radiographic images of such stages. These images 

and descriptions will prove useful to forensic anthropologists when 

assessing radiographs or when assessing skeletal remains (in which case 

a radiograph could be taken to compare stages) and attempting to 

determine an estimation for when injuries may have occurred. The 

images and descriptions of the skeletal sample will also serve as an atlas 

for the fracture healing process. Finally, the study will determine the 

significance of the effect of age and skeletal location in fracture healing 

in infants and young children. 

In conclusion, this study examines the utility of radiographs when 

examining traumatized sub-adult remains. Through radiological data on 

the healing rate of pediatric fractures, the forensic anthropologist will be 

given another tool to assess the timing of traumatic injuries in the 

assessment of skeletal fractures. Additionally, the presented study would 

be able to assist in confirming or refuting the proposed timing of injuries 

in pediatric cases. 

Radiographs, Children, Fractures 

H112 Supra-Inion Depressions in a 

Pediatric Medical Examiner Sample: 

Support for a Synergy of Developmental 

and Biomechanical Etiologies 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 


The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the forensic 

significance of a small cranial anomaly, the supra-inion depression (SI), 

which has previously been associated with child death in Native 

American populations of archaeological age. Attendees will be provided 

with a description of SI morphology, a brief overview of the published 

literature regarding the anomaly, and the results of a review of crania 

from 659 medico-legal cases dating from 2005 - 2008 in which the 

maximum age of the decedent is 6 years. Case studies of crania that 

contain a supra-inion depression will be discussed. 

The impact to the forensic community lies in the dissemination of 

information regarding this little understood skeletal anomaly, the 

circumstances in which it develops in children presenting to medical 

examiner/coroner offices, and the importance of the SI as a symptom of 

morbidity on autopsy. 

Supra-inion depressions, concave features located in or lateral to the 

sagittal plane of the occipital just superior to inion, have been described 


occasionally in the bioarchaeological literature. However, the etiology 

and incidence of these anomalies in the medical examiner setting has not 

been adequately studied. The discovery of a non-infectious, classically 

shaped SI in a 17 month old child with TORCH syndrome during 

postmortem examination at the Harris County Medical Examiner’s 

Office (HCME) in 2008 triggered a photographic review of all 

previously examined HCME medico-legal child death cases from the 

first six months of the year 2008 (112, 74 supra-inion regions clearly 

viewable). Due to the retrospective use of photographs, only the 

presence/absence of SI, associated infectious bone, sutural fusion, and 

distortion of the occipital, parietals and frontal were scored. Cause of 

death was recorded for all cases. Two additional cases from this time 

period with SI’s were identified (3/74 = 4%), a two year old female with 

a history of cerebral palsy and epileptic seizures whose cause of death is 

bacterial sepsis, and a two year old male who experienced a delayed 

hospital death with fever, cause of death pending. The cranium of the 

female child has a flattened occipital and the vault is unusually tall. No 

infectious bone reaction is visible in the area of the SI. The cranial shape 

of the male who spent a week in a hospital bed prior to death is normal 

in appearance, but the bony margins of the SI appear inflamed. In light 

of these preliminary results, a retrospective review of 447 cases from the 

years 2005-2007, as well as physical examination of current cases, are 

ongoing. 

The growth and development of the cranium is affected by a 

number of genetic/congenital disorders, for example, the various 

TORCH syndromes, Apert’s syndrome, Crouzon’s syndrome, and 

Pfeiffer syndrome. These disorders routinely result in premature 

synostosis of one or more of the major cranial sutures, causing the 

cranial bones to compensate in shape. Growth and development of the 

occipital is a complex process that derives from the fusion of four 

individual components: the squamous, two lateral components, and a 

basal component. Although it varies among individuals, fusion of the 

four components typically begins in the perinatal period and is complete 

by age six. Premature fusion of any of the major sutures during these 

ages can disrupt development of the occipital in relation to the four 

components and the other bones of the skull. The environment 

experienced by the child from infancy to six years can also impact the 

final shape of the occipital. Positioning of the infant on the back for long 

periods of time, especially if exacerbated by lack of movement resulting 

from developmental delays, can result in plagiocephalic or 

scaphocephalic abnormalities. Further, the supra-inion area is 

posteriorly projecting and the skin of the scalp is thin. The opportunity 

for bone involvement in this area following a skin infection may be 

increased. Bacterial and fungal infections, or even seborrheic dermatitis 

(cradle cap), may become severe in the absence of treatment, perhaps 

explaining the noted association between SI’s and infection. 

The association between the presence of SI’s, syndromic 

abnormalities, developmental pressure from biomechanical forces, and 

presence of infection in medical examiner cases suggests that SI’s may 

be an indicator of morbidity. These anomalies should be routinely 

observed and documented photographically during the pediatric 

postmortem examination. 

Supra - Inion Depressions, Occipital Anomaly, 


H113 The Recovery of Human Remains 

From a Fatal Fire Setting Using 

Archeological Methodology 

Gregory O. Olson, MSc*, Office of the Fire Marshal, 2284 Nursery 

Road, Midhurst, Ontario L0L 1X0, CANADA 


value of applying archaeological recovery methods at fatal fire scenes 

212

not only to maximize the amount of human remains recovered but also 

the associated artifacts surrounding the death. 


insight into the utilization of essential skills for the recovery of critical 

evidence and a greater quantity of human remains. 

There is a natural tendency for those involved in fire settings to 

become overwhelmed simply by the magnitude and destruction of the 

scene itself. One can easily become overpowered at fires where there is 

large loss, and the path the investigator must take may be obscured by 

the scale of the scene. Fire investigations are often complex and difficult 

to interpret at first blush. Because of the potential for the fire 

investigator to become fixated or pre-occupied, one must develop an 

analytical and systematic approach to scene investigation. 

With strong emphasis being placed on the systematic approach to 

fire investigations, it is expected that fire investigators with experience 

and training in archaeological methods will successfully meet the 

rigorous test of the scientific method. A scientist observes the real world 

and draws conclusions from these observations. The observations are 

then tested to determine their validity. How then could archaeology or 

the application of archaeological methodologies assist the excavator at 

fatal fire scenes? “Archeology concerns itself with learning the details 

of everyday life as well as significant or unique events, arranging these 

reconstructions in chronological sequences to create histories, 

attempting to understand or explain why things happened the way they 

did…” (R.M. Stewart, 2002:1). 

Keeping this in mind, refined techniques of human remains 

recovery, the location of associated artifacts, the observation of body 

positioning within the context of the structure, and scene analysis will 

allow for a more accurate analysis to move toward proving this 

hypothesis. The primary objective of the study profiled in this 

presentation is to employ and contrast the methods of recovery of human 

remains in a fire setting in an attempt to increase the contextual and 

associational data acquired for accurate event reconstruction. 

This study basically involves a three-fold method; involving the use 

of “comparative” fires, the application of a questionnaire to over five 

hundred historical fatal fires within the Province of Ontario and firsthand 

fire excavations conducted in the everyday course of employment by the 

author. 

The “comparative” fires involved existing standing structures, prestaged 

with pig cadavers and artifacts associated with homicide, which 

were allowed to totally burn. Personnel who lacked formal training in 

the disciplines of archeology and anthropology conducted the initial 

search for human remains. Any recovered remains and artifacts were 

photographed, mapped in situ and collected. A second search team 

consisting of individuals experienced and trained in archeological 

techniques and a solid background in human osteology were utilized. A 

proper archaeological-style grid search was undertaken with any artifacts 

and human remains photographed, mapped and recorded. 

The quantitative relationship between the items recovered by the 

two teams was profiled and documented. At this point, there have been 

four “comparative” fires conducted. 

The historical portion of this study involves the application of an 

extensive questionnaire to over five hundred historical fires. The 

purpose of this questionnaire was to capture existing data involving the 

methods employed by previous fire investigators at these types of scenes 

by way of scene comparison and rate of recovery. The “day-to-day” 

scene data relates to firsthand knowledge of fatal fire scenes excavated 

by the author. The data obtained, including the amount of human 

remains recovered and artifacts associated to the fatal fire scene, are 

profiled in this method. 

To date, the resulting recovery analysis has proven overwhelmingly that 

the application of archaeological methods at these types of scenes both 

supports and authenticates the utilization of these methods. Two case 

studies will be presented in the recovery of fatal fire victims and articles 

associated to the deaths, both within a structure and a vehicle. 

Fire, Fatal, Archeology 

H114 From Scene to Seen: Post-Fire 

Taphonomic Changes Between the In 

Situ Context and the Medicolegal 

Examination of Burned Bodies 

Elayne J. Pope, PhD*, University of West Florida, Anthropology 

Department, 11000 University Parkway, Building 13, Pensacola, FL 

72701 


body’s physical appearance changes from the in situ condition at the 

scene until its evaluation by the medicolegal examiner due to recovery, 

handling (fragmentation), and transportation. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by informing 

investigators about the physical changes that occur to fragile, burned 

human remains from the time of discovery, to recovery, to transportation, 

and to the medicolegal investigation (independent of the scene) of the 

physical condition of the burned human remains. 

It is often taken for granted that the physical condition of the body 

examined at autopsy accurately represents how it first appeared at the 

scene – unaltered. This presentation shows how the body literally 

changes its physical appearance from the in situ condition of the 

untouched “scene” and demonstrates how its appearance becomes 

altered during recovery, handling (fragmentation), and transportation to 

the point when the body is later “seen” and evaluated by the medicolegal 

examiner. 

Heat exposure transforms soft tissues and bone into charred, brittle, 

and fragmentary structures that break away from parts of the body during 

and especially after the fire. Experimental observation of human 

cadavers in fires shows that these fragile structures experienced further 

fragmentation and alteration of the body’s appearance during normal 

field search and recovery of burned human remains. The processes of 

burning and the different variables of fire suppression, discovery, 

clearing/extraction, recovery, and transportation were observed and 

documented for 5 bodies in vehicles and 2 bodies in burn cells (furnished 

model rooms). 

Fire Suppression: The different methods of fire suppression are: 

standard water jet stream, fogging, and natural extinguishment directly 

influenced the condition and appearance of the body after the fire. If the 

body is hit directly with a pressurized water jet stream from a fireman’s 

hose, the fragments of soft tissue and bone become displaced around the 

body. Of equal importance is the displacement of debris that falls on top 

of and around the body, and collapse of supporting structures (furniture, 

flooring) where the body is positioned. Pressurized jet stream 

suppression caused greater fragmentation of the body and the 

surrounding environment, thus expanding the search area and 

disintegration of smaller elements from water saturation and drainage. 

The technique of fogging sends the same pressurized water through an 

aspirating nozzle, thus creating a shower effect of smaller water droplets 

and is less destructive to tissues of the body and the surrounding 

structural materials. Foam or detergent can be added, but produces a 

similar effect by minimizing the damage to the victim. However, the use 

of water suppression can have the potential to wash away trace evidence 

and alter delicate skeletal trauma and should be considered during the 

postmortem examination. Natural or self-extinguishment is where the 

fire dies out from lack of fuel, but keep in mind that the body is a fuel 

load and the body’s fat can sustain a localized fire for hours, thus 

increasing the heat-related damage to the body. 

Search/Discovery: Fire scenes are challenging since most 

materials are visually altered and camouflaged among the ash and debris, 

including burned human remains. For this reason, it may not be obvious 

that there is a victim present at the scene, particularly if they are buried 

under similar-looking debris. During the search, fragile remains may be 

walked over, crushed, and further fragmented before being discovered, 

or disturbed by initial removal of large furniture/objects and raking of 


smoldering debris. Post-fire breaks are easily identified by the crisp and 

bright colors of the margins, as opposed to heat-related and traumatic 

fractures with more uniform coloration with adjoining cortical surfaces. 

Clearing and Extraction: Before the body is even touched, the 

methods of access can cause further fragmentation. For vehicles, 

different techniques of opening the doors, trunk, and roof will cause 

debris to fall on the body and movement of fragile remains. Different 

power tools such as a reciprocating or circular saw causes vibration of 

the vehicle and body. Hydraulic slow cutting saws (jaws of life) cause 

less vibration and movement, but still jar the body. Access to the body 

requires that the door and trunk locks must be forcefully pried open, thus 

shifting the body’s position. For structural fire scenes, most of the larger 

construction debris (roofing, ceiling, walls, etc) must be removed to gain 

access to the remains and likewise causes fragmentation of brittle burned 


Recovery: The field recovery team may or may not have 

osteological training, thus the recovery may involve the selection of 

larger and identifiable parts, leaving smaller fragments and pieces of the 

victim at the scene. Even careful handling of charred and calcined bone 

can result in fragmentation, especially when the larger parts are lifted 

and moved from the in situ context onto a sheet or body bag. Dry 

screening (if possible) is the best way to collect smaller fragments of 

bone, thus insuring all of the evidence and parts of the victim are taken 

for postmortem examination. 

Transportation: Movement and placement of fragile burned 

remains into a body bag is guaranteed to cause fragmentation, especially 

if the body bag is not supported by a backboard or a rigid structure. 

Picking up the flexible body bag at 2 or 4 points and movement from the 

scene means that the body’s weight can crush loose fragments and causes 

more fragmentation from handling as the remains are moved from the 

scene, loaded and removed from a transport vehicle, transferred to a 

secondary gurney or surface, and then opened for the postmortem 

examination. The thickness and rigidity of the plastic/fabric also should 

be considered as a contributing factor in pressing against the fragile 

remains, thus increasing fragmentation. 

Often the bodies of fatal fire victims are examined independent of 

the fire scene. The investigator should be aware that the condition of 

fragile, burned human remains changes its visual appearance from the 

point of discovery to the postmortem examination (independent of the 

scene) when the body’s physical condition is analyzed as evidence for 

the medicolegal examination of the victim’s manner and cause of death. 

Examples will show the progressive stages and causes of fragmentation 

from the point of discovery to laboratory examination. 

Fatal Fire, Burned Human Remains, Cremation 

H115 Human Cremains From a Controlled 

Car Fire 

Peer H. Moore-Jansen, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Wichita State 

University, 114 Neff Hall, Wichita, KS 67260-0052; Elayne J. Pope, 

PhD, University of West Florida, Anthropology Department, 11000 

University Parkway, Building 13, Pensacola, FL 72701; and Laura B. 

Bennett, BS*, 1013 Wisteria Drive, Derby, KS 67037 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have learned what 

happens to a human body when it has been subjected to fire. 


controlled research experiments in an area where very little research is 

available. 

Within the past two decades, a wealth of taphonomic research has 

emerged that focuses on isolating and identifying a variety of controlled 

environmental variables in order to establish patterns of postmortem 

changes. Vehicle fires are unique environments loaded with combustible 


materials of plastics, foam, upholstery, carpet, rubber, and petrol-based 

products, all housed within the small space of a metal frame. 

The location and positioning of the victim’s body within a vehicular 

fire was found to directly influence the extent and types of burn patterns. 

Ten human cadavers and ten pigs were placed in different sections of 

cars: front seat, back seat, and trunk to: (1) observe the differences in the 

extent and patterns of heat-related damage, and (2) the average length of 

time that the bodies continued to burn after the manufactured fuels 

(interior) had naturally extinguished. Of course, each vehicle is unique 

in the amount and types of synthetic materials, compartment size (truck 

cab vs. minivan), interior construction (bucket or bench seat), age of the 

car’s materials (older or newer), and the amount of ventilation during the 

growth stage of the fire (windows open or closed). The salvage vehicles 

used in these burn experiments were manufactured before the year 2000. 

Newer models have different synthetic plastics and materials, which 

would produce accelerated results. On average, the vehicles burned for 

45 minutes to an hour, while the bodies continued to burn for different 

lengths of time depending on their placement within the vehicle. 

Front Seat: Bodies positioned in the front seats, typically bucket 

seats with upholstery over a wire frame seat, initially provided protection 

to the back and legs. As the fabrics and plastics burned away, the body 

remained supported on the wire frame seat frame, thus allowing ample 

circulation of heat and fire to all surfaces and more evenly distributed 

burn patterns of the body. Movement of the body was observed as 

supporting combustible materials burned away. For example, a body 

slumped over on the dashboard gradually lost this point of support and 

fell over into portions of the floor or driver’s seat. In some cases, the seat 

fell back, thus positioning the body into a prone position and partially 

into the back seat. Since the body burned on a wire frame seat, it 

remained elevated in the fire environment and continued to burn for 

several hours (2+) after the car fire had self-extinguished. The small fire 

burning under the body was due to the supply of melted body fat under 

the body and around the areas of the torso which continued to render the 

body into charred tissues and bone. 

Back Seat: Bodies positioned in the back seats had the least 

amount of heat-related damage when compared to those placed in the 

front seats and trunk of the same vehicle. The back seats consist of 

minimal upholstery over a broad, flat metal bench, which burns away 

early during the fire. Then the body remained in direct contact with the 

metal bench, thus preventing heat and circulation to points of contact, 

which resulted in partial burn patterns of only the areas exposed to the 

fire. Likewise, there was not enough fuel to sustain burning of the 

bodies, nor ample materials to sustain the wick effect from the body’s 

melted fat. 

Trunk: Bodies in the trunk, due to their protected environment, 

took longer for the fire to reach but burned intensely once the trunk was 

involved. This required that the back seat upholstery burned away and 

exposed the perforated metal structure, thus allowing ventilation and 

direct heat to reach the body. Some trunks housed a spare wheel, or at 

least a depressed wheel well. The presence or absence of a tire in the 

trunk was influential not only as a solid fuel source, but the metal rim 

elevated portions of the body and allowed the body’s fat to pool there as 

a sustaining fuel source. The trunk space became a miniature 

crematorium environment as air and heat circulated through the back 

seat and the burned out openings of the taillights. Bodies in the trunk 

burned intensely for over 4 hours past the initial car fire and left most of 

the body as charred and calcined bone, with the exception of some 

adherent tissues of the bulky torso. Their condition and preservation was 

drastically different than bodies burned in the front and back seats of the 

same vehicle. 

Results of these vehicular fires show that the location of the body 

within different areas of the vehicle directly influences the extent of heatrelated 

damage and burn patterns to a human body. These variables 

should be considered when examining bodies from burned cars, and the 

death investigator must be aware of how the immediate environment can 

214

e used to anticipate and explain unique burn patterns in fatal vehicle 

fires, or ones set to intentionally destroy evidence of a crime. 

Human Cremains, Car Fire, Human Remains 

H116 The Burning Question: A Case Analysis 

of Peri-Mortem Trauma vs. Post 

Fire Damage 

Alison Galloway, PhD, University of California, Social Science One FS, 

Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Elayne J. Pope, PhD, University of West Florida, 

Anthropology Building 13, 11000 University Parkway, Pensacola, FL 

32514; and Chelsey Juarez, MA*, Dept of Anthropology, UCSC Social 


After this presentation, attendees will be able to: (1) observe the 

progression of the pugilistic posture in remains exhibiting perimortem 

trauma, (2) identify the characteristic features that may indicate preexisting 

blunt force trauma in burned long bones, and (3) identify the 

important points of analysis when investigating perimortem trauma in 

burned remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by outlining 

points of analysis for the investigation of blunt force trauma to burned 

remains that will positively assist anthropologists in the correct 

identification of pre-fire blunt force trauma. 

Correctly recognizing and identifying pre-existing perimortem 

trauma in burned human remains can be challenging especially when 

soft tissues and bone are destroyed. Despite the damage, it is critical to 

remember that the distinct characteristics of perimortem trauma can and 

do survive varying degrees of thermal destruction. Forensic 

anthropologists must work to correctly separate pre-fire perimortem 

trauma from thermal damages caused both during and after fire 

processes. The ability to do these tasks successfully may be 

compromised by transport of remains to forensic facilities during which 

time the friability of remains can lead to dramatic fragmentation. Using 

a recently adjudicated case and a recent case experiment, this 

presentation will investigate the telltale signs of pre-fire blunt force 

trauma. 

During November of 2007, the Forensic Osteological Investigation 

Laboratory at the University of California Santa Cruz was called in for 

blunt force trauma analysis of burned human remains. Of specific 

concern was the timing of a fracture to the right ulna associated with 

extensive thermal damage. The posterior portion of the ulnar shaft was 

completely destroyed and the remaining anterior mid-shaft demonstrated 

a fracture that extended into unburned bone. In this case, the ulna was 

analyzed for several categories critical to trauma timing: 

1. Fracture Refit 

2. Direction of Force 

3. Fracture Margin Deformation 

4. Color Change 

During analysis of these categories, several important features were 

noted. First, no disarticulation artifacts were noted which suggested that 

any pre-fire blunt force trauma to the body occurred while the bones 

were in anatomical relation to each other. Given this fact, the fracture 

suggested a direction of impact initiating within the interosseous crest 

which would have been difficult to sustain prior to burning. Second, 

microscopic analysis of the fracture indicated a close refit of the two 

fractured sections. Third, the fracture margins lacked deformation which 

contributed to their close reapproximation. In addition, the changes in 

coloration due to the thermal damage passed over the fracture line and 

did not extend into the fractured surface. Given the sum of these 

determinations it was determined that the defect may have been 

sustained after the fire due to the fragility of the materials. 

Shortly after the completion of the case trial, the opportunity arose 

to analyze a similar situation experimentally. In June of 2008, the San 

Luis Obispo country Fire Science Training Program held a forensic fire 

death investigation course. The course utilized in-class training and burn 

exercises to teach fire investigators proper fire death investigation 

techniques. Burn scene 4 consisted of a single adult male cadaver to 

which perimortem blunt force trauma was delivered to the left radius and 

left tibia. The fractures were retained completely within the tissue. The 

burn was recorded via video and thermocoupler for data consistency. 

During the course of the burn, the powerful contraction of the arm 

muscles caused the left radius to pull apart like a hinge, resulting in a 

stacking of the fractured ends. The complete and unfractured ulna 

eventually lost articulation with the radial fragments. In the lower limbs, 

both feet and muscles of the legs flexed completely into the pugilistic 

posture despite the complete fracture of the left tibia. The right and left 

distal tibia along with the feet were highly fragmented upon completion 

of the fire. 

Upon examination of the radius it was noted that: 

1. If a burned body in the pugilistic pose also shows hinging 

at a fracture site in the forearm, pre-fire trauma is 

indicated. 

2. Both fractured ends of the radius demonstrated thermal 

damage and warping and, as a result, the refit was poor. 

3. The thermal damage present on the fracture margin 

extended into the fracture as a result of its exposure to 

heat from the pugilistic movement. 

4. The direction of force required to cause a pre-fire fracture 

could be readily interpreted by anatomical association of 

the bones. 

This experimental situation reaffirmed the importance of analyzing 

areas of suspected blunt force trauma in burned remains for quality of 

fracture refit, suspected direction of force, fracture margin deformation, 

color change and, if possible, the position of bones and soft tissue 

following the pugilistic posture. Utilizing these categories as points of 

analysis during the investigation of blunt force trauma to burned remains 

will positively assist anthropologists in the correct identification of prefire 

blunt force trauma. 

Fire, Blunt Force Trauma, Trauma Timing 


Celebrating 

60 years 

H1 A Small Plane Crash With (Unforeseen) 


Julie M. Saul, BA*, Frank P. Saul, PhD, and James R. Patrick, MD, 

Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 

43614-2673 

Viewers of this presentation will be better able to utilize forensic 

anthropology in sorting potentially commingled remains, and recognize the 

importance of radiology, both as an analytic tool and a permanent record. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by emphasizing 

the value of radiology of remains as a means of analysis and interpretation, 

as well as permanent documentation in case unforeseen questions should 

arise. 

A small plane crash resulted in the death of three individuals: the 

owner (who was a licensed pilot), his son, and the pilot employed by the 

plane’s owner. 

The remains of one individual, who was later identified as the 

professional pilot, were fairly intact and collected in one body bag. 

The mangled and fragmented remains of the other two men, later 

identified as the owner and his son, were put into two separate body bags. 

Each set of remains was quickly and positively identified by 

comparison of antemortem and postmortem dental radiographs and 

returned to the two families. 

The authors’ anthropological services were not used, inasmuch as the 

identifications appeared to be straightforward and provided rapid closure 

for the families. 

Unfortunately, some time later, as aircraft and other insurance claims 

were being processed, a dispute arose between multiple opposing law firms 

as to whether or not the non-pilot son of the owner might have been flying 

the aircraft at the time of the accident, rather than one of the two licensed 

pilots aboard. 

The authors were called in at that belated point and were asked to 

answer the following questions: (1) was there commingling of remains 

within the body bags? and (2) could they help determine who was flying the 

plane (who was at the controls at the time that the plane crashed? 

Fortunately, the Coroner’s Office involved had a policy of always taking 

full body radiographs - in this case full body bag radiographs. 

The forensic anthropology procedures used to answer these seemingly 

simple questions are discussed in this presentation. They include 

determination of relative ages of the commingled body fragments, and 

identification of trauma to the extremities - using the available body bag 

radiographs. 

The remains of the hired pilot could be excluded from consideration, 

because his remains were found relatively intact and at some distance from 

the other two “sets” of remains. The radiographs of the single body bag 

containing the remains of the pilot showed no signs of commingling. This 

was a helpful starting point, because he was approximately 20 years old at 

death - about the same age as the non-pilot son. 

Age differences provided the main basis for determining that the 

fragmentary remains of the father and the son were indeed commingled 

within the two other body bags, inasmuch as the father was approximately 

45-years-old at death and the son was approximately 20-years-old at death. 

These findings were based primarily on radiographic evaluation of 

joint surface configuration and the presence or absence of persistent lines of 

density suggesting recent epiphyseal union (sometimes called “growth plate 



1948 ~ 2008 

scars” and not to be confused with the “Harris lines” associated with growth 

arrests followed by growth augmentation). 

The disarticulated and severely fractured feet were those of the older 

individual (the father, who was a licensed pilot), although they were located 

within the body bag containing other remains identified dentally as being 

those of the son. The damage present was consistent with that found in 

individuals “working” control pedals in both automobile and airplane crash 

situations. The foot of the younger individual (the son) showed minimal 

damage. 

Aircrash, Anthropology, Radiology 

H2 An Assessment of Biological Ancestry in 

an Unmarked Cemetery From Nevada: 

An Integrated Approach 

Kyle McCormick, BA*, Kate E. Kolpan, BA, Karen Smith Gardner, BA, 

Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, Beth Shook, PhD, and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, 

California State University, Department of Anthropology, 400 West First 

Street, Butte #311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

After attending this presentation, the audience will understand the 

value of a multidisciplinary approach in the assessment of biological 

ancestry, and the inherent limitations between methods. Using a small 

historic cemetery sample, biological ancestry is assessed through the study 

of craniometric variation, non-metric cranial traits, and ancient DNA. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community in general by 

increasing the understanding of different methods used to evaluate 

biological ancestry and their value in constructing biological profiles of 


This study presents an analysis of nine individuals recovered in 2000 

from an unmarked cemetery in Palisade, Nevada, a ghost town officially 

abandoned in 1961. The cemetery was discovered during a mining 

operation, which required that the burials be removed. The remains and 

associated grave items were excavated by local law enforcement, and were 

submitted to the Human Identification Laboratory at California State 

University, Chico for osteological analysis. An analysis of the coffin 

material and associated grave items suggests that these individuals were 

interred between 1880 and 1910. Because these individuals were buried in 

separate location in close proximity to the town’s main cemetery, it is 

hypothesized that the burial site may represent a segregated cemetery. 

Sex, age, and stature were estimated using standard osteological 

methods. The nine individuals consist of four males and five females, and 

range from 25 to 59 years of age. Stature was estimated using regression 

formulas from the 19th century Terry collection. Female stature ranged 

from 4’10” to 5’ and male stature ranged from 5’3” to 5’6”. 

Ancestry was assessed through craniometrics, non-metric traits, and 

ancient DNA. Cranial measurements were taken following guidelines 

outlined in the Forensic Databank. Each skull was measured twice by 

different authors to limit intra-observer error. Many of the skulls were 

fragmentary and/or showed evidence of deformation, which reduced the 

number of valid measurements that could be taken. Of the nine skulls, only 

individuals 4, 5, and 8 had crania intact enough for all measurements. The 

skull of individual 9 is incomplete and is excluded from the analysis. Also, 

216

Burial Sex Age Stature Ancestry FORDISC 3.0 

1 Female 40-49 4’10’’ +/-3.1” Black Post: 0.816 Typ: 0.307 

2 Male 40-49 5’6’’ +/-3.1” Japanese Post: 0.871 Typ: 0.004 

3 Male 25-34 5’4’’ +/-3.1” Black Post: 0.333 Typ: 0.071 


5 Female 40-49 5’0’’ +/-3.1” American Indian Post: 0.538 Typ: 0.993 

6 Female 50-59 4’11’’ +/-3.1” American Indian Post: 0.676 Typ: 0.355 


8 Male 30-35 5’3’’ +/-3.1” Guatemalan Post: 0.670 Typ: 0.127 

9 Male 35-39 5’4’’ +/-3.1” N/A N/A N/A 

burial 3 lacked a skull upon initial recovery. However, a skull discovered 

in 2001 at the site is thought to be associated with this burial. Ongoing 

DNA testing will be used to resolve this issue. 

FORDISC 3.0 was used to compare cranial measurement data from 

our sample against the modern Forensic Databank sample. In addition, 17 

non-metric traits were recorded for the dentition as well as the malar, nasal, 

and alveolar region following by Gill and Rhine (1990). 

Biological profiles and statistical results for FORDISC 3.0 (posterior 

probability and typicality probability) are provided in the table. FORDISC 

3.0 classified each individual into one of five groups: Black, Japanese, 

American Indian, and Guatemalan. However, the low typicality values for 

individuals 2 and 3 suggest that these crania are highly atypical of the 

classified groups. The non-metric assessment yielded similar results as the 

metric assessment, in that it also indicated that these individuals are of 

Asian, Native American, and/or African ancestry. However, none of the 

individuals showed non-metric cranial traits consistent with a single 

ancestral group. This may suggest that at least some of the individuals are 

of mixed ancestry. 

To help reconstruct the maternal genetic ancestry of this population, 

mitochondrial DNA was also extracted from a minimum of two samples 

from each individual. Haplotypes based on HVS I sequences were 

analyzed, and where applicable, haplogroups based on restriction fragment 

length polymorphisms were determined. Ongoing DNA testing will 

provide an additional line of evidence for evaluating the ancestry of these 

individuals. 

Although the metric and nonmetric assessment of ancestry suggests a 

biologically diverse sample, none of the individuals were classified as 

European ancestry. In conjunction with the grave items and other 

contextual information, our analysis suggests that these individuals may 

have been buried in a segregated location due to their biological (non- 

European) heritage. This study shows that osteological assessment of 

ancestry is just one key piece of the puzzle. When used in conjunction with 

other forms of evidence such as ancient DNA, and archaeological evidence, 

a more complete picture of biological heritage is achieved. 

Ancestry, Craniometrics, DNA 

H3 Separately Discovered Skeletal Remains and 

the Path to Reassociation: A Case Review 

Audrey Scott, MA*, Simon Fraser University, Department of Archaeology, 

8888 University Dr., Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, CANADA; 

David Sweet, DMD, PhD, Bureau of Legal Dentistry Lab, University of 

British Columbia, 6190 Agronomy Road, Suite 202, Vancouver, BC V6T 

1Z3, CANADA; Derek Congram, MSc, Simon Fraser University, 

Department of Archaeology, 8888 University Drive, Vancouver, BC V5A 

1S6, CANADA; and Stephen Fonseca, Office of the Chief Coroner, 

Identification and Disaster Response Unit, 2035-4720 Kingsway, 

Burnaby, BC V5H 4N2, CANADA 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have an understanding 

of the potential for missing minute, yet essential, pieces of artifactual 

evidence when recovering skeletal remains from the crime scene. 

Attendees will also have gained an understanding of the importance of 

interdisciplinary cooperation when reassociating skeletal elements and 

identifying an unknown deceased individual. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by educating 

forensic practitioners and investigators about reassociating separated 

human skeletal remains, as well as emphasizing the importance of 

anthropological and odontological techniques for recovering minute and 

easily missed, yet vitally important, pieces of evidence. 

In late 2006 and early 2007, Forensic Anthropologists at Simon Fraser 

University and Forensic Odontologists at the BOLD Laboratory of The 

University of British Columbia received from the BC Coroners Service two 

separate cases involving the skeletonized remains of unknown individuals. 

The two scenes were located several kilometers distant from each other, and 

the discoveries were made several months apart. Distinct morphological 

characteristics and similar injury patterns suggested the remains actually 

represented one individual, which was later supported by DNA analysis. 

The cranium was discovered submerged in a semi-urban recreational 

lake, and exhibited evidence of a mostly healed Le Fort II fracture of the 

left maxilla. Additionally, there was a healed surgical trephination of 

approximately 1 cm in diameter on the left parietal, with an associated 

notch in the posterior-inferior margin. The root of a single tooth remained 

in situ; all other teeth had been lost antemortem or during the postmortem 

interval. 

Approximately six months later, the postcranial remains of an 

individual were found in a brushy, semi-urban setting approximately 3 km 

from the lake. This individual exhibited multiple severe healed fractures of 

the ribs, consistent with a major crushing chest injury. Screening of the 

associated soil matrix produced several artifacts of internal soft tissue 

microsurgery. A maxillary fixed dental bridge was recovered along with a 

mandible, although no cranium was found at this location. 

The similarities in injury patterns, degree of injury healing, and 

morphology of articulation points between the cranial and postcranial 

remains suggested a single unidentified person. Odontological examination 

revealed consistency between the dental bridge and missing maxillary 

dentition; the color, contour and surface condition of the cranium and postcranial 

remains; and the mandibular and maxillary alveolar contours. A 

goodness-of-fit examination supported a match of the temporomandibular 

joints and condylar heads; the shape and sizes of the dental arches; and 

articulation of the dental bridge with the lower anterior teeth. Forensic 

anthropological examination produced biological profiles of both cases 

which were of the same sex and age range. Both cases had injury patterns 

consistent with a severe trauma, and exhibited the same degree of healing, 

suggestive of a single event. A goodness-of-fit examination of the 

articulation of the occipital condyles and the unique morphology of the first 

cervical vertebra supported a single individual. The results of DNA 

analysis were consistent with the two sets of remains representing a single 

person. 

This unusual case presented a rare opportunity for the reassociation of 

disassociated remains, and highlights the importance of investigating 


improbable relations between distinct and apparently separate sets of 

remains. The discovery of the microsurgical hardware emphasizes the 

importance of a detail driven recovery and examination of unknown 

remains. 

Reassociation of Skeletal Elements, Forensic Anthropology, 

Forensic Odontology 

H4 Surgical Sutures as a Means of 

Identifying Human Remains 

Katy L. Shepherd, BS*, 10101 Villagio Palms Way, Unit 201, Estero, FL 

33928; Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, Florida Gulf Coast University, 

Division of Justice Studies, 10501 FGCU Boulevard South, AB3, Fort 

Myers, FL 33965-6565; and Marta U. Coburn, MD, District 20 Medical 

Examiner, 3838 Domestic Avenue, Naples, FL 34104 

After attending this presentation, the audience will understand how 

surgical sutures found in human remains may be used to help establish a 

positive identification. 


anthropologists, medical examiners, coroners, and law enforcement another 

tool to aid in identifying decedents. This presentation also demonstrates the 

investigative process used to pinpoint suture manufacturers, and in turn the 

identification of the victim, by presenting a case where surgical sutures 

were a distinctive characteristic. 

In 2006, a set of skeletonized remains was discovered in a dense, 

wooded area adjacent to a residential gated community in Naples, Florida. 

The human remains consisted of a nearly complete skeleton and associated 

physical evidence that included a .357 magnum (found beside the remains), 

one spent bullet and shell casing, several unfired bullets contained within a 

box of ammunition, and a bicycle. Upon initial examination by the medical 

examiner and law enforcement personnel, the cranium was found to be 

fragmented, and the mandible had a midline fracture. Based on the scene 

evidence, the preliminary cause and manner of death appeared to be 

consistent with a single suicidal gunshot wound to the head. No 

identification was found with the remains nor was fingerprint evidence an 

option. A tentative identity was established by tracing the serial number on 

the gun. 

The forensic anthropologist conducted an osteological analysis of 

identity, trauma, and time since death. As such, the metric analysis of sex, 

ancestry, and stature using Fordisc 3.0 determined that these remains were 

a White (e.g., European American) male approximately 5’10” in living 

stature. Nonmetric analysis of the skull and pelvic morphology supported 

the metric sex and ancestry findings. Radiographic and gross examination 

of the skeletal remains, both before and after reconstruction, evidenced one 

cranial gunshot wound that entered on the right and exited on the left. 

Skeletal age was determined through visual examination of all joint 

surfaces, including the pubic symphysis, auricular surfaces of the ossa 

coxae, and sternal end of the right 4th rib and subsequent comparison with 

known age exemplars for White 20th century males. The most accurate age 

estimation was determined to be between 50 and 60 years of age. Time 

since death was determined to be from weeks to months and no more than 

one year as evidenced by the extent of skeletonization, lack of the odor of 

decomposition, relative completeness of the remains, and the mechanical 

integrity of the bones. 

Two green surgical sutures were discovered imbedded in the right 

acromial process of the scapula, which suggested that the decedent had 

undergone rotator cuff surgery—either as rotator cuff tendon repair, 

acromioplasty, or subacromial decompression. The dearth of published 

casework and research concerning the use of surgical sutures in human 

identification and the establishment of time since death required a 

consultation with a local suture and orthopedic implant manufacturer. To 

wit, several suture manufacturers were considered and the tentative identity 

was further bolstered by the biological profile and previous rotator cuff 

surgery. 


There are several types of non-absorbable sutures, including, silk, 

nylon, polyester, polypropylene, and surgical steel. Non-absorbable and 

steel sutures are more likely to be found in forensic cases than absorbable 

sutures, so the concentration for this presentation will be on the former. 

Each manufacturer produces non-absorbable sutures of various colors and 

diameters that are determined by the suture material and the designed 

medical use. Non-absorbable sutures may be further classified based on 

whether they are constructed as a monofilament or multifilament (e.g., 

twisted together, spun together, or braided). 

In addition to color, diameter, and construction materials, a nonabsorbable 

suture’s degradation may also help provide information 

concerning when surgery may have occurred and perhaps help narrow the 

time since death. While most non-absorbable sutures do not degrade 

completely, some materials, such as silk and nylon, do progressively lose 

their tensile strength. As such, suture manufacturing companies are able to 

assist in estimating timelines—whether determining when the surgery may 

have taken place or estimating time since death—based on degradation of 

the sutures as assessed by changes in the suture’s mechanical properties. 

There are several surgical suture manufacturers, each with readily available 

information on their products and these include: DemeTECH®, Arthrex®, 

United States Surgical, Syneture, Ethicon©, and CP Medical®. Many 

manufacturing companies have employees who are able to identify their 

products simply by visual recognition and can reference in-house research 

reports that address suture use, properties, and degradation. Therefore, 

when medical examiner’s and coroner’s offices, law enforcement agencies, 

and forensic anthropologists find surgical sutures with human remains, a 

useful investigative tool exists to narrow down the suture manufacturer, 

and may aid in determining the decedent’s identification and time interval 

since death. 

Surgical Sutures, Identification, Human Remains 

H5 Fractured Frontier: An Analysis of Fracture 

Patterns in a Historic Nevada Cemetery 

Carrie A. Brown, BA*, Nikki A. Willits, BA, Brenna K. Blanchard, BA, 

and Kristin L. Chelotti, BA, California State University, Department of 

Anthropology, 400 West First Street, Butte Hall 311, Chico, CA 95929 

This presentation will demonstrate the value of antemortem fracture 

analysis in the interpretation of life characteristics in unidentified skeletal 

remains. This poster presents evidence of antemortem fracture healing in a 

small historic burial sample. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by furthering 

the understanding of fracture patterns and bone remodeling processes as 

they relate to the construction of biological profiles. 

In February 2000, an unmarked cemetery containing nine individuals 

was discovered in Palisade, Nevada, a deserted frontier railroad town. The 

remains were excavated by local law enforcement and transferred to the 

Human Identification Laboratory at California State University, Chico for 

analysis. Contextual information and grave items indicate that the 

individuals were interred in the late 19th to early 20th century. Of interest 

was the fact that these individuals were buried in a separate location from 

the marked town cemetery. The group consists of four males and five 

females, ranging in age from 25 to 59 years of age. Craniometric and nonmetric 

analyses suggest that at least eight of the individuals were of Asian 

or African ancestry. 

Of particular note is the high prevalence of traumatic injury present 

among seven of the nine individuals. These injuries consisted primarily of 

healed fractures, with no evidence of perimortem trauma. Several of the 

individuals also exhibit evidence of degenerative disease, especially of the 

spine and the lower limb. Individuals 2 and 7 have healed boxer’s fractures 

on the right fifth metacarpal. Individual 5 has a similar healed fracture on 

the right second metacarpal, and also exhibits an unreduced healed fracture 

of the distal right ulna. In addition, the left nasal bone shows probable 

evidence of an unhealed fracture. Individual 3 has an unreduced fracture of 

218

the left tibia and fibula with major bone remodeling and severe lateral 

displacement of the distal end. These fractures resulted in a height loss of 

approximately 2 cm for both the tibia and the fibula when compared to the 

contralateral side. Individual 6 has an unreduced healed fracture of the right 

distal ulna and a possible partial fracture of the right distal radius. A 

pseudoarthrosis is present at the radio-ulnar joint, as well as an increased 

porosity of the carpals, which is likely related to the trauma sustained from 

the fracture of the lower arm. Individual 8 has a separated neural arch of 

the fifth lumbar vertebra, consistent with spondylolysis, a stress-fatigue 

fracture. This individual also has a bony spur on the lateral surface of the 

right femur, which may be associated with trauma to adjacent muscle tissue. 

Individual 9 has several healed fractures of the ribs: left ribs V and IX and 

right rib XII. This individual also exhibits an unhealed depressed fracture 

of the right tibial plateau. 

Overall, boxer’s fractures are the most prevalent in the sample, 

although several other fractures are remarkable in their severity. The 

evidence of severe, unreduced fractures in individuals 3, 5, and 6 provide 

evidence for a lack of medical treatment. Although the sample size is small, 

there is some evidence for a different patterning of injury between the 

sexes. While males exhibit a higher prevalence of lower limb trauma, there 

is a trend toward upper limb injuries among females with fractures. The 

differential fracture patterning observed in males and females indicates a 

likely difference in activity type between the sexes. 

The high prevalence of fractures and marked degenerative conditions 

observed in several of the skeletons, in conjunction with other contextual 

evidence from the burial site, suggest that these individuals were of low 

socio-economic status. Furthermore, the severity of many of these injuries 

and the unreduced nature of some of the fractures suggest that these 

individuals may have had limited access to medical care and likely led lives 

of strenuous and possibly dangerous activity. 

Fractures, Antemortem Trauma, Biological Profile 

H6 Homicide by Lapidation in Neolitic Age: 


Antonio De Donno, PhD*, Section of Legal Medicine - DiMIMP - 

University of Bari, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; Simona 

Corrado, MD, Sezione di Medicina Legale, Bari, 70100, ITALY; Valeria 

Santoro, PhD, Domenico Urso, MD, Piercarlo Lozito, DDS, and 

Francesco Introna, MD, Section of Legal Medicine, Department of 

Internal and Public Medicine (DiMIMP), University of Bari, P.zza Giulio 

Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY; Aldo Di Fazio, MD, Section of legal 

medicine - Matera Hospital, via Montescaglioso n.5, Matera, 75100, 

ITALY; and Rocco Maglietta, MD, Section of Legal Medicine - San Carlo 

Hospital Potenza, via P.Petroni n.6, Potenza, 85100, ITALY 

The goal of this presentation is to identify the process of recovery and 

describe physical findings from skeletonized remains performed by a team 

of forensic anthropologists and archeologists. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by identifying 

the process of recovering skeletal remains and presenting the 

methodologies and results used to reconstruct the biological profiles, race, 

sex, age, and stature of skeletal remains, date of death and probably manner 

of death. 

Introduction: While preparing a grave for oilduct in the little country 

of Marsicovetere in the South of Italy, workers discovered the remains of 

two skeletonized unknown individuals placed 2 mt of depth close to the 

other not in genu-pectoral or classic deposition. At the beginning it was 

performed a scanning of the archeological area to obtain digital 3D 

excavation map. Archeological recovery testifies Neolithic installation 

about the epoch of 4,000 years Before Christ. Records were taken and kept 

in the Ridola Museum in Potenza. Remains consisted of two full human 

skeletonized bodies highly fragmented. They were presumed to belong to 

prehistoric period in virtue of their extreme lightness and porosity; they 

were very fragile and then moved from grave, digging around skeletal 

remains and taking out together with ground. No clothing or other articles 

were found with remains, but just a stone with a pyramidal shape and 

dimension 4x4x5 cm. 

Forensic Anthropological and Odontological Examination: The 

general identity of the skeletal remains was determined by estimation of age 

and stature and the determination of the sex using anthropological methods 

for old remains. The estimation of age was based on pubic symphyseal 

phases and cranial suture closure. These criteria determined that the 

deceased was closer to 20 years than 40 years. The determination of sex 

was basically performed using morphological features of skull and pelvic 

bones and metric analysis of long bones fragments. The sex was clearly that 

of a female for both. The stature was estimated using the lengths of long 

bones, not fractured, which were measured using an osteometric board; the 

bones were used individually and in combination using tables available to 

determine the average stature, which was found to be respectively 161 + 1 

cm and 

152 + 2 cm. 

Odontological analysis showed that high maxillary was wide, 

characterized by a round palate with an intermolar distance of 6.5 cm. 

There were all the dental elements except for the second left molar 

(antemortem lack) and completions not damaged by decay. This aspect is 

coherent with the alimentary habits of Neolithic period that were lacking in 

sugars, even though carbohydrates, associated with game were introduced 

in feeding. The deep usury with dentinal exposure of incisive and molars 

is due to not refined feeding and the impurities of cereals. Typical of the 

period is also the wide diastem (6mm) between the middle incisives that is 

noticeable between the central and the lateral incisive and this last one and 

the left canine (3mm) too. The characteristics of the high maxillary can be 

refered to the jaw, where it can be observed the absence of decay and the 

deep usury of the canines and posterior sectors, characterized moreover by 

the disappearance of the cuspids particularly on the second premolars and 

molars. 

Radiocarbon Dating: Radiocarbon dating can provide useful 

information to elucidate the date of death of skeletonized human remains; 

interpretation was enhanced with analysis of different bone fragments 

within each skeletons by high resolution mass spectrometry. Radiocarbon 

analysis was conducted in this study on cortical and trabecular bone 

samples in dating and diagnostic laboratory of the University of Lecce. The 

radiocarbon analysis clearly assigned the bones to 4000 years BC. 

Instrumental Analysis: The skull showed an antemortem fracture 

pattern on the right temporal bone; this fracture was depressed, had a 

negative pyramidal shape 4x4x5 cm, and was not related with all the other 

skull postmortem fracture. Multislice-computed tomography (MSCT) and 

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are increasingly used for forensic 

purposes. To elucidate the skull fractures and pattern of injuries it has been 

used 3D computerized imaging; three-dimensional volume-rendered (VR) 

CT images can be helpful to understand the temporal bone. Matching 

between shape of injuries in temporal bone and shape of stone, found close 

to the skull, allowed to support the hypothesis of lapidation. At the moment 

remains are stored in the Ridola Museum in Potenza (Italy). 

Personal Identification, Neolithic Recovery, Radiocarbon Dating 

H7 Identification by the Numbers: A Case 

Study in Skeletal Trauma Examination 

and Surgical Implant Tracking 

Gwendolyn M. Haugen, MA*, St. Louis County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 6039 Helen Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63134; Kathleen 

Diebold, MA*, St. Charles, Jefferson & Franklin, Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 3556 Caroline Street, Room C305, St. Louis, MO 63104; Mary 

E.S. Case, MD, Chief Medical Examiner of St. Louis, St. Charles, 

Jefferson, and Franklin Counties in Missouri, 6039 Helen Avenue, St. 

Louis, MO 63134; St. Louis County Medical Examiner’s Office, 6039 

Helen Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63134; and Charles W. Subke, Franklin 


County Sheriff’s Office, #1 Bruns Drive, Union, MO 63084 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate how thorough skeletal 

analysis teamed with surgical implant investigation/tracking lead to the 

positive identification of unknown skeletal remains. Further, this 

presentation will illustrate the need for multi-agency/disciplinary 

cooperation in successful case resolution. 


demonstrating how unknown skeletal remains can be positively identified 

through surgical implant tracking teamed with anthropological analysis. 

This case study demonstrates how uniquely numbered medical 

implants/devices can be used to search medical records for unknown 

individuals. A multidisciplinary/multi-agency approach provided different 

lines of evidence that brought this case to successful resolution. 

In March 2007, relatively complete skeletonized human remains were 

discovered lying on the ground surface near a major interstate in Franklin 

County, Missouri. The area of discovery was near an interstate exit and 

overpass that is known to attract transient individuals. Clothing and 

possible bedding materials were associated with the remains. No 

identification media were readily apparent for the deceased. Investigators 

from the Franklin County Sheriff’s Office, in conjunction with the Franklin 

County Medical Examiner’s Office, performed a detailed recovery of the 

remains and all associated evidence. The remains and associated clothing 

were removed in situ and transported to the Medical Examiner’s Office in 

St. Louis County, Missouri for examination by a forensic anthropologist. 

The skeletal remains were in a good state of preservation which 

facilitated a relatively complete biological assessment. Extensive 

antemortem and perimortem trauma was observed and documented. The 

majority of the observed antemortem trauma was present on the left side of 

the body. Of particular interest for possible identification were areas of 

antemortem trauma that had been fixed with surgical implants/devices 

which appeared consistent in age based on the observed level of bone 

remodeling. This suggested that they were produced from the same 

traumatic event. The cranium exhibited extensive surgical repair of left 

maxilla fractures with mini-plates and screws (n=3), surgical repair of left 

orbit fractures with orbital floor implants, and a healing fracture located on 

the superiomedial aspect of the left orbit. An antemortem fracture of the left 

proximal ulnar diaphysis had been stabilized with a plate and screws. 

Finally, the left tibia had been fixed with an intramedullary rod and screws. 

A subsequent oblique fracture event of the distal tibia had displaced one of 

the screws. The secondary fracture had not been medically treated and the 

bone was extremely reactive in this area. A healing oblique fracture of the 

left distal fibula was also observed. This fracture appeared to have occurred 

at the same time as the secondary fracture of the left tibia and also showed 

no evidence of medical treatment. Observed perimortem trauma included 

blunt craniocerebral trauma in addition to blunt and sharp trauma of the 

chest and neck consistent with homicidal violence. 

An identical service/trademark and unique numbering were observed 

on the surface of the intramedullary rod and the ulnar surgical fixation plate. 

A search on the service/trademark through the Missouri Intelligence Access 

Center (MIAC) linked the design with the company Synthes, Inc., a global 

provider of trauma implant devices. Synthes, Inc. was able to provide 

investigators with a list of hospitals nationwide that had received devices 

with the same numbering schemes. Although ulnar fixation plates are quite 

common, the unique combination of implants in this case provided 

investigators with a truncated list of possible individuals for comparison. 

The developed biological profile served to further shorten the list. From 

this abbreviated list, the Franklin County Medical Examiner’s Office 

requested and received medical records from a hospital in Tulsa, Oklahoma 

for an individual who had received both implants after being struck by a 

vehicle in 2002. Comparison of ante- and postmortem radiographs led to 

the positive identification of this victim. Identification was made within 90 

days of body recovery. 

This case study demonstrates how mulit-agency/multidisciplinary 

cooperation is imperative for timely case resolution. Although the 

numbering present on the surgical devices was not unique, investigators 


were able to compile a shortened list of possible individuals which was 

further reduced by the developed biological profile. 

Identification Techniques, Trauma Analysis, Skeletal Remains 

H8 Practical Consideration of the Daubert 

Guidelines on Methods of Identification 

in the Medical Examiner Setting 

Jason M. Wiersema, PhD*, Harris County Medical Examiner, 

Anthropology Division, Houston, TX 77054; Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and 

Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County, Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 

Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054 

The educational objective of this presentation is to consider the 

methodological dichotomy between satisfaction of the federal law 

regarding forensic testimony and the practical constraints of daily operation 

of a medical examiner’s office. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by highlighting 

the dichotomy between the Daubert rules and practical constraints 

associated with identification in the medical examiner’s setting. 

Scientific identification is of primary importance in forensic death 

investigations. Medical examiner personnel, including anthropologists, are 

obligated to pursue positive scientific identification under certain 

circumstances including homicides, disfigurement, commingling and 

decomposition. The definition of positive identification varies based on the 

circumstances of death, and the distinction between what is required under 

different circumstances is significant in the application of current 

techniques of identification and the development of future ones. A 

quantified estimate of identity is often required in cases pending 

prosecution, whereas presumptive identification is acceptable in nonprosecutory 

cases. The Daubert ruling of 1993 is the most influential of the 

federal laws that pertain to this issue (Steadman et al. 2006). This particular 

court case has resulted in an increase in the scientific and statistical rigor 

required of methods of identification of the deceased. Medical examiner 

personnel must reconcile the practical constraints of the medical examiner 

context with the requirements of the law. The end results are concomitant 

conflicting interests in: (1) establishing a quantified estimate of identity, and 

(2) expediting the process of identification in the face of limited 

antemortem records and resources as well as familial demands. 

This presentation details a case in which the antemortem records 

available for positive identification were limited to MRI imagery of the 

head and other standard sources of antemortem data including fingerprints, 

dental records, and skeletal x-rays were not available. The decedent was 

found dead in his apartment following an altercation with other individuals. 

The decedent’s brother was on the scene at the time of the incident and 

survived. The parents of the decedent viewed a photo of the decedent and 

were able to visually identify him. Given the traumatic nature of the event 

and the interests of the family, identification by a method more expeditious 

than DNA comparison was essential. 

Positive identification of the decedent was achieved by consideration 

of several qualitative features visible on the MRI images rather than the 

application of a quantified method of antemortem and postmortem 

radiograph comparison. Visible on the MRI imagery was the decedent’s 

frontal sinus outline, his dentition, and a soft-tissue defect visible at autopsy. 

The frontal sinus morphology, as seen on the MRI imagery, was very 

complex and strongly resembled postmortem images in number of cells, 

bilateral dimension, bilateral asymmetry, superiority of side, distribution of 

partial bony septations, number of partial bony septations, distribution of 

complete bony cells, and number of complete bony cells (Reichs and 

Dorion 1992). The incomplete development of the third molars in both the 

postmortem and antemortem images indicated that the decedent was in the 

appropriate age category relative to the antemortem records. In addition, a 

sebaceous cyst noted at autopsy was clearly visible and located in the same 

position on the antemortem imagery. Taken together, these two 

220

characteristics were deemed appropriate for scientific identification 

following a conference between the anthropologists and the medical 

examiner presiding over the case. 

This case represents a situation in which limited antemortem records 

and familial demands required utilizing a method to expedite identification 

in lieu of a quantified method. Although the method applied was not 

quantified, subjectivity was minimized through accumulative findings. 

Active research in the development of identification methods that meet the 

demands of the Daubert ruling and the constraints of the medical 

examiner’s setting is ongoing by the Anthropology Division at the Harris 

County Medical Examiner’s Office. 

Forensic Identification, Medical Examiner, Daubert vs. Merrill-Dow 

H9 Archival Matters: The William R. Maples 


Kevin A. Waters, BS*, Laura Gibson, BS, and Heather A. Walsh- 

Haney, PhD, Florida Gulf Coast University, Division of Justice Studies, 

10501 FGCU Boulevard South, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565 

After attending this presentation, attendees will know how to identify 

special collections within the medical examiner/coroner’s offices and law 

enforcement agencies and the steps necessary to curate the documents. 

This poster presentation will help the forensic community by 

providing the techniques involved in archiving materials related to the life’s 

work of senior forensic scientists which will facilitate access to past 

research and data that will inevitability help to close current and future 

forensic cases and answer forthcoming research questions. 

All too often, the unpublished notes, slides, data, and live-action 

footage relative to the forensic research, casework, and experiences of 

retired or deceased forensic scientists have been stored in locations that 

were not easily located or accessible (e.g., familial closets, garages, and 

attics). As such, information that had the potential to flesh-out current 

research endeavors or solve existing or future forensic cases was lost. The 

special collections warehoused in universities, libraries, or digital archives, 

such as the National Clearinghouse for Science Technology and the Law 

(NCSTL), have become conduits for accessing this critical information. As 

a case in point, the William R. Maples Special Collection serves to highlight 

those data that would have been otherwise unavailable to the forensic 

science community and how the materials within were subsequently 

archived. 

In summer 2006, the William R. Maples Special Collection was 

donated to Florida Gulf Coast University (FGCU) in Fort Myers, Florida by 

his widow, Margaret Maples-Gilliland. Thankfully, Ms. Maples-Gilliland 

recognized the importance of ensuring that her late husband’s work was 

accessible to myriad interested forensic practitioners, rather than restricting 

access to family members as has been the case for the works of countless 

scientists over the years. The William R. Maples collection contained 

records that documented the various forensic cases and historic research Dr. 

Maples had conducted during his 28 year career as a forensic anthropologist 

and 35 years as a physical anthropologist. It comprised nearly 40 cardboard 

boxes—must of which contained, in meticulous detail, the date, location, 

and relevance of each document, photo, cast, bone, and videotape. Before 

the formal donation was completed, the collection had to be inventoried and 

appraised. 

The inventory required 120 volunteer hours and was beyond the 

capabilities of the Maples-Gilliland family. Importantly, volunteers were 

recruited from FGCU upper division undergraduate students who were 

criminal forensics majors and well-versed in Maples’ work. The process 

began with a rough sort and inventory which pinpointed the (1) quantity of 

items, (2) material integrity (e.g., could the object be fumigated and 

digitized?), and (3) subject matter of the collection. Once the collection was 

considered to be of sufficient size, stable and of forensic importance, it was 

fumigated. Then, all of the materials were organized by subject matter. For 

example, subject categories included titles such as “Czar Nicholas 

Romanov Investigation,” “Elephant Man Joseph Merrick,” “Francisco 

Pizarro Expedition,” “Medgar Evers Disinterment,” “Panama Human 

Rights Work,” “President Zachary Taylor Disinterment,” and so on. 

Surprisingly, the collection also contained Maples’ life history documents, 

including high school report cards, prom photos, West Point transcripts, 

copies of his children’s birth certificates, and other personal 

correspondences between Maples and his family, friends, and peers. These 

latter non-scientific materials were included in order for future researchers 

to understand the implicit, unavoidable, and often subconscious biases that 

may have shaped Maples’ data interpretations. 

Once the materials were organized by subject, each document, photo, 

cast, 8mm film, videotape and artifact was assigned a unique identification 

number (UIN). Quite simply, the numerical system began with number 1 

and ended with entry 3500. Each item was labeled with its UIN. An excel 

spreadsheet was used to catalog each UIN with a corresponding description 

of the item. The accuracy of the UIN assignments and corresponding item 

description and location was tested by checking 85 entries selected by a 

random number generator. 

All paper documents, slides, and live-action footage was digitized by 

using a flatbed scanner, slide scanner, and converted to DVD, respectively. 

Each artifact, cast, and skeleton was digitally photographed and added to 

the database. Then, the original materials and specimens were transferred 

to acid free containers and stored within the temperature and humidity 

controlled special collections room within the Florida Gulf Coast 

University Special Collections room. Additionally, all of the digitized data 

will be transferred to the National Clearinghouse for Science Technology 

and the Law for immediate web based access. 

William R. Maples, Special Collections, Skeletal Remains 

H10 A Summary of Trauma Specimens at the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 

National Museum of Health and Medicine 

Brian F. Spatola, MA*, and Franklin E. Damann, MA*, Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology, National Museum of Health and Medicine, 6825 

16th St. NW, Building 54, Washington, DC 20306-6000 

The objective of this poster is to heighten awareness of this valuable 

resource for qualified researchers in the forensic sciences. In particular the 

collections contain approximately 2359 trauma specimens of interest to 

forensic anthropologists. 

The extensive collections of trauma and pathology housed at the 

museum cover a large historic period (antebellum to present) and can 

provide abundant data for research in wound ballistics, sharp force injuries, 

and blunt force trauma that can be used to expand knowledge in the forensic 

sciences, particularly in forensic anthropology. 

The Anatomy Department of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology 

(AFIP) National Museum of Health and Medicine (NMHM) in 

Washington, DC houses a large number of specimens of interest to the 

forensic research community. The objective of this poster is to heighten 

awareness of this valuable resource for qualified researchers in the forensic 

sciences. In particular the collections contain approximately 2359 trauma 

specimens of interest to forensic anthropologists. 

The NMNH began as the Army Medical Museum (AMM) with the 

collection of thousands of surgical and autopsy specimens of Civil War 

gunshot wounds (GSW) collected at field hospitals and on the battlefield. 

Over time the AMM evolved into the world class pathology consultation 

organization that is known today as the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology 

(AFIP) with the NMHM as one of its many divisions. To this day, the 

museum continues to collect specimens relevant to forensic and medical 


investigations. Cataloged collections at the museum contain approximately 

12,000 specimens of forensic, medical, surgical and historic significance, 

19% of which documents the terminal effects of GSW and low velocity 

trauma. Specimens are often accompanied by medical records, narrative 

accounts and descriptions such as bullet caliber, make / model of weapon, 

blade type or other relevant information. Among these specimens there is 

also ample evidence of the body’s responses to bone trauma (i.e., healing 

and infection.) 

Of the museum specimens, high velocity GSW comprise the greater 

part (95%) of the trauma collections (n = 2249), with low velocity blunt 

force trauma (BFT) and sharp force trauma (SFT) comprising the remainder 

of the collection. Examples of gunshot injuries from a variety of civil and 

military weapons are present that document the effects of contemporary and 

historic firearms and the effects of cannon fire and shrapnel. High velocity 

trauma specimens found in the collection represent a span of time from 

antebellum into modern day medical examiner contexts. 

There are 42 examples of blunt force trauma represented in the 

collection consisting mostly of depressed fractures from diverse 

implements and contexts such as bricks, stones, falls, aircraft accidents, 

hammers, firearm butts, and other sources; dates of death from this portion 

of the collection range from 1863 to 1987. 

Examples of sharp force trauma consist of a total of 66 specimens. 

Implements include swords, hatchets, knives, ice-picks, unidentified sharp 

instruments and surgical saws, historic and modern. Sharp force trauma 

from historic battles can be found ranging from a variety of edged weapons 

particularly those identified as sabers. 

The high number of GSW in the collection is directly related to the 

museum’s history of accessioning specimens recovered from military 

conflicts making this one of the largest repositories of GSW specimens in 

the world. Select counts for individual collections are as follows: Milton 

Helpern New York City Medical Examiner collection (n = 162), Louis 

LaGarde cadaver study (n = 60), Bruce Ragsdale Antique and Modern 

Firearms Study (n = 8), U.S. Army Frontier Soldiers (n = 77), Civil War 

Soldiers (n = 1746), General Collection (n = 89). 

This presentation details some of the biological resources available at 

the NMHM to the research communities of the forensic and medical 

sciences. The extensive collections of trauma and pathology housed at the 

museum cover a large historic period (antebellum to present) and can 

provide abundant data for research in wound ballistics, sharp force injuries 

and blunt force trauma that can be used to expand knowledge in the forensic 

sciences, particularly in forensic anthropology. Research visits are 

coordinated by appointment only through the museum’s collections 

manager (BFS) following standard administrative procedures. Interested 

researchers and donors can reach the collections manager by following the 

links to the anatomical collections at http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum. 

Forensic Anthropology Research, Trauma, National Museum of 

Health and Medicine 

H11 Taphonomy and Dentition: Understanding 


Cris E. Hughes, MA*, University of California at Santa Cruz, 5405 

Prospect Road, #7, San Jose, CA 95129; and Crystal A. White*, 

University of California at Santa Cruz, Crown College, 400 McLaughlin 

Drive, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

Attendees will understand the taphonomic nature of crack propagation 

in teeth and the effects of it on the macro-and microstructure of the tooth. 

Also to be able to discern perimortem and postmortem cracking in teeth at 

the microscopic and biomechanical level. 

This is a pilot study will impact the forensic community by 

demonstrating a clear difference in the way a crack propagates in fresh teeth 

and decomposed or decomposing teeth. The ability of differentiating 

perimortem and postmortem tooth cracking at the microscopic level is 

shown in this study. 


The goal of this poster presentation is to introduce the preliminary 

results of a pilot study that examines the role of taphonomy, specifically 

temperature on the dehydration and subsequent alteration in the macro- and 

microstructure of human teeth. After attending this poster, attendees will be 

able to understand how to differentiate between enamel and dentin crack 

propagation in teeth in the perimortem versus postmortem setting using 

basic microscopic examination techniques. In addition, they will acquire 

knowledge on the use of Sus scrofa teeth as an appropriate analogue for 

human teeth. 

Background: Taphonomy and it effects on the human body is a 

pervasive factor in the forensic analysis of skeletal remains. There has been 

much work on decompositional and taphonomic processes, including the 

effects of duration, exposure to the elements, and temperature on the 

appearance and quality of the human skeleton. However, there is a limited 

amount of research focusing on teeth, one of the most durable elements of 

the human body. In forensic cases, it is common to have teeth that exhibit 

vertical cracking, usually visible on the labial portion of the anterior teeth. 

It is thought that these cracks result from the dehydration process of the 

organic components of a tooth. Therefore, both temperature and the 

duration of exposure to a given temperature will influence the occurrence 

of vertical cracking in teeth. 

The majority of the work on vertical cracking in teeth comes from the 

Journal of Dental Research (Rasmussen et al 1976, Brown et al. 1972, 

Jacobs et al. 1973, Lloyd et al. 1978). Although studies pertaining to 

enamel or dentin cracking are present since the 1960s, these articles are of 

little use to the forensic anthropologist as the primary focus of these studies 

is simulating in vivo cracking in teeth, usually as a result of compressive or 

tensile forces. Due to the lack of research on taphonomic effects on vertical 

cracking in teeth, the current research works to understand the effect of 

temperature and exposure duration on tooth structure during the process of 


Methodology: This pilot study uses a sample of 35 Sus scrofa 

mandibular incisors and premolars. The teeth were removed from the 

mandibles and divided into three groups, each being exposed to a 

temperature range of 105-120°F for up to fifteen days. Macroscopic 

observations were made while the tooth’s overall was still intact, while the 

microscopic observations were made from prepared 300mm thick sections 

at various portions of each tooth. 

Analyses: The macroscopic analysis includes biomechanical 

influence of tooth shape on the susceptibility to cracking, the variation in 

types of cracks present on the outer enamel, and the variation of the 

prevalence of cracks and the amount of time it takes for crack formation in 

each type of tooth. The microscopic analysis includes an examination of 

crack propagation from the external to internal tooth structures on the 

dehydrated Sus scrofa dentition, and compares this to the previously studied 

crack propagation in in vivo, or perimortem dentition. Finally, the 

usefulness of Sus scrofa dentition as an analogue for research on human 

dentition with the macrostructure and microstructure differences and 

similarities are discussed. 

Results: From this pilot study, it is clear that tooth morphology, 

duration of exposure, and temperature all influence crack propagation in 

dentition. Additionally, with minimal variation in structural differences but 

a general difference in tooth morphology, Sus scrofa anterior dentition 

serves well as an analogue to human dentition when examining microscopic 

crack propagation, but has no predicative ability for human dentition when 

studying macroscopic tooth morphology as a factor on crack propagation. 

Finally, the unique microscopic characteristics of the crack propagation 

path in postmortem, dehydrated dentition can be used as a way to determine 

trauma to the teeth as postmortem or perimortem. 

Tooth, Crack Propagation, Heat 

H12 Quantitative and Spatial Comparison of 

the Microscopic Bone Structures Of Deer 

(Odocoileus Virginianus), Dog (Canis 

222

Familiaris), and Pig (Sus Scrofa Domesticus) 

Zoe Hensley Morris, HBSc, MA*, University Of Western Ontario, 

Department Of Anthropology, Social Sciences Centre, London, Ontario 

N6A 5C2, CANADA; Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department Of Geography 

& Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and 

Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 1723 Lombard Drive, Baton Rouge, LA 70810 

After leaving this presentation, attendees will understand the 

importance of including spatial evaluations of microscopic bone crosssections 

for the inter-species histological comparisons and intra-species 

histological analysis. The research has forensic implications, suggesting 

additional means to differentiate fragmentary remains. 

The implications for this study will impact the forensic science 

community by suggesting future avenues of research for histologically 

differentiating species for both forensic and archaeological settings. 

Second, incorporating spatial analysis of microscopic structures in multiple 

elements from the same species could prove beneficial in differentiating 

variation of those structures within a particular species. 

Species-specific variables exist that change the structure and 

morphology of cellular bone tissue. Identifying and quantifying these 

differences is necessary in the evaluation of fragmentary bones in order to 

assign specific species identification. In order to under the influence of 

species of origin on microscopic bone tissue, the influence of development 

and biomechanic forces specific to a skeletal element must also be assessed. 

This presentation explores the preliminary study of the histological 

bone structures in terms of the their area, density and spatial location. In 

order to achieve this research goal, the cross-section of three major skeletal 

structures of three common, quadrupeds ubiquitous across North American 

and commonly found in association with human remains were compared. 

The specimens used for this research were taken from the comparative 

collection of the Louisiana State University’s Forensic Anthropology and 

Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) Laboratory. The study analyzed 

the mid-shaft cross-section of six femora, five humeri, and six mid-thoracic 

ribs of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus); six femora, six 

humeri, and six mid-thoracic ribs of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris); 

and five femora, four humeri, and six mid-thoracic ribs of the domestic pig 

(Sus scrofa domesticus). Each skeletal element was divided into eight 

sections along known body planes. All histomorphometric measurements 

and observations were taken within these sections to explore the spatial 

organization of the microscopic structures. 

Plexiform bone observations suggest not only species-specific 

presence and absence of this bone structure but a relation to the skeletal 

element. There was an almost complete absence of this bone type in the 

mid-thoracic rib and reduced presence in the humerus versus the femur of 

all three species. 

Secondary osteon area isolated pig in all three skeletal elements from 

the other two species, suggesting a species-specific difference in osteon 

development. On the other hand, though similar in area, deer and dog 

showed interspecies, parallel patterns between like elements (humerus and 

humerus, femur and femur). Secondary osteon density followed an 

expected trend of increasing density associated with older animals. 

The implications for this study suggest future avenues of research for 

histologically differentiating species for both forensic and archaeological 

settings. Second, incorporating spatial analysis of microscopic structures in 

multiple elements from the same species could prove beneficial in 

differentiating variation of those structures within a particular species. 

Histology, Faunal Analysis, Osteon 

H13 Controlled Research Utilizing Geophysical 



Mary M. Rezos, BA*, 12644 Victoria Place Circle, Apartment 7216, 

Orlando, FL 32828; John J. Schultz, PhD, University of Central Florida, 

Department of Anthropology, 4000 Central Florida Boulevard, Orlando, 

FL 32816; and Ronald A. Murdock, MFS, and Stephen A. Smith, BS, 

Orange County Sheriff’s Office, 2500 W Colonial Drive, Orlando, 

FL 32804 

The goals of this research project are to familiarize the audience with 

the utility of geophysical technologies at a suspected weapon burial or 

dump site. Participants will gain an understanding of which geophysical 

tool, or combination of tools, is appropriate for a specific firearm search at 

a crime scene or suspected weapon burial site. 


guidelines to forensic investigators regarding which geophysical tool, or 

combination of tools, is appropriate for a search for metallic weapons at a 

crime scene or suspected weapon burial site. 


the utility of geophysical technologies at a suspected weapon burial or 

dump site. Participants will gain an understanding of which geophysical 

tool, or combination of tools, is appropriate for a specific firearm search at 

a crime scene or suspected weapon burial site. 

Locating metallic weapons such as firearms that have been discarded 

or buried by criminals often involves the use of a variety of search methods 

and technologies. Depending upon the size and composition of the 

suspected weapon, forensic scene professionals may incorporate advanced 

methods such as geophysical technologies into their investigation. The 

application of geophysical technologies in forensic investigations is a 

growing practice, creating a need for research in the area. One way to 

determine the applicability of geophysical search methods in a forensic 

investigation is through controlled research. This type of research provides 

opportunities to test the applicability of various geophysical technologies 

and also to improve standard geophysical detection methods, which can 

then be applied to real-life searches. 

This research was designed to demonstrate the utility of geophysical 

technologies at a crime scene or a suspected weapon burial site through 

controlled testing of buried weapons. Utilizing two types of metal detectors 

and a magnetic locator, the following objectives were addressed: (1) to test 

the ease with which these geophysical technologies may be used to detect 

buried weapons with little operator training, (2) to determine what effects 

the metallic composition of the weapons have on their detection, and (3) to 

determine which instrument is better at detecting specific weapons. 

The geophysical tools used in this research were chosen due to their 

accessibility and efficiency at detecting metal objects. Most law 

enforcement agencies will find these tools easy to purchase, relatively 

inexpensive, and perhaps most importantly, easy to use. Included in this 

research project are: (1) a Fisher M-97 basic all-metal detector, (2) a 

Schonstedt GA-72Cd® magnetic locator, which detects buried 

ferromagnetic objects such as iron and steel, but ignores non-ferric items 

such as aluminum and copper, (3) and a Minelab Explorer II advanced 

metal detector, which allows for metal discrimination by providing 

“signature” ferric and conductivity readings. 

The 30 metal objects included in this research are fourteen 

decommissioned street-level firearms (including a rifle, a shotgun, 

revolvers, and pistols), ten blunt or bladed weapons, and six pieces of 

assorted scrap metals. The scrap metals and miscellaneous weapons have 

been included to test the discrimination function of the advanced metal 

detector and to allow for a wider variety of metals to be tested on all three 

of the geophysical tools. The weapons were tested both on the surface as 

discarded weapons, and at a number of depths. 

Initial results have shown that using factory presets and medium levels 

on the geophysical technologies allows for detection and readings at 

multiple depths. The all-metal detector was able to detect each item on the 

ground surface; however, items made of aluminum and copper and some of 

the smaller miscellaneous weapons were not detected, even at the 

shallowest tested depth. As expected, and for both pre-burial and buried 

objects, the magnetic locator was able to detect ferric objects made of iron 

and steel and not those of copper or aluminum composition. Overall, the 

advanced metal detector was successful at detecting many of the weapons, 


including the firearms, while eliminating the trash metals of iron 

composition. Through the discrimination function of the advanced metal 

detector, valuable search time and resources are saved by not digging up 

false targets (trash metals) that the all-metal detector would detect. The 

magnetic locator would be an appropriate tool when searching for ferric 

items. 

Geophysical Technologies, Forensic Archaeology, Metal Detectors 

H14 Accuracy Testing of Computerized Facial 



Diana K. Moyers, MA*, and Philip N. Williams, BS, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation Laboratory, Counterterrorism and Forensic Science 

Research Unit, Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

After attending this presentation, the audience will have an overall 

understanding of a cost-effective, automated method of facial 

approximation, an opportunity to visually compare computer generated 

images with corresponding antemortem photographs, and an overview of a 

unique application of facial recognition software for the identification of 

unknown human remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by introducing 

and illustrating an automated, objective, inexpensive, and rapid method of 

completing facial approximations for use in the identification of skeletal 

and decomposing remains of victims of homicide, mass disasters, and war 

crimes. 

Traditional methods of facial approximation of unknown human 

remains combine forensic anthropology biological profiles, tissue depth 

charts, and artistic talent. Three primary issues with traditional methods are 

time, expense, and subjectivity. Often described as a blending of art and 

science, these methods require a skilled artist and are labor intensive and 

therefore expensive. Traditional methods do not effectively address 

decomposing remains or situations with a large number of remains, such as 

mass disasters and genocides. 

This research tested the ability of humans to match computer 

generated facial approximation images with antemortem photographs. 

Facial approximations produced by a computer prototype were without 

head or facial hair, and had closed eyes and a smooth skin surface. Previous 

studies by other researchers have compared traditional facial 

approximations with antemortem photographs, or compared computergenerated 

images with other computer-generated images. However, this is 

the first known research to test whether human volunteers could match 

computer generated facial approximations of test subjects (without hair and 

with closed eyes) with actual antemortem photographs of those test 

subjects. A second test was conducted to determine if facial recognition 

software could be used to match computer generated facial approximations 

with antemortem photographs. A comparison of human versus computer 

accuracy rates will be presented. 

Human Recognition of Computerized Facial Approximations: 

Ten human skulls of European ancestry (six females and four males) were 

selected for a photographic validation by face pool and resemblance rating 

validation tests. These ten test subjects were from the William M. Bass 

Donated and Forensic Skeletal Collections at the University of Tennessee at 

Knoxville. Facial approximations completed using a prototype software 

were visually compared with antemortem photographs by four participant 

groups (N = 103). Participants were asked to choose the face pool 

photograph that most closely resembled the facial approximation. In a 

second test, the same volunteers were asked to rate (on a scale of 1 to 5) 

how closely facial approximations of target subjects resembled an 

antemortem photographs. Results of the face pool and resemblance rating 

testing will be presented. 

Computer Recognition of Computerized Facial Approximations: 

Facial recognition software was used to test whether a computer would be 

more accurate in the matching of computerized facial approximations than 


human recognition. As a subset of a larger research project, the same ten 

human skulls used in the human recognition testing were entered into a 

facial recognition software program. Antemortem photographs of the ten 

test subjects were added to the photographic database of the system. 

Results of the facial recognition testing and a comparison of human versus 

computer recognition will be presented. 

All facial approximations in this research were prepared using a 

cutting edge prototype, ReFace (Reality Enhancement Facial 

Approximation by Computational Estimation). This computerized facial 

approximation system is currently undergoing validation at the 

Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research Unit (CFSRU) of the FBI 

Laboratory Division in Quantico, Virginia. The prototype extrapolates an 

“approximation” of a face from a computed tomography (CT) scan of an 

articulated skull using a database of CT scans of living individuals. 

Preliminary research on the prototype indicated that under optimal 

conditions, facial approximations of test subjects bore a striking 

resemblance to antemortem photographs (Moyers et al 2006). Additionally, 

the prototype has the ability to use CT data to extract a skull model from 

decomposing human remains without removing and defleshing the skull. 

As the process is fully automated, subjectivity has been eliminated. Time 

and expense are also minimized, as the system does not require artistic 

talent to produce a facial approximation. 

An objective, rapid, and low cost method of facial approximation is 

urgently needed to address the current backlog of more than 40,000 

unidentified sets of human remains in the United States (Ritter 2007), as 

well as high numbers of unidentified skeletal and decomposing remains 

from mass disasters and war crimes. In addition to the benefit of 

identification to victims and their families, such a system could provide 

assistance to national and international investigative and law enforcement 

agencies in the identification and prosecution of those responsible. 

References: 

1 Ritter, N. 2007. Missing Persons and Unidentified Remains: The 

nation’s Silent Mass Disaster. National Institute of Justice Journal 

256:2-7. 

2 Moyers, D. K. 2007. Validation Study of ReFace (Reality Enhanced 

Facial Approximation by Computational Estimation). Unpublished 

Thesis, University of Tennessee at Knoxville. 

3 Moyers, D K, H L Peters, M R Mahfouz, M A Taister. Validation of 

Computerized Facial Approximation Using Re/Face. Presented at the 

12th Scientific Meeting of the International Association for 

Craniofacial Identification Conference, November 1-4, 2006, 

Istanbul, Turkey. 

Facial Approximation, Facial Recognition, Computer Prototypes 

H15 Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) 

Scans for Skeletal Remains Identification of 

Anorexia Nervosa 

Bianca Vigil, MFS*, Ismail Sebetan, MD, PhD, and Paul Stein, PhD, 

Forensic Sciences Program, National University, 11255 North Torrey 

Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 

After attending this presentation, the audience will understand the 

importance of DEXA scans for analyzing individuals with osteoporosis and 

using them for possible identification of unknown skeletal remains. This 

study presents new criteria for skeletal remains identification when dental 

remains are unavailable, and demonstrates the long-term impact of anorexia 

nervosa on postmortem signs as evidenced by forensic radiological 

examination. 

This presentation will impact forensic community by providing new 

criteria for skeletal remains identification and understanding of the long 

term impact of anorexia nervosa on postmortem findings as evidenced by 

forensic radiological examination. The attendees will understand the 

importance of DEXA scans for analyzing individuals with osteoporosis and 

using them for possible identification of unknown skeletal remains. 

224

Anorexia is a well-known social problem that is constantly changing 

the face of eating disorders. The immediate, physical and emotional harm 

caused by anorexia seems to be understood. Many young women with a 

history of anorexia tend to develop osteoporosis and reduced bone density, 

which leads to fractures. The severity of these fractures ranges from minor 

hairline fracture to femoral head collapse, which is seen in extreme cases of 

anorexia nervosa. However, the long-term collective effects are more 

difficult to interpret. Few postmortem forensic and anthropological studies 

have addressed this issue. 

This study examined the validity and problems associated with the use 

of radiological examination of skeletal remains as an identification tool 

when there is a concomitant history of anorexia. For instance, if long bone 

remains are found from an unidentified individual, and concluded to be 

from a young female with osteoporosis, they can be compared against 

missing person reports and medical histories to find the probable missing 

Jane Doe(s) providing that it is recognized to possibly originate from a 

young anorexic person rather than an older person with osteoporosis. 

DEXA scans of ten anorexic patients; nine non-anorexic (older) 

patients with osteoporosis, and one normal control were obtained from 

Sharp Outpatient Imaging Center, San Diego, CA. Bone mineral density 

(BMD) and T score, were also obtained and used to analyze the 

radiographs. T score defines the amount of bone a person has compared to 

an individual of the same gender with normal bone mass. Questionnaires 

were also sent to 75 doctors/physicians/specialists across the country in 

order to get their opinions regarding the DEXA scan data and its application 

to forensic science as shown in this study. 

Subjects were further divided into groups based on their T scores and 

diagnosis. Group 1(N=6) was anorexic only, Group 2 (N=5) was anorexic 

with osteoporosis, and Group 3 (N=9) was non-anorexic with osteoporosis. 

The DEXA scan data of these groups was compared using Student’s t test 

(p-value < .05) and Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (r) was 

used to compare the BMD and T scores between hip and lumbar spine. 

When the DEXA scan data of the groups were compared BMD total 

hip in Group 2 vs. Group 3 only marginally significant (p-value = .084). 

BMD lumbar spine in Group 1 vs. Group 2 and Group 2 vs. Group 3 was 

not significantly different (p-values .184 and .242, respectively). T score 

lumbar spine in Group 1 vs. Group 2 and Group 2 vs. Group 3 was also a 

non-significantly different (p-values .136 and .603, respectively). BMD 

and T score total hip and lumbar spine were also shown to have a positive 

correlation with one another (r = .881 and .890). 

This radiological data analysis would support the assumption that 

skeletal remains of a young anorexic individual may be mistaken for an 

older individual with osteoporosis, even if it is not in the hip region. 

Additionally, a significant portion of the questionnaire data, and specifically 

the question asking whether it is possible to confuse young anorexic bones 

and older osteoporotic bones, were in agreement with that assumption. 

This study showed a high possibility for incorrect differentiation 

between young anorexics with osteoporosis and older non-anorexics with 

osteoporosis, when skeletal remains alone are examined, especially in the 

lumbar region. While DEXA scans are very useful for current physical 

information, they are also imperative for studying long term anorexia. The 

scans track all patients’ measurements from the day they are diagnosed 

through every follow-up measurement until they either die or stop receiving 

treatment. These radiological records can be very informative for 

postmortem identification (i.e., mass disasters for example). Bone density 

scans also aid in the differentiation between malnourished remains and 

other bone pathologies, which by themselves are useful for identification of 


DEXA Scans, Anorexia Nervosa, Osteoporosis 

H16 Placement of the Human Eyeball and 

Canthi in Craniofacial Identification 

Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, Anne Huang, and Paavi Davidson, School of 

Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Otto Hirschfeld Building, 

Brisbane, 4072, AUSTRALIA 

This paper will review the methods used for predicting/assessing 

eyeball and canthi position in craniofacial identification and it will quantify 

the anatomical relationships experimentally. 

The results of this investigation will improve eyeball and canthi 

positioning in superimposition and facial approximation methods. These 

data will, therefore, have immediate applicability and will be useful to 

forensic anthropologists worldwide. 

An accurate understanding of the spatial relationships of the deep and 

superficial anatomical structures of the head is essential for methods where 

faces must be assessed in relation to skulls (superimposition) or predicted 

from them (facial approximation). However, differences of opinion exist 

concerning: i) the position of the eyeball in planes other than the 

anteroposterior plane; and ii) the canthi positions relative to the bony orbital 

margins. Currently, little empirical evidence exists to support many of the 

proposed guidelines and, therefore, uncertainty accompanies almost all. 

This study elucidates and quantifies the spatial relationships of the globe 

and the canthi to the bony orbit by dissection in 14 adult human cadavers. 

While complete results will be released at the presentation of this paper, a 

pilot analysis using four cadavers indicates that the eyeballs were not 

centrally positioned within the orbits as commonly reported in the literature. 

Rather, the eyeballs were positioned closer to the orbital roof and lateral 

orbital wall by 1-2mm in each case, indicating that interpupillary distance 

is underestimated by 3mm using current methods. These results appear to 

have ramifications for current craniofacial identification techniques, 

especially in facial approximation where recognition is widely known to 

heavily depend upon the delicacies of the orbital region. 

Forensic Science, Facial Reconstruction, Video Superimposition 

H17 Analysis of the Auricular Surface on 

Multi-Slice Computed Tomography 



Fabrice Dedouit, MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 

1 avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 

31059, FRANCE; Pierre Barrier, Philippe Otal, PhD, Hervé Rousseau, 

PhD, and Francis Joffre, PhD, Service de Radiologie Générale, Hôpital 

de Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès,TSA 50032, Toulouse 

Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE; and Daniel Rouge, PhD, and Norbert Telmon, 

PhD, Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 avenue du 

Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, FRANCE 

The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the possibilities of aging on 

two (2-D) and three dimensional (3-D) multi-slice computed tomography 

(MSCT) reconstructions of the auricular surface using criteria previously 

developed by Lovejoy, Buckberry, and Chamberlain, and original and 

specific MSCT criteria. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by providing an 

example of anthropological application of the computed multi-slice 

computed tomography in forensic sciences. 

Background: Multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT) is 

uncommonly used in forensic pathology and anthropology. MSCT allows 

two (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions, which can be helpful 

for osteoscopic analyses and consequently for age estimation. 

Technique: 46 coxal dry bones of the anthropological laboratory of 

Toulouse and Angers (France) were examined with a sixteen-detector row 

MSCT (Sensation 16, Siemens). For each bone, two acquisitions were 

performed. The first one concerned the entire coxal bone; two filters were 

used, one hard and one smooth filter. In this case the thickness of 

reconstruction was 0.8 millimetre and the collimation 0.4 millimetre. The 

second one was specifically focused on the auricular surface, with a 

thickness of reconstruction of 0.6 millimetre and the collimation 0.3 

millimetre. Two (with the MPR mode (Multi Planar Reconstructions)) and 


three–dimensional post-processing (with the VRT mode (Volume 

Rendering Technique)) were made in all cases. MPR reconstructions were 

performed in two planes: one parallel to the anterior branch (vertical axis) 

of the auricular surface and one parallel to the posterior branch (horizontal 

axis). 

For each subject numerous of criteria were studied. On 3D 

reconstructions and on photos, transverse organisation, pattern, 

macroporosity, apical and retro apical activities were quantified (absent, 

moderate, important) and analysed. On 2D reconstructions, macroporosity, 

auriculo-acetabular line (central line and juxta-linear cells), and bone 

gradient under and above this line were quantified (absent, moderate, 

important) and analysed. All these criteria were assessed by two different 

observers. One observer was an anthropology student and one was a 

forensic pathologist with anthropological qualifications. 

A first statistical analysis was performed to evaluate intra and interobservers 

variabilities on MSCT reconstructions and on photos by 

calculating the coefficient Kappa. A second statistical analysis was 

performed in order to compare estimations performed on MSCT 

reconstructions (2D and 3D) and on photos for each observer (inter-method 

evaluation with a Kruskal-Wallis test). A third statistical analysis was 

performed for each criteria used to determinate the age of death using boxand 

whiskers-plots. 

Results: The sample studied consisted of 46 Caucasoid subjects with 

32 males and 14 females. 

The intra-observer variabilities for each MSCT criteria were excellent 

with the coefficient of Kappa ranging from 0.75 to 0.93. 

The inter-observers variabilities for each MSCT criteria were excellent 

with the coefficient of Kappa ranging from 0.77 to 0.93. 

The inter-method evaluation between photos and 2D and 3D MSCT 

reconstructions had a coefficient of Kappa ranged from 0.59 to 0.90. 

Concerning the Kruskal-Wallis test performed for each criterion, all 

the P values were significant. 

Discussion: Values of the inter-observers and intra-observer 

variabilities objective the good reproducibility of the quantification and 

analyse of the selected criteria. 

The inter-method error varied according to the criteria. The 

concordance varied from medium to excellent. For example, concerning the 

macroporosity criteria, the concordance was medium between photos and 

2D reconstructions (coefficient of Kappa= 0.59), and excellent between 

photos and 3D reconstructions (coefficient of Kappa= 0.90). 

For the criteria used for the age of death, the box- and whiskers-plots 

illustrate the pertinence of the staging performed thanks to some items 

(present, moderate, absent) and their slight overlapping. 

For transposed dry bones criteria: 

- Moderate or absent transverse organisation or macroporosity 

isolate younger cases (younger than 40 years old). 

- Apical and retro apical activities had been considered by 

Lovejoy as secondary criteria. However, their absence is a good 

factor to differentiate people younger than 45 years old. 

- The dominant pattern (regular or irregular) separate accurately 

people older or younger than 40 years old. 

For specific MSCT criteria: 

- The loss of the continuity and the clear-cut aspect of the auriculoacetabular 

line associated to the absence of juxta-linear cells 

isolate individuals older than 50 years old. 

- The difference of bone density under and above the auriculoacetabular 

line, namely a bone gradient, is able to differentiate 

people older than 50 years old. 

Conclusion: Using MSCT reconstructions of the auricular surface in 

order to estimate the age of a person using transposed dry bones criteria and 

specific MSCT criteria is possible and seems to be efficient. This study is 

a preliminary study and analysis on a larger population is necessary to 

evaluate real possibilities of age estimation on MSCT images. 

Aging, Forensic Anthropology, Tomography 


H18 Design Perspectives for Obtaining Facial 

Soft Tissue Depths From Cadavers Using 

a New Approach 

Janene M. Curtis, MS*, and Owen B. Beattie, PhD, University of Alberta, 

Department of Anthropology, 13-15 HM Tory Building, Edmonton, 

Alberta T6G 2H4, CANADA 

After attending this presentation, participants will have an 

understanding of potential causes of measurement error in the design and 

techniques of earlier methods in obtaining facial soft tissue depths, and gain 

an appreciation into the design proposed here to rectify these issues. 

This presentation will impact the forensic and medical communities 

by providing more accurate anatomical data for forensic facial 

approximation and surgical reconstructions. The newly designed apparatus 

could potentially help to obtain more accurate and precise measurements 

for future studies of facial soft tissue depths from different cadaveric 

populations, as well as provide a method to produce a gold standard in 

which this method could be used to compare other types of methods such 

as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computer tomography (CT), 

ultrasound, and X-ray in order to provide validation. 

Historically, past studies concerning facial soft tissue depth on 

cadavers have been made using the needle puncture technique, which 

involves inserting a needle into the flesh with a free hand until the needle 

strikes bone. The needle is either covered in soot or it contains a piece of 

moveable rubber. The needle is then removed and a measurement is taken. 

Sources of measurement error of this traditional method may include 

compression of the skin, variation in the angle at which the needle 

penetrates the skin, penetration of the bone due to the tip of the needle, and 

variation in reading a measurement after the needle is removed from the 

skin. 

In order to rectify these problems, the authors have designed a tissue 

depth apparatus (TDA) which could eliminate these concerns. The TDA is 

comprised of a micrometer head encased in acrylic glass with an attached 

blank drill bit. This structure is then situated in an open-faced acrylic glass 

box and the micrometer head can move in all planes. The micrometer head 

allows the measurement of a soft tissue depth to be taken directly as soon 

as the drill bit contacts bone with a consistent amount of pressure. 

Furthermore, compression problems can be avoided as the micrometer head 

can be zeroed as the tip of the drill bit first touches the skin surface. Since 

the micrometer head can be moved in all planes, the drill bit can be inserted 

into the skin at a consistent angle, perpendicular to the skin. 

The needle choice itself is an important part of the design of the TDA. 

A number of different types and dimensions of needles were tested for their 

applicability. A blank drill bit enclosed by a hypodermic needle was best 

suited for this purpose. The drill bit itself is flat bottomed, ensuring that its 

tip will not penetrate the bone surface when a consistent light pressure is 

applied, while the hypodermic needle decreases compression forces 

required to pierce the dermis, enabling one to retest a specific area. 

The accuracy and precision of the TDA design were tested initially 

using two phantom models followed by cadaveric tissue. The results of 

measurement error based on this method are compared with past results of 

traditional methods. With modifications, this design could be used on 

living subjects, to obtain soft tissue depths by ultrasound. 

Accuracy, Precision, Phantom Models 

H19 VICTIMS Identification Project: 

The Nation’s Unidentified...Who Are They? 

And What Can We Do? 

Philip N Williams, BS*, and Melissa A Torpey, MS, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation, Counterterrorism and Forensic Science Research Unit, 

226

Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135; and Lisa Bailey, BA, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, SPU/Room 1115, 


The goal of this presentation is to introduce and promote the utilization 

and application of forensic anthropology within the Victims Information 

Catalog, Tracking, and IMage System (VICTIMS) Identification Project. 

The VICTIM System is a group of research projects and development 

efforts sponsored by various federal agencies and supported by the FBI 

Laboratory. The system will, for the first time, bring technology to the 

forefront of the national effort to identify the thousands of unidentified 

human remains that lay nameless in medical examiners and coroners’ 

offices. 


demonstrating the critical need for the deployment of useful tools and 

resources to the law enforcement communities and medical examiners and 

coroners’ offices. Currently the estimated number of unidentified decedents 

ranges from an approximate 14,000, on record at about 2,000 medical 

examiners and coroners’ offices, to a projected 40,000. VICTIMS is the 

first national attempt to apply a comprehensive approach to the problem. 

Forensic anthropology plays a crucial role in the capability, quality, 

and success of the VICTIM System. Unlike many of the current 

unidentified persons data entry files, there will be specific data entry 

options tailored explicitly towards a forensic anthropologist’s skeletal 

assessment of the remains. The system will accommodate forensic 

anthropology reports as well as highlight postmortem information that may 

critically coincide with antemortem information and aid in identification. 

The VICTIM System is a multifaceted and comprehensive project that 

for the first time would merge data from a range of sources and leverage the 

value of the information through the application of state of the art forensic 

technologies. The project has three primary components and significant 

implications for the field of forensic anthropology. 

One component is a set of Internet based applications (VICTIMS) for 

the data gathering and call-in effort being developed by the FBI Laboratory 

under an external contract to bring the data from local, state, and federal 

sources together in a single comprehensive file system and allow the 

presentation of the information over the Internet to interested parties. The 

system will be capable of handling a variety of data formats including, but 

not limited to, case information, autopsy information/physical descriptors, 

Computed Tomography (CT) scans, photographic images, dental and 

medical radiographs, and DNA data. In addition to providing collection, 

storage, and search capabilities, this system will also provide access to data 

from other automated systems within the law enforcement community via 

the Internet. 

A second element is an Evidence Preservation and Processing (EPP) 

facility for the sole purpose of examination and preservation of physical 

remains of unidentified decedents. The facility will provide CT scanning 

capabilities for gathering skeletal information on remains submitted for 

examination by the custodial agency. The CT scans will not only facilitate 

insight into the unidentified skeletal remains, but will provide a method to 

preserve the remains digitally. In addition, the facility will provide 

anthropological examinations of the submitted remains in an effort to 

determine a biological profile (containing age, sex, ancestry, and living 

stature), trauma analysis, and individualizing physical characteristics that 

would assist in the identification process. After the examination, the 

submitted remains will be returned to the originated agency of the remains, 

along with an anthropological report, if one was requested. 

A third component, and an extension of the VICTIMS website, is a 

referral service for law enforcement and medical examiners and coroners’ 

offices. This service would provide information about local or nearby 

forensic resources including anthropologists, entomologists, odontologists, 

artists, and facilities offering radiological and other imaging services. The 

referral service will enable the creation of a list for each discipline with 

qualified forensic scientists, their location, and their contact information in 

an effort to enhance the quality of the data about an unidentified person and 

increase the likelihood of identification. 

Unidentified Decedents, VICTIMS Identification Project, 


H20 Virtual Skull Anatomy: Three-Dimensional 



Summer J. Decker, MA, MABMH*, and Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, 

Department of Pathology & Cell Biology, University. of South Florida 

College of Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC 11, Tampa, 

FL 33612; and Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department. of Chemical 

Engineering, University of South Florida, College of Engineering, 13201 


This presentation will demonstrate the value of computed virtual 

models of anatomical structures and three-dimensional (3D) rapid 

prototyping as an accurate tool in the study of human cranial anatomy. This 

presentation will compare three-dimensional data sets and computer 

modeling to traditional caliper methodologies, as well as to current 

morphometric software packages. 


increase scientific knowledge of new technologies and methods available to 

the forensic community that may ultimately increase the accuracy of human 

identification. Three-dimensional data sets from CT and MR images, 

regularly used in the medical community, are becoming of increasing value 

to other fields such as biological anthropology and the forensic sciences 

because of their ability to expand the accessibility of anatomical material 

beyond physical contact. 

Using three-dimensional (3D) imaging technology, researchers are 

able to create virtual computed models of anatomical structures for a wide 

range of educational and research activities. The goal of this study was to 

compare the accuracy of measurements made using computed 3-D imaging 

technology to data obtained by traditional caliper measurement 

methodologies and current morphometric software packages, such as 

morphologika 2 © (O’Higgins and Jones, 2006). 

This pilot study began by utilizing randomly selected specimens such 

as intact human cadaver heads and dry human skulls for use in CT and MR 

scans, virtual reconstruction, and prototyping. 

Virtual skull models were computed from the volumetric CT and MR 

image data using Mimics © version 10 (Materialise). Twenty five 

anthropometric measurements were selected from Buikstra and 

Ubelaker’s [1] index of standard cranial landmarks based on their 

effectiveness in establishing a biological profile in skeletal analysis. 

Measurements of the virtual computed skull models were made using 3ds 

Max © (Autodesk, version 9). 

A 3D rapid prototype was then generated, using a Zcorp 3D ZPrinter© 

310 Plus. In the 3-D printing, layer upon layer of fine ZP 102 Powder was 

pressed until it formed a prototype of the cadaver skull. After printing, 

Z-Bond TM 101 Medium Strength Cyanoacrylate Binder glue was used to 

fix the specimen for handling. The prototype was then measured using the 

same indices as the virtual skull. The printed model contains all external 

and internal anatomy of the actual skull including the frontal sinuses. After 

3D modeling and prototyping the specimen, the cadaver head was 

processed and the skull recovered and cleaned. Measurements were then 

taken from the actual skull. Comparisons were subsequently made with the 

models from the CT images and the prototype. 

In the study, the actual measurements of the virtual skulls were 

consistent with those taken from the actual skulls even considering interobserver 

error. Statistical analysis of the measurements data comparing all 

of the samples (actual, virtual and prototype), confirmed the accuracy of the 

computer modeling and measurement technologies. Additionally, it was 

found the prototypes to be a valuable reproduction of the original skulls, 

even taking into consideration artifacts from the printing process. Future 

steps will be taken to explore how to reduce inter-observer error further. 

By using methodologies developed and validated in this study, the 

researchers are now confident that anatomically accurate virtual and/or 


prototypic anatomical models can be produced using state of the art medical 

imaging and computer technology for use in a wide range of anatomical 

structures for use in medicine, biological anthropology and the forensic 

sciences. 

This study demonstrates that 3-D datasets are a useful and accurate 

tool to the study of human anatomy for both clinical and forensic purposes. 

Virtual anatomy will ultimately provide the opportunity to reevaluate 

current methods of analysis and create new ones which will, in turn, 

increase the accuracy of results and expand the accessibility to anatomical 

specimens beyond actual contact. The ongoing study includes the validation 

of this method to establish a biological profile (age at death, sex, ancestry 

and body type) based on the accuracy of morphological features of human 

skulls, as well as a comparison of virtual facial approximation methods. 

1 Buikstra JE, Ubelaker DH (eds.) (1994) Standards for Data 

Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological 

Survey Research Series No. 44. 

3-D Imaging, Computer Modeling, Human Cranial Anatomy 

H21 What Starts as a Homicide Ends as a 





Christen E. Herrick, BS*,and Heather A. Walsh-Haney, PhD, Florida 


Boulevard S, AB3, Fort Myers, FL 33965-6565; and E. Hunt Scheuerman, 

MD, 1856 Colonial Drive, Green Cove Springs, FL 32043 

After attending this presentation presentation, attendees will 

understand the jurisdictional issues involved in the scene recovery and 

analysis of prehistoric and historic skeletal remains and artifacts (e.g., those 

cases involving human remains, cultural artifacts, and parcels of land that 

legally have no forensic significance). 

This presentation impacts the forensic community by providing 

information to the various forensic stakeholders that become involved in 

cases that begin as medicolegal investigations of death that end as cases of 

archeological importance and therefore become the responsibility of the 

state archaeologist or private land owner. 

The treatment and recovery of archaeological remains, cultural 

artifacts, and land has become a delicate issue rife with controversy. 

Frequently, there are questions as to the appropriate and timely participation 

of the state archaeologist, as well as rules governing the transfer and final 

interment of Native American and historic (non indigenous) skeletal 

remains and associated cultural artifacts. Most federal and state statutes 

require that when a burial ground is uncovered during a non-archaeological 

activity (e.g., land development, criminal investigation), all activities that 

may disturb the remains and burial site must cease immediately, until such 

time as the state archaeologist’s representative makes a decision regarding 

the proper disposition of the remains, artifacts, and land. 

By statute, law enforcement must protect the scene and the medical 

examiner or coroner is responsible for the remains until the arrival of and 

further instruction by the legal representative of the State Bureau of 

Archaeological Research (BAR). The BAR representative may be an 

archaeologist, a skeletal analyst, or both. BAR scientists will analyze the 

site, human remains, and cultural artifacts to determine if they are 

forensically significant (e.g., 50 or 75 years dead, depending on the state). 

If the remains are determined to be of forensic importance, the district 

medical examiner or coroner retains custody of the remains and law 

enforcement retains jurisdiction over the scene until all pertinent forensic 

evidence is collected and the scene is released. 

The custody of remains that are not of forensic significance, as 

determined by BAR scientists are to be turned over to the state 

archaeologist (some states, such as Florida, require that this transfer of 


custody take place within thirty days of taking custody of the remains). 

Most federal and state statutes require that these remains are studied by an 

osteologist, who will generate a report concerning the cultural affiliation 

and biological characteristics of the remains in question. Usually, cultural 

affiliation is determined through multiple lines of evidence such as crossreferencing 

GPS coordinates with the BAR’s master site file, taphonomic 

markers (e.g., coffin wear or coping), ancestry, the presence of disease 

markers or physical behaviors that may leave marks on bones or teeth ( 

anemias, lack or presence of caries, or paramasticatory behaviors), C14 

dating, and stable isotope analysis. 

Penalties are far reaching for those who do not abide by the guidelines 

set forth in the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act 

(NAGPRA) and other federal and state laws. Some states fine those who 

continue to disturb a burial between $5,000.00 to $150,000.00. A period of 

imprisonment of up to 5 years may also be imposed. In the state of Florida, 

the BAR tends to pursue these law breakers up to the fullest extent of 

the law. 

In Florida, the recovery of prehistoric and historic sites that contain 

human skeletal material is common, especially with constant new 

development. As such, we have provided examples that have culminated in 

the smooth transition of sites to the BAR from their forensic beginnings. In 

these examples, medical examiners, law enforcement agencies, and BAR 

have provided and public service that was well received by the general 

public, tribal entities, and land owners. This presentation will also 

underscore the importance that: (1) the forensic community needs to be 

aware of the geophysical, skeletal, and artifact markers of archaeological 

sites, (2) the legislation enacted to guarantee that all reasonable efforts are 

taken to ensure the protection of all human skeletal remains, as well as other 

cultural items deemed to be archaeological, and (3) steps necessary to 

protect the involved remains and artifacts in accordance with state and 

federal laws. 

Cultural Affliliation, Human Remains, Archaeology 

H22 Towards a Comprehensive Theory 


Cliff Boyd, PhD, and; Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Radford University, 

Department of Sociology & Anthropology, Box 6948, Russell Hall 228, 


The goal of this presentation is to examine the basis for theory in 

forensic anthropology. More specifically, this paper will discuss the 

interconnections between forensic anthropological research and 

investigation and broader anthropological and archaeological theory. 


the application of Agency Theory, Behavioral Archaeology, and Nonlinear 

Systems Theory to the understanding of forensic events. These 

archaeological theories can assist in building a comprehensive theory in 


Even though theory has been an integral part of the discipline of 

anthropology since its beginning in the 19th century, the existence of a 

broad theoretical basis for forensic anthropology has been much debated. 

Because of past reliance on idiosyncratic and often unique case studies to 

illustrate forensic processes, some researchers have questioned whether a 

comprehensive forensic anthropological theory is even possible. This paper 

addresses this issue by proposing several current theoretical avenues toward 

understanding forensic events. 

Lyman (2002) calls for greater dialogue between the sister disciplines 

of taphonomy, forensic science and archaeology and the application of 

interdisciplinary research beyond established boundaries. Taphonomic 

theory and research have certainly had a significant impact on the conduct 

228

of forensic anthropology. However, more encompassing theoretical 

approaches transcending middle range taphonomic theory also can provide 

an explanatory basis in forensic anthropology. Archaeology, in particular, 

shares three major dimensions of analysis and interest with forensic 

anthropology: Time, Space, and Form (or material and physical remains). 

Three theoretical approaches currently applied by archaeologists—Agency 

Theory, Behavioral Archaeology, and Nonlinear Systems Theory—are 

explored in this paper for their applications to forensic anthropology. 

Agency Theory is a social/behavioral theory which focuses on the 

actions of individuals or groups of individuals and how their actions can 

conform to or transform social institutions (the structure of a society or 

culture) (Dobres and Robb 2005). Case studies are considered extremely 

important in Agency Theory, because if they are detailed enough, they can 

serve as illustrations of the impact (or lack thereof) of human agents in 

specific situations. As applied to forensic settings—especially crime 

scenes—it is important to consider the perpetrators, victims, and the 

individuals involved in recovery of remains and evidence as agents and to 

look at the consequences of their actions on the ultimate outcome and 

interpretation of the scene. 

Behavioral Archaeology (Schiffer and Skibo 1997) includes certain 

concepts that more specifically explore the consequences of actions by 

human agents over a sequence of events (Schiffer’s “behavioral chain” 

model). A behavioral chain includes activity sequences, performance 

characteristics (of tools or implements), technical choices by the agents, 

knowledge and experience of the agents, and situational factors (behavioral 

or environmental limitations affecting such activities as tool use, transport 

and disposal of material or human remains). These variables are clearly 

applicable to the interpretation and explanation of forensic events and their 

time, space, and form dimensions. 

Nonlinear Systems Theory (also related to Complex Systems Theory, 

Chaos Theory, or Catastrophe Theory) looks at the interaction of multiple 

variables and their consequences often through computer simulation 

(Beekman and Baden 2005). Nonlinear Systems theorists emphasize 

multivariate analysis because complex properties (or consequences) result, 

in real-life situations, from the interaction of many factors. The importance 

of human agents as well as what Schiffer calls situational factors are 

recognized equally. The value of specific case studies, as well as the 

multivariate factors affecting archaeological and forensic settings, are 

recognized and considered in analysis and are particularly relevant for 

explaining past forensic events. 

Illustrations of each of these theoretical approaches are presented in 

terms of their application to forensic anthropology. It is concluded that 

avenues for building an inclusive theory of forensic anthropology are 

possible. In fact, elements of these theoretical viewpoints are already being 

used by forensic anthropologists in the interpretation of forensic scenes. 

Their more explicit recognition makes it clear that forensic anthropology 

does indeed have a strong theoretical basis which we can continue to build 

upon. This theoretical base—grounded in current and well-established 

anthropological and archaeological theory—lends further credence to the 

in-court expert testimony of a forensic anthropologist. 

References: 

1 Beekman CS, Baden WW, eds. (2005) Nonlinear Models for 

Archaeology and Anthropology: Continuing the Revolution. 

Burlington VT: Ashgate Publishing. 

2 Dobres MA, Robb JE (2005) “Doing” Agency: Introductory 

Remarks on Methodology. Journal of Archaeological Method and 

Theory 12:159-166. 

3 Lyman RL (2002) Foreword. In Haglund, WD, Sorg, MH, eds. 

Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory, and 

Archaeological Perspectives. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 

4 Schiffer MB, Skibo JM (1997) The Explanation of Artifact 

Variability. American Antiquity 62:27-50. 

Theory, Forensic Anthropology, Archaeology 

H23 Beyond the Fire: Taphonomic Variables 


Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, Anthropology Department, 

330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how different 

taphonomic variables can change or impact the condition of burned human 

remains. 


introducing several important taphonomic variables that directly affects 

how the human body burns in a fire and what is left for forensic analysis. 

These variables are inherent to most fire-related deaths, be it in cases of 

accidental death or homicide. 

Fire has the amazing ability to alter things in its path, with the human 

body being no exception. The victim’s body is an important variable to 

consider during fire reconstruction since it is a fuel load and contributes to 

the burning process. The material properties of tissues and how they burn 

differs for skin, fat, muscle, and bone. Each tissue has differential 

thicknesses, compositions, and layered anatomical arrangements. In 

addition to the body, some of the most significant variables include those 

introduced by characteristics of the individual, heat sources, combustible 

materials, conditions of the environment, spatial relationship of the body in 

the fire, extinguishment, and in some cases, criminal modification of the 

body before and/or after the fire. 

Individual: Variables of each victim play an important role in how 

the body burns and what is left for the forensic investigation, in terms of 

their age, sex, health, and weight. 

Age: can be broken down into developmental and degenerative 

stages, or more specifically, juvenile, adolescence, adulthood, and elderly. 

Juvenile and Adolescence: The body size of a young child differs 

considerably from an adult. Children typically have higher body-fat ratios 

than adults, and more importantly, their bones are growing and developing 

from birth through late adolescence and early adulthood. Young bone lacks 

the dense mineralization typical of the healthy adult skeleton, and has 

developing structures of epiphyses, diaphyses, and metaphyses, which 

survive the burning process. 

Adult: Bodies of adults are larger and have bulkier tissue mass and 

denser bones than children. Health and weight also vary more in adults than 

in children. The burned remains of healthy adults with average body 

weight, good muscle tone, and strong bones will leave significant evidence 

for analysis. Bulkier muscles can be expected to protect bone for a longer 

duration than the smaller tissue mass in children but, more importantly, 

adult bone is fully mineralized, dense, and more durable through most 

taphonomic changes, including fire. 

Elderly: Emaciated or poor muscle tone of elderly individuals 

provides less tissue protection around bone during burning in comparison 

to younger adults. The skeletal structure of elderly individuals, particularly 

those with degenerative bone loss such as osteoporosis, gradually become 

more fragile during life, particularly for those with osteoporosis, and 

burning only increases the fragility and brittleness of the skeletal remains. 

Sex: Males and females differ in their body size, composition, shape, 

and distributions of fat and muscle, and therefore respond differently to 

burning. Gender differences change as individuals pass through 

adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, and late adulthood. The relative 

amounts of body fat and distributions may differ for the sexes, but remain 

primarily concentrated around areas of the torso, abdomen, thighs, and 

central body. The important variable to consider here is how body size and 

relative distributions of body fat for the individual contribute as a fuel load 

during the burning process. 

Weight and Health: A person’s weight is variable throughout his or 

her lifetime with growth and development, changes in dietary habits, and 

changes in their metabolic rates as one ages. Individuals who are 

overweight or obese have more body fat than to those who are average 

weight or thin. The combination of open flame, liquefied body fat, and a 

wicking substance such as clothing or upholstery can sustain a localized 


fire. 

Heat Sources: A fire produces several sources of heat that affect 

human tissues, ranging from confected heat from superheated fire gasses, 

radiant heat, open flame, to direct burning of the body. A body can 

experience a range of injury from superficial damage of radiant heat coming 

from a distant room to direct flame impingement and thermal reduction of 

bodily tissues. Intensity of the radiant heat striking the body is a key factor, 

in addition to the temperature of the fire. 

Combustible Materials: Modern home furnishings contain both 

synthetic and natural materials. The more common synthetic materials are 

carpet, linoleum, vinyl, foam, and plastics. Common household items made 

with natural products include wooden furniture and flooring, cloth and 

textiles, books and paper products, and other items. Each material reacts 

differently to heat, and influences the fire dynamics and what is left for 

forensic analysis. 

Environment: A strong interrelationship exists among the 

environment, different fuels present, heat, size of the compartment/space, 

and how these factors directly affect a body as it burns. 

House Fires: Structural fires are challenging scenes because a threedimensional 

space is reduced to layers of charred debris. Structures can be 

houses, trailers, or buildings. House fires include a host of variables that 

influence how a fire travels, grows, and spreads. Spatially there is more area 

for a fire to travel along horizontal and vertical surfaces (walls, ceilings, 

furniture, and hallways). 

Vehicle Fires: Within cars, most of the interior is made of synthetic 

fabrics, carpet, plastics, and sometimes leather. The different properties of 

these materials, along with the small compartment size, can make for a fast, 

hot fire if ample ventilation and circulation exist, thus affecting what is left 

of the body. 

Spatial Relationships: Within a room or compartment space, the 

dimensions of height, length, and width influence the dynamics of a fire’s 

growth and development. The size of a room or rooms, levels of a house 

or building, presence of a basement, height of a crawlspace, or presence of 

a solid foundation likewise are contributing factors, particularly when a 

structure is mostly or completely destroyed by fire. 

During burning, structures of the walls, ceilings, roof, and floors begin 

to collapse along with contents of the house. A body may be directly 

affected by the disintegration of supporting structures of flooring and levels 

above and below. The combined effects of gravity, weight of a body, and 

structurally weakened flooring are optimal conditions for a body falling 

down to a lower level shortly after a structural fire is fully engulfed in 

flames. 

Extinguishment: Fire suppression tactics influences survival of 

burned body evidence. The pressure of a direct fire hose stream is on the 

order of 100 psi or more. If the body is hit with a direct stream it will 

displace evidence of the body, particularly fragile burned bone, projecting 

it several inches or feet from the in situ position of the victim. Damage can 

be done to the body if supportive structures of furniture or flooring around 

the body are hit with a straight powerful stream, causing the body to shift 

its position or fall, producing fragmentation. 

Criminal Activity: The use of arson to cover up criminal evidence or 

a victim’s identity presents some of the more interesting and challenging 

variables in fire-death investigation. Any number of materials, fuels, and 

environments mentioned above can be utilized to burn a body. In some 

cases, the fire is set to appear as an accidental structural or car fire to throw 

off investigators, or to destroy evidence of the victim’s identity, traumatic 

injury, or the victim’s remains, altogether. Intentional fragmentation and 

relocation or scattering of burned human remains is especially challenging. 

The taphonomic variables discussed in this presentation are but a 

handful of examples that must be considered for reconstructing and 

analyzing burned human remains. Each fire scene is unique because of the 

infinite combinations of materials and circumstances that are involved 

during a fire. The general principles discussed include standards utilized in 

the field of fire investigation. The human body adds a unique component 

that combines the investigative techniques and the expertise of arson, 


forensic pathology, and anthropology. 

Taphonomy, Burned Bone, Fire Death 

H24 Estimation of Bone Exposure Duration 




Mark O. Beary, MS*, University of Missouri at Columbia, 107 Swallow 

Hall, Columbia, MO 65211-1440; and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, 

Mercyhurst College, Department Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 


Upon completion of this presentation, attendees will be familiar with 

methods for quantifying bone surface color and how this data can be used 

to estimate the duration of time for which bone has been exposed to solar 

radiation. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community by. The 

ability to estimate bone exposure duration will provide forensic 

investigators with an additional tool for refining estimates of the 

postmortem interval. 

This presentation will report on on-going research which aims to 

develop a new method of determining the exposure duration of bones by 

analyzing surface coloration changes resulting from solar radiation 

exposure. To date, analyzing sun-bleached bones has provided investigators 

with only a fraction of the information that these naturally modified objects 

have to offer. The term “bleached” has generally been taken to refer to 

bones that have been exposed to solar radiation, which imparts unto them 

some unknown amount of color alteration, given some unknown amount of 

time. Therefore, a “bleached” bone represents a point along a continuum of 

time, but until now no method has been developed to attempt to ascertain 

where that point lies on the continuum. Detailed color analysis of bone 

surfaces can be gained by employing spectrophotometric technologies, and 

this data can be used to establish rates of change per available solar 

radiation. Through this approach, color communication becomes objective 

and bone bleaching can be defined based on geographic parameters. This 

new method will provide forensic anthropologists another tool in 

determining the postmortem interval. Preliminary research results and the 

potential use of these methods will be discussed. 

Bone Bleaching, Postmortem Interval, Spectrophotometric 

H25 The Taphonomic Effects of 

Agricultural Practices on Bone 

Sarah A. Kiley, MS*, University of Indianapolis, Archeology & Forensics 

Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how agricultural 

practices distribute and damage bone. 

This study will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by 

improving search and recovery strategies for human remains dispersed in 

cultivated fields. 

Forensic anthropologists are often asked to assist investigators in the 

search and recovery of human remains from a variety of outdoor contexts. 

The forensic anthropologist’s understanding of postmortem processes that 

affect remains can help to guide search techniques and maximize evidence 

recovery. Outdoor forensic scenes in the Midwest are often disturbed and 

concealed by standard agricultural practices. These practices hinder the 

processing and interpretation of a forensic scene by altering its context and 

dispersing the human remains. In addition, farming instruments may cause 

postmortem damage to evidence and bones, complicating laboratory 

analysis. 

In the forensic literature there are very few surveys on the effects of 

230

cultivation on forensic scenes and no experimental studies testing the 

dispersal characteristics of bone. However, the traditional archeological 

literature includes a considerable amount of experimental data on the 

movement of artifacts in cultivated fields, some of which may apply to 

forensic scenes. The direction of plowing, type of equipment, and duration 

of farming practices all contribute to the movement of artifacts in a field. 

This study tests the application of archeological models developed for 

artifacts and fills a research gap with a descriptive analysis of the movement 

of a bone sample in an agricultural field. 

Bones modified by agricultural practices are expected to have a unique 

taphonomic profile depending on the type of farming machinery used and 

the number of cultivations. The spatial distribution of recovered remains is 

likely to parallel the dominant plow direction and should widen with 

subsequent cultivations. Over time, the percentage of elements recovered 

will likely decline due to the destructive nature of agricultural practices, 

weathering effects on bone, and carnivore dispersal. Bones recovered are 

expected to sustain a combination of sharp-force and blunt-force trauma, 

with more episodes of cultivation resulting in more damage. 

This study used twelve nearly complete skeletonized (n = 8) and 

mummified (n = 4) pigs. The remains were painted different colors using 

exterior florescent paint to optimize the chance of recovery. Six of the pigs 

were placed in a sweet corn field and six were placed in a sorghum and 

buckwheat field. In both fields, a single datum was established outside of 

the plow zone. The datum was marked with a wooden stake set at ground 

level to permit relocation. Standard archeological mapping and recovery 

techniques were employed to record the positions of all visible bones in the 

field after plowing. Six pigs were recovered after one season of cultivation 

and six pigs were recovered after two seasons of cultivation. 

Plowing affected the number of elements recovered, resulting in a 

cumulative reduction of the number of surface elements. After only one 

season of cultivation, plowing showed a systematic effect on the linear 

displacement of remains in the direction of plowing. This displacement 

became more pronounced after two seasons of cultivation, with bones being 

found further from their original deposition points. Larger bones were 

recovered more frequently than small bones, consistent with the 

archeological and agricultural engineering literature. With continued 

seedbed refinement, tillage equipment mixes the soil, allowing smaller 

elements to fall into crevices while larger elements remain on the surface. 

Skeletal elements recovered after one season of cultivation showed 

significantly less trauma than those that were recovered after two seasons 

of cultivation, and repeated plowing continued to fragment and damage the 

remains. Mummified pigs exhibited significantly less fragmentation and 

damage than skeletonized pigs likely due to the protection of the bones by 

skin and soft tissue. 

The results of this study indicate plow direction has an impact on 

distributing remains horizontally in the direction of plowing, with each pass 

increasing the distribution. Overall the percentage of elements recovered 

after two seasons of cultivation (8%) is consistent with the archeological 

literature. This study will help guide search and recovery efforts when 

remains are dispersed in cultivated fields and thus may increase the 

percentage of bones recovered for analysis. 

Taphonomy, Plow Damage, Bone Trauma 

H26 The Reliability of Cadaver Decomposition: 



David O. Carter, PhD*, University of Nebraska, Department of 

Entomology, 202 Plant Industry Building, Lincoln, NE 68583-0816; 

David Yellowlees, PhD, School of Pharmacy and Molecular Sciences, 

James Cook University, Townsville, 4811, AUSTRALIA; and Mark Tibbett, 

PhD, Centre for Land Rehabilitation, University of Western Australia, 

Crawley, 6009, AUSTRALIA 

Following this presentation, attendees will understand that cadaver 

decomposition in soil is a process that can be associated with low rates of 

error and the rapid (< 24 hours) participation of non-enteric 

microorganisms. 

This will impact the forensic science community by demonstrating 

that cadaver decomposition can be a reliable process and soil microbial 

ecology might be used to accurately estimate the postmortem interval of 

buried bodies. 

Following this presentation, attendees will understand that cadaver 

decomposition in soil is a process that can be associated with low rates of 

error and the rapid (< 24 hours) participation of non-enteric 

microorganisms. This will impact the forensic science community by 

demonstrating that cadaver decomposition can be a reliable process and soil 

microbial ecology might be used to accurately estimate the postmortem 

interval of buried bodies. 

Two topical aims of forensic taphonomy are to locate and date 

clandestine graves. Achieving these aims requires an understanding of the 

fundamental processes and error rates associated with cadaver 

decomposition in soil. This understanding is currently lacking. This is 

primarily because human cadavers are difficult to acquire for 

decomposition studies (and very difficult to replicate) and forensic 

taphonomy has relied upon case studies and anecdotal evidence rather than 

experimental investigation. As a consequence, forensic taphonomy 

currently operates on several untested assumptions. For example, 

traditional dogma states that anaerobic enteric microorganisms dominate 

cadaver breakdown until the latter stages of decomposition, when aerobic 

soil and/or dermal microbes become active. 

This assumption was tested by incubating complete, incised, and 

eviscerated juvenile (8-10 days old) rat (Rattus rattus) cadavers in soils of 

contrasting texture (sand, loamy sand, clay). Soils were collected from 

tropical savanna ecosystems in Pallarenda (19°11’S, 146°46’E) and 

Wambiana (20°33’S, 146°08’E), Queensland, Australia. Pallarenda soil 

was a Rudosol and had a sandy texture (97.7% sand, 1.3% silt, 1% clay). 

Wambiana soil was a Vertosol and had a clay texture (30.9% sand, 20.8% 

silt, 48.3% clay). Soils were sieved (2 mm), weighed (500 g dry weight) 

into incubation chambers (2 litre), calibrated to a matric potential of –0.05 

megapascals (MPa) and incubated at 22 °C for seven days to equilibrate. 

Following equilibration, rats (Rattus rattus L., 18 ± 1 g) were killed with 

carbon dioxide and subjected to experimental treatment. Treatments 

comprised a complete cadaver, eviscerated cadaver, cadaver with a sewn 

incision only (to account for the effect of the incision) and a control (soil 

without cadaver). Cadavers were buried on their right side at a depth of 2.5 

cm. Cadaver decomposition was measured via cadaver mass loss (% wet 

weight), CO2-C evolution (an index of aerobic microbial activity and 

decomposition) and soil pH. This experiment was replicated four times 

resulting in 192 samples. 

Cadaver burial, regardless of treatment, resulted in a rapid (< 24 hours) 

significant increase in microbial activity, which was positively correlated to 

cadaver mass loss. Evisceration resulted in less cadaver mass loss and 

microbial activity in sand, and had no effect on decomposition in clay. It is 

concluded that soil and/or dermal microbial communities rapidly respond 

to cadaver burial and play a significant role in cadaver decomposition. 

These results also show that soil type can significantly affect cadaver 

breakdown. 

The relative variation (standard error/mean) of mass loss and CO2-C evolution show that the measurement of CO2-C was a more reliable method 

for assessing cadaver decomposition. The relative variation of mass loss 

measurements varied from 3%-47%. However, the relative variation of 

CO2-C measurements ranged from

H27 The Influence of Penetrative Trauma 

on the Rate of Decomposition 

Peter A. Cross, BSc*, 11 Lower Bank Road, Fulwood, Preston, 0 PR2 

8NS, UNITED KINGDOM 

The goal of this presentation is to aid a better understanding of the 

influence that penetrative trauma has on the process and rate of 

decomposition. This will assist in the more accurate assessment of 

postmortem interval (PMI). 


presenting research that suggests that penetrating trauma cannot be 

considered a major factor in the rate of decomposition and time to 

skeletisation of a gunshot trauma victim. It also supports other work that 

suggests disturbance may be an influential factor in decomposition (Adlam, 

2005; Adlam and Simmons 2007). 

Forensic Anthropologists utilise their knowledge of the processes of 

decomposition to estimate postmortem interval (PMI). An understanding 

of the factors that affect these processes and the degree to which factors, 

such as temperature, pH, and trauma influence the rate of decomposition is 

important for the accurate estimation of PMI. 

Previous work by Mann et al. (1990), Vass et al. (1992) and 

Campobasso (2001) suggest that penetrating trauma may accelerate 

decomposition. Although a more recent experimental PhD study (Kelly, 

2006) found no such influence, it is generally accepted that penetrating 

trauma may accelerate decomposition and time to skeletisation. 

An experimental study was carried out in the North West of England 

using the domestic pig (Sus scrofa). Two experimental groups, one having 

gunshot trauma to the head, body and limbs and the other without trauma 

were left to decompose on the ground surface. A further control group of 

pigs with gunshot trauma were used to assess the effect of investigator 

disturbance. Decomposition was measured by using weight loss, total body 

score (Megyesi, 2005) and changes in soil pH as indicators of soft tissue 

destruction. The attraction of arthropods to the carcases and sites of 

oviposition and maggot activity was also observed and recorded. 

Diptera were preferentially attracted to natural orifices, particularly 

those of the head in both groups. Attraction to and oviposition followed at 

the gunshot entrance wounds. However, in both groups oviposition also 

occurred at skin creases, such as those found between both fore and hind 

legs, simultaneously with that occurring at trauma sites. Although maggot 

masses were observed to become established more quickly in areas of 

trauma, other maggot masses at the non-trauma sites followed. No 

difference was found in time to skeletisation. No significant difference was 

found in weight loss between the two groups with p=0.544. Likewise, with 

total body score (p=0.8237) and changes in soil pH (p=0.6838), no 

significant differences were found. The effect of investigator disturbance 

was significant to weight loss (p=

Joseph T. Hefner, PhD*, and Natalie Uhl, MS, 1503 North Pennsylvania 

Street, Apartment 21, Indianapolis, IN 46202; and Nicholas V. 

Passalaqua, MS, Michigan State University, 203 Berkey Hall, East 

Lansing, MI 48824-1111 

The audience will be introduced to the variation observed in 

anatomical cranial specimens and to methods beyond taphonomic 

indicators for discriminating these specimens from forensically significant 

remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by documenting 

the pattern and magnitude of variation among anatomical crania, beyond 

taphonomy. 

Prior to 1987, the majority of human remains purchased in the United 

States originated from and were prepared in the modern Republic of India. 

In 1987, under pressure from human rights groups, the ruling government 

of India banned the exportation of human remains. However, the skeletal 

material purchased from India and used in classrooms, teaching 

laboratories, and medical schools in the United States is commonly 

encountered during routine forensic anthropological investigations. 

Unfortunately, craniometric data for anatomical specimens originating from 

India is not currently available, probably due in large part to the lack of 

provenience information for these specimens. Yet, the cranial material 

traditionally associated with anatomical warehouses is variously described 

as a single, homogenous group (e.g., a shared taphonomic history) or as an 

extremely diverse and biologically heterogeneous jumble of populations. 

This presentation will examine the pattern and magnitude of cranial 

variation among anatomical cranial specimens, using a procedure outlined 

by Jantz and Owsley (2001—AJPA 114:146-155). This study uses the 

traditional linear craniometric data and three-dimensional coordinate data 

from 35 crania purchased from North American biological supply 

companies prior to the 1987 ban. In order to determine whether anatomical 

specimens can be considered an homogenous group, Mahalanobis distances 

(D2 ) were calculated between all pairs of anatomical specimens using a 

pooled within sample variance/covariance matrix calculated using Howells 

database. Next, a Defrise–Gussenhoven test between the paired distances 

was used to test the likelihood that the pairs of crania were drawn randomly 

from a single population. A sub-set of known Russian anatomical material 

was included to act as a test of the method. The calculated distances suggest 

the presence of at least three groups. The Russian sample and a spatially 

homogenous group of 7 anatomical specimen were distinct from the 

remaining twenty-two; the latter representing skeletal material likely from 

the Republic of India. 

The calculated Mahalanobis distances were then used to calculate the 

“typicality” probabilities for each of the anatomical crania relative to 

Howells worldwide sample of cranial material. Understanding that these 

crania did not originate from any one of the Howells groups, the typicality 

probability was used to evaluate the observed variation within the 

anatomical specimens. The general pattern supports the Defrise– 

Gussenhoven test. The 22 homogenous crania show greatest similarity to 

several Southwest Pacific groups (e.g., the Andaman from the Andaman 

Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Atayal from Taiwan) and to European 

groups like the Berg from Carinthia, Austria. As expected, the Russian 

sample bears greatest similarity to European groups (e.g., Bergs and 20th 

century American Whites). The remaining 7 crania were most similar to 

African groups (e.g., Bushman and American Blacks). 

The taphonomic indicators typically associated with anatomical 

specimen include the presence of reconstruction hardware, taphonomic 

indications of reconstruction hardware—for instance, rust stains, holes 

drilled for screws, etc.—patina, and betel nut staining on the teeth. The 

crania used in this analysis exhibit at least one of these taphonomic profiles. 

However, staining on the teeth associated with betel nut chewing was 

documented only on the homogenous group of crania believed to have 

originated in India. The overall pattern of cranial variation and the 

associated taphonomic indicators suggest some level of homogeneity 

among anatomical crania purchased from India, but as expected, not among 

all anatomically prepared material. 

Anatomical, Variation, Mahalanobis 

H30 Decomposition and Postmortem Interval: 

A Critical Analysis of British Medico-legal 

Investigation and Trends in South Yorkshire, 

1995-2002 

Brooke L. Magnanti, PhD, Newcastle University, Sir James Spence 

Institute, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Tyne and Wear 

NE1 4LP, UNITED KINGDOM; and Anna Williams, PhD*, Cranfield 

University, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, 

Wiltshire SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

This paper offers a systematic review of decomposition cases in a 

British urban environment, and analyses the efficacy of reporting 

decomposition by Home Office pathologists. Upon completion, 

participants will have a broad overview of the nature of the decomposition 

cases encountered by Home Office pathologists in South Yorkshire, and 

how this compares to the nation as a whole. There will be a clear break 

down of the different types of decomposition cases regularly seen in a 

British context, and a discussion of how the extent of decomposition visible 

on the body varies with time since death, and thus how it is valuable to the 

estimation of postmortem interval. The participants will learn how this 

potentially valuable resource is used by British pathologists, and how 

improvements can be made to ensure that the maximum amount of 

information is gathered. Suggestions will be made about increasing the 

depth of co-operation between pathologists and anthropologists in order to 

optimise decomposition data, and it is hoped that the participants will draw 

conclusions about the significance of such collaboration. 

This paper represents a critical assessment of the degree to which the 

extent of decomposition is used routinely in the estimation of postmortem 

interval. It confronts some of the existing problems with recording 

standards, and offers suggestions for improving reporting techniques and 

quantitative analysis of decomposition data. It should impact the forensic 

science community by challenging the status quo in Britain at the moment 

and advocating a more far-reaching, deeper collaboration between 

pathologists and anthropologists, to make the most of multidisciplinary 

expertise in everyday forensic cases. It highlights the differences between 

decomposition research in Britain and elsewhere, and analyses the 

translation of academic decomposition data into the practical forensic 

context. It is hoped that this presentation will pave the way for discussion 

and collaboration between forensic pathologists and anthropologists to 

improve estimation of postmortem interval. 

Estimations of postmortem interval based on the extent of 

decomposition are often sketchy and can be reliant on comparisons with 

case histories, data using less-than-ideal animal analogues, or on data from 

environment-specific collections. The authors suggest methods of 

addressing this problem by improving recording standards of 

decomposition cases through cooperation between forensic anthropologists 

and pathologists, to facilitate cross-region comparisons and research. This 

paper offers a systematic review of decomposition cases in a British urban 

environment, and analyses the efficacy of reporting decomposition by 

Home Office pathologists. It represents a critical assessment of the degree 

to which the extent of decomposition is used routinely in the estimation of 

postmortem interval, and offers suggestions for improving standardisation 

of reporting and quantitative analysis of decomposition data. Individuals 

resident in South Yorkshire whose postmortem examinations were 

performed at the Medico-Legal Centre, Sheffield, were studied. Cases were 

chosen for inclusion in the study based on home address and a reported 

presence of decomposition. The reporting of decomposition according to 

time since death is compared against an expected model for indoor and 

outdoor cases. The quality of assessment made by the investigators is 

discussed, with reference to the opportunity for cooperation between 

pathologists and forensic anthropologists to improve the application of 

decomposition data to routine cases. 


Decomposition, Forensic Anthropology, Postmortem Interval 

H31 Basement Bodies: The Effect of Light 

on Decomposition in Indoor Settings 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, University of Central Lancashire, Department 

of Forensic and Investigative Science, Preston, PR1 2HE, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

The aim of this presentation is to introduce participants to the specific 

aspects of decomposition in indoor ambient with conditions involving 

access to insects but no or minimal access to light. During the presentation, 

examples of a serial homicide case of bodies found in the cellar will be 

demonstrated for comparative purposes, and the accuracy of their PMI 

estimation will be discussed. 

This presentation will impact on forensic sciences by making 

attendees aware of the importance of light as a variable, and the potential 

danger of bias in the estimation of postmortem interval (PMI) for human 

remains found in advanced stages of decomposition in basement settings 

such as cellars, subterranean vaults, metros, tunnels, caves, or crypts. 

The review of forensic entomology studies indicated that maggot 

development is almost entirely dependent on the ambient air temperature, 

but is nevertheless reduced in sunlit areas. Fully developed maggots are 

further recorded as largely sensitive to direct sunlight, resulting in the 

higher succession of shaded body parts. Since the impact of maggot masses 

on decomposition process in a mostly dark indoor ambient is unknown, the 

author hypothesized that given the favorable temperature conditions for 

larvae development, the remains exposed to the indoor ambient with no or 

minimal access to light will decompose faster than the remains exposed to 

direct sunlight or shaded indoor areas with same temperatures. 

Inasmuch as pig as an animal model is an acceptable substitute for 

human cadavers, three Sus scrofa ranging from 18 to 20 kg were used in the 

experiment. Pig carcasses were placed on purpose built flat steel mobile 

platforms on three levels of a building with identical humidity and room 

temperature throughout the experiment. The main animal model was in the 

cellar with no access to the light. Second controlled carcass was on the next 

level with natural exposure to daylight cycle, and the third controlled model 

was constantly exposed to light either natural or artificial. The study lasted 

from 03 May 2007 until 25 June 2007 when signs of skeletonization were 

shown on all pig models. Experiment control procedure included 

observations of decomposition at various times of day for the sample 

exposed to natural light; during the day for sample exposed to constant 

light, and during the night for sample in the cellar. Internal body 

temperature and insect activity was recorded regularly. Body mass was 

weighted by sliding the platforms with carcasses into immediate floor 

drive-thru scales to minimize disturbance. Average indoor temperature 

conditions were assumed in the experiment; temperature was controlled by 

air-conditioning system at 15˚C constant, and humidity of 40% was 

controlled by humidity generator. 

General patterns of decomposition to include bloating, deterioration, 

disintegration and the decay were observed on the samples. Fly succession 

on all three floors was noted within fifteen minutes from the start of the 

study with the subsequent insect succession following the familiar pattern. 

A significant site of insect activity was recorded on the main carcass in the 

cellar that decomposed considerably faster than the two control samples. 

Insect succession did not follow the usual pattern of preference to body 

openings. Maggot masses were noticed on all parts of the carcass allowing 

the succession to proceed relatively evenly. A sixteen day difference in 

decomposition was noted between the main and the first control sample 

exposed to natural day and night cycle, and the 22 days difference with the 

second control sample exposed to the light throughout the experiment. 

In addition to other variables that cause alterations to PMI estimation, 

changes introduced by the effect of light in indoor ambient must be 

considered, particularly with bodies found in basement settings. For this 

reason principles of decomposition patterns in dark indoor ambient for the 


purpose of PMI estimations are recommended across the board for medicolegal 

investigators. 

PMI, Indoor Decomposition, Light 

H32 Taphonomic Effects of Vulture Scavenging 

Nicole M. Reeves, BA*, Texas State University-San Marcos, Anthropology 

Department, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666 

Upon completion of this presentation, attendees will understand how 

vultures accelerate decomposition rates, leave markings on remains, and 

disperse elements. They will also recognize how this information affects 

interpretations made by forensic anthropologists. 


by highlighting important factors for forensic anthropologists to consider 

when interpreting taphonomic events and determining accurate postmortem 

intervals in scavenging cases. 

One of the goals of forensic anthropologists is to understand and 

recognize the processes that occur at, during, and after death. Scavenging 

is one of these taphonomic processes that affects the decomposition and 

dispersal of an organism after death, or postmortem. Many published 

studies of scavenging focus on the effects of terrestrial scavengers, while 

relatively few concentrate on avian scavengers. In the New World, vultures 

range from Canada to the southern tip of South America. The most 

common vulture species are the Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) and the 

Black Vulture (Coragyps atratus). Because these birds inhabit wide ranges 

and their main dietary component is carrion, it is important for forensic 

anthropologists to examine changes in decomposition, the extent of bone 

alteration, and the degree of bone scatter/movement that result from vulture 

scavenging activity. Isolating and analyzing the specific effects vultures 

have on remains will help in the evaluation of scavenging cases. 

In the summer of 2007, three pig carcasses (Sus scrofa) were placed 

outside in a large, grassy area in central Texas. The carcasses were exposed 

to vultures in succession, only one being offered at a time. Each was placed 

in the middle of a sixteen by sixteen foot fenced area to prevent access by 

terrestrial scavengers. A fourth pig carcass, used as a control for the rate of 

decomposition, was positioned in a large wire cage in the same area. The 

cage, wrapped in additional chicken wire, prevented vulture access but 

allowed for the same exposure to the elements and insects. Pigs were 

chosen as a substitute for humans due to their similarities in internal 

structures and progression of decomposition. To best represent adult human 

weights, each pig carcass utilized in the study weighed at least 100 pounds. 

Modification of the carcasses was recorded through the use of two motionsensing 

digital cameras and daily on-site observations. Date and time stamp 

features on the cameras provided an accurate record and timeline of events. 

Both the Turkey and Black Vultures waited approximately twentyfour 

hours after placement of the carcasses before beginning to scavenge, 

and did not feed at night. After their arrival, vultures alone completely 

skeletonized the exposed pig carcasses in less than twelve hours. In the 

midst of feeding, vultures were observed dragging, carrying, and dispersing 

elements of the carcasses around the original deposition site, leaving 

identifiable scratches and cuts on the bones. Turkey and Black vultures 

returned repeatedly to the remains, even after skeletonization, and 

continued to disturb and distribute elements. In at least one instance, 

elements were found outside of the six-foot tall enclosure. The movement 

of the carcass and markings on the remains are specific indicators of vulture 

scene modification and body alteration. While the carcasses exposed to 

vultures were skeletonized less than forty-eight hours after placement, the 

unexposed carcass took weeks to reach the same state. 

The significantly accelerated rate of decomposition, the signature 

markings on the bones, and the degree of bone scatter and transportation 

discovered in this study are important factors for forensic anthropologists to 

consider when interpreting taphonomic events and determining an accurate 

postmortem interval at vulture modified scenes. 

Taphonomy, Scavenging, Vultures 

234

H33 Computer Simulation for Drift 

Trajectories of Objects in the 

Magdalena River, Colombia 

Ana C. Guatame-Garcia, BSc*, University of Central Lancashire, Calle 9 

#0-95, Bogota, COLOMBIA; Luis A. Camacho, PhD, Universidad 

Nacional de Colombia at Bogota, Bogota, COLOMBIA; and Tal 

Simmons, PhD, Department of Forensic and, Investigative Sciences, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, 



application of computer modeling in the analysis of taphonomic process 

(specially transport) related to bodies disposed in water systems. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by serving as an 

example of the use of technological tools in the investigation of forensic 

cases and the interdisciplinary collaboration. 

Within the field of forensic science there is a growing trend towards 

the use of computer models to represent transport and degradation 

processes to which human carcasses are subject along rivers. These may 

also be used to predict downstream distance traveled by such bodies under 

likely scenarios, thus helping both the search for victims and the 

identification of feasible points of entry. 

In studies of bodies disposed in moving waters, many problems arise 

since the bodies not only decompose but also are exposed to transport, 

disarticulation and dispersion. In such cases, computer modeling has 

proven to be an invaluable tool leading towards the understanding of former 

cases and the prediction of the flow pattern of bodies (Ebessmeyer and 

Haglund, 1994; Carniel et al., 2002). 

In this paper a one-dimensional hydraulic model has been coupled 

with an object transport model in order to predict the object drift trajectories 

and distance traveled with time. The object transport is modelled taking 

into account buoyant, hydrostatic and dynamic forces calculated using 

velocity, discharge and depth computed by the numerical hydraulic model. 

Results and information from previous research studies were incorporated 

into the modelling framework to represent the transport of living and dead 

human bodies of different densities and specific gravities (Krzywicki and 

Chinn, 1967; Donoghue and Minniguerode, 1977). 

The model was calibrated by means of physical experiments carried 

out in the Teusacá and Magdalena rivers (Colombia). Objects of 21 kg and 

44 kg and densities ranging from 0.98 to 1.02 g/cm3 were placed into the 

rivers, and their movement and drift trajectories were monitored and 

registered. Detailed hydraulic data during the experiments was gathered 

and the objects’ travel times were measured. The information was used to 

calibrate and validate the coupled hydraulic and object transport numerical 

model. 

Objects disposed at high flow velocity sections were observed to 

travel downstream with the main flow. Along bends, the objects typically 

followed a path close to the external river banks. In most of the cases, the 

objects moved after the bend with the main surface flow from the external 

river bank in the direction towards the opposite bank. Objects disposed at 

low flow velocity sections near the river bank were observed to get trapped 

for a long time before a circular motion forced the bodies back into the main 

flow. The presence of debris and snags in the river banks altered the 

direction and velocity of the surface flow, producing whirls and eddies 

where the floating body got trapped, reducing its effective longitudinal 

velocity. Along the 10 km long experimental stretch of the Magdalena 

River the actual observed ratio between the 44 kg (ρ = 0.99 g/cm3 ) object 

velocity and the mean flow velocity was 0.91 for a flow discharge of 950 

m3 /s. In turn, along the 50 m long experimental stretch of the Teusacá River 

the correlation between the 21 kg object (ρ = 1.02 g/cm3 ) velocity and the 

mean flow velocity was 0.9 for a discharge of 1.97 m3 /s. 

The calibrated model has been applied to a 400 km stretch of the 

Magdalena River – Colombia in order to simulate objects´s transport, and 

to predict their location after being disposed into the river at a certain time. 

The river model was implemented using hydrograph time series of data 

provided by the Institute of Hydrology and Meteorology of Colombia and 

hydraulic data gathered by the Hydraulic Laboratory of the National 

University of Colombia (1998 -2003). Travel times between 7.5 and 11 

days and a loss of mass of about 4.6 kg, were computed for human bodies 

traveling the 400 km river stretch. 

The study concludes that the density and the wetted surface area of the 

body are the main factors affecting the pattern of movement and traveled 

distance during a specific time interval along a river. Extrinsic factors 

related to the geometric configuration of the river and the physical and 

environmental conditions at the banks also affect the pattern of transport. In 

the studied Magdalena River stretch, the predicted body transport velocity 

is lower than the mean flow velocity by a factor ranging from 0.7 to 1.1, 

depending upon the presence of dead zones, and flow storage zones of 

recirculating water where the body can get trapped. 

Object Drift Trajectories Along Rivers, Hydraulic and Object 

Transport Numerical Modeling, Magdalena River 

H34 Experiential Education: The Use of 



Margaret Cox, PhD*, Cranfield University / Inforce Foundation, 

Shrivenham, Swindon, UNITED KINGDOM 


understanding of the use of simulations as components of training in 

forensic anthropology and archaeology. 


their appreciation of the complexities, benefits and potential pitfalls of 

using experiential education (simulations) in training forensic anthrologists 

and archaeologists in aspects of mass fatality response. This may range 

from investigating mass graves and mass disaster scenes, to working within 

temporary mortuary. 

One of the most effective ways of teaching any subject is to combine 

qualitative and quantitative approaches via appropriate teaching vehicles. 

Much can be taught theoretically and practically in the lecture or seminar 

room, or in the laboratory or field. What cannot be taught via those modes 

is the ability to apply the skills learnt to a scenario that approximates to a 

‘real’ event or set of circumstances with complete participation by trainees. 

Mass fatality response, whether to crimes against humanity, natural 

catastrophe, transportation accident or terrorist attack, is a context that by 

definition has no “norm”, other than it will involve multiple fatalities. It is 

a context that is distressing and stressful and one that often has 

inappropriate and inadequate resources and personnel involved. It may 

involve a context where cultural and religious norms may be unfamiliar, 

where inappropriate authority may prevail, and where dangers to the health 

and well-being of responders are significant. Despite that, it is a context 

where we have a moral obligation to be able to respond effectively and 

efficiently for both judicial and humanitarian reasons. 

Experiential education has a role in such teaching and training. It is a 

teaching vehicle that ranges from computer simulations to employing 

teaching modes that mimic reality to a greater or lesser degree. The key 

with experiential education is that trainees are required to engage 

intellectually, emotionally, socially and often physically. They have to take 

the initiative, make decisions and be accountable for results. Very often 

such learning is done through unrelated activities that are totally removed 

from the context and subject area in which trainees are engaged. This is 

“safe” as those who do not perform effectively are doing so in a context 

removed from their area of normal professional practice. 

Experiential teaching vehicles should not be confused with “fieldwork” 

or “laboratory sessions” which provide a semi-realistic setting for 

what is a formal and formative educational approach. In such, the level of 

responsibility for the outcome on individual trainees is generally low. Only 


arely is such teaching a “real” group effort where success or failure of the 

overall task depends upon effective team work and where accountability 

rests on trainees. 

Experiential training for mass fatality respondents that is set within a 

“realistic” context (for example, simulated temporary mortuaries and 

scenes of mass fatality incidents) is extremely challenging for all involved. 

Trainees are required to implement skills and roles in a ‘real-life’ simulation 

that sets them in a context that mimics not only the reality of the roles they 

may be required to play, but significantly, also employs their day-to-day 

professional skills. This is a high risk approach to teaching. If it works it 

has immense benefits. If it does not it is extremely damaging to those 

directly affected. In this situation the stakes are high and should not be 

underestimated. If participants consider they have not performed well or 

‘failed’ in a context that mimics their professional role then the 

consequences can be significant – depending on how they react. This 

creates a highly charged teaching environment and emotionally challenged 

and exhausted trainees, and of course trainers. 

What is crucial in such training is that the trainers have the educational 

experience and understanding to recognize what is happening and take 

action to mitigate against adverse impacts before damage is done. It is not 

sufficient to put trainees into a difficult situation and leave them to cope. 

Such teaching must included periodic reviews that invite reflection on 

progress and on possible alternative strategies to challenges. This 

presentation examines aspects of this complex, risky but potentially hugely 

beneficial teaching strategy in light of the simulated mass fatality incident 

training sites (air-crash sites), mass graves, and temporary mortuaries 

designed and delivered by the Inforce Foundation. 

Simulated Mass Graves, Simulated Temporary Mortuaries, Training 

in Mass Fatality Response 

H35 Realism in Simulation Training: 

Examples of Mass Grave Excavation 

and Mass Fatality Incident Mortuary 

Simulation Exercises 


Cranfield Forensic Institutde, Shrivenham, 0 SN6 8LA, UNITED 

KINGDOM 


understanding of the role that realism plays in simulation training and 

exercises and how different levels of realism can be achieved. 


their understanding about the importance of realism at certain stages in 

training and exercise programs and how different levels can be achieved to 

serve different purposes. 

Following on from Professor Margaret Cox’s presentation entitled 

“Experiential Education: the use of Simulations in Forensic Anthropology 

and Archaeology,” this presentation will focus on the important role that 

realism plays in simulation training and exercises. Different levels of 

realism can often be achieved relatively easily and with a minimum of extra 

effort and often without negative impact on budget. In most cases, the 

correct and most appropriate level of realism can be achieved by combining 

the expertise of experienced educators and experienced field practitioners. 

This presentation will first outline the role that different levels of 

realism can and should play at different stages in training and exercise 

programs. It will continue to explore the relevance such appropriate levels 

of realism and how they can benefit the trainee. 

Using two main examples, the methodology of applying realistic 

scenarios to simulation training will be demonstrated and how they can be 

achieved. It is not just a question of making scenarios as realistic as 

possible. At some stages in the training process, very high levels of realism 

can have a negative impact such as information overloading or taking 

emphasis away from basic procedural concepts. 

When realistic scenarios need to be developed, a number of criteria 


needs to be observed: the scenarios must be relevant to the trainees; the 

environment in which the training takes place must match the scenario; the 

prior level of professional knowledge of the trainees must be incorporated 

into the training; and the ‘realistic scenario’ has to be truly based on actual 

and real experience from field operation. It cannot be stressed enough that 

whatever realistic element is introduced to a training and exercise program, 

it needs to be relevant to the trainees. This means that the team that plans 

and carries out the program is either knowledgeable with respect to the 

trainees’ background or that they seek such advice prior to planning the 

training. Training people in scenarios that is not relevant to their 

environment is rarely justifiable and most often a waste precious resources. 

The presentation will finally look at the possibility of incorporating 

research into such training programs. Since they are designed to simulate 

reality, a number of questions that confronts forensic practitioners can be 

addressed during simulation exercises. Not to do so is again a waste of 

resources and opportunity. 

Realism is a powerful tool that can be used in simulation training, but 

only if it is used at the right time, in a relevant context and by experienced 

educators and practitioners. 

Training in Mass Fatality Response, Simulated Mass Graves, 

Simulated Temporary Mortuaries 

H36 The Effects of Body Mass 

Index on Cremation Weight 

Shannon E. May, BA*, and Richard Jantz, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 250 S Stadium Hall, Knoxville, 

TN 37996-0720 

The goal of this presentation is to determine the relationship between 

cremains weight and perimortem body mass index (BMI) in a multiregional 

United States sample. Additional contributing factors, sex, and 

age-at-death, are examined for their effect on cremains weight. 


demonstrating the utility of cremains weight in the estimation of age and 

sex. Furthermore, cremains weight may be used to validate their 

association with an individual whose body mass index may be calculated 

from known stature- and weight-at-death. 

Cremation has become an increasingly popular funerary practice. 

Through this process bone is incinerated and mechanically reduced into 

particles comparable to sand or silt, ultimately removing most diagnostic 

features. Cremation is occurring with greater incidence in forensic contexts, 

presenting new challenges to forensic anthropologists in issues of evidence 

destruction, unethical disposal of remains, or disputed identity. 

Most research on burning and charring of skeletal material takes the 

form of controlled experimentation and case studies. A small body of 

research has amassed on the physical properties of cremains. Previous 

research includes that of Warren and Maples (1997) sourced from Central 

Florida, and that of Bass and Jantz (2004), using samples from the Eastern 

Tennessee area. These studies investigated cremation weight and the 

relationship with individual sex and age-at death. Both established a few 

general principles: cremains are derived almost exclusively from osseous 

material, and the heavier average weight of male versus female samples. In 

Bass and Jantz’ sample of 306 individuals, the male average outweighed 

female average by approximately 500g; while Warren and Maples’ male 

average was heavier by nearly 600g. In both studies, age-at death produced 

an expected negative correlation with advanced age. 

Although results are comparable, geographic variation exists. A third 

study comparing regional cremation weights by Van Deest (2007) 

introduced a sample of cremations from California. Results for sex and age 

correlations were consistent with the previous studies. Notably, the 

Tennessee sample was consistently heavier across both variables of age and 

sex; a result Bass and Jantz attributed to higher incidence of obesity in 

Tennessee, inducing higher bone mass. 

236

The present study addresses this issue, investigating the relationship 

between body composition and cremation weight. Body mass index (BMI) 

was adopted by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1995 as the 

standard measurement of body fat in both health and epidemiological 

studies. Several difficulties surrounding BMI’s predictive value exist, 

including the inability to distinguish between subcutaneous adiposity verses 

lean mass. However, for the purposes of this study BMI remains the only 

available method. 

To obtain a sufficient sample size, data was combined from Warren 

and Maples (1997) anthropometry research, the William M. Bass Skeletal 

Collection of Knoxville, Tennessee, and the University of Tennessee- 

Chattanooga Donated Collection. All cremains were rendered through a 

commercial crematorium; amputees, bone donors, and skeletally immature 

samples were excluded from analysis. Total sample size contains 99 

cremations, consisting of 61males and 38 females. 

For each sample, body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight 

divided by height squared: (kg)/ (m) 2 . WHO designates three levels of 

BMI: 18.5 to 24.99 “normal”, 25.00 to 29.99 “overweight”, and 30.00 

marks the threshold of obesity. Individuals of unknown perimortem stature 

or weight were also eliminated, for inability to calculate BMI. The 

relationship between BMI and cremation weight was assessed using a 

correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression, using SAS 9.3.1 and 

NCSS 3.0 

statistical software. 

Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient Test demonstrates a clear 

association between BMI and cremation weight (r = 0.56; R2 = 0.32; p = 

After viewing this poster attendees will have an understanding of the 

properties of saw cuts in bone created by saws without traditional blades. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by adding 

additional means of documenting dismemberment in homicide and other 


The documentation of saw cuts in bone is well established. Each class 

of saw blade is characterized by class features: the number of teeth per inch 

(TPI), push versus pull stroke cutting, tooth offset, and tooth width (blade 

thickness). 

Today there are saws commercially available which do not use teeth 

as the cutting medium. In having no teeth these saws lack most of the class 

defining traits used in saw identification including the lack of directional 

cutting (push versus pull stroke). For this study two saws were chosen. 

The “MXZ” brand carbide saw has been advertised on television and 

the internet. This saw has a short blade (13 cm in length) encrusted with 

carbide chips. This saw is advertised to be able to cut through various 

materials including steel, concrete, and tile. 

The zip saw is common to hunting outlets and is used in field dressing 

deer to cut through the pelvis at the pubic symphysis. The saw consists of 

a fine braded chain of three stainless steel wires 48 cm in length. Smaller 

irregular segments of wire have been welded to the main wires creating a 

cutting edge. The cutting wire is attached to two short handles. 

In the absence of saw teeth one of the few practical properties of both 

saws is the cutting width or diameter. For the MXZ saw 10 measurements 

were made perpendicular to the blade recording the maximum width across 

the carbide chips. This width ranged from 1.85 to 2.23 mm with an average 

width of 1.99 mm. For the zip saw 10 measurements were made 

perpendicular to the long axis of the saw in the center segment of the saw 

recording the maximum width across the cutting wires. This ranged from 

1.40 to 1.59 mm with an average width of 1.51 mm. 

Experimental saw cuts were made using long bones of the white tailed 

deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Partial (false starts) and complete cuts were 

made. Kerf widths were measured for the partial cuts, and both partial and 

fully cut surfaces were examined for class-specific characteristics. 

The MXZ saw does not cut so much as gouge bone like sandpaper. 

The kerf width at mid cut ranged from 2.02 to 2.50 mm. This is greater than 

the measured width of the blade and is attributable to the lack of teeth to 

maintain blade control through the cut. Despite this the superior margins of 

the partial cuts were parallel throughout their range. Chipping was evident 

along the superior margins of both sides of the cut. The kerf floor was 

marked by parallel striations running the length of the floor. The kerf 

profile can be characterized as U-shaped with roughly parallel walls. The 

fully cut surfaces display fine striations similar to those of toothed saws. 

The striations were less sharp than in toothed blade cuts, however. 

The zip saw chisels bone more like a toothed saw but like the MXZ 

saw lacks the regularity provided by saw teeth. The zip saw also cuts in a 

curved axis with the cutting force varying in application with how the saw 

is applied to the bone. The kerf width at mid cut ranged from 1.50 to 1.60 

mm. This is nearly the same as the measured width of the blade. The 

superior margins of the partial cut surface were parallel throughout their 

range. Chipping was evident along only one side of the superior margin of 

the cut surface. Given the flexible blade this reflects the direction of 

pressure applied to the bone. The kerf floor was marked by parallel 

striations running the length of the floor. The kerf profile can be 

characterized as semi-circular with well rounded walls at the base. The 

fully cut surfaces are marked by fine curved striations similar to those 

created by circular and gigli saws. The curved striations were most obvious 

at the beginning and end of the cut. This corresponds to the most curved 

pressure being applied to the bone surface. 

In conclusion the absence of teeth, while removing a substantial 

amount of saw information, does not negate the possibility of identifying 

saw class. 

Bone, Cut Marks, Saws 

H39 DNA Quantification of 

Burned Skeletal Tissue 


Jamie Daniel Fredericks*, Lower Bank Road, Fulwood, Preston, 

Lancashire PR2 8NS, UNITED KINGDOM; and Tal Simmons, PhD, 

Department of Forensic and Investigative Sciences, University of Central 

Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the effects 

of temperature on gross morphology and DNA degradation in bone. The 

study will in turn provide an aid in producing a standardized protocol for 

extracting and processing DNA from burnt bone. 


demonstrating high temperatures promote DNA degradation in skeletal 

tissue and that DNA is unlikely to be extracted from bone exposed to 

temperatures above 200°C. The use of PTB in DNA extraction has shown 

to increase DNA yields. PTB is a potential agent in increasing DNA yields 

for DNA profiling from small bone samples. 

Forensic anthropologists are often enlisted to utilize investigative 

techniques for the identification of human remains. Identifying human 

remains using conventional anthropological methods does not necessarily 

produce a successful positive identification. In such cases, other techniques, 

including DNA typing, may be pursued. Recovered human remains may 

have become too fragmented or may have lost their integrity for successful 

physical identification or may be accompanied by soft tissues that are too 

decomposed for DNA typing. As the only viable sample that may be 

available for identification, skeletal tissue is an extremely important source 

of DNA. Identifying individuals using DNA profiles derived from bone 

samples is becoming increasingly important and has been used to 

successfully identify victims from a wide range of scenarios including 

natural disasters, terror attacks and armed conflicts. Like all forensic 

samples, skeletal tissue can be recovered from a wide variety of 

environments. After death, nucleic acids can undergo spontaneous 

degradation, which can be accelerated by environmental factors including 

pH, temperature and other chemical exposure. These can all hinder DNA 

profiling. It is well documented that high temperatures promote DNA 

degradation in bone. However, the literature concerning DNA typing from 

skeletal tissue exposed to high temperature has thus far been inconclusive 

and lacks suitable controls. This study will compare two different DNA 

extraction techniques and determine the correlation between DNA 

degradation and temperature. This study will in turn provide an aid in 

producing a standardized protocol for extracting and processing DNA from 

burnt bone and establish potential links with gross morphology as a possible 

predictor of quality and quantity of DNA that can be extracted. 

Using Bos taurus as an animal model, eight radii were burnt using a 

muffle furnace at 100 °C, 200°C, 350 °C and 500 °C for one and three 

hours. An untreated sample of fresh radii was used as a control. Using two 

different extraction techniques, one using phenol: chloroform: isoamyl 

alcohol and the other using phenol: chloroform: isoamyl alcohol plus Nphenacylthiazolium 

bromide (PTB), DNA was extracted from each sample 

and compared. Samples were then semi-quantified on an agarose gel with 

appropriate ladders. 

From the results it is clear that an increase in temperature and time 

decreases the volume of DNA that can be extracted. High molecular weight 

DNA was extracted from untreated samples and samples that were exposed 

at 100°C for both one and three hours. Though lower molecular weight 

DNA was extracted from samples exposed to 200°C for one and three hours 

there was a distinct decrease as the exposure period increased. DNA from 

samples that have been exposed to temperatures of 350°C and 500°C for 

both one and three hours could not be extracted suggesting that the majority 

of DNA has been degraded. There was also a clear difference in gross 

morphology. Samples where DNA was extracted had little color change and 

intact integrity, while those where DNA extraction was unsuccessful had 

charcoal appearance and lateral cracking. 

There was also a difference in the volume of DNA extracted when 

using the two different protocols. PTB is an agent that cleaves advancedglycation 

end-products (AGEs) and results from nonenzymatic 

glycosylation. Glucose and other reducing sugars have been shown to react 

nonenzymatically with DNA and have been shown to affect both the 

238

physical and biological properties of DNA. AGE formation increases with 

age and temperature and may explain the fact that, of all the samples where 

DNA was extracted, the yield of DNA was increased when using PTB. 

This study has shown that temperature has a detrimental effect on 

DNA degradation. It has been seen to increase DNA yields from those 

where DNA was extant. PTB therefore may be an ideal reagent to increase 

DNA yields from small sample sets. 

DNA, Bone, Temperature 

H40 Early Diagenesis of Bone 

and DNA Preservation 

Miranda M.E. Jans, PhD*, Institute for Geology and Bioarchaeology, 

Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, 

NETHERLANDS; Andrew J. Tyrrell, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

54, Hickam Air Force Base, HI 96853; Odile Loreille, PhD, Armed 

Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 1413 Research Boulevard, 

Rockville, MD 20850; and Henk Kars, PhD, Institute for Geology and 

Bioarchaeology, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 

HV, NETHERLANDS 

After attending this presentation participants will understand the 

impact of microbial degradation on the preservation of bone and DNA. 

Factors that influence early postmortem degradation of bone will be 

characterized. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by providing a 

straight forward method to estimate and anticipate DNA preservation in 

bone. 

Skeletal remains are an important resource for forensic identification, 

not only for osteological characteristics, but also as a source of DNA. 

Unfortunately degradation processes affecting bone can be detrimental to 

DNA survival. A major pathway of degradation in human bone is 

destruction of the bone structure by micro-organisms such as fungi and 

bacteria. This, presumably, has a significant effect on DNA preservation as 

bone porosity is increased and biomolecular material is removed. In a study 

on the preservation of archaeological bone it was found that intact human 

burials show more bacterial alteration than fragmented and processed 

bones. Based on this and other work it was hypothesised that bacterial 

alteration starts early postmortem during putrefaction of the body and is 

mainly caused by commensal bacteria that initially arrive in the bone via the 

vascular system. This type of degradation will, in that case, not occur in 

situations where putrefactive bacterial growth has been inhibited (e.g., 

extreme temperatures, bactericidal chemicals), or where putrefactive 

bacteria have had no opportunity to access the bone (e.g. fragmentation or 

butchering). 

In the framework of an European Union Marie Curie Fellowship (FP6; 

project number 22210), human bone material sampled for DNA at the 

Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) has been analysed for degradation 

using histology and backscattered electron scanning electron microscopy 

(BSE-SEM). Histology is a useful technique to determine both extent and 

type of microbial degradation in bone. The aim of the project is to 

characterise early degradation of bone, as well as investigate the 

relationship between bone preservation and DNA results. More than 70 

samples from long bones were analysed at the CIL, from different sites in 

Europe, Asia and Oceania. The extent of preservation of the samples, as 

well as the pathway of degradation (microbial, physico-chemical) was 

assessed. 

From the preliminary results it becomes clear that significant 

microbial alteration takes place within the first 40-50 years postmortem in 

the majority of cases. Microbial alteration seems generally less extreme in 

the middle of the transversal bone section, indicating this as a preferred area 

for DNA sampling. The type of incident – e.g., plane crash or ground loss 

- influences whether bacterial alteration takes place, perhaps explaining 

unexpected DNA success in some fragmentary remains. Histology results 

will be compared to DNA yield to assess the influence of different types of 

degradation. 

After attending this presentation participants will understand the 

impact of microbial degradation on the preservation of bone and DNA. 

Factors that influence early postmortem degradation of bone will be 

characterized. 


straight forward method to estimate and anticipate DNA preservation in 

bone. 

DNA, Bone Preservation, Histology 

H41 The Effect of Carcass Weight on the 


Heather J. Brand, BA*, 422 Queen Anne Heights, Victoria, British 

Columbia V8S 4K6, CANADA 

Participants to this presentation will gain knowledge of the factors that 

influence decomposition, particularly the effect of carcass size on rate of 

decomposition. Participants will also come to understand the variability 

associated with rate decomposition and the difficulty of standardizing a 

method of postmortem interval estimation. 

The results of this experiment will benefit forensic science in the fields 

of postmortem interval estimation and rate of decomposition research. The 

research demonstrates that carcasses weighing between 10-20kgs 

decompose at a rate that statistically is not significantly different. These 

results will further understanding of the effect of carcass weight on rate of 

decomposition when calculating postmortem interval. 

Establishing postmortem interval (PMI) is a complex procedure, 

which is influenced by many factors including rate of decomposition. 

Research is necessary to understand the precise effect of each influencing 

factor in order to increase the accuracy of PMI estimations. The aim of this 

study, conducted at the University of Central Lancashire, UK, is to 

determine the effects of carcass size on the rate of decomposition for 

surface depositions using domestic pig carcasses (Sus scrofa). Three 

weight groups of three carcasses each were established within the total 

sample size of nine pigs: 10kgs, 15kgs, and 20kgs. Each pig was humanely 

dispatched with a captive bolt to the cranium, which was plugged with a 

pithing cane to minimize physical trauma to the carcass. Carcasses were 

laid out wrapped in chicken wire to prevent vertebrate scavenging while 

still allowing insect access. 

Data collection was performed approximately every 45 ADD 

(accumulated degree days) between May 19 and July 15, 2007. Each pig’s 

rate of decomposition was recorded using Megyesi et al (2005) body region 

and total body scoring (TBS) method. Several factors known to influence 

decomposition were also documented: soil pH, regional weather 

conditions, rainfall, body temperature, interface temperature, lux, and 

carcass weight loss. Additionally, as part of the data collection procedure, 

Ppotographs were taken of the each carcass and maggots were collected 

from various bodily regions and reared for identification. According to 

Vass et al (2001) a total of 214 ADD is required for skeletonization of 

carcasses weighing between 0 and 49lbs (0-22kgs) based on a study with 

seven cadavers. However, ater this study’s conclusion at 734 ADD, 

complete skeletonization was still not observed. The author believes that 

this is due to record high rainfall experienced during the experiment, which 

deterred insect activity. 

Using a Pearson’s Correlation, a positive correlation was shown 

between ADD and carcass TBS, r (151) =.97, p

that no significant difference exists between carcass size and decomposition 

score, F(8, 144) = .202, p=.990, carcass size and percentage of weight loss, 

F(8, 144) =.280, p=.972, or any of the other factors controlled for. 

Carcass Weight, Decomposition, Accumulated Degree Days (ADD) 

H42 Patterns of Perimortem Fracture 

From Military Aircraft Crashes 

Franklin E. Damann, MA*, National Museum of Health and Medicine, 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 6825 16th Street, NW, Bldg 54, 

Washington, DC 20306-6000; and Rebekkah Adler, BS, Derek C. 

Benedix, PhD, and Elias J. Kontanis, PhD Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command (JPAC), Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 


After attending this presentation, the attendee will understand the 

patterns of perimortem fractures of the extremities from fatal military 

aircraft crashes. 

This presentation impacts the forensic community by demonstrating 

how anthropological analyses of perimortem fractures augment traditional 

inquires of aviation pathology. This research is discussed within the 

historical context of aviation pathology, while drawing attention to 

applications of perimortem fracture analyses. 

This paper presents fracture pattern analysis among the six antimeric 

long bones; specifically, the frequency of fractured elements, the location of 

fractures within these elements, and the distribution of fracture types among 

the elements are evaluated. The authors hypothesize that given various 

incident parameters, such as aircraft performance power to weight ratios 

and seating position, the distribution of fracture types and locations among 

the six antimeric long bones will enable probability statements for 

differentiating individuals, thereby aiding identification of passengers from 

multi-seated aircraft by reducing the list of potential identities associated 

with specific sets of remains. With regard to seating position, it follows that 

the location of pilots and crew at the time of impact is important to this 

study. That stated, the particular activities of pilots and/or crew prior to a 

crash are not certain; undoubtedly, a pilot attempting to egress during 

decent will experience different fractures than one who remains at the 

aircraft controls. However, based on historic documentation we feel that 

the cases used herein include those representing controlled flights into 

terrain. 

The aircraft accidents reported in this study span a 27 year period from 

1942 to 1969 and include incidents from World War II, Korean War, and 

Vietnam War, with the majority of the samples from WWII. Frequency data 

are made available due to the efforts of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC CIL) in fulfillment of 

the mission to recover and identify deceased U.S. service members. 

Therefore, the distribution of fractures discussed herein represents what is 

expected from non-survivor populations. Evidence-based data are recorded 

from CIL photographs, analytical notes, identification reports, and/or direct 

observation of skeletal remains. Fracture frequency data are compiled from 

32 individually-identified decedents involved in 18 separate aircraft 

crashes. For every case each long bone of the upper and lower extremities 

is divided into fifths and a complete inventory of elements by region is 

recorded as absent, present, or present with at least one perimortem fracture. 

If a region contains observable perimortem fractures then the fracture type 

is recorded as comminuted, oblique, transverse, spiral, and/or longitudinal. 

Prior to fracture analysis, sample bias is assessed since data are derived 

from archaeologically recovered remains. Fracture patterns are established 

by comparing ratios of fracture presence to total presence of elements and 

element regions. 

Recovery frequency of 85% is determined as a ratio of element 

regions present to total expected for the 32 individuals, suggesting 

relatively good preservation and recovery for the samples used in this study. 

Results of frequency tabulation and fracture pattern analysis are described. 

The frequency of fractures between right and left elements is equable, 


suggesting no significant difference among right and left elements for this 

study. Observations between upper and lower extremity fractures for the 32 

casualties are consistent with that previously reported (χ2 = 4.370, df = 1, pvalue 

= 0.037) suggesting that the higher frequency of fracture in the lower 

extremities (0.61) relative to the upper (0.50) is not by chance alone. 

Interestingly, stratifying data by natural breaks in aircraft performance 

power-to-weight ratios the overall fracture distribution between aircraft that 

have a power-to-weight ratio ≤ 0.056 hp lb-1 is significantly different from 

those that have a ratio ≥ 0.15 hp lb-1 (χ2 = 4.841, df = 1, p-value = 0.028). 

Of particular interest however, is the fracture pattern of pilots compared to 

non-pilots, regardless of aircraft performance. In this study, pilots display 

a greater frequency of perimortem fracture (0.63) than non-pilots (0.41) for 

all elements evaluated; and in fact, pilots are expected to display fractures 

just over two times that of non-pilots (χ2 = 14.615, df = 1, p-value = 0.000). 

Based on the distribution of fracture ratios per element region, pilots 

experienced midshaft fractures with a greater frequency and consistency 

than non-pilots, suggesting odds of a pilot with a midshaft fracture is just 

over two times that of non-pilots. The greatest difference between pilots 

and non-pilots occurs at the tibia midshaft where odds of fracture are nearly 

four times that of non-pilots. Of all midshaft fractures (n = 75) 45% are 

comminuted fractures relative to the other four fracture types recorded. 

Demonstrated is the biomechanical response of bone to multiple acute 

forces and the relationship to the forward seating position through 

comparison of perimortem fracture frequencies of pilots and non-pilots that 

did not survive their respective crash incidents. Fractures resulting from 

multiple forces including longitudinal compression and angular and axial 

forces are typically displayed at the location of greatest load. As evidenced 

by the data collected in this study the area of greatest load experienced by 

bones of the extremities is at midshaft. In this study, discernible patterns of 

perimortem fracture among bones of the extremities emerge through 

anthropological analyses. 

Trauma, Perimortem Fracture, Aircraft Crash 

H43 Predicting the Location of Scattered 

Human Remains: When Will Heads 

Roll and Where Will They Go? 

Gretchen R. Dabbs, BA, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, 


Attendees of the presentation will be able to identify the slope at which 

fleshed and skeletonized heads will begin to roll downhill in a forensic 

setting. 


Information useful to identify when it is feasible for investigators to identify 

slope as a factor in the distribution of skeletal remains, as opposed to other 

vectors such as carnivores. Additionally, GIS technology will be applied to 

the data to recognize potential for modeling the predicted final deposition 

of skeletal remains. 

The skull is one of, if not the, most forensically significant skeletal 

elements in the human body. Whether it be through assessment of nonmetric 

traits, or through the more complex collection of craniometric data, 

the skull provides the only reliable information for assessing ancestry. It 

can be used in the assessment of both sex and age, when the pelvis is either 

unavailable or ambiguous. The maxilla and mandible house the dentition, 

which is an easy and inexpensive method of positive identification via 

comparison with antemortem dental records. Unfortunately for law 

enforcement and forensic scientists, the old adage “Heads will roll!” takes 

a quite literal interpretation in forensic work. Recent case work in 

Northwest Arkansas has provided the inspiration for this pilot study. 

Situated in the foothills of both the Boston and the Ozark Mountains, the 

forested areas of Northwest Arkansas find level ground a scarce 

commodity. Whether it be due to carnivorous activity or the hilly terrain, 

the most common situation law enforcement and field recovery teams 

encounter include the obstacle of scattered body elements, which 

240

complicates the recovery process to the nth degree, and often results in the 

loss of information via incompletely collected remains. When the 

unrecovered elements include the skull, massive amounts of vital 

information have been lost. This work addresses one of the two major 

elements responsible for the scattered nature of skeletal remains in 

Northwest Arkansas, and many other areas of the country, the hilly terrain 

and its potential to disperse remains downhill. The results of a pilot study 

designed to ascertain the feasibility of continued research in the 

quantification of the degree of slope at which heads will begin to roll 

downhill in the forensic context are reported in this work. In a highly 

controlled laboratory setting, a single fleshed head from a cadaver donated 

for scientific research, with the first three cervical vertebrae attached, was 

experimentally rolled down a slope a total of 120 times, starting in three 

different positions. These three positions include facing uphill, facing 

downhill, and with the face towards the ground. It was physically 

impossible to place the skull in an anatomically correct position on the back 

of the skull, facing skyward, because the weight of the mandible pulled the 

rest of the head down and over onto the caudal surface of the attached 

vertebrae. This position was eliminated from the study early on in the 

process. Preliminary data suggests that the starting position of the head 

relative to the hillside influences the degree of slope required to break 

gravitational inertia and begin the downhill roll. In fleshed head 

experiments, the nose presented a hurdle that must be overcome for the 

head to roll downhill. First round research shows that heads facing uphill 

will roll on hills with lower slopes than heads positioned facing downhill. 

Further testing on the skeletonized crania is required and planned to identify 

the pattern unique to skeletonized remains. Additionally, this study uses 

GIS technology to examine the potential applicability and feasibility of this 

research in the design of field recovery plans. It is hypothesized that 

watershed analysis will allow the researcher to easily predict the areas of 

greatest likelihood of deposition of scattered remains based on the terrain 

and conditions of each specific recovery site quickly and easily using 

readily available United States Geological Services terrain maps. 

Forensic Recovery, GIS, Forensic Anthropology 

H44 Identifying Sharp Force 

Trauma on Burned Bones 

Daniel W. Jackson, MA*, and Pamela M. Steger, MS*, Travis County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 1213 Sabine Street, PO Box 1748, Austin, 

TX 78666 


understanding of the effects that liquid accelerant-only fires have on the 

identification of pre-existing sharp force trauma to the radius, ulna, carpals, 

and metacarpals. 


demonstrating experimental research under controlled settings in order to 

confirm or deny interpretation of perimortem defects on burned remains. 

The role of the forensic anthropologist has become vital to fire 

investigations that involve human remains. It is likely that the forensic 

anthropologist will be asked to assist in interpreting skeletal defects that 

may have been caused by such forces as heat exposure and/or trauma to 

bones. To successfully complete this task, the anthropologist must be 

familiar with the various effects that fire has on human remains, as well as 

knowledge of fracture patterns and cut-mark morphology indicative of 

trauma. This study investigates the effects that liquid accelerant-only fires 

have on the identification of pre-existing sharp force trauma to the radius, 

ulna, carpals, and metacarpals. Wounds to these bones are commonly 

called defense wounds because they are created when victims try to defend 

themselves from a sharp instrument attack. 

This study tests the hypothesis that various forms of sharp force 

trauma produced on fresh bone and then subjected to fire will still retain 

identifiable cut morphology that can be used to differentiate the sharp force 

trauma from the fragmentation effect of the fire. Included in this study are 

several variables not combined together in previous experiments, making 

this investigation a unique approach to the problem of identification of 

sharp force trauma. These variables included multiple types of instruments, 

uncut remains used as study controls, outside observers for conducting 

blind testing, and use of a variety of different liquid accelerants. 

The experimental design used the distal half of pig (Sus scrofa) 

forelimbs to simulate human forearms. The limbs were acquired with the 

soft tissue still intact. In other words, there were no alterations to the limb 

to more closely approximate the fresh tissue state of a human inflicted 

during an attack. After five limbs were cut with a different instrument (meat 

cleaver, an ice pick, a common straight edged kitchen knife, a machete, and 

a serrated steak knife) they were placed together on a metal grate inside a 

large metal pan along with one uncut limb as a control. Subsequently, one 

gallon of a liquid accelerant was poured on top of all the limbs and into the 

pan. Only one accelerant was used at a time, and there was no mixing of 

liquids. The fire was started, allowed to burn until the liquid accelerant was 

completely consumed, and the fire was completely out. This procedure was 

repeated four times with four different accelerants. The accelerants 

included 87 octane unleaded gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and turpentine. 

With six limbs being used for each of the four accelerant burning episodes, 

a total sample size of 24 limbs was used in the experiment. 

The analysis phase consisted of attempting to identify sharp force 

trauma (if any) on the remains without knowing which tool was used. The 

attempt to identify injuries was done at the macroscopic level only. If no 

trauma was found, the remains were recorded as uncut. However, if 

evidence of sharp force trauma was found, an attempt was be made to 

correctly identify which particular tool was employed. 

While the destructive force of fire does often produce fractures, it has 

been demonstrated that defects caused by the sharp force trauma would still 

be identifiable after the fire. This experiment, then, is a test of the ability of 

forensic anthropologists to locate possible sharp force trauma on human 

remains in cases that involve fire. 

The results of the post-fire analysis compared with the pre-fire data 

made it clear that there are some limitations in the identification of sharp 

force injuries to burned remains. The current study showed that while the 

presence or absence of sharp force trauma was identifiable most of the time 

(73.9%), the presence of sharp force trauma was missed six times. The 

missed trauma was mostly due to extreme fragmentation of remains from 

their burning. Most often, it was the radius and ulna that were broken into 

numerous small pieces, making it difficult to find cut marks on these 

elements. 

Forensic Anthropology, Sharp Force Trauma, Burned Remains 

H45 Fracture Patterns in Fleshed and 

De-Fleshed Pig Femora Inflicted 

With Various Ammunition Types 

Joanna Yaffa Kay, BA*, 222 South 150th Circle, Omaha, NE 68154 

Upon the completion of this presentation, those in attendance will 

have received a broader knowledge of the field of ballistics and a greater 

understanding of the effects of bullets of varying construction, velocity, 

energy, and calibre impacting on the femur before and after being defleshed. 

The findings of this study will assist the forensic community in 

exploring new methods of estimating calibre size and ammunition type 

from long bone fracture patterns, which will assist investigators in 

identifying and/or excluding potential types of ammunition and weapons in 

the absence of fired cartridge casings. Discovering if there is a significant 

difference between bullet impact on fleshed and de-fleshed bones will help 

researchers conduct meaningful, accurate studies. 

In order to examine wound ballistics on long bones, controlled 

experiments were preformed on pig femora. The fleshed femora were shot 

from a distance of 1.5 feet between the muzzle of the gun and the target. 


Four replicates of the following ammunition were inflicted on separate 

femora: 9 mm jacketed soft point (JSP) bullets, 9 mm full metal jacket 

bullets (FMJ), .38 calibre jacketed soft point bullets, and .357 calibre full 

metal jacket bullets. Two replicates of the same ammunition were inflicted 

upon de-fleshed femora. The resulting wound ballistics was analyzed in 

order to make correlations between fracture patterns and specific 

ammunition. 

The aim of this study is to test the hypothesis that if a certain 

combination of calibre and type of ammunition is used to inflict injury on a 

femur, then the specific ammunition will produce fracture patterns and 

dimensions unique to that ammunition. This study also aims to determine 

if experiments on fleshed bone will produce similar results to experiments 

on de-fleshed fresh bones. Through an examination of parameters such as 

fracture patterns, number and length of fractures, and the number and size 

of bone fragments, it will become apparent whether or not there are 

significant differences between commonly used bullet calibres and types, as 

well as between fleshed and de-fleshed bones. 

The findings of this study will assist in exploring new methods of 

estimating calibre size and ammunition type from long bone fracture 

patterns, which will assist investigators in identifying and/or excluding 

potential types of ammunition and weapons in the absence of fired cartridge 

casings. Discovering if there is a significant difference between bullet 

impact on fleshed and de-fleshed bones will help researchers conduct 

meaningful, accurate studies. 

The impact of bullets on bones that were shot while the bones were 

fleshed was different from those that were shot when they were de-fleshed. 

The fleshed bones broke into fewer fragments and fewer fracture lines were 

formed around the entrance. In addition, only rarely did butterfly fragments 

form when the fleshed bones were shot; however, every bone shot after 

being de-fleshed presented butterfly fragments. 

In the first group of bones that were shot while fleshed, ammunition of 

the same calibre and from the same gun, but of differing bullet types, 

produced completely different results. The 9 mm JSP bullet caused more 

fragmentation, fracture lines, and more complex fractures than were 

presented in those bones shot with the 9 mm FMJ bullet. Though the 9 mm 

FMJ has a slightly higher kinetic energy, the energy transferred to the bone 

was more with the JSP bullet. Instead of penetrating straight through the 

specimen, the JSP bullet tends to deform and expand, causing the bullet to 

lose more energy, and hence cause more destruction, in the bone. 

In the group of bones shot when de-fleshed, both the 9 mm JSP and 

the .357 FMJ caused entrance wounds that did not produce a circular defect 

with a measurable diameter. The entrance wounds were of similar size, 

however, the exit wound of the .357 FMJ was larger than that of the 9 mm 

JSP. This shows that although the construction of the JSP bullet should 

result in more destruction because of deformation of the soft point bullet, 

the ammunition with greater kinetic energy caused more damage. 

Each 9 mm JSP and .38 JSP ammunition showed a complex spiral 

fracture with more than 3 intermediate fragments as well as complex 

irregular fractures with shattering, while the .357 FMJ and 9 mm FMJ 

showed only complex irregular fractures with shattering as labelled through 

the A/O Classification System (Orthopaedic 1996). 

The slight differences in calibre among the .38, .357 and 9mm did not 

seem to affect the specimen. 

Ballistics, Fracture Pattern, Gunshot Wound 

H46 Decomposition Scoring as a Method 

for Estimating the Postmortem 

Submersion Interval of Human 

Remains Recovered From United 

Kingdom Rivers - A Comparative Study 

Abigail C. Lagden, BSc*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, Department of Forensic 

and, Investigative Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, 


Lancashire PR1 2HE, UNITED KINGDOM 

This presentation will make attendees aware of how a scoring system 

that reflects decomposition can be used reliably to estimate the postmortem 

submersion interval when human remains are recovered from an aquatic 

environment. They will also be provided with evidence that indicates how 

a single scoring system may be applicable across different aquatic 

environments. 

This presentation will impact on the forensic community by providing 

a better understanding of the variables that affect decomposition in aquatic 

environments and showing how this knowledge has been used to produce a 

reliable method for estimating postmortem submersion interval, that could 

be applicable across different aquatic environments. 

When human remains have been submerged in water for any length of 

time, estimation of the postmortem interval becomes difficult. This is due 

to the limited amount of research that has been carried out into the changes 

that occur when a body undergoes decomposition in an aquatic 

environment and what variables influence these changes. It is accepted that 

these decompositional changes, and the rates at which they occur, are 

different to those observed in terrestrial environments, but it is unclear how 

they differ and whether they also vary from one aquatic environment to 

another. This study aims to provide an understanding of how the 

decomposition of human remains progresses in the River Mersey, UK and 

whether it differs from decomposition as observed in other UK rivers. 

A fifteen year retrospective study was carried out of forty nine cases 

where human remains were recovered from the River Mersey, UK. 

Information was obtained by reviewing coroner’s case files, containing 

records of the individual’s demographics, police reports and postmortem 

examination reports. For a number of cases it was also possible to view 

postmortem and scene photographs. 

For each case, the body was divided into three areas; the head and 

neck; the torso; and the limbs. Information was then recorded for each area, 

detailing the characteristics of decomposition observed in the postmortem 

photographs, and those described in the pathologist’s report. Using this 

information, a scoring system was produced for each area to reflect the 

sequential stages of decomposition observed in the study sample. Each 

case in the sample was then scored using this system, and the three resulting 

scores summed to provide a Total Aquatic Decomposition Score (TADS). 

Multiple regression was carried out to establish which independent 

variables (sex, BMI, age, salinity, level of clothing, season of entry, 

postmortem submersion interval {PMSI} and accumulated degree days 

{ADD}) had an effect on the assigned decomposition score. Only PMSI 

and ADD showed a significant correlation with TADS, and separate 

regression models were produced to estimate each of these variables from 

TADS. 

Similar models had previously been produced for cases recovered 

from the River Thames, UK and the River Clyde, Scotland, UK, and 

comparisons were made among the three sets of results. An analysis of 

covariance (ANCOVA) was used to compare the regression models (TADS 

vs. ADD) for each of the three rivers. This revealed no significant 

difference between the models derived for the Mersey and the Clyde. The 

Thames model, however, was shown to have a significantly different 

intercept from the other two rivers, although there was no significant 

difference between the gradients. It is thought that this may be explained 

by inter-observer differences, as the scoring system produced for the 

Thames study was difficult to apply to the Mersey cases, resulting in similar 

scores for cases with very different decomposition characteristics. 

A further 21 cases were reviewed of human remains recovered from 

canals throughout Merseyside and Cheshire. Each case was scored using 

the system developed above and a regression model was applied to show 

the relationship between TADS and PMSI. When ANCOVA was used to 

compare this study sample with those from the three rivers, there was no 

significant difference between the canal, Mersey or Clyde models. The 

Thames model, however, was again shown to be significantly different to 

the other models. 

These results indicate that the stages of decomposition and the rate of 

decomposition in relation to ADD are consistent across the UK rivers 

242

studied. It also suggests that a single model for estimating PMSI may be 

applicable to other aquatic environments. 

Decomposition, Aquatic, Postmortem Interval 

H47 Sealed for Your Protection, Part I: 

The Effects of an Unknown Corrosive 

Agent on Human Bone 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 

Phoenix, AZ 85007; Kristen Hartnett, PhD, Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, Forensic Anthropology, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY 10016; 

Frank Di Modica, Phoenix Police Department, 620 West Washington 

Street, Phoeniz, AZ 85003; and Diane Karluk, MD, Maircopa County 

Office of the Medical Examiner, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

Upon reading this poster, the participant will learn that human bone 

can be completely destroyed by exposure to corrosive agents such as 

muriatic acid. 

The impact on the forensic community will be to raise the level of 

awareness regarding the detrimental effects of common household 

corrosives on human bone and teeth. 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be aware of the 

potential corrosive effects of common household chemicals on human 

skeletal remains. Characteristics of the chemical and methods to determine 

the type used will be presented. 

On July 7, 2001 a woman and her two children left home in Phoenix, 

Arizona to visit relatives in the Midwest. They never arrived. On August 

21, 2001, the woman’s husband was arrested based on blood and 

circumstantial evidence found at the residence. On April 1, 2002 he was 

convicted of three counts of first degree murder and given the death penalty. 

For the next three years, a variety of tips poured into the Maricopa 

County Sheriff’s Office regarding the location of the remains of the woman 

and her children. The lead author participated in several excursions to the 

house and surrounding desert areas to search for remains. Every skeleton 

recovered was thought to be the missing woman. At one point, the lead and 

third author were called to a county north of Phoenix to participate in the 

excavation of a mine where an informant claimed that the husband had said 

he dropped the body and covered them with tons of dirt and rock. 

On October 19, 2005 a crew crating palo verde trees in order to 

relocate them discovered two fifty gallon drums submerged in the rocky 

soil. The first drum was badly damaged by the backhoe and the contents 

thrown to one side. When the second drum was uncovered, the backhoe 

caught the edge of the lid and flipped it off to reveal the contents. A 

woman’s foot was sticking up out of the drum. When the workers went 

back to the first drum, they discovered that the material was human tissue. 

A third drum was discovered two weeks later after an extensive search. 

Sheriff’s detectives assumed that the adult victim was the missing woman 

and that the other two drums contained her children. The lead, second, and 

third authors participated in all of the search and recovery phases for each 

of the drums. 

The autopsy and subsequent anthropological and dental examinations 

of the bodies revealed that they represented portions of the missing victims. 

Age-at-death for the children was determined by radiographic and gross 

examination of the epiphyseal plates. The adult female received a standard 

anthropological examination and was subsequently circumstantially 

identified by dental radiographs. The original antemortem radiographs 

were flipped and therefore could not be used to establish positive 


The remains of the adult female exhibited both perimortem traumata 

and postmortem damage. They were fairly complete however the tissue 

and bone appeared to be corroded, as if by some form of acid. There was 

damage to the facial skeleton, the arms and the legs of the victim. The 

female child was represented solely by portions of the pelvic girdle and 

proximal femora. She too exhibited the effects of some sort of corrosive 

substance, particularly on the shafts of the femora. The male child was 

represented by six fragments of bone. They were also from the pelvis and 

femora, but had the appearance of tree bark. 

In each of the areas where the drums were located, items of evidence 

supported the use of some type of corrosive material. There were numerous 

white plastic protective seals with “Sealed for your Protection” written 

across them; nine were recovered around the male child’s drum alone. In 

addition, the adult victim’s drum had breached into the soil and a large 

amount of greenish, yellow stained earth was located around the bottom of 

her drum. This material had a ph of 3.34 (acidic) with mostly chloride ions, 

which could be consistent with hydrochloric or muriatic acid. 

This poster presents the various aspects of this case including the 

search and recovery, the age-at-death determinations and the investigation 

of the corrosive material used to “dissolve” the remains. Ongoing research 

in the lab regarding the effects of different acidic materials on bone, teeth, 

hair, skin, tissue and muscle will be presented at a subsequent American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences meeting. 

Taphonomy, Acid Etching, Skeletal Remains 

H48 Mummification and Palynology: 

What We Can Learn in Regards 

to Time and Location of Death 

Cheslee Cornell*, and Nicole A. Wall, MFS, College of Saint Mary, 

Forensic Science Program 7000 Mercy Road, Omaha, NE 68106 

This research is dedicated to the amount of time it takes for the 

mummification process to take place in piglets, while being buried in 

different materials such as; a tarp, a rug, a plastic bag, and a fleece blanket. 

These piglets were documented periodically for changes in decomposition 

using soil analysis and also for pollen deposition. Acetolysis will be used 

to process and stain the pollen for identification and imaging purposes. It 

is has been proven beneficial to use swine in order to determine different 

aspects of the decomposition process which helps death investigators to 

accurately determine time of death issues. Also, checking different types of 

pollen present in different regions of Nebraska has been proven very 

beneficial in determining location and season of death as well. The piglets 

were buried in multiple locations around Omaha, NE. They were buried in 

Ashland, NE; Bennington, NE; Atkinson, NE; and Valley, NE. The soil 

types were identified and certain results regarding pH, conductivity, and 

moisture content were recorded. Currently, we are also considering lipid 

phosphate and fatty acid methyl ester analysis (along with nitrogen and 

carbon content) to give us more input concerning the certain soil changes 

that occur during the decomposition process. In the end, a timeline and 

pollen profile will be constructed based on the data obtained to help 

investigators understand the time it may take for small human victims to 

reach natural mummification status and also assist in determining the 

location (season) death. 

Mummification, Soil, Pollen 

H49 Forensic Osteology Research Station 

(FOREST): A New Facility for Studies 

of Human Decomposition 


Cheryl A. Johnston, PhD*, Western Carolina University, Department of 

Anthropology & Sociology, 101 McKee Building, Cullowhee, NC 28723 

Those attending this presentation will come away with an overview of 

Western Carolina University’s new outdoor laboratory for decomposition 

studies and an understanding of the nature of the research that will be 

carried out in the outdoor laboratory. Attendees will learn why it is 

important for there to be more than one outdoor decomposition laboratory 

in the United States. 

This work impacts the forensic community by its contribution to our 

collective knowledge and understanding of how humans decompose, how 

the timing of decomposition changes depending on the environment and 

how the environment is altered by decomposition. The forensic community 

will be further affected by this presentation because it includes a call for 

collaboration among researchers at other institutions with outdoor 

decomposition laboratories and those planning future decomposition 

laboratories. 

One of the questions forensic anthropologists are often asked is: how 

long does it take a body to decompose? The answer depends on numerous 

variables many of which have to do with the environmental conditions in 

which the decomposition occurs. Observations of decomposing human 

remains can help us formulate an answer in a given location. In order to 

formulate answers applicable to broader areas we must focus on collecting 

decomposition data and associated environmental data in more than one or 

two locations so that patterns specific to physiographic regions may be 

identified. There is a need for at least one outdoor decomposition laboratory 

in each physiographic region of the United States. There is a need to 

identify classes of data that will be collected similarly in each region. 

A new outdoor decomposition laboratory has been established in the 

mountains of Western North Carolina. It is touted in the popular press to be 

the second such facility in the nation although plans for several others are 

underway. The Western Carolina University outdoor laboratory has been 

dubbed the “FOREST” (Forensic Osteology Research Station). Its internal 

dimensions are roughly 17 meters by 17 meters and it is delimited by a 

wooden privacy fence and a chain link protective fence topped with razor 

wire. The FOREST is located in a rural area adjacent to Western Carolina 

University in Cullowhee, North Carolina on a 500+ acre undeveloped 

property recently acquired by the university. The surrounding terrain is 

mountainous and the facility is on a steep slope and is surrounded by and 

encloses moderately dense forest vegetation. 

It is known that the environment affects decomposition and that 

decomposition changes the environment in the vicinity of a body. Prior to 

placing the first corpse at the FOREST an environmental survey of the 

interior of the facility and the area immediately surrounding it was 

conducted in order to provide baseline data of the plant and animal life 

present as well as soil composition and chemistry. Future plans include 

repeating this survey seasonally as long as the facility is in use. 

Decomposition, Environment, Physiography 

H50 Biomechanics of Blunt Ballistic Impacts 

to the Forehead and Zygoma 

Greg Crawford, MS,; David Raymond, MS*, Chris Van Ee, PhD, and 

Cynthia Bir, PhD, Wayne State University, 818 West Hancock, Detroit, 

MI 48201 

Upon reviewing this poster, investigators will gain insight into 

previously unknown biomechanics governing the impact response and 

tolerance of the forehead and face to blunt ballistic impacts. Injury criteria 

will be explored to identify key engineering parameters linking specific 

fracture morphology to impact characteristics. 

This presentation will affect the forensic community by offering a 

totally unique scientific data set on skull and facial fracture tolerance and 

morphology due to blunt ballistic impacts. Investigators will gain insight 

into the biomechanics of skull and facial fracture and be presented with a 


complete set of fracture morphology data with linked with biomechanical 

parameters measured through leading edge instrumentation. This data will 

assist investigators in forensic reconstruction of skull and facial trauma. 

Circumstances leading to skull and/or facial trauma may not always be 

known due to the lack of witnesses, inability of the patient to recall or 

articulate the events that led to the trauma or patient death. A forensic 

biomechanist may be brought in to work with a forensic pathologist or a 

forensic anthropologist to relate the mechanics involved with causing 

particular types of fractures. He/she may perform evaluations of various 

impact scenarios using biomechanical surrogates and injury criteria to 

assess the likelihood of producing fractures that match the physical 

evidence. Unfortunately, the current biomechanical surrogates and injury 

criteria developed by automotive safety researchers fall short of providing 

necessary information for the reconstruction of specific fracture types due 

to a lack of controlled impact studies. Head injury criteria and 

biomechanical data are needed to extend the understanding behind blunt 

ballistic impact tolerance and for fracture-specific risk assessment. The 

primary goal of this research was the advancement of fracture-specific head 

injury criterion for the assessment of localized blunt ballistic impacts to the 

forehead and zygoma. 

Experimental impact testing was performed on five (5) isolated, 

unembalmed postmortem human subjects. Specimens were impacted to 

the frontal and zygoma regions of the face with a 38 mm diameter rigid 

impactor, launched via a ballistic air cannon. Specimens were instrumented 

with a nine-accelerometer array to document global head response. Local 

bone response was measured by Rosette-style strain gages attached to the 

outer cortical layer surrounding the impact sites. Soft tissue was left intact 

at the impact sites. Impact force was calculated from a 20,000 g 

accelerometer mounted to the rear aspect of the impactor. High speed video 

captured the impact at 10,000 frames per second. Post-test CTs were 

obtained along with detailed autopsies documenting resulting fracture 

patterns. Fracture criteria were explored through logistic regression 

analysis of measured parameters and compared with previously developed 

head injury criteria. Goodness of fit was evaluated by the chi-squared 

statistic, p-value and Nagelkerke R2 . Significance levels were set at p < 

0.05. 

Twenty (20) impacts were performed in total with ten impacts to the 

frontal bone and ten to the zygoma regions. Of the ten impacts to the 

forehead, fractures were produced in four cases. Fractures ranged from 

local linear to depressed, comminuted. Of the ten impacts to the zygoma, 

fractures resulted in four cases. Fractures were primarily of the “tripod” 

type in addition to comminuted fracture of surrounding bone. Peak fracture 

forces for the frontal bone and zygoma ranged between 4,413 to 9,438 N 

and 575 to 2,746 N respectively. Acceleration data from the array indicates 

that the skull does not respond as a rigid object under these loading 

conditions which limits the ability to utilize the nine-accelerometer array for 

estimating center-of-gravity acceleration. This indicates deformation-based 

measures should be investigated further in future experimental studies. 

Logistic regression results indicate that strain-based measures were 

statistically significant predictors of fracture followed by acceleration of the 

head (P < 0.05). While impact force demonstrated increase risk of fracture 

with increasing force, this was not a statistically significant predictor of 

fracture. 

Current biomechanical models are not equipped to measure skull 

deformation or strain. These measures are currently most effectively 

measured through finite element models. The basic biomechanical data 

from this study will first and foremost serve as validation for advancement 

of finite element models of the head to the blunt ballistic impact 

environment. Additional efforts can then be put forward into development 

of an advanced fracture-prediction model. The current results indicate that 

effort should begin with strain-based criterion for blunt ballistic forehead 

and facial fracture. 

Biomechanics, Skull Fracture, Ballistics 

H51 The Effectiveness of Papain 

244

in the Processing of Remains 

Bobbie J. Kemp, MS*, University of Pittsburgh, Department of 

Anthropology, 3302 Wesley W. Posvar Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260; 

Luis Lorenzo Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Applied Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; John J. 

Matia, BS, 901 Jancey Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15206; and Dennis C. 

Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 

Glenwood Hills, Erie, PA 16546 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the potential of the 

papain enzyme in the process of soft tissue removal. 


demonstrating a simple, non-aggressive method of soft tissue removal, with 

applications in both forensic investigations and osteological collection 

curation. 

The removal of soft tissue to allow for direct examination of bone 

poses an important challenge to forensic anthropologists. The researcher is 

confronted with the issues of using a nondestructive method while 

remaining within time constraints. At present, the main alternatives 

available are based on maceration in either plain water or in solutions of 

chemicals or enzymes. True maceration in plain water is slow and 

infamously odiferous. Bleach or detergents serve both to speed the process 

and to mitigate the odor, but are much more aggressive to the bone tissue, 

requiring close monitoring. Heat treatment can be added to both types of 

maceration to increase reaction speed, but at the cost of significantly 

increasing their aggressiveness. 

The present study tests the utility and efficiency of papain for soft 

tissue removal in forensic settings. Papain is a proteolytic enzyme 

(protease) derived from the papaya fruit (Carica papaya). Proteases are 

highly specific enzymes that induce protein decomposition (proteolysis), by 

promoting hydrolysis of the peptide bonds that link amino acids. Therefore, 

these enzymes would primarily target the protein content of muscle and 

connective tissue (ligaments, tendons, and cartilage), rather than the mineral 

or tightly packaged organic matrix of the bone. Papain offers the advantage 

of being a versatile enzyme with a multitude of uses, including medical 

applications in the removal of scar tissue or herniated discs, or as a 

component of household meat tenderizers. This translates in a widespread 

commercial availability and, importantly, in a moderate cost. 

This experimental design was constructed to: (1) test the efficiency of 

a pure papain solution against those of other alternative solutions and a 

blank control, in terms of time and bone integrity, (2) assess the minimal 

effective concentration of papain required for significant tissue removal (an 

important factor in relation to the cost/efficacy ratio of the method), and (3) 

estimate the effect of papain concentration and time on bone integrity. 

Nonfrozen store-bought chicken (Gallus gallus) legs were used as an 

animal proxy in this study. Chicken legs were selected for study due to their 

uniformity and availability, allowing for more effective randomization and 

larger sample sizes. Additionally, the lower density and relative wall 

thickness of avian bones, as compared to mammals, was expected to result 

in higher ratios of organic to mineral bone content, and therefore higher 

rates of enzymatic bone destruction. This confers a necessary conservative 

approach to the bone destruction estimates, in comparison to those expected 

in human remains for the same concentrations of the enzyme. 

The chicken limbs were randomly assigned to different solutions of 

equal volumes of distilled water and varying concentrations of papain 

BioChemika powder from Sigma Aldrich, a solution of household meat 

tenderizer, and a control of water. All solutions were kept at a constant heat 

of 50°C. Soft tissues were manually removed at fixed times, avoiding the 

use of any aiding or surgical instrument, and the wet weight of the removed 

and remaining tissue (including bone) was recorded. Wet weight was also 

recorded before treatment, and wet and dry weights after treatment, in order 

to control for bone degradation in terms of weight loses. 

Differences in bone degradation were tested through a repeated 

measurements ANOVA design, with initial wet and final dry weights as 

dependent variables. Time differences were assessed through a one-way 

ANOVA analysis of the times required for complete tissue removal. 

Finally, linear regression techniques served to assess the influence of papain 

concentration on time for complete tissue removals. 

The results strongly suggest that papain maceration is a viable and 

efficient method for tissue removal, significantly reducing processing time 

and the risk of bone damage, deserving further research and application in 

forensic and curation contexts. The concentrations of papain necessary to 

obtain useful results place the method within a reasonable rank of costeffectiveness, 

especially in those cases where bone integrity and time 

constraints play a significant role. Pending a more detailed study, a 

preliminary yet reliable processing protocol for papain is provided. 

Papain, Maceration, Enzyme 

H52 Beating a Dead Pig to Death: An Actualistic 

Test of Archaeological Assumptions 

Kerriann Marden, MA*, Dept of Anthropology, Tulane University, 1326 



forensic taphonomy can inform archaeological interpretations of a specific 

type of anthropogenic mark on bone. 


demonstrating whether damage to human bone which has previously been 

attributed solely to the action of hammer and anvil could also result from 

trauma caused by interpersonal violence with stone weapons. 

When anthropogenic abrasion is observed on the surfaces of fractured 

archaeological long bone specimens, this taphonomic feature is generally 

assumed to indicate that that the bone was absent of flesh at the time it was 

broken, allowing the tools to abrade the bone surface. Several 

archaeological investigations of human remains recovered from pre- 

Columbian, ancestral pueblo sites of the Southwest have concluded that the 

assemblages represent cannibalized remains (most recently, see White 

1992; Turner and Turner 1997; Hurlburt 1999 and 2000; Lambert, Billman 

and Leonard 2000; Kuckelman, Lightfoot and Martin 2002). Abrasion of 

long bone surfaces along the fracture margins is among the suite of 

taphonomic traits which forms the basis of a cannibalism interpretation, 

with the assumption that this abrasion results from the use of hammer and 

anvil stone tool technology on defleshed human bone surfaces in order to 

exploit the marrow within (Turner and Turner 1999). 

This research tests the hypothesis that vigorous assault to fleshed 

skeletal elements with a stone weapon can produce abrasion on long bone 

surfaces which mimics that caused by hammer and anvil breakage of 

defleshed bone. It is hypothesized that violent interpersonal conflict—in 

which a stone club is wielded with sufficient velocity to shatter the 

underlying bone—could cause similar bone surface abrasion as the weapon 

head tears through skin and muscle and makes contact with underlying 

skeletal structures. 

It has been well established that modern analogues and experimental 

models can inform archaeological taphonomic interpretations (see for 

example Binford 1981; Bunn 1983 and 1989; Shipman and Rose 1984; 

Behrensmeyer, Gordon and Yanagi 1986; Blumenschine 1988; Fiorillo 

1989; Gifford-Gonzales 1989; Pickering and Wallis 1997; Saul and Saul 

2002). This actualisitic study used fleshed hind limbs of pigs (Sus scrofa) 

as analogues for human limbs, with one leg from each pair of limbs (n=5 

pair) fixed vertically with pipe vises, in order to simulate the semi-fixed 

response of a weight-bearing limb. Each bone was struck with a replica 

stone club with force approximating a blow given during warfare, and 

recorded in digital video format. The five antimeres were manually 

defleshed, then cracked open over an anvil rock using a hammerstone 

replica, which was also recorded in digital video format. All specimens 

were then macerated in hot water and examined for abrasion. Observed 

abrasion was recorded, photo-documented, and compared to archaeological 

samples displaying putative hammer and anvil damage. Results supporting 

the hypothesis will suggest that taphonomic agents other than perimortem 

hammer and anvil breakage could generate this form of abrasion, whereas 


esults rejecting the hypothesis will provide further evidence for the extant 

osteoarchaeological interpretation. 

Taphonomy, Trauma, Archaeology 

H53 Gunshot Residue (GSR) on Bone as a 

Potential Indicator of Gunshot Trauma 

in the Absence of a Bullet Wound Defect — 

A Noteworthy Observation 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD*, Middle Tennessee State University, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Box 10, Murfreesboro, TN 

37132; and Alicja K Kutyla, BS*, Middle Tennessee State University, 

MTSU Box 60, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 

Attendees will be shown a rib with fracture morphology consistent 

with blunt trauma that was produced by a bullet. Scanning Electron 

Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDXA) is 

used to confirm the presence of gunshot residue (GSR) along the fracture 

surfaces, and serves to clarify fracture mechanism. 

The use of an SEM and EDXA on bone fractures has the potential of 

impacting the forensic community by providing a means of determining 

whether a bullet was involved and a mechanism of trauma. 

During a recent examination of skeletal case for bone trauma, a 

fractured rib was found with missing bone fragments. It was conjectured 

that the fracture resulted from gunshot trauma, but it lacked the 

characteristic bevel of an entrance or exit wound. An examination of the 

bone fracture surfaces with a scanning electron microscope was proposed 

to search for microscopic particles from the bullet (i.e., bullet wipe) as a 

means of confirming the mechanism of trauma. However, upon 

examination no metal residue was found. The question then became 

whether it is possible to fracture a bone with a bullet without leaving 

microscopic metal particles. 

Pork ribs were used as a bone model. Each of four ribs, with 

approximately one inch of attached muscle, was placed inside a plastic bag 

and shot once at close range (i.e., 12 inches). The first three were shot with 

Remington .38 caliber, 158 grain, round nose lead bullets and the fourth 

with a Winchester .45 caliber, 185 grain, full metal jacket bullet. After each 

rib had been shot the muscle and as much of the periosteum as possible was 

physically removed. Each rib was then placed in a paper bag to dry in an 

incubator at 40º Celsius (approximately 104º Fahrenheit) for five days in 

preparation for the SEM. After the ribs were dry they were allowed to cool. 

The fracture pattern on each of the ribs was examined to verify bullet 

direction. The intended path was through the plastic bag, through 

approximately one inch of muscle and then through the rib, passing from 

external to internal. The bullet defect in the first three ribs produced the 

expected entrance wound bevel. The bullet missed the fourth rib 

completely, but the bone was nonetheless fractured by the proximity of 

bullet. The bone was likely missed due to the obscuring, overlying muscle, 

coupled with the inaccuracy of the shooter (i.e., first author). Had these 

bones been recovered from a skeletal case, three of them would have been 

interpreted as gunshot trauma; however, the rib not directly impacted by the 

bullet would have likely been interpreted as blunt trauma. The fracture 

morphology of this rib defines areas of tension and compression indicating 

an external to internal bending and associate plastic deformation typically 

associated with slow loading. 

Each rib fragment was placed in the Hitachi S-3400 SEM for visual 

analysis. The specimens were not coated with carbon or gold, as is the 

usual case. Although the four bones examined did not exhibit macroscopic 

evidence of bullet wipe, the surfaces near the fractures all exhibited 

microscopic concretions determined by the Oxford INCA Energy 200 

Dispersive X-Ray Analyzer as lead, antimony and barium (i.e., GSR). GSR 

is a common finding on a shooter’s hand or on other objects near the gun 

after firing, but it is surprising to find it on bone covered by muscle tissue 


and enclosed within a plastic bag. Additionally, GSR was present on both 

the entrance and exit side of the bone. The mixture of antimony, barium and 

lead from the primer may accompany the bullet as a vapor and eventually 

deposits on the bone as it cools. 

This simple finding of GSR on both the entrance and exit side of the 

bone is both surprising and promising. The most obvious application of this 

observation—if borne out by future research—is its use as an indicator of 

bullet related trauma in bone fracture cases that may present as blunt 

trauma. Despite the forceful removal of soft tissue necessary to prepare the 

bones for this study, the GSR deposits remained intact. Future tests will be 

needed to determine whether GSR integrity on bone can be maintained 

through the decomposition process. With increased sample size, 

differences in amount or perhaps ratio of barium, antimony and lead could 

serve to indicate bullet direction. Observations, such as soot, stippling and 

powder residue, are currently used to estimate weapon to victim distance. 

Perhaps with additional research, GSR on bone could provide another 

means of determining weapon distance applicable to both autopsy and 

skeletal cases. 

The use of an SEM and EDXA on bone fractures has the potential of 

impacting the forensic community by providing a means of determining 

whether a bullet was involved and a mechanism of trauma. 

Gunshot Residue, Gunshot Trauma, Terminal Ballistics 

H54 Use of Facial Indices for Comparative 

Metric Facial Identification After 

Parametrical Superimposition 

Francesco Introna, MD*, Antonio De Donno, PhD, Domenico 

Urso, PhD, and Valeria Santoro, PhD, Section of Legal Medicine, 

Department of Internal and Public Medicine (DiMIMP) - University 

of Bari, P.zza Giulio Cesare n.11, Bari, 70124, ITALY 

The goal of this presentation is to prove the somatic correspondence 

between the criminal and the suspect by means of a mixed superimposition 

image. 

This study will impact the forensic community by demonstrating the 

possible use of facial indices for personal identification after a parametrical 

superimposition. The parametrical superimposition is a tested technique in 

which each suspect is positioned exactly in the same place and with the 

same posture assumed by the subject to identify, filmed during a crime, 

usually bank rubbery. 

If parametric superimposition is positive and close up of the face of the 

rubber is available then it is possible to perform a metric analysis between 

the image of the face of the criminal and the image of the face of the suspect 

obtained at the end of the best mixed parametrized superimposition in order 

to have personal identification on statistic basis. Different parameters can 

be used for comparing metric analysis between analogous marked points on 

the two faces in comparison (absolute distances, relative distances, triangle 

perimeters and area, form factors, facial indices). 

In a previous study we showed that no statistic comparison can be 

reliable unless prior parametrical somato-physical superimposition of the 

images of the subjects in comparison. At the current state of art, no 

comparison between facial indices can be accepted for identification 

purposes unless supported by positive findings in a prior parametric 

somato-physical superimposition. 

It is also supposed in anthropology that facial indices are not 

influenced by head movements. As a consequence we decide: (1) to test the 

opportunity to use facial indices as metric parameters to compare the two 

faces obtained at the end of parametric superimposition, and (2) to 

determine if facial indices evaluated on photo are not really influenced by 

head movements, in order to justify a metric comparison even in the case of 

a not perfect parametric superimposition. 

Materials and method: 20 subjects were invited to take up a precise 

series of different head positions and then filmed in two different times. 

246

Image acquisition was made, taking care to place each subject exactly on 

the same environment, position and attitude using the same lighting, filming 

equipment and technique. All the films were taken with diffuse, known 

studio lighting, using a professional video camera with variable focus fixed 

at a distance of about 4 mt. A prior superimposition, correctly carried out, 

was essential for the subsequent metric analysis of compared images. Two 

sets images of the face were taken for each subject from different facial 

angles (frontal, rotated 15° and 30° to the right and left, 20° flexion and 20° 

extension). In each images it was possible to identify accurately 

anthropological points such as glabella, nasion, gnathion, subnasal point, 

super and subauralis points, etc. The height of the face was measured as the 

distance between the nasion (the deepest point of the root of the nose) and 

the gnathion (the lowest point on the median sagittal plane of the front of 

the chin); the height of the nose, defined as the distance from the nasion to 

the subnasal point (apex of the naso-labial angle on the median sagittal 

plane); the height of the chin, defined as the distance between the stomion 

(the point where the median sagittal plane converges with the labial 

commissure, with the mouth closed) and the gnathion; the height of the ears, 

defined as the distance in a straight line from the apex of the helix to the 

lowest point of the lob). The following facial indices were thus calculated: 

Index X: (chin height/morphological height of the face); Index Y: (nose 

height/morphological height of the face); Index Z: (ear 

height/morphological height of the face). 

The four facial indices were then calculated from each image; the aim 

was to verify if there were substantial statistic differences comparing the 

index values of the face belonging to the same subjects taken in different 

time and in the same position of the head and then to verify if there were 

statistical differences comparing facial indices belonging to the same 

subjects taken in different time and in different position of the head. 

A dedicated program was used for the statistical analysis. 

Results showed: (1) the high reliability of discriminated power of the 

facial indices for personal identification just for images of the two faces in 

comparison placed in the same attitude, (2) the poor reliability of 

discriminated power of the facial indices in personal identification for face 

images in different position. 

These results stress the opportunity to use facial indices as metric 

parameters for personal identification in facial comparison only if a full 

positive previous superimposition is performed. 

Personal Identification, Facial Index, Parametrical Superimposition 

H55 Ancestry Informative Markers (AIMs) 

and Forensic Anthropologist’s New 

Competition: Understanding the Theories, 

Methods, and Techniques for Allocating 

Ancestry in the Field of Forensic Genetics 

Cris E. Hughes, MA*, University of Californiaat Santa Cruz, 5405 

Prospect Road, #7, San Jose, CA 95129 

The goal of this presentation is to better understand the present 

technological ability of geneticists to determine population affinity of 

individual humans. A brief history of the field of genetic contributions to 

understanding human phenotypic and genotypic variation and its role 

within forensics will be discussed. In addition, the presentation will review 

the current standing of this new genetic competition for determining 

ancestry, while considering the differences and similarities of the 

anthropological and genetic methods and theories for making this 

determination. The presentation will also examine the future roles for both 

fields in determining population affinity of human remains while discussing 

the capabilities and limitations unique to each. 


making attendees aware of the advances in the field of genetics that show 

potential for the ability to assess ancestry. Understanding the future roles 

for both anthropologists and geneticists in determining population affinity 

of human remains and the capabilities and limitations unique to each will 

aid in our understanding of one of the most complex questions in our field: 

ancestry, race, and morhpological variation. 

The goal of this presentation is to update the forensic anthropological 

community on the advances in the field of genetics that show potential for 

the ability to assess ancestry. After this informative presentation, the 

audience will better understand the present technological ability of 

geneticists to determine population affinity of individual humans. A brief 

history of the field of genetic contributions to understanding human 

phenotypic and genotypic variation and its role within forensics will be 

discussed. In addition, the presentation will review the current standing of 

this new genetic-based technique for determining ancestry, while 

considering the differences and similarities of the anthropological and 

genetic methods and theories for making this determination. The 

presentation will also examine the future roles for both fields in determining 

population affinity of human remains while discussing the capabilities and 

limitations unique to each. 

This new genetic technology called ancestry informative markers, or 

AIMs, and other types of population sorting genetics were originally 

developed for understanding population-based diseases or the prevalence of 

certain diseases in specific populations. Along with this research that 

utilized portions of the genetics sequence of populations, it became possible 

to look for genetic characteristics that were unique to each sampled 

population. With the discovery of these unique AIMs, the questions of race, 

region, and ethnicity have made their way into genetic studies. Sampling 

techniques, population boundaries, and preconceived ideas about race all 

play a major role in the interpretation of the genetic data. Additionally, the 

ethical treatment of data and public access to the data are presently disputed 

topics. Current discussions in the field of population genetics focus on 

these issues and how to approach these topics with an air of objectiveness— 

something that forensic anthropologists have sought to attain for decades. 

Though geneticist are far from reaching a conclusion, these dialogues 

often parallel those within forensic and physical anthropology surrounding 

race and morphological population variation. With the onset of a different 

field of expertise attempting to allocate and understand ancestry in the 

forensic context, it is the responsibility of the forensic anthropologist to 

understand how these assessments are made and how we can collaborate 

with the field of forensic genetics to initiate a more accurate understanding 

and ability of the allocation of ancestry. 

References: 

1 Bamshad M., Wooding S.,Salisbury B.A.,Stephens J.C. 2004.. 

Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race. Nat. Rev. 

Genet. 5, 598−609 

2 Yang et al. 2005. Examination of ancestry and ethnic affiliation using 

highly informative diallelic DNA markers: application to diverse and 

admixed populations and implications for clinical epidemiology and 

forensic medicine. Human Genet. 118:382-392. 

3 Hinds et al. 2005. Whole-Genome patterns of common DNA 

variation in three human populations. Science 307:1072 

4 Rosenberg et al. 2003. Informativenes of genetic markers for 

inference of ancestry. Am. J. Hum. Gen. 73:1402-1422. 

5 Collins-Schramm et al. 2004. Mexican American ancestryinformative 

markers: examination of population structure and marker 

characteristics in European Americans, Mexican Americans, 

Amerindians and Asians. Hum, Genet. 114:263-271. 

6 Kittles, R.A. and Weiss, K.M. 2003. Race, Ancestry, and Genes: 

Implications for Defining Disease. Annual Review Genomics Hum. 

Genet. 4:33-67. 

7 Templeton, A.R. 1999. Human Races: A Genetic and Evolutionary 

Perspective. American Anthropologist 100(3):632-650. 

Ancestry, Genetics, Race 

H56 Introduction to the Use and Limits of 




Human Remains 

Jurian A. Hoogewerff, PhD*, University of East Anglia, , Norwich, 

Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UNITED KINGDOM 

The presentation is focused on familiarizing forensic anthropologists 

with elemental and isotopic analysis of human remains as part of the special 

session “new technologies in forensic anthropology.” 


providing a basic understanding of what information elemental and isotopic 

profiling can and cannot provide. In this presentation, attention will be 

giving to sampling techniques, test design, calibration and validation of the 

instrumental techniques, risk factors, and methods for interpretation. A 

quick overview of the state of the art and the directions for future research 

will be included. 

The ultimate goal in the investigation of unidentified human remains 

is establishing the identity of the individuals. DNA analysis and odontology 

are the only truly confirmative techniques but the identification requires 

reference samples and/or ante-mortem data. In cases where (initially) 

reference samples and/or ante-mortem data are not available geographical 

provenancing with environmental markers can provide the investigators 

with possibilities for more effective searching by excluding options. 

Of the environmental markers with a systematic and documented 

geographical distribution, pollen and the bio-available elemental and 

isotopic markers from water, soil, plants and livestock are the most 

promising for forensic investigations. 

Large scale systematic, roughly latitudal, spatial differences in the 

hydrogen and oxygen isotopic composition of rainwater and subsequently 

drinking water are transferred to humans and can be used for large scale 

geographical provenancing. Regional differences in bedrock geology, soil 

mineralogy and reflect themselves in the elemental and isotopic 

composition of regional food supplies which again are transferred to 

humans. In pre-modern populations with limited traveling and often local 

sourcing of food strong geo-chemical links can be observed with the 

regional elemental and isotopic profiles in the environment. In modern 

populations inter-regional travel and intercontinental sourcing of food can 

confound the theoretical characteristic regional fingerprints. 

Although contamination of the remains during environmental 

exposure or burial can confound the interpretation of the results the same 

analysis can often also indicate if such contamination has actually taken 

place. 

Consideration should be given to which parts of the remains will be 

sampled for analysis as different parts of the skeleton have different 

turnover rates and thus the analysis will give different results for different 

parts. Although the teeth are best preserved they will probably not be the 

best indication of the latest regional environmental background shortly 

before death. 

Nutritional status, disease and sex may affect both the elemental and 

isotopic profiles, e.g., heamochromatosis affecting iron status and the 

natural iron isotopic composition. 

Especially for the isotopic analysis it is useful to compare results to 

databases or spatial models and maps. However the test design and the 

analytical accuracy between different laboratories needs to addressed first 

and the effects on the interpretation needs to be assessed. A proper test 

design and investigation need also to deliver statements about the (spatial) 

uncertainty or likelihood of the results. 

Examples will be given of this research in which we investigate how 

to bring together all relevant case information, e.g., DNA profiles, physical 

anthropological traits, elemental and isotopic information, palynology and 

other environmental markers in one regional Geo-graphical Information 

System which will allow a new level of complexity and thus also a new 

level of querying and ultimately interpretation and provenancing of 

unidentified human remains. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Provenancing, Geochemistry 


H57 Extending the Biological Profile Using 

Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope 

Analysis: Prospects and Pitfalls 

Eric J. Bartelink, PhD*, 400 West First Street, Department of 

Anthropology, Butte #311, CSUC, Chico, CA 95929-0400; Melanie 

Beasley, BS, 400 West First Street, Chico, CA 95929-0400; Chelsey A. 

Juarez, MA, Department of Anthropology, UCSC Social Science 1, 

1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about potential 

contributions of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis in forensic 

anthropology. This paper will highlight areas where stable isotope analysis 

can contribute novel information to the biological profile of unidentified 

individuals, and will address some practical and theoretical limitations of 

these applications. 


demonstrating a theoretical basis for applications of stable isotope analysis 

in forensic anthropology, and its potential for aiding in the positive 

identification of unknown individuals. 

Although stable isotope analysis has been used extensively by 

anthropologists since the 1970s to examine diet and migration patterns in 

prehistory, it has had very limited use in forensic anthropology. Stable 

isotope analysis is a commonly used tool by other forensic chemists to trace 

the origin or composition of soils, drugs, tainted foods, and poached 

animals. These same principles can be used by forensic anthropologists to 

provide a more comprehensive biological profile of unidentified remains, 

especially when standard methods of identification are unsuccessful. 

Although the biological profile typically consists of sex, age, ancestry, 

stature, and antemortem characteristics, stable isotope analysis can provide 

additional information regarding diet and migration history. Juarez [1] 

recently provided multi-elemental isotopic data using teeth from nativeborn 

Mexicans that may help to identify the birthplace for unidentified 

remains of border-crossers. Similarly, Regan et al.’s [2] multi-elemental 

isotopic study showed a high level of discrimination between dental 

remains of East Asian origin and those of U.S. servicemen and women, 

which has implications for identifying war-dead from past conflicts. 

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of 

protons but a different number of neutrons. Unlike radioisotopes, stable 

isotopes do not undergo radioactive decay over time, and thus record 

chemical signatures of biological and geological processes in nature. 

Isotopes of the same element are chemically similar, but react at different 

rates in chemical reactions due to differences in atomic mass. This results 

in the differential incorporation of one isotope over the other, a process 

known as “fractionation”, which accounts for isotopic variation in nature. 

Stable isotope ratios are measured through mass spectrometry and values 

are reported relative to an international standard using the delta (δ) notation. 

Information on human diets is usually acquired through the study of 

stable isotopes such as carbon ( 13C/ 12C) and nitrogen ( 15N/ 14N), which are 

incorporated into body tissues and provide a chemical record of plant and 

animal foods consumed. Carbon isotopes in nature vary based on the 

different photosynthetic pathways (C3, C4, CAM) of plants, which are 

passed up the foodweb to humans. Nitrogen isotopes vary based on diet, 

habitat, and aridity, and can also record the trophic level of protein 

resources consumed. δ13C and δ15N values from bone record the average 

isotopic composition of the diet over the past 10-15 years of life. However, 

δ13C and δ15N values from dental tissues provide a permanent record of 

childhood diet as teeth are forming. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes from hair 

and keratin provide a more recent dietary record acquired during their 

period of growth. 

Despite recent advances in isotopic applications in forensic 

anthropology, several limitations need to be addressed. The global scale of 

food exportation, popularity of bottled water, and lack of baseline 

information on modern populations are all limiting factors. Stable isotope 

data will continue to be most useful in cases where osteological indicators 

248

and contextual information suggest that an individual is non- native to the 

area in which they died. This paper will present data from case studies 

derived from prehistoric, historic, and modern contexts to highlight 

potential uses, abuses, and limitations of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope 

analysis in forensic anthropology. 

References: 

1 Juarez CA. Refining the isotopic fingerprint in modern Mexican 

populations: using strontium, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen to 

determine region of origin for deceased undocumented border 

crossers. Proceedings for the 59th Annual AAFS Meeting, San 

Antonio, TX, 19-24 Feb. 2007; (13)340. 

2 Regan LA, Falsetti A, Tyrrell A. Isotopic determination of region of 

origin in modern peoples: applications for identification of U.S. wardead 

from the Vietnam conflict II. Proceedings for the 59th Annual 

AAFS Meeting, San Antonio, TX, 19-24 Feb. 2007; (13):355. 

Stable Isotope Analysis, Forensic Identification, Biological Profile 

H58 Studies in Isotopic Variability: 

Investigating Human Tooth Enamel 

Chelsey A. Juarez, MA*, Department of Anthropology, UCSC Social 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about the various 

types and opportunities for isotopic variability within human tooth enamel 

studies. In particular issues of inter-tooth and intra-tooth variability, and 

sampling techniques will be discussed. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by investigating 

and highlighting the sources of isotopic variability in tooth enamel studies 

that are of most concern to forensic anthropologist performing isotopic 

analysis. 

Stable isotope analysis has provided the forensic community 

with a powerful tool for determining region of origin and migrational 

patterns in modern populations. However, for forensic scientists 

isotopically analyzing region of origin in living populations sample 

consistency can be difficult to maintain. There are a number of scenarios 

that can affect the isotopic outcome ranging from dissimilar comparative 

samples to differing sample techniques. Creating baseline comparatives 

and even comparing samples between populations works best when 

samples are chemically similar (same tooth or bone type). Unfortunately, 

similar samples from a given population maybe difficult to obtain, and there 

are few studies on modern populations documenting the isotopic variability 

present within different teeth of a given individual or within the enamel of 

a given tooth. After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about 

the various types and opportunities for isotopic variability within human 

tooth enamel studies. In particular issues of inter-tooth and intra-tooth 

variability, and sampling techniques will be discussed. This presentation 

will impact the forensic community by pinpointing the sources of isotopic 

variability in tooth enamel studies that are of most concern to forensic 

anthropologist performing isotopic analysis. 

Anthropologists have been using stable isotope technologies to 

investigate the dietary habits and migrational patterns of archaeological 

populations for decades. However, stable isotope analysis of modern 

humans within a forensic context is relatively recent. Since 2000, forensic 

anthropologists have begun to explore the application of stable isotopes to 

studies on migration and region of origin determination of modern 

populations. The isotopic analysis of modern forensic material presents 

unique obstacles previously non-existent within archaeological 

populations. For forensic anthropologist, investigating region of origin the 

major obstacles of concern are the isotopic effects of the modern diet, and 

sample population similarity. Each of these areas represents major points of 

potential variability within modern samples. . In addition to the inherent 

isotopic variability of modern samples, sample collection methodologies 

and mass spectrometry choices can contribute variation to value outcomes. 

Unfortunately, the literature contains few references investigating the 

effects of these obstacles for modern population studies. For researchers, 

understanding and investigating these obstacles is critical to the 

maintenance and reporting of quality science 

References: 

1 Beard BL, Johnson CM.. Strontium Isotope Composition of Skeletal 

Material can determine the Birth Place and Geographic Mobility of 

Humans and Animals. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 2000. 

Sep;45(5):1049-61 

2 Brown CJ, Chenery SRN, Smith B, Tomkins A, Robert GJ, Sserunjogi 

L, Thompson M. A sampling and analytical methodology for dental 

trace element analysis. The Analyst.2002.(127)319-323. 

3 Dahl SG, Allain P, Marie PJ, Mauras Y, Boivin G, Ammann P, et al., 

Incorporation and distribution of strontium in Bone. Bone, 2001. Apr; 

28(4):446-53. 

4 Price TD, Burton JH, Bentley RA. The Characterization of 

biologically available strontium isotope ratios for the study of 

prehistoric migration. Archaeometry. 2002. 44 (1) 117-135. 

5 Wright LE. Identifying immigrants to Tikal, Guatemala: Defining 

local variability in strontium isotope ratios of human tooth enamel. 

Journal of Archaeological Science, 2005. April 32 (4): 555-566. 

Stable Isotope Analysis, Variability, Tooth Enamel 

H59 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis of 

Human Cremains and Concrete 

Thomas E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner Office, 

3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37406; Jonathan W. 

Mies, PhD, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of 

Physics, Geology, and Astronomy, Department 6556, Chattanooga, 

TN 37403 

The goal of this presentation is to propose a new technology and 

method for the analysis of human cremains to distinguish between 

legitimate and contaminated ashes. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community by. The 

attendee will have increased awareness of x-ray diffraction technology to 

enhance the scientific analysis of powderized human cremains, which is the 

standard product of the crematory industry and which typically has no 

visually recognizable bone fragments. 

In the continuing pursuit to objectively characterize human cremains 

and to identify those that have been substituted or contaminated, we have 

determined the mineralogy of cremains and Portland cement and a 

combination thereof using powder x-ray diffraction (XRD). Previous 

research used inductively-coupled plasma optical emissions spectroscopy 

(ICP-OES) to sort these same samples based on their chemical 

composition. The present study has demonstrated that, although chemistry 

is a good discriminator, the presence or absence of specific crystalline 

substances, as determined by XRD, may distinguish potentially 

contaminated cremains that were not identified as such by ICP. This 

methodology for analysis of cremains had not been proposed in the forensic 

anthropology literature at the time of the Tri-State Crematory Incident 

(February 2001, Noble, Georgia). 

Powder XRD is used to measure the very small (angstrom-scale) 

dimensions between atomic planes in crystal structures, which serve to 

identify and characterize crystalline materials. Sample preparation requires 

only that the material be ground to a flour-like consistency (1 to 5 µ) and 

loaded into a sample holder. For the present study, using a Philips 


diffraction patterns were acquired for 5° to 90° 2θ radiation, and standard 

procedures PW1830/3550/3710 diffractometer, Cu K and analytical 

conditions. To identify crystalline substances, diffraction patterns were 

compared with the ICDD reference database. 

Samples used for the present study include the known cremains of 8 

adult humans (six white males, two white females) and one Canis 

familiaris, one questionable set of cremains returned from the Tri-State 

Crematory, one sample of Type I general purpose Portland cement, and one 

sample of a 50/50 mixture of known human cremains and Portland cement. 

All 12 samples were submitted to the XRD lab at UTC without any 

identifying labels, with only the knowledge that the samples include human 

cremains. 

Peaks due to hydroxylapatite (56 peaks in combined reference patterns 

24-0033, 09-0432, and 34-0010, 5° to 80° 2θ) dominate diffraction patterns 

for the eight samples of human cremains and that two of Canis. Numerous 

extra peaks (not matched by hydroxylapatite) in these patterns suggest 

minor abundances of lime, sphalerite, sal ammoniac, sylvite, or other 

phosphates, but have proven difficult to match with certainty and may 

reflect chemical and structural complexities of biological hydroxylapatite 

and its cremation-related alterations. Although the sample from the Tri- 

State Crematory was found to contain hydroxylapatite (Hap) and was 

classified as human cremains based on ICP analysis, it was also found in the 

present study to contain significant amounts of mullite (Mul), kyanite 

(Kya), and corundum (Cor), common ingredients of refractory furnace 

linings and patching products. Calcium silicates (Ca3SiO5 and Ca2SiO4) 

were identified in the sample of Portland cement; the absence of 

hydroxylapatite in this sample rules out the presence of cremains. Although 

the 50/50 mixture was not recognized as such in the blind analysis, it was 

suspected of being contaminated cremains based on the identification of 

hydroxylapatite and the undue complexity of the diffraction pattern (31 

unmatched peaks, some prominent). Upon subsequent examination of 

diffraction patterns for the 50/50 mixture and its components, their relation 

is clear. These results are summarized below: 

Sample # Material XRD Result Unmatched peaks 

(Identity) )1(5° to 80° 2 

1 human cremains Hap 12 


3 Canis cremains Hap 27 




7 Tri-State cremains Hap, Mul, Kya, Cor 5 




11 Portland cement Ca3SiO5, Ca2SiO4 6 

12 50/50 #6/#11 Hap 31 

In conclusion, powder XRD may be sufficient to discriminate 

cremains from those that are substituted or substantially contaminated. 

Undoubtedly, the combination of powder XRD, to identify crystalline 

substances, and ICP, to determine chemical composition, more perfectly 

authenticates cremains based on more complete compositional criteria. 

XRD is simpler in laboratory prep time, costs less per sample, and is widely 

available. These high-tech laboratory instruments, coupled with traditional 

anthropological methods (weight, color, fragments, artifacts) when 

applicable, take the analysis of human cremains to an unprecedented level 

of scientific objectivity. 

Human Cremains, X-ray Diffraction, Hydroxylapatite 

H60 Characterization of Lead, Transition Metal, 

and Rare Earth Element Composition of 

Human Bone by ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS 

Thomas H. Darrah, MS*, University of Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, 


University of Rochester, Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, 

Rochester, NY 14627; Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA, University of 

Rochester Medical Center, Autopsy & Neuropathology, 601 Elmwood, 

Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642; and Robert J. Poreda, PhD, University of 

Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, University of Rochester, Department of 

Earth & Environmental Sciences, Rochester, NY 14627 


about the capabilities for compositional and isotopic analysis of trace 

elements in human bone by traditional ICP-MS techniques. The suitability 

of lead, strontium, and rare earth element isotopic compositions for 

geographical sourcing of human bones will be discussed. Lead isotopic 

analysis will also be used to differentiate between the anthropogenic 

sources of human lead exposure. Laser ablation ICP-MS will be used to 

provide spatial resolution of trace element concentrations within various 

bone tissues (cortical vs. trabecular). 

This presentation will have an impact on the forensic science 

community by demonstrating the utility of trace element systematics, 

isotopic composition, as well as LA-ICP-MS techniques for the analysis of 

human bone. 

Inductively Couple Plasma Mass Spectrometry has become an 

accepted method for highly sensitive, rapid, and reliable elemental analysis 

of human bones and biological tissue. Traditional ICP-MS techniques can 

provide accurate elemental composition at or below 1 ppb in human bones. 

In this study the utility of Laser Ablation (LA)-ICP-MS applications which 

can be used to provide rapid and accurate spatial determination of trace and 

minor element concentrations is explored. A second application will 

explore the ability of ICP-MS to determine the isotopic compositions of 

lead to determine the source of environmental lead in the body for trace 

elements (i.e., Pb, Sr, and REE). 

Laser ablation ICP-MS, will be used in an attempt to provide finite 

spatial resolution for trace metal concentrations within human femoral 

heads. Previous research has established that the residence time of trace 

elements can vary by more than an order of magnitude depending on the 

type of bone tissue (i.e., Pb: trabecular: 2-3 years vs. cortical ~30 years). 

LA-ICP-MS analysis has the ability to rapidly determine minor and trace 

element concentrations across bone transects. For this reason, it is expected 

that LA-ICP-MS determination of trace element concentrations (Pb, Cd, 

Zn, etc.) may be used to quantify and differentiate between long term, timeintegrated 

trace element exposure versus more recent anthropogenic or 

environmental inputs. 

Various geochemical isotopic techniques have been employed in 

attempts at forensic provenancing (Pb, Sr, O, C, N). The trace element 

isotopic values of Sr are predominantly a function of soil isotopic values in 

the areas where food is grown or animals graze or the water consumed. As 

humans consume food or water from a specific region they inherit the 

isotopic signature of a specific environment. The application of 

environmental typing techniques has become increasingly difficult as 

humans have expanded to a ‘global’ diet obtaining foods at grocers as 

opposed to farming or local markets etc. The use of two additional isotopic 

techniques of rare earth elements and Pb isotopes is proposed which may 

provide specific uses in forensic studies. 

In a similar manner to strontium isotopes, rare earth elements (REEs) 

or lanthanides have distinctive isotopic patterns based upon the geological 

history of local soils. In many cases geological fractionation can lead to 

very identifiable REE isotopic patterns in geographical regions. 

Traditionally REEs have been thought of as having concentrations too low 

to have a significant use for biological investigations. ICP-MS analysis can 

provide accurate quantification of REEs at the low ppb level. The fact that 

REEs also have exceedingly low environmental concentrations with the 

exceptions of those used in highly specific medical procedures (Gd as a 

contrast-enhancing agent for magnetic resonance imaging and Sm as 

radionuclide therapy for painful bone metastases) provides the opportunity 

to use REEs for specific forensic applications. Unlike Ca or Sr which have 

fairly substantial concentrations in drinking water, REE concentrations are 

exceedingly low in drinking water and therefore are almost entirely 

indicative of food supply or medical procedure. REEs may provide an 

250

alternative method of addressing geographical provenance free of external 

environmental influences. REEs have also proven useful in older fossil 

analysis as REEs are more resistant to the effects of diagenesis unlike other 

environmental isotopes. 

Unlike Sr, O, C, N, and REEs, the source of Pb to humans is largely 

environmental. The source and magnitude of trace metal exposure have 

changed in the last 30 years as environmental regulations have become 

more stringent (i.e., the removal of Pb from gasoline in the mid 70’s and the 

removal of Pb oxide as a primary pigment in white paint). This study 

initially looks at Pb isotopic composition in cortical and trabecular bones. 

The authors expect that as the environmental sources of Pb have changed, 

we may expect to find isotopic variations between cortical bone and 

trabecular bone, with residence times of greater than 30 years and 2-3 years 

respectively for Pb retention. As the major sources of Pb contamination 

have been removed from the environment, cortical bone is expected to have 

high concentrations and a mixture of soil, gasoline, and lead paint Pb 

isotopic values. Conversely, trabecular bone formed in the last few years 

may have lower concentrations with isotopic values indicative of a mixture 

between modern lead sources (coal combustion, smelters, and a more 

significant input from natural soil lead). Initial results of Pb isotopic 

analysis of human bones from our study and others indicate a mixture of Pb 

from numerous environmental sources as well as geographic provenance 

which will be further explored. Pb isotopes can be useful for provenance in 

cases where subjects are from distinct geographic regions (i.e., Australia vs. 

U.S.) with specific Pb isotopic compositions. However, we intend to focus 

on the use of Pb isotopic compositions of anthropogenic sources as related 

to environmental exposure. The isotopic patterns of lead ores are distinct 

yet consistent and therefore can be used for environmental analysis and 

potentially forensic studies. For example until 1975 Pb was added to 

gasoline as an anti-knocking agent. As most refineries in the United States 

are near the Gulf of Mexico, Mississippi Valley lead ore deposits were used 

as the Pb source. The distinct isotopic composition of this lead ore has been 

used in various environmental studies to determine the source of lead and 

may be useful in forensic studies. 

Unlike geological applications of Pb isotopes, which rely on 

accurately determining exceedingly small variations in isotopic 

composition, environmental, and forensic studies can differentiate source 

by using a three isotope plot (208Pb/206Pb vs. 207Pb/206Pb) of the stable 

radiogenic Pb isotopes. Utilizing all Pb isotopes allows for easy 

determination of drastically different isotopic values. Traditional 

geochemistry employs thermal ionization-MS with 0.05-0.1% analytical 

error. This method is expensive, which may be limiting to financially 

deplete departments. The method also requires complete specimen 

destruction. A comparison of lead isotopic data to traditional TIMS methods 

will be performed. Lead analysis by ICP-MS can achieve an analytical 

error ~1% and can easily differentiate between environmental sources of 

lead. This study will demonstrate the suitability of ICP-MS and LA-ICP- 

MS for a quick and reliable method of screening for both provenance and 

environmental isotopic variations of lead isotopes and trace element 

patterns. 

Lead, Bone Chemistry, LA-ICP-MS/ICP-MS 

H61 Comparison of Portable X-ray Florescence 


Spectroscopy in the Measurement of 

Lead in Human Bone 

Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA*, University of Rochester, University of 

Rochester Medical Center, Autopsy & Neuropathology, 601 Elmwood, 

Box 626, Rochester, NY 14642; and Thomas H. Darrah, MS, University of 

Rochester, 227 Hutchison Hall, University of Rochester, Department 

Earth & Environmental Sciences, Rochester, NY 14627 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be better informed of 

the use of portable X-Ray Florescence(pXRF) instrumentation in analyzing 

human bone for lead (Pb) concentration as compared to a traditional 

laboratory-based method of Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass 

Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and laser ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS). 

This presentation will have an impact on the forensic science 

community by demonstrating the utility of portable instrumentation for 

rapid, non-destructive analysis of inorganic elements in human bone. 

Portable XRF is a relatively new technology that has benefits of being 

non-destructive to specimen samples, easy to operate, and convenient to 

transport between laboratories or for use in the field. Portable hand-held 

units are routinely used in geology, scrap metal sorting, and environmental 

monitoring, most notably for the determination of unsafe levels of lead in 

soils and paint. XRF analysis in general is capable of giving a rapid reading 

of the elemental composition of inorganic material with good sensitivity for 

elements above phosphorus in the periodic table. Lead (Pb, Z = 82), for 

example, has a detection limit between 10 – 100 ppm. Additionally, the unit 

used in this study is built with a miniaturized X-ray source for atom 

excitation instead of a radioactive isotope, eliminating the need for special 

transportation permits as well as reducing the potential occupational 

exposure hazard of operators. 

The goal of this study is to explore the reliability of pXRF results with 

those of a “gold standard” of inorganic analytical analysis in bone 

chemistry, ICP-MS. The study will also explore the utility of laser ablation 

ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS). Traditional ICP-MS requires destruction of a 

sample and acid digestion prior to analysis, while LA-ICP-MS requires 

minimal destruction of

commingled remains, or the rapid analysis of a large number of samples, 

whether bone, teeth, or other material containing inorganic elements. The 

capability of the equipment to measure more than one element per analysis 

may show to be useful in constructing elemental ratios between different 

fragments of material, to perhaps establish provenance to a single 

individual. This presentation will only focus on the inorganic element of 

Pb, with bone serving as the biomarker of environmental exposure. 

Portable X-ray Florescence (pXRF), Lead (Pb), Bone 

H62 Species Identification of Fragmented Bone: 

Evaluation of a New Method of Pyrolysis 

and X-ray Diffraction Analysis 

Sophie Beckett, MSc*, and Keith D. Rogers, PhD, Cranfield University, 

Cranfield Forensic Institute, Department of Materials and Applied 

Science, Shrivenham, Swindon, SN6 8LA, UNITED KINGDOM 

After attending this presentation, delegates will have been introduced 

to the method of pyrolysis and X-ray diffraction analysis for species 

identification of bone. 

The presentation will impact the forensic community through the 

availability of a quantitative analytical technique for species identification 

and is of interest to a wide range of forensic investigators. It is relevant to 

a wide range of forensic situations such as murder investigations, mass 

fatality response, customs investigations, quality assurance of crematoria 

practices, and quality assurance of animal feed production. 

When bone is recovered in forensic scene examinations or confiscated 

through customs investigations, the establishment of species identity is 

often crucial. In most cases, this is achieved by identifying unequivocal 

morphological features of a particular species on the recovered bone. 

However, species identification can be challenging when bone lacks any 

distinguishing morphological characteristics. Such situations arise, for 

example, with severely fragmented or powdered bone. In these cases, the 

limitations of the existing techniques that are currently available to forensic 

investigators restrict their success at species determination. 

This paper introduces a new means of species identification of bone; 

a combined method of pyrolysis and X-ray diffraction analysis. Research 

and development of this technique has shown that variation in the 

crystallographic characteristics of bone mineral exist between different 

animal species. Human bone, in particular, is distinct from that of other 

species studied. The method quantitatively discriminates between species 

based on this variation in bone mineral chemistry. 

The results of this research are evaluated and discussed with particular 

consideration of inter and intra species variation. The potential value of the 

method is also discussed in comparison with other techniques currently 

available to forensic investigators, in the context of their validity, reliability, 

and relevance as evidence in court. 

Species, Identification, Bone 

H63 Estimating Body Mass From Bone Mineral 


Megan K. Moore, MS*, University of Tennessee, 301 Perkins Hall, 

Department of Mech, Aero, & Biomed Engineering, Knoxville, TN; and 

Dixie L. Thompson, PhD, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Department 

of Exercise, Sports and Leisure Studies, 340 Health, Physical Education, 

and Recreation Building, Knoxville, TN 37996 

The goal of this presentation is to enable forensic anthropologists to 


estimate body mass from human skeletal remains. 


showing a strong correlation between body mass and bone mineral density 

of the proximal femur and significant differences between different weight 

classifications for white females. 

This research explores the relationship of body mass and bone mineral 

density of the proximal femur using Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry 

(DEXA). The ability to estimate body mass from the human skeleton has 

received considerable attention, but previous research has failed to take into 

account extremes of body mass due to the restraints of the research 

collections. The William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection at the 

University of Tennessee, Knoxville offers a unique opportunity to study 

modern individuals of known age, height and weight. 

According to functional morphologists, bones need to be light enough 

for locomotion but strong enough for support. Bones must be strong 

enough to support the body mass of the ambulatory individual or otherwise 

fracture. As individuals become obese or emaciated, this relationship 

becomes exaggerated. The authors propose that body mass will correlate 

well with bone mineral density and could be used to estimate the body mass 

of unidentified human remains. 

Our research focuses on the proximal femur of a sample of skeletal 

remains of 23 modern white females between the ages of 32 and 84 with a 

mean age of 58. Height and weight data was available for all individuals to 

determine the body mass index (BMI)(kg/m2). All femora were cleaned 

and dried. Each femur was placed in a plastic container filled with dry 

white rice to a depth of approximately 12 cm. The rice served as a softtissue 

density equivalent for the DEXA scans, as suggested by GE, the 

producer of the DEXA Lunar scanner. A 2 cm thick cube of low-density 

foam was placed under the lesser trochanter to approximate anatomical 

position. 

Standard measurements of bone mineral density (BMD)(g/cm2) were 

calculated automatically for the femoral neck, Wards triangle, the greater 

trochanter, proximal shaft and total BMD. The Pearson correlation 

coefficient for total BMD and BMI is r = 0.73 and for the proximal femur 

and BMI, the correlation is r = 0.75. ANOVA and two-tailed paired t-tests 

were used to evaluate whether significant differences existed between 

different weight classifications. When comparing obese (BMI>30) 

individuals to emaciated (BMI

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Baylor University, Department of Anthropology and 

Forensic Science, Forensic Research Lab, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, 

TX 76798-7388; Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996- 

0720; Yasmine M. Baktash, BA, Baylor University, One Bear Place 

#97388, Waco, TX 76798; and J. Randall Pearce, DDS, 3769 West 

Andrew Johnson Highway, Morristown, TN 37814 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate that the application of 

instant glue or cyanoacrylate can help to prevent damage to teeth in skeletal 

collections without preventing subsequent DNA analysis. 


way to help preserve essential skeletal collections for future study. 

Skeletal collections are essential to forensic anthropologists and are 

used to establish criteria for the examination and identification of forensic 

skeletal cases. Vital information regarding population variation can be 

ascertained to determine biological guidelines regarding age, sex, stature 

and affinity. Reference collections therefore must be preserved for 

continued research and assessment. 

The Department of Anthropology at The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville houses modern skeletal collections containing roughly 700 

individuals. These Forensic and Donated Skeletal Collections were 

initiated by Dr. Bill Bass in 1972 and 1981 respectively. Each year these 

collections are examined by researchers from around the world and have 

provided data to establish criteria for the identification and analysis of 

forensic skeletal cases. The importance of these collections and others like 

them is well documented in the hundreds of journal articles and scholarly 

presentations generated from the study of these curated skeletons. 

Unfortunately, because of the antiquity of some of the samples, preservation 

concerns have arisen. In particular, cracking and breaking of the teeth of 

older specimens has been observed. 

Instant glue or cyanoacrylate can help to prevent damage and 

degradation of teeth in skulls that undergo a great deal of handling such as 

those in study and reference collections and like those used during facial 

reconstruction. While cyanoacrylate protects teeth from successive 

damage, it is unknown if its chemical presence will preclude other types of 

future analyses such as DNA testing. This project investigates the viability 

of subsequent DNA analysis from teeth after the application of 

cyanoacrylate for preservation. 

The DNA from twelve teeth was examined. Six teeth were treated 

with cyanoacrylate and six teeth were untreated to serve as controls. Each 

set of teeth consisted of two incisors, two premolars and two molars. DNA 

was extracted using a silica/guanidine thiocyanate extraction procedure. 

DNA was quantified by qPCR as well as gel electrophoresis. Mitochondrial 

DNA sequence analysis was performed for each of the teeth to examine the 

quality of DNA after treatment as well as to assess any potential 

contamination contributed by researchers. Strict controls were employed to 

preclude and detect external DNA contamination. 

The quantity of DNA amplified from untreated samples was greater 

than the DNA from treated samples. Most likely a portion of the 

cyanoacrylate is not alleviated during the extraction process and carries 

over into PCR analysis and having an inhibitory effect on amplification. 

Although treated tooth samples had a diminished DNA quantity, all teeth 

were successfully analyzed. Mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis was 

possible from both untreated and treated teeth. Extraction and PCR blanks 

were void of signal and sequence data did not match that of any researchers 

involved in the study. 

Skeletal Preservation, DNA, Teeth 

H65 Forensic Bone Toxicology 

Melinda L. Carter, PhD*, 302 Heritage Drive, De Soto, IL 62924 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce a new direction in bone 

chemistry research that aims to identify what types of drugs or toxic metals 

are recoverable from skeletonized remains and how their presence and/or 

concentration will benefit medicolegal death investigation. The audience 

will learn the history of published research and case reports on this subject, 

as well as the development of a pilot study on how drug use affects skeletal 

and dental health. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by identifying 

new toxicological data that can be obtained from skeletonized or badly 

decomposed remains. Such information can aid victim identification and/or 

determining circumstances surrounding the manner of death. The impact of 

chronic drug use and abuse on systemic skeletal health has significant 

clinical applications and will likely benefit future anthropological 

evaluations of remains in a medicolegal context. 

Many forensic anthropologists agree that future research needs to 

elucidate the meaning of the molecular structure of hard tissues. The 

application of stable isotopic bone chemistry, for example, to the 

identification of geographic origin of deceased Mexican immigrants (Juarez 

2007) or potential U.S. war dead (Beard and Johnson, 2000), is a novel use 

of an investigative tool long used in bioarchaeological research. Bone 

biochemistry changes continuously from birth to death because of its role 

in mineral homeostasis, acid-base balance, responses to changing 

mechanical forces, and hematopoiesis. In addition to digestive byproducts, 

bone can incorporate drugs and/or their metabolic byproducts as well as 

trace metals from blood, although the pharmacokinetics of their distribution 

and uptake into the organic and inorganic phases of bone are not 

understood. 

The first anthropological application of “forensic bone toxicology” of 

which the author is aware is the case summarized by Stout and Ross (1991). 

With only small bone fragments recovered, Dr. Stout employed 

microscopic and histomorphometric techniques (Milch et al. 1958) to 

identify tetracycline (an antibiotic) incorporated for some length of time 

into the victim’s bones. DNA ultimately confirmed identity of the victim, 

who had taken the drug for several months prior to her murder. Other 

forensic reports of finding drugs in bone samples are limited. The only 

published summary of drugs recoverable from bone is McIntyre et al. 

(2000). Noguchi et al. (1978), who showed that amitriptyline could be 

recovered from bone, thus confirming that the decedent had committed 

suicide, published the first paper urging others to analyze skeletal remains 

for toxicological evidence. Subsequent published case reports mostly 

document intentional or accidental drug overdoses. These reports include 

Terazawa and Takatori (1982; aminopyrine, cyclobarbital), Benko (1985; 

amobarbital, glutethimide), Bal et al. (1989; dextropropoxyphene, 

chlorazepate potassium), and Horak and Jenkins (2005; citralopram). 

Chronic alcohol abuse also can be assessed from rib marrow soon after 

death (Schloegl et al., 2006). Case studies on overdose and homicide 

victims buried from seven months to five years show that drugs can still be 

recovered from bone and/or marrow despite a lengthy postmortem interval 

(Terazawa and Takatori, 1982; Kajima et al., 1986; Kudo et al., 1997; 

Maeda et al., 1997; Raikos et al., 2001). Acute metal toxicity has also been 

determined from bone (aluminum, de Wolff et al., 2002; fluoride, de 

Menezes et al., 2003; lead, Lech, 2005). Controlled animal studies indicate 

that certain benzodiazepines (midazolam, Gorczynski and Melbye, 2001) 

and morphine (Cengiz et al., 2006) can be recovered from bone/marrow. 

Additional references for bone marrow research using animal models are 

listed in Schloegl et al. (2006). Bisphosphonates are the largest class of 

drugs that target bone mineral, but their use is widespread and less 

informative to forensic investigation (Russell and Rogers, 1999). 

Chronic substance use can have systemic effects on skeletal health in 

living patients. This presentation will address how the long-term use of 

alcohol, nicotine, statins, NSAIDS, antidepressants/-epileptics/-psychotics, 

heroine, methamphetamines, and other drugs adversely affect skeletal 

health in addicts. A developing research project will be outlined. Because 

drugs can be detected in bone, anthropologists should pursue toxicological 

analysis of skeletal remains. Further research is needed to assess bone 

pharmacokinetics, the diagnostic value of bone-drug concentrations, and 

the effects of the postmortem interval. Skeletal and dental pathology 


caused by chronic substance use might one day be recognized in human 

skeletal remains. 

Bone Chemistry, Toxicology, Drugs 

H66 In Vivo Facial Tissue Depth Study of Adult 

Chinese Americans in New York City 

Wing Nam J. Chan, MA*, 4720 210th Street, Bayside, NY 11361; Mary H. 

Manhein, MA, Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana 

State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, 1723 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the basic 

principles of facial soft tissue depth studies, differences between facial soft 

tissue depth studies by populations, anatomical differences between 

Chinese-Americans and other American populations, and the elements and 

applications of forensic facial reconstructions. 


key information to help identify remains from the underrepresented 

Chinese-American population in the American forensic community. 

The Chinese population has increased dramatically in the urban areas 

of the United States in the last five years. Despite this increase in population 

size, facial tissue depth information is limited for the population. As a 

result, when forensic facial reconstructions are created for Chinese 

individuals, datasets for other Mongoloid populations must be used. 

Previous studies have shown that different racial populations have varying 

facial tissue depth and this practice can result in inaccurate reconstructions 

that diminish the possibility of a positive identification. It is detrimental 

that each racial population has their own facial tissue depth dataset. 

Forensic facial reconstructions are created by forensic artists as a 

means of identification of skeletal remains when other conventional 

methods to produce an identification are unsuccessful. Traditional 

American methods of creating three dimensional facial reconstructions 

require the use of facial tissue depth datasets. Facial tissue depth datasets 

comprise of measurements collected at various facial landmarks. The 

number of landmarks used in data collection and facial reconstructions are 

at the forensic artist’s discretion. Some researchers obtain measurements 

from as few as 14 to as many as 54 facial landmarks for their datasets. 

Rubber markers are placed at the landmarks and clay is placed around the 

stoppers and slowly built up to resemble a human face. Soft tissue areas 

such as the nose and the ears are open to artistic interpretation. 

Various methods have been employed to collect facial tissue depth 

data. The oldest and most commonly used method for facial tissue depth 

data is the needle puncture method. Sooted needles are inserted into facial 

landmarks on cadaver subjects and the portion of the needles without soot 

is measured. Variations of the sooted needle method, including the needle 

and rubber stopper method, were used to collect facial tissue depth 

measurements. In recent years, ultrasound, CT, and MRI techniques have 

replaced the more traditional needle methods. In addition to these new 

techniques, cadaver studies were abandoned in favor of using live subjects. 

The use of live subjects for data collection produces accurate measurements 

and subsequently, more exact facial reconstructions. In vivo datasets are the 

measurements of living individual whereas cadaver datasets try to mimic 

living individuals using measurements taken in the prone position and from 

recently deceased individuals. 

The subjects of these facial tissue depth studies range in weight, body 

mass index, and age. The first studies divided the subjects into three weight 

categories: emaciated, normal, and overweight individuals. Emaciated 

individuals have the thinnest facial tissue whereas overweight individuals 

have the thickest facial tissue. The weight categories are divided using the 

body mass index. Age categories are divided at the researcher’s discretion, 

usually spanning ten years. 

The authors will present an in vivo adult New York City Chinese- 

American facial tissue depth dataset. The dataset consists of measurements 

from 101 individuals and 67 of the individuals are of normal weight. 


Normal weight is identified as individuals having a BMI of 19-25, as 

designated by the Center for Disease Control. The individuals range from 

ages 18-90. The results of the study show noticeable differences between 

the Chinese individuals and those of other racial populations. 

Forensic Facial Reconstructions, Chinese Americans, Facial Tissue Depth 

H67 Who Is This Person? A Comparison 

Study of Current 3-Dimensional 

Facial Approximation Methods 

Summer J. Decker, MABMH*, and Don R. Hilbelink, PhD, Department. 

of Pathology and Cell Biology, University of South Florida College of 

Medicine, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Boulevard, MDC11, Tampa, FL 33612; 

Eric J. Hoegstrom, MSBE, Department of Chemical Engineering, 

University of South Florida College of Engineering, Tampa, FL 33612; 

Carl K. Adrian, Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2501 Investigation 

Parkway, Attn: Carl Adrian/IPGU Rm. #1170, Quantico, VA 22135; and 

Stephanie L. Davy-Jow, Department of Archaeology, University of 

Sheffield, Northgate House, West Street, Sheffield, S1 4ET, UNITED 

KINGDOM 

This presentation will provide insight into the current state of the field 

of facial approximation by providing the results of a unique threedimensional 

study conducted on a living individual by an international team 

of human identification specialists. The results of the clay modeling and 

advanced computerized facial approximations will be compared both 

visually and quantitatively. The strengths and weaknesses in each method 

will be addressed and comparison images will be provided. 


increase scientific knowledge of new technologies and methods available to 

the forensic community for human cranial identification. It will also 

attempt to advance current understanding of facial approximation methods 

which are commonly utilized by law enforcement to identify unknown 

individuals. 

The goal of this project was to test current three-dimensional facial 

approximation methods currently used by forensic identification 

researchers and specialists. 

Facial approximation is a common tool utilized in forensic human 

identification. Three-dimensional imaging technologies allow researchers 

to go beyond traditional clay models to now create virtual computed models 

of anatomical structures. The goal of this study was to compare the 

accuracy of available methods of facial approximation ranging from clay 

modeling to advanced computer facial reconstruction techniques. 

Anatomically accurate virtual models of both the skull and of the 

surface contour of the face were computed from CT image data of the head 

region of a living individual. The individual was CT scanned and the 

volumetric data from the scan was taken into the visualization software 

Mimics (© Materialise). A FloodFill method of seeding the image was done 

to select only the bone pixels in the data set. This 3-D volumetric pixel 

grouping was then filtered of artifact holes and closed to create one 

unsegmented structure. The data set was then rendered into a 3-D Model 

and exported as a Stereolithographic file (STL). The virtual facial 

approximation participants were provided with the STL files and a standard 

biological profile determined by a forensic anthropologist. Virtual models 

were created using 3ds Max © (v.9). An accurate full size prototype of the 

skull was then produced from the computed virtual skull model using a 3D 

ZPrinter 310 (© ZCorp) printer which was then submitted to the clay model 

specialist. 

A face was constructed on the skull prototype by an experienced, 

professional forensic visual identification specialist from the Federal 

Bureau of Investigation using traditional clay facial approximation 

techniques. 

Virtual facial approximations were also produced using two computerbased 

techniques. One method, utilized by law enforcement in the United 

Kingdom and developed by experts at the University of Sheffield, uses the 

254

software package, 3ds Max © (v.8) to create virtual clay models over the 

skull. The other method in this study tested the FBI’s new facial 

approximation software program, Reface ©. 

In the University of Sheffield’s FaceIT method, the skull image 

obtained from the CT was imported into 3ds Max © (v.8). A plane was 

constructed and placed to represent the Frankfurt Horizontal Plane to enable 

standardization of views. Tissue depth markers, represented by pyramids, 

were placed at 32 craniometric landmark points on the skull. Based on the 

anthropologist’s biological profile, the depths were taken from previously 

established data sets for the corresponding individual’s profile. A 

prefabricated facial muscle set was then scaled and deformed to match the 

morphology of the skull. Other anatomical features such as the eyeballs, 

lips, and ears were also imported from a feature data bank based on 

established anthropological characteristics. 

A visual information specialist from the Federal Bureau of 

Investigation was enlisted to test their most current computerized facial 

approximation method, Reface © software. The FBI’s software imports the 

STL files and creates a mask over the virtual skull based on a database of 

standard craniofacial features. The software package allows the user to 

make adjustments to the mask on a sliding scale for age and weight. 

The results from all three methods (clay and virtual) were compared 

visually to each other and collectively to the actual features of the living 

individual to determine the level of accuracy and detail that each provided. 

A quantitative study was also conducted to establish the accuracy of each 

method. This project demonstrates the wide range of variation between 

commonly used facial identification methods. The benefit of this study was 

having a living individual to test the strengths and weaknesses of each 

method. Resulting images and models will be available for conference 

participants to review to provide additional input into our evaluation 

process. 

Facial Approximation, 3-D Modeling, Human Identification 

H68 Advances in Computer Graphic 

Facial Recognition Software: 

Matching Facial Approximations 

to Antemortem Photographs 

Murray K. Marks, PhD*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 252 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Diana K. 

Moyers, MA, Visiting Scientist, CFSRU, FBI Laboratory, FBI Academy, 

Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135; Peter H. Tu, PhD, GE Global 

Research, Imaging Technologies, 1 Research Circle, Niskayuna, NY 

12309; and Philip N. Williams, BS, FBI Laboratory, CFSRU, Building 12, 



introductory nature of automated facial approximation technologies and the 

use of facial approximation software in comparative isolation of images 

from large photographic image data sets to identify unidentified human 

remains. 

Conventional facial approximation techniques suffer from a range of 

subjective inaccuracies that prevent human observers from accurately 

identifying an approximation with a known photograph of the victim. The 

use of automated facial recognition technology to analyze automated facial 

approximations will eliminate much of the subjectivity from the traditional 

process and strengthen the reliability of identifying unknown remains. 

A recent Bureau of Justice Statistics preliminary report states there are 

over 40,000 sets of unidentified human remains curated by medical 

examiners, coroners, and forensic anthropologists in the United States. [1] 

Additionally, hundreds or thousands of mutilated/disfigured and/or 

decomposing remains may result from genocide, warfare or mass natural or 

human-made disasters. Traditional methods of facial approximation are 

unable to effectively address these issues. Clearly, there is an urgent need 

to be able to systematically and correctly process large numbers of victims 

in a cost-efficient and expeditious manner. 

One such method in development is a computerized facial 

approximation system termed ReFace (Reality Enhancement Facial 

Approximation by Computational Estimation). Developed by the Federal 

Bureau of Investigation with General Electric Global Research, the 

prototype extrapolates an approximation of a face from a skull using a 

database library of computed tomography (CT) scans of living individuals. 

The purpose of this collaboration was to determine whether facial 

recognition software could more accurately match computer images with 

antemortem photographs than could be achieved by human examiners. 

Previous research has tested the success of the subjective human examiners 

in matching ReFace generated approximations with antemortem 

photographs. [2] 

Facial approximations from 50 skulls from the William M. Bass 

Donated Skeletal Collection at the University of Tennessee were prepared 

using prototype facial approximation software. Antemortem photographs 

of the test subjects were added to the photographic database of the facial 

recognition software. Each facial approximation was entered into the facial 

recognition system as an “unknown” with the anticipation that the actual 

antemortem photograph of test subjects would be selected as a potential 

match by the facial recognition software. 

The results were analyzed by those not involved in the approximation 

preparation or with the recognition testing. These results and the 

applicability of this method for forensic casework will be discussed. 

References: 

1 Ritter, N. 2007. Missing Persons and Unidentified Remains: The 

Nation’s Silent Mass Disaster. National Institute of Justice Journal 

256:2-7. 

2 Moyers, D.K. 2007. Validation Study of ReFace (Reality Enhanced 

Facial Approximation by Computational Estimation). Unpublished 

M.A.Thesis, University of Tennessee at Knoxville 

Facial Recognition, Facial Approximation, Computer Prototype 

H69 Accreditation of the Small Skeletal 


Vincent J. Sava, MA*, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and John E. 

Byrd, PhD, JPAC, Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


Upon the completion of this presentation, the participants will have a 

greater understanding of the importance of accreditation to the small 

skeletal laboratory, problems faced by laboratories working toward 

accreditation and effective work-arounds and solutions. Effective 

management strategies employed during the accreditation process, and the 

assistance available from the CIL in order to obtain accreditation. 

Additionally, the participant will gain an appreciation of the importance of 

accreditation in elevation the forensic anthropology profession. 


demonstrating how quality assurance programs in forensic laboratories and 

activities have been a growing trend over the past decade. Since 1999 the 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification Laboratory 

(JPAC-CIL) has implemented a stringent quality assurance program to 

ensure the scientific integrity of its casework. The CIL’s quality assurance 

program ultimately led to the Laboratory’s accreditation in trace evidence 

by the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors Laboratory 

Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB) in 2003–the first forensic skeletal 

identification laboratory to be so credentialed. However, smaller skeletal 

laboratories, lacking the resources of the CIL, have been reluctant to 

undertake accreditation. Assistance and guidance outlined in this 

presentation may ease their accreditation process. Once additional skeletal 

laboratories are accredited, human identification can become a separate 

recognized discipline within 

ASCLD-LAB. 

Accreditation of forensic laboratories is becoming the norm in the 


forensic profession with some jurisdictions now legislating accreditation. 

With accreditation becoming almost universally accepted in the forensic 

profession, failure to achieve this milestone may have serious jurisprudence 

implications for deficient laboratories in the coming years. The human 

identification profession and forensic anthropology in particular, has lagged 

in efforts to have its laboratories accredited—with one notable exception. 

Since 2003, the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 

Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) has been accredited under the 

American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors Laboratory Accreditation 

Board (ASCLD-LAB). The CIL sought accreditation for the following 

reasons: 

• To improve the quality of CIL services provided to the 

POW/MIA mission. 

• To develop and maintain criteria that can be used by the CIL to 

assess its level of performance and to strengthen its operation. 

• To provide an independent, impartial, and objective system by 

which the CIL can benefit from a total operational review. 

• To offer to the POW/MIA mission and to other users of CIL 

services a means of determining that the CIL has met established 

standards. 

Admittedly, the CIL was in a very favorable position to achieve 

accreditation relative to other skeletal identification laboratories. This 

research had ample budget, support from the higher echelons of command, 

and a management staff dedicated to the effort. As such, numerous 

obstacles were surmounted, including but not limited to: 

• SOP writing and implementation 

• Security upgrades 

• Facility improvements and expansion 

• Hiring of a full time Quality Manager and additional staff to 

offset declines in productivity 

• Equipment modernization 

• Available time 

• Progressive attitude of those involved 

During the initial accreditation process, and in the intervening years 

now leading to re-accreditation, the CIL gained an appreciation to just 

which obstacles are the most formidable for the smaller laboratory. The 

findings are surprising. All of the above obstacles have relatively easy and 

inexpensive fixes and uncomplicated work-arounds. Save one—the quality 

and quantity of staff involved. 

In this regard, the smaller laboratory has the advantage. A small staff 

with little annual turnover is easier to train, monitor, and to exercise 

corrective action over. In the CIL, with a staff of over 70 frequently 

deployed personnel (including managers), and an annual turnover rate of 

12-20 %, accreditation becomes increasingly difficult as management 

involvement with accreditation becomes diluted in favor of other issues. 

This is exacerbated by the fact that laboratory policies and SOPs naturally 

become more intricate as the quantity of staff increases. Add the fact that 

CIL case work (and human identification, in general) is more diverse than 

other forensic disciplines. Taken together, training is consistently a problem 

as there is almost no instance where the entire staff can be assembled and 

trained more than superficially on the current SOPs. In effect, as staff size 

increases, control is lost, in favor of a “herding cats” scenario. 

Other obstacles noted above seem formidable but chances are the 

small skeletal laboratory already has rudimentary systems and programs in 

place that would only need minor adjustments to bring them into 

compliance for accreditation. For example, existing intrusion detection 

systems (IDS) on university buildings may lend themselves to relatively 

inexpensive upgrades to achieve the desired standard. One university 

related that they already had an IDS in order to keep unauthorized persons 

from tampering with their x-ray machine. This university imposed safety 

requirement was adapted to evidence security. Evidence was eventually 

stored in a locked cabinet co-located in the room with the x-ray machine. 

Laboratories situated on the second floor or above do not need bars or 

similar barriers on the windows in most instances. These types of workarounds 

are numerous and widely varied and, are limited only by the 

imagination of the staffs involved. 


As the CIL continues to expand it quality assurance programs, to 

include seeking re-accreditation under the more stringent ISO 17025 

standards, new sets of problems are generated. One is the issue of the 

competency of its subcontractors. Under ISO, the CIL is responsible to 

prove the competency of those it selects to subcontract tasks. Accordingly, 

the CIL has a certification program where we send our staff to certify the 

quality of operations of a subcontractor by conducting an on-site survey of 

their facilities and operations. 

For smaller skeletal laboratories that have the potential to act as a CIL 

subcontractor, the certification program is a valuable tool with which to 

achieve accreditation. Using ASCLD-LAB standards, the CIL will survey 

your laboratory and provide guidance and advice on what need to be done 

to achieve accreditation. A certification by the CIL means that the assisted 

laboratory can perform subcontracted work for the CIL and only has minor 

obstacles to over come to achieve full accreditation. In addition to sending 

teams to your laboratory, the CIL will help your laboratory get started by 

making its laboratory manual available to the participants. This will 

improve the quality of your laboratory from the onset while saving your 

organization hundreds of man-hours in work and staffing. 

In conclusion, the CIL believes it is in the best interests of the small 

skeletal laboratory to become accredited. Many of the staff in these 

facilities eventually become employed at the CIL. Additionally, until the 

qualifications of obtaining diplomate status in ABFA become more 

inclusive and less exclusive, working in an accredited laboratory may be the 

only professional credentials enjoyed by the majority of anthropologists. 

Finally, ASCLD-LAB is amenable to adopting Human Identification a 

recognized discipline provided more skeletal laboratories become 

accredited. Once this is done, anthropologists will have a stake in 

formulating the criteria for accrediting skeletal identification laboratories. 

Accreditation, ASCLD-LAB, Central Identification Laboratory 

H70 Testing the Demirjian Method and the 

International Demirjian Method on 

an Urban American Sample 

Nicole M. Burt, MS*, Forensic Anthropology Laboratory, Michigan State 

University, A-439 East Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand how to use 

the Demirjian [1] dental aging method for subadults and the international 

Demirjian [2] dental aging method for subadults, as well as, understanding the 

validity of using the Demirjian method in America. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by widely 

introducing a validated subadult dental aging method for the biological 

profile that works when ancestry is unknown. It will also highlight a 

subadult aging method that is commonly used by forensic anthropologists 

in Europe, [3] but that is not well known in the United States. Hopefully, this 

will lead to more integration of forensic anthropology techniques in the 

future. 

It is important to start testing the validity of the methods commonly 

used in forensic anthropology and begin to quantify their effectiveness. The 

Demirjian method [1] of subadult aging was based on a French-Canadian 

sample and the international Demirjian method [2] of subadult aging was 

developed using a sample composed of Australians, Belgians, English, 

Finns, French, French-Canadians, South Koreans, and Swedes. The 

international Demirjian method [2] was created for instances when ancestry 

was unknown. The international Demirjian method was also examined in 

this study to see if it was appropriate for the USA. The aim of this study 

was to test the applicability of the both the Demirjian method and 

international Demirjian method for estimating chronological age from 

dental age in a sample of multiple ancestry subadults from Detroit, 

Michigan. 

Digital panoramic dental radiographs of 104 males and 96 females of 

known age and sex between the ages of 6 and 12 years were collected from 

the University of Detroit Mercy Dental School. Thirteen individuals were 

256

excluded from the final study due to pathology. Ancestry was not 

controlled for and was only provided in 90 individuals’ case files. Even 

with limited recording, it is clear that the sample is very diverse, being made 

up of individuals of European, African, Latino, Middle Eastern, and Asian 

ancestry. 

The dental age was determined for all cases using both the Demirjian 

and international Demirjian methods. The total sample and the sample 

divided by age category was statistically analyzed to determine if the 

methods are applicable in the USA. Age categories were defined as young 

(6, 7, and 8-year-olds), middle (9 and 10-year-olds), and old (11 and 12year-olds). 

Paired t-tests were run to determine if the means of the 

chronological ages (CA) differed significantly from the dental ages (DA) 

for each method in the study. Significance was determined at the .01 

significance level. If there was no significant statistical difference between 

mean CA and mean DA, the method reliably estimates age. 

The results for the Demirjian method using the total sample showed 

that there was slight over aging of the sample as a whole, but that there was 

no statistically significant difference between chronological age and dental 

age. The result for the international Demirjian Method showed slight under 

aging of the sample and a significant difference between the means at the 

.01 significance level. 

Paired t-tests used on all three categories revealed a statistical 

difference between CA and DA using the Demirjian method in the young 

category, but not the middle or old categories. Paired t-test for the 

international Demirjian method had the opposite results with the young 

category, having no significant difference between CA and DA and a 

significant difference in the middle and old category. 

The results showed that the Demirjian method had no statistical 

difference between CA and DA for the total sample and could be used in 

America even when ancestry was not known. The method was the most 

appropriate in the middle and old age categories, but the international 

Demirjian method was more appropriate for the young category at the .01 

significance level. 

References: 

1 Demirjian A. 1986. Dentition, 2nd edition. In: Falkner F and Tanner 

JM, editors. Human growth: A comprehensive treatise. New York: 

Plenum Press; 269-298. 

2 Chaillet N, Willems G, and Demirjian A. 2004c. Dental maturity in 

Belgian children using Demirjian’s method and polynomial functions: 

New standard curves for forensic and clinical use. J Forensic 

Odontostomatol 22(2):18-27. 

3 Teivens A, Mörnstad H. 2001a. A comparison between dental 

maturity rate in the Swedish and Korean populations using a modified 

Demirjian method. J Forensic Odontostomatol 19(2):31-35. 

Subadult Aging, Dental Radiographs, Biological Profile 

H71 Dental Aging Methods and Population 

Variation as Demonstrated in a 

Peruvian Sample 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, NMNH - MRC 

112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and Roberto C. 

Parra, BA, Instituto de Medicina Legal del Peru, Av. Abancay 491 6to 

Piso, Lima, PERU 


application of three dental aging methods to a contemporary Peruvian 

sample. 


demonstrating that dental aging techniques involving metrics of intact 

single rooted teeth – previously tested on French and American modern 

samples – yielded similarly accurate results in a sample from Peru. The 

results indicate that the accuracy of this approach appears to be minimally 

influenced by regional and population variation. It also demonstrates the 

need for further studies of this type to be conducted on new, untested 

populations. 

Measurements of intact single rooted teeth have proven to be useful in 

methods of estimating skeletal adult age-at-death, especially in older adults. 

Lamendin et al. published such a technique in 1992 using three 

measurements of intact single rooted teeth: height of root transparency, 

height of periodontosis and total root height. This method was later tested 

on a contemporary French sample, which for one participant in the project 

provided more accurate estimates of age than other individual adult aging 

techniques. The study produced a mean error of approximately 10 years. 

Bang & Ramm (1970) conducted a similar study involving changes in root 

transparency with age by assessing dental sections as well as intact teeth. 

In 2002, Prince & Ubelaker applied the Lamendin technique to a 

modern American sample, collecting data from the Terry collection at the 

Smithsonian Institution. The results of its application to the Terry sample 

proved to be as accurate, and in some cases more accurate, than its 

application to the original French sample. The mean error for this study 

was 8.23 years, which was reduced to 7.70 years when the regression 

equations were adjusted for the American sample. Nevertheless, the 

accuracy of these methods when taking into account regional and 

population variation beyond the French and American samples remained 

unclear. 

The purpose of this study was to apply the above-mentioned dental 

aging methods to a population different from the previously tested French 

and American samples in order to gain insight into their accuracy in 

consideration of human variation. The chosen sample for this study 

consisted of 100 contemporary cadavers of known age and sex from various 

regions of Peru. These individuals consisted of 28 females ranging in age 

from 23 to 80 years, and 72 males ranging in age from 21 to 87 years. 

Methodological approaches proposed by Lamendin et al., Bang & 

Ramm and Prince & Ubelaker were applied to a sample of 100 single 

rooted teeth (24 maxillary and 76 mandibular). A regression equation 

specific to the Peruvian population was developed as part of this study. 

Analysis of these measurements in the Peruvian sample shows that the 

application of the Lamendin et al., Bang & Ramm and Prince & Ubelaker 

techniques to this previously untested population sample resulted in mean 

errors of estimation similar to those originally reported. When applied to 

the sample in Peru, the methods produced mean errors of 8.3 years for 

Lamendin et al., 8.8 years for Bang & Ramm and 7.6 years for Prince & 

Ubelaker. The results of the study suggest minimal impact of population 

variation of the features measured in the Peruvian sample, thereby 

increasing the reliability of utilizing these measurements in the estimation 

of age-at-death across various populations. 

Age-at-Death, Teeth, Peru 

H72 Multifactorial Determination of Age 

at Death From the Human Skeleton 

Natalie Uhl, MS*, 1503 North Pennsylvania Street, Apartment 21, 


This presentation will summarize a new method to combine age at 

death estimates from four commonly used skeletal indicators. The method 

is simple, applicable, and robust, and has lower inaccuracy and bias 

statistics than any of the individual indicators separately. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by introducing 

forensic anthropologists to a new multifactorial age estimation method that 

is simple to use and reduces error in age estimation, thereby aiding in the 

identification of unknown human skeletal remains. This method is also 

applicable to South African populations. 

Accurately estimating the timing of death has been the subject of 

decades of research, method development, and testing for human 

osteologists because age determination from the skeleton, whether for an 

individual or a population, is critical in analyzing and describing human 

skeletal remains. Anthropologists have been developing age determination 


methods since the 16th century and continue to test and revise them today. 

Despite an abundance of research and data, a single method for determining 

age at death from the human skeleton that is both accurate and precise and 

that appropriately combines multiple estimation methods, continues to 

elude osteologists. 

The purpose of this study is to test and develop an easy, applicable, but 

valid method for combining individual aging indicators. Four of the most 

commonly used aging methods—the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, 

sternal ribs, and cranial sutures—were analyzed, first as individual 

indicators, and secondly as variables in several multifactorial methods. The 

study sample consists of 394 individuals (203 males, 191 females) from two 

different skeletal collections on two continents (230 blacks, 164 whites). 

Skeletal remains of known age, sex, and ancestry were analyzed at the R.J. 

Terry Collection housed at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., 

and the Pretoria Bone Collection housed at the University of Pretoria, South 

Africa. 

Summary statistics were calculated for the first three individual 

indicators, including mean age and standard deviation for each phase, the 

observed age range for each phase, and t-tests between adjacent phases to 

test for significant differences between means. For all of the individual 

indicators, the percentages of individuals’ actual ages falling into the 

published 95% confidence intervals were calculated. An analysis of 

covariance (ANCOVA) was used to test for significant sources of variation 

while holding age constant. Finally, inaccuracy and bias statistics were 

calculated for each subgroup, collection, and the overall sample, for each 

method. 

Three multifactorial methods were devised and analyzed using 

inaccuracy and bias statistics as well as the percentage of individuals’ actual 

ages falling within the prediction intervals. The first was the simple average 

of the means from the four individual indicators. An assessment of the 

spatial overlap of estimated age ranges ensued. First, the Total Minimum 

Range was recorded for each individual, followed by the Total Maximum 

Range. 

The final multifactorial method was linear regression. First, an allgroups 

regression equation was generated for the entire sample. Because of 

the consistent significance of ancestry in the ANCOVAs, two ancestryspecific 

regression equations were generated. 

Inaccuracy and bias statistics indicate that the pubic symphysis is the 

best overall individual indicator. The ANCOVA results show that ancestry 

consistently contributes to variation in all of the individual indicators while 

holding age constant, although the effects of all variables other than age 

were negligible in a practical sense. Compared to the individual indicators, 

inaccuracy was reduced in all of the multifactorial methods. The 

percentage of individuals’ actual ages falling into the predicted age ranges 

was comparable to most of the individual indicators. Ancestry-specific 

regression equations had the lowest overall inaccuracy and bias; however, 

an all-groups regression equation had only a slightly higher inaccuracy with 

the advantage of increased applicability. 

This study has produced a simple, applicable, yet robust method for 

combining individual age indicators. The accuracy and effectiveness of 

individual aging indicators improves when they are combined. Linear 

regression is the best multifactorial method to use when all four indicators 

are present; however, the simple average or overlapping ranges can be used 

when human remains are incomplete. While ancestry influences variation 

in the aging indicators, the U.S. standards utilized in this study appear to be 

applicable to South African populations. 

Age Estimation, Multifactorial Methods, South Africans 

H73 An Evaluation of the Skeletal Aging 

Method Using Adult Male Vertebrae 


as Developed by Drukier, et al. 

Nanette Hollands, BSc*, Flat 8, 5 Bryanstone Road, Winton, 

Bournemouth, BH3 7JE, UNITED KINGDOM; and Piotr D. 

Drukier, MSc*, Bournemouth University, C134 Christchurch House, 

Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, BH12 5BB, UNITED KINGDOM 


of the age-related changes that occur in the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae 

and their usefulness in aging an adult male through observational analysis. 


demonstrating the results of the test of the vertebral ageing method by 

Drukier et al. (2003) on an independent male sample. This gives the 

forensic anthropologist a new aging method that narrows age range 

estimations, and therefore gives more precise age-at-death estimation, 

essential in the identification of unknown human remains. 

Estimating age-at-death is one of the most important roles of the 

forensic anthropologist. When an anthropologist sets about establishing 

age-at-death they are hoping to determine “chronological age from 

physiological changes reflective of developmental and/or degenerative 

processes” (Cox and Mays, 2000: 64). In adults, due to the lack of growth 

processes, age determination is almost entirely dependent on processes of 

degeneration. The series of changes occurring at the pubic symphysis have 

been the most useful for age determination to date (Reichs and Bass, 1998: 

xix). However, the methods based on morphological changes of the pubic 

symphysis have their practical limitations as the pubic symphyses rarely 

survive in large samples. The accepted methods of analysis also provide 

large age ranges for each stage. For instance at a 95% confidence level 

Suchey-Brooks ranges include stage IV = 26 - 70 years for males and 23 - 

57 for females (Brooks and Suchey, 1990). The ranges, excluding stage 1, 

also have a large overlap, e.g. stage V = 25 - 83 years for males and 27 - 66 

years for females (Brooks and Suchey, 1990). 

In his original work on the pubic symphysis in Todd emphasised that 

the most accurate age estimation could only be made once the entire 

skeleton had been examined (Todd, 1920). 

It was attempted to create alternative aging methods using material 

that is often more readily available (Iscan & Loth, 1984, 1985) or more 

robust areas of the skeleton (Lovejoy et al., 1985). Such aging methods 

reliant on alternative skeletal material decreased the heavy reliance upon 

the pubic symphysis, especially within the forensic context widening the 

anthropologist’s options. 

Although there are many methods of age assessment available to 

forensic anthropologists there is currently little research available on the 

systematic age related changes in the vertebral column, to the extent that the 

focus has been on stages of epiphyseal ring union and is therefore restricted 

to adolescents (McKern and Stewart, 1957, Albert and Maples, 1995). 

Three aspects of vertebral morphology are known to undergo noticeable 

change with age. Firstly, the vertebral secondary centers, the epiphyseal 

rings, appear during puberty and fuse to the centrum between about ages 17 

– 25. Secondly, the inferior and superior aspects progress from a wellorganised, 

ridged configuration in younger individuals to an amorphous, 

often porotic appearance in older individuals. Thirdly, the inferior and 

superior edges transform from straight to wavy to sharply lipped with age. 

The method developed by Drukier et al. (2003) is specific to adult 

males and provides forensic anthropologists with an alternative/additional 

method to consider when attempting to age this already difficult period. 

The visual assessment and quantitive scoring of the nonmetric changes 

in three aspects of morphology, on the vertebral bodies (the vertebral ring 

union, the changes at the horizontal surfaces and the edges of the vertebral 

body) were used to test the vertebral method of age estimation. The 

exclusively male sample consisted of 30 individuals of known age-at-death 

from the 18th-19th century Spitalfields Collection, housed at The Natural 

History Museum, London, United Kingdom. For each individual the last 

five thoracic vertebrae (T8 – T12) were assessed alongside all lumbar 

vertebrae (L1 – L5). 

The results of the study followed the pattern described by Drukier et 

al. (2003) in that changes at the vertebral edge had the highest correlation 

258

with age, followed by epiphyseal union, and finally the horizontal surface. 

The relationship between the vertebral traits and age were not as strong as 

those achieved by the original study, yet still considered very significant. 

References: 

1 ALBERT, A. M., MAPLES, W. R. 1995. Stages of Epiphyseal Union 

for Thoracic and Lumbar Vertebral Centra as a Method for Age 

Determination for Teenage and Young Adult Skeletons. Journal of 

Forensic Science, 40 (4), 623-633. 

2 BROOKS, S.T., SUCHEY, J.M. 1990. Skeletal age determination 

based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Acsádi-Nemeskéri and 

Suchey-Brooks methods. Human Evolution 5: 227-238. 

3 COX, M., MAYS, S. 2000. Human Osteology in Archaeology and 

Forensic Science. London: Greenwich Medical Media. 

4 DRUKIER, P., SARAJLIC, N., KLONOWSKI, E. 2003. Age related 

changes in the adult male vertebral column. In: Proceedings: 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting, Chicago. 

Denver: Publication Printers Corporation. 

5 ISCAN, M. Y., LOTH, S. R., WRIGHT, R. K. 1984. Age Estimation 

from the Rib by Rib Phase Analysis: White Males. Journal of 



from the Rib by Rib Phase Analysis: White Females. Journal of 


7 LOVEJOY, C.O., MEINDL, R.S., PRYZBECK, T.R., 

8 

MENSFORTH, R.P. (1985). Chronological metamorphosis of the 

auricular surface of the ilium: A new method for the determination of 

adult skeletal age at death. American Journal of Physical 

Anthropology, 68: 15-28. 

MCKERN, T. D., STEWART, T. W. 1957. Skeletal Changes in Young 

American Males. Technical Report EP-45, Headquarters, 

9 

Quartermaster Research and Development Command. 

Natwick, Massachusetts: Quartermaster Research and Development 

Centre Environmental Protection Research Division. 

10 REICHS, K., BASS, W. 1998. Forensic Osteology: Advances in the 

Identification of Human Remains. Second Edition. Springfield: 

Charles C. Thomas. 

11 TODD, W. 1920. Age changes in the pubic bone. American Journal 

of Physical Anthropology 3: 285-334 

Vertebral Aging Method, Age at Death Estimation, 


H74 Spheno-Occipital Synchondrosis 

Fusion in the American Population 

Natalie R. Shirley, MA*, and Richard Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a comprehensive 

understanding of spheno-occipital synchondrosis fusion in the American 

population, with emphasis on the forensic application of aging standards 

developed from various methodologies and populations. 


providing updated standards for age estimation from the basilar 

synchondrosis and gives insight into skeletal development in human 

populations. 

The literature on spheno-occipital (or basilar) synchondrosis fusion 

reports that this maturation indicator fuses anywhere between the ages of 11 

and 25. Some studies report that females fuse a couple of years before 

males, whereas others do not comment on sexual dimorphism in basilar 

synchondrosis fusion. A recent study claims that the basilar synchondrosis 

is a useful age indicator in males, but that its utility is questionable in 

females. Certainly, such disparity is not desirable in a forensic context, nor 

does it adequately explain the variation present in the modern American 

population. For example, given that spheno-occipital synchondrosis fusion 

has been linked to puberty and the adolescent growth spurt, fusion at age 25 

would be anomalous. Presumably, these inconsistencies are due largely to 

the various methodologies used to develop the standards (i.e., radiographic, 

computed-tomography scanning, histological, direct inspection from 

autopsies, and direct inspection from dry skeletal material). Whereas 

radiographic, CT scanning, and histological studies give a more precise 

estimate of the onset of fusion, most forensic age estimates are based on 

direct inspection. Furthermore, skeletal maturation standards are 

population-specific and should not be extrapolated from one population to 

another. Finally, the established secular trend in skeletal dimensions and 

age-at-pubertal onset necessitates that age estimates of modern decedents 

be based on standards developed from modern populations. 

This study presents standards developed from 113 individuals between 

the ages of 5 and 25 years. The sample is a modern forensic sample with 

death years between 1980 and 2006 (the Forensic Data Bank, or FDB). The 

spheno-occipital synchondrosis was scored as open, partially closed 

(fusing), or completely closed (fused) via direct inspection of skeletal 

material. Based on the raw data for females, the earliest age at which fusion 

was complete was 14, and all females were fused by age 20. The earliest 

age of complete fusion in males was 16, with all males fused by age 22. 

However, age ranges such as these can be deceiving because they include 

outliers that can extend the age range by several years due to an 

insignificant, unrepresentative portion of the sample. Many times this 

proportion is less than 1% of the sample or, as was the case in this study, 

just 1 individual. For this reason, a transition analysis was applied to the 

FDB sample in order to determine the average age at which an individual 

transitions from non-union to complete union (partially-fused individuals 

were subsumed into the non-union sample). Transition analysis provides a 

robust estimate of age-at-fusion that is more representative than the age 

ranges which include outliers. The females in the FDB sample transitioned 

from non-union to complete union at 13.64 ± 0.93 years, and the males 

transitioned at 16.90 ± 0.74 years. These results reflect sexual dimorphism 

in basilar synchondrosis fusion and agree approximately with average age 

at puberty and its sexual dimorphism. 

During this presentation, the FDB results will be compared to those 

obtained using alternative methodologies, as well as to standards developed 

from non-American populations. Additionally, the secular trend in age-atpubertal 

onset will be addressed by comparing the modern FDB standards 

to those developed from a transition analysis of an earlier population (death 

years in the early 20th century). Studies such as this provide updated 

standards for the forensic community and give insight into skeletal 

development in human populations. 

Spheno-Occipital Synchondrosis, Age Estimation, Skeletal Maturation 

H75 A Curve Where No Hand Has Touched - 


Reuben Edwin Leigh Moreton*, Bournemouth University, 33 Corsair 

Drive, Dibden, Southampton, Hampshire SO45 5UF, UNITED 

KINGDOM; and Piotr D. Drukier, MSc*, Bournemouth University, C134 

Christchurch House, Talbot Campus, Fern Barrow, Poole, 0 BH12 5BB, 



of the age-related changes that occur in the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae 

and their usefulness in aging an adult female through observational 

analysis. 


demonstrating the results of the test of the vertebral ageing method by 

Drukier et al. (2003) on an independent female sample. This gives the 

forensic anthropologist a new aging method that narrows age range 

estimations, and therefore gives more precise age-at-death estimation, 

essential in identification of unknown human remains. 


Determining an individual’s age-at-death is crucial for Forensic 

Anthropologists in skeletal analysis. The methods used in age estimation 

involve observations of developmental and degenerative changes in bones, 

these observations are then assigned an age-range (O’Connell 2005). The 

age ranges given for older individuals are often so wide as to be 

meaningless, rendering them of little use in victim identification. 

The vertebral column was employed to initially investigate possible 

methodological refinement to decrease these ranges. To date there is 

limited research into the use of morphological changes of the vertebral 

column for estimating age-at-death. The majority of studies have focused 

upon the fusion of the epiphyseal ring to the vertebral body, limiting 

methods to younger individuals (McKern and Stewart 1957, Albert and 

Maples 1995). 

Recent research by Drukier et al. (2003) used a contemporary male 

sample from Bosnia and Herzegovina to create a quantitative scoring 

system for non-metric, age-related changes in the vertebral body. The three 

originally examined aspects of vertebral morphology were firstly the 

formation and fusion of the superior and inferior epiphyseal rings to the 

vertebral body, secondly a decrease in bone density and increased porosity 

of the horizontal body surface changing from a ridged structure to an 

amorphous and porotic in appearance, and thirdly a transition from a firm 

to wavy appearance at the margins of the body leading to sharp lipping and 

the formation of osteophytes. 

Recently Hollands (2007) used this scoring system to determine the 

age-at-death of individuals in an exclusively male sample. 

Ageing techniques based exclusively upon a male sample like Todd 

(1920) and McKern and Stewart (1957) have been found to consistently 

overestimate age-at-death when used on females (Gilbert and McKern 

1973). Variation between age estimates for males and females has also been 

seen when estimating age-at-death using the sternal rib end by Iscan et al. 

(1984, 1985). Certain areas of the human skeleton, notably the pelvis 

(Phenice 1969) and the skull (Giles and Elliot 1963), display extensive 

variation between males and females. In vertebral column sex differences 

were reported in mineral density of vertebrae and in the absolute and 

relative size of vertebral bodies (Snodgrass 2004) with males of ages 20 to 

30 years having a higher bone mass and an age-related increase in bone size 

that does not occur in females, in females over 50 years of age there is a 

higher chance of disconnection of trabecular bone (Moskilde 2000). When 

using Albert and Maples (1995) method for estimating age-at-death using 

vertebral epiphyseal ring fusion there are separate age-ranges for males and 

females, highlighting the differences in vertebral growth and development 

between the sexes. 

This current study tested the scoring system developed by Drukier et 

al. (2003) by applying it to a female sample to determine individual’s ageat-death, 

and discover if there is any variation in vertebral development and 

degeneration between the sexes. The sample consisted of 30 individuals of 

known age-at-death from the 18th-19th century Spitalfields Collection 

housed at The Natural History Museum in London, UK. For each individual 

the last five thoracic vertebrae (T8 – T12) were assessed together with all 

lumbar vertebrae (L1 – L5). 

Drukier et al. (2003) vertebral ageing method was evaluated by 

applying it to a female sample. The results were then compared to those 

achieved by Hollands (2007) who used the same method on exclusively 

male sample. 

References: 

1 ALBERT, A. M., MAPLES, W. R. 1995. Stages of Epiphyseal Union 

for Thoracic and Lumbar Vertebral Centra as a Method for Age 

Determination for Teenage and Young Adult Skeletons. Journal of 


2 DRUKIER, P., SARAJLIC, N., KLONOWSKI, E. 2003. Age related 

changes in the adult male vertebral column. In: Proceedings: 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting, Chicago. 

Denver: Publication Printers Corporation. 249-250 

3 GILBERT, B. M., McKERN, T. W. 1973. A Method for Ageing the 


4 

Female OS Pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 38 

(1), 31-38. 

GILES, E., ELLIOT, O. 1963. Sex Determination by Discriminant 

Function Analysis of Crania. American Journal of Physical 

Anthropology, 21 (1), 53-69. 

5 HOLLANDS, N. 2007. An Evaluation of the Skeletal Ageing Method 

Using Adult Male Vertebrae as Developed By Drukier et al. 

Dissertation (BSc). Bournemouth University. 

6 ISCAN, M. Y., LOTH, S. R. WRIGHT, R. K. 1984. Age Estimation 

from the Rib by Rib Phase Analysis: White Males. Journal of 



from the Rib by Rib Phase Analysis: White Females. Journal of 


8 McKERN, T. D., STEWART, T. W. 1957. Skeletal Changes in Young 

American Males. Technical Report EP-45, Headquarters, 

9 

Quartermaster Research and Development Command. Natwick, 

Massachusetts: Quartermaster Research and Development Centre 

Environmental Protection Research Division EP-45. 

O’CONNELL, L. 2005. Guidance on Recording Adult Age at Death. 

In: M. BRICKLEY, J. I. McKINLEY, eds. Guidelines to the Standards 

for Recording Human Remains, IFA Paper No. 7. Southampton: 

BABAO. 18-21. 

10 PHENICE, T. W. 1969. A newly developed visual method of sexing in 

the os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 30, 

297-301. 

11 TODD, W. 1920. Age changes in the pubic bone. American Journal 

of Physical Anthropology, 3, 285-334. 

Vertebral Ageing Method, Age-at-Death Estimation, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H76 Investigation of Second, Fourth, and 

Eighth Sternal Rib End Variation 

Related to Age Estimation 

Kathleen Alsup, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will better understand the 

impact of variation throughout the rib series on age estimation. This will be 

achieved by explaining how the right, second and eighth sternal rib ends 

will be aged (i.e., under- or over-aged) with the most commonly utilized 

methods for estimating age at death with rib ends. 


demonstrating the necessity for continual re-analysis and updating of 

forensic anthropology’s most commonly utilized methods for age 

estimation. 

Estimating age at death accurately can be invaluable in answering 

important questions on forensic anthropology. Sternal rib ends have 

received a great deal of research attention as an area that uniformly changes 

with age. The Daubert decision has made rigorous testing and evaluation 

of forensic sciences’ most commonly used methods essential, and thus, 

forensic anthropologists must understand the timing differences in terms of 

age characteristics between ribs. 

Background: The most popular methods utilizing this area were 

developed by Iscan and coworkers [1, 2] using the right fourth rib from an 

autopsy population in Broward County, Florida. However, the accuracy of 

this method has been called into question, particularly on ribs other than the 

fourth and on ancestral populations other than European American. Yoder 

et al. [3] analyzed ribs two through ten in order to see if there was a significant 

difference between phase placements for rib four and all other ribs. 

Although most did not have significance in terms of differing phase 

260

placements, the authors did note that the percentage of differences were 

high for some ribs. This demonstrates that differences in terms of timing of 

degenerative changes are present in the rib series. 

Methodology: The right second, fourth and eighth sternal rib ends 

from the William M. Bass Donated Collection were examined using the 

methodology described by Iscan et al. [1 2] The pictures, casts and phase 

descriptions developed by these authors were used in order to determine 

phase placement. A total of 156 individuals (113 males and 43 females) of 

different ancestry were investigated. Eighty-five percent of the sample is 

Caucasian, 13% is African American and 2% is Latino. A Wilcoxon signed 

rank test was performed in order to determine if there was intra-observer 

error present in this study. Additional Wilcoxon signed rank tests were 

completed to demonstrate if a significant difference is present in the phase 

placements between the right, fourth rib and the right, second and eighth 

ribs. In order to better understand these differences, a transition analysis 

was performed for all ribs under investigation. Estimated transition ages 

were produced for the Iscan et al. [1] phases for comparison purposes using a 

means test. A last statistical procedure, t-tests, were performed in order to 

determine if there was significance between the transitions produced in this 

analysis and the transitions estimated from Iscan et al. [1] 

Results and Discussion: The Wilcoxon signed rank test demonstrated 

that there was no significant intra-observer error in this analysis. However, 

significance was found between the phase placements of the standard fourth 

rib and both the second and the eighth ribs for the male and total sample. 

No significant difference was found between phase placements in the 

female sample. Thus, the transition analysis was only performed on the 

male sample. This analysis showed that the second rib when aged with the 

Iscan et al. methods will significantly over-age individuals, while the eighth 

rib will consistently under-age specimens, although in some cases not 

significantly (significance was determined through the t-tests). Differential 

levels of stress within the rib series, which are produced by numerous 

factors, are the most likely cause of these dissimilarities found between 

phase placements for the second, fourth and eighth rib. 

References: 

1 Iscan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Age estimation from the rib by phase 

analysis: White males. Journal of Forensic Sciences 1984; 29: 

1094-1104. 

2 Iscan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Age estimation from the rib by phase 

analysis: White females. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30: 853-863. 

3 Yoder C, Ubelaker DH, Powell JF. Examination of variation in sternal 

rib end morphology relevant to age assessment. Journal of Forensic 

Sciences 46(2): 223-227. 

Sternal Rib Ends, Transition Analysis, Age Estimation 

H77 Age Related Histomorphometric 

Changes in Fetal Long Bones 

Courtney D. Eleazer, MA*, 7700 Gleason Drive, Apartment 39G, 


The goal of this study is to investigate the age-related changes in 

histomorphometry among the six long bones of the fetal skeleton. 

Histological studies have become increasingly important in distinguishing 

fragmentary human remains from non-human remains, [1,2] as well as 

estimating age at death in forensic cases. [3, 4] However, little work has been 

done with subadult material due to its distinct growth patterns and unique 

microscopic composition. 

This study will impact the forensic community by providing a 

preliminary investigation into the potential of utilizing histomorphometry in 

the estimation of age at death of fetal remains. Microscopic methods may 

prove invaluable to the task of aging fragmentary remains that lack the 

characteristic features necessary for conventional methods. 

Seven stillborn cadavers of known gestational age and sex were 

donated to the Mineralized Tissue Histology Laboratory of the University 

of Tennessee by the Medical Examiners Office of the University of 

Tennessee Regional Medical Center. Because an autopsy was performed 

on these stillbirths, either upon the mother’s request or as routine protocol 

in a criminal investigation, permission was granted for histological 

sampling before incineration. The sample consisted of fetuses ranging in 

age from 17 to 35 weeks gestation with no two fetuses having the same 

gestational age. The six long bones of each fetus were embedded in epoxy 

resin, and thin sections were cut from the midshafts using a highconcentration 

Buehler Isomet low speed diamond blade saw. All sections 

were analyzed with a Leica DMRX light microscope at 16x, 50x, 100x, and 

200x power magnification. Histomorphometric analysis was conducted 

using a Dell Optiplex GX270 and Image-Pro Express software. For each 

slide, a maximum of 111 measurements were taken: maximum sagittal 

medullary diameter (anterior-posterior), maximum transverse medullary 

diameter (medial-lateral), medullary area, maximum cortical thickness 

(taken at each quadrant), minimum cortical thickness (taken at each 

quadrant), and a maximum of 25 separate trabecular diameters per 

quadrant. 

In order to account for potential growth retardation in these stillborn 

cadavers, the gestational age of each fetus was estimated via long bone 

length [5] and compared with actual age to quantify its developmental 

progress. The presence of distinct differences between actual gestational 

age and estimated developmental age in six of the seven fetal cadavers 

highlights the efficacy of analysis in terms of the latter. Considering that in 

the forensic setting, the actual age of a fetal specimen is unknown and that 

fetal death is often associated with growth retardation, all statistical analysis 

in this study was conducted employing developmental age as a factor. 

Due to the small sample size utilized for this study and the lack of 

replication in gestational age among these seven fetuses, the results of 

histomorphometric analysis should be interpreted as extremely preliminary 

in nature. Future research will benefit from the utilization of a much larger 

sample size containing multiple fetal specimens sampled from each 

gestational week. Only then can the full extent of variation in fetal 

histomorphometry be accounted for and generalizations concerning agerelated 

changes extrapolated to the entire fetal population as a whole. 

The results of Pearson’s rho correlation analysis reveal a statistically 

significant correlation between sagittal medullary diameter and fetal age for 

the femur, tibia, and fibula. Transverse medullary diameter was 

significantly correlated with age in the humerus, tibia, fibula, and radius. 

Regarding medullary area, the femur, tibia, and fibula were the only bones 

that possessed a correlation with age. Statistically significant correlations 

between both maximum and minimum cortical thickness and age were 

found for all six long bones. Among the six long bones, the humerus and 

tibia have the strongest correlations between cortical thickness and age, as 

roughly 65% and 56%, respectively, of the variation in the bone’s cortical 

thickness is explained by its positive linear relationship with age. 

The results of an ANCOVA employing age as a covariate indicate that 

age is a significant linear predictor of trabecular thickness in all long bones 

except the radius. The only long bone to possess an interaction effect 

between age and quadrant was the humerus; therefore, only in this bone 

does the rate of linear change in trabecular thickness with age differ by 

quadrant location. 

References: 

1 Harsanyi L. Differential diagnosis of human and animal bone. In 

Histology of Ancient Bone: Methods and Diagnosis. Grupe G. & 

Garland AN., eds. Berlin: Springer, 79-94. 

2 Cattaneo C, Dimartino S, Scali S, Craig OE, Grandi M, Sokol RJ. 

Determining the human origin of fragments of burnt bone: a 

comparative study of histological, immunological and DNA 

techniques. For Sci Inter 1999; 102; 181-191. 

3 Kerley ER and Ubelaker DH. Revisions in the microscopic method of 

estimating age at death in human cortical bone. AJPA 1978; 48; 

545-546. 

4 Stout SD. The use of cortical bone histology to estimate age at death. 

In Age Markers in the Human Skeleton. Iscan, ed. Springfield: CC 

Thomas; 1989; 195-207. 


5 Fazekas IG and Kósa F. Forensic Fetal Osteology. Budapest: 

Akadémiai Kiadó; 1978. 

Subadult, Histomorphometry, Age Estimation 

H78 Critical Study of Observations of the 

Sternal Extremity of the 4th Rib 

Laurent Fanton, MD*, Institut of Legal Medicine, 12 Avenue Rockefeller, 

Lyon, 69008, FRANCE; Marie Paule Gustin-Paultre, PhD, Lyon 

University, Lyon 1 University, Laboratory of Biostatistics ISPB, Lyon, 

F-69008, FRANCE; Habdelhamid Grait, MD, Milltary Hospital, Alger, 

ALGERIA; Aissa Boudabba, MD, Military Hospital, Alger, ALGERIA; 

Claire Desbois, MD, Lyon University, Lyon 1 University, Institut of 

Forensic Medicine, Lyon, F-69008, FRANCE; Patrice Stephane 

Schoendorff, MD, Institut Medico-Legal de Lyon, 12 Avenue Rockfeller, 

Lyon, 69007, FRANCE; Stéphane Tilhet-Coartet, MD, Institut of Legal 

Medicine, 12 avenue Rockefeller, Lyons, 69008, FRANCE; Daniel 

Malicier, MD, Institu Medico Legal, 12 Avenue Rockfeller, Lyon, 69007, 

FRANCE 

The goal of this presentation is to present a critical study from the 

estimation of the age at death by the sternal extremity of the 4th rib was 

reported. Its objectives were to assess its precision and reproductibility 

with a view to refining it. 

The method of estimation of the age in the death by the sternal 

extremity of the 4th rib does not appear to correspond to the current 

standards. This presentation will show the results of this study which are in 

favor of its improvement by a Bayesian approach. 

Age estimation in cadavers may clarify issues with significant legal 

and social consequences for individuals as well as for the justice. Methods 

for estimating age must have been presented to the scientific community, as 

a rule by publication in peer-reviewed journals, clear information 

concerning accuracy of age estimation by the method should be available, 

and the methods need to be sufficiently accurate. The sternal extremity of 

the 4th rib was suggested as a means of estimating age-at-death by Iscan 

twenty years ago. All such subsequent studies have systematically tended 

to overestimate the age of young subjects’ and to underestimate that of old 

subjects. Moreover, inter- and intra-observer variability has never really 

been checked. The present study sought to assess the precision and 

reproductibility of Iscan’s method, with a view to refining it. Eleven 

observers made two assessments, at a two-week interval, of the morphotype 

of three components (depth, wall and edge) of 59 4th ribs harvested from 

caucasian males (mean age: 48 y; range: 16-94) during forensic autopsy. 

Parametric (variance and mean) and non-parametric (quartile) analysis 

identified non-consensus ribs, and enabled a simplified protocol, 

minimizing the impact of observer experience and enhancing the 

independence of variables, to be designed. A feasibility study was then 

conducted on this protocol in the form of a consensus study of 54 ribs by 

two observers. Partial crossed correlations between the 6 predictive 

variables proved slight (rmin = 0.003, rmax = 0.41) at age given. A small 

improvement in the correlation between log age and scores on these new 

variables as compared to the original ones (r = 0.82 and 0.78, respectively) 

was also found. These preliminary findings bode well for improving 

Iscan’s method by a Bayesian approach. 

Age-at-Death, 4th Rib, Critical Study 

H79 Determination of Sex From Juvenile 

Crania by Means of Discriminant 

Function Analysis: A First Study 

Richard A. Gonzalez, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Saint Lawrence 

University, 23 Romoda Drive, Canton, NY 13617 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand how sexspecific 

growth and developmental patterns in the human craniofacial 

skeleton can be used to develop sex determination standards by means of 

discriminant function analyses for the identification of juvenile skeletal 

remains. 


demonstrating that it is possible to develop accurate methods for sex 

determination in unidentified juvenile remains. 

This study examines variation of craniofacial dimensions and 

morphology in juvenile humans. The major outcome of this investigation 

is the identification of sex specific developmental patterns in the 

craniofacial skeleton. In doing so, the study creates a set of standard values 

that facilitate the accurate determination of sex and a reduction in subjective 

error in the development of biological profiles of unidentified juvenile 

remains. 

Craniofacial growth variation between the sexes provides the basis for 

identifying sexual dimorphism in juveniles because the craniofacial 

skeleton reaches maturity early in life (Ackermann and Krovitz, 2002; 

Guihard-Costa and Ramirez-Rozzi, 2004; Smith, 1991). Growth of the 

craniofacial skeleton slows down from about 2.5 years of age with many of 

the adult features already established by the time the first permanent molar 

erupts (Ackermann and Krovitz, 2002; Guihard-Costa and Ramirez-Rozzi, 

2004; Smith, 1991). Given the early establishment of craniofacial form, it 

should be expected that sex-specific features be present during craniofacial 

development. Thus, the craniofacial skeleton provides the best sources for 

sex identification in the juvenile skeleton. 

To identify sexually dimorphic differences in the growth of the 

juvenile craniofacial complex, the study analyzed lateral cephalometric 

radiographs housed at the University of Michigan School of Dentistry 

(Riolo et al., 1974). These cephalometric radiographs represent an average 

local school population from the Ann Arbor, Michigan area (Dibbets, 

1995). Five-hundred and ninety-eight 11x14 lateral cephalometric 

radiographs with a range of 5-16 years of age were randomly selected. The 

sample was organized according to age group with males and females 

equally distributed. Each radiograph was traced on 11x17 hyprint vellum 

using a .05mm mechanical pencil. Eight craniometric points were identified 

and marked film-by-film. From these points, 20 measurements in 

millimeters and 17 angular dimensions were recorded from each subject 

using a Mitutoyo Mycal E-Z 300mm sliding. 

For data input and analysis, this investigation relied on The Statistical 

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0. All data were 

organized according to the eruption standards of the maxillary permanent 

dentition. Before data analysis, a calibration scale converted raw data to 

natural size, since the radiographs utilized for the study have a 

magnification factor of 12.9%. The data were calibrated using the formula 

provided by Dibbets, (1995) and Dibbets and Nolte (2002). 

Calculation of descriptive statistics for all variables by age cohort and 

sex provided initial comparative information. Multivariate statistical 

procedures aided in the identification of possible sex differences in 

craniofacial growth. The multivariate statistical analyses consisted of a 

general linear model procedure (GLM MANOVA), which tested the main 

effects of interactions between the independent and independent variables, 

a canonical discriminant function analysis, which facilitated the 

identification of craniofacial growth trends, and a backward stepwise 

canonical discriminant function analysis, which created a series of 

predictive models for sex identification for each age group category. 

Statistical significance was observed on the Wilks’ Lambda and F statistic 

at the .05 level. 

The results of this investigation suggest that craniofacial sexual 

dimorphism results from variation in the rate and timing of growth, which 

leads to allometric differences between the sexes. Growth varies between 

age group and has independent control over the face and neurocranium. A 

combination of neurocranial and facial measures provide the best 

classification models for sex. The 15-16 age group yielded the greatest 

accuracy with 90% sex identification. In the younger age groups, sex 

identification was high for the age groups 7-8 (82%), 9-10 (83%), and 13- 

262

14 (83%). The 5-6 age group (71%) and in the 11-12 age group (77%) had 

lowest percentage for sex identification. The reliability of sex identification 

depends on stage of development and developmental trends. Therefore, the 

results of this study suggest that measures from the entire craniofacial 

skeleton must be used to derive accurate predictive models for sex 


Sex Determination, Craniofacial Growth, Skeletal Profiling 

H80 Admixture and the Growing List of Racial 

Categories: Clarity or Confusion for 

Law Enforcement (and the Public) 

Conrad Bezekiah Quintyn, PhD*, Bloomsburg University, Department of 

Anthropology, 400 East 2nd Street, Bloomsburg, PA 17815 

After attending this presentation, attendees wil. have a clear idea of 

problems in trying to categorize “race” in multiracial individuals, and 

adding to the existing categories of race may be an hinderance to police 

(and the public) in finding missing people. 


demonstrating how in publicizing missing people, law enforcement must be 

able to use racial categories which are most familiar to the general public in 

order to increase the likelihood of finding these missing individuals; the 

goal is to bring closure for the families. 

Any subdivision of the existing racial categories into smaller units to 

categorize biracial or tri-racial individuals/populations might confound law 

enforcement and the public. 

“Race” is a convenient social tool employed by law enforcement for 

many practical purposes, an important one being to find people when they 

go missing. But the steady increase in biracial or tri-racial population 

groups and the constant flow of immigrants to the U.S. in the last fifty years 

have complicated the racial picture to the point where it is becoming very 

difficult to fit people into their neat racial categories as depicted on job 

application forms. “Race” is already a questionable concept (biologically); 

consequently, any attempt to pinpoint hybridization phenotypically, i.e., 

cablinasian which, supposedly, is a mixture of African, Phillipino, and 

Asian ancestries, might be more a result of political correctness rather than 

reality. In practice, this cablinasian category will certainly cause confusion 

among law enforcement and the public since phenotypically these 

individuals would either have more Asian traits or more African traits (and 

less of any other traits) depending on the random sorting of genes in 

inheritance. In short, these individuals will be viewed as either Asian 

American or African American by the public. 

Interracial mating in this country goes back to the 17th century. In the 

aftermath of the Civil Rights movement in the late 60s and 70s and 

subsequent enlightened attitudes about race, interracial matings have 

steadily increased accompanied by a parallel increase in the population of 

biracial children. In addition, immigration has added to an already dynamic 

multicultural mix. All of this has led to further subdivision of the racial 

categories by the U.S. Census bureau (in coordination with state 

governments) to reflect this multiracial population. What we see is 

everything! The public can identify an African American, Asian American, 

Latino, or someone of European ancestry (Caucasoid) very easily. This 

makes it very convenient for law enforcement when they publicize the 

social race of a missing individual. But when unfamiliar terms are used, 

such as cablinasian, creole, or chamorro in conjunction with a photograph 

of the missing individual depicting African or Asian features, confusion 

ensues. We live in a cultural environment where every group wants to be 

identified by its own category or adheres to the concept of ideal types. If 

politicians concede to these groups and add to the existing racial categories 

out of a sense of duty or political correctness, then chaos will reign: the 

paperwork and existing problems of bureaucratic race will become even 

more complex. The general public, which includes law enforcement, is 

more familiar with the traditional categories, i.e., African American or 

black, Asian American, Native American or Indian, Caucasian or white, 

and Hispanic American or Latino which include Mexican, Cuban, and 

Puerto Rican. Individuals who categorize themselves within new 

categories, such as cablinasian, creole, chamorro, mestizo, etc., can be— 

phenotypically—merged into the respective traditional categories. 

In publicizing missing people, law enforcement must be able to use 

racial categories which are most familiar to the general public in order to 

increase the likelihood of finding these missing individuals; the goal is to 

bring closure for the families. 

Race, Biracial, Phenotype 

H81 Racial Admixture: A Test of Non-Metric 


Lindsey L. Caldwell, BA*, 2245 College Drive, Apartment 178, Baton 

Rouge, LA 70808; MariaTeresa A. Tersigni, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, Univeristy of Cincinnati, Braunstein 481 PO 210380, 

Cincinnati, OH 45221; and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of 

Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803 


methods of ancestry estimation used by physical anthropologists when 

cranial remains are assessed. They will learn the problems with these 

methods in the estimation of ancestry for skulls exhibiting mixed ancestral 

heritage. They will learn which non-metric traits tend to be used when 

assigning specific ancestries. Participants will also learn what the 

“understood” procedure is when metrics and non-metrics yield differing 

ancestry estimates. 

As race determination has always been a topic of debate among 

anthropologists, this presentation will impact the forensic science 

community by addressing the clines of traits found in admixed individuals. 

It also addresses the need for standardization of which non-metric traits 

should be weighted heavier than others in the analysis of individuals of 

mixed racial affinities. 

The researchers hypothesize that each observer will use a different 

suite of non-metric traits to establish the racial profile for a specific skull. 

Therefore, it is hypothesized that each observer will assign a racial affinity 

based on the weight the observer themselves give to various traits or trait 

gradations. These factors combined will affect the observer’s ability to 

correctly classify a mixed ancestry skull into the appropriate racial group 

according to current anthropological standards and will result in differing 

ancestry estimates for the same skull between researchers. 

Twelve individuals that exhibited racial admixture were selected from 

the skeletal collection Louisiana State University. These skulls were 

analyzed by researchers with various levels of experience and their ancestry 

was assessed, based on the ancestry standards published by Gill and Rhine 

(1990). After ancestry conclusions were drawn solely from the non-metric 

data, cranial measurements were taken and entered into FORDISC 2.0. The 

results of both the metric and non-metric data were then compared. When 

there was a discrepancy between the results of the non metric and 

morphometric traits, the researchers attempted to identify specific traits that 

would account for the differing results. Statistical analysis was employed 

to identify: (a) which non-metric traits each researcher noted, (b) the weight 

each researcher gave specific traits in final determination, (c) which traits 

are more dominant in persons representing two or more racial categories, 

and (d) the effect, if any, that the interaction of sex and ancestry may have 

on any given non-metric trait. 

The results of this research suggested very different racial 

classifications based upon non-metric and metric analyses. The researchers 

were asked to pick one or two main ancestral affinities as most individuals 

identify with one particular social race. After thorough examination of each 

skull, the non-metric data demonstrated these individuals possessed strong 

traits for racial admixture, while the Fordisc 2.0 analysis suggested only one 

ancestral group, either with very low typicality rates or an entirely different 


acial category as determined by the non-metric results. The non-metric 

traits were analyzed to determine which traits took dominance in 

determining race for each anthropologist. The analysis shows that the 

researchers focused primarily on the traits of the upper face (eye orbit 

shape, nasal shape, nasal aperture, and zygomatics) when assigning race 

and rarely used traits such as inion hook, rounded external auditory meatus, 

dental arcade shape, suture simplicity, and wormian bones to alter their 

racial assessment. 

The estimation of race from a skull is becoming increasingly more 

difficult as individuals are less and less made up of one specific racial 

affinity. As the need for an accurate race estimate is important to narrow 

the search for positive identifications, it is likely that different 

anthropologists will identify the same admixed individual as belonging to 

different racial categories. There is a need for standardization of this 

process and a need to identify which non-metric traits are more dominant in 

admixed individuals and thus contribute more to the overall phenotype of 

the individual. 

Racial Admixture, Non-Metric Analysis, Metric Analysis 

H82 Discriminant Function Analysis as 

Applied to Mandibular Metrics to 

Assess Population Affinity 

Gregory E. Berg, MA*, US Army Central ID Laboratory, 310 Worchester 



the results of a study examining the metric characteristics of the mandible 

and their ability to predict ancestry. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by offering 

another assessment of the mandible as a reliable indicator of population 

affinity for use in forensic casework. 

Forensic anthropologists tend not to rely heavily on mandibular metric 

data to determine population affinity for several reasons. First, the most 

widely available comparison groups are usually limited to U.S. Whites and 

Blacks. Second, when other populations are available for comparison, the 

sample sizes are relatively small and are not forensically relevant to U.S. 

casework. Third, anthropologists are more familiar with cranial metrics 

rather than those of the mandible. Therefore, there is a need to develop 

reliable formulae for deriving population affinity based mandibular metric 

data. This paper examines the ability to correctly classify an unknown 

individual using mandibular metrics through discriminant function analysis 

using populations that are forensically relevant in the United States. 

The study concentrates on individuals from approximately ten 

different populations that include American Whites and Blacks, 

Cambodians, Vietnamese, Central American Hispanics, Nubians, and 

Native Americans. The total sample size is in excess of 1000 individuals; 

all individuals are assumed to have late 19th to 20th century birth years, 

except for certain Native American groups and the Nubians. Eleven 

measurements were collected for each mandible in the study; eight were 

standard, one was a modified standard measurement, and two were newly 

defined. The standard measurements have been defined numerous times 

and the definitions given in Moore-Jansen et al. (1994) are followed. The 

two new measurements are the mandibular body breadth at the M2/M3 

junction and the dental arcade width at the third molar. The modified 

measurement is the mandibular body breadth at mental foramen. 

Step-wise linear discriminant function analyses using the Mahalanobis 

D2 distance statistic were undertaken on the data. These analyses 

concentrated not only on two populations at a time, but also up to ten group 

evaluations. Male only and female only comparisons as well as pooled sex 

comparisons were undertaken; many analyses used males only due to 

relatively small female sample sizes in certain populations. When present, 

missing data were estimated using multiple linear regression models, by 

population. Each analysis was cross-validated using a leave-one-out 

method for accuracy assessment. Frequently, the measurements of the 

mandibular angle and bicondylar width did not enter into the final 

discriminant functions. 


A two population comparison between American Whites and Blacks, 

sexes pooled, yielded a cross-validated accuracy rate of 85% using four 

variables. Other two group comparisons for males only yielded crossvalidated 

accuracy rates between 83% and 94%. Nearly all three population 

comparisons, males only (for example American Whites, Blacks, and 

Cambodians) yielded cross-validated accuracy rates between 71% and 

75%. Several five population comparisons yielded cross-validated accuracy 

rates around 55%, approximately three times better than the expected 

accuracy if based on chance alone. Finally, all groups together yielded a 

47% accuracy rate, or over four times chance alone. Interestingly, secular 

change also is detectable in related groups over time, such as 19th and 20th 

century U.S. Blacks and Whites. These results are similar to the expected 

accuracy rates from other discriminant function analyses involving the 

skull, e.g., mandibular morphology and cranial metrics. Based on these 

results, the use of discriminant functions to assess population affinity via 

mandibular metrics is argued to be a valuable tool for the forensic 


Forensic Sciences, Mandible, Ancestry 

H83 A Test of Methods: Implications of 




Ann H. Ross, PhD*, North Carolina State University, Sociology and 

Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; Douglas H. 

Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, NMNH - MRC 112, 

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and Erin H. 



The educational objectives of this paper are to discuss multiple 

craniometric and statistical methods for estimating population affinity, test 

the extent to which population variation may effect sex estimation, and 

explore the applicability of using cross-population data for individual 

biological profiling. 


providing an uderstanding of human variation and applying appropriate 

methods for identification across populations. Importantly it is 

demonstrated that population specific data are needed for accurate 

calibration when using metric analyses for sexual dimorphism and ancestry 

estimation. The outcome of this research is to demonstrate why forensic 

anthropologists should approach international work through a framework 

that accounts for population variation. 

One of the key components in the identification process is the ability 

to determine ancestry from a skeleton. Craniofacial variation defined by 

skull dimensions of size and shape are estimated by a proportion of both 

intrinsic (genetic) and extrinsic (environmental) factors. Because human 

populations differ morphologically in relation to size and shape, 

identification formulae should be customized to be population specific. 

The knowledge of the ethnic origins of an individual drastically narrows the 

search for missing persons that can ultimately result in victim identification. 

However, this is becoming increasingly challenging as individuals migrate 

to different populations and standards have been continuously appraised. 

The standards for classifying or differentiating closely related populations 

(e.g., “Hispanic”) using both traditional and modern three-dimensional 

methods are currently being addressed by numerous researchers. 

Recent studies have paid much attention to the problematic nature of 

using biologically meaningless terms such as “Hispanic”, which ignore 

geographic heterogeneity throughout the New World. To this end, we 

present a comparative study of among-group variation for two samples 

from the Iberian Peninsula (Oloriz Regional 19th Century, F= 27, M = 27; 

Wamba Local 16-17th Century, F = 25, M= 26) and Terry Whites (F = 22, 

M = 22) using a combination of traditional linear metric methods and 

modern approaches from the geometric morphometrics. The sample sizes 

264

for the traditional craniometric study was slightly smaller for each sample 

as those with any missing values were not included in the analyses. For this 

study sixteen traditional craniometric measures were utilized in the 

analyses. A discriminant function analysis was conducted using the 

traditional craniometrics to allocate crania into groups using 

crossvalidation. The degree of differentiation between the groups was 

measured using Mahalanobis D2 . Although human levels of sexual 

dimorphism are low compared to other primate species, males and females 

appear skeletally very different. Because the degree and pattern of sexual 

dimorphism vary by population, which can further complicate the accurate 

assignment of ancestry and sex in different populations, the degree of 

sexual dimorphism was also evaluated. The degree of sexual dimorphism 

was assessed with an index of sexual dimorphism or ISD [(male 

mean/female mean)/1] X 100. The similarity or dissimilarity in the degree 

of sexual dimorphism was evaluated using a nonparametric Spearman rank 

correlation coefficients. Fourteen standard craniofacial Type 1 and Type 2 

landmarks were used in the geometric morphometric part of the analysis. 

The among-group variation of the coordinate data was examined using 

multiple pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction. 

Both the traditional and morphometric cranial analyses detected 

significant differences among the samples (p-values > 0.001). Interestingly, 

19th Century Spanish males were closer to Terry White males, but both 

Spanish female samples were closer to each other than they were to the 

Terry females. The average ISD for all measurements is slightly higher for 

the Wamba Local 16-17th Spanish sample suggesting that they are 

somewhat more sexually dimorphic. The intraspecific rank correlations 

among the ISDs for all craniometric variables detected a moderate 

difference in the pattern of sexual dimorphism between the two Spanish 

samples (r=0.55) possibly indicating secular changes in sex dimorphism 

within the Iberian Peninsula. The varying levels of dimorphism among 

populations could affect the classification accuracy when attempting to 

assign an “unknown” to a particular reference group and further skew 

results for sex estimation when applying different standards across 

populations. These results obviate the importance of investigating regional 

or geographic morphological variations and further underscore the 

importance of calibrating methods to reflect the biology of the local 

population. 

Population Affinity, Sex Dimorphism, Spain 

H84 Cranial Histomorphology: Species 


Lindsay H. Trammell, MA*, Murray K. Marks, PhD, and Walter E. 

Klippel, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37966-0720; and Darinka Mileusnic- 

Polchan, MD, PhD, UTMCK, Department of Pathology, 1924 Alcoa 

Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920 


histological characteristics of neurocranial elements and the usefulness of 

these elements in species recognition and estimation of age-at-death. 


methodology for identifying and aging fragmentary cranial remains at the 

microscopic level. 

Recent bone histological research on anthropological materials has 

focused on the postcranial skeleton and specifically, the pelvic and pectoral 

limb bones. The microscopic characteristics of these long bones have been 

utilized to ascertain the human or non-human status and to estimate age. 

However, few studies have undertaken a characterization of flat bones and 

it is not uncommon in the forensic setting to discover a skull or fragmented 

neurocranial elements. 

This histological research addresses several questions using human 

and non-human frontal, occipital, and parietal bones to discern the 

microstructure and to interpret inter-bone and inter-species difference. This 

study follows up previous research by Cool and coworkers (1995) and 

Clarke (1987) as it re-examines the utility of using vault bones to ascertain 

age-at-death. Current histological age estimating methods utilize the Kerley 

(1965) method relying on diaphyseal mid-shafts. Kerley’s method did not 

consider environmental and mechanical stress factors when it was created. 

Clarke (1987) considered the parietal and Cool et al, (1995) examined the 

occipital. Our research re-evaluates these questions and includes the frontal 

bone to ascertain the most accurate age estimation bone. 

Human cranial samples were secured at autopsy from known age, sex 

and ancestry victims from the University of Tennessee Regional Forensic 

Center. Nonhuman crania were sampled from specimens in the 

Zooarchaeological Collection in the Department of Anthropology at the 

University of Tennessee including animals from four different families: 

white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), goat (Capra hircus), pig (Sus 

scrofa), and dog (Canis familiaris). 

Bone cores were removed from identical regions of the frontal, 

parietal and occipital of each specimen. Thin sections were prepared using 

routine petrographic methods and examined under light microscopy to view 

histological characteristics. Human samples were neither significant to 

individual nor to bone. Basic structures analyzed in humans include 

primary and secondary osteons, secondary osteon fragments and lamellar 

bone. Plexiform bone characterized the nonhuman specimens along with 

some primary and secondary osteons. The presence of plexiform bone 

taken in congruence with quantitative measurements of secondary osteon 

area and Haversian canal area were successful in differentiating all human 

from nonhuman samples. In human, fractional volumes of secondary 

osteons, secondary osteon fragments and lamellar bone were recorded for 

the frontal, parietals and occipital. These variables were statistically 

compared using SPSS and analyzed to obtain the best correlation to age-atdeath. 

This research considers cranial microstructure of human and 

nonhuman samples and indicates that certain histological structures can 

differentiate between humans and between and within non-human species. 

This study also discusses the applicability of using the frontal, parietal and 

occipital bones to estimate age-at-death in humans. 

References: 

1 Clarke DF. Histological and radiographic variation in the parietal bone 

in a cadaveric population. Masters thesis, University of Queensland, 

Australia, 1987. 

2 Cool SM, Hendrikz JK, Wood WB. Microscopic age changes in the 

human occipital bone. J Forensic Sci 1995;40:789-796. 

3 Kerley ER. The microscopic determination of age in human bone. Am 

J Phys Anthropol 1965;23:149-164. 

Histology, Age Estimation, Neurocranium 

H85 Are Cranial Morphological Traits 

Population Specific? A Reevaluation of 

Traditional Sex Estimation Methodology 

Angela M. Dautartas, BS*, and Kanya M Godde, MA*, University of 



re-evaluation of traditional morphological cranial sex estimation methods 

in reference to specific population groups. 


improve the standards upon which anthropologists rely for construction of 

the biological profile. Continual testing and alteration of these methods to 

reflect modern populations is essential to ensure the highest possible 

accuracy. 

Visual analysis for sex estimation using the cranium and mandible as 

outlined by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) involves examination of five 

morphological traits on an ordinal scale, ranking from definite male to 

definite female. This system is well known, and has been commonly used 

by the forensic community for many years. Krogman tested the accuracy 


of this particular method by utilizing this particular suite of morphological 

traits in an attempt to identify the sex of 750 individuals from the Hamann- 

Todd collection (Krogman and Iscan, 1986). Although this collection 

included males and females of European and African ancestry, it was biased 

towards males of European ancestry. Even though Krogman returned a 

92% accuracy rate from examining the skull alone, because of the bias 

towards European males, the actual accuracy of this system may be lower 

for a more diverse sample. Stewart (1979) also tested this method, 

examining 100 male and female individuals of African-American descent 

from the Terry collection. While he noted that his accuracy was only 77% 

for this population, he attributed the lower success rate to the fact that the 

sample was heavily male biased. 

The aim of this study is to demonstrate that expression of cranial 

morphological traits are population specific, and therefore methods 

incorporating these traits may not be appropriate for all ancestral 

populations. For example, female individuals of African or African- 

American descent have been noted to display cranial traits that tend to 

mislead observers when assessing sex. Mastoid processes are typically 

larger in females of African descent than females of European descent. 

When using the standard scale to determine sex, larger mastoids are 

considered strongly indicative of a male individual. This example 

demonstrates that techniques that do not account for differences among 

populations may be inappropriate determinants of sex. 

In order to test our hypothesis, a sex estimation analysis of adult male 

and female individuals of African-American ancestry from the William 

Bass Donated Collection was completed. Each of the five morphological 

traits were visually examined and rated according to the scale set down by 

Buikstra and Ubelaker. The resulting estimation was then compared to the 

individual’s actual known sex. 

In order to evaluate the accuracy of using mastoid processes alone as 

determinants of sex, metric estimation was also completed. Measurements 

of mastoid length and mastoid breadth were obtained from the Forensic 

Anthropology Data Bank. These measurements were used to compute 

mastoid area separately in males and females of both European and African 

ancestry. Subsequently the measurements of each sex were compared 

across the populations to investigate any differences between the two 

groups. A t-test was used to determine if any significant differences do 

exist. 

Our results indicated that traditional morphological indicators of sex 

can reflect populational variation. Certain traits including the mastoid 

process, supraorbital margin and supraorbital ridge were expressed 

differently between the two ancestral groups. When the scale found in 

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) was applied to the populations without regard 

to ancestral differences, our accuracy rating was 79%. When the 

populations were separated and the Buikstra and Ubelaker scale was 

adjusted for ancestral differences, our accuracy rating increased to 88%. 

Further, mastoid measurements indicated that significant differences do 

exist between individuals of European ancestry and individuals of African 

or African-American ancestry. 

The results here suggest that cranial morphological traits are not only 

sex specific, but population specific, as well. Since sex determination 

accuracy increased when population specific scales were used, it is 

recommended that the method be revised to state that it is best applied to 

individuals of European descent and alternative scales be developed for 

other ancestries. 

References: 

1 Buikstra JE, Ubelaker D editors. Standards for data collection from 

human skeletal remains : proceedings of a seminar at the Field 


Survey, 1994. 

2 Krogman WM, Iscan MY. The human skeleton in forensic medicine. 

Springfield: C.C. Thomas, 1986. Stewart TD. Essentials of forensic 

anthropology. Springfield: C.C. Thomas, 1979. 

Cranial Morphology, Visual Sex Estimation, Population Study 


H86 A Practical Method for Determining Sex 


Heather Garvin, MS*, 7471 SE 117th Terrace, Morriston, FL 32668; Luis 

Lorenzo Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied 

Forensic Sciences, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Kyra Elizabeth 

Stull, BA, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 

Mercyhurst College, Glenwood Hills, Erie, PA 16546 

Upon completion of this poster presentation, participants will be better 

informed of the accuracy of past published sex determination methods as 

applied to human chest plates from a modern forensic sample. Participants 

will also become conscious of which sexual traits are most reliable from the 

chest plate region and will be presented with a new practical method for 

accurate sex determination. 

The presentation of this research will impact the forensic community 

by providing the necessary evaluation and associated statistics of proposed 

sex determination methods from the human chest plate, which is essential 

for Daubert compliances. The presentation also presents new practical 

methods which are accurate and lack complex, extensive procedures, so 

that they may be applied either radiographically in the medical examiner 

setting, or osteologically to the skeletal elements of the chest plate, for 

preliminary or supplemental sex determination. 

Highly decomposed or altered human remains often prevent quick 

assessment of the victim’s biological profile at autopsy. When their 

preservation or integrity do not allow for a diagnosis from soft tissues, the 

remains require further processing for osteological examination by a forensic 

anthropologist which adds extra time to the identification process, especially 

when aggressive maceration methods are avoided. Within this framework, 

radiographic examination of different anatomical areas can provide a useful 

tool for obtaining reliable, yet quick assessments of factors such as age, sex 

or ancestry, and serves to guide the initial stages of a forensic investigation, 

before processing and comprehensive osteological analysis can be 

completed. 

The present study explores the presence of sexual dimorphism in the 

anterior thorax region, and its potential for sex diagnosis from anterior chest 

plate radiographs. Although the skull and pelvis provide the most reliable 

indicators of sex in human skeletal remains, these areas may be absent or 

damaged. Additionally, anterior thoracic radiographs are easily taken during 

autopsy, as the chest plate is routinely removed during autopsy, and presents 

less orientation problems than other regions. Furthermore, both metric and 

morphological sex differences in the anterior thoracic region (including 

observations based on autopsy radiographs) are well documented in the 

literature. Among them, the degree and pattern of ossification of costal 

cartilage, morphological changes to the sternal ends of the ribs, and relative 

size and morphologies of the sternum are described as providing reliable sex 

estimates. 

Although these sexual markers have been noted since the 1980’s, they 

are scarcely used in forensic practice. A lack of proper associated probability 

estimates essential for Daubert compliance, such as percentages of correct 

classification and posterior probabilities, as well as the scaling problems 

derived from radiographic recordation, can likely be counted among the top 

causes of this neglect. The present study addresses these problems by: 

(1) testing the accuracy, in terms of percentages of correct classification, of 

existing sex determination methods based on radiographic examination of 

the sternal area, and of the individual traits employed in these methods, 

(2) exploring alternative methods to correct for radiographic scale, and (3) 

estimating the probabilities attached to the newly created alternative 

methods. 

Special attention is paid to costochondral ossification patterns and 

sternum morphology in this study. With respect to the former, typically 

only the sternal ribs are available to the forensic anthropologist (and lacking 

the associated costal cartilage). Given that most of the morphological 

changes to the sternal rib ends are a direct result of the costal cartilage 

ossification, a better understanding of sexual differences in cartilage 

266

ossification, as observed radiographically, can provide a useful insight into 

the traits considered in the osteological method. 

Sternum morphology is likewise highly dimorphic, and relatively easy 

to record from radiographs, given the density, placement and orientation of 

the sternum. If the scaling (distortion) problems can be eliminated, the 

radiographic observations could be easily extrapolated to defleshed bones. 

The study sample consisted of 105 chest plate radiographs of adult 

males and females, taken at autopsy. The radiographs were digitized and the 

appropriate metric and non-metric variables (including landmark data) 

recorded. A sex diagnostic was then obtained for each radiograph through 

various existing methods, and the corresponding percentages of correct 

classification estimated. Multivariate predictive equations for sex 

determination, and the corresponding probability estimates, were obtained 

through canonical variate analysis, for both sternal linear measurements and 

partial warps from landmark configurations. The process of rotation, 

translation and scaling attached to the landmark method serves to 

effectively remove scale effects, rendering size-free shape variables. 

Bivariate analysis through linear regression and analysis of covariance 

(ANCOVA) was applied to the data in order to explore the feasibility of 

using either ratios or residual analysis to correct for scaling effects, as well 

as to explore the general allometry of the potential sexual differences 

detected. 

Finally, non-metric analysis of individual stages and trait 

combinations was applied to assess the potential of costal cartilage 

ossification as a reliable sex marker. Results suggest that radiographic 

examination of anterior thoracic radiographs shows a high potential for sex 

estimation, at least in those individuals showing configurations close to 

their group centroids. 

Sex Determination, Sternum, Costal Cartilage 

H87 A Test of an Age-at-Death 

Method Using the First Rib 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA*, Department of Natural and Behavioral 

Sciences, 10541 Hardin Valley Road, Knoxville, TN 37933; Jonathan D. 

Bethard, MA*, The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 


Attendees of the presentation will understand that the first rib has 

potential as an additional tool in the age-at-death toolkit available to 



demonstrating that forensic anthropologists working domestically and on 

human rights issues in locations outside of the United States can improve 

their efforts by refining methods used to estimate age-at-death. Results 

from this research indicate that the first rib can be used to estimate age-atdeath 

as an isolated element or as a component in a multifactorial approach. 

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a method 

developed by DiGangi et al. [1] for estimating age-at-death from the first rib 

is an effective age-at-death method. The method was based on a revision of 

Kunos et al [2] and originally was developed using a Balkan population as the 

reference population. There are a number of issues involved with applying 

age-at-death methodologies developed using one reference population to 

another population of differing ethnic background and age structure. [3] 

Among these is the concern that different populations age at slightly 

different rates and in different ways, and that this leads to the possibility of 

bias when applying age-at-death methods to populations on which the 

method was not developed. [3] These questions become especially critical 

when accurately aging a skeleton has medico-legal significance, whether it 

is small-scale, as with an isolated forensic case, or large-scale, as with 

human rights investigations. Numerous researchers have reported on the 

significance of developing population-specific standards in human rights 

contexts (e.g., [4] , among others). These anthropologists have demonstrated 

that identification in human rights cases is improved when localized 

standards are developed. 

While the fourth rib has been used for some time in age-at-death 

estimation, Kunos and coworkers [2] indicate several limitations with the 

element. Oftentimes, the fourth rib is misidentified in unarticulated 

skeletons or damage to the sternal aspect precludes its use as an age 

indicator. Moreover, Kunos et al. indicate methods that rely solely on 

morphological changes of the costal face do not utilize other aspects of the 

rib that change throughout life, particularly the head and tubercle. These 

authors argue that the first rib is unambiguously identifiable in addition to 

its prolonged span of remodeling into the eighth decade and beyond. In 

addition, the fact that this method incorporates only two observations 

should make it simpler to learn and apply than other available 

methodologies that incorporate multiple observations. 

In order to determine if the first rib aging method developed using a 

Balkan reference population could be effectively used as an age-at-death 

method in the United States, the first ribs from known-aged males from the 

William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection were scored using the 

technique developed by DiGangi et al. Specifically, texture of both the rib 

head and tubercle facet were scored categorically. Categorical scores were 

then transformed to age-at-death estimates in the manner of DiGangi et al. 

A total of 114 individuals were scored, including right and left sides, 

when available. Ages at death for the test sample ranged from 19 to 96 years 

for males (with a mean age of 57.7 years). In addition, both authors scored 

50 individuals for the purpose of inter-observer testing. The correlation 

between best age and real age was tested for both left and right sides. 

Correlation coefficients were .490 and .687, respectively. Such results 

indicate while asymmetry is present between sides, the method developed 

by DiGangi and colleagues does capture age-related change. Moreover, 

56% of the target sample was accurately aged within ±10 years of real age. 

These results indicate that the method developed DiGangi et al. can help 

with age at death estimation in forensic contexts and can be incorporated 

into multifactorial age-at-death assessment. 

References: 

1 DiGangi EA, Bethard JD, Kimmerle E, Konigsberg LW. A New 

Method for Estimating Age-at-Death from the First Rib. Paper 

presented at 57th annual American Academy of Forensic Sciences 

Meeting, 2005. 

2 Kunos CA, Simpson SW, Russell KF, Hershkovitz I. First rib 

metamorphosis: its possible utility for human age-at-death estimation. 

AJPA 1999; 110:303-323. 

3 Schmitt A. Age at death assessment using the os pubis and the 

auricular surface of the ilium: a test on an identified Asian sample. Int 

J Osteoarcheol 2004; 14:1-6. 

4 Jantz RL, Kimmerle E. Variation in Size and Dimorphism in Eastern 

European Femora. Paper presented at 56th Annual American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences Meeting, 2004. 

Forensic Anthropology, Age-at-Death, First Rib 

H88 Classification of Frontal Sinus Patterns 

in Koreans by Three-Dimensional 


Tomography 

Deog-Im Kim, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University, 


Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The 


137701, KOREA; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic 

University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, 

KOREA 

Attendes of ths presentation will understand that the frontal sinus from 

computed tomography data might be helpful as an identification of 

unknown individuals of Korean in forensic studies. 

The impact of this presentation on the forensic community will 


demonstrate the usefulness of frontal sinus as the identification and a 

distinction among populations and the simply classified method by threedimensional 

reconstruction. 

The frontal sinus from computed tomography data might be helpful as 

an identification of unknown individuals of Korean in forensic studies. 

This presentation has presented the usefulness of frontal sinus as the 

identification and a distinction among populations and the simply classified 

method by three-dimensional reconstruction. 

The use of frontal sinus in identifying human skeletal remains is now 

an increasingly applied and accepted technique in forensic anthropology. 

The frontal sinus begins to develop at the age of five and six and does not 

change after the age 20 years except fracture or diseases. Computed 

tomography is becoming increasingly available and replacing gradually the 

radiographs rapidly. The aim of this study is described to define a simple 

and useful system for identification of an unknown person by threedimensional 

reconstruction of frontal sinus in Korean and compared with 

other populations. 

The material was the Digital Korean as human model database 

(http://digitalman.kisti.re.kr) at Department of Anatomy·Catholic Instituted 

for Applied Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of 

Korea. The frontal sinus was classified based on four basic features: 

present sinuses, outline of upper border, partial septum, posterior extension, 

and measured twelve items included volume, width, and depth. The 

bilateral asymmetry index modified by Yoshino et al. (1987) and bilateral 

dimension are used as a classification in this study. 

The most common type of frontal sinus due to four features was 

present sinuses at both, absent partial septum, smooth shape of outline of 

upper border, and absent posterior extension at both sexes. In bilateral 

dimension by volume, middle size (10 cm3 < volume < 100 cm3 ) was the 

most common in both sexes and sides but large size (100 cm3 < volume 

through a cross-cut allometric analysis of outline complexity with age. 

Results suggest that both individual and group differences in sinus 

shape may be correlated with sinus size and expansion and, due to their 

effect size, they are not relevant for positive identification purposes. On this 

respect, the proposed methodology appears as a promising tool to shed 

additional light upon the developmental processes shaping the frontal sinus, 

both between and within different demographic groups, through its 

application to longitudinal data. 

Frontal Sinus, Sex, Ancestry 

H90 Sex Determination of Talus in Korean 

Using Discrimination Function Analysis 

U-Young Lee, MD*, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, Department 

of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, 

Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; In-Heok Chung, MD, 

PhD, Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 

Department of Anatomy, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 134 

Sinchon-dong, Seodaemoon-gu, Seoul, 120752, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon 

Park, MD, PhD, Deptartment of Anatomy, Colleege of Medicine, 

Soonchunhyang Univ, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 Ssangyong-dong, 

Cheonan-si, Seoul 330946 KOREA; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, MS, Department 

of Anatomy, Gachon University of Medicine, 1198 Kuwol-dong, 

Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, Kwandong University College of Medicine, 522, 

Naegok-dong, Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; Je-Hoon Lee, MSc, 

Department of Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, 


Korea,, 505 Banpo-dong, 

Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 

Department of Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, College 

of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, 


This presentation suggest that the talus could be helpful for sex 

determination in forensic anthropologic field, as the dimension of the talus 

is highly dimorphic between male and female in Korean and the 

discrimination function analysis classify sex with high accuracies. 

The talus of Korean is useful for sex determination in either case of 

complete or fragmentary state as the discrimination function equations 

obtained from nine measurements are specific for sex determination of 

Korean with high accuracy. 

The determination of the sex is essential in human identification, as it 

make the matching possibility decreased by half. The sex of the unknown 

individual is determined mainly by non-metric method observing the 

anatomical elements with sexual difference on bones. This method is 

depending on the presence or absence of these elements. Although the 

elements are as complete as possible to obtain accurate results, incomplete 

or fragmentary bones are more often excavated in forensic cases. Then, it 

is needed to devise analytical methods considering fragmentation. 

Statistical analysis using metric method provides more reliable and 

quantifiable estimation than non-metric method. 

Talus, one of the tarsal bones, is useful bone for human identification 

that is preserved more intact during the recovery of human skeletons 

comparing with long bones as its hardness and is readily distinguished even 

in fragmentary state as its characteristic morphology. Besides the merits of 

the talus in excavation, several statistical studies on the talus of the 

population groups excluding East Asian populations suggested that the 

discrimination function using metric data of this bone is able to classify sex 

with high accuracy. Therefore, it is the aim of this study to investigate the 

sex discriminating potential of the metric data from the talus in Korean, one 

of East Asian populations, and compare with other analysis on White and 

Black population. 

The descriptive and discrimination function analysis were performed 

on the data acquired from the nine measurements, referred by Steele (1976) 

and Bidmos et al. (2003), taken from 165 tali (118 male, 47 female) in 

Yonsei University of Korea. The talus of Korean is highly dimorphic 

between male and female as there were significant differences in all 

measurements (P < 0.01). The discrimination function equations were 

generated by univariate, bivariate and step-wise method. In the equations 

obtained from one variable, the equation using talar width had the highest 

accuracy of sex classification in 86.7% and the range of accuracy of each 

equation was 72.7% to 86.7%. The range of accuracy of the equations 

using two variables was 80.0% to 87.9% and the equation from talar width 

and height of head classified sex with the highest accuracy in 87.9%. The 

analysis by step-wise method selected the best 2 out of the 9 measurements: 

talar width and talar height. The accuracy of the equation by step-wise 

method was 86.1%. The reason why the step-wise analysis select talar 

width and talar height instead of talar width and height of head which were 

the variables of the equation with the highest accuracy in bivariate analysis 

might be that Wilk’s lambda in talar width and talar height was higher. 

In comparison with other population groups studied by Steele (1976), 

Bidmos et al. (2003, 2004), the talus of Korean had generally similar 

dimension of White and Black population except for South African Black 

with smaller dimension than Korean. In the discrimination functions, the 

variables with the accuracies over 80.0% are different from each population 

and the variables selected by step-wise method are also different. These 

results show that the variables with high accuracy in this study are specific 

for sex determination of Korean. 

Any equation calculated from one or two variables among nine 

measurements in this study provides high accuracy (72.7% ~ 87.9%). It is 

concluded that the talus of Korean is useful for sex determination in either 

case of complete or fragmentary state. 

References: 

1 Steele DG. The estimation of sex on the basis of the talus and 

calcaneus. Am J Phys Anthropol 1976;45(3 pt. 2):581-8. 

2 Bidmos MA, Dayal MR. Sex determination from the talus of South 

African whites by discriminant function analysis. Am J Forensic Med 

Pathol 2003;24(4):322-8. 

3 Bidmos MA, Dayal MR. Further evidence to show population 

specificity of discriminant function equations for sex determination 

using the talus of South African blacks. J Forensic Sci 

2004;49(6):1165-70. 

Talus, Sex Determination, Korean 

H91 Morphometrics of the Korean Thyroid 


Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, College of 

Medicine Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, 

Seoul, 330946 KOREA; Deog-Im Kim, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

Kwandong University College of Medicine, 522, Naegok-dong, 

Gangneug, 201701, KOREA; U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, 

MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic 

University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA 

After attending this presentation, the attendee will understand the 

results of a physical anthropological data of Korean thyroid cartilages 

applied for determination of sex of Koreans. 


demonstrating the usefulness of thyroid cartilage for sex determination in 

Korean and another method for sex determination using morphometric 

analysis of thyroid cartilage. 

Each time a forensic anthropologist investigates the morphological 

characteristics of an unidentified victim who is badly decomposed or found 

in dried bones, many unknown questions are to be answered. [1] Among 

them, the answers to biological profile such as ethnicity, sex, age and statue 

are basic step to identify the victim. The biological profile could be 

estimated based on the knowledge of physical anthropology which is 

mainly collected by metric and non-metric characteristics of bones. 

However, studies about the soft tissue such as cartilage are fewer. The 

thyroid cartilage is located just below the hyoid bone and is the biggest 

cartilage in laryngeal cartilage. Similar to other cartilages and bones, 


thyroid cartilage is known to enlarge its size as the puberty onwards. Its 

sagittal diameter is nearly doubled during this process. Cho [2] reported the 

study concerning 22 items of measurement of the Korean laryngeal 

cartilage in both sexes, but difference between sexes after statistic 

procedures was negligible. The purpose of this study is to identify the sex 

based on the morphological analysis of the thyroid cartilage of Koreans. 

The thyroid cartilages were separated from the larynx and dissected 

from the surrounding connective tissue. Specimens were surveyed with 

digimatic caliper (Mitutuyo Co., Japan) in 110 specimens of the thyroid 

cartilages including 69 males and 41 females. In order to measure the angle 

of cartilage, each specimen was photographed (COOLPIX995, Nikon, 

Japan) with its anterior, both lateral and superior surface maintaining its 

anatomical position. Thirty items were measured including 20 surveyed 

items such as width of thyroid cartilage and ten measured items such as 

angle of superior horn. After the measurements, the statistic procedures 

were performed using SPSS software (Version 13.0, Chicago, IL). 

The measurement value of distance between superior horns did not 

show difference between sexes, but other 29 items of measurement did 

show difference between sexes after the statistic procedures. Male subjects 

exhibited larger values mainly related with the size of thyroid cartilage such 

as width, height and length of thyroid cartilage and height of lamina than 

female subjects (p

of sex, thus contributing significantly to positive identification in forensic 

cases. 

Forensic Anthropology, Humerus, Sex Identification 

H93 Evaluating Methods of Age Estimation of 



Christopher R. Grivas, MS*, University of New Mexico, Department 

of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, Albuquerque, NM 87131; Debra 

Komar, PhD, Office of the Medical Investigator, 1 University of New 

Mexico, MSC11 6030, Albuquerque, NM 87131 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the validity 

of methodology used to estimate gestational age in human fetal and neonate 

remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by testing 

methods that estimate the age of human fetal remains and raising issues that 

may affect the validity of such methodologies. 

The purpose of this presentation is to evaluate methods of estimating 

the age of fetal and neonate remains from radiographs and skeletal remains. 

Estimating the age of unknown remains can be an important step in 

establishing the identity of a fetus or infant as well as determining viability 

in homicides or clandestine disposals of remains. Previous studies have 

established a relatively linear relationship between gestational age and body 

size of a fetus. As a result, methods have generated linear regression 

equations that predict the age of an individual from the length of long 

bones. Although several methods exist, they have never been adequately 

evaluated nor tested on diverse populations. 

Method: Measurements were taken of both humerii, femora, and 

tibiae (when possible) by the first author from x-rays of 137 identified 

fetuses and young infants radiographed at autopsy from 1995-2006 at the 

New Mexico Office of the Medical Investigator. The sample included 20 

Native Americans, 4 African Americans, 58 White Hispanics, and 55 White 

non-Hispanics with approximately equal sex distribution. Age represented 

the number of completed weeks of gestation for fetuses and the total 

number of weeks gestation plus neonate survival time for infants. The 

range for this sample was 14-49 weeks. Each radiograph was assessed for 

proper positioning and long bones were measured to the nearest .005mm. 

The first and second author remeasured a subset of 30 individuals for intraand 

interobserver error tests using pairwise t-tests and the technical error of 

measurement (TEM). The magnification factor was calculated by 

radiographing skeletonized fetal remains and dividing the length of bone in 

the x-ray image by the length of the dry bone. The larger of the two sides 

was used for further analyses and the sexes and population groups pooled. 

Three published standards were tested. Method 1 generates a predictive 

regression equation from radiograph measurements of a single long bone; [1] 

Method 2 produces a predictive regression equation from radiograph 

measurements of the length of a long bone used to first estimate the body 

length (crown-heel length, CHL) of the individual; [2] and Method 3 utilizes 

a table for gross measurements of each long bone. [3] Age estimated by CHL 

was assessed from the most common clinically referenced source. [4] 

Results: The intra- (p-value = .2355, TEM = .2826) and interobserver 

(p-value = .1579, TEM = .4610) errors are relatively insignificant, 

suggesting that the measurements are replicable. Overall, Method 1 

performed the best, correctly predicting the age of 72.4% of individuals 

from the humerus, 75.2% from the femur, and 66.9% from the tibia. 

Method 2 correctly predicted the age of 64.7% of individuals from the 

humerus, 71.9% from the femur, and 62.1% from the tibia. Method 3 

accurately aged 63.8% of individuals from the humerus, 70.2% from the 

femur, and 55.3% from the tibia. 

Discussion: The two methods predicting age directly from long bone 

measurements performed better for all three bones than the method 

predicting age from the estimate of the total length of the body. With the 

exception of the femur for Method 3, each technique consistently 

underestimated the ages of misclassified individuals. Neither of the two 

radiographic methods (Methods 1 and 2) had corrected for the 

magnification factor. Interestingly, when the correction for magnification 

factor is removed, the results improve slightly for these two methods. The 

practical significance of adjusting for the magnification factor and possible 

explanations for these results will be discussed. 

Conclusion: Before a method can be widely accepted in forensic 

contexts, its internal and external validity must be rigorously evaluated. 

While the results of the prior studies suggest that the methods achieved 

adequate internal validity (i.e. were accurate when applied to the population 

from which they were developed), the results of this study indicate all three 

methods have poor external validity (i.e. perform poorly and cannot be 

generalized to other populations). Caution is warranted when using these 

standards to diverse populations. Additional testing is needed, as are 

standards that reflect greater population variation. 

References: 

1 Scheuer JL, Musgrave JH, Evans SP. The estimation of late fetal and 

perinatal age from limb bone length by linear and logarithmic 

regression. Hum Biol 1980;7:257-65. 

2 Warren MW. Radiographic determination of developmental age in 

fetuses and stillborns. J Forensic Sci 1999;44:708-12. 

3 Fazekas I, Kósa K. Forensic Fetal Osteology. Budapest: Akademiai 

Kiado Publishers, 1978. 

4 Usher R, McLean F. Intrauterine growth of live-born Caucasian 

infants at sea level: standards obtained from measurements in 7 

dimensions of infants born between 25 and 44 weeks of gestation. J 

Pediatr 1969;74:901-10. 

Fetal Osteology, Age Estimation, Radiography 

H94 The Utility of the Samworth and 

Gowland Age-at-Death “Look-Up” 

Tables in Forensic Anthropology 

Nicholas Vere Passalacqua, MS*, 3518 Hagadorn Road, Okemos, 

MI 48864 

The goal of this study is presenting to the forensic anthropological 

community the forensic application of three new bioarchaeological age-atdeath 

estimation methods recently developed by Samworth and Gowland 

(2007), stressing their utility and applicability in forensic settings. 

This presentation will impact both forensic practice and future 

research, by demonstrating that the new methods, which were developed f 

bioarchaeological intent, are in fact applicable and useful in forensic 

settings, and that the new statistics used in creating these age-at-death 

“look-up” tables are worth further consideration and study within the field, 

as well as for paleodemographical purposes. 

Accurate age-at-death estimates are crucial to the forensic 

anthropologist when constructing a biological profile aimed at narrowing a 

missing persons list, to allow for timely and efficient identification of an 

unknown victim. To this goal, new methods are continuously constructed 

from known samples, while existing methods keep being updated, adapted 

and tested for their forensic use on contemporary populations. Validation of 

these newly developed methods for forensic purposes, in the spirit of the 

Daubert criteria, requires testing them on at least one independent sample 

of known individuals. From the paleoanthropological or bioarchaeological 

points of view, method validation on independent samples serves to obtain 

the corresponding associated probabilities, aiding in decision-making and 

comparison with other methods, as well as to assess their applicability to 

samples and populations different from those from they were obtained. 

The present contribution evaluates the forensic utility of three new 

age-at-death estimation techniques recently proposed by Samworth and 

Gowland (2007). These techniques are based on: (1) the pubic symphysis, 

(2) the auricular surface of the ilium, and (3) a multifactorial combination 

of these methods. Forensic utility and their applicability to American 


populations, will be tested through their application to three contemporary 

forensic samples. 

A particularly attractive feature of these three new procedures is that 

they are based on two well established ageing methods, widely known and 

regularly used within the forensic community. These techniques are the 

Brooks and Suchey (1990) pubic symphysis method, and the Lovejoy et al. 

(1985) auricular surface method. The Samworth and Gowland (2007) 

procedure provides individual corrected 68% and 90% confidence intervals 

for each of these methods, in the shape of user-friendly “look-up” tables. 

Even more interestingly, similar tools and statistics are provided for the 

combination of both methods (referred to as combined method hereafter). 

These new procedures were developed with a focus on 

paleodemography, and Samworth and Gowland (2007) warn about their 

heavy reliance on the aprioristic knowledge of the precise age-at-death 

distributions of the samples under study, which may cause them to be 

highly population- or even sample-specific. If this hypothesis were true, the 

sensitivity of the method to deviations from the distribution of the original 

study sample would limit importantly their immediate utility in North 

American forensic contexts. This would require the anew estimation of all 

confidence intervals, in order to adapt them to the North American 

population, and would impede their application to individuals of mixed, 

unknown, or uncertain ancestry. 

In the present study, the hypothesis of high sample-specificity is tested 

on three known samples of males and females of multiple, but 

predominantly European American descents: ((n=188) from the Bass 

Collection (University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN); (n=66) from the 

Hamann-Todd Collection (Cleveland Museum of Natural History, OH) and 

(n=83) from the Forensic Data Bank (Jantz and Moore-Jansen 2000)). 

Results indicate that, in the samples under study, the Samworth and 

Gowland estimates from the pubic symphysis and auricular surface actually 

perform slightly better than the previous methods from which they were 

developed. Similarly, the combined method performs better in these 

samples than most attempts at multifactoria age-at-death estimation 

(Martrille et al. 2007, Saunders et al. 1992 and Passalacqua and Cabo 

2007). Interestingly, the combined method does not appear to further 

enhance neither the precision (bias/inaccuracy) nor the accuracy (percent 

correct classification) of the single pubic symphysis age-at-death estimate. 

On the contrary, it would in fact appear that the addition of the auricular 

surface estimate to the pubic symphysis estimate actually decreases the 

utility of the method. In conclusion, these new methods seem to be more 

robust to distribution deviations than originally proposed by Samworth and 

Gowland (2007). They are therefore suitable for immediate and reliable 

forensic usage in the United States and worth further research for their use 

in North American forensic contexts. 

Age-at-Death Estimation, Forensic Anthropology, Validation Study 

H95 Metric Sex Determination 

From the Mandible 

Nicolette Maria Luney Parr, BA, MS*, 1305 NE 6th Terrace, Gainesville, 

FL 32601-3732; Carlos J. Zambrano, MS, 5231 NW 56th Court, 

Gainesville, FL 32653; and Laurel Freas, MA, 3425 SW 2nd Avenue, 

#246, Gainesville, FL 32607 

The goal of this presentation is to examine patterns of metric sexual 

dimorphism within the mandible, and to provide a simple, accurate, and 

reliable means of sex determination. 


updated method to determine biological sex from unknown human skeletal 

remains using a contemporary sample. 

Assessing the biological sex of an individual is one of the first steps 

that the forensic anthropologist is faced with when constructing a biological 

profile. The designation of sex is of utmost importance because other 

aspects of the biological profile, such as stature, age and ancestry, rely on 

an a priori knowledge of the individual’s sex. It is widely known that the 

pelvis is the most accurate estimator of sex, followed by the cranium. 

However, these elements are not always present for analysis due to 


incomplete recovery or taphonomic events. Additionally, even if the 

elements are present, many of the diagnostic aspects of the bones are often 

destroyed due to animal scavenging or weathering processes. As such, 

other skeletal elements must be evaluated for their usefulness in 

differentiating between the sexes. 

The mandible is one of the densest bones of the skeleton and therefore 

is one of the elements most likely to survive in an archaeological or forensic 

setting. While several metric and non-metric traits of the mandible are 

often cited as accurate indicators of sex, many of these values and traits 

have not been rigorously tested. A poster given at the 59th annual meeting 

of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences presented the results of a 

study on the utility of the mandibular angle (degree of rami inclination) and 

its corresponding, oft-cited 125° sectioning point for sex determination of 

unknown individuals. Contrary to what is often taught in classrooms and 

presented in introductory textbooks, this study showed that the mandibular 

angle is neither an accurate nor reliable indicator of sex (Zambrano et al., 

2007). The current study seeks to elaborate on last year’s conclusions by 

finding an alternate metric means to quickly and accurately determine sex 

using the mandible. 

The study sample is composed of mandibular metric data from 

forensic cases compiled by two separate laboratories. The Florida data are 

derived from contemporary individuals from Florida and surrounding states 

processed at the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory at the 

University of Florida (n = 171). The Forensic Data Bank sample is 

composed of cases analyzed and submitted to the University of Tennessee 

by forensic anthropologists from across the country (n = 490). A random 

sample of 150 individuals was held out of the combined forensic dataset for 

use as a test data set. 

Nine linear mandibular measurements (Moore-Jansen et al. 1994) 

from the remaining combined forensic sample (n = 511) were analyzed 

using stepwise linear discriminant function analysis, in an attempt to 

identify which dimension(s) of the mandible provided the greatest 

discrimination between the sexes. Among the nine measurements, bigonial 

breadth, ramus height, and chin height were chosen, based on partial Rsquare 

values, as the variables producing the greatest separation between 

sex groups. A linear discriminant function was created using the 

aforementioned measurements. Re-substitution and cross-validation results 

accurately sexed the mandible 82 – 87% of the time. Verification of the 

ability of the three variable function to discriminate was further tested on 

the hold-out test data and found to accurately sex individuals in 82% of the 

cases. 

These results are consistent with previous linear discriminant function 

studies of the mandible such as Giles (1964) with an accuracy of 85% and 

Steyn and Iscan (1998) with an accuracy of 82%. However, the current 

study has a much larger sample size than the previous two studies and is 

comprised of contemporary US forensic cases of mixed ancestry. As such, 

the study and test samples are more similar to those that are encountered in 

routine forensic casework. Over the years, sex estimation using the 

mandible has proven difficult. This study provides an alternate means to 

accurately and quickly determine the sex of an individual using three 

mandibular measurements. 

References: 

1 Giles E. 1964. Sex determination by discriminant function analysis of 

the mandible. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop. 22: 129-136. 

2 Moore-Jansen PH, Ousley, SD, and Jantz, RL. 1994. Data Collection 

Procedures for Forensic Skeletal Material. 3rd ed. University of 

Tennessee Forensic Anthropology Series, Knoxville, Tennessee. 

3 Steyn M, Iscan MY. 1998. Sexual dimorphism of the crania and 

mandibles of South African Whites. 98: 9-16. 

4 Zambrano CJ, Parr NM, Freas L, Falsetti AB, Warren MW. 2007. 

Evaluation of the mandibular angle as an indicator of sex. Poster 

presented at the 59th annual meeting of the Academy of the Forensic 

Sciences. San Antonio, TX. 

Mandible, Sex Determination, Linear Discriminant Function 

272

H96 Microscopic Age Estimation From 

the Anterior Cortex of the Femus 

in Korean Adults 

Yi-Suk Kim, MD, MS*, Department of Anatomy, Gachon University of 

Medicine and Science, Department of Anatomy, Gachon University of 

Medicine, 1198, Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 405760, KOREA; 

Yong-Woo Ahn, DDS, PhD, and Gi-Yeong Huh, MD, PhD, Institute of 

Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Pusan National University, 1-10, 

Ami-dong, Seo-gu, Busan, 602739, KOREA; Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, 


Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, KOREA; Dae-Kyoon 

Park, MD, PhD, Department. of Anatomy, College of Medicine 

Soonchunhyang University, 366-1 Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Seoul, 

330946 KOREA; and U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 


of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, 


The objective of this study is to ascertain the usefulness of 

microscopic age estimation method based upon Korean adults using 

modified measuring methods from the femur with four histomorphometric 

variables, such as the most anterior cortical width, osteon population 

density, and average size of osteon and Haversian canal. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by suggesting 

the possibility for microscopic age estimation method based upon Korean 

adults. Tthis study is a first attempt for microscopic age estimation method 

using the femur in Koreans, so it will be contribute to growth of concern for 

forensic anthropology of forensic sciences in different countries as well as 

Korea. 

The objective of this study is to ascertain the usefulness of 

microscopic age estimation method based upon Korean adults using 

modified measuring methods from the femur with four histomorphometric 

variables, such as the most anterior cortical width, osteon population 

density, and average size of osteon and Haversian canal. 

In studies on microscopic age estimation methods applied to the 

femur, variety of measuring fields and histomorphometric variables has 

been suggested. As considering the conditions of skeletal remains 

excavated from archaeological sites or forensic situations, utilitarian 

methods with small sampling site against complete cross-section and a few 

variables for efficiently quantifying the remodeling history of the bone were 

needed to develop. The objective of this pilot study is to ascertain the 

usefulness of microscopic age estimation method using modified 

measuring methods from the femur based upon Korean adults. The bone 

specimens of anterior femoral midshaft were removed from 19 Korean 

cadavers (10 males and 9 females) in wedge form that one of the saw cuts 

was kept perpendicular to the long axis of the shaft and depth of cut was 

limited to anterior half. The age range for the sample is 41 to 82 years with 

a mean and standard deviation of 62.4 and 12.1 years, respectively. Thick 

sections of 1-mm were cut from the perpendicular plane of the wedged 

femoral specimens using a diamond wheel. Then thin sections (less than 

100 um thick) per individual were prepared for histological analysis by 

manual grinding method. Five subperiosteal areas of each thin section were 

analyzed microscopically by indicating points (the most anterior point and 

points 10° and 20° to the left and right) on the glass cover slip of the bone 

slide. The most anterior cortical width, osteon population density, and 

average size of osteon and Haversian canal were measured using an 

Olympus BX-51 light microscope with simple polarizing attachment and 

image analysis solutions (Image-pro Plus 4.5.1, Media Cybernetics, Inc., 

Silver Spring, MD, USA) at a magnification of ´100. Statistical regression 

analysis was performed using age at death as dependent variable. An 

analysis of covariance found no statistically significant differences in all 

variables between sexes. In all cases, the strongest associations with age for 

the pooled sexes were osteon population density and average osteon size (r2 = 0.654 and 0.554, respectively). For multiple regression method, osteon 

population density and average osteon size were selected as independent 

variable and its r2 and standard error of estimate were 0.746 and 6.460, 

respectively. These preliminary results indicate that five measuring points 

and two of four histomorphometric variables can be used to reliably 

estimate age at death in Korean adults. 

This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation Grant 

funded by the Korean Government (MOEHRD) (KRF-2006-331-E00011). 

Age, Femur, Histomorphology 

H97 Sternal Rib Histomorphometry: 

A Test of the Age Estimation Method 

of Stout, et al. (1994) 

Sam D. Stout, PhD*, and Deborrah C. Pinto, MA*; Department of 

Anthropology, Ohio State University, 124 West 17th Avenue, 244 Lord 

Hall, Columbus, OH 43210-1364; Lara E. McCormick, MA*, The Ohio 

State University, 2894 Neil Avenue, #513A, Columbus, OH 43202; and 

Meghan-Tomasita C. Cosgriff-Hernandez, MA, and Annamaria C. 

Crescimanno, MA, Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, 

124 West 17th Avenue, 244 Lord Hall, Columbus, OH 43210-1364 


application of histological age estimation method for the sternal rib, and 

become aware of the effects of biological ancestry, and diagenesis on its 

accuracy. 


valuable information regarding the application and limitations of the sternal 

rib method for histological age at death estimation. 

Stout et al. (1994) offer an age estimation method that employs 

cortical bone histomorphometry of the sternal end of the rib. The published 

age predicting formulas are derived from the original sample of fourth ribs 

of European ancestry used by Iscan et al. (1984, 1985) to develop their 

sternal rib phase method for age estimation. The purpose of this paper is to 

report the results of the application of this method to estimate age at death 

for an independent sample of ribs derived from a 20th Century, 

Midwestern, African American cemetery. Comparison of estimated ages 

and reported ages at death found that the Stout et al. (1994) sternal rib age 

predicting formula was not accurate when applied to this independent 

sample. Mean differences between reported and estimated ages at death 

among several observers ranged between -2.5 to -17.7 years, with standard 

errors of 6.2 and 9.9 respectively. Several factors may account for these 

results. First, Cho et al (2002, 2006) have reported population differences 

in bone remodeling rates for the mid-shaft rib. The resulting disparity 

between predicted and reported ages at death, therefore, may be due to 

population differences in age associated bone remodeling rates that are 

reflected in sternal rib histomorphometrics. Observed differences between 

reported and estimated ages, however, did not exhibit a clear pattern. The 

added effects of various degrees of diagenesis on sampling and the 

performance of histological age estimation are also discussed. 

Sternal Rib, Histomorphometry, Age 

H98 Accuracy of Regression Formulae 

for Racing and Sexing the Cranial 

Base in a Forensic Collection 

Maria Allaire, MA*, LSU FACES Laboratory, Louisiana State University, 

227 Howe-Russell Bldg, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Mary H. 

Manhein, MA, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana 


The goal of this presentation is to share results of a study that tested 

two researcher’s regression formulae for race and sex determination using 

the cranial base when applied to a modern forensic collection. 


results of a study that tests the accuracy of formulae for determining race 

and sex of the cranial base on a modern forensic collection. 

This presentation examines the applicability of Holland’s race 


determination (1986) and Wescott’s sex determination (1996) regression 

formulae when applied to a modern forensic collection that is housed at 

Louisiana State University’s Forensic Anthropology and Computer 

Enhancement Service (FACES) Laboratory. Testing was conducted on 77 

complete skulls that had been positively identified, or, if unidentified, skulls 

that clearly exhibited no admixture features. The 77 skulls consisted of 48 

males and 29 females. Of the 77 skulls, 41 were identified as white and 36 

were identified as black. 

In 1986, Holland analyzed 100 black and white crania from the Terry 

Collection and created five regression equations for race determination 

based on eight measurements from the cranial base with an accuracy rate 

ranging from 70 to 86%. In a separate control test involving 20 different 

skulls from the Terry Collection, Holland had a 75 to 90% accuracy rate. 

The interpretation of certain landmark locations on the cranial base led us 

to exclude some formulae that included these landmarks. Therefore, for 

testing and determining race from the cranial base, we used Holland’s 

regression formula #4 that involved the following four measurements: 1) 

the length of the occipital condyle defined as the maximum length of the 

left condyle as measured along its long axis from the ends of the articular 

surface; 2) the width of the occipital condyle defined as the maximum width 

of the left condyle as measured from the articular edges along a line 

perpendicular to the length; 3) the length of the foramen magnum defined 

as the maximum length of the foramen magnum as measured from basion 

to opisthion along the mid-sagittal plane, and 4) the width of the foramen 

magnum defined as the maximum width of the foramen magnum as 

measured perpendicular to the mid-sagittal plane. Holland’s #4 regression 

formula had an overall 70 to 75% accuracy rate. The 77 modern forensic 

collection skulls were measured and Holland’s #4 regression formula was 

applied. An accuracy of 57% was obtained. 

In 1996, Wescott analyzed 308 combined crania from the Hamann- 

Todd and Terry Collections and created five regression equations for sex 

determination based on five measurements from the cranial base with an 

accuracy rate ranging from 72.1 to 80%. In a separate control test involving 

83 different crania from the Hamann-Todd and Terry Collections, Wescott 

had a 63.6 to 90% accuracy rate. For testing and determining sex from the 

cranial base, we used Wescott’s regression formula #5 that involved the 

following five measurements: (1) maximum condyle length defined as the 

maximum edge to edge length of the articular surface of the occipital 

condyle measured along its long axis, (2) maximum condyle breadth 

defined as the greatest edge to edge breadth of the articular surface of the 

occipital condyle measured perpendicular to the long axis, (3) basion to 

hormion length defined as the length of the basilar process measured from 

basion to hormion,. (4) foramen magnum length defined as the length from 

endo-basion to opisthion, and (5) foramen magnum breadth defined as the 

maximum breadth of the foramen magnum measured perpendicular to the 

length. In Wescott’s research, his #5 regression formula had an overall 73.2 

to 90% accuracy rate. Of the 77 modern forensic collection skulls, 10 were 

eliminated due to anterior damage to the basilar process. Therefore, 67 

skulls were measured and Wescott’s #5 regression formula was applied. An 

accuracy of 68% was obtained. 

As suggested by both Holland and Wescott, these formulae may be 

applied when a skull has been damaged and only certain portions of it 

remain. Additional testing on larger forensic collections may improve the 

accuracy rate of these formulae, further enhancing their applicability on 

forensic cases. 

References: 

1 Holland, Thomas Dean. Race Determination of Fragmentary Crania 

b y 

Analysis of the Cranial Base. Journal of Forensic Sciences 1986: 

3 1 ( 2 ) : 

719-725. 

2 Wescott, Daniel Jay. The Effect of Age on the Sexual Dimorphism in 

the Adult Cranial Base and Upper Cervical Region. Masters Thesis. 

Wichita State University 1996. 

Race Determination, Sex Determination, Cranial Base 


H99 Deconstructing or Perpetuating Race: 

The Status of Race in Forensic Anthropology 

Christina A. Malone, BHS, BA*, Michigan State University, Forensic 

Anthropology Laboratory, A-439 E. Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 48823 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain an understanding 

and increased awareness of the trends relating to the acceptance of the 

concept of race portrayed in textbooks and Journal of Forensic Sciences 

articles in the field of forensic anthropology over the past 35 to 45 years. 


by demonstrating the important role that the social construct of race has 

played in this scientific field. Through the literature presented, trends in the 

acceptance and non-acceptance of race will be examined and exemplified 

to give insight as to how the discrete categories of race are used today and 

have been used since 1960. 

Physical characteristics and human variation, as often studied by 

forensic anthropologists, have resulted in defining differences between 

people as “race.” The misconceptions that arose with such an explanation 

of physical differences have augmented the tremulous and malevolent past 

of the concept of race. 

The goal of this study is to examine the views of race that have been 

presented in the forensic anthropology literature and to extrapolate any 

trends from the opinions expressed by the authors. While the pattern of the 

acceptance of race in physical anthropology is never clearly defined, others 

have reported a decline in non-forensics journals. A similar decline in the 

acceptance of the existence of biological race as a valid description in 

forensic anthropology may be expected, although due to the utility of “race” 

in skeletal analysis, this trend is apt to be more gradual and not as pervasive. 

This study aimed to identify sections of forensic anthropology and/or 

human osteology textbooks and Journal of Forensic Sciences articles 

primarily concerned with race or human variation. Thirty-four textbooks 

published between 1962 and 2007 were examined, and 26 Journal of 

Forensic Sciences articles were selected from between 1972 and 2007. The 

author’s view presented in each of these texts was then classified as: (1) races 

do not exist, (2) races do exist, (3) author noncommittal, (4) race not 

mentioned, and (5) race accepted, but the author’s view was not explicitly 

stated. 

Results from the textbooks and the articles indicate a gradual decline 

in the acceptance of race in the field of forensic anthropology over the past 

35 to 45 years. Changes in the authors’ views were noted in both the 

manner in which race was discussed and the terminology used to describe 

such human variation. While there was no one span of years identified as a 

time of drastic change in regard to race, terminology employed by the 

authors demonstrated a shift to terms other than “race” as early as 1988 in 

textbooks and as late as 1995 in the journal articles. Overall, throughout the 

time period examined, there was an increase in “races do not exist,” and 

decreases in both “races do exist” and “race accepted.” 

In conclusion, these results suggest that that a gradual transition is 

occurring between the view of races existing to the view of races not 

existing. Forensic anthropology is a subset of physical anthropology but 

perhaps even more intertwined with the concept of race, because forensic 

anthropologists continue to struggle with appropriate terms for 

communicating with law enforcement personnel and the public. 

Race, Trends, Terminology 

H100 A Test of the FORDISC Sex Discriminant 


Helen Cho, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Davidson College, Box 

6934, Davidson, NC 28035-6934; and Hee-Kyung Park, DDS, PhD, 

Seoul National University, 275-1 Yeongeon-dong, Jongno-Gu, Seoul 

National University, School of Dentistry, Seoul, 0 110-768, KOREA 

The objective of this presentation is to apply the software to a 

population excluded in the reference sample and to determine if the 

database from which FORDISC is based should include more specific 

modern reference groups. 

274

This presentation will impact the forensic community by further 

contributing to our understanding of human biological variation and 

applying the software to a South Korean population where forensic 

anthropology is a relatively new discipline. 

Sex estimation of human skeletal remains is one of the key analyses in 

forensic anthropology. Forensic anthropologists have been relying on 

discriminant function analysis as one of the powerful statistical tools in 

estimating individual characteristics in skeletal remains. FORDISC is a 

user-friendly computer software that is designed to assist in the estimation 

of sex and ancestry by employing discriminant function analysis. The 

reference groups used to create the program is based on the Forensic Data 

Bank (FDB) at the University of Tennessee-Knoxville, and includes the 

following populations: American black males and females, American 

Indian males and females, American white males and females, Chinese 

males, Hispanic males, Japanese males and females, and Vietnamese males. 

Due to human biological variation, the osteological methodologies 

developed from the reference groups may not necessarily apply to another 

population. However, due to the biological and cultural affinity among East 

Asian populations, FORDISC sex discriminant function may be applicable 

to modern Koreans. Thus, FORDISC 2.0 was tested on a pilot sample of 

modern South Korean crania for which sex was known through DNA, 

dental, and/or other identification methods. 

Thirty-one ethnic Korean individuals in this study represent forensic 

cases from various regions of the South Korean peninsula that were 

submitted by local law enforcement agencies to the National Institute of 

Scientific Investigation (NISI) in Seoul. A tooth or a small bone sample 

was removed and sent to the DNA Analysis Division at NISI for analysis. 

The amelogenin locus was used in sex determination through the 

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and electrophoresis of PCR products. 

The DNA output was submitted as XY for males and XX for females. At 

the Forensic Medicine Division, up to 24 cranial and ten mandibular 

measurements were collected as specified in the standard osteological data 

collection procedure (Moore-Jansen et al. 1994). Measurements from the 

individual cases were entered into the FORDISC program. To run the sex 

discriminant function, we excluded the XRB measurement, or maximum 

ramus breadth, in all individuals as the inclusion of XRB dramatically 

reduced the group samples and the analysis was not possible. 

FORDISC correctly classified the sex in 26 individuals (83.9%). Of 

the five that were misclassified, two individuals had cranial measurements 

which placed them close to the sectioning point or the overlapping region. 

Three of the five individuals were females and misclassified as males and 

two males were misclassified as females. It was expected that the software 

program would be applicable to modern Koreans due to their close affinity 

to the Chinese and Japanese populations, which are included in the 

FORDISC reference groups. However, the software should be tested on a 

larger Korean sample, and although ethnic Koreans in South Korea are 

relatively homogeneous, the need for FORDISC in Korea may be necessary 

due to the recent influx of immigrants from many regions of the world. As 

the authors of FORDISC intend, the FDB will continue to expand on the 

number of cases with definite sex and ethnicity and incorporate them into 

the database. Therefore, it is recommended that forensic anthropologists 

continue to employ multiple metric and non-metric methodologies when 

estimating sex and other individual characteristics. 

FORDISC, Discriminant Function, Korea 

H101 Sexual Dimorphism in the Juvenile Skeleton 

Kyra Elizabeth Stull, BA*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546 

The research will introduce a study based on fetal development and 

sexual differentiation as well as sexual dimorphism among juvenile 

skeletons during the first year of life. 

The primary purpose of the current study is to investigate sexual 

dimorphism among juvenile skeletons through radiographic analysis. The 

metric results will impact both sex determination as well as age 

determination of juvenile remains. 

Reliable sex estimation can be attained from different skeletal 

elements in adult individuals. The secondary sexual characteristics in 

which adult sexing techniques are typically based are linked to the pubertal 

hormonal surge. The resulting skeletal size and shape differences are 

therefore absent in immature individuals. Consequently, it is often assumed 

that accurate sex estimation based on metric characteristics or 

morphological traits is not attainable before puberty. 

Still, from early embryological stages to the first year of life, humans 

experience a sexual hormonal surge as intense as that linked to pubertal 

sexual differentiation. Embryologic development is identical in both sexes 

until 8 weeks after conception, when the indifferent gonad develops. 

Testicular differentiation of the male is then triggered and regulated by the 

Sry gene, located on the Y chromosome. By week 12 the differentiation is 

largely complete, with characteristic male and female structures developed. 

In total, the most critical period for sexual differentiation seems to span 

from the 8th to the 24th week, but testosterone levels in males remain 

elevated for the first year of life, peaking around 3 to 4 months after birth. 

This postnatal period is known as the neonatal surge, where hormonal 

levels are equivalent to those in the second stage at puberty, the pubertal 

surge, when the secondary sexual characteristics develop. 

It is therefore reasonable to assume that the hormonal changes 

experienced during the neonatal surge could result in a substantial amount 

of sexual dimorphism in the infant skeleton, which would allow for the 

development of reliable metric sexing techniques for this period. 

The present study explores the presence of metric sexual differences 

in the juvenile skeleton. The study focuses on long bone dimensions, as a 

potential size dimorphism would also affect age estimates obtained from 

long bone measurements. The study sample consists of a set of radiographs 

assembled from the Erie County Medical Examiners Office, Buffalo, New 

York, as well as from forensic cases from Mercyhurst College. The 

radiographs involve juvenile individuals of known age, sex, and ancestry. 

The presence of sexual dimorphism in growth patterns and allometric 

relationships between different long bone dimensions was tested through 

ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance) models. When applicable, the 

accuracy and reliability of the obtained sex markers were assessed through 

cross-validated percent correct classification estimates. 

The obtained results impact both sex determination, and current 

standard age determination from long bone dimensions in infants. 

Juvenile Sex Determination, Sexual Differences, Sexual Dimorphsim 

H102 Coming Unglued: The Use of Acrylic Resin 


Kate E. Kolpan, BA*, Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, and Georgia L. Fox, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, California State University, Chico, 400 West 

First Street, Chico, CA 95929-0400 

After viewing this presentation, attendees will gain a greater 

appreciation for the use of polymer resin adhesives as an alternative to 

cellulose nitrate adhesives, such as Duco® cement, for reconstructing 

fragmented skeletal remains. 


demonstrating the advantages of using a non-destructive adhesive with 

reversible properties for reconstructing fragmented and/or burned skeletal 

remains. 

Forensic anthropologists are often confronted with fragmented 

remains that require reconstruction. Adhesives are commonly used to refit 

bone fragments to aid in trauma analysis, identification of burn patterns on 

thermally-altered remains, the establishment of the MNI, and in the 

construction of the biological profile. Reconstruction is often a means to an 

end, thus, little attention has been focused on the long-term impact of 

different adhesives on bone. The use of a high-quality adhesive with 

reversible properties is beneficial in forensic reconstruction for a myriad of 

reasons. For example, if fragments are incorrectly refitted, the choice of 

adhesive will determine whether or not the process can be reversed, and 

also the degree to which fracture margins are chemically altered. This has 


medico-legal implications, as cases may need to be re-examined in the 

future by other specialists using new methods. 

Acryloid B-72 (Paraloid B-72) is a common type of acrylic polymer 

resin used by practicing conservators for reconstructing archaeological 

materials. Chemically, it is a methacrylate ethylacrylate copolymer that can 

be used as both a consolidant and an adhesive by varying the amount of a 

solvent, such as acetone or ethanol. Acryloid B-72 is converted into an 

adhesive by allowing the solvent to evaporate over a period of hours, 

leaving the adhesive behind. By adding solvent, the adhesive can be 

reconstituted to varying degrees of thickness. The process can be easily 

reversed by applying acetone to the area where bone fragments are 

conjoined. Museum conservators currently favor acrylic-based adhesives 

due to their high stability, transparency, mechanical resistance, and 

reversibility (Koob 1986). The same features that have made acrylic-based 

adhesives attractive to the conservation community can also be used by 

those working in forensic anthropology. The resistance of Acryloid B-72 to 

brittleness, cracking and yellowing, while still providing strength and 

hardness make it ideal for use in forensic reconstruction. Conjoined 

fragments can later be separated by applying acetone to the fracture 

margins. This is critical if fragments are not reconstructed correctly the first 

time, or if there is a later need to examine fracture margins microscopically. 

Acrylic resins are generally better alternatives to cellulose nitrate 

adhesives such as Duco® cement. Cellulose nitrate is a non-synthetic 

polynitrate ester of polysaccharide cellulose (Selwitz 1988). Unlike 

acrylic-based adhesives, cellulose nitrate resins have been found to be 

unstable over time, and often shrink, become brittle, and turn yellow in 

color. The chains of polymers in cellulose nitrate resins will also eventually 

crosslink, making the adhesive irreversible. Moreover, if cellulose nitrate 

becomes brittle, it may also pull bone away from the conjoined bone 

fragments, causing permanent damage to the fracture margins. As a result, 

the conservation community no longer recommends cellulose nitrate for use 

adhesive joins and repairs. Yet, the use of Duco® persists in archaeology 

and forensic anthropology for reconstructing fragmented remains. 

Cellulose nitrate maintains popularity due to its low cost, accessibility, 

familiarity, and rapid drying time (Johnson 1994). 

To better understand the effects on bone of using acrylic versus 

cellulose nitrate adhesives, chemical cross-linkage and damage to bone 

fragment margins were examined microscopically. Non-human bones were 

mechanically broken and rejoined using acrylic adhesive and cellulose 

nitrate resin. Acetone was later applied to the bone surface margins to 

reverse the adhesives. Using microscopic images, the degree of damage to 

fracture margins treated with acrylic versus cellulose nitrate adhesives was 

compared, as well differences in the degree of reversibility. 

This study was conducted to provide the forensic community with a 

greater appreciation for the suitability of acrylic adhesives in reconstructing 

fragmented skeletal remains, especially in cases that may be subject to 

future examination. While acrylic adhesives may not be ideal in all 

conditions (e.g., wet bone, temperatures over 40º Celsius), they are better 

suited for forensic purposes than cellulose nitrate adhesives, due to their 

minimal alteration of fracture margins, and their greater strength, stability, 

and long-term reversibility. 

References: 

1 Johnson, Jessica S. 1994 Consolidation of Archaeological Bone: A 

Conservation Perspective. Journal of Field Archaeology. 21(2): 

221-233. 

2 Koob, Stephen P. 1986 The Use of Paraloid B-72 as an Adhesive: Its 

Application for Archaeological Ceramics and Other Materials. Studies 

in Conservation. 31(1): 7-14. 

3 Selwitz, Charles. 1988. Cellulose Nitrate in Conservation Getty 

Conservation Institute: Getty Publications. http://www.getty.edu/ 

conservation/publications/pdf_publications/nitrate.pdf. 

Adhesives, Forensic Reconstruction, Fragmentation 

H103 Biomechanics of Blunt Ballistic Impacts 


to the Head and Fracture Specific 

Injury Criteria Development 

David Raymond, MS*, Greg Crawford, MS, Chris Van Ee, PhD; and 

Cynthia Bir, PhD, Wayne State University, 818 West Hancock, Detroit, 

MI 48201 


unique set of data regarding the biomechanics behind depressed 

comminuted skull fractures and blunt ballistic impact to the head. 

Engineering parameters responsible for the response and tolerance of the 

skull to blunt a ballistic impacts will be discussed with focus on the 

development of a new injury criteria for use in forensic case work. 

This presentation will affect the forensic community by offering 

leading-edge scientific data set on skull fracture from blunt ballistic impact 

and of the depressed, comminuted fracture type. Investigators will gain 

insight into biomechanics of skull fracture and the development of unique 

injury criteria for application in forensic reconstruction of skull trauma. 

Forensic applications of injury biomechanics is a unique and emerging 

field. Forensic biomechanics deals with reconstructing events that led to a 

documented injury. Skull fractures are forensic evidence that may be 

related to direct contact to the head by an external object and can assist in 

reconstruction of the impact conditions leading to the trauma. 

Circumstances leading to skull trauma may not always be known due to the 

lack of witnesses, inability of the patient to recall or articulate the events 

that led to the trauma or patient death. A forensic biomechanist may be 

brought in to work with a forensic pathologist or a forensic anthropologist 

to relate the mechanics involved with causing particular types of skull 

fractures. He/she may perform evaluations of various impact scenarios 

using biomechanical surrogates and injury criteria to assess the likelihood 

of producing fractures that match the physical evidence. Unfortunately, the 

current injury criteria and biomechanical surrogates developed by 

automotive safety researchers fall short of providing necessary information 

for the reconstruction of specific fracture types. Head injury criteria and 

biomechanical surrogates are currently needed for fracture-specific risk 

assessment. The primary goal of this research was the advancement of 

fracture-specific head injury criterion for the assessment of blunt ballistic 

lateral head impacts. 

Experimental impact testing was performed on eight (8) isolated, 

unembalmed postmortem human subjects. Specimens were impacted 

laterally in the region of the squamosal temporal bone with a 38 mm 

diameter rigid impactor, launched via a ballistic air cannon. Specimens 

were instrumented with a nine-accelerometer array to document global 

head response. Local bone response was measured by three Rosette-style 

strain gages attached to the outer cortical layer surrounding the impact site. 

Soft tissue was left intact at the impact site. Impact force was calculated 

from a 20,000 g accelerometer mounted to the rear aspect of the impactor. 

High speed video captured the impact at 10,000 frames per second. Posttest 

CTs were obtained along with detailed autopsies documenting resulting 

fracture patterns. Fracture criteria were explored through logistic regression 

analysis of measured parameters and compared with previously developed 

head injury criteria. Goodness of fit was evaluated by the chi-squared 

statistic, p-value and Nagelkerke R2 . Significance levels were set at p < 

0.05. 

Sixteen impacts were performed resulting in fractures to eight 

specimens with an average peak force of 5,079 ± 1572 N. Fractures were 

primarily depressed comminuted in nature. Acceleration from the array 

indicate that the skull does not respond as a rigid object under these loading 

conditions which limits the ability to utilize the nine-accelerometer array for 

estimating center-of-gravity acceleration. Deformation-based measures 

should be investigated further in future experimental studies. 

Logistic regression results indicate that strain-based measures were 

statistically significant predictors of fracture followed by acceleration of the 

head (P < 0.05). While impact force demonstrated increase risk of fracture 

with increasing force, this was not a statistically significant predictor of 

fracture (P=0.054). 

276

Technical limitations currently exist for developing strain or 

deformation-based criterion for use with biomechanical surrogates. Current 

biomechanical models are not equipped to measure skull deformation or 

strain. These measures are currently most effectively measured through 

finite element models. The basic biomechanical data from this study will 

first and foremost serve as validation for advancement of finite element 

models of the head to the blunt ballistic impact environment. Additional 

efforts can then be put forward into development of an advanced fractureprediction 

model. The current results indicate that effort should begin with 

strain-based criterion for blunt ballistic temporo-parietal skull fracture. 

Biomechanics, Skull Fracture, Ballistic Impacts 

H104 Detection of Gunshot Residue (GSR) 

on Bone: Potential for Bullet Direction 

and Range Estimation 

Alicja K. Kutyla, BS*, Middle Tennessee State University, Department of 

Biology, Box 60, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, 

Middle Tennesee State University, Department of Sociology and 

Anthropology, Box 10, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 


potential of using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy 

Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDXA) to confirm both visually and by 

elemental composition, the presence of gunshot residue (GSR) on bone 

with the additional prospect of direction and range estimation. 


findings that may potentially lead to the development of techniques to 

estimate the distance of shooter to victim by the presence of GSR on bone. 

The purpose of this study was to determine if gunshot residue could be 

detected on bone at varying distances by visual means using Scanning 

Electron Microscopy as well as by elemental composition using Energy 

Dispersive X-Ray Analysis. Six pork ribs were shot at distances of one 

through six feet at one foot increments using American Eagle .45 caliber, 

230 grain, full metal jacket bullets. Each rib, with the meat intact, was 

placed inside a plastic Ziploc® bag and shot with the bullet penetrating the 

plastic, approximately one inch of muscle tissue, and the bone from external 

to internal surface. After each rib was shot the meat was removed using 

scissors and the periosteum was forcibly stripped from the bone. The ribs 

were placed in paper bags and put into an incubator to dry at 40 degrees 

Celsius (approx. 104 degrees Fahrenheit) for five days. The ribs needed to 

be completely dry so that vacuum could be achieved in the SEM without 

contaminating the instrument. After the ribs were dried they were removed 

and allowed to cool. The ribs were not coated with conducting material, 

such as gold or carbon as is common practice, in an attempt to be as nondestructive 

as possible. 

The fracture pattern associated with each rib was examined in order to 

verify the entrance side of the bone. For ease of placement of the rib into 

the specimen holder, the exit side of the rib was defined as the side of the 

bone directly opposite to the determined entrance side. The ribs were then 

positioned in the specimen holder so that the analysis could be performed 

on either the entrance or exit side of the bone and then placed in the 

specimen chamber of the Hitachi VP-SEM S-3400N for analysis. 

Visual analysis was performed as close to the fracture site as possible 

at 20kV and a working distance of 10mm. An area of high concentration of 

gunshot residue was identified and micrographs were taken of the site. The 

initial micrograph taken at 130X magnification was used to count the 

number of GSR particles present in a 400µm diameter circle. This initial 

micrograph was chosen due to the nature of the GSR particles as they tend 

to melt after a prolonged period under the electron beam. Elemental 

analysis was performed using the Oxford INCA Energy 200 Dispersive X- 

Ray Analyzer over the area of high concentration of GSR particles at 270X 

magnification, which was chosen due to the GSR particles melting part of 

the way through the analysis if performed at a higher magnification. 

Elements of interest that were identified were Lead, Antimony, Barium and 

Molybdenum which are known components of GSR. 

Results indicate that this is a feasible means to identify the presence of 

gunshot residue on bone both visually and elementally using SEM/EDXA 

from distances ranging from one to six feet. There is potential for visually 

differentiating between the entrance and exit sides of the bone as the 

gunshot residue appears to distribute differently on each side. Additionally, 

this technique may hold potential for the development of an objective 

method for estimating firearm to target distance as the number and diameter 

of GSR particles counted in this study tended to decrease with distance. 

Since the forceful removal of the periosteum did not seem to interfere with 

the adherence of these particles to the bone, further testing is planned to 

determine the affects of decomposition on GSR on bone. 

Gunshot Residue, Terminal Ballistics, Gunshot Trauma 

H105 Determination of Low Velocity 

Bullet Trajectory in Long Bones: 

An Experimental Investigation 

Regina L. McGowan, BA*, 3841 Branson Road, Victoria, BC V9C 4A7, 

CANADA 

After attending this presentation, colleagues will understand the 

different methods previously employed to determine direction of fire in the 

skull, and the importance of experimental study to determine if the method 

can be translated to postcranial long bones. They will understand the main 

components of factors that can be employed to determine direction of fire: 

beveling, entrance and exit wound morphology, and fracture sequencing. 

They will also see that from experimental investigation, it was determined 

that the most efficient method for determining direction of fire includes all 

three factors, as each on its own is insufficient. 

This presentation will allow the forensic community to learn of a 

method for determining direction of fire developed from experimental 

study as opposed to case study. This will in turn give forensic practitioners 

another method to reconstruct the events of a crime, differentiate between 

homicide and suicide and confirm or contradict a witness statement. 

Handguns are by far the most common weapon used in violent crimes 

in the United States (Federal Bureau of Investigations, 2005). 

Determination of the direction of fire can be used to evaluate witness 

statements, to differentiate between manners of death (e.g., homicide versus 

suicide), and to reconstruct events in mass homicides to enable authorities 

to prosecute guilty parties. Soft tissue markers used by pathologists may not 

be available if the remains are skeletal. 

The publications regarding the estimation of bullet direction in the 

cranium have been of two main types: determination of entrance and exit 

wounds by interpretation of defect beveling (Quatrehomme and Iscan, 

1998), and analysis of fracture sequence (Sexton, 1979; Dixon, 1984; 

Smith, et al. 1987). Publications on bullet trajectory in postcranial bones 

are available (Berryman and Gunther 2000; Langley 2007), but tend to be 

case studies without controlled factors. Therefore, an experiment was 

designed to produce gunshot wounds from known directions in the humeri 

of domestic pigs (Sus scofa). The hypothesis was that the methods used for 

the cranium would be useful, but may need to be refined due to the very 

different bone morphology in postcranial long bones. 

Twenty humeri from recently deceased articulated pigs were shot with 

a .357 Magnum full metal jacketed bullet in the midshaft: three from 

anterior to posterior, three from posterior to anterior, three from medial to 

lateral, and three from lateral to medial. The remaining eight humeri were 

shot from directions unknown to the researcher in order to permit a blind 

study of any method developed from the wounds of known direction. It 

was found that the humerus of the domestic pig was difficult to shoot when 

still articulated, and therefore 12 more humeri, clear of flesh but still very 

wet, were shot at a later date with the same bullet type and from the same 

distance. After determining that there were no significant differences in the 

fracture patterns between the fleshed and de-fleshed wet bones of the two 

shooting periods, the sample contained 22 humeri. Five bones were not 


used as they were missing a significant number of fragments, were hit 

tangentially or not hit in the shaft. All five experimental bones that were hit 

had damage only in the proximal epiphysis; therefore, 12 bones of known 

direction were present in the final sample. 

Beveling was defined as the amount of exfoliation of the bone surface 

divided by the cortex breadth in order to eliminate any effect this factor may 

have on beveling. There was significantly more internal beveling of 

entrance wounds than exits, and more external beveling on exit wounds 

than entrances. There were, however, two exit wounds that exhibited some 

amount of internal beveling, supporting earlier conclusions that lack of 

internal beveling is not a consistent indicator of an exit wound 

(Quatrehomme and Iscan, 1997, 1998). As expected, the size of the exit 

defect was significantly larger than the entrance defect. Entrance defects 

tended to be circular or ovoid in shape, and exit defects tended to have less 

defined edges and a more rectangular shape. However, none of these 

patterns were present in the entire sample. 

The humeri in this study tended to fracture in a double butterfly 

pattern, with primary radiating fractures emanating from the superior and 

inferior aspect of the entrance and exit. When fractures were sequenced, 

eight of twelve bones had radiating fractures from exit wounds that were 

halted by those from entrance wounds. In two bones, all fracture lines were 

ambiguous, and in two bones fractures from the exit halted fractures from 

the entrance, contradicting the sequencing theory. 

It was concluded that each analysis outlined above was not a 

consistent indicator of directionality on its own, but a method that included 

all of them (beveling, entrance and exit defect size and shape, and fracture 

sequencing) would be more effective. In the absence of the blind 

experimental group, this comprehensive method was taught to five forensic 

anthropology colleagues with no special background in gunshot trauma. 

Four colleagues correctly identified all twelve trajectories, and one 

colleague correctly identified 11 out of 12 trajectories. However, further 

research in this area is indicated, as a larger sample size would greatly 

benefit this study. 

References: 

1 Berryman, Hugh E. and Gunther, Wendy M.(2000) Keyhole Defect 

Production in Tubular Bone. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 45(2), 

483-7. 

2 Dixon, D.S. (1984) Pattern of Intersecting Fractures and Direction of 

Fire. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 29(2), p.651-4. 

3 Federal Bureau of Investigations (2006) Murder: Types of Weapons 

Used, Percent Distribution Within Region, 2005 [online]. Federal 

Bureau of Investigations. Available from: [July 

16, 2007]. 

4 Langley, Natalie R. (2007) An Anthropological Analysis of Gunshot 

Wounds to the Chest. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 52(3), p. 532-7. 

5 Quatrehomme, Gerald and Iscan, M.Yasar (1997) Beveling in Exit 

Gunshot Wounds. Forensic Science International, 89, p.93-101. 

6 Quatrehomme, Gerald and Iscan, M.Yasar (1998) Gunshot Wounds to 

the Skull – Comparison of Entries and Exits. Forensic Science 

International, 94, p.141-6. 

7 Sexton, J.S. and Hennigar, G.R. (1979) Determining Sequence of Fire 

in Gunshot wounds: Two Case Reports. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 

24(3), p.610-7. 

8 Smith, O’Brian C., Berryman, Hugh E. and Lahren, Craig H. (1987) 

Cranial Fracture Patterns and Estimate of 

9 

Direction from Low Velocity Gunshot Wounds. Journal of Forensic 

Sciences, 32(5), p.1416-21. 

Gunshot, Postcranial, Trajectory 

H106 Fragmentation Patterns of Victims 

From a Fatal Aviation Accident 

Giovanna M. Vidoli, MSc*, 56 Mitchell Avenue, Binghamton, NY 13903 



of how fragmentation patterns of the victims can assist in the analysis and 

investigation of plane crashes and the events prior to the crash. This study 

will evaluate if there exists a fragmentation pattern of victims in high 

velocity impact plane crashes as well as a relationship between the assumed 

seat locations of the victims and the extent of their injuries. 


demonstrating the ways in which the examination of the fragmentation 

patterns of human remains can add to the investigation of plane crashes as 

well as the recovery of human from the scene. In addition, it explores how 

this information can aid physical anthropologists during the triage of human 

remains from an aviation accident. 

On November 12, 2001, American Airlines Flight 587, a regularly 

scheduled passenger plane bound for Santo Domingo, Dominican 

Republic, crashed in a residential area in Belle Harbor, New York, shortly 

after take-off from JFK International Airport. All 260 people aboard the 

flight, including the pilot, co-pilot, seven crewmembers and 251 

passengers, were killed. In addition, five people on the ground were killed. 

This presentation assesses the injury and fragmentation patterns of Flight 

587 victims in correlation with their seat location on the plane. Previous 

studies of injuries of plane crash passengers focused on determining 

whether the injuries were preventable and, if so, suggested safety features 

to reduce airline crash related casualties. In view of the Flight 587 

passengers having no chance of survival, the objective of this study is to 

evaluate if there exists a fragmentation pattern of victims in high velocity 

impact plane crashes as well as a relationship between the assumed seat 

locations of the victims and the extent of their injuries. After attending this 

presentation, attendees will gain an understanding of how fragmentation 

patterns of the victims can assist in the analysis and investigation of plane 

crashes and the events prior to the crash. 

In total, 2,058 body fragments were recovered. To date, 1,750 bodies 

and body fragments are identified and 308 remain unidentified. There were 

112 nearly complete bodies recovered, including the five on the ground, 

163 partial bodies, and 1784 fragments. Autopsies were conducted on 251 

of the mostly whole and partial remains by Medical Examiners from the 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner, New York City. The autopsy reports of 

the victims include detailed information about the nature and extent of 

injuries. The descriptions of smaller fragments are less detailed but they 

include information regarding the body part, its size, and the extent of any 

burning. As in other disasters, the inclusion of physical anthropologists is 

pivotal in recognizing and accurately describing the fragments so as to 

obtain more detailed information to use in conjunction with Medical 

Examiner reports. Using these reports, the injuries of each victim are 

classified by location (head/neck, face, thorax, abdomen, extremities, and 

external) and their severity is scored following a revision of the Abbreviated 

Injury Scale system. The injury scores and the number of fragments that 

have been identified for each victim are examined in conjunction with the 

location of the victim’s seat. 

Preliminary results of Flight 587 show that 35 nearly complete bodies 

from victims seated in the front half of the plane were recovered compared 

to 70 from the back half of the plane, consistent with a nosedive crash. In 

addition, 75% of autopsied victims had avulsed brains and crushed skulls 

with lower limbs as the most frequently amputated body area suggesting 

considerable forward motion at high velocity; the last recorded airspeed of 

Flight 587 was approximately 288 miles per hour. Although witness reports 

suggest that the plane was banking to the left prior to crashing, 1,207 body 

remains of victims seated on left side of the plane were identified while only 

433 remains from victims seated on the right side of the plane were 

identified. These results imply the remains of victims seated on the left 

suffered less postmortem damage facilitating both recovery and 

identification. Some witness reports also recalled a fire in the middle of the 

plane prior to crashing, however no autopsied victims, except those on the 

ground, had soot in the airways. 

The fragmentation pattern from this flight, which crashed shortly after 

take-off and in a nosedive with no prior explosion, can be compared to other 

flights to find similarities and differences in patterns. For example, TWA 

Flight 800 was also a high impact crash with no survivors however, Flight 

278

800 exploded in mid-air prior to crashing into the Atlantic Ocean. Unlike 

Flight 587, the TWA 800 investigators found no correlation between 

severity of injury and structural damage or seat location and no 

predominant injury to the upper or lower extremities consistent with an 

explosion (Vosswinkel and Brathwaite 1999). In addition, understanding 

how bodies fragment during a high velocity impact may aid anthropologists 

in disasters to re-associate remains during triage while sorting through 

commingled and fragmented remains. 

References 

1 Vosswinkel, J.M., JE; Brathwaite, CE (1999) Critical Analysis of 

Injuries Sustained in the TWA Flight 800 Midair Disaster. The Journal 

of Trauma 47(4): p. 617-621. 

Aircraft Crash, Fragmentation Patterns, Multiple Fatality Incident 

H107 Effect of Loading Environment on 

the Healing of Long Bone Fractures 

Tracey Tichnell, BS*, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

The educational goal of this presentation will examines the timing of 

the healing sequence in long bones, without the aid of modern medicine, 

and investigates the effects of loading on the appearance of healing stages. 


examining the effects of various factors on the appearance of healing stages, 

practitioners will be better able to determine the timing of a particular 

traumatic event in cases of abuse and in the identification of postmortem 

remains. 

There have been several studies done to create a timeline for the 

healing of fractures using a variety of technologies. With the exception of 

a study on crania, these have focused primarily on long bones. Though 

these studies roughly agree on the timing of important stages in the healing 

process, none has addressed the observed difference between weightbearing 

and non-weight-bearing bones, especially during the critical callus 

formation stage. Previous work used a variety of long bones to increase the 

available sample size from clinical settings. By using a historical 

population and focusing on two analogous bones, this study uses an 

increased level of variable control to determine if this difference exists 

without the benefit of modern medicine and if it is significant. 

The Civil War Collection at the National Museum of Health and 

Medicine was used for both its size and documentation. Only femora and 

humeri were utilized from this collection as they were analogous but in 

different loading environments and only those caused by shot fractures, 

treated by the removal of the affected bone, and with the necessary 

documentation were included. This limited the sample size to 130 humeri 

and 62 femora. All the included fractures were comminuted. The healing 

stage of each specimen was noted and separate timelines created for the 

femur and the humerus. Those were then compared to find any differences 

between them. 

Initial callus formation was seen at approximately 44 days (6 weeks) 

for the femur and 62 days (9 weeks) for the humerus. Callus formation was 

complete by 145 days (~5 months) for the humerus, with an outlier at 219 

days still forming a callus. Femora did not complete callus formation for 

328 days (~11 months), with a severe case not completing formation in 525 

days. It should be noted that the fractures included in this study were severe 

with little attempt at resetting the bone. This callus initially appears lumpy 

and disorganized in appearance but will remodel to a smooth callus in about 

9-10 months for a humerus, however a femur requires more than a year to 

reach this stage. The length of the callus formation stage between these two 

bones is significant with ρ = 0.028 while the timing of these stages overall 

is not statistically significant, though there is a trend for the humerus to start 

later. With the use of modern medicine, callus formation begins at 7-10 

days and ends in 6-8 weeks on average. 

The differences seen in healing time and the length of stages between 

femora and humeri is likely due to differences in mechanical environment, 

a femur bears weight while a humerus does not. Though these timelines are 

rough, they illustrate that mechanical environment has a large affect on 

healing behavior. The large discrepancy between these timelines and those 

seen in modern medicine are likely due to a variety of causes including the 

severity of these injuries and lack of treatment, the prevalence of disease, 

and the unlikely survival of evidence for the early stages of callus 

formation. The use of historic populations to control for confounding 

variables, such as type of injury and treatment, can offer greater resolution 

of the factors affecting healing rates than clinical studies alone. 

Biomechanics, Fracture, Healing 

H108 Cranial Bone Trauma: Misleading Injuries 

João Pinheiro*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Instit Nacional 

Medicina Legal, Delegação do Centro, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 0 

3000, PORTUGAL; Andersen Lyrio da Silva, and Eugenia Cunha, PhD, 

Departamento De Antropologia, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 

3000-056, PORTUGAL; and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 

16546-0001 

Attendees of this presentation will learn from bone similar patterns of 

injuries how to distinguish among different weapons used in criminal cases. 


showing how interdisciplinarity (forensic pathology-forensic anthropology) 

can be useful in solving homicide complex cases, even in bodies fairly well 

preserved. 

Forensic pathologists and anthropologists are obligated to recognise 

traumatic patterns in soft tissue and bone. Additionally, these patterns may 

be analysed for potential weapons that could produce similar trauma. The 

cranium is commonly the area to be examined and researched in anticipation 

of obtaining the most information concerning the death of a victim. 

However, cranial injuries may take on such a capricious forms that less 

experienced personnel may find diagnosis difficult at best. The authors 

present two cases of complex skull fractures, similar in fracture pattern. 

Case A was a possible point of impact on the right side of skull, with 

radiating and concentric fractures, suggesting a gunshot wound. The other 

Case B, displays a quite different pattern: the body of the mandible exhibits 

a butterfly fracture with numerous fractures radiating across the entire 

cranial vault. There are numerous indicators that this is likely blunt trauma 

of the head. 

Case A was a complete and fairly well preserved body (the head 

skeletonized) whose autopsy revealed neither a traumatic injury nor a 

natural cause of death. While the skull was suspiciously consistent of a 

homicide by a gunshot wound, blunt force trauma was the real cause of 

death. Close examination of the internal skull demonstrated internal 

bending of concentric fractures, as opposed to concentric heaving fractures 

expected with ballistic trauma. No signs of pellets or gunshot holes were 

found. The skull was complete, although the biomechanics of the blunt 

force trauma made it difficult to juxtapose all the bone fragments in the 

reconstruction. Mixed with the skull, the remains sent for analysis also 

included an almost complete skeleton of a dog. 

Case B is a putrefied/saponified male found floating in a septic well, 

the head severely injured apparently by a blunt trauma. Police suspected a 

homicide and a disposed body. Observation of soft tissues and radiographs 

quickly dispelled criminal behavior and indicated suicide. The 12 gauge 

double barrel shotgun found at the bottom of the drained well, confirmed 

this hypothesis. Anthropological examination of skeletal trauma, 

particularly in the skull, often ignores internal bone surfaces. Initial 

examination of Case B, is an excellent example of how middle cranial fossa 

damage and pellet impact sites on the endocranially surface were missed. 

Suicide with a smaller gauge shotgun put into the mouth initially produced 

no signs of lead nor any entrance plug in the bone as one would expect with 

a gunshot wound. The biomechanics of the described fractures are 

discussed with emphasis on compression/tension bending of the mandible 


fracture, or “Kolusaiyn” fractures according to some authors, often 

observed in gunshot wounds to the head. 

Each case presents clear examples of the potential of multidisciplinary 

examination of bone trauma (forensic anthropology and pathology) even in 

fresh corpses, in order to achieve cause of death, weapon involved, and 

eventually, manner of death. 

Bone Trauma, Shotgun Wound, Blunt Trauma 

H109 Recognizing Patterned Fire 

and Heat Damage to Bone 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th, Erie, PA 16546-0001; Christopher 

W. Rainwater, MS, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, 

New York, NY 10016; Erin N. Chapman, BA, 216 Maiden Lane, Erie, PA 

16504; Desina R. Gipson, BA, 549 East Grandview Boulevard, Erie, PA 

16504; and Kyra E. Stull, BA, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, 


The goal of this presentation is to investigate patterned thermal 

destruction of bone, particularly when applied to medicolegal analyses of 

victims of fire. A focused, systematic approach to burn bone analysis is 

proposed through the observation of definitive bone-altering characteristics 

indicating whether the consumption of human tissues in fire is normal or 

abnormal. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by elucidating 

thermal destruction patterns through the analysis of specific burning 

process signatures observed on bone while considering extrinsic properties 

of the fire constant. 

Burned bone research is well represented in the anthropological 

literature yet there is little technical consensus in the procedural analysis of 

specific types of residual skeletal trauma. This disparity appears rooted in 

the varied approaches in burned bone analyses and suggests that the 

forensic anthropology community requires additional research and samples 

to achieve reliable pattern recognition. It is the intention of this presentation 

to identify certain heavily researched burn variables and suggest that they 

may be recognized as constants in an all-encompassing fire. Designation of 

these variables as constant influences of heat and fire on a decedent may 

allow burning process signatures to become decipherable. 

By considering temperature, atmosphere, and duration as constants, 

thermal bone destruction becomes recognizable and patterned. These 

signatures include shielding soft tissues and body position, color change as 

the bone is subjected to heat-induced chemical changes, and finally heat 

shrinkage fractures in bone (Symes et al. 2008). If these features are 

documented on cases of burned remains, researchers are no longer 

restricted by the “constants of fire.” With this theoretical basis established, 

researchers can understand normal burn patterns as a whole and how each 

bone is consumed in a fire. For the purposes of this presentation, bone 

fractures, as a fire process signature, are demonstrated. 

While at least seven burned bone fracture types have been defined in 

the literature, this research has found one fracture pattern particularly 

diagnostic. The curved transverse fracture, sometimes labeled a “thumbnail 

fracture,” has been recognized and debated for decades in the literature by 

anthropologists. The research will demonstrate that curved transverse 

fractures not only indicate fleshed body consumption, but these also specify 

the direction of destruction on that element. By understanding the direction 

of bone destruction on major elements, the pattern of destruction of the 

individual can be documented and evaluated for normalcy. 

Curved transverse fractures are a reflection of a pattern that is well 

documented in victims consumed by fire – the pugilistic posture. The 

pugilistic posture is initiated by contraction of muscle fibers due to heat 

destruction as flexors generally override the extensors. This posture is 

retained until structures are destroyed and no muscle fibers cross joints to 

influence limb position. Curved transverse fractures on long bones are 

simply a reflection of this muscle destruction and contraction. 


Heat altered muscle shrinkage action is discontinuous in nature. 

While the tension on muscle fibers is constant, their movements are not. 

The discontinuous nature is facilitated by increasing tension on the muscles 

and subsequent destruction of muscle and bone around the heavily burned 

attachment sites. As stretched muscle bundles eventually break free of 

attachments, muscle tension is temporarily relieved until heat once again 

produces more shrinkage. While at rest, muscle bundles create a line that 

will demarcate the next curved transverse fracture. As major muscles 

intermittently shrink up the shafts of bone, the residual curved transverse 

fractures inadvertently document direction of bone destruction specifically 

at that point on that element. 

In presenting this research, the authors simplify the complex and 

overwhelming destructive results associated with remains recovered from 

fire scenes. By illustrating a single burning process signature, curved 

transverse fractures, this presentation focuses on just one of three major 

variables that assist in the recognition of typical fire destruction of a fleshed 

body. As these data become increasingly recognizable, the process of 

thermal bone destruction is found to be patterned, predictable, and 

eventually useful in recognizing atypical behavior associated with victims 

of fire. 

Reference: 

1 Symes SA, A Piper, CW Rainwater, EN Chapman, and DR Gipson. 

Patterned Thermal Destruction Of Human Remains in a Forensic 

Setting. In: Analysis of Burned Human Remains. CW Schmidt and 

SA Symes, eds. In Press. New York: Elsevier, 2008. 

Burned Bone, Skeletal Trauma, Burn Fracture Pattern 

H110 Missing in Amazonian Jungle: A Case 

Study of Suspected Dismemberment 

Tania Delabarde, PhD*, Institut Francais d’Etudes Andines, Whymper 

442 y Coruna, Quito, ECUADOR; and Freddy G.H. Almagro, MD, 

Departmento Medico Legal de la Policia, Judicial de Pichincha Av., 

Mariana de Jesus s/n y Av., Occidental, ECUADOR 


differences that exist between cut marks caused by bladed instrument and 

power saw in a case of homicidal dismemberment. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by showing the 

benefits of an experimental approach using an animal model when 

examining forensic cases of suspected dismemberment under technological 

constraints. 

The aim of this presentation is to illustrate a practical approach in the 

analysis and interpretation of bone trauma related to a possible case of 

dismemberment. 

Intentional separation of body fragments is well documented in 

forensic literature. Generally, injuries related with dismemberment are 

caused by cutting, chopping and chiseling. Biomechanical properties of 

bone are essential for the analysis and interpretation of cut marks as the 

bone response will differ according to location, frequency and causative 

agent. Dismemberment patterns are of particular importance as the actions 

and instruments used are a clear expression of the perpetrator intentions and 

therefore the manner of death can be established. 

This case study present the results of a forensic examination 

performed on three sets of disarticulated and incomplete human remains 

found in Amazonian jungle. A few months before this finding, two 

European tourists went missing in this area. Anthropological analysis for 

identification and the clothing associated with the decomposed remains 

were consistent with the antemortem data of the two missing persons. Body 

parts sustained a number of cut marks situated on different aspect of the 

skeleton. Despite intensive searches including a canine team, the recovery 

of victim’s remains was not complete (one of the two is only represented by 

lower half part of body). The location (Amazonian jungle) and the 

perpetrators actions (dismemberment and dispersion of body parts in river) 

were effective. DNA analysis was performed and confirmed reassembly of 

280

ody parts and identification of the two victims. 

Each cut mark was fully described with location, number, type (e.g., 

false start) and measures (e.g., width, length and depth) following standard 

anthropological protocols. An experimental study was conducted by the 

author on pig bones and pieces of wood to examine and compare wound 

and witness marks produced by different instruments in order to corroborate 

causative agents and evaluate the manner of death. Despite incompleteness 

of the remains and a lack of laboratory facilities, a reconstruction of the 

possible sequence of traumatic events based on results of forensic 

examination and an experimental study provide evidence for a first attempt 

of dismembering at the level of knee joint of one of the victim with a long 

and heavy blade (possibly a machete) follow by a successful separation of 

body parts (trunk, legs…) using a power saw that have caused most of the 

damage present on both victim’s remains. The cause of death was 

ascertained for one of the two victims showing a penetrating injury through 

the right scapula inflected by a sharp bladed instrument. Due to its location 

the injury was considered as lethal. 

This case study constitutes for the forensic community a complement 

of the researches on bone trauma related to dismemberment activity trough 

an anthropological and practical approach based on an experimental 

comparison of cut marks with a basic microscope, looking at a variety of 

weapons and mechanism of injury. 

Dismemberment, Bone Trauma, Forensic Anthropology 

H111 An Epidemiological Study of Trauma 

in U.S. Casualties of the Korean War 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, and Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 



relationship between paleopathological diagnosis of skeletal trauma and 

historical epidemiology. Attendees will learn the value of this approach as 

a tool for predicting and recognizing patterns of combat-related trauma. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by illuminating 

the relationships between paleopathology and epidemiology and their 

utility in the forensic identification process. 

Data on antemortem and perimortem trauma was collected between 

1996 and 2007 from more than 70 skeletons of U.S. casualties of the 

Korean War. While the CIL does not conduct analyses of perimortem 

trauma for medicolegal purposes—no judgments of cause or manner of 

death are associated with CIL identifications—skeletally visible 

antemortem traumata can be compared with individual biographical 

records, and perimortem traumata can be compared to historically 

documented circumstances of death. 

These data were compared with three related data sets. The first set 

includes the records on file at JPAC for skeletons from putative U.S. 

casualties processed by the Central Identification Laboratory in Kokura, 

Japan, in 1953 and subsequently buried as Unknowns in the National 

Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific (“the Punchbowl”), Honolulu. Both 

perimortem and antemortem trauma were recorded during anthropological 

analyses of these remains. The second set is the electronic database CARIS 

(Centralized Remains Information System), maintained by JPAC, which 

contains biological profiles for all unresolved (and a few resolved) 

casualties of the Korean War, as well as other conflicts, including records of 

antemortem trauma. The third set includes the data tabulations of 

perimortem trauma in two separate studies of combat casualties in the 

Korean War. 

Deaths in the Korean War, as in other conflicts, can be divided 

between those that occurred on the battlefield and those that occurred 

elsewhere. Logically, the causes of death may be expected to differ between 

these venues. For this reason, the JPAC-CIL sample consists primarily of 

those skeletons excavated in or around battlefield locations during the Joint 

Recovery Operations (JROs) conducted in the Democratic People’s 

Republic of Korea from 1996 to 2005. These are supplemented by multiple 

skeletons originally returned to the U.S. after the war by the Chinese 

government which were subsequently buried as Unknowns and later 

exhumed by the CIL for identification. These particular skeletons are also 

believed to derive from battlefield contexts. Those turned over to the U.S. 

by North Korean authorities between 1990 and 1994, many of which were 

alleged to come from Prisoner-of-War holding locations, will not be 

considered, nor will those recovered from sites in South Korea. Similarly, 

the historic epidemiological data on locations of wounds comes from those 

who were Killed in Action (KIA) as well as those who were Wounded in 

Action (WIA) and subsequently Died of Wounds (DOW). Whenever 

possible, the KIA numbers, which should be most directly comparable to 

the battlefield skeletal data, will be considered, although some remains 

from JROs have subsequently been identified as individuals known to have 

been treated for their wounds at an aid station. 

In current death investigations, forensic anthropologists are often 

called upon to address the circumstances of death, although not generally 

the cause or means, and as a result, the discipline has developed numerous 

techniques for reconstructing perimortem traumata. These techniques are 

generally applied to each skeleton as an individual case, with limited 

epidemiological applications (c.f., Baraybar 2007). For homicide victims, 

far more comprehensive and accurate epidemiological data can be provided 

by pathologists than by anthropologists. In historic and prehistoric contexts, 

bioarchaeologists may also address the circumstances of death for isolated 

individuals, but their general concern is paleoepidemiological, particularly 

for populations that lack significant demographic documentation. The 

sample considered here provides an opportunity to test whether a 

population-level study of trauma from an archaeologically derived skeletal 

sample is actually representative of what is historically documented about 

that population. 

Paleopathology, MIA, Combat 

H112 The Utility of the Identification Unit 

Concept in the Medical Examiner Setting 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Jason M. Wiersema, PhD, Ruth Mathis, 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, Harris County Medical 

Examiner’s Office, Anthropology Division, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, 

Houston, TX 77054 

This presentation will demonstrate the formation, standard operating 

procedures, and immediate value of a specialized medical examiner 

identification unit staffed with anthropologists. Attendees will be given a 

comprehensive description of the innovative process that has led to success 

in difficult identifications of unidentified decedents for both current and 

cold cases at the Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office. 

The development of a specialized Identification Unit staffed by 

anthropologists in the medical examiner office setting will impact the 

forensic science community by demonstrating a novel and creative solution 

to the problems associated with identification of unknown individuals. 

Recent progress on the identification of three remaining decedents 

from the Houston “Mass Murders” of 1973 will be highlighted. 

The Harris County Medical Examiner’s Identification Unit (ID Unit) 

ensures all avenues available to identify an unknown decedent are pursued 

and all unclaimed decedents receive an appropriate and timely final 

disposition. The responsibility of the ID Unit is threefold: (1) to construct 

and disseminate complete unknown decedent descriptions, obtain all 

postmortem records, and submit biological samples for the purpose of 

identification, (2) to maintain and regularly audit case files of unidentified 

decedents for application of new technologies when appropriate, and (3) to 

process unclaimed decedents for final disposition. The ID Unit uses autopsy 

findings and anthropologic analysis to construct the biological profile of 

unknown decedents and disseminates the information to law enforcement, 

the media, and several websites. Biological samples are collected and 

submitted to the University of North Texas to be entered into CODISMP. 


Full skeletal radiographs and dental radiographs are taken and compared to 

possible matches as necessary. Cold cases of unidentified remains are 

audited for completeness and accuracy. In cooperation with the Harris 

County Community and Economic Development Department, unclaimed 

decedents and families in need of assistance for funeral arrangements are 

referred to Harris County Bereavement Services. 

Each member of the ID Unit takes the major responsibility for a set of 

related tasks beyond anthropologic analysis, although all are cross-trained 

in ID Unit responsibilities. The collaboration of anthropologists and a fulltime 

Identification Specialist at the HCME has provided the initiative, 

experience and staff time to move forward on difficult identifications of 

both current and decades-old cases, as well as provide for final disposition 

of those decedents without resources. As a direct result of this new program, 

three decedents from 1980s’ cases have recently been identified and the 

next of kin notified. Significant progress has also been made on the 

identifications of three adolescent male decedents received by the HCME 

35 years ago as alleged victims of a serial murderer. On August 8, 1973, 

seventeen year-old Elmer Wayne Henley fatally shot 33 year-old Dean 

Corll. The law enforcement investigation of this shooting led to the 

discovery of 27 adolescent male homicide victims and the eventual life 

imprisonments of Henley and an 18 year-old named David Brooks. Corll 

and 26 of the victims were brought to the Harris County Morgue (previous 

incarnation of the HCME) for autopsy, sending the office into disaster 

response mode. The majority of the victims (21) were identified within 

three months of autopsy and two more were identified in 1985 and 1994, 

respectively. The three remaining decedents are receiving special attention 

from the HCME ID Unit that includes a clay facial reconstruction project in 

collaboration with the FACES Laboratory at Louisiana State University. 

Successes with these types of cold cases and the continuing 

improvement in all aspects of the identification and final disposition of 

difficult current cases demonstrates the value of the ID Unit to the mission 

of the HCME. 

Unidentified, Anthropology, Corll/Henley 

H113 Evidentiary Standards for 


Angi M. Christensen, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; Christian M. 

Crowder, PhD*, New York City Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 

First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Tracy Rogers, PhD, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, 

Ontario L5L 1C6, CANADA 

After attending this presentation, the participant will understand the 

importance of establishing standards within the field of forensic 

anthropology and the role of a Scientific Working Group. 


emphasizing the importance of judicial representations of scientific 

evidence. As issues of professional standards and error rates continue to be 

addressed in the courts, it is imperative that the field of Forensic 

Anthropology be proactive by developing professional standards for our 

discipline. One measure to create and maintain professional standards is 

through Scientific Working Groups (SWG). 

Since the 1993 Daubert ruling, many forensic disciplines including 

anthropology have been forced to critically evaluate the techniques and 

methods used in their examinations. Disciplines like forensic anthropology 

may be problematic in the eyes of the courts since they employ a 

combination of traditional scientific methodologies and less rigorous 

observational methodologies, as well as case study evaluations. Critical 

questions and admissibility criteria of expert testimony have been 

established over the past two decades through three United States Supreme 

Court decisions. The decisions put forth from Daubert v Merrell Dow 

Pharmaceuticals Inc,. [1] General Electric Co v Joiner, [2] and Kumho Tire Co 

v Carmichael [3] were intended to ensure the reliability and usefulness of the 


scientific or technical testimony admitted as evidence. [4] As a result, several 

recent papers have advocated more earnest consideration of the Daubert 

guidelines when conducting research and preparing testimony in forensic 

anthropology. This has likely contributed to the increased awareness and 

interest in quantifying, critically assessing, and re-evaluating some of the 

techniques most often used by forensic anthropologists. The issues of 

professional standards and error rates, however, have been less often and 

less aggressively addressed. This paper aims to more specifically identify 

areas where the field of forensic anthropology may improve regarding these 

issues, and encourage discourse among anthropologists to establish and 

employ standards in our field. 

The three court decisions, referred to as the trilogy, [4] outline the 

importance of judicial gate-keeping and emphasize the need for judges and 

legislators to set the standards for admitting testimony. It is recognized, 

however, that the standards for admissibility of expert testimony as 

determined by the courts are tethered to the standards of professional 

practice. Moreover, the Daubert opinion emphasizes that the courts should 

focus on principles and methodologies that underlie the evidence, not 

necessarily the conclusions they generate. At present there are no standards 

for the application of forensic anthropology methodologies including body 

recovery and skeletal analysis, and every organization has their own 

guidelines and standards their practitioners must follow. Some 

organizations such as JPAC and the FBI are accredited by the American 

Society of Crime Laboratory Directors (ASCLD), but ASCLD does not 

specifically recognize anthropology as an independently accredit-able 

discipline. The American Board of Forensic Anthropology was created to 

examine and certify forensic anthropologists and set standards for their 

individual proficiency, but this organization does not (nor does any other 

organization) provide protocols to ensure consistency and reliability in the 

application of forensic anthropological methodologies. 

An additional area that the authors acknowledge as in need of 

improvement is validation. While anthropologists have taken it upon 

themselves to validate and improve methods within the field, validation 

studies are often problematic due to the tendency of researchers to modify 

or adapt the techniques rather than test the methods as originally presented. 

The court ultimately decides the question of appropriate validation, but 

forensic anthropology as a discipline must set standards for a theoretical 

and empirical validation process to guide researchers and assist the courts. 

It is also important to understand that the point of developing methods 

under the rubric of evidentiary examination is not to completely quantify 

the field, and that subjectivity does not necessarily equal unreliability. 

Many forensic disciplines, including identification sciences like 

anthropology, involve some degree of subjectivity. It is therefore 

imperative to minimize the risk of error through proper training, quality 

assurance, validation, accreditation, and certification. 

Creating and maintaining professional standards is performed in many 

disciplines by Scientific Working Groups (SWG). A SWG consists of a 

group of experts in a particular scientific discipline that meets periodically 

to formulate and review standards (for both examination protocols and 

validation testing) applied in their respective fields, and standards set by 

SWGs are increasingly recognized and considered by courts. It is the 

recommendation of the authors to construct a Forensic Anthropology SWG 

to develop professional standards for our discipline. As the courts continue 

to raise the bar regarding professional standards, forensic anthropology 

must be committed to providing analyses that are of the highest quality and 

reliability, and the authors believe that creating and adhering to recognized 

standards will facilitate achieving this objective. 

Daubert, Scientific Working Group (SWG), Standards 

282

H114 An Electronic Data Management Tool 

for the Search for Missing Persons and 

Forensic Human Identification: 

The ICRC AM/PM DB 

Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Morris Tidball-Binz, MD, and Shuala M. 

Drawdy, MA, International Committee of the Red Cross, 19 Avenue 

de la Paix, Geneva, 1202, SWITZERLAND 

Attendees will gain awareness of a new software application to 

manage data related to the search of missing persons and forensic human 

identification. They will understand the main functions of this software and 

the impact its implementation can have on efforts to recover and identify the 

remains of victims of armed conflict. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by presenting a 

new software application which aims to facilitate and help standardize 

forensic investigations into the whereabouts of those missing as a result of 

armed conflict or internal violence. 

Efficient management of data is essential for the quality of any 

forensic investigation; data standardization and centralization are especially 

important in larger operations which involve a variety of different actors. 

Experience has shown that in the absence of a readily available and 

universally applicable system, organisations working in the search for 

missing persons are often faced with the need for developing their own 

forms and tools, with limited capacity to take into account the experience 

accumulated elsewhere, and often with neither the time nor means to 

develop actually functional tools. Many existing systems are either not 

freely available and/or not designed to deal with often extensive but 

unspecific data managed in investigations into the fate of missing persons 

especially in conflict related and less developed contexts. 

Thus, responding to a need identified by experts during the 

consultative process that was part of the ICRCs major initiative on Missing 

Persons launched in 2002, the ICRC committed itself to produce a set of 

data management tools to support forensic practitioners and others involved 

in the investigations into the whereabouts of missing persons. 

These tools are based on the concrete recommendations developed 

through a number of different workshops and studies, involving academic 

institutions, experts and representatives of governmental, 

intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations from around the 

world. They are based on the accumulated experience of those working in 

the search of missing persons and identification of human remains over the 

last decades. 

This set of tools consists of Standard Reporting Forms on AMD and 

PMD to give guidance and serve as a means for standardizing and 

maximizing the quality of the data collection process, and of a software 

application for the management and analysis of the collected data, to 

support archiving, standardization, reporting, searching, analysis and 

matching of data. 

This tool was designed to be multilingual, flexible and configurable 

but user-friendly at the same time, with a strong and easy to use search 

engine and good provisions for data security. 

The AM/PM DB comprises modules on: 

• ante-mortem data, including detailed circumstances of 

disappearance which may lead to the discovery and 

identification of remains; 

• recovery/field data, including data on preliminary investigations 

and detailed archaeological information; 

• postmortem examinations, including pathology, anthropology 

and odontology; 

• hypotheses of identity and the identification process; 

• events related to disappearances or findings of human remains. 

Each module can manage multiple original interviews, witness 

statements or postmortem examinations respectively and their consolidated 

information. All main entities have sections for tracking of artefacts, any 

kinds of documents and samples. Personal roles and contact information 

can be managed contextually. Furthermore, the system provides a detailed 

operational journal and chain of custody form. 

Some special software functions are: built in methods and formulas for 

automatic calculations of anthropological estimations on sex, age, stature, 

laterality and ancestry; an automatic calculation for the MNI of 

commingled remains; the possibility for reassociating bones or body parts 

while preserving the original information; and an automated matching 

function, which matches all Missing Persons and Human Remains under 

investigation in a given context according to a number of selectable criteria 

designed to help reaching and then tracking hypotheses of identity, 

especially in operations with a large number of cases. 

The tool works in a network or as a standalone system with an 

automatic synchronization function and is compatible with other IT tools 

such as the Interpol DVI and GIS software. Distribution is free. 

The global challenge of investigations into the whereabouts of the 

missing is a humanitarian priority, which requires special tools and methods 

for optimizing the applicability and use of existing local and international 

investigative capacity. Responding to this need with this tool, the ICRC 

hopes to contribute to its pledge to support the forensic identification of 


Forensic Human Identification, Missing Persons, Database 

H115 Elliptic Fourier Analysis of Vertebral 


Josephine M. Paolello, MS*, and Luis L. Cabo-Pérez, MS, Mercyhurst 



The presentation demonstrates a new quantitative method for 

obtaining a victim identification from radiographic comparison. It examines 

the variability of the transverse process and its utility for this task. A 

discussion of the applicability of the method for other postcranial elements 

is also provided. 


proposing methodology provides percent correct classifications and ID 

probabilities appropriate for current Daubert compliant standards. Results 

suggest that EFA of the transverse process can be particularly useful to 

reduce large lists of potential victims, such as in mass disasters or human 

rights cases. Furthermore, this methodology easily allows for the direct 

addition of other skeletal structures to obtain even higher associated 

probabilities, impacting both current practice and future research. 

The comparison of antemortem radiographs with postmortem 

radiographs or photographs is one of the most common approaches to 

positive identification of skeletal remains. Traditionally, the method focuses 

mainly on cranial and mandibular elements, such as cranial sinuses and 

sutures, or dental elements, including the morphology and location of dental 

amalgams. This is related to the high variability of the outlines of these 

structures, which confers them a unique individual specificity allowing 

reliable ID assessments, even when performed just visually. Additionally, 

cranial and dental radiographs are among the most commonly registered 

antemortem records. 

Postcranial elements present some disadvantages in this respect. Many 

different postcranial elements exhibit a structural complexity and variability 

similar to those of cranial and dental structures, but their morphology is 

assumed to be less stable through time due to mechanical loadings and 

Wolff’s law. The predominance of dynamic articulations also increases error 

rates and variability related to radiographic perspective in postcranial 

elements. 

Within this framework, the transverse processes of the lumbar 

vertebrae appear as an optimal postcranial alternative for positive 

identification: their morphology remains relatively unchanged throughout 


adulthood and, unlike the spinous process or vertebral body, they very 

rarely experience degenerative osteoarthritic alterations over time. 

Additionally, antemortem radiographs of the lower back are reasonably 

common (primarily related to slipped vertebral discs), and pathologies and 

trauma observed in antemortem radiographs seldom affect the transverse 

processes. 

Still, positive identification attempts based on this region are typically 

visual, lacking any assessment of the populational frequencies of the 

features considered and, therefore, any associated probabilities. This 

contradicts the Daubert criteria for admissibility of scientific evidence in a 

United States court. 

The problem is common to most radiographic ID methods. Unlike 

fingerprints or DNA analyses, which rely on easily quantifiable discrete 

traits or base sequences, radiographic methods (with the exception of those 

relying on the presence or absence of dental elements or supernumerary 

bone structures) are mainly based on the matching of continuous outlines. 

Apart from the problematic definition of quantifiable landmarks, these 

types of structures are also affected by perspective variations between the 

ante- and postmortem records. The development of geometric 

morphometric methods during the last two decades, has created a new 

source for the identification and analysis of new structures that can provide 

Daubert-compliant identity assessments. 

The present study applies one of these techniques, Elliptic Fourier 

Analysis (EFA), to develop a new method and assess the utility of vertebral 

transverse processes for positive identification from antemortem 

radiographs. Parting from an approach similar to that of Angi Christensen 

(2003, 2004, 2005), antemortem and postmortem sets of records are 

simulated for a sample of 85 second lumbar vertebrae. Slight perspective 

differences between “antemortem” and “postmortem” radiographs were 

introduced to approximate the conditions expected in real forensic settings. 

Outlines of all left transverse processes were then produced, and 

transformed into Euclidean distances between all possible pairs of 

transverse processes after EFA and principal components analysis (PCA). 

The modification of Christensen’s methodology, through the 

introduction of PCA, serves to modify the variable space to produce 

orthogonal variables. The Euclidean distances are more appropriate in the 

new orthogonal space (becoming equivalent to weighted estimates, such as 

Mahalanobis distances, in non-orthogonal spaces), providing a more 

accurate description of overall shape differences. The stepwise estimation 

based on the percent of common variance explained, inherent to the PCA 

method, also serves to weigh the relative contribution of each harmonic to 

the characterization of the individual outlines. Finally, the examination of 

the principal components, representing meaningful shape differences, 

serves for a more revealing interpretation of the results, as well as to detect 

data input and recordation errors. 

Confidence intervals for the distance between matching pairs were 

then produced, and this criterion used to assess the possibility of two 

records representing the same individual. The results show that this 

methodology provides percent correct classifications and ID probabilities 

appropriate for current forensic standards, even when large lists of potential 

victims are considered. Furthermore, this methodology easily allows for 

the direct addition of other skeletal structures to obtain even higher 

associated probabilities. 

Geometric Morphometrics, Identification, Transverse Process 

H116 Left Hanging in Mandeville: 

Multiple Approaches in Search 

of a Positive Identification 

John W. Verano, PhD*, Brian Pierson, BA, and Anne Titelbaum, MA, 

Doris Z. Stone Laboratory of Biological and Forensic Anthropology, 

Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, 1326 Audubon Street, 


The goal of this presentation is to illustrate how multiple lines of 


investigation can be used to develop an identification in cases where 

decomposed remains of unknown decedents are found. Particularly in 

cases of indigent or transient individuals, few leads may be available. In 

such cases, if no potential matches can be made with missing persons 

reports, alternative strategies such as facial reproduction, press conferences, 

and DNA analysis may be necessary. 


the importance of multidisciplinary collaboration in the identification of 

unknown skeletal remains. 

This presentation highlights a case from Louisiana which presented 

few leads and little hope for a successful identification. In 2006, a boy 

riding an ATV through a wooded area found what appeared to be a human 

skull and other bones underneath a large tree. Still hanging from a branch 

above was a largely skeletonized trunk and limbs, wearing jeans and a shirt. 

The boy returned home and notified the St. Tammany Parish Sheriff’s 

Office, which sent officers to the scene, along with death investigators from 

the St. Tammany Parish Coroner’s Office. The remains in the tree were 

found to be hanging from a nylon rope with a simple slip knot encircling 

the neck area, suggesting that the death may have been a suicide. The scene 

was photographed and described, and the human remains and clothing were 

collected. 

Staff from the coroner’s office brought the human remains and 

clothing to Tulane University’s Forensic Anthropology Laboratory on April 

12, 2006, requesting assistance with developing a biological profile of the 

individual and an estimate of time since death. Analysis by Verano and 

Titelbaum indicated that the remains were those of an edentulate white male 

approximately 45-55 years of age, of relatively short stature (est. 5’5”). 

Time since death was estimated as between eight months to a year, based 

on multiple criteria, including the position of the body (suspended) during 

decomposition, as well as evidence that the tree had been damaged by 

Hurricane Katrina (August 29, 2005), resulting in two distinct clusters of 

skeletal remains on the ground. Although the skeleton was mostly 

complete, it was noted that some bones were missing, and offered to assist 

with another search of the scene. The second search produced another 

sixteen skeletal elements, including four vertebrae, eleven hand and foot 

bones, and a fragment of costal cartilage. Some of the bones found on the 

ground showed carnivore gnawing, and some elements that were not found 

in either search, including the hyoid bone, may have been scattered or 

destroyed by carnivores. 

A search of missing persons records by the St. Tammany Parish 

Sheriff’s Office produced some preliminary leads, but all were excluded 

based on a lack of correspondence in age, stature, or antemortem injuries. 

Given the lack of progress in identification, a bone sample was sent to the 

FBI DNA Laboratory for possible matching with data in the National 

Missing Person DNA Database, and the Coroner requested that we do a 

facial reproduction. A three-dimensional facial reproduction was done by 

Pierson, and was presented in a local press conference in October, 2006. 

Following the press conference the sheriff’s office received numerous 

phone calls, including one strong lead towards identifying the individual. A 

landlord reported that he had rented a trailer to a man matching the 

description of the decedent, and that he subsequently had left without notice 

and had not been seen again. With this information, investigators located a 

possible relative in another state who agreed to provide a DNA sample for 

comparison. 

A bone sample from the decedent and a buccal swab from the possible 

relative were submitted to the FBI DNA Laboratory in Quantico, Virginia, 

for analysis and comparison. Mitochondrial DNA comparison revealed a 

match between the two samples, although unfortunately, the sequence 

identified was not a particularly rare one (observed in 8.65% of Caucasians 

in the FBI database). Nuclear DNA analysis is now being done in an 

attempt to provide a more secure identification, although based on their 

investigation, the St. Tammany Parish Sheriff’s Office is convinced they 

now have a secure presumptive identification. 

Human Identification, Facial Reproduction, DNA Analysis 

284

H117 The eBay® Mummy: A Case of a 

Scottish Mummy From Maryland 

for Sale in Michigan 

Kristin E. Horner, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State 

University, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 


characteristics of medical mummies, specifically those from the Burns 

Collection, and why the ability to recognize these mummies is important in 

medicolegal investigations. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by raising 

awareness about a little-known, but historically significant, collection of 

medical mummies, with the possibility of restoring lost or stolen samples to 

the collection. This case highlights the importance of communication 

between state, federal, and international agencies. Human remains of 

historical significance can travel surprisingly long distances and turn up in 

unexpected places. It is important for forensic anthropologists to be 

cognizant of this when presented with an unusual specimen. 

In October 2006, a woman in Port Huron, Michigan, put a mummy up 

for sale on the internet auction site eBay®. The mummy was recovered by 

police and transported to the St. Claire County Medical Examiner’s Office 

for examination. On October 16, the mummy was transported to the 

Michigan State University Forensic Anthropology Lab for further analysis. 

It was at this point that the mummy was recognized as being a member of 

the Burns Collection of medical mummies housed at the Maryland College 

of Medicine. 

The Burns Collection originated in Glasgow, Scotland in the early 

1800s. Allen Burns was a Scottish anatomist and talented dissector who 

prepared many preserved anatomical specimens. Upon his death in 1813, 

the collection went to his protégé, Andrew Russell, who shortly thereafter 

sold his share in the collection to Granville Sharpe Pattison. Pattison 

brought the collection to the U.S. and sold it to the Medical School in 1820. 

Since 1820 the collection, which may have originally numbered in the 100s, 

has suffered from neglect and theft. 

The Burns Collection is a varied set of anatomical specimens, but all 

are preserved in a similar manner and most are dissected with a strong 

emphasis on the cardiovascular system. The specimens have a characteristic 

medium to dark brown coloring, often with injection of the arteries with a 

red substance. The dissection style is similar throughout the collection, 

with nerves, muscles, and ligaments being distracted from their original 

anatomical position to be separated from surrounding structures. Great care 

has been taken in the dissection of all of the specimens to show anatomical 

structures clearly and in great detail. Adult cadavers in the collection are 

cut up, whereas children often appear as complete specimens. 

Radiographs of the specimen were used to evaluate age at death. CT 

scans were also helpful in this case because the radiopaque material used to 

inject the arteries prevented an unobstructed view of the bones and teeth. 

Age at death estimation was based primarily on dental development and 

eruption as assessed on radiographs and CT scans. This estimate was 

supplemented with epiphyseal closure data obtained from radiographs. 

The eBay® mummy is a juvenile, aged 6-9 years at death. Sex and 

ancestry are undetermined. The mummy is very well preserved, although 

it has suffered some damage over time. The dissection focuses on the 

circulatory system in the trunk region, with the removal of all abdominal 

and pelvic organs. The heart was likely preserved in the thorax at one time, 

but has since been lost. The specimen shows a medium to dark brown 

coloration throughout. The arteries are injected with a solid, reddish, 

radiopaque substance. 

The eBay® mummy presents the coloration, artery injection, and 

dissection style that are characteristic of the Burns Collection. There are 

several juvenile specimens in the Burns Collection that are very similar to 

the individual in question. There is little doubt this specimen was removed 

in the past from the Burns Collection. 

Medical Mummy, Anatomical Specimen, Burns Collection 

H118 Uncovering the Truth Behind the Killings: 


Using Skeletons Exhumed From Ex-Military 

Bases in Guatemala 

Shirley C. Chacon, BA*, and Gillian M. Fowler, MA, Fundacion de 

Antropologia Forense de Guatemala, Avenida Simeon Cañas, 10-64, Zona 

2, Guatemala City, 01002, GUATEMALA 

After attending this presentation, participants will learn about the 

types of perimortem trauma that were inflicted on the Guatemalan 

population in military bases during the armed conflict. They will become 

aware of the fact that all aspects of the population were affected and that the 

FAFG is using these patterns to predict trauma in future exhumations. 

The Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation (FAFG) has to 

date worked on 847 cases totaling more than 5000 skeletons. Of these 847 

cases, 12 have taken place within Guatemala’s ex-military bases distributed 

throughout the country, comprising 386 skeletons. It is estimated that 

during Guatemala’s armed conflict 200,000 people were killed, spanning all 

ages, and 50,000 were disappeared. Many of the disappeared were 

transferred to the military bases from other areas, and as a consequence the 

majority of skeletons exhumed from these bases are awaiting identification 

pending DNA testing. Despite the lack of identification, all of these 

skeletons have been analyzed and are being held in evidence by the FAFG. 

The analysis of these remains revealed that the majority of skeletons 

exhumed from ex-military bases have evidence of perimortem trauma as 

well as signs of antemortem torture. Typical traumas observed in the 

skeletons from this type of exhumation are ballistic bone traumas to the 

cranium, blunt trauma to the thorax, knife-cut wounds to the cervical area, 

blunt-sharp trauma (machete wounds) to the cranium and thorax and 

decapitations. It is hypothesized that the type of trauma will vary depending 

on factors such as the type of grave, or the biological profile of the victims. 

It is the intention of this paper to search for and present patterns of trauma 

based on a number of selected independent variables. It is not the purpose 

of this paper to detail the antemortem torture, but to conduct a statistical 

analysis of the perimortem trauma observed in the skeletons, and as a result 

to be able to predict the type of trauma based on a single independent 

variable or a number of independent variables. 

A statistical analysis will reveal if it is possible to predict the type of 

trauma from a number of independent factors including sex, age grouping, 

size of grave (number of skeletons), placement of bodies in the grave, 

presence of clothing, depth of grave, presence of ballistics, presence of 

rope-type artifacts, signs of antemortem torture, etc. It is expected that a 

pattern of perimortem trauma will emerge linking a type of lesion with a 

particular group or circumstance. 

Five cases were selected consisting of skeletons with the cause of 

death well established. One of these cases is an ex-military base situated in 

the department of Chimaltenango, where 218 skeletons were recovered, 

consisting of 154 male adults, 40 female adults, 12 sub-adults and 12 

elderly victims. These statistics show that the military campaign was not 

only directed at adult men of fighting age, but rather the population as a 

whole. Typically the types of perimortem trauma observed in the victims 

recovered from this ex-military base are gunshot wounds to the cranium, 

decapitations and various sharp-force traumas to the thorax and the anterior 


cervical region. 

The results of the analysis will be used to inform the exhumations of 

military bases in the future and will serve as a part of the forensic report 

produced by the FAFG for the Prosecutors Office. 

Perimortem Trauma, Ex-Military Base, Guatemala 

H119 Unearthing Peru’s Buried Secrets: 

La Cantuta Revisited 

Jose P. Baraybar, MSc*, Equipo Peruano de Antropología Forense, 

Toribio Pacheco 216, Lima, Lima 18, PERU; and Bertrand Ludes MD, 

PhD, Institut de Medicine Légale de Strasbourg, 11, Rue Humann - 67085 

Strasbourg, France 

The learning objectives of this presentation are to discuss the physical 

evidence of one of the most serious violations to Human Rights (HHRR) 

that took place in Peru during the regime of President Alberto Fujimori 

(1990-2000, and to present the results of the second examination of the 

human remains, 14 years after they were recovered using a 

multidisciplinary approach combining forensic anthropology and human 

genetics. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by showing the 

importance of forensic anthropological analysis in cases of human rights 

violations particularly those involving enforce disappearance and attempted 

destruction of the evidence through the analysis of a case in Peru. 

Governments in the process of national judicial reform are tasked with 

investigating human rights (HHRR) abuse and extra-judicial executions of 

former regimes, often many years after the crimes occurred. The rule of law 

projects underway in Peru are in the process of locating and exhuming 

graves and performing postmortem examinations (sometimes even second 

autopsies) from past HHRR violations. Investigations into such cases not 

only have the challenges associated with “cold cases” but often must sort 

through evidence previously altered to cover–up crimes committed. The 

following presentation is a discussion of such a case in Peru, representing 

one of the most serious HHRR cases during the regime of President Alberto 

Fujimori (1990-2000). 

In July 1993 authorities exhumed some boxes containing burnt human 

remains in a land fill in the outskirts of Lima. The location of the remains 

was tipped to the media by “COMACA” (Commanders, Majors and 

Captains) a dissident group within the military opposing the regime of 

President Alberto Fujimori and his spy chief Vladimiro Montesinos. 

According to the same information, the human remains belonged to nine 

students and a professor (two females and nine males) abducted a year 

earlier (17-18 July 1992) from the University of La Cantuta, East from 

Lima. At the time, the University of Lima had been under military control 

and the now known the students and the professor were abducted by a task 

force of the military under the direct command of Montesinos also known 

as the “Colina” group, who were responsible for several other major crimes 

(http://www.cverdad.org.pe/ifinal/ 

pdf/TOMO%20VII/Casos%20IlustrativosUIE/2.22.%20LA%20CANTUT 

A.pdf). 

At the time of the initial investigation, the Office of the Prosecutor 

concluded that the remains had been buried and then exhumed to be burnt 

and reburied in secondary graves. The identity of the remains was 

determined to belong to one of the missing students. Further a set of keys 

opened the locker of a second missing student. However there was no 

information regarding whether all ten victims were buried in that location, 

nor was the cause of death estimated for any of the remains. Following the 

passage of Laws (Law 26479 and 26492) passed in 1995 under the Fujimori 


regime, giving amnesty to all members of security forces and civilians 

accused of HHRR violations, such as those committed by the “Colina” 

group, the Interamerican Court of Human Rights ordered the Peruvian State 

to investigate the case properly and to locate and identify the human 

remains of the ten victims among other reparative measures 

(http://www.corteidh.or.cr /docs/casos/articulos/seriec_162_esp.pdf). 

Following this order by the Court, the Peruvian Forensic Anthropology 

Team (EPAF) was appointed by the Peruvian Judiciary to carry out the 

exhumation and analysis of the remains fourteen years after their initial 

discovery. 

This presentation discusses the process and result of this investigation. 

It also emphasizes important issues and challenges of investigating HHRR 

cases under transitional judiciary reform and highlights critical methods for 

anthropologists working in similar contexts. The exhumation of the remains 

uncovered four heavy coffins containing the disarticulated and fragmented 

remains representing at least nine individuals. Most of the weight and 

volume of the coffins were made only by refuse, probably collected during 

the initial operation. Only eight individuals were however related to the 

case, since the ninth individual was represented by a single distal phalanx 

of a child aged 8 to 10 years. The missing students and professor were 

between the ages of 18 and 48 years. At least three individuals had been 

exposed to fire at different temperatures (from combustion to calcination), 

showing typical changes associated with postmortem burning. 

One individual was complete and sustained four gunshot wounds to 

the head, two of which were caused by a “double tap”. Three other 

unrelated cranial fragments showed posterior gunshot wounds indicating a 

certain pattern concerning the manner of death of the victims (homicide). 

Methods for identification including STR DNA analysis are discussed. 

Fifteen years after the fact, all remains of the missing students and 

professor have not been located. The results of the analysis corroborate 

testimonies of some of the perpetrators. It is clear however that a negligent 

recovery by the Peruvian police in 1993 contributed to add unrelated 

evidence (refuse and child’s phalanx), but were not thorough enough as to 

find the remains of all victims. It is expected that in its forthcoming 

sentence, the Peruvian Court will order further investigations to determine 

the whereabouts of the victim’s remains in order to repatriate them to their 

families. 

Fujimori, Disappearance, Double-Tap 

H120 How Easily Can We Derive Cause and 

Manner of Death on the Basis of Dry 

Bones? Lessons Derived From Coimbra 

Identified Skeletal Collections 

Eugenia Cunha, PhD*, Joan V. Badal, and Andersen Líryo, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, 

PORTUGAL; João Pinheiro, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, 

Delegação de Coimbra, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000, PORTUGAL; 

and Steven A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Inst, Mercyhurst 


After attending this presentation, participants will be able to: (1) 

evaluate the potential of a reference skeletal collection to forensic 

anthropology, (2) evaluate the difficulty to derive cause and manner of 

death from dry bones, and (3) evaluate the danger of infering to much from 

dry bones. 


increasing awareness of the importance of reference skeletal collections to 

forensic anthropology and of the need to be more accurate in cause and 

manner of death determination statements. The importance of a previous 

taphonomic interpretation is emphasized since postmortem cahnges can 

disguise perimortem trauma. 

The Coimbra identified skeletal collection is a unique research 

resource available to forensic anthropology. The identification of each of 

286

the individuals permit the validation of a series of methods applied in 

forensic anthropology increasing thus their accuracy. The project presented 

here demonstrates attempts to increase the accuracy of cause and manner of 

death determinations on the basis of traumatic skeletal lesions. It is well 

know that those objectives of a forensic anthropology examination are 

particularly hard to be accomplished. Among the 505 identified individuals, 

death certificates indicate 31 died from violent causes between 1898 and 

1932. All of these 31 skeletons were recently subjected to a thorough 

anthropological examination performed before reading individual records, 

i.e., without knowing, a priori, the exact cause of death. In a further stage, 

the conclusions of the anthropological exam were compared with the 

original cause of death stated on the individual record. Homicides, suicides, 

accidents, falls are some of the causes of death stated on the obituary 

records. Later, for those who had been autopsied, the autopsy report, 

completed in the 1920s, were analyzed and again, cause and manner of 

death were compared particularly in what traumatic injuries descriptions 

were concerned. Below we discuss the agreements and disagreements 

between the present day anthropological analysis and the autopsy reported 

for three interesting cases. 

In one case, while the death was caused by a single gunshot to the 

thorax, the anthropologist, by means of the anthropological analysis, was 

unable to recognize cause of death because the injuries besides being subtle 

were hard to differentiate from postmortem changes. 

In a second case, both the anthropological exam and the autopsy report 

produced a similar cause of death: blunt force trauma to the head. However, 

the fractures observed on the dry bone produced improved results than 

those reported by the pathologist. In dry bones it was possible to follow the 

fractures lines pattern in much accurate way. 

Finally, in a third case, the anthropologist was not able to predict cause 

of death even though the death was a severe trauma on the vertebral 

column, solely on the basis of the skeleton due to taphonomic alterations 

disguising perimortem trauma. Indeed, taphonomic changes are a 

paramount factor in the interpretation of traumatic events on the basis of dry 

bones since they preclude more reliable interpretations. 

These three cases exemplify the practicality, utility, and limitations of 

forensic anthropology contributions to cause and manner of death, where 

case one illustrates that bones do not represent the whole body. Case two 

demonstrates the advantages of examining the traumatized human skeleton 

in a dry state as opposed to fresh autopsy examinations. However, the dry 

bones in case three limited accurate analysis due to taphonomical influences 

and of the evidence. In all, this was a rare opportunity to enhance both the 

potentials and limits of dry bone to cause and manner of death assessments. 

Trauma, Cause of Death, Bone 

H121 Renewed Search, Recovery, and 

Identification Efforts Related to 

the September 11, 2001 Attacks 

of the World Trade Center 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD*, Christian Crowder, PhD, and; Frank 

DePaolo, MPAS, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, 


This presentation will highlight several of the projects associated with 

the renewed search and recovery efforts occurring at Ground Zero and the 

surrounding area. 


demonstrating the role of anthropology in this type of work will be stressed. 

In addition, the unique challenges posed by operating under hazmat 

conditions will be discussed. 

Two thousand seven hundred-fifty people died in New York City from 

the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001. As a result of two 

airplane crashes and the collapse of two sky-scrapers, the search and 

recovery efforts were extremely challenging and on a scale that was 

previously unmatched. Due to the magnitude of the incident and the forces 

involved, fragmentation of bodies was extensive. Initial recovery efforts 

were largely handled by the emergency service agencies in New York City. 

By the time the recovery ceased, nearly 20,000 human remains ranging in 

size from small bone fragments to nearly complete bodies had been 

recovered. These remains were sent to the Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner (OCME) in New York City for identification. 

In April 2006, OCME initiated an on-site presence at the Deutsche 

Bank, a 40-story building at the southern edge of the World Trade Center 

site. The building was slated for deconstruction due to damage associated 

with the attacks. The OCME’s role in this deconstruction project was 

triggered by an increased frequency in the number of small bone fragments 

encountered on the roof by laborers. Since the project site was considered 

to be contaminated (primarily with asbestos and heavy metals), the search 

and recovery operation had to be conducted under hazmat conditions 

utilizing appropriate personal protective equipment. Work was eventually 

completed on the rooftop and the interior, resulting in the recovery of 

several hundred small (generally < 1/8 inch) bone fragments from the 

rooftop alone. 

In October 2006, human remains were again discovered. This time the 

remains were found at the World Trade Center site in an abandoned 

manhole by utility workers. These remains were immediately confirmed to 

be related to World Trade Center victims. This triggered an obvious interest 

in the likelihood that additional human remains could be encountered in 

other areas at and around Ground Zero. The Mayor’s Office quickly called 

for the resumption of search and recovery activities and designated the 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner as the lead agency. Following an 

extensive review process involving numerous agencies, additional areas of 

concern were identified. These areas included other subterranean structures 

(e.g., sewers and manholes), additional building rooftops, and roadways. 

The renewed efforts have resulted in the completed search of several 

building rooftops and hundreds of subterranean structures. Large-scale 

excavations have also been conducted, resulting in the removal of 

thousands of cubic yards of material that requires hand-screening. In order 

to handle this large amount of material, an elaborate screening facility was 

constructed specially for this project. By the end of this project it is 

anticipated that the budget will exceed $30 million. 

The skills of forensic anthropology and archaeology are essential 

components for ensuring that the most comprehensive and accurate job 

possible is achieved during this recovery project. Archaeologists direct the 

excavations at and around the WTC site. Although heavy equipment is 

used to excavate, archaeologists direct the progress and implement the 

appropriate techniques to ensure that excavation depths are sufficient and 

appropriately documented. Understanding site formation processes and 

interpreting soil stratigraphy is crucial for undertaking this large-scale 

endeavor. Forensic anthropologists have the expertise in human osteology 

and are able to recognize even the smallest of bone fragments and to 

distinguish them from the non-human remains that are frequently 

encountered. OCME’s Forensic Anthropology Unit carries the 

responsibility of ensuring the forensic integrity of the fieldwork, in addition 

to performing analyses of the potential human remains recovered during the 

project. Due in large part to this specialized work, the OCME as an agency 

recognized the critical role of anthropology and, as a result, the full-time 

anthropology staff has grown in size to eight people. During the height of 

the project, a crew of approximately 25 temporary, contract anthropologists 

also participated in various aspects of the daily operations, especially the 

hand-sifting work. 

Through this renewed WTC recovery work, hundreds of additional 

human remains have been recovered. Most of these remains are small 

fragments, usually ranging in size from < 1/8 inch to several inches in size. 

Every fragment is submitted for DNA testing for identification purposes. 

Many of the remains have been linked to previously identified individuals, 

while others have resulted in the association of remains to individuals who 

were previously unidentified. 

World Trade Center, Mass Disaster, Forensic Anthropology 


H122 The Use of Material Culture to Establish 

the Ethnic Identity of Victims in Genocide 

Investigations: A Validation Study From 

the American Southwest 

Debra Komar, PhD*, and Sarah Lathrop, PhD, University of New 

Mexico, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC 11 6030, 1 University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131; and Christopher R. Grivas, MS, 

University of New Mexico, Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 



potential for using clothing and personal effects to accurately categorize 

victims of genocide or war crimes. 


accurate, independent scientific method of establishing the ethnic identity 

of the victims of genocide, a crucial step in the successful prosecution of 

genocide and war crimes charges. 

Successful prosecution of genocide requires that the victims constitute 

one of the four groups protected under international law: national, religious, 

ethnic or racial. Establishing victim social identity in prior tribunals has 

been largely presumptive, based on untested methodology, or relied on the 

positive identification of victims. This paper details a validation study of 

one untested method: the use of material culture in establishing ethnic 

identity. Classes of clothing and personal effects were scored for 3,430 

individuals of known White Hispanic or White non-Hispanic ancestry from 

the autopsy records of the Office of the Medical Investigator in New 

Mexico from 2002 through 2005. Only positively identified decedents over 

age 18 who died unnatural, unexpected deaths (homicidal and accidental 

manners of death) were included in the study. Excluded were those who 

had experienced thermal damage resulting in the destruction of clothing or 

artifacts or whose clothing or personal effects were removed by hospital 

personnel or law enforcement prior to autopsy. 

Personal effects were divided into three major categories: those 

providing evidence of nationality or personal identification (driver’s licenses 

or government issued documents, currency); items indicating language (non- 

ID documents, jewelry, prescribed medications, books) and articles 

suggesting religious affiliation (jewelry, icons, documents such as prayer 

cards). 

Data were entered into an Excel spreadsheet and statistical analyses 

were conducted using SAS version 9.1. Categorical variables were 

analyzed for univariate associations using chi-square or Fisher exact tests 

and continuous variables were compared using t-tests. 

Following preliminary analysis, a second categorical system was 

introduced that evaluated the material evidence associated with each 

individual in terms of its potential to establish ethnic identity. Evidence was 

ranked according to its relative contribution. For example, evidence of 

language was considered more reliable in isolation than evidence of 

religious affiliation, currency or clothing styles. Multiple sources of 

information were considered preferable to isolated indicators. A total of 5 

classes of identity potential were scored for the total sample: 

1. Well-defined, multiple sources of identity. Criteria include at 

least one source of national identity and one indicator of 

language or religious affiliation. 

2. Reasonable sources of identity. Criteria include either multiple 

sources of potential information (i.e. indicators of religious 

affiliation) OR a single credible source of identity (evidence of 

language or nationality). 

3. Ambiguous evidence of identity. Clothing or personal effects 

were recovered but such evidence was not definitive (i.e. 

indicators of religion only). 

4. No potential for identity. No material culture was associated 

with the decedent OR only a single, non-descriptive item (such 

as underwear) was present. 

5. Investigator error. Evidence was noted as present at autopsy but 


was not described in sufficient detail to allow for categorization. 

Individuals in this category were removed from subsequent 

analysis. 

A model was then developed to predict ethnic affiliation in unknown 

individuals. Based on the relative frequency of a trait within the two 

populations, the presence of the trait was considered neutral (no significant 

difference between populations), or as an indicator of either Hispanic or 

non-Hispanic ethnicity. Blinded, breakout subsets (n=100, 50 White 

Hispanic, 50 White non-Hispanic) were randomly selected and the ethnicity 

of the individual was estimated using the evidence available. A total of 400 

individuals were tested representing the following subsets: general 

population (drawn from potential identity classes 1 through 4); potential 

identity class 1 (well-defined); potential identity class 2 (reasonable); 

potential identity class 3 (ambiguous). 

Intraobserver error tests were conducted and kappa statistics were 

calculated to determine the reliability and reproducibility of trait scoring, 

classification of potential identity evidence and ethnicity prediction models. 

A random sample of 25 individuals was re-scored and the results were 

compared to prior data. Kappa statistics were interpreted using the 

classification proposed by Landis and Koch (1977). 

Statistically significant differences (all p values were less than 0.0001) 

were seen in evidence of language, nationality and religious affiliation 

between the two groups, as well as clothing types and currency. Predictive 

models used to estimate ethnic affinity in the random, blind subsets 

produced an overall accuracy of 80.5% and estimates of 61 to 98% in 

specific subsets. 

Failure to adequately establish victim group identity has resulted in 

overturned verdicts. In 2006, the International Criminal Tribunal for 

Rwanda was found to have erred in failing to take judicial notice of the 

ethnic identity of the victims. Prosecutors can no longer afford to 

presumptively address the victims’ cultural identity in acts of genocide. 

This study indicates that material culture can provide reliable evidence of 

ethnic affinity in genocide investigations, providing forensic scientists with 

a means of accurately establishing victim social identity. 

Forensic Science, Forensic Anthropology, International Human 

Rights Investigation 

H123 A Population Approach to the Problem 

of the Missing and Unidentified With 

Emphasis on the Status of Migrant 

and Undocumented Workers 


Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler, Soc 107, Tampa, FL 33820; Anthony 

B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Id Laboratory, C/O Cancer/ 

Genetics Research, PO Box 103615, Gainesville, FL 32610; and Ann H. 

Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, Sociology and Anthropology, 

Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

The objectives of this paper are to discuss the problem of unidentified 

decedents and strategies at the local and state level to improve identification 

methods. Special attention is given to the role of families through this 

process and the importance of the information they provide. The purpose 

of the study is to use a population based approach to profile the missing, 

such as immigrants, migrants and un-documented workers to better serve 

these underrepresented groups. A demographic analysis of solved and 

unsolved cases from the American Southeast is presented. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community by. 

Using the American Southeast as an exemplar will serve as a model for 

others to employ. Further, framing the problem of the unidentified with 

research and outreach initiatives aimed towards population specific 

methods and protocols should improve the identification process. 

Outcomes: Using the American Southeast as an exemplar will serve 

as a model for others to employ. Further, framing the problem of the 

288

unidentified with research and outreach initiatives aimed towards 

population specific methods and protocols should improve the 

identification process. 

The FBI’s National Crime Information Center (NCIC), Missing 

Person and Unidentified Person files (as of December 31, 2006) reports 

110,484 recorded active missing person cases and 6,208 unidentified person 

cases, which is a 2.2% increase over reported cases from 2005. Within the 

Unidentified Person File, 73.81% (n=1,043) of cases are of unidentified, 

deceased individuals; 0.5 % (n=7) are unidentified catastrophe victims; and 

25.69% (n=363) of cases include living but unidentified persons. However, 

experts estimate that there are approximately 40,000 to 50,000 unidentified 

sets of human remains in the United States, which highlights a significant 

problem in that only 1.24% of the unidentified remains are accounted for 

by the NCIC database. Local and State level databanks account for some 

of this discrepancy, offering a variety of alternative means to share 

information about the deceased in hope that a witness or family member 

will come forward and offer information. For example, the Florida 

Unidentified Decedents Database (FLUIDDB) has more than 500 open 

cases in the state of Florida alone. 

The number of cases that remain unidentified is due in part to the low 

priority and attention given to “cold cases”, the overall accuracy and 

applicability of identification methods ranging from the initial parameters 

of biological profiles to DNA analysis, the access families have to 

information and knowledge about Unidentified and Missing persons, and 

the willingness or ability of witnesses or family members to come forward. 

The pool of persons who go missing and subsequently become part of the 

unidentified population is predominately adult, male, under-represented 

minorities, foreign-born individuals, and people from at-risk groups (i.e. the 

elderly, mentally ill, or individuals with substance abuse). In particular, a 

growing obstacle to the identification of unidentified decedents (UIDs) is 

the increase of foreign-born immigrants, including migrant workers and undocumented 

persons in the United States. Increasingly, individuals of 

foreign born Nationality, is an important component in unidentified cases as 

there may not be access to information about who is missing, personal data 

about the decedent, nor family members available to aid the identification 

process. 

The demographic structures of identified cases are compared with 

unidentified cases and the reported missing. The demographic profiles of 

individuals identified through the C.A. Pound Hunan Identification 

Laboratory at the University of Florida, the Forensic Data Bank maintained 

at The University of Tennessee and the Medical Examiner’s Offices of 

Georgia and North Carolina are compared. The value of a population 

approach to individual estimation is demonstrated through demographic 

analysis and a comparative discussion of population variables of the 

Missing and Unidentified; as well as the databases and processes in place 

aimed towards human identification in the United States. 

Recommendations for policy and methodological changes are further 

discussed such as the application of population based research strategies 

that account for biological and cultural variation related to identification 

parameters; the development of bilingual searchable databases with 

anonymous information submittal capabilities; and the incorporation of 

biological information of the decedent along with possible biological traits 

and personal or cultural artifacts such as descriptions and photographs of 

personal effects, tattoos, and facial approximations into searchable webbased 

databases that facilitates the monumental task of identifying 

unidentified or unknown decedents in a way that is appropriate given the 

population in question. 

Identification, Unidentified Decedents, Demography 

H124 Establishing a Central Database for the 


Mary H. Manhein, MA*, and Helen B. Mathews, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe- 

Russell Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

The goal of this presentation is to inform attendees of a statesponsored 

database of information on all missing persons and unidentified 

remains cases in Louisiana. 


information on the construction of a state database, how case information 

has been gathered, and the current status of case resolution. Such a database 

is meant to act as a central location for data on all missing persons and 

unidentified remains cases in a state. By creating a central location for data, 

the goal is to assist law enforcement in resolving cases that otherwise might 

remain unsolved. 

The issue of unsolved missing persons and unidentified remains cases 

continues to be a problem in this country. Few states offer a centralized 

location for detailed information on missing persons and unidentified 

remains cases. Without a centralized information system in place, 

comparisons between cases that could potentially result in a positive 

identification may go unnoticed by the agencies involved. As agencies are 

forced to confront new cases that arise, the trail grows colder on cases that 

remain unsolved. When a cold case involves unidentified remains, these 

remains may end up on the back shelves in coroners’ offices or they are 

buried or cremated before all possible identifying information has been 

collected. The authors propose that more unresolved cases could be solved 

if each state developed a central location for all the data available on all 

missing persons and unidentified remains cases reported in their state. 

For almost thirty years the Louisiana State University Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services Laboratory (LSU 

FACES Lab) has worked with both Louisiana agencies and agencies across 

the United States on unidentified remains cases. The lab has assisted in 

hundreds of successful identifications. However, there are cases on record 

at the LSU FACES Lab which still remain unidentified. In April, 2004, the 

LSU FACES Lab began a collaborative effort to address the issue of 

unresolved cases. Thanks to funding from the President’s DNA Initiative, 

the LSU FACES Lab and the North Louisiana Criminalistics Laboratory 

established the Louisiana Identification Data Analysis (IDA) Project. The 

funding allowed for DNA testing on every unidentified homicide case on 

record at the LSU FACES Lab. The goal of the IDA Project was to develop 

DNA profiles to work in conjunction with the anthropological profiles 

established on each unidentified remains case. 

In 2006, a bill was presented to the Louisiana State Legislature that 

would allow for the establishment of the Louisiana Repository for 

Unidentified and Missing Persons Information Program to be maintained 

by the LSU FACES Lab in conjunction with the North Louisiana 

Criminalistics Laboratory. The bill was signed into law and became Act 

227 (http://www.legis.state.la.us). The law allowed for the development of 

a database on all missing persons and unidentified remains cases reported 

in the state of Louisiana. The database combines data on unidentified 

remains (i.e., DNA profiles, anthropological assessments, facial 

reconstructions, and other case specific information) and data on missing 

persons (i.e., biological information, dental records, family reference 

samples, and other case specific information). The state of Louisiana 

provides all funding for the database. Although a statewide database is 

paramount to assist in resolving unsolved local cases, it is also important 

that the information be available on a national level. DNA information on 

Louisiana’s unidentified cases and family reference samples will be entered 

into the FBI’s national CODIS database for comparison across state lines. 

The Louisiana Repository for Unidentified and Missing Persons 

Information Program has already generated some success, much of which 

is due to the ability of the researchers to travel and actively seek case 

information. By taking an aggressive stance, rather than waiting for cases 

and samples to be submitted, the LSU FACES Lab has managed to 

establish additional contacts and collect more case information than 

otherwise would have been possible. As data continues to be collected 

across the state of Louisiana, the expectation is that more success stories 

will be generated from this project. 

Missing Persons, Unidentified Remains, Louisiana 


H125 Resolution of Cold Identity Cases: 

Resources, Methodology, and a 

Review of Some Success Stories 

Dana Austin, PhD*, and Paul E. Coffman, Tarrant County Medical 

Examiner District, 200 Feliks Gwozdz Place, Fort Worth, TX 76104-4919 

This paper will present the listener with an overview of many 

resources available for finding the identity of unidentified individuals. 

Successfully resolved cases will be presented as examples. 

This paper will impact the forensic community by providing resource 

material and examples whereby the resources were successful. 

This paper will present the listener with an overview of the methods 

used by the Tarrant County Medical Examiner District (TCME), located in 

Fort Worth, TX, to resolve cases of long-standing unidentified bodies. The 

attendee will be advised of multiple databases and resources for assistance 

in resolving their own unidentified cases. The TCME has been able to solve 

several cases recently with a positive identification and notification of 

family members, in most instances. The time period from death to positive 

identification ranges from 4 to 22 years. Methods used to make positive 

identification include matches from the Missing Persons DNA database, 

and fingerprint matches made by comparing morgue fingerprints to known 

fingerprints suggested by AFIS. In this paper, the successful cases are 

reviewed enabling us to learn how the identity was originally missed and 

what can be included in our standard protocols in order to lessen the 

likelihood of cases remaining unresolved. 

As of July 2007, the Tarrant County Medical Examiner District had 76 

cases of unknown identity dating back to 1982. The cases, 63 males and 13 

females, are assigned to 18 different law enforcement agencies. Forty-six 

cases were ruled homicide or undetermined and 30 were ruled accident, 

suicide or natural. We have found that the manner of death has significant 

impact on the support we receive from the law enforcement agencies that 

are assigned these cases. Homicide cases necessarily allow for continued 

manpower from the police agency. Over one-third of the cases had 

circumstances that suggested that the decedent was homeless/vagrant at the 

time of their death. 

A grant-funded part time position at the Tarrant County Medical 

Examiner district provided additional manpower to review the cases for 

solutions to identification and submission to national databases such as 

NCIC, Missing persons DNA databank, Unidentified Decedent Reporting 

System (UDRS) and the Mexican national identification system and DNA 

database, SIRLI (Sistema de Identificacion de Restos y Localizacion de 

Individuos). Within three weeks of the new hire we had our first successful 

resolution. 

This paper will review successfully resolved cases with specific 

attention to reasons why the identification was not made initially and 

lessons learned after the identification was complete that may assist us in 

future casework. Resources that are available to medical examiners/ 

coroners and law enforcement will be presented so that others may have 

access to resources need to resolve their own unidentified cases. 

Human Identification, NCIC, AFIS 

H126 Identity Crisis: The Number and 

Quality of Unidentified Decedent 

Data and a New Solution 

Melissa A. Torpey, MS*, and Philip N. Williams, BS, Federal Bureau of 

Investigation Counterterrorism and, Forensic Science Research Unit, FBI 

Academy, Building 12, Quantico, VA 22135 

The goal of this presentation is to discuss the extent of the problem of 

unidentified human remains, how forensic anthropologists can play a key 

role, and a working solution. Missing persons and unidentified remains 


continue to be a staggering problem for law enforcement, medical 

examiners and coroners’ offices, forensic scientists, and the public as a 

whole. 

Approximately 14,000 unidentified human decedents are on record at 

nearly 2,000 medical examiners and coroners’ offices, but the number of 

unidentified decedents that are without records are unknown. Recent 

statistics suggest that each year an additional 1,000 deceased persons 

remain unidentified and so the number of unidentified human remains 

continues to climb and persists as a significant and constant national 

problem. This presentation will impact the forensic science community by 

significantly increasing insight into the caliber of the problem of 

unidentified human remains and an understanding of both the existing 

efforts for identification and the future implications of forensic 

anthropology’s contribution to these efforts. 

Currently, the FBI’s National Crime Information Center (NCIC) 

reports approximately 6,200 unidentified persons files in its database. The 

NCIC plays an important role in missing and unidentified persons cases, but 

its limitations many times hinder both the utility and success of the 

database, its search criteria, and its results. However, many times it is the 

quality of the data or the lack of forensic expertise that prevents the success 

of identification. The progress and advancements in the forensic science 

field as a whole has exceeded the capabilities of the NCIC. An in depth 

investigation into the quantity and quality of the data in the NCIC will be 

presented. 

Traditionally, forensic anthropologists only examine skeletal remains 

and, while many unidentified cases are skeletal or in a state of advanced 

decomposition, forensic anthropologists have become increasingly utilized 

as consultants for fleshed bodies as well. Whatever the circumstance, the 

ultimate goal for any forensic anthropologist is identification. As the 

popularity of forensic anthropology increases, so does the knowledge that 

the field exists and can make significant contributions to the problem of 

unidentified remains. 

There are several resources available to law enforcement agencies, 

medical examiners and coroners’ offices, and other forensic science experts 

including the NCIC, CODIS(mp), ViCAP, and IAFIS. An initial effort to 

address the overwhelming number of unidentified human remains was the 

utilization of DNA. The CODIS(mp) or National Missing Person DNA 

Database was created in 2000. At the Center for Human Identification 

(CHI) at the University of North Texas Health Science Center, DNA testing 

is being performed on skeletal remains, missing persons’ families, and 

direct reference samples free of charge. Anthropological examinations on 

unidentified human remains are also performed there; all in an effort to 

identify the unknown. 

The newest resource for unidentified remains is the Victims 

Information Catalog, Tracking, and IMaging System (VICTIMS) 

Identification Project. This system is Internet based and, for the first time, 

creates a comprehensive database with the capabilities to hold all of the 

information about an unidentified decedent. This information is available 

in varying degrees to law enforcement, medical examiners and coroners’ 

offices, and the public. The success of this database lies in the hands of the 

forensic science experts who examine and provide information about an 

unidentified person. An extension of the VICTIMS Identification Project is 

a referral service where law enforcement agencies and medical examiners 

and coroners’ offices seeking forensic expertise can search for local experts 

in a nearby area. The last aspect of the VICTIMS Identification Project is 

an Evidence Preservation and Processing (EPP) facility, which will enable 

the examination and preservation of physical remains of unidentified 

decedents, as well as support anthropological research. 

Unidentified Human Remains, Forensic Anthropology, VICTIMS 

Identification Project 

H127 Comparison of Two Methods of Age 



290

Andrea Clowes, BA*, Michigan State University, 16789 Chandler Road, 

#1422A, East Lansing, MI 48823 


understanding on the applicability of estimating age through the 

histomorphological evaluation of bone, and more specifically, the relevance 

of endosteal and periosteal surfaces in such analysis. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by employing a 

simple histological method of determining age at death that many do not 

realize exists. The estimation of adult age at death typically relies on 

standard techniques that use the pubic and rib bones. When these bones are 

not present, estimating age at death can prove to be challenging. In fact, 

forensic cases involving unidentified individuals whose remains are not 

fully present, fragmented, and/or otherwise damaged can prove impossible 

to positively identify. Forensic techniques of bone histology, the 

microstructural analysis of tissue, are known to be good aging techniques. 

This is important because establishing the age at death in a human remains 

case is a critical component in positive identification. By narrowing the age 

range, identification becomes more likely. 

Two histological aging methods were tested: (1) The Hauser Method 

(Hauser, R, D Barres, M Durigon, and L Derobert, 1980. Identification par 

l’histomorphometrie du femur et du tibia, Acta medicinae legalis et socialis. 

30:91-97), and (2) the Kerley-Ubelaker Method (1978). By directly 

comparing the two methods, the applicability of the equations of Hauser et 

al. will be showcased next to those already well established by Kerley- 

Ubelaker. The ease of use and repeatability of the Hauser method provides 

an attractive alternative to those more complicated. This method will prove 

to be of great use in the determination of age in damaged bone. 

Since its original presentation, the Kerley-Ubelaker technique has 

become a standard histological method for the determination of age in 

forensic anthropology (Kerley, 1965; Ahlqvist and Damsten, 1969; Kerley 

and Ubelaker, 1978; Stout and Gehlert, 1980; Robling and Stout, 2000). 

Though considered one of the more accurate, Kerley-Ubelaker’s method is 

less than ideal in circumstances in which the periosteal surface of the bone 

(the outer fibrous layer) has been worn away due to erosion, chemical 

substances, burning of the remains or other processes. This research tests 

the system developed by Hauser et al. utilizing endosteal and periosteal 

bone and compares the results with those of the Kerley-Ubelaker updated 

method which utilizes the outer perisoteal layer (Kerley, 1965; Kerley and 

Ubelaker, 1978; Hauser et al, 1980). 

There are two main strengths to the Hauser method: the application of 

the endosteal surface of bone for age analysis (to avoid difficulty in 

circumstances in which the periosteal surface is damaged), and the ease of 

use of the method itself. When analyzing Hauser, the diameter of the 

circular field was decreased to 1.16mm (area 1.06 mm²). Two areas of each 

bone (periosteal and endosteal) were utilized for separate equations. As 

such, they were treated as separate methods. The full analysis is dependant 

only upon the counting of present Haversian canals which are either present 

or are not. 

The Kerley-Ubelaker method is based on the identification of osteons, 

osteon fragments, and measurement of the percentage of present lamellar 

bone. An osteon includes those Haversian systems that are equal to or 

greater than 80% complete while fragments are defined as less than 80% 

completeness. The field size is circular with a diameter of 1.62 mm (area 

of 2.06 mm²). A circular image of 1.62 mm was placed over a calibrated 

image captured through the Sigma Scan Pro 5.0 program. 

This research validates the Hauser method of aging unknown 

individuals as well as provides an additional option when severe 

fragmentation eliminates other histological methods, such as Kerley- 

Ubelaker. The Hauser method, specifically the equation which utilizes the 

endocortical surface, provides an accurate method for estimating age, 

which opens the door for future research on the medullary cavity of bone. 

Histology, Age Determination, Endosteal 

H128 Osteon Area Measurements - 

A Validation Study 

MariaTeresa Tersigni, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Cincinnati, Braunstein 481 PO 210380, Cincinnati, OH 45221; Amy 

Michael, BA*, 416 West Genesee, Apartment 1, Lansing, MI 48933; 

Amber Heard, BA, 16789 Chandler Road, #1632, East Lansing, MI 

48823; Christina Malone, BHS, BA, 180 Arbor Glen Drive, Apartment 

203, East Lansing, MI 48823; and John E. Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, Central Identification Lab, 310 Worchester 


After attending this presentation, attendees will become familiar with 

this method for osteon area measurements. This presentation will also 

identify the need for the validation of this measurement technique as the 

purpose of this study is to analyze the error rate produced within and 

between observers for the measurement of osteon area. 


validating the use of osteon area measurements in forensic work as a 

reliable method of osteon size estimation as well as a method that is able to 

be replicated with a high degree of consistency. This research also 

identifies the need for experience and practice with this measurement 

technique, as with any other type of scientific measurement technique. 

This research determines the inter-observer and intra-observer error 

rate of researchers with varying levels of experience measuring the area, 

circumference and diameter of human osteons. The independent variables 

are individual level of experience, while the dependent variables include 

consistency among and between individuals with novice, intermediate and 

advanced experience in this technique. 

Four researchers, with varying levels of experience with the technique 

(termed novice, intermediate and advanced) were asked to measure the 

area, circumference and diameter for the same 361 osteons(contained in 

multiple captured images), using Image Pro Plus 4.5 microscopy software. 

The two novice researchers each had only a 20 minute instruction to the 

method. The intermediate researcher had more than 10 hours of experience 

measuring the osteon area using this Image Pro Plus 4.5 software. The 

advanced researcher had over two years experience measuring osteon area 

using the Image Pro software and image capture system. Each researcher 

was asked to measure the area and greatest diameter of the same group of 

osteons in each image. Some of the groups of osteons were measured by 

each researcher various times throughout each measurement session to test 

the inter-observer error rate of each researcher. This allowed the researchers 

to measure the same osteons several different times within the same day to 

determine their consistency in measurement. Histomorphometric data was 

collected using a Leica DM 2500 transmitted light microscope equipped 

with 10x wide field oculars, 5x, 10x, 20x UPLanFL objectives, and a Leica 

DFC480 R2 color firewire digital camera. Each of the images was captured 

at 10x ocular lens and 10x objective lens. The area data was exported to an 

Excel spreadsheet, where all area and diameter measurements were 

compared within and between researchers. The data was compared using 

the SAS statistical package. The data suggests that the level of experience 

the researchers have with the technique and the equipment plays an 

important role in the accuracy of their measurements. It seems that the 

more familiar the novice researchers got with measuring the osteons the 

more consistent their measurements were when measuring the same 

osteons over again. 

Osteon Area, Intra-Oberver Error, Inter-Observer Error 

H129 Osteon Area and Circularity: A Method 

for the Assessment for Human and 

Non-Human Fragmentary Remains 

MariaTeresa A. Tersigni, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University 

of Cincinnati, Braunstein 481, PO 210380, Cincinnati, OH 45221; Amy 


Michael, BA, 416 West Genesee, Apartment 1, Lansing, MI 48933; and 

John E. Byrd, PhD, JPAC/CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force 

Base, HI 96853-5530 

After attending this presentation, attendees can expect to learn the 

method for the measurement of osteon area and the assessment of 

circularity of osteons based upon digital measurements taken from human 

remains, and how these measurements can help with the assessment of 

fragmentary remains. 


demonstrating a method that allows for the assessment of whether remains 

are human or non-human when osseous fragments are too small for other 

methods of gross or genetic identification. This can benefit the forensic 

community by adding to the methodology available for the identification of 

highly fragmentary osseous remains as found in mass disasters, military 

conflicts or other situations which result in the fragmentation of individuals. 

The impetus for this research is the lack of current methods within the 

forensic studies which can accurately assess human from non human 

remains when the remains are highly fragmentary in nature. Although many 

researchers have attempted to use histological methods to analyze these 

types of remains, there is still no conclusive way to determine whether a 

fragment of bone is human or non-human in nature when circular osteons 

are present at the microscopic level. This study, by using a large sample of 

osteons from all of the long bones of the human body, will identify an 

osteon area measurement range for humans based upon a modern sample. 

In addition to the osteon area measurements, this study also looks at the 

overall shape of human osteons and compares that to the shape of nonhuman 

osteons for use as an additional method to distinguish between 

human and non-human fragments of long bones. 

To accomplish this, three thin sections were selected from each of the 

following long bones from 5 different individuals: humerus, radius, ulna, 

femur, tibia, and fibula. These thin sections represented a midshaft, 

proximal, and distal portion of each long bone shaft to account for osteonal 

size and density differences throughout the shaft of each long bone. A 

minimum of 30 osteons were measured from each thin section of bone 

using the Image Pro Plus 4.5 digital microscopic measurement program. A 

total of over 3400 osteons were measured from the aforementioned sections 

of the long bones. Of the measured osteons, all had digital area 

measurements recorded. Additionally, the circumference and maximum 

diameter were taken for over 2300 of the 3400 osteons. All of the recorded 

measurements were exported to an Excel spread sheet. From there, the 

areas, circumferences and diameters were subjected to various statistics, 

including the range of areas within and between skeletal elements and 

determination of circularity based upon the equations used for a circle (). 

This research shows that the overall majority of human osteons are not 

circular in shape, but rather elliptical in nature, while non-human osteons 

tend to be very circular. The osteon area range for humans based upon this 

sample can help eliminate non-human osteons that fall outside of this area 

range. 

Osteon Area, Osteon Circularity, Human vs. Non-Human Histology 


292

H1 A Histological Examination of Odocoileus 

Virginianus for Forensic Application 

Lindsay H. Trammell, MA*, University of Tennessee-Knoxville, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996-0720 


applications of bone histology in forensic settings as well as the 

importance of the histological character of non-human remains 

(Odocoileus virginianus) to successfully differentiate them from 

fragmentary human remains. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community and/or 

humanity by demonstrating how the development of a histological 

database for nonhuman species will aid forensic investigations by 

providing a comparative standard to more accurately determine the 

identity of fragmentary remains as being human. 

Few researchers have endeavored to approach the issue of bone 

histology in non-human specimens. In the forensic setting, the discovery 

of fragmentary remains poses the question of identity. Is it human or nonhuman? 

Determining the origin of such fragments is essential for defining 

an investigation, but if the remains do appear to be non-human, further 

analysis is not always of primary interest. 

If the specimen does prove to be non-human, it is often useful and 

important to learn the identity of the animal species. Being able to 

successfully identify bone fragments by genus or species aids the physical 

anthropologist. A more clear understanding of what non-human species 

look like at the histological level would essentially strengthen the 

determination of identification. 

The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is common to the 

Southeastern United States and in that region is sometimes found in 

forensic settings, commingled with or alongside of human remains. 

Developing a firm grasp of the histological character of the white-tailed 

deer is the first step of many in the establishment of a comprehensive 

method of using histology for the identification of osseous fragments. 

To adequately assess Odocoileus virginianus, it is necessary to 

understand variation in histological character as a function of location on 

the diaphysis of a bone as well as differences between bones. The 

developmental stage of the deer may also have an affect on the appearance 

of any histological traits as bone remodels with increasing age. 

To address these questions, this research focused on right long bones 

procured from five deer of varying ages: 0.75 years, 1.5 years, 2.5 years, 

3 years, 4 years, and 6.5 years. The femur, humerus, radius, metacarpal, 

metatarsal, and tibia were separated out for thin-section preparation and 

histological analysis. 

With the aid of a Buehler Isomet 1000 saw, two 0.08 mm sections 

were cut at three-centimeter intervals on each diaphysis of the bones. The 

bone samples were then mounted on slides using Permount solution and 

cover slips and left to dry. These thin-sections were examined under a 

Leica DMRX research light microscope at 100x magnification. The 

presence of all histological structures was described and noted for each 

slide. Digital images of the characteristic plexiform bone and primary 

canals were photographed using a Sony video uplink. When evidence of 

bone remodeling was recorded, area measurements were taken on 

secondary osteons and Haversian canals via Image Pro Express 4.0. 

The observations and the collected measurement data from each 

femur and humerus of the deer samples were subjected to a repeated 

measures ANOVA to assess inter- and intra-bone variability among and 

between the deer. The statistical findings will provide a good basis to 

indicate if white-tailed deer can be positively identified by histological 


analysis regardless of the loci of the bone fragment in question and 

regardless of age. 

The statistical analysis results indicated no significant mean 

differences within shafts or across ages for osteon area in the femur or 

humerus. The results also indicated no significant mean differences within 

shafts or across ages for Haversian canal areas in the femur. A significance 

difference was noted between the Haversian canal areas in the nine-month 

deer and the 2.5-year-old deer humeri. 

Based on the findings, a blind test was performed on five unidentified 

bones samples to discern deer from other ungulates based on osteon areas. 

The methodology and results of this research were successfully utilized to 

distinguish white-tailed deer bone from Sus scrofa (wild board), Ovis 

Aries (sheep), and Capra hircus (goat). The ability to do so speaks to the 

usefulness and reliability of bone histology in forensic anthropology and 

calls for more similar research endeavors in the future. 

Histology, Fragmentary Remains, White-Tailed Deer 

H2 Identification of the Rib Number 

by Metric Study in Korean 

Deog-Im Kim*, Seung-Ho Han, PhD, Dai-Soon Kwak, PhD, and Je- 

Hoon Lee, Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic 

University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South 

Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, Department of Anatomy, Gahon University of 

Medicine and Science, 1198 Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 

405760, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, Ssangyongdong, 

Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, Seoul, 330946, South Korea; 

U-Young Lee, MD, Division of Forensic Medicine, National Institute of 

Scientific Investigation, Sinwol 7dong, Yangcheon-gu, Seoul, 158707, 

South Korea; and In-Hyuk Chung, PhD, Department of Anatomy, 

College of Medicine, Yonsei University, 134, Sinchon-dong, Seodaemungu, 

Seoul, 120752, South Korea 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand that the 

importance and purpose of placing ribs in their proper anatomical order 

are to determine the number of individuals and for the application of 

techniques for establishing age-at-death using cartilaginous and osseous 

changes in the sternal end of the ribs. 


humanity by investigating a correct sequence of ribs and the usefulness of 

ribs as a distinction among populations. 

Rib seriation has important applications in both bioarchaeology and 

forensic anthropology. The correct siding and sequencing of human ribs 

are an essential process in forensic anthroplogy and medico-legal 

investigation. The importance and purpose of placing ribs in their proper 

anatomical order are to determine the number of individuals represented, 

apply techniques for establishing age-at-death using cartilaginous and 

osseous changes in the sternal end of the ribs. The aim of this study is 

described a rib seriation correctly in Korean and compared with other 

populations. 

The sample was the dry rib of 50 sets that known age and sex at 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Yonsei University. The 

method investigated was based on three metric variables: superior costotransverse 

crest height (SCTCH), articular facet of the tubercle-to-angle 

length (AFTAL), and head-to-articular facet length (HAFL). 

Analysis of variance showed that SCTCH, AFTAL, and HAFL were 

significantly associated (P less than 0.001) with rib number on both right 

and left sides. The variables SCTCH and HAFL were associated with the 


central ribs (3rd through 6th) on both sides. SCTCH generally increased 

in size with rib number and variables AFTAL and JAFL showed a 

tendency to increase from ribs 2 – 7). The accuracy of discriminant 

analysis was 81.3% in SCTCH, 83.3% in AFTAL, and 85.4% in HAFL on 

both sides. THE variable AFTAL (r2=0.86) is the useful dimension for rib 

seriation and SCTCH (84%) is useful for sexual dimorphism. 

This result would distinguish between European Whites and Koreans 

using the rib. 

Rib Seriation, Sex Determination, Korean 

H3 Pedagogy of Practicing Forensic 

Anthropologists: A Collection of 

Our History 

Joseph T. Hefner, MA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Natalie M. 

Uhl, BS, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, 

Indianapolis, IN 46227; Stanley Rhine, PhD, University of New Mexico, 

Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040 Anthropology, Albuquerque, 

NM 87131-0001; and William M. Bass, PhD, University of Tennessee, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

37996 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have an historical 

view of the Physical Anthropology Section of the American Academy of 

Forensic Science as well as understand the need to facilitate the collection, 

preservation, and documentation of the pedagogical history of the section. 


humanity by demonstrating that the academic history of modern 

practitioners represents the foundation upon which the profession has 

grown. Collecting, preserving, and documenting this lineage is of great 

importance to the understanding of modern forensic anthropology. 

The History Committee within the Physical Anthropology section of 

the American Academy of Forensic Science was established at the 2005 

AAFS meetings in New Orleans, LA. The committee is chaired by Dr. 

John Williams and includes Dr. Douglas Ubelaker, Dr. Eugene Giles, Mr. 

Greg Berg, Ms. Anne Marie Mires, and Mr. Joe Hefner. Charged with the 

collection, preservation, and documentation of the history of the Physical 

Anthropology section, the committee is actively seeking to document all 

levels of activity, including the academic histories for Physical 

Anthropology section members. 

The pedagogical nature of anthropology is a fundamental 

characteristic of the entire field. Historical figures like Earnest Hooton and 

Franz Boas are recognized for their contributions to a stable crop of 

students, many of whom are now recognized as some of the most 

influential members in the field. These very ‘students’ are now ogled at 

meetings, the victims of drive by “name tag sightings” and murmurs 

concerning a recent journal article or book. The academic lineage of 

forensic anthropology is essential for understanding current philosophies. 

In a 1992 volume of The Connective Tissue, Dr. Stanley Rhine 

documented the academic lineages of nearly 130 MAs and PhDs within 

the field, gathering information on degree date, advisors, and location. 

Originally proposed by Dr. Madeline Hinkes, the information in Rhine’s 

list derived from the AAFS membership list, AAA guides, and informants, 

most notably Dr. Walter Birkby and Dr. Ted Rathbun. His dataset, which 

has acted as a catalyst for the current study, has unfortunately drifted into 

relative obscurity. Most of the recent PhD recipients recorded by Rhine in 

1992 are now professors themselves, producing MAs and PhDs. 

Collecting up-to-date information will prevent any large gaps in the 

knowledge base of academic history. 

In order to explore both traditional and nontraditional paths that have 

led current practitioners to the field, this poster seeks to document the 

academic lineage of the Physical Anthropology section of the American 

Academy of Forensic Science, by drawing on Dr. Rhine’s previous work 


and by adding those individuals not included in the original compilation. 

Anthropologists are encouraged to provide information on their advisors, 

schools attended, and individual academic lineages. The purpose of this 

presentation is to explore these inter-relationships and provide the Section 

insight into its origins. 

Preparatory analysis suggests the North American School of forensic 

anthropology can be traced almost entirely to the British School under the 

direct influence of Sir Author Keith. Keith is directly linked through 

historical figures such as Hooton, McCown, and others. The legacy of 

figures not traditionally associated with forensic anthropology provides 

insight into current methodologies and suggests the likely origins of some 

of the current practices. Academicians like Dr. William Bass and Dr. 

Alfred Hulse are noteworthy for their scientific contributions, but the large 

number of students that they produced is most significant for the current 

research. Likewise, researchers and non-academicians are noteworthy for 

their scientific contributions, but the student mentoring they have provided 

is also of great importance. The academic history of modern practitioners 

represents the foundation upon which the professional has grown. 

Collecting, preserving, and documenting this lineage is of great 

importance to the understanding of modern forensic anthropology. 

Pedagogy, History, Physical Anthropology 

H4 Forensic Anthropology in the 

Courtroom: Trends in Testimony 

Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD*, College of Mount St. Joseph, 5701 Delhi 

Road, Cincinnati, OH 45233-1670; and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, 

Forensic Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714 


frequency and nature of expert witness experiences among the 

membership of the Physical Anthropology section of the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences. 


humanity by demonstrating the need for trends in testimony to be shared 

among the forensic anthropology membership and can be used to 

potentially direct areas of research in the future. 

A certain amount of recent research by forensic anthropologists has 

apparently been induced or promoted by the Daubert decision. Numerous 

papers and presentations have focused on issues such as error rates and the 

replicability of previously published analytical methods. This research is 

certainly needed and the authors correctly stress the importance of the 

results of such research in terms of how forensic anthropology opinions 

should be rendered within the medico-legal resolution of a particular case. 

Partly because of this, the authors felt that it could be quite instructive to 

tabulate the types of issues in which forensic anthropologists are actually 

testifying. Results of such tabulation may prove useful in directing future 

research in forensic anthropology. 

To obtain data related to this issue, the authors utilized the services of 

a commercial survey company to conduct an anonymous and IRBapproved 

on-line survey. The National Office of the American Academy 

of Forensic Sciences sent an electronic link to the survey to all ranks of 

membership in its Physical Anthropology Section. At the time of the 

writing of this abstract, 99 individuals had responded to the survey, 

representing a wide range of experience levels, from students to 

individuals who have been practicing for over 30 years. Survey questions 

asked respondents their current educational level, their primary 

employment setting, and the approximate percentage of their workload 

devoted to casework, research, and teaching in the field. 

After being asked to provide basic career information, the survey 

queried whether or not the respondent had ever testified as an expert 

witness in the field of forensic anthropology (including courtroom and 

other forms of sworn testimony). At the time of the writing of this 

abstract, 56.6% of the survey respondents had testified, although most 

testified rarely. If they had testified, participants were asked to answer 

294

further questions about courtroom experiences throughout their career. 

Questions about sworn testimony were related to the frequency of such 

experiences, as well as the typical nature of the expert opinions forensic 

anthropologists are asked to render. Respondents were asked how often 

their testimony involved chain of custody issues, providing a biological 

profile, positive identification, traumatic injuries and other pathologies, 

the postmortem interval, matters of recovery or scene investigation, and 

whether or not they had provided a second opinion relevant to the work of 

another anthropologist. To assess trends in the field, the survey asked 

anthropologists to break these experiences into those occurring in the past 

five years, and if the extent of their practice exceeded five years, how often 

and what types of testimony they typically provided earlier in their career. 

Initial survey results regarding the past five years indicate that most 

forensic anthropologists do not frequently serve as expert witnesses. 

When forensic anthropologists have provided sworn testimony in the past 

five years, it is more often regarding trauma and pathology, recovery or 

scene investigation, or the postmortem interval. Forensic anthropologists 

are least asked to render opinions on chain of custody issues, positive 

identifications, and are very seldom asked to testify as second opinions 

relative to the work of other anthropologists. When compared to the 

expert witness experiences of anthropologists in the earlier years of their 

career (for those with more than five years of experience) the frequency of 

most types of testimony shows little change over time. However, survey 

data suggest increases in testimony with regard to recovery and scene 

investigation, and the postmortem interval. The poster presentation will 

provide a more robust examination of these data and a discussion on the 

final survey results. 

Expert Witness Testimony, Forensic Anthropology, Daubert Decision 

H5 Houston Mass Murder Victims: 

33 Years Later 

Sharon M. Derrick, PhD*, Michele Hunt, BS, and Luis A. Sanchez, MD, 

Harris County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, 

Houston, TX 77054 


difficulties inherent in forensic identification of skeletonized decedents in 

general through a description and evaluation of the standard steps that are 

taken in a medical examiner setting to identify these individuals. Further, 

because the identification of homicide victims from “cold cases” presents 

a different set of challenges, an example of the process as it applies to an 

older high-profile case will be provided and discussed. 

The description and evaluation of methodological solutions used to 

identify skeletonized individuals recovered from a forensic context several 

decades in the past will impact the forensic community and/or humanity 

by providing information on the efficacy of these solutions to other 

researchers in the field. Successful resolution of older cases also offers 

justification for the presence of at least one full-time staff anthropologist 

and a designated identification unit at medical examiner facilities. 

Viewers of this poster presentation will be shown the difficulties 

inherent in forensic identification of skeletonized decedents in general 

through a description and evaluation of the standard steps that are taken in 

a medical examiner setting to identify these individuals. Further, because 

the identification of homicide victims from “cold cases” presents a 

different set of challenges, an example of the process as it applies to an 

older high-profile case will be provided and discussed. 

Skeletonized individuals recovered under forensic circumstances 

often remain unidentified for an extended period of time even in light of 

modern DNA analysis, new investigative methods, and artist facial 

reconstruction efforts. Cold cases that were investigated prior to the 

routine use of these methods may have resulted in the release of the 

decedent for burial as an unknown individual, or the remains may have 

been retained in a medical examiner facility awaiting a positive 

identification. The presence of forensic anthropologists on staff in the 

medical examiner office setting and the formation of a designated 

identification unit provide the initiative, experience and person-hours to 

move forward on these difficult identifications. As a result of the 

development of such innovative programs, carefully conserved decedents 

from a mass murder case have received recent intensive study at the Harris 

County Medical Examiner’s Office (HCME) in Houston, Texas. 

The mention of Dean Corll, Elmer Wayne Henley, and David Brooks 

still elicit strong reactions from adult residents of Harris County and 

surrounding areas. It has been 33 years since the summer night that their 

murder spree was exposed, but the violent nature of the crimes still 

resounds, even in this age of graphic films and video games. Corll, also 

known on the street as “The Candy Man,” died that night, but Henley and 

Brooks are both serving prison terms and continue to seek parole. The 

media interview Henley on a regular basis and this keeps the story fresh in 

the Houston community’s consciousness. 

On August 8, 1973, Henley called law enforcement after fatally 

shooting Dean Corll. Henley also advised officers that there were a 

number of bodies buried in a boathouse on the northwest side of Houston. 

According to documents from the time period, seventeen adolescent males 

in various stages of decomposition were discovered buried in the floor of 

the boathouse. Another nine adolescent males were subsequently 

recovered near Galveston and Lake Sam Rayburn, Texas, bringing the 

number of verified homicides in the investigation to 26. The 17 sets of 

remains recovered from the boathouse were brought to the HCME in 

Houston for postmortem examination. The nine sets of remains from the 

other two county jurisdictions were later transported to the HCME for 

additional examination. The majority of these decedents were identified 

and released. However, three of the recovered individuals and additional 

commingled remains (MNI = 4) were never identified and remain at the 

HCME. 

The three discrete sets of unidentified remains were examined and a 

biological profile was developed by Dr. David Glassman, D-ABFA in 

2004. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) was recovered from these 

individuals in 2006 and submitted to the HCME Forensic Laboratory for 

analysis. The additional commingled remains are currently being 

examined and profiled by HCME staff. The new information collected 

from these cases will be used to seek identification through reference 

samples obtained from living relatives and any corroborating evidence 

provided by friends or acquaintances. The objective of this renewed focus 

on the Houston Mass Murder cases is to provide an identity for these 

individuals and ultimately release them from the HCME facility. 

Corll, Henley, Unidentified 

H6 The Bone Histology of Bear 

Paws and Human Hands 

Brannon I. Jones, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 



potential histological differences in the metacarpals and phalanges of a 

human hand and a black bear (Ursus americanus) paw. 


humanity by aiding in the separation and identification of morphologically 

similar osseous human and nonhuman remains. 

The similarities between the bones of human hands and bear paws 

have been noted by numerous authors, and the morphological similarities 

and differences have been described extensively. While useful when 

whole bones are discovered, gross morphological characteristics may fail 

in the context of damaged or fragmented bones. In these situations, an 

alternative method of identification is necessary. Histology has been used 

to describe both human and nonhuman bones, and can be employed in 

separating bones as similar as those in this study. The histology of bear 


ones has been limited to femur and tibia midshaft cross sections, so 

descriptions of bear metacarpals and phalanges is needed in order to 

differentiate these from the same bones in humans. 

The hands of a human male in his mid-thirties and the front paws of 

a two to three year old bear were obtained for this study. The right second 

ray of each was selected for study in order to remain consistent with 

previous research focusing on the second metacarpal of humans. Each ray 

consisted of the metacarpal, proximal phalanx, and middle phalanx, the 

distal phalanx was used only in the human. Thin sections were made using 

Buehler isomet low speed saw at midshaft of all bones, and thin sections 

were also made at the proximal and distal ends of the metacarpals and 

proximal phalanges. All thin sections were cut 12 µm thick and ground 

using a Metaserv 2000 grinder/polisher. Slides were viewed using a 

LEICA DMRX light microscope and photographed using the computer 

program ImagePro Express. 

Several quantitative and quantitative features were examined in order 

to determine the difference between human and bear bones at the 

histological level. Quantitative measurements included maximum osteon 

diameter (µm), osteon area (µm2 ), maximum Haversian canal diameter 

(µm), and Haversian canal area (µm2 ). One to four osteons were 

measured per thin section and the values averaged for each species. The 

means were then tested using ANOVA to see if they differed between 

human and bear. All four variables gave p-values less than 0.05, meaning 

humans and bears were statistically different in all four measurements. In 

addition, osteon density and lacunae density were calculated for both 

species, and both of these variables appear to differ by species, with bear 

bone having more osteons and lacunae per area examined. 

The qualitative features that were analyzed included osteon banding, 

resorption spaces, and plexiform bone. Osteon banding appeared only in 

the bear thin sections, specifically in the second metacarpal, and never in 

the human thin sections. Resorption spaces which appeared in rows were 

also indicative of this osteon banding and were seen in a few of the bear 

thin sections and never in the human thin sections. Plexiform bone, which 

is usually a nonhuman trait, was also seen in a few of the bear thin sections 

and never in the human thin sections. While preliminary, this study 

indicates that it is possible to differentiate between bear and human 

metacarpals and phalanges using a combination of qualitative and 

quantitative microscopic features. 

Bone Histology, Nonhuman Remains, Black Bear 

H7 Exhumation of an Historical 

Gravesite at Taos Cemetery 

Mary H. Dudley, MD*, Sedgwick County Regional Forensic Science 

Center, 1109 North Minneapolis, Wichita, KS 67214; Joy Vetters, BS, 

Wichita State University - Department of Anthropology, 1845 Fairmount, 

Wichita, KS 67260; and Angela E. Benefiel, BA, Sedgwick County 

Regional Forensic Science Center, 1109 North Minneapolis, Wichita, 

KS 67214 

The goal of this presentation is to identify the process of recovery and 

describe physical findings from skeletonized remains. 


humanity by identifying the process of recovering skeletal remains, 

agencies to notify and information which may be obtained from skeletal 

remains. 

While preparing a grave in the Kit Carson family cemetery plot in 

Taos, New Mexico, workers uncovered the remains of an unknown 

individual. Cemetery records did not show a previous burial at that site. 

The remains were disinterred and transported to the Office of the Medical 

Investigator (OMI) in Albuquerque, New Mexico for examination and 

determination of their medical-legal significance. This poster presentation 

details who to contact if remains are found, the process of exhuming 

remains, and the evaluation of the remains conducted by individuals from 


OMI and the Laboratories of Physical Anthropology, Maxwell Museum of 

Anthropology, University of New Mexico. 

When human remains are discovered, there are several agencies to 

notify. It is important to establish if the remains are of forensic or historical 

significance. In New Mexico, agencies to notify include the local police 

department, Office of the Medical Investigator, and the Historical 

Preservation Division, the Anthropology department, the Forest Service, 

cemetery records office, city archives, and the Office of Indian Affairs. 

When exhuming remains forensic anthropologists and most law 

enforcement personnel are aware that careful collection of everything 

(bones, teeth, hair, clothing, valuables, and samples of the casket and nails) 

and to utilize the correct tools, such as a camera, gloves, brush, sieve, 

trowel, and a shovel to record the grave site and preserve the remains 

without damaging them on recovery. 

The remains were determined to be historic in nature and thought to 

represent a 5’5’’ Hispanic male who was in his mid-30s at the time of 

death. After evaluating the remains, several interesting anomalies and 

evidence of trauma were identified. This individual showed little 

osteoarthritic development in the lumbar vertebrae. The superior surface 

of the sacrum and the fifth, fourth, and second lumbar vertebra were seen 

to have slight lipping. On the right scapula, there was an isolated rounded 

osteophyte on the inferior margin of the posterior portion of the glenoid 

fossa. These observations were considered appropriate for the degree of 

arthritic change for the age of mid-30’s. The thyroid and cricoid cartilages 

were ossified. 

Prior to death, this individual had five teeth missing. There was an 

abscess formation in the upper jaw above the left lateral incisor suggesting 

possible tooth decay. On the sternum, there were two fusion anomalies that 

produced foramina including a 7x10mm defect centered in the fourth 

element of the corpus of the sternum and a second defect in the xiphoid 

process, which was fused to the corpus. The sternum foramen may be 

mistaken for a gunshot wound defect to the untrained observer. 

This individual showed several interesting areas of antemortem 

trauma. The right nasal bone had been mildly fractured and healed 

without distortion. There were also fractures in the 7th and 10th left ribs. 

Fractures to the proximal left humerus and proximal left radius 

demonstrate a significant amount of damage, drastically altered 

appearance, and irregular bone formation. Radiographs revealed 

radiopaque particles at both fracture sites which are characteristic of lead 

fragments resulting from a gunshot wound. A persistent infection set in 

and a bony involucrum formed, which resulted in osteomyelitis and 

periostitis, most likely resulting in a draining fistula. 

This exhumation stirred interest in the Taos area and a newspaper 

article described the findings of the UNM Anthropology Department and 

showed a clay facial reconstruction for view, in case someone recognized 

him as a distant relative from old photos. His remains were returned to the 

Taos area. 

Forensic Anthropology, Antemortem Trauma, Exhumation 

H8 The Relationship Between Bone 

Weight and Age at Death 

Emily J. Loucks, BA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Brannon I. 

Jones, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996 

The goal of this presentation is to determine the relationship between 

bone weight and age at death in skeletons from the William M. Bass 

Donated Collection. 


humanity by aiding in the age estimation of unidentified remains and the 

separation of commingled remains. 

296

Bone weight has been studied intermittently with various approaches 

and goals. Previous studies have utilized skeletons with various 

taphonomic histories and bone conditions. Researchers have used bones 

from anatomical collections, fresh cadavers, and naturally skeletonized 

individuals. Due to differences in histories, the conditions of the bones 

have varied from dry but still greasy, dry and mechanically degreased, and 

dry and naturally degreased. These studies have compared relationships 

between individual bones within a single skeleton, whole skeletal weight 

and age, individual bone weight and age, and the effects of disease. In 

addition, the differences in ancestral groups, male and female individuals, 

left and right sided bones, and weight bearing versus non-weight bearing 

bones have been studied. 

The sample employed in this study is approximately 400 white males 

and females 20 to 100 years of age from the William M. Bass Donated 

Collection at the University of Tennessee. Note was made of obese 

individuals and those with chronic illnesses and disease. Each of the 

skeletons shares a common taphonomic history, including decomposition 

at the Anthropological Research Facility and processing. Most of the 

individuals decomposed on the ground surface of a wooded environment; 

however, several individuals decomposed in shallow burials. Processing 

included removal of soft tissue and simmering in hot water. 

For each of the skeletons, the following bones were weighed in 

grams with a digital scale: clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, os 

coxae, sacrum, femur, tibia, and fibula. The left and right were both 

measured for all paired bones. Individual bones exhibiting pathology or 

orthopedic devices that may affect weight were excluded. Measurements 

of each bone were used to control for size. For example, in the humerus, 

the maximum length, epicondylar breadth, and maximum diameter of the 

head were used. 

The relationship between bone weight and age at death was analyzed 

by performing regression analysis and producing correlation coefficients 

for several variables. A test for independence was executed for each bone 

in order to determine that bone weight was not dependent on size. Once 

independence was determined, the relationship between age and weight 

for each bone was analyzed in four separate groups: male left, male right, 

female left and female right. In addition, the relationship between age and 

each entire limb was examined. Preliminary results show that for the 

humerus, weight and size are independent of one another. A significant 

inverse relationship was found between age and weight for both males and 

females, although the relationship was stronger for females. Males and 

females both showed a higher correlation between age and weight in the 

left humerus than the right humerus, which may be related to handedness. 

Similar results are expected for the other arm bones; however, the weight 

bearing bones of the pelvis and lower limbs may not show such a strong 

correlation. 

While this study is preliminary and not capable of aging an individual 

from bone weight, it is hoped that further research will allow weight to be 

used in combination with other techniques to estimate age at death. With 

the complexity and confusion of some current aging techniques, the 

prospect of simply weighing a bone or combination of bones and 

narrowing in on an age at death makes this and future research 

worthwhile. 

Bone Weight, Human Variation, Age at Death 

H9 Paleopathological Diagnosis of Leprosy in 


Pauline Saint-Martin, MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital Trousseau, CHRU Tours, Tours, 37044, France; Norbert 

Telmon, MD, PhD, and Henri Dabernat, MD, PhD, Laboratoire 

d’Anthropobiologie, UMR 8555, CNRS, 39 allees Jules Guesde, 

Toulouse, 31400, France; Christian Theureau, Laboratoire 

d’Archéologie Urbaine, Chateau de Tours, 25 quai d’Orleans, Tours, 

37000, France; Patrick O’Byrne, MD, Service de Médecine Légale, 

Hôpital Trousseau, CHRU Tours, Tours, 37044, France; and Eric 

Crubezy, PhD, Laboratoire d’Anthropobiologie, UMR 8555, CNRS, 39 

allees Jules Guesde, Toulouse, 31400, France 


paleopathology of leprosy can be very useful in the understanding the past 

history of the disease and use this understanding to predict its course in the 

future. The study of skeletons may enrich the relatively poor oesteological 

documentation of leprosy in Middle Age in Europe. 


humanity by discussing the excavation of a sample of human skeletons 

from a medieval leper site that has provided the largest sample from this 

period in France. The findings that 45% of the skeletons buried in the 

Saint-Lazarus chapel of Tours suffered from leprosy will provide a unique 

opportunity to interpret historical sources, medical documents, and 

oesteoarcheological data regarding medieval leprosy. 

Introduction: Leprosy is a chronic granulomatous infectious disease 

caused by Mycobacterium leprae. According to documentary sources, 

leprosy was a relatively common occurrence in later Medieval Europe. It 

seems to have culminated in the 13th and 14th centuries when around one 

quarter of the adult population died with signs of leprosy. However, the 

number of cases diagnosed in archaeologically derived skeletal material 

from all areas of Europe is low. When leprosy affects the skeleton, a 

number of specific and non-specific bony changes occur during the 

pathogenesis. In the present study, all the bone lesions in the skeletons 

from 57 tombs of the necropolis of the Saint-Lazarus chapel (Tours, 

France) in relation to a diagnosis of leprosy are described and discussed. 

Material and Methods: The Saint-Lazarus chapel appears to have 

been in use from the 12th to the 17th centuries and was known to have 

been a medieval leper colony. The excavated skeletons were found during 

a building construction in 1993. In total, 57 burials were identified. The 

57th burial was in fact identified as scattered remains from disturbed 

burials. Sex and age for all burials were determined according to current 

anthropological methods. All the bone lesions were noted by two different 

observers. Pathognomonic skeletal changes of low resistance 

(lepromatous) leprosy included erosive changes of the anterior nasal spine, 

resorption of the alveolar ridge with frequent loss of incisor teeth and 

palatal perforations (facies leprosa). A variety of secondary skeletal 

changes may develop due to peripheral neural involvement by the 

infectious process. The most characteristic of these are trophic 

reabsorptive changes in the terminal phalanges of the feet and hands. The 

phalanges frequently are the site of other absorptive changes which lead to 

“shark-tooth” deformities. Periostisis of the tibiae and fibulae may be the 

consequence of ascending secondary infections or of periosteal 

involvement by the primary infection. 

Results: 39.3% of the skeletons were males, 21.4% were females, 

14.3% were adolescents. Sex determination was not possible for 25% of 

the individuals. Rhinomaxillary changes were noted for 45% of the 

available skulls: among them there were seven cases of nasal spine 

atrophy, six irregular perforations of the superior surface of the hard palate 

and 2 central atrophy of the maxillary alveolar process two skeletons 

presented acro-osteolysis of the 5th metatarsal. Periostisis of the tibiae 

and fibulae was found on five skeletons. Enthesophytes and osteolytic 

lesions were noted at the insertion sites of several ligaments. Cribra 

orbitalia was found on two individuals. 


Discussion: Only 45% of individuals known to live in a medieval 

leper colony had pathognomonic lesions of the disease, although leprosy 

sufferers were banished and removed from society. There may be many 

reasons for this. First if people contract the high resistant (tuberculoid) 

form of the infection they may not develop any bone changes. Second, 

people with leprosy may have died before there was time for bone change 

to occur. In both these scenarios, the evidence would be absent skeletally. 

Thirdly, leprosy may have been misdiagnosed: people with another 

disease may have been labeled as leprous. A number of other diseases that 

may produce the same skeletal lesions are discussed. 

Paleopathology, Leprosy, Facies Leprosa 

H10 Bone Fragmentation Created by 

a Mechanical Wood Chipper 

John A. Williams, PhD*, Western Carolina University, Department of 

Anthropology and Sociology, Cullowhee, NC 28723 


dismemberment using a mechanical wood chipper quickly reduces bone to 

small fragments as well as the fact that despite fragmentation it is possible 

to segregate bone based on the type of woodchipper used. 


humanity by demonstrating the possibly of identifying the class of 

machine used to mechanically fragment bone. 

A recent motion picture highlighted the use of a mechanical 

woodchipper in the disposal of human remains. Although body 

dismemberment using this means appears efficient, documented cases are 

rare. To determine the effect of a mechanical woodchipper on bone, a 

sample of 10 long bones of White Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 

were processed through a commercially available 6.5 hp 

woodchipper/shredder. Modern wood chippers utilize two different 

rotating blades or hammers in reducing the size of vegetative matter. The 

chipper uses several short blades directly attached to a flywheel powered 

by a gasoline motor. The shredder component uses a single blade similar 

to that of a lawnmower attached to the motor shaft. For the particular unit 

used in this procedure, material processed by either the chipper or shredder 

is forced out a single opening using spring loaded flails mounted to a 

flywheel. 

Five bones were processed through the chipper component and five 

were processed through the shredder component. After processing the 

bones were cleaned and dried. The dried bone fragments were weighed to 

the nearest gram. Mechanical sieves segregated the fragments by size. 

Three categories were created: larger than a size 5 sieve, between a size 5 

and size 10 sieve, and smaller than a size 10 sieve. The segregated 

fragments were weighed and the percentage of the total dry weight was 

calculated. The mean weights for each category were compared by 

processing type. A t-test was significant at the .001 or higher that the 

means were significantly different for chipper vs. shredder. 

The largest fragments (greater than a size 5 sieve) were further 

segregated into two subcategories, those with attached cancellous bone 

and those without attached cancellous bone. The percentage weight of 

cancellous attached bone fragments of the total fragment weight was 

calculated. Chipped bone and shredded bone displayed the lowest and 

highest weight percentage of cancellous attached bone at 28% and 73% 

respectively. A t-test was not significant that the means for cancellous 

attached fragments were different for chipper vs. shredder. 

Comparing the two processing types found that the chipper reduced 

the bone to smaller, more uniform fragments (average of 39.8% vs. 73.4% 

of total weight greater than a size 5 sieve). Some shredded fragments 

exceeded 38 mm in length and were identifiable as to bone type (i.e., 

humerus). The size of these fragments was such that further analysis was 

still possible. Chipped fragments rarely exceed 12 mm in length. 


The most useful criteria in determining what form of wood 

chipper/shredder was used are: 1) fragment size segregation, 2) 

identifiable fragments as to bone type. Both methods are predicated on 

complete or near complete recovery of fragments. Any loss of fragments 

will alter the prediction of wood chipper type. 

Bone Trauma, Woodchipper, Dismemberment 

H11 Microscopic Characteristics of Hacking 



Ariana P. Ridgely, BA*, Department of Anthropology, New York 

University, 25 Waverly Place, New York, NY 10003 


understanding of the utility of microscopic characteristics of hacking 

trauma in correct weapon identification as well as the results of qualitative 

analysis of microscopic (and macroscopic) characteristics of cut marks 

inflicted by hacking trauma, using various common sharp instruments, as 

observed in Stereo zoom and 3D incident light microscope images of 

striations present on kerf walls. 


humanity by addressing the utility of microscopic characteristics of 

hacking trauma in weapon identification, their potential in creating 

reliable sets of class characteristics in future tool mark analysis, and the 

usefulness of different kinds of light microscopy in interpretation of cut 

marks. 


understanding of the utility of microscopic characteristics of hacking 

trauma in correct weapon identification. Specifically, attendees will learn 

the results of qualitative analysis of microscopic (and macroscopic) 

characteristics of cut marks inflicted by hacking trauma, using various 

common sharp instruments, as observed in Stereo zoom and 3D incident 

light microscope images of striations present on kerf walls. 


humanity by addressing the utility of microscopic characteristics of 

hacking trauma in weapon identification, their potential in creating 

reliable sets of class characteristics in future tool mark analysis, and the 

usefulness of different kinds of light microscopy in interpretation of cut 

marks. 

While the field of tool mark analysis continues to grow and while 

much attention has been given to characteristics of saw and slice marks on 

bone, little research has been conducted in order to determine if similar 

patterns and class characteristics can be extracted from cut marks caused 

by hacking trauma. The few studies that have been published focused only 

on the microscopic characteristics of specific sharp instruments, namely 

cleavers, axes, and machetes. In addition, these studies have all employed 

scanning electron microscopy to gain images of striations on cut mark kerf 

walls. While SEM is becoming a more and more popular method for 

viewing tool marks, it has several disadvantages for practical use 

including: time intensive preparation of samples, sample size necessary, 

and high cost. In addition, it must be recognized that not all institutions 

have access to SEM and it should be determined if there is an alternative 

imaging system that can adequately capture these images. Light 

microscopy has several practical advantages. Images can be taken from 

simple casts without altering the cast or specimen and light microscopes 

are less complicated to use and are more common. 

In the current study, various types and sizes of knives (plus a machete 

and axe) were used to create hack marks in large sections of femora 

previously cut and cleaned for other research. Each tool was assigned one 

femur consisting of a fragment cut from approximately mid-shaft and a 

longer section including distal shaft, metaphysis, and epiphysis. Multiple 

cut marks (hack marks) were made using each tool and were then casted 

using low viscosity injection –type impression material. Casts were 

298

viewed under both stereo zoom (Leica MZ-APO) and real-time 3D 

incident light (Edge Scientific H160) microscopes. Images captured were 

then analyzed for striation patterns and the ability to match images of 

specific cut marks to each other and to their respective weapon. In 

addition, images and patterns were compared to determine if larger tooltype 

characteristics could be determined. 

While striation patterns were successfully captured and these images 

could generally be associated with cut marks from the same bone (and 

therefore, weapon) and respectively to the tool used, overall tool class 

characteristics were much more difficult to define and may prove 

unreliable. Light microscopy was adequate in visualizing striation 

patterns on kerf walls. However, more research comparing the images 

captured to some taken using SEM must be done to show whether one 

method is better than the other for studying hacking trauma characteristics. 

These results show that although kerf striations on cut marks caused 

by hacking trauma can potentially be used for identification of specific 

weapons used, more research is required in order to create reliable class 

characteristics that could be used to determine tool-type when no 

suspected weapon is available. 

Forensic Anthropology, Cut Mark Analysis, Microscopy 

H12 Inter-Tidal Decomposition Patterns 

in Croatia: An Experiment using 

Sus scrofa Pedal Elements 

Branka Franicevic, MSc*, University of Bradford, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, BD7 1DP, United Kingdom; and 

Robert F. Pastor, PhD, University of Bradford, Biological Anthropology 

Research Centre, Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, 


The goal of this presentation is to introduce participants to key 

aspects of decomposition patterns for individual body parts in a 

Mediterranean coastal environment during late autumn. It will address 

aspects of decay uncharacteristic for the decomposition of a whole corpse, 

and the main components of the process essential for the application to the 

post-mortem interval (PMI) determination. Photographic and descriptive 

data will be presented of the unique decomposition patterns of individual 

body parts from pig carrion in two inter-tidal zones of the Adriatic coast, 

Croatia. Aquatic insect activity, identified for the first time for this 

geographic region will also be discussed. 


humanity by demonstrating the identification of environmental and other 

factors that serve as a basis of decomposition patterns of different body 

parts. Application of the decomposition models presented in this study 

may aid in producing a more accurate estimation of PMI for dismembered 

and disarticulated human limbs. 

This presentation will introduce participants to key aspects of 

decomposition patterns for individual body parts in a Mediterranean 

coastal environment during late autumn. It will address aspects of decay 

uncharacteristic for the decomposition of a whole corpse, and the main 

components of the process essential for the application to the post-mortem 

interval (PMI) determination. Photographic and descriptive data will be 

presented of the unique decomposition patterns of individual body parts 

from pig carrion in two inter-tidal zones of the Adriatic coast, Croatia. 

Aquatic insect activity, identified for the first time for this geographic 

region will also be discussed. 

This poster will demonstrate that various PMI techniques used for a 

whole corpse and skeletonized remains in medico-legal investigations 

may overlook the potentially different biological and taphonomic 

decomposition processes of individual body parts. The impact of these 

findings on forensic sciences and/or humanity includes the identification 

of environmental and other factors that serve as a basis of decomposition 

patterns of different body parts. Application of the decomposition models 

presented in this study may aid in producing a more accurate estimation of 

PMI for dismembered and disarticulated human limbs. 

In a temperate central European coastal environment, soft-tissue 

decomposition could depend on the microclimate typical of marine or 

riverine ecosystems. In shallow waters for instance, typical factors that 

could cause soft tissue modification are of both terrestrial and aquatic 

nature, such as air temperature, exposure to the sunlight, or tidal 

fluctuation. 

However, because putrefaction is almost certainly bacterially driven, 

it is hypothesized that with certain isolated single remains, absence of 

gastrointestinal organs result in the potentially different bacterial action 

affecting decomposition. 

This experimental study was conducted in two inter-tidal zones, 

marine and riverine. The distance between the two depositories was 

approximately 70 metres to simulate isolated resources for small 

vertebrates and invertebrates in two different coastal sub zones in close 

proximity. Wire meshes were placed on the riverbank and on the shore 

platform, and exposed to sunlight throughout the day. Samples were in the 

middle tide zone and were submerged approximately every six hours. The 

sample size represented limb bones of a minimum of 20 Sus scrofa (ulnae, 

radii, carpals, metacarpals, tibiae, fibulae, tarsals, and metatarsals. Ten 

limbs in random order were used per depository. Observations of 

decomposition changes and the environmental data such as sea surface 

and air temperature were recorded daily. Microorganism extraction and 

pH sediment measurements were conducted twice a week. Fieldwork was 

carried out for the duration of 31 days, during the period from 28 October 

to 27 November 2005. 

A total of five stages of decomposition were observed during a onemonth 

period: Fresh, Putrefaction, Early Disintegration, Advanced 

Disintegration, and Decay. Contrary to previous research in this 

environment, all stages were purely terrestrial in nature, omitting bloating, 

floating, and submersion. The study demonstrated the process of 

decomposition of isolated single remains in this habitat to be more 

complex than occurs in the body as a whole, with an indication of a slower 

decomposition in comparison to whole carcasses, possibly due to the 

limited bacterial action involved. The effect of relative humidity and 

exposure to sunlight on rates of decomposition was significant. 

Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for humidity was: r=+0.90, 

p=0.08 for marine, and r=+0.94, p.0.01 for riverine sample. Exposure to 

sunlight yielded r=+0.92, p=0.07 for the marine sample and r=+0.90, 

p=0.03 for riverine sample. Interestingly, salinity was only marginally 

significant and for the riverine sample only (r=-0.76, p= 0.13), with the 

variable correlation of -0.76 to 0.94. None of the other environmental 

variables correlated significantly with the rates of decay. 

Variability in decomposition patterns between marine and riverine 

microenvironments also yielded significant results for the number of days 

spent in each stage (Mann-Whitney test U= 338, n=2, p=0.032), indicating 

a different pattern of decomposition between two sites (stated with 95% 

confidence). This is reflected in different rates of decay, biomass removal, 

and insect and scavenger succession. 

Postmortem events in nature regularly include scavenger succession 

and limb dispersions, natural disarticulation or dismemberment as part of 

clandestine disposals. For these reasons, principles of decomposition 

patterns of isolated single remains for the purpose of PMI are 

recommended across the board to medico-legal investigators in dealing 

with single body remains in coastal environments with a similar climate to 

Croatia. 

Postmortem Interval, Body Parts, Croatian Coast 


H13 The Difference Between an Individual’s 

Self-Reported, Perceived, and Actual 

Height and Its Forensic Significance 

Valerie B. Russell, BA*, 8 Thomas Court, Valley Cottage, NY 10989 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand patterns 

of reporting error in self-reported height, discrepancies between the ways 

that others perceive an individual’s height, and factors that may influence 

these discrepancies such as diurnal variation in a person’s height and how 

these differences may affect the positive identification of an unknown, 

deceased individual. 


humanity by providing insight into the variability between an individual’s 

estimated stature when it is reported via different means. Using the 

different methods discussed in this approach may furnish investigators 

with a very large range for an individual’s stature which could preclude a 

positive identification from being made. 

The role of the anthropologist in death investigations has ranged from 

the recovery to the analysis of human remains from single cases of 

homicide to mass fatality incidents in all corners of the world. In many 

cases, the forensic anthropologist is given the task of comparing 

antemortem (AM) records with postmortem (PM) information. The most 

common characteristics usually compared include basic attributes of the 

biological profile of the deceased, such as age, sex, and stature. The 

usefulness of these attributes for identification purposes relies on the 

existence of AM records for comparison purposes. It has long been noted 

that records do not accurately reflect an individual’s height because of the 

difference between self-reported and actual measured height (Schlichting 

et al., 1981; Himes and Roche, 1982; Palta et al., 1982; Stewart, 1982; 

Boldsen et al., 1986; Giles and Hutchinson, 1991; Willey and Falsetti, 

1991). Furthermore, how biased is an estimation of that individual’s 

stature by others, taking into account the demographics of that population? 

The sample consists of Caucasian volunteers between the ages of 18 

and 45 (n=63). A wall-mounted stadiometer was calibrated and stature 

was measured to the nearest one-tenth of a centimeter. Volunteers arrived 

in groups of five and were asked to silently estimate their own height and 

the height of the other volunteers in the group, recording these values in 

the corresponding spaces on their data collection sheets. After the data 

sheets were collected, their standing height was measured three times per 

volunteer. Volunteers returned between five and eight hours later and were 

measured three more times. Diurnal variation, the differences between 

self-reported, perceived and actual height, and the range of perceived 

heights were calculated. 

The researcher’s objectives are to discover if there are any patterns 

and/or relationships between sex and self-reported height, how an 

individual’s height is perceived, and the variability of actual height at both 

times it was measured during the day. Also, determining if an individual’s 

height has any affect on the accuracy of how they perceive another’s 

height will be useful when family members and friends are called upon to 

provide information about an individual, which frequently happens in 

contexts outside the developed world, when documents of the deceased 

are nonexistent more often than not. 

When a positive identification for a deceased individual is sought, 

AM medical records may be one of the primary sources for providing 

information. Measured stature may be available from this source, 

although information may not be up-to-date. If medical records are not 

available, other forms of identification, such as a driver’s license, may be 

used for comparison, which would supply investigators with a selfreported 

stature estimation. In some cases, family and friends will be 

asked to provide information about the deceased, although they may have 

different perceptions of an individual’s stature. These three sources of 

information may generate a very large range for an individual’s purported 

stature, which could preclude a positive identification. 

Unidentified, Stature, Self-Reported 


H14 Sex and Stature Estimation Based on the 


Dawn M. Strohmeyer, MS*, 12 Bridge Street, Hitchin, Hertfordshire SG5 

2DE, United Kingdom; and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, Department of 

Forensic and Investigative Science, University of Central Lancashire, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand an 

alternative method to sex determination and stature estimation based on 

the bones of the feet. 


humanity by demonstrating a means to aid in identification when remains 

are in a poorly preserved state allowing the investigator to determine sex 

and estimate stature based on the resilient bones of the feet. 

It has long been known that a relationship exists between lower long 

limb bone lengths and stature; this is often used to estimate stature. 

However, on occasion an individual is only represented by fragments of 

the long bones, or the smaller, more compact bones of the feet. Although 

a relationship exists between the maximum length of these bones and an 

individual’s height, very little research documents the utility of estimating 

stature from foot bones. 

The purpose of this study was to provide investigators with stature 

regression formulae for use on the bones of the feet. Using the maximum 

length measurement of the right and left calcaneus, talus, and all ten 

metatarsals of 200 individuals (50 each of White females, White males, 

Black females, and Black males) from the Terry Collection, discriminate 

analyses were performed to confirm significant differences existed 

between the groups used in this study. Regression analyses followed 

which produced formulae to estimate stature based on race and sex for use 

when intact lower limb bones are not present. 

Results from this study indicate that the foot bones are poor in their 

predictability of sex, race, and stature. However, when other methods of 

sex and stature estimation are unavailable, the bones of the feet provide a 

possible alternative method. In this study, more accurate sex determination 

was achieved based on the measurements for blacks than whites. Stature 

regression formulae from the foot bones of black females were found to 

be at least as accurate as those for metacarpals and fragmentary limb 

bones; foot bones from the other groups were not as accurate. 

Ultimately, the aim of this study was to aid in the identification of 

servicemen from the Vietnam and Korean Wars who are recovered from 

archaeological contexts with poor skeletal representation or preservation. 

The robust and compact nature of the foot bones used in this study allows 

them to be recovered, especially in a burial or internment context. 

Therefore, this investigation was completed on these bones in order to 

offer investigators an alternative method of stature estimation when the 

use of other methods is not possible. 

Stature, Metatarsals, Calcaneus 

300

H15 Sex Determination of Koreans 

Through Cervical Vertebrae 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, Soonchunhyang University, Department of 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, 366-1, Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, 

Chungcheongnam-do, Choenan-si, Seoul 330946 Korea, Republic of 

Korea; U-Young Lee, MD, National Institute of Scientific Investigation, 

Division of Forensic Medicine, 331-1 Sinwol 7-dong, Yangcheon-gu, 

Seoul, Seoul 158707 Korea, Republic of Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, 

Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Department of Anatomy, 

1198 Guwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon-si, Seoul 405760 Korea, 

Republic of Korea; Deog-Im Kim, BA, and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 

The Catholic University of Korea, College of Medicine, Catholic 

Institute for Applied Anatomy, Department of Anatomy, 505, Banpodong, 

Seocho-gu, Seoul, Seoul 137701 Korea, Republic of Korea; and 

In-Hyuk Chung, MD, PhD, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 

Department of Anatomy, 134, Sinchon-dong, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 

Seoul 120749 Korea, Republic of Korea 


preliminary results of biological profiles of Koreans from the documented 

skeletal collection at Yonsei University in Korea. 


humanity by demonstrating the results of a metric study about the cervical 

vertebrae that shows sexual dimorphism and the usefulness of the 

documented skeletal collection at Yonsei University for determination of 

biological profiles in Koreans. 

Terry collection specimens housed at the Smithsonian Institution and 

Hamann-Todd collection individuals at the Cleveland Museum of Natural 

History are two well-known examples of documented human skeletal 

specimens. Many statistical studies of morphological characteristics about 

documented human skeletal specimens have been performed and provide 

information about the characteristics of a population. On the basis of these 

results, reconstruction of biological profile for unidentified skeletal 

remains can be possible. However, the statistical data about Korean 

ancestry has not been established because documented human skeletal 

specimens are lacking in Korea. The Department of Anatomy at Yonsei 

University College of Medicine has been collecting the skeletons from 

dissecting cadavers after anatomy class since the 1990s, and 

approximately 100 specimens were collected. This study will demonstrate 

the preliminary results on the determination of sex by metric study of the 

cervical vertebrae derived from studying this documented collection. 

This study attempted to duplicate a series of metric dimensions as 

defined by previous studies; however, the sample size in the dissecting 

cadavers was limited. The list of measurements taken includes the 

dimensions of the vertebral body, dimensions of vertebral foramen (spinal 

canal), and the size of the vertebrae. Twenty-one measurements of the 

atlas [length and width of atlas, maximum length and width of superior 

and inferior articular facets, maximum breadth between superior and 

inferior articular facets, sagittal and transverse diameter of vertebral 

foramen (spinal canal)] and 14 measurements of the axis were taken. All 

measurements were taken using digimatic caliper (Mitutoyo Co., Japan) 

and statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (version 11.0). 

Among the 21 measurements of the atlas, the maximum breadth 

between the superior articular facets exhibited the strongest principal 

component for determination of sex. Atlas width also exhibited strong 

relation with sex, while maximum lengths and widths of superior & 

inferior articular facet did not. The latter measurements were reported to 

suggest sexual dimorphism in previous studies, and this fact might cause 

difficulty in determination of sex for fragmentary atlas in Koreans. 

However, six measurements were selected in arbitrary discriminant 

functions, and showed more than 85% of hit ratio. Concerning the 14 

measurements of the axis, axis width exhibited the strongest principal 

component for determination of sex, and discriminant functions showed 

more than 80% of hit ratio. The sagittal and transverse diameter of the 

vertebral foramen (spinal canal) of the axis appeared to exhibit a 

relationship with sex, but those of the atlas did not. 

This presentation could indicate that metric data of cervical vertebrae 

are helpful to determine the sex in Koreans especially certain 

measurements of the atlas and axis. Also the documented skeletal 

collection at Yonsei University could be helpful to establish the Korean 

biological profile. Further investigation is necessary so that differences 

among ancestries could be performed, and common landmarks for 

measurements of sex-determination using cervical vertebrae would be 

established. 

Koreans, Sex-determination, Cervical Vertebrae 

H16 Stages of Epiphyseal Union in the Cervical 


Melissa A. Torpey, MS*, Michigan State University, 7 Gardenwood 

Drive, Asheville, NC 28803 


understanding of the stages of epiphyseal union of the cervical vertebral 

centra and its utility in aging an individual through observational analysis. 


humanity by contributing to the overall body of knowledge of forensic 

anthropology and skeletal analysis. Age estimation is one of the greatest 

challenges faced by forensic anthropologists and this presentation expands 

the knowledge of the maturation of the cervical vertebrae and its utility for 

age estimation for young adult skeletons. 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the application of the 

Albert and Maples (1995) stages of epiphyseal union to the cervical 

vertebrae and the utility of doing so. These findings contribute to the 

overall body of knowledge of skeletal analyses, specifically focused on the 

understanding of the timing and rate of epiphyseal union in the cervical 

vertebrae, as well as the rest of the vertebral column. 

For this study, 77 individuals from the Hamann-Todd Osteological 

Collection housed at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History were 

observed. The sample consisted of 11 white females, 27 black females, 15 

white males, and 24 black males aged 12 to 27 years at death. Eleven 

surfaces of the cervical vertebral centra were scored based on the method 

developed by Albert and Maples (1995). The eleven surfaces include the 

inferior surface of C2 and the superior and inferior surfaces of C3 through 

C7. Each surface received a score between 0 and 3 to represent the stage 

of epiphyseal union. Stage 0 represents no union, stage 1 represents 

beginning union with minimal attachment between the epiphyses and 

centra, stage 2 is characterized by almost complete union, and stage 3 is 

characterized by a completely mature vertebral body. 

A review of the literature displays past discussions on the sequence 

of epiphyseal union throughout the body by Stevenson (1924) and Todd 

(1930), and radiographic analyses of epiphyseal union by several authors 

including Flecker (1942) and Girdany and Golden (1952). A radiographic 

analysis of epiphyseal union can only demonstrates incomplete or 

complete epiphyses, whereas an anthroposcopic analysis enables the 

researcher to observe the progression of union of the epiphyses, and 

therefore, facilitates the development of a scoring method. Observations 

about the extent to which the union has progressed are important in 

understanding the amount of time it takes for complete fusion to occur and 

any pattern in how the fusion occurs. 

The timing and rate of epiphyseal union for the cervical vertebrae 

was studied to determine its relationship to the known age of the decedents 

in the sample. Results from cervical vertebral centra were compared to 

results of thoracic and first two lumbar vertebrae from the previous Albert 

and Maples (1995) study to determine if the rate and pattern of epiphyses 

of the centra were similar or different. 

Observational and statistical analyses of the rate and pattern of the 

progress of epiphyseal union of the vertebral centra were performed. 


Observations did not result in significant findings regarding the pattern of 

epiphyseal union for the vertebral centra. However, in regards to 

comparison throughout the entire vertebral column, the vertebral centra 

epiphyseal union of the cervical vertebrae initiated union as early as 12 

years whereas the youngest individual to exhibit beginning union on any 

vertebrae was 14 years in females and 16 years, 4 months in males in the 

Albert and Maples (1995) sample of thoracic and first two lumbar 

vertebrae. Statistical analyses resulted in the same correlation between 

age and stage of epiphyseal union as that found by Albert and Maples 

(1995) showing the reliability of the scoring method throughout the entire 

vertebral column. This study demonstrated that aging an individual 

through observations of cervical vertebral centra epiphyseal union is as 

accurate and reliable as using the thoracic and first two lumbar vertebrae. 

The results of this research provide additional information about 

cervical vertebral centra epiphyseal union including the time at which 

beginning union initiates, the progress of union, and the age of complete 

union. This information aids in an age analyses for a biological profile of 

an unknown individual. This research could potentially help in both 

archaeological and forensic situations, such as in mass disaster or mass 

grave circumstances, concerning commingled remains. 

Cervical Vertebrae, Age, Epiphyseal Union 

H17 New Method of Skeletal Age Estimation 



Eva-Elvira Klonowski, PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, MD, and Senem 

Skulj, BSc, International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 

45A, Sarajevo, 71 000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be introduced to a 

new method of age estimation based on changes in the morphology in 

thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. 


humanity by allowing forensic anthropologists to verify and use this new 

aging method for narrowing age ranges estimation, and therefore for more 

correct age at death estimation, essential in identification of unknown 


The estimation of age at death from the skeletal remains of unknown 

individuals is an essential part of the identification process (Krogman and 

Iscan, 1986). During the last decades many anthropologists have tried to 

modify old aging methods as well as develop new ones in order to achieve 

greater accuracy in estimation of age at death of unknown skeletal 

remains. Most of these efforts were concerned either with improving and 

testing the effectiveness of accepted standards or with introducing new 

aging methods based on age-related changes in such bones as the sternal 

rib (Iscan et al., 1984) and the auricular surface of ilium (Lovejoy at al., 

1985). These latter sites were chosen because previous observations 

indicated that changes occurred in these skeletal elements throughout an 

individual’s life. 

Although reported figures differ, about 30,000 people were 

unaccounted for and considered “missing” after three and a half years of 

war in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995). The exhumation and 

identification process began immediately following the end of the war. 

During the examination of hundreds of skeletal remains exhumed in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina, the authors found that the pattern of changes 

observed in the vertebral body can be used as additional indicators for 

estimation of age at death. The variables that contribute to the overall 

pattern of change include (1) the sequence of fusion of the internal rim of 

the epiphyseal rings to the surface of the vertebral body, (2) the subsequent 

absorption of the rings into body, and (3) age related changes to superior 

and inferior edges and surfaces of the body itself. 

The progression of the union of epiphyseal rings in thoracic and 

lumbar vertebrae in teenagers and young adults was studied and described 


by McKern and Stewart (1957) and Albert and Maples (1995). Vertebral 

ring epiphyseal unification was observed from the anterior as well as the 

superior and inferior sides of the vertebral body. While examining the 

vertebrae, the authors realized that Albert and Maples’ (1995) description 

of unification of the epiphyseal rings related only to the fusion of the 

external margin of the ring to the vertebral body, while fusion of the 

internal rim of the ring was not observed. 

The remains used in this study comprise individuals killed during 

ethnic cleansing actions in 1992 in Krajina, in northwest Bosnia. All of the 

individuals examined for this study were exhumed from mass graves in 

the Krajina, between 2001 and 2005. For this study, a series of six 

vertebrae from 360 skeletal remains representing males of known age 

were examined. For each individual, the last three thoracic (Th10 – Th12) 

and first three lumbar (L1 – L3) were examined. The remains were 

completely skeletonized. The process of decomposition of soft tissues and 

skeletonization was natural and all examined vertebrae were dry, showing 

no trace of soft tissue (e.g. free of intervertebral cartilage and periosteum), 

which enabled the observation of changes in fusion of the vertebral rings. 

Three features at the vertebrae bodies were examined: fusion of the 

internal rim of epiphyseal rings observed from posterior (dorsal) view, 

changes in shape of the superior and inferior edges of the vertebral body 

and changes of texture of the superior and inferior surface of the vertebral 

body. Each vertebra was scored according to the presence and 

development of those three features with age. 

A comparison of real and estimated ages of identified remains has 

shown that age-related changes observed in the vertebral column can 

contribute significantly to narrowing estimated age ranges, especially for 

individuals between the ages of 25-45 years, who constitute the majority 

of the missing from Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

References: 

1 Krogman, W.M., and Iscan, M.Y. (1986). The human skeleton in forensic 

medicine (2nd edition), Springfield, Illinois: C.C. Thomas 

2 Ýscan, M.Y., Loth S.R., and Wright R.K. (1984). Age estimation from 

the rib by phase analysis: white males. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 

29(4): 1094-1104. 

3 Lovejoy, C.O., Meindl, R.S., Pryzbeck, T.R., and Mensforth, R.P. (1985). 

Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: A new 

method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. American 

Journal of Physical Anthropology, 68: 15-28. 

4 McKern, T.W., and Stewart, T.D. (1957). Skeletal age changes in young 

American males. Natick, Massachusetts: Quartermaster Research and 

Development Command Technical Report EP-45. 

5 Albert, A.M., and Maples, W.R. (1995). Stages of epiphyseal union for 

thoracic and lumbar vertebral centra as a method of age determination for 

teenage and young adult skeletons. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 40 (4): 

623-633. 

Age Related Changes, Aging Techniques, Forensic Anthropology 

H18 Progression of Intra-Epiphyseal 

Union and its Predictive Capability 

in Fragmented Remains 

Maureen Schaefer, MA*, University of Dundee, Anatomy and Forensic 

Anthropology, Faculty of Life Sciences, MSI/WTB Complex, Dundee, 

DD1 5EH, United Kingdom 

The goal of this presentation is to document the progression of intraepiphyseal 

union for the major long bones of the limbs. Statistical analysis 

will be used to support progression patterns for confidence in the forensic 

context. 


humanity by presenting a new and innovative method for the analysis and 

re-association of commingled and fragmented juvenile remains. 

Understanding the pattern by which union progresses in an epiphysis 

302

offers the ability to reasonably predict the possible range of maturity of the 

entire epiphysis based on a recovered fragment. Once biological maturity 

of that epiphysis is assessed then re-association with similarly mature 

material is permitted. 

Commingled and fragmentary remains pose specific problems in the 

analysis and description of human skeletal remains. The loss of key 

skeletal features commonly used to indicate sex, age, stature or race can 

hinder the ability to establish biological profiles and therefore the accurate 

reassembly of individuals. However, if a biological indicator is only partly 

missing, the part remaining may yet provide sufficient evidence to predict 

the condition of the missing fragments, thus still allowing some viable 

indication of biological identity. 

Understanding the temporal sequence in which the various epiphyses 

of the body unite can be useful for re-associating bones from individuals 

of similar chronological age, but perhaps different maturity status 

(Schaefer, 2006). However, if only part of an epiphysis is present, the 

maturity assessment of the epiphysis as a whole may be skewed if the full 

pattern of fusion options is not fully understood. For example, if an 

epiphysis that is actively fusing becomes fragmented and the only 

fragment of bone that is recovered displays complete union, then the 

temptation will be to assume that the entire epiphysis has fused. This will 

inevitably lead to an over assessment of age and potentially incorrect 

biological profile and/or impede reassociation of parts. However if it is 

known that this is the first part of the epiphysis to commence union, then 

the range of possible ages can be extended to reflect the precocious nature 

of this feature. The fusion status of the fragment may provide useful 

ranges of potential maturity for the epiphysis as a whole if the sequence in 

which union progresses through the epiphysis is fully understood. 

Progression of union was documented on a sample of 73 Bosnian 

males by recording the status of intra-epiphyseal union around the 

periphery of the bone. This was achieved by functionally dividing the 

epiphysis into segments in much the same way as a two dimensional map 

documents three-dimensional objects. The epiphysis was conceptually 

“unrolled” into a flattened continuous scale so that it was possible to 

visually record the location where peripheral union had, or had not, taken 

place. 

Intra-epiphyseal progression was established for the epiphyses of the 

proximal humerus, ulna, femur and tibia, the distal radius, femur and tibia 

and the ischial tuberosity. Progressions patterns were first determined 

using observational analysis and were later confirmed through statistical 

analysis. Mathematical computations required that the visual data be 

transformed into a numerical format. Each segment of an epiphysis was 

assigned a score between zero and four depending on its degree of fusion 

(0 = no union, 1 = less then 1/3 union, 2 = around half union, 3 = more 

than ¾ union, and 4 = complete union). A Kruskal-Wallis Analysis of 

Variances was then performed comparing each segment of an epiphysis to 

each of the other segments of that same epiphysis. If the mean scores 

between any of the two segments displayed a statistically significant 

difference then it could be inferred with some confidence that the union 

status of one segment was either in advance of, or retarded to, the other 

segment. 

The results of this analysis show that the first and or last areas to unite 

on an epiphysis are frequently statistically different from the other 

segments of that epiphysis indicating that there is a predictive progression 

to intra-epiphyseal maturation which may be of sufficiently significant 

value to aid in the assessment and reassociation of fragmented remains. 

Reference: 

1 Schaefer M. Forensic application of epiphyseal sequencing. Proceedings 

of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 2006;24H. 

Epiphyseal Union, Commingled Remains, Bosnia 

H19 Age Determination From the Medial 

and Lateral Clavicle: A Re-Evaluation 

of Present Scoring Systems 

Natalie L. Shirley, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, The University of 

Tennessee Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will become aware of the 

differences between various scoring systems used to determine age from 

the medial clavicle and will understand the usefulness of applying a 

transition analysis to this aging method. Additionally, this presentation 

will explore the lateral clavicle as a useful aging tool. 


humanity by demonstrating the necessity for continual updating of the 

samples from which standards are developed and a re-evaluation of 

methods, updating of samples and using modern data to assess age of 

modern skeletons. 

The Daubert decision has made rigorous testing and evaluation of 

forensic methods essential in all fields of the forensic sciences. In forensic 

anthropology, the documentation of secular change in human skeletal 

dimensions necessitates continual updating of the samples from which 

standards are developed. This research answers the call for the reevaluation 

of methods and updating of samples. 

Background: The medial end of the clavicle is the last epiphysis to 

fuse in the human skeleton. This epiphysis remains unfused into 

adulthood, sometimes into the late twenties. Furthermore, whereas limb 

bone epiphyses can fuse in as little as 1 year, union of the medial clavicle 

takes at least 2 to 3 years 1 . Consequently, the medial clavicle can provide 

accurate age estimates of young adults. 

Early attempts at developing a scoring system include those of 

Stevenson 2 and Todd and D’Errico 1 . Today, most anthropologists rely on 

McKern and Stewart’s 3 system developed using the Korean War sample of 

American males, Webb and Suchey’s 4 system developed using an autopsy 

sample from Los Angeles county, and/or Black and Scheuer’s 5 system 

developed using 18th, 19th, and 20th century skeletons from three 

European collections. 

Typically, transition analysis is used to analyze senescent changes in 

bone 6 , but the medial clavicle is a good candidate for such an analysis 

because the extended development of this epiphysis is represented in a 

series of stages. In this study, transition analysis shows the average age at 

which an individual transitions from one stage to the next. 

Methodology: This study’s sample is a subset of the University of 

Tennessee’s William F. McCormick Clavicle Collection, a modern 

autopsy collection assembled between 1986 and 1998. The sample 

consists of 563 individuals born between 1962 and 1983 (424 males and 

139 females). The individuals were between the ages of 12 and 33 at the 

time of death. Ninety-five percent of the sample is Caucasian, 4% is 

African American, and the remaining 1% are Asian, Latino, and Indian. 

The lateral clavicular epiphysis was scored as “not fused”, “fusing”, 

or “fused”. The medial clavicles were scored with Todd and D’Errico 1 , 

McKern and Stewart 3 , Webb and Suchey 4 , and Black and Scheuer 5 . The 

McKern and Stewart system was found to be the most comprehensive in 

estimating stage of union. This scoring system utilizes 5 phases: 0=no 

closure, 1=beginning union, 2=active union, 3=recent union with scar, and 

4=complete union with no scar. The other systems were either lacking an 

important phase or included phases that could not be evaluated on this 

skeletal sample. Consequently, a transition analysis was performed on the 

McCormick clavicle sample using this scoring system, as well as on 

McKern and Stewart’s data for the medial clavicle. Additionally, a 

transition analysis was performed on the McCormick data for the lateral 

clavicle using the 3 stages mentioned earlier. 

Results and Discussion: According to the transition analysis of the 

lateral epiphysis, the average age at which an individual goes from “no 


fusion” to “fusing” is 17 years. The average age at which an individual 

proceeds from “fusing” to “fused” is 19 years. There were no significant 

differences between males and females. The earliest age at which fusion 

began was 17 years. All individuals were fused by age 23. 

The transition analysis produced the following results for the medial 

clavicle: 

Transition McKern and Stewart McCormick McCormick 

Males Males Females 

Phase 0 to Phase 1 19.81 ± 0.22 16.95 ± 0.34 14.77 ± 0.65 

Phase 1 to Phase 2 21.82 ± 0.22 20.42 ± 0.27 19.07 ± 0.48 

Phase 2 to Phase 3 23.59 ± 0.26 24.28 ± 0.25 23.28 ± 0.47 

Phase 3 to Phase 4 26.23 ± 0.32 27.21 ± 0.22 27.06 ± 0.40 

These results show that differences exist between males and females 

concerning the average age at which fusion commences (Phase 0 to Phase 

1); specifically, fusion begins earlier in females. Furthermore, the McKern 

and Stewart sample and the McCormick sample show differences in the 

first two transitions. The McCormick individuals begin fusion earlier than 

the Korean War males. This difference could be due to secular change in 

growth. Therefore, these results show the importance of modern data to 

assess age of modern skeletons. 

References: 

1 Todd TW, D’Errico J. The clavicular epiphyses. Am J Anat 1928; 

4:25-50. 

2 Sevenson PH. Age order of epiphyseal union in man. Am J Phys 

Anthropol 1924;7:53-93. 

3 McKern TW, Stewart TD. Skeletal age changes in young American 

males: analyzed from the standpoint of age identification. Natick, 

Massachusetts: Quartermaster Research and Development Center, 

Environmental Protection Research Division; 1957. Report No.: EP-45. 

4 Webb PAO, Suchey JM. Epiphyseal union of the anterior iliac crest and 

medial clavicle in a modern multiracial sample of American males and 

females. Am J Phys Anthropol 1985;68:457-66. 

5 Black S, Scheuer L. Age changes in the clavicle: from the early neonatal 

period to skeletal maturity. Int J Osteoarchaeology 1996;6: 

425-34. 

6 Boldsen JL, Milner GR, Konigsberg LW, Wood JW. Transition analysis: 

a new method for estimating age from skeletons. In: Hoppa RD, Vaupel 

JW, editors. Paleodemography: age distributions from skeletal samples. 

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002; 73-106. 

Age Estimation, Medial Clavicle, Transition Analysis 

H20 Forensic Age-at-Death Estimation 

From the European American Male 

Sacrum: A New Component System 

Nicholas V. Passalacqua, BA*, Mercyhurst College, Department Applied 

Forensic Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, 

PA 16546 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate a new method for 

determining age-at-death from the human sacrum. 


humanity by introducing another researched skeletal region, increase the 

potential of age-at-death assessment, and demonstrate the utility of a new 

sequentially-coded component system, allowing for a greater 

understanding of the morphological gestalt than previous “summing” 

component systems. 

The present contribution describes a newly developed sequentially 

coded component system for evaluating seven morphologies of the human 

sacrum in the production of statistically valid chronological age estimates. 

Accurate age-at-death estimation from human skeletal attributes is 

critical for establishing a comprehensive and forensically significant 


biological profile of an unknown individual, which in turn facilitates the 

victim identification process. The introduction of novel techniques for 

reliable estimation of chronological age from previously unresearched 

skeletal areas represents a valuable contribution to the field for a number 

of important reasons: 1) it enhances the capability of assessing age in 

incomplete, fragmented, and/or commingled sets of human remains, 

especially in cases in which other diagnostic areas may be lost or 

taphonomically altered; and 2) by increasing the number of skeletal areas 

studied in the unknown individual, new age estimation techniques often 

serve to narrow the confidence intervals of the final age assessment. This 

is particularly valuable when new techniques provide accurate age 

estimates for later adult stages, as degenerative processes show a much 

higher population variability in comparison to the developmental 

processes, typically resulting in wider confidence intervals. 

The primary aim of this study was to determine whether 

morphological changes observed in the auricular surface of the sacrum 

and associated structures (seemingly mirroring the degenerative aging 

processes observed in the conjoining structure of the ilium), could be 

statistically correlated with chronological age. The sacrum is particularly 

useful for age estimation in that a number of clearly defined 

developmental changes (such as fusion of the first sacral vertebral body 

epiphysis) continue well into adult life of the individual. Therefore, 

evaluations of morphological changes documenting both degenerative and 

developmental stages might be combined to produce a new, more precise 

analytical technique for estimating age at death from the sacrum. 

The first phase of the present study consisted of the analysis of a 

sample of 109 sacra of European American males from the early 20th 

century Hamann-Todd Collection (Cleveland Museum of Natural History, 

Cleveland, Ohio), to assess age-trait correlations and develop the 

morphological stages and confidence intervals associated with the new 

method. Seven developmental and degenerative non-metric traits of the 

sacrum were studied including: fusion of sacral body elements 1 and 2, 

fusion of sacral body elements 2 and 3, degree of auricular apical lipping, 

state of auricular surface epiphyseal fusion, first sacral vertebral body 

epiphyseal union, auricular surface microporosity, and auricular surface 

macroporosity. 

Originally, each morphological character was scored according to 

multiple trait variants (3-5 character states), similar to those employed in 

age determination from the ilium. However, the initial results 

demonstrated that in most cases the intermediate trait stages did not 

significantly contribute to the accuracy or precision of the age estimates, 

when compared to those obtained by coding most traits as binomial 

variables (i.e., on a presence-absence basis). This significantly simplifies 

the scoring system and serves to reduce inter-observer error. 

The results of the initial phase of the study suggested that by 

including both developmental and degenerative features in the analysis, 

the seven traits could be sequentially arranged to reflect the differential 

timing of significant aging events (i.e., clearly defined age-correlated 

morphological changes). Consequently, a sequential coding component 

system was developed in which coding scores for each of seven traits were 

arranged to produce a seven-digit score. The order of appearance of each 

trait within the seven-digit score was calculated to maximize the 

Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient of the code with age. Rank order 

statistics were selected to obtain a coding system in which a higher score 

in the seven-digit code corresponds more frequently to an older individual. 

Each unique seven-digit component score was then translated into a verbal 

and graphic description of the combination of morphological traits 

(morphological stage) and associated with an appropriate statistically 

validated chronological age interval (68 and 95% probabilities). 

The new analytical method was tested on an independent sample of 

modern sacra from the William M. Bass Donated Collection (n=150), 

housed at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. The method proved to 

be forensically accurate when tested on this independent sample. 

This research indicates that the sacrum can be used to reliably 

estimate age-at-death in European American male individuals. 

Age-at-Death Estimation, Sacrum, Forensic Anthropology 

304

H21 Accuracy of Age Estimates 

Using the Pubic Symphysis 

Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Kansas State University, 204 Waters Hall, 

Manhattan, KS 66506-4000 

The goal of this presentation is to reports the accuracy of three 

methods of age estimation, based on the metamorphosis of the pubic 

symphysis as assessed by advanced student and professional forensic 

anthropologists, and promotes the continual self-evaluation of extant 

methodologies. 


humanity by demonstrating the results of this study that support the 

usefulness of age estimates based on the pubic symphysis and should 

positively impact the methods of choice in the application and practice of 


During the 26th Annual Meeting of the Mountain, Desert and Coastal 

Forensic Anthropologists (Lake Mead 24 – 26 May 2006) a workshop was 

held on the parameters of age assessment from the pubic symphysis. 

Backgrounds, samples and general rationale were presented for the 

methods of Todd, McKern and Stewart, Gilbert and McKern and Suchey 

and Brooks. The meeting participants were then divided into eight groups. 

Each group was given 10 pubic bones. Each individual scored each of the 

10 bones by the method they were most familiar. The scoring sheet 

required which method or technique was used and the number of years 

experience working with aging techniques (5 year increments). The 

remainder of the scoring sheet had columns for recording the pubic 

symphysis identification number, age estimate (either years or phase), 

known age, and difference between the estimated age and the known age. 

Reprints of articles of the different methods were available and standard 

pubic symphysis casts were available for the Suchey-Brooks and the 

Gilbert-McKern methods. Illustrations were available for the Todd 

method. 

The pubic bones used in this study were part of the Teixeira autopsy 

collection dating from 1982 and 1983. Age is known for all specimens, 

and sex and ancestry are known for most specimens (68.75%). At the time 

of collection the pubic bones were cut parallel to and 1 to 1.5 cm away 

from the symphysis surface. Therefore, there is little or no inferior ramus, 

certainly not enough to accurately assess sex. The known ages of the 

pubic bones for each group varies, but each set of ten pubic symphyses has 

the same number of samples in each decade from the second through the 

seventh decade. The known ages in this sample range from 17 to 82 years. 

Eleven females and 44 males are in the sample, but equality of sex was not 

considered when generating the eight sub-groups. The basic sample held 

a variety of recorded ancestries: Negro = 6; White = 33; Mulatto = 11; and 

Japanese = 5. As such, sex and ancestry distributions were neither noted 

nor controlled. 

Summary statistics were generated from the workshop scoring sheets 

as reported in Tables 1 and 2. The breakdown of years of experience, the 

method of choice, range of error and the best single and mean estimations 

are presented. The mean years of experience fell in the category of less 

than 10 years (roughly 9.7). The mean error without regard to the method 

used was 11.58 years. 

Table 1. Summary statistics, experience. 

Number of Method Used 

Experience Individuals Suchey-Brooks Todd McKern-Stewart 

contacted. Of those, 725 consented to participate in this study, while 398 

declined participation. Unfortunately, due to reasons such as disease, 

examination conditions, and other restrictions, the bone segments of 165 

decedents for which permission was granted were not removed during 

examination and are not included. The sample also includes bone 

segments that were retained in Forensic Anthropology cases and 

unidentified individuals (N = 44), and from Barrow Neurological Institute 

(N = 24). Ultimately, viable bone segments from 630 individuals were 

obtained. 

The collection amassed consists of pubic symphyses and fourth rib 

ends from 419 males and 211 females, ranging in age from 18 to 99 years 

of age at death. The average age at death of the females in the sample is 

59.1 years and the average age of the males is 52.6 years. Individuals 

classified by the medico-legal system at the FSC as Asian, Black, 

Caucasian, and Native American are represented. A comprehensive 

database was created in Microsoft Excel that contains the pertinent 

biological information about each specimen (age, sex, race, etc.), drug and 

alcohol abuse history when available, and any other important 

information. 

Age was estimated using the Suchey-Brooks and Ýþcan and Loth 

methods. Correlation and contingency table comparisons between actual 

ages and estimated ages were performed as well as comparisons between 

the accuracy of the rib and pubic symphysis, and inter- and intraobserver 

error. The correlation results indicate that there are significant differences 

in the observed vs. actual ages in both the ribs (r = 0.75329, p < 0.001) and 

pubic symphyses (r = 0.68169, p < 0.001). Two volunteers with differing 

levels of experience also scored a subset of the whole sample (N = 100). 

These correlation results suggested that there were significant differences 

in the observed vs. actual scores for the two volunteers (vol. 1 pubic 

symphysis r = 0.58048, p < 0.001 and rib r = 0.72027, p < 0.001; vol. 2 

pubic symphysis r = 0.69936, p < 0.001 and rib r = 0.65517, p < 0.001). 

A CROSSTABS analysis was conducted to determine how many 

individuals were under- or over-aged using both phase methods. 

Intraobserver tests did not produce significant results. 

Next, the pubic symphyses and rib ends were seriated and sorted 

separately based on morphological characteristics without prior 

knowledge of the age at death. The female and male ribs were each 

placed into seven distinct morphological groups. New descriptions and 

age ranges were created and tested. The male and female pubic 

symphyses were also segregated into seven phases. A late phase, phase 

seven, was described for both males and females, and is comprised of 

individuals over 70 years of age at death. Summary statistics were 

calculated for each phase and descriptions for each phase were created. 

Based on the samples collected during the grant period, this study 

will build on the innovative work of earlier anthropologists who 

established the accepted aging standards utilized in forensic anthropology 

and bioarchaeology today. The current standards were developed after a 

great deal of effort and scientific insight on the part of the researchers. 

Although adequate, the methods are problematic due to sample size and 

statistical issues. Furthermore, the research collections from which the 

aging standards were developed are not easily accessible. Thus, this 

research has created a new, large, and modern documented sample that 

will be available for study and retesting. 

Pubic Symphysis, Sternal End of Fourth Rib, Aging 


H23 Age Estimation From the Posterior 

and Middle Part of the Ilium 

Clotilde Rougé-Maillart, MD*, and Nathalie Jousset, MD, Service de 

Médecine Légale, CHU - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 49933, France; Bruno 

Vielle, MD, Departement de Statistique, CHU - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 

49933, France; Eugénia Cunha, MD, PhD, Departamento de 

Antropologia - Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Coimbra, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; and Norbert Telmon, MD, PhD, Service 

de Médecine Légale, hôpital de Rangeuil - 1 Avenue Jean Poulhès, 

Toulouse, 31403, France 

The goal of this presentation is to describe a revised method for 

estimating adult age at death using the auricular surface and the 

acetabulum. 


humanity by demonstrating a revised method using the acetabulum and 

the auricular surface that preserves the os coxa and can be used on a large 

population with known ages. 

Introduction: The study of the posterior and middle part of the 

pelvis is of interest in forensic anthropology since it is an anatomical 

region that is very often preserved. The Lovejoy technique, using the 

auricular surface, has brought about many studies and attracted many 

authors foremost among them Buckberry and Chamberlain who utilized 

the criteria described by Lovejoy and developed new methods. By using 

this research as a starting point, in a preliminary study, acetabular criteria 

was described. The goal of this new study was to test these acetabular 

criteria and to link them to auricular surface reading criteria, as described 

by Buckberry and Chamberlain. 

Method: The study concerned 463 os coxae of known age and sex 

from Caucasian individuals (identified collection of Coimbra – Portugal). 

The examiner was not aware of the age of the bodies when assessment was 

made. Four criteria with the auricular surface were described, using 

Buckberry and Chamberlain’s method. The features used were transverse 

organization, surface texture, porosity and changes in the morphology of 

the apex. Each of the features was recorded independently and assigned a 

series of numerical scores corresponding to successive stages of degrees 

of expression. Concerning the acetabulum, three criteria were isolated: 

appearance of the acetabulum rim, appearance of the acetabulum fossa and 

apical activity. These criteria were observed and assigned a series of 

numerical scores corresponding to successive stages of degrees of 

expression. The age correlation of various criteria read at the acetabulum 

level and that of the auricular surface were studied. SPSS (software 

package for statistical analyses) were applied to evaluate the data. To argue 

the appropriateness of the variables and quantify correlation with age, 

Kruskal-Wallis tests were calculated. Mean, standard error and standard 

deviation have been considered. Intra- and inter-observer variability was 

also studied. A paired t-test was calculated for 114 individuals with both 

left and right auricular surfaces present. The difference between males 

and females with a regression line for both data sets was tested and a 

Spearman’s correlation coefficient was calculated. 

Results: Kruskal-Wallis statistics to quantify the correlation of each 

criterion with known age at death were all significant. This correlation is 

better once a score is established corresponding to the sum of ratings for 

the various criteria. Similar observations can be made regarding 

acetabulum criteria. Studying the correlation between the overall score 

(sum of acetabulum and auricular surface scores) and age is of interest. 

The method was tested for intra-observer error. Results are better when the 

overall score is studied. It’s the same thing with the inter-observer error. 

There were no significant differences between ages for males and females 

and between sides. 

Several total scores were found to have similar ranges, distributions 

and mean ages (using Buckberry and Chamberlain’s method). These 

scores were grouped together to produce seven stages for the purposes of 

age estimation. A Bayesian analysis was used to provide probability of 

age, given the stage. 

306

Discussion: Four acetabular criteria and four auricular surface 

criteria were isolated which have a correlation with age. Establishing 

these scores (sum of criteria) allows a better age-based correlation to be 

obtained. Establishing an overall score, including acetabular criteria and 

auricular surface criteria, allows a good level of correlation to be obtained 

with age, with low intra- and inter-observer variability. Several total 

scores to define a methodwere established. It has been shown that there is 

no significant difference between sexes and sides. 

Conclusion: The study of the acetabulum is of interest for the age 

estimation of adult subjects. The joint study of the acetabulum and the 

auricular surface allows a higher correlation with actual age to be 

obtained. 

The revised method using the acetabulum and the auricular surface is 

interesting. It’s easier to apply and has low levels of inter- and 

intraobserver error. The method outlined here needs to be tested using a 

large, multiracial known-age population. 

Skeletal Age at Death, Auricular Surface, Acetabulum 

H24 Bones in Aid of Forensic Pathology: 

Trauma Isn’t Only Skin Deep 

Laurent Martrille, MD*, Service de Médecine Légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 

191 Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, Montpellier cedex 5, 34295, 

France; Cristina Cattaneo, MD, PhD, Istituto di Medicina Legale, 

Università Degli Studi, Via Mangiagali 37, Milano, 30133, Italy; Steven 

A. Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 119 Zurn Hall, 

Erie, PA 16546; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service Médecine Légale, CHU 

Lapeyronie, Montpellier, 34295, France 


forensic anthropologist could assist the pathologist in the autopsy room in 

some cases in which soft tissues are not sufficient to understand the 

mechanism of the wound. 


humanity by demonstrating how the recent demands of forensic science 

have paved the way for forensic anthropology to assume multiple 

functions in understanding cause and manner of death. 

Introduction: Traditionally the role of forensic anthropology as a 

legal discipline has focused strictly on the study of skeletal remains. 

However, recent demands of forensic science have paved the way for 

forensic anthropology to assume multiple functions in understanding 

cause and manner of death. 

The role of the forensic pathologist is to examine all tissues at 

autopsy in fresh or putrefied cadavers, but rarely do they have time or 

expertise to closely examine bone. Anthropologists can assist in filling 

that gap to produce essential information at autopsy. In many cases, bony 

characteristics of trauma may be more revealing and less deceptive than 

soft tissues. That being said, autopsies should not stop with descriptions of 

soft tissues and cursory descriptions of the skeleton. The areas involved 

with bony trauma should be removed and processed free of soft tissues for 

a proper examination and documentation. This presentation will introduce 

numerous case studies that demonstrate the utility of bone removed from 

autopsy as evidence, and demonstrate how bone lesions contribute to a 

more accurate understanding of the cause and manner of death. 

Materials and Methods: Case 1. A well-preserved 35-year-old 

Caucasian male arrived at the morgue with multiple stab wounds to the 

head and thorax. The skin lesions presented with linear cuts at 90° or acute 

margins. After being cleaned, an examination of the underlying skull cap 

showed the presence of triangular puncture wounds under the overlying 

apparent linear cut wounds. The offending instrument was, in fact, a pick 

with a pointed but triangular cross-section. 

Case 2. A slightly putrefied 70-year-old Caucasian female was found 

dismembered. Soft tissue analysis revealed illegible putrefied margins of 

cuts adjacent to the dismembered areas and irregular linear lacerations on 

the parietal region. Cleaning the bones showed the effect of blunt force 

injury on the head and saw mark analysis on the bone revealed characters 

of the saw used for the dismemberment. 

Case 3. A well preserved 40-year-old Caucasian male died after 

being hit by a car. The legs showed only blunt soft tissue lesions, mainly 

lacerations. After removing the soft tissue, the analysis of the underlying 

tibia and fibula showed a butterfly fracture, crucial in reconstructing the 

direction of the impact. 

Case 4. Two male Caucasian 30-year-olds, slightly putrefied, were 

found with illegible lacerations on the skin of the head. Cleaning and 

reconstructing the entire skull allowed for the interpretation of the exact 

site of impact, minimum number of impacts, and even the chronological 

order of the blows. 

Case 5. The charred remains of a 30-year-old male were recovered. 

Nothing could be seen on the burnt head. However, reconstruction of the 

fragments of cranium showed clear signs of a typical burning and definite 

signs of trauma. 

Results and Discussion: These cases illustrate the utility of skeletal 

examination at autopsy and demonstrate the value of trauma examination 

in bone as major contributors to the final and accurate analysis of cause 

and manner of death. 

Forensic Anthropology, Trauma Examination, Pathologist 

H25 Propeller Impacts: Injury Mechanics 

and Bone Trauma 

Anne M. Kroman, MA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Tyler A. 

Kress, PhD, BEST Engineering, 2312 Craig Cove Road, Knoxville, TN 

37919; and David J. Porta, PhD, Bellarmine University, Department of 

Biology, 2001 Newburg Road, Louisville, KY 40205 


understanding of the mechanics of injury in propeller impacts to the 

human body as they relate to speed of impact and propeller design. 


humanity by increasing the understanding of the correlation between 

impact speed and resultant fracture patterns, and the correlation between 

propeller design and soft and osseous tissue damages. 

Numerous swimmers are injured or killed every year due to impact 

from boat outboard motor propeller strikes. Even boats traveling at 

relatively low speeds can create large amounts of soft tissue and bone 

damage. These wounds often bear characteristic patterning of longitudinal 

impact zones in both bone and soft tissue; useful to both forensic 

pathologists and anthropologists in determining cause and manner of 

death. While propeller impacts are fairly easily recognized, the exact 

injury mechanics have received comparatively little attention. Differences 

in propeller design, boat velocity, and motor rpm influence the resultant 

injury patterns – leading to conflicting opinions in the forensic community 

over the “classification” of propeller impact as either blunt or sharp 

trauma. 

Injury mechanics associated with propeller impacts were 

investigated, as well as the differences created by speed and a propeller 

alternative design. Ten cadaveric specimens were used for the testing (4 

human and 6 porcine). Two tests were conducted per specimen, resulting 

in a total of 20 tests. The human tests were conducted at speeds of 

approximately 5 to 7.4mph (with increasing propeller spinning speeds 

respectively). The porcine tests were conducted at speeds of 

approximately 1, 5, 7.4, and 15 mph (with propeller spinning speeds 

increasing respectively again). Two different propeller designs were 

examined in testing. One was a standard propeller design, with three 

blades of aluminum. The other was a “ring-style propeller” – a propeller 

in which all the tips of the three blades are joined together by an aluminum 

ring. 


The human cadavers (recently deceased) were frozen post-mortem as 

“fresh specimens” (i.e. no preservatives were used) until thawed at the 

time of the tests. Specimens were refrigerated until a few hours before 

testing. Just prior to testing, each human specimen was fitted with swim 

attire and a mask. Porcine cadaver specimens were euthanized shortly 

before testing. Testing was performed in a unique facility at The 

University at Buffalo, part of the State University of New York system. 

The Center for Research and Education in Special Environments 

(CRESE) provides a controlled environment that allows for safety, 

privacy, and repeatability such that real-world boating accidents could be 

simulated as closely as possible. The facility houses a toroidal pool that is 

8’ wide, 8’ deep, and 200’ in circumference. The water was maintained at 

73 degrees F throughout the testing. A large centrifuge is located at the 

center of the pool and a platform is suspended over the pool from the 

centrifuge arm. An outboard boat motor was mounted to the platform. 

Instrumentation allowed for inputting and recording of motor travel speed 

and RPM. The motor was towed at 5 or 7.4 mph around the pool to the 

impact site for the human tests. The motor was towed at 1, 5, 7.4, and 15 

mph around the pool to the impact site for the porcine tests. 

Each of the tests was recorded with standard and high speed video 

(1,000 f/s). The high speed video was essential in understanding the 

mechanics of the injury and the interaction between the cadaver and the 

boat propeller. A difference was seen between the standard propeller and 

the ring style propeller in how the body was engaged by the blades. 

Post-test dissection showed classic multiple parallel lacerations and 

numerous vertebral, rib, and skull fractures for the standard prop tests. At 

these low speeds the standard prop gives rise to incisive, sharp-force injuries 

that affect both soft and osseous tissues (skull, face, ribs, scapula, and 

vertebra). The standard prop, in longitudinal impacts at just under 8 mph, 

produced life-threatening injuries. The ring-style propeller imparts more of 

a scooping-like blunt trauma that, at worst, results in large lacerations and 

avulsions that appear, in the four human cadavers, to only affect the 

superficial tissues. That is, at these low speeds, the ring-style propeller 

seems to kind of “bite” or “scoop” the superficial skin and fatty layers while 

primarily scooting/pushing along the muscles and bones, whereas the 

standard prop penetrates deeper and into the muscles and bones. 

The injury mechanisms behind propeller strikes are complicated, as 

are most violent impacts to the human skeleton. However, controlled 

experimental testing can provide an increased understanding of the effects 

of speed of impact, as well as propeller design. Testing showed that both 

of these variables do influence the injuries to soft tissue, and the fracture 

patterns in bone. 

Bone Trauma, Experimental Testing, Propeller Impact 

H26 Standardizing Saw and Knife 

Mark Analysis on Bone 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, and Christopher W. Rainwater, BA, Mercyhurst 

College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; and Susan M. Thurston 

Myster, PhD, Hamline University, PO Box 196, St. Paul, MN 55104 

As a part of a series of presentations covering toolmarks on bone, the 

goal of this presentation is to discuss toolmark relevance, particularly in a 

court of law. Earlier presentations (Symes, Kroman et al. 2006; Symes, 

Rainwater et al. 2006) classified major approaches and common pitfalls 

regarding toolmark analysis while promoting the use of tool class 

characteristics. This presentation will identify and explore historic 

misperceptions regarding toolmarks, introduce a systematic approach for 

the analysis of toolmarks, present initial results of toolmark examination 

produced by a series of new mass-produced saws, and discuss the 

relevance of these changes to future toolmark analysis. 


humanity by demonstrating a standardized, systematic approach to 

toolmark analysis on bone will promote cohesion among forensic 

professionals thereby enhancing the resolution of skeletal trauma 

evidence. 


Forensic anthropologists – once limited to traditional identification 

issues – are becoming more involved in investigations of death events, 

directing their expertise to the analysis and interpretation of traumatic injuries 

and taphonomic influences. This broadening role is evident in forensic 

anthropology’s contribution to cases of dismemberment and mutilation. 

The evidentiary value of toolmark analysis in these cases is 

compelling. However, its potential at times is impeded by a lack of 

interdisciplinary research and communication among anthropologists, 

pathologists and criminalists. 

Anthropologists (osteologists) are uniquely qualified to examine 

defects in bone but lack a background in toolmark examination. 

Pathologists commonly work with marks created by tools, but rarely have 

time to devote to this specialized analysis. Likewise, criminalists are not 

usually positioned or equipped to examine fresh specimens removed from 

the recently deceased. The objective of each professional is the same; to 

narrow the possible range of tools used in a crime and assist investigators 

in narrowing their search for the tool(s) used in the commission of a crime. 

Nevertheless, each profession remains generally unaware of the others’ 

efforts and advances. 

This glaring discrepancy is compounded by the fact that forensic 

toolmark research appears to have stagnated in the midst of a forensic 

climate that demands a closer look at ignored or unrealized evidence. 

Historically, disregard for toolmarks on bone is enhanced by 

misperceptions that analysis fails to produce significant information in an 

investigation. This flawed thinking can be traced to two sources. 

First, the archaic view that every pass of a saw tooth on bone erases 

the marks left behind by the previous tooth has resulted in an inherent error 

in the standard approach to saw mark analysis. While this view may reveal 

limitations in individual characteristics, it essentially disregards the vast 

potential of “class characteristics.” 

Second, traditional anthropological approaches are outdated with the 

advent of the anthropologists’ relatively new and evolving association 

with the recently dead. Hypotheses developed for historic or prehistoric 

peoples serve a different purpose than those analytical results developed in 

a modern forensic case. 

While it is tempting to examine toolmark striae for generic patterns 

or striation frequency, these uninformed approaches will likely be 

subjected to subsequent judicial scrutiny where admissibility may be 

challenged based on accuracy, reliability of the technique, replicability, 

and absence of validation studies. The repercussions of an ‘academic’ as 

opposed to an applied forensic approach can be nothing short of an 

obstruction to justice. 

This presentation will outline experimental approaches to 

researching toolmarks on bone while outlining methodologies for the 

examination, analysis, and documentation of such marks. Saw mark class 

characteristics will be systematically analyzed in order to produce tool 

descriptions that may be useful when presented in court. This approach is 

simplified in order to standardize methods and to make features more 

recognizable. This simplified approach is attempted despite the fact that 

mass-produced “junk” saws lack conformity to age-old saw manufacture 

standards. In the end, toolmark analysis on bone with guidelines, 

standards, and the appropriate equipment should result in productive 

answers to the frequently asked question: what is the potential of toolmark 

analysis in dismemberment interpretation? 

References: 

1 Symes, Steven A., and Anne M. Kroman, Susan M. Thurston Myster, 

Christopher W. Rainwater and John J. Matia, 2006, 

Anthropological Saw Mark Analysis on Bone: What is the Potential of 

Dismemberment Interpretation? Paper presented at the 59th Annual 

Meeting of American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Seattle. 

2 Symes, Steven A., and Christopher W. Rainwater, Susan M. Thurston 

Myster and John J. Matia, 2006, Tool Mark Analysis of Knife and Saw 

Dismemberment. Paper presented at the 91st International Education 

Conference of the International Association of Identification, Boston. 

Saw Marks, Dismemberment, Skeletal Trauma 

308

H27 Ballistics-Induced Depressed 

Skull Fractures 

Kathryn Haden-Pinneri, MD*, Office of the Medical Examiner of Harris 

County, Joseph A. Jachimiczyk Forensic Center, 1885 Old Spanish Trail, 

Houston, TX 77054; and Gregory Berg, MS, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 


The goal of this presentation is to educate forensic scientists about the 

association of depressed skull fractures and a particular type of ballistic 

trauma. 


humanity through knowledge gained regarding another etiology for 

depressed skull fractures. 

Ballistic trauma of the skull most commonly results in an interiorly 

beveled entrance wound and, if applicable, an exteriorly beveled exit 

wound. As will be discussed, certain types of firearm trauma can result in 

atypical bone injuries. The authors will present the case of a 28-year-old 

white female who died approximately 12 hours after presentation to the 

hospital for a reported perforating gunshot wound of the head. In support 

of this case and its findings, further corroborative case examples will be 

discussed. 

The autopsy of the primary case revealed a thin white female with a 

bandaged head. Under the bandage, the hair was completely matted with 

blood, through which an irregular sutured wound on the top of the head 

was visible. Removal of the sutures revealed an irregular 1-1/2 inch 

abraded laceration on the left parietal scalp. An additional curvilinear 1/2 

inch partial thickness laceration was just posterior and medial to the 

sutured wound. An oval skull depression was directly under and visible 

through the laceration. No obvious projectiles or lead wipe were present 

on the cranial radiograph. 

Reflection of the scalp revealed hemorrhage encompassing the left 

frontal and parietal subscalpular tissue and a large subgaleal hemorrhage 

overlying both parietal bones. Removal of the subgaleal hemorrhage 

revealed a 1 x 7/16 inch oval depression fracture of the left parietal bone 

just posterior to the coronal suture. The concavity depth was 

approximately 3/16 inch. An “X”-like fracture pattern was in the 

depressed portion of bone and the lateral fracture margin had a ‘stacked’ 

appearance. The underlying brain had corresponding fracture contusions. 

Given the depressed skull fracture, the lack of typical entrance and 

exit wounds on the skin, and the semi-circular laceration on the skin, it was 

initially felt that this injury was due to blunt impact trauma, possibly from 

the grip or butt of a gun. However, closer inspection revealed grey residue 

on the ‘stacked’ edge of the fracture. No firearm residue was grossly 

visible on or under the skin. Since the edges of the wound could not be 

re-approximated, the possibility of a tangential or graze gunshot wound 

was considered. 

Police detectives brought the weapon in question to the Medical 

Examiner’s Office the next day and the wounds were re-examined. The 

weapon was placed against the skin and the pattern of the semi-circular 

laceration fit the gun’s muzzle end exactly. The initial report stated that 

two projectile casings, possibly felt to be ‘old’ were at the scene, but no 

bullets were recovered. Upon request, the scene was re-examined and two 

bullets were located, one of which had hair, blood and tissue on it. One 

edge of this bullet was flattened. Based on these findings, a tangential 

gunshot wound was confirmed. 

Depressed skull fractures typically pose no significant dilemma for 

forensic anthropologists and pathologists with regards to the type of 

trauma involved, as they are typically associated with blunt force impacts. 

This case illustrates that ballistic trauma may also cause depressed skull 

fractures when the trajectory of the projectile is tangential to the bone. 

Typically, tangential or graze gunshot wounds result in a keyhole type 

fracture with interior beveling on the entrance side and exterior beveling 

on the exit side. While unusual, if a bullet’s path is extremely tangential, 

it can graze the skull without complete penetration, causing a depression 

fracture. 

It is important for forensic anthropologists and pathologists to keep 

firearm trauma in mind when dealing with depressed skull fractures. 

Should only skeletal elements be available for examination (unlike the 

presented case), different conclusions could be drawn with regards to the 

source and type of the trauma, thereby potentially altering the 

investigation of potential suspects. 

Depressed Skull Fracture, Tangential Gunshot Wound, 

Ballistic Trauma 

H28 When the Bullet Hits the Bone: Patterns 

of Gunshot Trauma to the Infracranium 

Katharine A. Chapman, BA*, Texas State University, Department of 


The goal of this presentation is to survey the basic principles of 

gunshot trauma and its effects on bones of the infracranium. Attendees 

will also learn the intricacies of a graduate student’s anthropology research 

project involving pig carrion and guns. 


humanity by addressing the lack of information involving gunshot trauma 

to the bones of the infracranium. In forensic anthropology today, there is 

a great amount of data surrounding gunshot wounds (GSW) to the skull. 

The orientation and composition of the squama allows for distinctive and 

predictable damage. However, the skull is not always the object of trauma 

in a homicide. Many times the only physical remains the anthropologist 

has to examine are sections of long bone or other portions of the skeleton. 

It is here that a dearth in information could be detrimental to the science. 

The overall goal of this project was to add an important section to the 

science of forensic anthropology with the understanding of gunshot 

trauma to the infracranium. 

The amount of trauma sustained in a GSW is determined by the loss 

of a bullet’s kinetic energy. Kinetic energy of the bullets is equal to half 

of its mass multiplied by its velocity squared, or KE = (1/2)mv2 . These 

variables were tested using weapons and ammunition with different 

calibers, weights, jacketing, and muzzle velocities. The three weapons 

examined were the AK-47, the .308 Winchester, and the 9mm pistol. 

These weapons were loaded with a .30 caliber 123-grain hollow point 

bullet, a .308 caliber 168-grain hollow point bullet, and a 147-grain 

bonded hollow point bullet, a 124-grain full-metal jacketed bullet, and a 

115-grain non-bonded hollow point bullet, respectively. 

Five pig carrion were shot under controlled conditions by an officer 

of the Comal County (Texas) Sheriff’s Department. The pigs were 

radiographed and then macerated to examine the underlying osteological 

trauma. Both methods of examination supported the hypothesis that 

specific types of weapons and ammunition result in specific patterns of 

trauma. An overwhelming amount of trauma occurred on the bones of the 

pigs shot with the high velocity weapons, while the remains of the pigs 

shot with the low velocity weapon sustained relatively little fracturing. 

After further examination, it will be possible to predict the amount of 

trauma incurred by specific guns and ammunition. With some 

standardization, it should be possible to utilize this information to infer 

class of weapon that results from ballistic trauma in forensic cases. The 

overall goal of this project is to add an important section to forensic 

anthropology with the understanding of gunshot trauma to the infracranial 

skeleton. 

Gunshot Trauma, Infracranium, Kinetic Energy 


H29 Controlled Fracture of Bones Before 

and After Degradation Under 

Different Environmental Conditions 

Lori E. Baker, PhD, Baylor University, Department of Anthropology, 

Forensic Science, and Archaeology, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, TX 

76798; Carolyn P. Skurla, PhD*, Baylor University, Department of 

Mechanical Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, TX 76798; 

Zachary Kelm, BS, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 1st Street SW, 

Rochester, MN 55905; Casey Anderson, Baylor University, Department 

of Anthropology, Forensic Science, and Archaeology, One Bear Place 

#97388, Waco, TX 76798; David R. Webster, BS, Baylor University, 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, 

TX 76798; Kieran P. McNulty, PhD, Baylor University, Department of 

Anthropology, Forensic Science, and Archaeology, One Bear Place 

#97388, Waco, TX 76798; Kristy Bernard, BS, University of New Haven, 

Department of Forensic Science, 300 Boston Post Road, West Haven, CT 

06516; and Eric A. Schaefer, and Daniel C. Bland, Baylor University, 

Department of Mechanical Engineering, One Bear Place #97356, Waco, 

TX 76798 

The goal of this presentation is to provide research results pertaining 

to the examination and comparison of perimortem trauma with subsequent 

weathering to postmortem trauma induced at increasing time intervals. 


humanity by providing additional information regarding the determination 

of ante-, peri-, or post-mortem bone trauma. 

Mechanical strength of the bone and the appearance of the fracture 

site as a function of environmental conditions and exposure time will be 

presented. The authors hypothesized that the application of different 

treatment conditions would have differing effects on the mechanical 

properties, fracture mechanics, and appearance of bone. The objective of 

the study was to compare the fracture behavior and mechanical properties 

of bone under three degradation conditions during a four-month period of 

time. A mechanical test method was designed to simulate blunt force 

trauma from a pipe or crowbar. 

The humerus (H) and fused radius/ulna (R/U) from the forelimbs of 

18 sheep (Ovis aries), Rambouillet and Columbia crossbreds, were used. 

A custom-designed three-point bend test jig on an MTS 858 Mini Bionix 

II was used to break the bones. A one-inch diameter indenter modeled a 

standard crowbar and was used to inflict blunt force trauma to the midshaft 

of the bone in a cranial-caudal (i.e., anterior-posterior in the human) 

direction at a speed of 6 in/s. Three sets of bones served as controls and 

were broken after removal of soft tissues. One set of controls (H & R/U) 

and five additional sets were each set outside under the following 

conditions: 1) full sun, 2) shade, and 3) submerged in water. One set of 

bones (H & R/U) for each of the environmental conditions was broken at 

1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 weeks. The experiment took place during the summer in 

central Texas (May to August 2006). Peak load (lbs) was measured for 

each bone. The fracture surface of each bone was photographed and 

analyzed using Scion Image to determine inner and outer diameter at midshaft 

in the medial-lateral and cranial-caudal directions. Total area of the 

bone was also calculated. These measurements were used to calculate 

stress in order to normalize the measurements to control of size differences 

between animals. A standard formula used to calculate the bending stress 

is s = -Mc/I. A simplifying assumption was made that the shape of the 

midshaft of the bone was elliptical. 

Data from this study were compared to a preliminary study 

conducted in central Texas during the winter (November 2004 to February 

2005). During the current test period, the average high temperature was 

93.1°F, the average low temperature was 69.4°F, and the average daily 

rainfall was 0.054 in., and during the preliminary study the average high 

temperature was 63.0°F, the average low temperature was 42.7°F, and the 

average daily rainfall was 0.089 in. The mechanical properties of bone 

were significantly affected by environment in both studies and distinct 


differences were noted between the appearances of ante-mortem vs. postmortem 

trauma. The biggest differences in mechanical properties for the 

current study were seen at 2 weeks. The changes in mechanical behavior 

of the bones that were stored submerged in water appeared to be similar in 

both studies. However, for the specimens stored in the shade, the 

difference in temperature made a difference in the degradation of 

mechanical properties. The specimens that were tested in winter took 

longer to show a drop in peak load. Specimens that were exposed to the 

sun in the summer also showed a decrease in peak load much earlier in the 

study than those tested in the winter. 

Bone, Blunt Force Trauma, Fracture Mechanics 

H30 Abstract Withdrawn 

H31 Sources of Error in Genetic and 

Osteological Sex Determination: 

Lessons from Physical Anthropology 

Krista E. Latham, MS*, Temple University, Department of Anthropology, 

1115 West Berks Street, Gladfelter Hall, 2nd Floor, Philadelphia, PA 

19122; and Luis M. Cabo-Perez, MS, Jeremy J. Beach, MS, and Dennis 

C Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Department of Applied Forensic 


The goal of this presentation is to present forensic scientists with an 

understanding of the error associated with both the genetic and 

morphological based tests of sex determination, and to stress the fact that 

forensic scientists should employ and understand a wide range of scientific 

tools when analyzing human remains in a forensic context. 


humanity by introducing important information on the advantages and 

limitations of genetic and morphological sex determination, and will 

present a critical assessment of the interpretational error associated with 

the techniques using anthropological examples. 

An important duty of the forensic scientist is to present their opinion 

in a judicial setting. An experienced expert witness should be prepared for 

conflicting opinions presented by opposing council. An opportunity for 

such a situation to arise may involve the determination of sex from skeletal 

remains. Determining sex from the skeleton can be accomplished by both 

morphological and genetic analyses. Forensic anthropologists are skilled 

at an osteological determination of sex and are aware of the error 

associated with interpretation of their analyses. Such investigations are 

extremely accurate when the entire skeleton is present for examination, 

and become more difficult as skeletal elements are missing and/or 

fragmented. Non-metric analyses examine sexual dimorphic differences 

in the size and shape of bones, and rely on the training of the investigator. 

Metric analyses employ classification based on measurements of various 

skeletal elements. Many forensic anthropologists use the discriminant 

functions in FORDISC software to classify the individual based on 

comparison to a data base of individuals of known sex. They should be 

trained in the interpretation of the results involved in classifications, 

should have a working knowledge of the statistical methods employed by 

FORDISC, and should understand that the probability of an individual 

being misclassified is not random. 

Determination of genetic sex employs polymerase chain reaction 

(PCR) amplification of X and Y chromosome-specific DNA fragments of 

different sizes. Misclassification can occur with this test and has been 

attributed often to a deletion in the relevant area of the Y-homologue. 

Other interpretational issues include contamination, stochastic fluctuation, 

and preferential amplification. Laboratory contamination is rare; 

however, remains can become contaminated during collection. Stochastic 

fluctuation, or sampling error, and preferential amplification are both 

phenomena that may occur with the low quality and quantity DNA 

310

associated with forensic evidence. Females have two X chromosomes and 

failed amplification of one X-homologue would still indicate a female. 

Males have one X and one Y chromosome. In a male sample, failed 

amplification of the X-homologue would raise concern, but would not lead 

to misclassification due to the presence of the Y-homologue. However, if 

the X-homologous fragments are preferentially amplified over the Yhomologous 

fragments, male samples would be misclassified as female. 

A forensic DNA analyst must therefore have the ability to analyze and 

interpret samples that are usually highly degraded, and must have an 

understanding of the physical evidence as well as the techniques used to 

analyze that evidence. 

Genetic sex tests are automatically included in genetic identification 

tests like CODIS (combined DNA index system). With what is being 

called the “CSI Effect” the general public is over confident in scientific 

evidence, especially genetic evidence. There can be instances where 

morphological and genetic sex could provide conflicting results, and it is 

imperative that forensic experts understand the strengths and weaknesses 

of all of the scientific techniques involved in the analysis of skeletal 

remains. 

Sex Determination, Osteology, Genetics 

H32 Skeletal Markers of Parturition II: 

Reanalysis of a Modern American Sample 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA*, Pellissippi State Technical Community 

College, Department of Natural and Behavioral Sciences, 10915 Hardin 

Valley Road, Knoxville, TN 37993; and Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, 

The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn that parity 

status cannot be inferred with accuracy from the bony pelvis, especially 

from the dorsal side of the pubis. The research presented here tested 

markers of parturition against known obstetric histories, and the results 

indicate that workers should not infer parity status from the dorsalis pubis. 


humanity by stressing that the inference of parity status from the bony 

pelvis should not be included as an aspect of the biological profile in 

forensic case reports. 

The William M. Bass Donated Collection curated by the Forensic 

Anthropology Center at The University of Tennessee was utilized for this 

research. A previous version of this paper was presented at these meetings 

(Bethard 2004), and the authors wished to update and increase the dataset 

with recent female donations. The purpose of this study was to increase 

the knowledge of the correlation between dorsal pitting and pregnancy for 

all females of known parity status in the Bass Donated Collection. Female 

skeletons of known parity status (n=45) were scored for the degree of 

dorsal pitting of the pubis. Pits on the dorsalis pubis were scored as either 

absent, trace to small, or moderate to large (after Stewart 1970). Pubic 

bones scored as “absent” were unremarkable with regard to dorsal pitting 

while “trace to small” indicated the presence of shallow depressions. 

“Moderate to large” dorsal pits were a minimum of 5mm in diameter and 

noticeably deep. In addition, 150 paired male pubic bones in the 

collection were examined for changes described by Stewart (1970), Angel 

(1969), and other workers with the intent of demonstrating that there are 

factors other than pregnancy that can cause changes to the dorsalis pubis. 

A thorough literature review indicates that workers have maintained 

mainly negative correlations between parturition and morphological 

markers of the dorsalis pubis. Stewart (1970) discusses Angel’s (1969) 

contribution to this issue, and hypothesizes that Angel would be wary of 

the use of his description of these morphological markers in forensic case 

reports. Stewart himself notes that, “some women can bear children … 

without any scarring” and proposes the use of “extreme care” when 

analyzing forensic skeletons (1970). Suchey and colleagues (1979) found 

that age and number of pregnancies were most important when analyzing 

the degree of dorsal pitting, and they also found 4 males out of a sample 

of 781 with moderate to large pitting. This indicates that while rare, there 

are factors that induce morphological changes on the dorsalis pubis other 

than pregnancy. More recently, Cox and Scott (1992) found that there was 

no relationship between pubic pitting and known parity status 

Non-parametric chi-square analyses were performed on the female 

sample to test the relationship between parity status/pitting (P=.328) and 

pitting/age (P=.773). Such results corroborate previous findings that 

indicate a weak association between the presence of pitting on the dorsalis 

pubis and pregnancy. Such results also demonstrate that age-related 

changes of the dorsalis pubis do not have a significant effect on the 

presence or absence of pitting. Moreover, out of 150 paired male pubic 

bones examined, 4 males (2.67%) had “trace to small” changes on the 

dorsalis pubis, further indicating that the identification of factors other 

than pregnancy causing such changes could be a direction of future 

research. 

References: 

1 Angel JL. The basis of paleodemography. Am J Phys Anthropol 

(30):425-438; 1969. 

2 Bethard JD. Skeletal Markers of Parturition. Poster presented at the 56th 

Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences. Dallas, 

Texas. 

3 Cox M and A Scott. Evaluation of the obstetric significance of some 

pelvic characters in an 18th century British sample of known parity status. 

Am J Phys Anthropol (89):431-440; 1992. 

4 Stewart TD. Identification of the scars of parturition in skeletal remains 

of females. In Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. ed: TD Stewart. 

National Museum of Natural History: 127-133; 1970. 

5 Suchey JM, Wiseley DV, Green RF, and TT Noguchi. Analysis of dorsal 

pitting in the os pubis in an extensive sample of modern American 

females. Am J Phys Anthropol (51): 517-540; 1979. 

Parturition, Forensic Anthropology, Skeletal Biology 

H33 Geometric Morphometrics of the 

Scapula: An Assessment of Ancestry 

Natalie M. Uhl, BS, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna 

Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Joseph T. Hefner, MA, University of 

Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; and John J. 

Schultz, PhD, University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida 



classificatory power of the scapula using geometric morphometric 

methods. An analysis of landmark data will be presented to assess the 

differences in the scapular shape of modern American white and black 

males. It will provide an alternative to traditional methods of ancestry 

determination that require the cranium or rely on simple linear 

measurements of the postcranial skeleton. 


humanity by demonstrating the classificatory power of the scapula and 

encouraging anthropologists to investigate the geometric morphometrics 

of other postcranial elements and their use in the determination of 

ancestry. 

The determination of ancestry is an integral component of the 

biological profile generated by forensic anthropologists for unknown 

skeletal remains. The postcranium is regularly under-utilized for ancestry 

determination; this is due in part to the classification rate attributable to the 

cranium and mandible. Anthropologists have noted general differences in 

body form between populations, leading to the use of the postcranial 

skeleton for differentiating between populations using traditional linear 

measurements. However, the scapula is rarely used during ancestry 

determination and traditional linear measurements are generally limited to 


the maximum width and height of the scapula. The current study builds 

on Snow (2004) and utilizes geometric morphometrics to explore the 

shape differences in modern American White and Black males as reflected 

in the morphology of the scapula. 

To determine whether differences in shape exist between modern 

American White and Black males, 14 landmarks were taken on 76 

individuals from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection curated 

at the Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 

TN. Coordinate data were collected from the scapulae using a Microscribe 

3DX digitizer (Immersion Corporation, 2002). A Generalized Procrustes 

Analysis (GPA) was performed using Morphologika (O’Higgins and 

Jones, 2006). A GPA analyzes landmark data by stretching and 

appropriately fitting the data through a transformation, rotation, and 

translation process (Rholf, 1996). Morphologika outputs the principal 

components and residuals employed in subsequent analyses in SYSTAT. 

A thin-plate spline analysis of the group means demonstrated several 

differences in shape between Black and White males. In particular, Black 

males exhibited an increased concavity of the subscapular fossa, and a 

more superior and medially positioned glenoid fossa. Furthermore, the 

Black male sample demonstrates a substantial anterior projection of the 

coracoid process. To determine how well these differences in morphology 

discriminate ancestry groups, a discriminant function analysis (DFA) was 

performed on the first ten PC scores. Using only 10 PC scores reduces the 

dimensionality and avoids over-fitting of the data, while still accounting 

for most of the shape variation. The DFA produced significant results 

(Wilk’s λ = 0.3580, F = 11.2978, dF = 10,63, p< 0.0001), suggesting the 

scapula is an excellent element for ancestry determination. In fact, crossvalidated 

(jackknifed) classification accuracies were 88% using only 10 

PCs and accounting for nearly 100% of the variation. 

This research demonstrates the classificatory power of the scapula 

and should encourage anthropologists to investigate the geometric 

morphometrics of other postcranial elements and their use in the 

determination of ancestry. 

Ancestry, Geometric Morphometrics, Discriminant Function 

Analysis 

H34 Refining the Isotopic Fingerprint in 

Modern Mexican Populations: Using 

Strontium, Carbon, Nitrogen, and 

Oxygen to Determine Region of Origin for 

Deceased Undocumented Border Crossers 

Chelsey A. Juarez, MA*, 240 River Street, #1, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 


incorporation of stable isotopes into human teeth and bone, the importance 

of sampling methodology on isotopic mapping and the varying rates of 

precision possible during isotopic mapping of modern populations. 


humanity through its pioneering application of stable isotopic analysis to 

deaths within a forensic context. 

The goal of this presentation is to present the progress on the 

expansion of a mass spectrometry-based method for the identification of 

region of origin in modern Mexican populations through analysis of 

strontium, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopes in human tooth enamel. 

Previously, this project had presented data on the success of strontium 

isotopes in the region of origin determination of these populations. 

Through the inclusion of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes the project 

has expanded and refined the isotopic fingerprint of these populations. 


incorporation of stable isotopes into human teeth and bone, the importance 

of sampling methodology on isotopic mapping and the varying rates of 

precision possible during isotopic mapping of modern populations. This 


study will impact the forensic community through its pioneering 

application of stable isotopic analysis to deaths within a forensic context. 

Background: Strontium isotope ratios and strontium concentrations 

collected in teeth and bones have been analyzed by archaeologists to 

investigate patterns of residential mobility and migration in prehistoric 

peoples. In this study a similar methodology is applied to forensic material 

to determine the region of origin for Mexican individuals that died while 

crossing the border into the United States. Every year approximately 

seven-hundred immigrants die while crossing the border between Mexico 

and the United States. The tragedy of this situation is compounded by low 

success rates in identification and repatriation of these individuals to their 

countries of origin. For forensic anthropologists, much of the difficulty of 

identifying and repatriating deceased immigrants found in border areas 

stems from an inability to narrow their regions of origin. Because studies 

estimate that approximately 86% of undocumented immigrants who cross 

the U.S. border are Mexican nationals this project focuses on advancing 

identification within that population. In order to employ identification 

technologies such as DNA, or dental analysis, investigators must first 

determine a searchable region in which to locate family, personal records 

and or legal documents. The aim of this project is to develop a tool for 

identifying region of origin in modern Mexican populations. The data 

discussed here are the latest stage of research on the creation of a region 

of origin map derived from dental enamel analysis of donated teeth from 

persons born in various Mexican states and regions. The map is being 

created from the donated teeth of Mexican-born individuals of known 

origin and will be used for cross-comparison with deceased bordercrossers 

of unknown origin. 

Methodology: The teeth used for this project came from clinics in 

Mexico and California that donated the extracted teeth of their Mexican 

born patients. This investigation utilized the permanent molar teeth of 50 

individuals. These tooth samples retained the accompanying information 

on the individuals region of origin within Mexico, their age, and sex. Each 

tooth was washed with dilute acetic acid to ensure the removal of any 

depositional contamination and analyzed using TIMS and MC-ICPMS. 

Results and Discussion: The goal of this project is to provide the 

most accurate pathway to identification possible. The initial results of this 

isotopic expansion are promising and build upon the previous presented 

research, revealing the formation of five clearly distinct separate and 

identifiable isotopic populations that correspond to five specific 

geographical regions. The presence of these new and more clearly defined 

ranges strongly supports previous research and brings this study one step 

closer to working identifications. 

Isotopes, Region of Origin, Border Death 

H35 Assessment of Determination of 

Handedness Using Standard Osteological 

Measurements of the Shoulder Girdle 

and Arm Long Bones from Individuals 

of Known Handedness 

Marie Elaine Danforth, PhD*, and Andrew R. Thompson, BA, University 

of Southern Mississippi, Department of Anthropology and Sociology, 118 

College Drive, #5074, Hattiesburg, MS 39406 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to better 

evaluate accuracy in determination of handedness in skeletal remains 

using standard arm bone dimensions. 


humanity by presenting the first analysis of the relationship between a 

number of standard measurements of the upper limb and handedness in a 

larger sample of individuals of known handedness. 

A variety of studies in forensic anthropology have attempted to assess 

the ability to determine handedness using skeletal markers. 

312

Morphological indicators used have included degree of beveling of the 

glenoid fossa and radial tendon attachment characteristics. Other 

investigations have worked with long bone size. Based on Wolff’s Law, 

they have assumed that arm bones on the side of handedness will be larger. 

However, most of these analyses have used only a small subset of the 

upper limb measurements standardly taken, and have evaluated them in 

prehistoric skeletal populations with the expectation that about 10% will 

be left-handed. While a few studies have involved individuals of known 

handedness, they have had serious limitations. For example, Blackburn 

and Knusel (2006) primarily looked at only one measurement, epicondylar 

breadth; Schulter-Ellis (1979) evaluated a few more measurements, but 

the sample size was ten. This project improves upon these investigations 

by analyzing all of the measurements suggested in the Standard 

Osteological Database (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) on a larger sample of 

individuals of known handedness. 

Data for 34 individuals (26 right-handed, 8 left-handed) were taken 

from several sources, including various local forensic cases and the 

database of donated cases at the University of Tennessee. Both sexes were 

represented as were African, European, and Hispanic ancestries. 

Measurements included both length and transverse dimensions of the 

scapula, clavicle, humerus, ulna, and radius. As with the previous studies, 

it was hypothesized that dimensions would be greater on the side of 

handedness. 

Bone length differences were addressed first since several studies 

have suggested they varied by handedness. The humeri were found to be 

longer on the side of handedness in 38% (10/26) of cases as compared to 

about 70% for both the radii and ulnae; the mean length differential 

between sides for the individual bones was 2.1 mm. When the combined 

radius and humerus lengths were compared bilaterally, the greater sum 

correlated with side of handedness in 63% (14/22) of individuals with a 

mean length difference of 2.9 mm. For the combined length of all arm 

long bones, values were 60% (12/20) and 4.1 mm, respectively. 

Results of analysis of transverse measurements were of mixed 

success. Scapular and clavicular dimensions showed extensive bilateral 

variation, inaccurately predicting handedness in over half of the cases, 

especially left-handers. Greater epicondylar breadth correlated with 

handedness in 18 of 28 (64%) individuals, or just slightly better than that 

reported in Blackburn and Knusel’s (2006) study. When differences were 

present in the maximum midshaft measurement of the humerus, the side 

of handedness was larger in 84% of individuals. The minimum diameter 

measurement was correct in 60%. Transverse measurements of the radius 

and ulna offered less promise since they were much more likely to be 

bilaterally symmetrical. When a consistent pattern of differences was seen 

(at least two of the four measurements varied), it favored the side of 

handedness in 50% (10/20) of cases; perhaps equally noteworthy, it 

favored the opposite side in 6 of 20 (30%) cases. Among all of these data, 

no distinctions by sex or ancestral group were seen. 

Overall, use of the standard measurements is not very encouraging in 

determining handedness. The humeral midshaft dimensions seem to be 

the most accurate followed by length of the individual forearm bones. In 

contrast, the other measurements considered had accuracy rates barely 

higher than those associated with flipping a coin. It is still possible that 

the basic assumption is not necessarily flawed. Steele and Mays (1995) 

have argued that variation in bone lengths, and presumably transverse 

dimensions as well, are primarily related to environmental factors. 

Furthermore, extensive bilateral asymmetry has been found in many 

prehistoric populations, but results here may suggest that modern 

individuals are less likely to perform the strenuous activities necessary to 

produce size differentials similar to those seen in the past. Therefore, it is 

recommended that additional means beyond bone asymmetry be 

developed to more accurately assess handedness. 

Handedness, Long Bone Measurements, Bilateral Asymmetry 

H36 Bilateral Asymmetry and Handedness: 

Are they Really Related? 

Kathryn R.D. Driscoll, MA*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 

Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, 

TN 37996 


statistical correlation between handedness and the bilateral asymmetry 

found in human skeletal remains. 


humanity by showing whether bilateral asymmetry can and should be used 

to determine handedness. Determining the handedness of an unknown 

individual would expand the biological profile. Every characteristic that 

strengthens the biological profile of an individual makes an impact on the 

forensic community. 

Being able to recognize identifying characteristics from skeletal 

remains is essential in the practice of forensic anthropology. Any 

improvement in identification techniques is beneficial to those practicing 

in the field. Determining the handedness of an individual from their 

skeletal remains is a tool that can be used by the forensic scientist in 

helping to develop a more complete biological profile from which to 

identify an individual. 

Bilateral asymmetry of the limbs has been used as an indicator of 

handedness in skeletal remains. When an individual has an arm 

(specifically the humerus) that is longer on the right side- it has been 

assumed that they were likely right handed. Another example, Kerley 

(1972) indicated that the bilateral asymmetry seen in clavicles could be 

used to determine handedness. In contrast, an individual with a longer 

right leg (especially the tibia) is believed to be left handed due to the use 

of the opposite leg as a “plant leg.” While this practice of identifying 

handedness is widely (and loosely) used, the statistical significance of the 

difference has not been thoroughly examined; it has been seen as a given 

that the sides should differ because of difference in usage. 

Numerous studies have been done that have examined the asymmetry 

that exists within an individual skeleton; this asymmetry has been used as 

an indicator of handedness. The reverse rationalization has also been 

given- handedness has been used to explain bilateral asymmetry. Steele 

and Mays (1995) examined upper limb bones within skeletons dating from 

the eleventh to the sixteenth century, while Èuk, Leben-Seljak, and 

Tefanèiè (2001) noted bilateral asymmetry within a medieval sample. 

Steele and Mays noted distinctive asymmetry while the medieval 

skeletons exhibited correlations between the humerus and the opposite 

tibia. However, obviously, the actual handedness is unknown in these 

samples. Glassman and Bass (1986) recognized the lack of known 

handedness, and instead, looked for correlations between jugular foramen 

size and limb length (both which have been used as indicators of 

handedness) within single individuals. They did not find significant 

association between the jugular formation size and the limb length within 

single individuals. Because handedness was unknown for this sample, 

determining which characteristic (if either) was related to handedness was 

not possible. 

The lack of known handedness was a definite limiter in each of the 

above studies. In 1980, Schulter-Elli utilized medical school cadavers 

with known handedness. This study supported use related differences; 

however, the sample only included ten pairs of arms (humerus, radius and 

ulna) and scapulae. The current study was an effort to correlate bilateral 

asymmetry with handedness by utilizing a larger sample of skeleton with 

known handedness. 

The William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection housed at the 

University of Tennessee in Knoxville was utilized in this study. Whenever 

possible, a biological questionnaire is completed when an individual is 

donated. These include a question related to handedness. This 

information in conjunction with the skeletal remains presented a good 

opportunity to examine the actual statistical correlation between 

handedness and bilateral asymmetry. 


For this study, the maximum length of each pair of limb bones (arms 

and legs) and the clavicles were measured. After examining the 105 

individual donations with known (self reported) handedness; the results 

were not particularly supportive of practiced identifications. Those 

individuals reported to be right handed exhibited significant difference 

between the sides; they exhibited bilateral asymmetry. However, lefties 

showed no significant asymmetry. In addition, when the left and right 

handed samples were joined, it was not possible to separate them into 

groups of handedness. The sample was made up more heavily of 

individuals noted as “right handed”; therefore, there was a sampling bias. 

However, the ratio of the sample does mimic the ratio of handedness seen 

in the general population. Establishing the handedness of an unknown 

sample would prove very difficult unless it was a more unique sample than 

was available here. 

Handedness, Bilateral Asymmetry, Limb Bones 

H37 Correlation of Forensic Anthropologic 

Findings With DNA Profiles Obtained 

From Cold Cases 

Heather Walsh-Haney, MA*, and Sulekha R. Coticone, PhD*, Florida 

Gulf Coast University, 10501 FGCU Boulevard, Ft. Myers, FL 33965 


methods of extraction of DNA from environmentally challenged samples 

(bones) that can be used for cold cases. 


humanity by providing the physical anthropologist alternate methods to 

detect DNA from samples commonly seen in cold cases providing rapid 

resolution of cases. 

The identification of missing and unidentified persons in cold cases 

poses a number of challenges. Current Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 

extraction methods, apart from being extremely time consuming and 

labor-intensive, carry additional risks of degradation and contamination. 

The recovery of DNA from bones presents specific difficulties in DNA 

purification and the amplification using polymerase chain reaction in the 

presence of inhibitors. Moreover, samples of DNA extracted from bones 

may be highly degraded and difficult to extract in sufficient quality and 

quantity. Associating anthropologic findings from macroscopic analyses 

with DNA results provide (1) for an effective method for rapid resolution 

of cases, and (2) a direct test of the accuracy of traditional anthropological 

analyses. 

In the present study cold case samples (N=45) from Florida Medical 

Examiner Districts 4 and 20 were initially analyzed using forensic 

anthropologic methods: nonmetric and metric analysis of bones and teeth 

in order to determine the unknown decedent’s biological profile, e.g., age, 

ancestry, sex, and stature. Age estimation was determined through 

macroscopic analysis of the sternal end of the right fourth rib and pubic 

symphyseal surfaces. Ancestry, sex, and stature were primarily 

determined through metric assessment (in mm.) with FORDISC 3.9. 

Subsequently, fibular bone was excised from each decedent using a 

Stryker oscillating bone saw. A new saw blade was used for each sample 

in order to prevent contamination. The fibular sections consisted of one 

(1) 2-inch by 4-inch window that was be divided in half and placed into 

sterile test ampoules (e.g., one COVARIS and one mortar/pestle sample) 

following Armed Forces DNA Identification laboratory (AFDIL) protocol. 

When the right fibula was absent the right fibula was substituted. 

For DNA extraction, a novel ultrasonic technology, the Covaris 

E200, was utilized to rapidly and effectively extract even trace amounts of 

DNA from human long bones. Notably, this technology not only extracts 

DNA but also preserves its integrity since there is minimal heating or 

foaming during the automated extraction process. The goal for the 

extraction procedure involved minimal handling of DNA after extraction 

to prevent contamination of the DNA obtained from other sources e.g., 


technician, anthropologist, and other cases. Human bones were processed 

using the Covaris Cryo prep unit, followed by ultrasonic treatment with 

the Covaris E200. DNA was obtained by salt extraction followed by 

purification with silica beads. Subsequently, the DNA was amplified using 

primers designed for the amelogenin locus. Both agarose and capillary 

electrophoresis analysis revealed DNA of high quality and quantity from 

control bone samples. The authors will also present data from some cold 

cases correlating the sex and origin based on anthropological findings vs. 

STR analysis. The protocol is being optimized to decrease inhibition and 

degradation for use with environmentally compromised samples including 

those human skeletal remains that have been burned, both during the post 

and perimortem intervals, and/or exposed to the elements years (e.g., 

water, sun, wind, and soil) for months to years. 

Anthropologic Findings, Bones, DNA Extraction 

H38 Ossification of Laryngeal Structures: 

As Indicators of Age 

Heather M. Garvin, BA, BS*, 1422 Pearce Park, Apartment # 6, Erie, 

PA 16502 


reliability of using the fusion of the greater horns of the hyoid and 

ossification of the thyroid cartilage as age indicators as well as the general 

trends of these processes. 


humanity by demonstrating how radiographic examination of the 

laryngeal structures from a modern forensic population can provide 

further data regarding these aging patterns and suggests that, while general 

trends can be noted, determination of a narrow age range is not possible. 

A detailed literature search reveals conflicting conclusions regarding 

the pattern of ossification of the laryngeal structures, specifically the 

fusion of the greater horns of the hyoid and the calcification and 

ossification of the thyroid cartilage. While all studies agree that the two 

processes occur after the age of 20, there are disputes regarding the 

reliability of using the patterns of fusion and ossification for age 

determination. 

Although Forensic Anthropology is a rapidly growing field, the 

reliance of Medical Examiners on anthropological experts is still below 

par. While skeletal remains or individual body parts are likely to find their 

way to a Forensic Anthropologist, sending decomposed, fleshed 

unidentified bodies presents logistical difficulties for many offices. 

Experienced Forensic Anthropologists may not be available locally, and 

unless the Anthropologist is willing to retrieve the body from the Medical 

Examiner’s Office, an anthropological examination is unlikely. 

Radiographic analyses present a compromise to the current situation. 

Areas known to ossify with age such as the thyroid cartilage and costal 

cartilages are generally extracted during routine autopsies. The process of 

taking radiographs of such structures and developing the film can be 

completed in a matter of minutes, and can be ready for examination even 

before the autopsy has been completed. Because these radiographic 

techniques do not interfere with any standard autopsy procedures, it also 

presents an opportunity for Forensic Anthropologists to study large 

modern samples. Furthermore, the legal and moral issues faced when 

attempting to retain bone samples for analysis, are less frequently 

encountered. 

In this study, 106 isolated laryngeal structures removed by the 

Medical Examiners during autopsy were radiographically examined. 

Fusion of the greater horns of the hyoid and thyroid cartilage ossification 

patterns were noted, along with the age, sex, and ancestry of each 

individual. Statistical analyses were run to determine if any significant 

correlation existed between the fusion and ossification patterns with age. 

These data were also analyzed for population patterns or trends to the 

results of previous studies. 

314

Results conclude that although sexually variant trends may be noted, 

correlating the degree of ossification to such narrow age ranges as 

provided by previous studies, is neither practical, nor accurate. 

Ossification patterns were insignificant between racial groups. Likewise, 

fusion of the greater horns of the hyoid was proven to be erratic and only 

useful when fused to conclude that an individual is a middle-aged to older 

adult. 

Traditional studies have presented theories suggesting the hyoid 

fuses, and thyroid cartilage ossifies with age, and that this information 

may be used to facilitate age determination. However, these older studies 

generally establish small sample sizes. The most well known study, 

conducted by Cerny in 1983 used a sample of five ossified thyroid 

cartilages to create general trends for age groups, which forensic 

anthropologists still refer to today. Examining these patterns on a modern, 

known sample improves and may serve to disprove the reliability of such 

techniques. Furthermore, a closer investigation may reveal that aging is 

likely only one of many influences in these processes, where ossification 

may only be related to age at death in a merely probabilistic way, similar 

to the probability of undergoing a particular process or event during a 

particular life span. This scenario is a far cry from the narrow age ranges 

applied to the hyoid and thyroid cartilage from past studies. 

Thyroid Cartilage, Hyoid, Ossification 

H39 Age Related Changes of the Distal Humerus 

Emily Jeavons, BS*, Bournemouth University, School of Conservation 

Science, Talbot Campus, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, United Kingdom 


distal humerus and the supra-condylar ridges in particular, changes with 

age and whether sex, handedness or occupation have any effect on these 

changes. 


humanity by introducing the idea that the distal humerus undergoes 

distinct and recordable changes as an individual ages and suggest that 

these changes could be a contributor to multifactoral age at death 

estimation. 

This study evaluates seven morphological changes, which occur at 

the distal humerus. It aims to discover if these changes are age-related and 

whether they can be used to estimate the age at death of an unknown 

individual. 

The morphological changes studied were classified as Lateral Ridge, 

Lateral Enthesophytes, Double Ridge, Macro Porosity, Pinprick Porosity, 

Medial Ridge and Medial Enthesophytes. Lateral Ridge and Medial 

Ridge assess the overall appearance of the lateral and medial 

supracondylar ridges of the humerus respectively, Lateral Enthesophytes 

and Medial Enthesophytes assess the percentage coverage by 

enthesophytes along the lateral and medial supracondylar ridges, Macro 

Porosity and Pinprick Porosity assess the percentage coverage by porosity 

along the lateral supracondylar ridge and Double Ridge assess the 

presence of two ridges forming along the lateral supracondylar ridge. 

A scoring system was created so that the severity of each of the seven 

morphological changes could be recorded, for each humeri studied. A 

sample of both left and right humeri belonging to individuals of known 

age and sex from the Christchurch Spitalfields collection was studied. All 

appropriate humeri from the Spitalfields collection were scored using the 

system developed. 

The results were subjected to statistical testing and then analysed to 

see if any of the observed changes could be significantly related to age at 

death. Due to the anatomical position of the area studied, other factors, 

such as handedness, occupation and sex, could also contribute to the 

severity of any changes that occur. For this reason, comparisons were 

made between males and females, and left and right humeri. 

Age at death showed a significant correlation with four of the 

observed morphological traits for females, Lateral Ridge score and Double 

Ridge score for left and right humeri, and Medial Ridge score and Medial 

Enthesophyte score for left humeri only. For males, age at death showed 

a significant correlation with Medial Enthesophyte score for the left 

humeri only. 

Male scores were significantly higher than female scores for Lateral 

Ridge for both left and right humeri, and Pinprick Porosity for left humeri 

only. Female scores for Medial Enthesophytes were significantly higher 

than male scores for left humeri only. 

The scores from right humeri were significantly greater than the 

scores from left humeri for Lateral Ridge for both males and females, and 

for Lateral Enthesophytes for males only. The scores from left humeri 

were significantly greater than those from right humeri for Medial 

Enthesophytes for females only. 

A multiple regression analysis using dummy variables was carried 

out. The outcome showed that age at death could not be accurately 

predicted using the seven morphological traits studied, but the model for 

females was far more accurate than the model for males. If further work 

could be carried out, it may be possible to produce a model that would 

predict age at death from the distal humerus, but only for female 

Individuals. 

Distal Humerus, Age-Related Changes, Supra-Condylar Ridge 

H40 The Determination of Age Using 

the Acetabulum of the Os Coxa 

Kyra E. Stull, BA*, 108 Firethorne Drive, Greer, SC 29650; Dustin M. 

James, BA, 7735 Village Drive, Knoxville, TN 37919; and Joseph T. 

Hefner, MA, 241 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996 

The goal of this presentation is to provide the audience with analyses 

of several features of the acetabulum of the os coxa as an indicator of age 

at death. Participants will be introduced to a new methodological 

approach using this feature, as well as a reexamination of the methods 

introduced by Rouge Maillert et al. (2004). 


humanity by providing another nonmetric approach for the determination 

of age at death. Revisions of previously published methods combined 

with employing a larger sample size and multiple ancestries permits a 

more comprehensive examination. The authors’ method, combined with 

other nonmetric analyses, provides further support when making a 

determination of age. With the os coxa’s longevity and little susceptibility 

to trauma, this method could be employed in a variety of contexts. 

Statistically and anthroposcopically, the rim follows a predictable 

degenerative pattern that is correlated with age and is appropriate as a new 

method of analysis. 

Multiple regions of the os coxae have been used in studies related to 

aging methods. Several researchers have documented the use of the 

acetabulum in aging studies, but most have inadequate or inappropriate 

sample sizes, or they are restricted to white males. The current study 

considers several characters of the acetabulum on the os coxa for 

degenerative changes to assess the technique as an age at death estimator. 

Drawing on the previous work of Rouge Maillart et al. (2004), 400 

modern individuals ranging from 15 to 96 years old, and of known sex and 

ancestry, were observed from the William Bass Skeletal Collection housed 

at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee and the Hamilton 

County Medical Examiners Office, Chattanooga, Tennessee. Individual 

os coxae were assessed for the progression of degeneration in three major 

areas of the acetabulum: the acetabular rim, the acetabular fossa, and the 

apex of the lunar surface. Each variable was subdivided into several 

character states following anatomical descriptions and/or previously 

published descriptions of degenerative change. 

Results indicate that degeneration of the acetabulum occurs linearly 

and is positively associated with progressive age. Boxplots of the mean, 

standard error, and standard deviation were visually examined for a 


general understanding of the significance of each variable. Spearman 

correlation analysis and Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) tests were performed on 

the dataset. Kruskal-Wallis, a nonparametric analysis of variance, has 

been previously demonstrated to be appropriate for ordinal data. The 

Kruskal-Wallis tests suggest both sex and ancestry are correlated 

significantly with age. Of the three acetabular variables, only rim 

morphology and acetabulum apex were consistently correlated and 

significant in the K-W tests. This is apart from the black male and female 

sample, both of which likely suffer from small sample sizes. White males 

and females showed significant correlation between age and the 

degenerative changes on the rim (males: r (6) = 0.526, p < .001; females: 

r (6) = 0.573, p < .001) and the apex (males r (6) = 0.390, p < .001; 

females: r (6) = 0.394, p < .001). These two traits also had significant 

Kruskal-Wallis tests (K-W = 161.425 and 115.280, respectively, p < .002). 

Acetabulum, Age at Death, Os Coxa 

H41 Matjes River Rockshelter: 

A Case of Commingled Remains 

Ericka N L’Abbe, PhD*, Marius Loots, BSc, and Natalie Keough, BSc, 

University of Pretoria, Faculty of Health Sciences, Department of 

Anatomy, PO Box 2034, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have alternative ideas 

for researching forensic problems on existing skeletal collections, gain 

insight into one approach to sorting and documenting cases of large scale 

commingling, and learn about the basic demography of the Matjes River 

skeletal collection. 


humanity by providing a better understanding of sorting such remains in a 

forensic context. This study benefits both physical and forensic 

anthropologists in that it presents alternative sources for researching 

current problems and demonstrates what can be achieved from human 

remains when modern techniques, such as DNA, are not available. For 

local archaeologists, the results will help in understanding the human side 

to the cultural remains found on the site. 

The sorting of commingled remains is not an uncommon practice in 

South Africa, where several forensic cases have been known to contain 

more than one person. The greatest number of skeletal remains from a 

single forensic case has come from the town of Duiwelskloof, in which the 

disarticulated bones of 11 people were packed into a grain bag and 

discarded in the forest. This case brought about an interest in exploring 

various anthropological methodologies in sorting human remains and how 

they could be applied in a situation where the outcome of a court case was 

not dependent on the result of the study. 

Between 1932 and 1956, one of the largest collections of human 

remains was removed from the Matjes River Rockshelter, which dates 

from 3,000 to 10,000 BP. However, the methodologies used to excavate 

these skeletons were less than adequate. After removal, the bones were 

stored by skeletal element and hence, commingled. This afforded an 

opportunity to test various approaches to sort the remains into individuals 

and, at the same time, the demographics (sex and age) of the commingled 

group in question could be described. 

The first phase of the study was to determine the extent of the 

collection, the minimum number of individuals (MNI) as well as to 

provide an estimation of age and sex for the remains. Each box of bones 

in the collection and each possible individual in a box was assigned a 

unique number and photographed. All bones were counted and the most 

common skeletal elements were selected to establish an MNI. In the skull, 

the most numerous were the right parietal and the left mandible with 80 

and 71 unique pieces, respectively. A similar pattern was observed in the 

upper limbs with 115 left humeri, 95 left radii, and 119 left ulnae. No less 

than 50 persons were recorded from the lower limbs. Approximately, 27 

females, 27 males and 17 persons of indeterminate sex were recorded. Of 


these 39 were adults, 27 juveniles and 5 of indeterminate age. As skeletal 

elements are paired with each other, it is expected that the estimation of 

age and sex will change. In conclusion, it is possible to say that the Matjes 

River skeletal collection contains at least 100 people; future research will 

focus on developing techniques in which various skeletal elements can be 

sorted to specific individuals. 

Studies on commingled skeletal collections will serve to provide a 

better understanding of sorting such remains in a forensic context. This 

study benefits both physical and forensic anthropologists in that it presents 

alternative sources for researching current problems and demonstrates 

what can be achieved from human remains when modern techniques, such 

as DNA, are not available. For local archaeologists, the results will help in 

understanding the human side to the cultural remains found on the site. 

Skeletons, Research Collections, Commingled Remains 

H42 Differential Wound Healing Patterns 

in Bone: A Case Study Involving 

Multiple Antemortem Injuries 

Allison Bouwman, BA*, Jessica Dimka, BS, Jennifer Halpain, BS, 

Turhon A. Murad, PhD, and Eric J. Bartelink, PhD, California State 

University, Chico, 400 West First Street, Department of Anthropology, 

Butte #311, Chico, CA 95929-0400 


understanding of differential healing patterns of antemortem injuries, 

skeletal changes associated with amputation, and potential osteological 

changes resulting from eye implant surgery. 


humanity by enhancing the understanding of bone remodeling processes 

in antemortem injuries when the mechanism and date of injury are known. 

In August 2001, human remains were discovered along a roadside in 

northern California and were submitted to the Human Identification 

Laboratory at California State University, Chico for analysis. The remains 

were subsequently identified and later donated by the next-of-kin for 

educational purposes. The biological profile indicated that the remains 

belonged to an adult male, between 40 and 50 years of age, with an 

estimated stature between 6’2” and 6’4”. Although Fordisc 3.0 classified 

the decedent as Hispanic male (posterior probability = .434, typicality = 

.625), the cranium could not be excluded from several of the other 

reference samples in the databank. Nonmetric analysis of the skull further 

suggested a combination of European and Asian traits. The decedent was 

identified as an adult male, 46 years of age, with a reported stature of 6’2”. 

Although the missing persons record reported the decedent as “White”, the 

individual is believed to have been of mixed ancestry. 

Prior to his death, the decedent sustained numerous injuries resulting 

from a motorcycle accident, including fractures of the thorax, the vertebral 

column, the distal right radius (Colles’s fracture), the proximal right 

humeral head, the left and right innominates, the right proximal foot 

phalanges of digits I and III, the left femur, and the left tibia and fibula. 

The left femur sustained a massive comminuted fracture and was repaired 

with an internal fixation device, which is enveloped by hypertrophic bone 

growth along the lateral aspect of the diaphysis. The injury to the left tibia 

and fibula resulted in a “below-the-knee” amputation. These elements are 

represented by their proximal ends, and both show enclosed medullary 

shafts at the amputation site. The decedent also had an implanted left eye. 

The inferior border of the left orbit shows significant evidence of bony 

remodeling, with perforations that interconnect the orbit with the nasal 

aperture and maxillary sinus. The orbital plate and inferior orbital margin 

are also depressed relative to the contralateral side, and show marked 

asymmetry. 

Although these injuries resulted from a single traumatic event, there 

are substantial differences in the degree of wound healing between 

elements. Injuries of the ribs, phalanges, radius, innominates, and 

316

amputation site all appear to be well healed. However, the fracture of the 

left femur shows active signs of hypertrophic bone formation, indicating 

an earlier stage of healing compared with the other injuries. 

This presentation focuses on differential processes of healing and 

bone remodeling associated with antemortem trauma. The injuries in this 

case study were sustained in the same event but show varying stages of 

healing. This study highlights that a greater understanding of the timing 

and pattern of antemortem injuries can be especially useful for the 

purposes of identification. 

Amputation, Antemortem Trauma, Orthopedic Devices 

H43 Hyoid Fusion and the Relationship With 


Implications 

Jonathan D. Bethard, MA*, and Christine M. Pink, MA, The University 

of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand that 

fracture of the hyoid bone is dependent on the type of traumatic force 

applied to it. The research presented here was tested on a sample of hyoid 

bones from the McCormick Collection curated at the University of 

Tennessee. Fracture was statistically compared with fusion of greater 

horns to the body and results indicate that the hyoid is a diagnostic element 

for reconstructing various kinds of trauma. However, the relationship 

between fusion and fracture is statistically insignificant in this sample. 


humanity by stressing that hyoid bones should be carefully examined in 

any instance of suspected neck trauma and that fusion of the great horns 

to the body is not a statistically significant indicator of the presence or 

absence of fracture. 

Although hyoid fractures only comprise a mere 0.002% of all bony 

fractures (Bagnoli et al. 1988), their importance in forensic contexts 

cannot be overlooked. Oftentimes such fractures are indicative of direct 

trauma to the neck resulting from manual strangulation, ligature 

strangulation, or hanging (Ubelaker 1992; Pollanen and Chiasson 1996; 

Polannen and Ubelaker 1997). While some hyoids may be more likely to 

fracture than others, numerous factors influence the likelihood of such 

occurrences (Pollanen and Chiasson 1996). Such variables include the 

magnitude and position of applied force, rigidity of the bone itself, and 

shape (Pollanen and Chiasson 1996). 

The union of the parts of the hyoid is correlated to the age and sex of 

the individual to which they belong. Over time, the greater cornua fuse to 

the hyoid body and “essentially become one bone” (Guilbeau 1992). In 

order to determine the occurrence of hyoid fusion, O’Halloran and Lundy 

(1987) examined hyoid bones of 300 autopsy case from Oregon and 

California. According to their findings, some fusion was observed in the 

third decade and increased with age, resulting in “70% of the joints in men 

and 60% of the joints in women fused by age 60” (O’Halloran and Lundy 

1987). Unlike the previous study, Miller and coworker’s examination 188 

male and 127 female hyoid bones found “little evidence for a sex 

difference in the age at which bilateral fusion occurs” (Miller et al. 1998). 

Furthermore, the author’s argue that numerous elderly individuals present 

hyoids with either unilateral or bilateral non-fusion. 

In theory, a hyoid with bilateral fusion would be more likely to fail 

than a hyoid with unfused cornua. The literature reveals variable 

frequency rates of fracture dependent on the type of trauma inflicted and 

the degree to which the hyoid bone is ossified. Ubelaker’s (1992) review 

of hyoid bone fracture delineated three types of trauma that 

characteristically result in bone failure. He writes that hyoid fractures 

resultant of hanging have an incidence that ranges from 6 to 20%. Luke 

et al. (1985) note that the variable location of ligature placement, along 

with other mechanical factors such as drop height, account for the low 

frequency of hyoid fracture during hanging. The frequency of fracture due 

to ligature strangulation is substantially higher with rates ranging from 13 

to 54% (Ubelaker 1992). Manual strangulation rates appear to be the 

highest with frequencies ranging from 17 to 71% (Ubelaker 1992). 

Furthermore, in an attempt to qualify prior reports, Pollanen and Chiasson 

(1996) evaluated the radiographs of twenty hyoid bones of victims of 

manual strangulation. Of the twenty hyoids utilized in their study, ten 

exhibited fracture and ten displayed no sign of fracture. Their data 

illustrated that 70% of fractured hyoids were fused, whereas 30% of 

unfractured hyoids were fused. Pollanen and Chiasson assert “this data 

indicates that age-dependant fusion of the hyoid bone increases the 

probability of hyoid bone fracture.” 

In order to evaluate the relationship between hyoid fusion and its 

propensity for fracture, hyoid bones from the McCormick Collection 

curated by the Department of Anthropology at the University of Tennessee 

were examined. Condensed case reports ranging from 1986 to 1996 were 

evaluated to determine instances of fatal neck trauma including manual 

strangulation, ligature strangulation, and hanging. Hyoids for which all 

data (sex, age-at-death, and manner-of-death) were available were 

exclusively examined (n=28). Mean age-at-death of the sample was 37.28 

years and 32.1% (n=9) of hyoids in the sample were fractured. 

Interestingly, 100% (n=4) of manual strangulation cases were fractured 

while 20.8% (n=5) of hanging cases were fractured. Although the sample 

size is small, these results produce similar frequencies to those of Luke 

and colleagues (1985) and Ubelaker (1992). 

Non-parametric chi-square analyses tested the relationship between 

the state of fusion and fracture and produced statistically insignificant 

results (P=.600). Such results do not indicate a significant relationship 

between fusion of the greater cornua and fracture. These findings suggest 

that forensic anthropologists should carefully examine all suspect cases of 

fatal neck trauma and that predictable patterns between hyoid fusion and 

fracture are elusive as evidenced by this sample. 

Hyoid Bone, Neck Trauma, Forensic Anthropology 

H44 The Potential Diagnostic Value of Scanning 



Wendy E. Potter, BA, MS*, Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the potential diagnostic 

value of scanning electron microscopy in the differential diagnosis of bone 

lesions and the anthropological analysis of human remains in forensic 

settings. 


humanity by presenting microscopic skeletal lesion margin characteristics 

for three different types of neoplastic diseases and by introducing new 

terminology to describe the microscopic features observed in the SEM 

images. 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the potential diagnostic 

value of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in the differential diagnosis 

of bone lesions and the anthropological analysis of human remains in 

forensic settings. 

The study of pathological conditions in skeletal samples is restricted 

to bony manifestations of disease; the differential diagnosis of bone 

lesions identifies certain pathological conditions as likely candidates, 

although none can be eliminated based on the standards currently 

available. While paleopathological analyses have the liberty to stop at this 

point, forensic investigations require more specificity, particularly in cases 

of unidentified individuals represented solely by skeletal remains. 

Previous anthropological studies have demonstrated the necessity of 

multidisciplinary approaches for the most accurate study of pathological 

conditions in archaeological specimens. Current non-destructive methods 


for diagnosing disease from the skeleton include gross morphological 

examination and radiography of the lesions. This pilot study represents 

the initial phase of a research project that will test whether SEM 

contributes any additional diagnostic information to the identification of 

pathological conditions by examining the margins of lesions resulting 

from various disease processes in a modern documented sample. The 

hypothesis to be tested is as follows: SEM will illustrate differences in the 

margin morphology of bone lesions. The null hypothesis is that there is 

no difference in the data provided by gross morphology, radiography, and 

SEM. The alternative hypothesis is that significant differences exist 

among the morphological data provided by gross examination, 

radiography, and scanning electron microscopy. The criterion for 

determining if a difference exists is whether new terminology is needed to 

describe the microscopic morphological features observed in the SEM 

images. If the current descriptors are inadequate, then SEM is inherently 

contributing new information. 

Three specimens with clinically diagnosed cancers (metastatic breast 

cancer, diffuse histiocytic lymphoma, and multiple myeloma) were drawn 

from the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology’s documented skeletal 

collection. Gross observation, radiography, and SEM were used to 

examine bones with lesions. The skeletal elements were radiographed 

using a Hewlett Packard 43805N Faxitron X-ray machine, and the 

backscattered electron detector was utilized to gather topographic 

information from the bones in the low vacuum mode of the JEOL JSM- 

5800LV scanning electron microscope (equipped with Oxford Isis 300 

digital image capturing). To test whether scanning electron microscopy 

contributed information not available through current methods, all three 

images (digital photographs of gross morphology, radiographs, and SEM 

images) for each specimen were visually assessed and a written 

description of the observed morphology was generated. 

The preliminary results of this research indicate that SEM—in 

conjunction with radiography and gross morphological examination—is a 

valuable tool for the recognition of neoplastic disease from skeletal 

remains in modern populations and forensic settings. Based on the 

specimens examined, scanning electron microscopy contributes additional 

data not previously available using traditional techniques; the microscopic 

features observed in the SEM images were not adequately described by 

standard gross morphological or radiographic terminology. Accordingly, 

feedback from the forensic community will be sought to refine new 

terminology that accurately and meaningfully captures the variation 

observed. However, a larger sample size (encompassing other 

pathological conditions) is necessary to strengthen this conclusion and 

determine whether SEM contributes diagnostic robusticity to the 

differential diagnosis of bone lesions in forensic anthropological contexts, 

as well as paleopathological and bioarchaeological research. Such 

diagnostic specificity would greatly benefit forensic anthropological 

investigations by contributing to the determination of cause and manner of 

death and/or the identification of unknown individuals. 

Skeletal Lesions, Osteology, Scanning Electron Microscopy 

H45 Evaluation of the Mandibular 

Angle as an Indicator of Sex 

Carlos J. Zambrano, MS, Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, Laurel Freas, MA, 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, and Michael W. Warren, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, 

FL 32610 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the utility of the 

mandibular angle as an indicator of sex in unknown human skeletal 

remains. 



humanity by demonstrating that the mandibular angle is a poor indicator 

for determining biological sex. 

Determining the biological sex of unidentified human skeletal 

remains is one of the most crucial components of the biological profile 

created by the osteologist as ancestral designations and age assessments 

are known to be affected by this factor. The accuracy of the sex 

determination is in turn often dependent on which skeletal elements are 

present for analysis. Ideally, the os coxae are employed because their 

morphology is particularly indicative of an individual’s sex. 

Unfortunately, the morphological features that are most useful for sex 

estimation are often destroyed by taphonomic forces such as erosion or 

scavenger activity. Additionally, the preferred elements for the estimation 

of sex are not always present for analysis due to their initial absence thus 

forcing the anthropologist to examine other elements to determine sex. 

The cranium also presents characteristics that are useful for sex 

assessment; however, these features may be damaged or lost as well. The 

mandible is one of the densest bones in the skeleton and is more likely to 

survive taphonomic forces in an archaeological or forensic context. 

Although, sex estimates using the mandible are generally not as accurate 

as other elements it is at times the only useful or available element present 

for analysis. 

It is generally accepted and taught in classrooms that the mandibular 

angle is an indicator of sex, where males have a squared and more vertical 

angle, while females tend to have a more obtuse angle. The mandibular 

angle is a standard osteometric measurement taken with a mandibulometer. 

Standard osteometric manuals describe the measurement as the angle made 

by the inferior border of the body and the posterior border of the ramus. 

Few texts give more than a general statement about the mandibular angle, 

usually suggesting that it is a non-metric indicator of sex. The document 

that provides a numeric threshold reference is an obscure older European 

text that suggests that an angle > 125 degrees is female and an angle < 125 

degrees is a male (Acsadi and Nemeskeri 1970). 

This study examines the validity of the mandibular angle 

measurement as an indicator of sex using data derived from the Terry 

Collection and modern forensic cases. The Terry collection sample 

consists of 315 individuals (166 females, 149 males) of African and 

European ancestry. The forensic sample will be of a comparable size and 

composition derived from cases processed by the C.A. Pound Human 

Identification laboratory at the University of Florida. 

Statistical analysis is performed on the sample as a whole, by 

ancestry group, and by sample. The percentages of individuals falling 

above and below the 125 degree threshold are calculated. Additionally, 

ANCOVA is used to determine if sex, ancestry, age, or sample have an 

effect on mandibular angle measurements. Preliminary results indicate 

that there is a great deal of overlap in mandibular angle measurements 

between males and females. With ancestry groups combined the 125 

degree threshold misclassified 55 % of males, and 37 % of females. When 

controlling for ancestry the threshold misclassified 63 % of European 

males and 33 % of European females. The threshold misclassified 47 % 

of African males and 41 % of African females. The ANCOVA results 

indicate that ancestry has a significant relationship with mandibular angle 

variance; however, age and sex do not. The above results suggest that the 

mandibular angle is a poor lone indicator of sex and that the 125 degree 

threshold is not a statistically significant boundary between males and 

females in the samples. When attempting to determine the sex of an 

individual it is necessary to use as many indicators as possible, although 

the mandibular angle is a poor indicator of sex this study did not 

investigate its usefulness for sex estimation with other traits. Additionally, 

the results indicate that population differences exist and require further 

exploration along with other indicators to determine the relationship 

between sex and ancestry. 

Mandibular Angle, Sex Determination, Forensic Anthropology 

318

H46 Test of a Method Regarding Sex 

Indication of the Human Hyoid Body 

Michelle L. Osborn, BA*, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 

Louisiana State University, Howe-Russel Building, Baton Rouge, LA 

70803; Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, FACES Lab, Louisiana State University, E105 Howe- 

Russell Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; and Michael Leitner, PhD, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Loiusiana State University, 

E111 Howe-Russell Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

After attending this presentation, attendees will become familiar with 

the three measurements of the human hyoid (out of 16 possible 

measurements) that have been used repeatedly to demonstrate differences 

between the sexes. Also, this presentation will evaluate the strengths and 

weaknesses of taking measurements of the hyoid from radiographs (or 

photographs) as opposed to measuring actual bones. Results of two 

studies will be discussed and compared. 


humanity through the value of the potential for using the hyoid as a 

reliable sex indicator. 

For forensic anthropologists, one of the smallest bones in the human 

body may hold information that can identify an unknown victim. A 

discriminant function that correctly identifies the sex of 76% or more of 

human hyoids may aid in the sexual identification of an unknown person 

(especially when other bones are not available). The purpose of this 

project is to test the discriminant function method for indicating sex of 

human hyoids as outlined by Reesink et al. (1999). Reesink et al.’s 

function is based on three measurements taken from radiographs of the 

hyoid bone: the maximal medial height of the corpus (MMH), the anterior 

posterior thickness of the corpus (ATP), and the maximal transverse 

diameter of the corpus (MTD). With that method, Reesink et al. (1999) 

correctly identified sex 76% of the time. The current study repeats the 

research by Reesink et al. (1999), but instead of using radiographs, 

measurements were taken from actual donated hyoids curated at the 

Forensic Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) 

laboratory at Louisiana State University. The measurements used in the 

current study were interpreted as being the height of the body, the 

thickness of the body, and the width of the body (see also Devlin’s hyoid 

body measurements pp. 95-97). The FACES lab collection consists of 198 

total hyoids of which 107 are males, 27 are females, and 64 are of 

unknown sex. All three measurements must be present to correctly use the 

discriminant function, and 55 males and 20 females in the FACES lab 

collection met these requirements. 

Preliminary results of the current study suggest that all three 

measurements of the hyoid show statistically significant differences 

between males and females at α = 0.001. This finding is supported by 

Reesink et al. (1999 p. 358) and Devlin (2002). Therefore, all three studies 

reflect that size differences exist between the hyoid bodies of males and 

females. In fact, in her 2002 dissertation, Devlin states “Males exhibit 

taller, wider, and thicker hyoid bodies in comparison to females” (p. 148). 

Reesink et al.’s (1999) results from their discriminant function 

suggest that male values will be less than zero while female values will be 

greater than zero. In contrast, preliminary results of the current study 

where the actual bones were measured suggest that while there is a 

significant difference (α = .05) between the male and female results, as 

derived from the discriminant function, both female and male results are 

negative. Specifically, the mean for all discriminant function results is - 

2.1783 for females and -1.2091 for males, respectively. Possible 

explanations for these differences in results for the two studies may 

include interpretation of the exact location of measurements taken 

(especially the ATP) and also the disparities that might arise from taking 

measurements from radiographs as opposed to actual bones. Future 

studies with larger collections could help address these concerns. 

References: 

1 Reesink, E.M., A.A.H Van Immerseel, R. Brand, and TJ.D. Bruintjes, 

(1999) Sexual Dimorphism of the Hyoid Bone? International Journal of 

Osteoarchaeology, 9: 357-360. 

2 Devlin, Joanne Lorraine, (2002) Morphological Considerations of the 

Human Hyoid Bone. Dissertation, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

Human Hyoid, Discriminant Function, Sexual Dimorphism 

H47 Efficient Processing of Human 

Remains Using Dermestid Beetles 

Karen R. Cebra, MS, MSFS*, California State University at Chico, 

Anthropology Department, 400 West 1st Street, Chico, CA 95929 


behavior and ecology of dermestid beetles in a captive, laboratory 

environment will be understood such that they can be used to efficiently 

and effectively process human remains in a timely fashion. 


humanity by demonstrating the advantages of using dermestid beetles in 

the processing of human remains found in forensic cases and by describing 

new methods to efficiently and effectively use and maintain a dermestid 

colony. 

Beetles of the family Dermestidae (Order Coleoptera) are known to 

feed and breed on animal proteins. Places that process animal products, 

for example tanneries, are therefore vulnerable to infestation by 

dermestids. In nature, dermestid beetles are commonly found on 

decomposing remains in the late stages of decay – long after such species 

as blowflies (Family Calliphoridae) have left. The animal proteins present 

in raw hides and skins are suitable habitat for larval development and a 

single female adult dermestid can lay hundreds of eggs. The eggs hatch 

after about a week into larvae that undergo several molts (instars), pupate 

and emerge as adults. It is the larval stages that feed on the animal 

material; therefore, in the case of the processing of human remains, it is 

the larvae that clean the skeleton. The entire cycle from egg to adult varies 

widely depending on temperature and humidity. Increased temperature 

and humidity typically speed development whereas a decrease in these 

factors slows it. In addition to temperature and humidity, it is important to 

understand that remains in nature do not undergo the same succession of 

insect colonization as those that are processed in a laboratory 

environment. An argument often made against using beetles of the genus 

Dermestes (literally “skin-eaters”) to clean human remains is the time it 

takes for the beetles to complete the job (Byers, 2000), but with a good 

understanding of the ecology and behavior of the beetles, the rate at which 

a specimen can be cleaned can be controlled. Procedures for preparing a 

specimen for placement into a beetle colony describe defleshing, 

removing the eyes, tongue and brain, and drying. All of these ideas are 

predicated on the behavior of beetles in nature and each of these processes 

adds time in addition to the time the remains are in the colony itself. Other 

techniques, such as boiling, have been used in cases where the time 

required for beetles has been thought to be unavailable. However, these 

techniques pose risks to the bone, such as cracking or demineralizing, that 

dermestids do not. It is for this reason that the Physical Anthropology 

Human Identification Laboratory (PAHIL) at California State University 

at Chico prioritizes the use of dermestids in the processing of human 

remains. Such a colony has been maintained successfully for many years. 

A recent time-sensitive case of homicide at PAHIL which was received 

and completely processed from May 23 to June 6, 2006 demonstrates that, 

in fact, a dermestid colony can completely clean a skeleton in far less time 

than the literature suggests. The initial preparatory steps and maintenance 

of the colony used in this case in order to maximize processing efficiency 

and minimize the risk to the colony will be discussed. Photographs will 

be presented that document the daily progress of the colony and the 


conditions under which it was kept. Close-up photographs of bone injury 

will be used to demonstrate the high quality of work that can be produced 

by dermestid beetles. 

Reference: 

1 Byers, Steven N. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology: a textbook. 

Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. 2002. 

Dermestid, Skeleton, Processing 

H48 Bodies and Body Parts: When and 

How to Record Them During the 

Excavation of Mass Graves 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, and Joan Baker, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 

Hickam AFB, Hawaii 96853 

The goal of this presentation is to highlight the pitfalls that 

accompany defining differences between a “Body” and “Body Part” or 

“Body Portion” within a mass grave context and propose a standard 

method of recording such remains. 


humanity by demonstrating how consistency in defining and recording 

human remains from a mass grave context is important not only within a 

single grave, but between graves and over the course of the entire 

investigation. Inconsistent definitions and recording during excavation 

will lead to problems during mortuary examination. Mission planners 

should carefully consider their systems of recording prior to any 

operational activity. 

Human remains within a mass grave context, especially secondary 

depositions, are regularly recovered in a disarticulated state. Care in 

exposing and removal of remains from a grave by an observant excavator, 

knowledgeable in human skeletal anatomy, is one of the most important 

steps in limiting (and hopefully eliminating) further disarticulation. 

Another important step, though often disregarded, is the consistent 

classifying and subsequent recording of disarticulated remains. 

Inconsistencies in defining incomplete portions of body could have an 

adverse effect on mortuary operations. 

When dealing with large numbers of remains the order of autopsy 

typically takes into consideration the types of remains to be examined. 

Complete bodies are regularly processed first while incomplete bodies are 

examined later with an eye towards reassociation of disarticulated body 

portions. With hundreds (or thousands) of remains waiting to be 

processed, a decision may be made to bypass or delay examination of 

disarticulated body parts in an effort to streamline autopsy time, money, 

and energy, or to produce more identifications in the beginning while 

allowing reassociation activities to take a back seat. While not all 

mortuaries may operate in this manner, most will use the 

recovery/evidence log to set the basic order of remains examination. The 

classification of remains at the time of recovery may thus dictate the order 

of mortuary examination. Consistency in the classification of recovered 

remains therefore becomes an important issue. 

In addition, consistent classification of remains is necessary to assist 

with reassociation of disarticulated remains. When dealing with hundreds 

to thousands of remains an ordered method of categorizing them is needed 

to ensure that an organized approach to reassociation is maintained. 

Methods such as spatial analysis of recovery location data, which relies on 

database queries, would be limited when recovered remains are recorded 

inconsistently. 

While classifying and recording of recovered remains may seem 

straightforward, the fact is, defining what constitutes a body as opposed to 

a portion of body is problematic. Recovered remains are regularly 

classified as a “Body” or “Body Part” (sometimes with additions of 

“General Bone/General Body Part” to identify single disarticulated 

bones). Unfortunately there appears to be no agreed upon classification 


system regarding what constitutes a “Body” as opposed to a “Body Part.” 

If a complete body is to be classified and then recorded in the evidence log 

as a “Body,” what do you classify a body missing an arm? Should it still 

be recorded as a “Body”? What if it is missing two arms, its head, and a 

portion of its upper torso? As a body becomes more disarticulated, at what 

point should the terminology be changed from “Body” to “Body Part”? It 

is often left up to the individual doing the recovery, guided by past 

experience and loose, sometimes changing definitions, which decides how 

the set of remains they are exposing are classified. What might constitute 

a “Body” for one recovery team member may be a “Body Part” to another. 

Complicating the discrepancies between individuals defining the 

remains is the timeframe over which large investigations take place. ICTYtype 

post-conflict missions regularly rotate personnel during a single 

season, excavate several graves during that season, and continue 

performing in this manner for several years. Inconsistent recording 

between individuals, different teams working different sites, and over 

several months/years accumulate causing large discrepancies within the 

reporting. 

This presentation will introduce a comprehensive classification 

system for use during recovery operations. While this system may not fit 

all mission situations, it is presented as an example of such a system 

mission planners should be considering prior to the start of an investigation. 

Consistent classification of remains over the entire length of an 

investigation, especially if such investigations will take months or years to 

complete, is essential. Mission planners should seriously consider the 

methods that they will be employing in the mortuary and how recovery 

classifications can affect their plan. Integrating a consistent recovery 

classification system with mortuary operations will help to more 

accurately organize examination schedules (and thus streamline autopsy 

time, cost, and energy) and maximize available recovery observations and 

data for mortuary analysis. 

Mass Grave, Defining Remains, Forensic Archaeology 

H49 Putting It All Together: 

Recovery, Assembly, and 

Analysis of Multiple Body Parts 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, and Cristin Rolf, MD, Kentucky Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, 

KY 40601 

The goal of this presentation is to presents a unique example of 

human butchering. The attendees will learn some protocol adaptations that 

were necessary for recovery and assembly of 57 separate parts. Attendees 

will see how professionals in anthropology, pathology, search and rescue, 

and law enforcement worked together as a team. 


humanity presenting a unique example of human butchering. It will also 

inject some effective ways to recover, process, and analyze multiple 

widely-scattered bones and body parts. These methods may be used in 

any case where recovery and identification of large numbers of disrupted 

human remains is problematic. 

This case report presents a unique example of human butchering and 

explains to attendees some protocol adaptations necessary for recovery 

and assembly of 57 separate parts. It highlights a successful outcome 

resulting from teamwork between anthropology, pathology, search teams, 

and law enforcement officers. 

A young female victim was beaten to death and her body cut to pieces 

inside the bedroom of her boyfriend’s mobile home. The dissected tissues 

were then taken to two different and widely separated rural locations 

where some were randomly scattered and others were hidden. A chance 

discovery shortly after the crime allowed investigators to recover a 

significant amount of material from one site on the first day. The suspect 

directed investigators to a second site two days later. 

320

Because many of the dissected parts involved bare bone fragments, a 

forensic anthropologist was called to both scenes to assist in the recovery 

and identification of the scattered tissues. A field inventory of identified 

pieces assisted in the overall scope of the investigation, and almost 

complete recovery of the victim. At one site, many of the pieces had 

simply been tucked under branches and logs, but others had been covered 

with leaves, stones, and loose dirt. At the other site, it appeared as if the 

suspect had stood at the edge of a rural road and thrown individual pieces 

into a ravine. The pattern of dissection and concealment reflected the 

suspect’s previous history of illegal killing and butchering of white tail 

deer. For example, the viscera were removed en bloc and covered with a 

slab of limestone. Muscles and skin were cut cleanly from the extremities 

and then the underlying bone was serially sectioned. The flesh over the 

abdomen was removed as if it were a cut of brisket, before a distinctive 

tattoo was cut off and hidden in a different location. 

Although there was only one victim, the scene recovery protocol was 

typical of one that would be employed in a mass fatality incident. The 

initial recovery scene covered approximately 5 acres and included dense 

woods, overgrown meadows, a fire pit, a railroad track and tunnel. (The 

suspect initially told investigators that he had stood over the tunnel and 

tossed body parts onto numerous moving trains, so trains up and down the 

East Coast had to be detained and searched). The second scene was 

several miles from the first, and included a steep bank along a winding 

rural road. At both scenes, individual numbers were assigned to each 

specimen and the location of each one documented with the “total station” 

mapping system. The initial numbering system was maintained 

throughout the investigation by the use of indelible markers, strips of 

plastic, and digital photography. 

At autopsy, as the medical examiner described each individual piece 

of bone and tissue, the anthropologist assembled the body. This had to be 

done in layers with the skeleton assembled first, and then sections of soft 

tissue matched by muscle groups and cut-marks. The posterior side of the 

body was re-assembled and documented first. Then the pieces of flesh 

were removed, each bone and bone fragment turned over, and then the 

anterior half of the body was reassembled and documented. The left breast 

of the victim was the only body part not recovered. 

Human Butchering, Crime Scene, Teamwork 

H50 Percentage of Body Recovered and its 

Effect on Identification Rates and 

Cause/Manner of Death Determination 

Debra Komar, PhD, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC11-6030, 1 

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001; and Wendy E. 

Potter, MS*, Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 


relationship between the percentage of remains recovered and the ability 

of investigators to identify the remains and determine cause and manner of 

death. 


humanity by describing and quantifying previously unreported 

correlations between variables of interest to investigators and providing 

data for comparing identification rates in individual case work and mass 

death scenarios. 


relationship between the percentage of remains recovered and the ability 

of investigators to identify the remains and determine cause and manner of 

death. This presentation will impact the forensic community by 

describing and quantifying previously unreported correlations between 

variables of interest to investigators and providing data for comparing 

identification and ruling rates in individual case work and mass death 

scenarios. 

Forensic anthropologists frequently encounter cases in which only 

partial or fragmentary remains are recovered. Intuitively, investigators 

would predict that the greater the proportion of a decedent’s body that is 

recovered, the greater the probability that the individual will be positively 

identified and that the cause and manner of death can be determined. This 

study reports how the percentage of remains recovered affects rates of 

positive identification and cause and manner of death determination. 

This study examined a total of 773 cases involving decomposed and 

skeletal remains analyzed by forensic anthropologists at the New Mexico 

Office of the Medical Investigator (OMI) from 1974 to 2006. All 

individuals were initially unidentified. The percentage of remains 

recovered was scored as follows: complete; 76 to 99% present; 51 to 75% 

present; 26 to 50% present; < 25% present; or represented by a single 

skeletal element. The presence or absence of the skull (complete or 

partial) was also noted. The cause, manner, and identification status of 

each case was recorded. 

Results indicate significant correlations between the percentage of 

the body recovered and the rate of positive identification. The ID rate for 

all cases (n=773) was 77%. ID rates were highest (89%) when complete 

bodies were recovered (n=221), 81% when 50% or more of the body was 

found (n=483), but only 56% were identified when less than 50% of the 

remains were present (n=193). In cases where no portion of the skull was 

recovered (n=66), the ID rate was 61%. It is interesting to note that the 

introduction of DNA testing to establish ID (circa 1996) had little effect on 

ID rates. ID rates for all cases pre-1996 (n=520) was 76%, while 79% of 

the 252 post-1996 cases were positively identified. 

Similar patterns were seen in the relationship between the body 

percent recovered and cause/manner determination. In the total sample, 

the cause of death could be determined in 66% of cases, while the manner 

was determined in 62% of all cases. Rates were again highest in complete 

bodies (83% cause, 79% manner). When more than 50% of the body was 

recovered, rates were 71% and 68% for cause and manner, respectively. 

Rates dropped to 40% for both cause and manner when less than half of 

the body was recovered, as well as when no skull was present. 

These findings were compared to data drawn from typical autopsy 

and death investigation cases (approx. 4,100 – 5,000 cases per year) from 

the New Mexico medical examiner’s office. The office maintains a 

positive identification rate of 94 to 96%. Cause of death is determined in 

98.5 to 99% of all cases, while manner is ruled 96 to 98% of all deaths 

investigated. Manner of death distributions were dramatically different 

between typical autopsy cases and the anthropology consult cases. For 

example, homicides account for 4% of typical cases but 27% of 

anthropology cases. 

The results of this study were also compared to prior published 

reports on anthropological consult cases. Identification rates for skeletal 

remains in the current study were significantly higher than those reported 

by Marks (W.M. Bass and the Development of Forensic Anthropology in 

Tennessee. JFS 40(5): 741-750, 1995) for US anthropologists (25 – 30%) 

and William Bass (50%). Cases in this study had higher percentages of 

remains recovered and greater evidence of trauma than those reported in a 

summary of FBI consults from 1962 to 1994 (Grisbaum and Ubelaker, 

Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology #45, 2001). 

These findings are of interest to anthropologists working on 

individual casework, as well as those tasked with recovery and 

identification in mass death scenarios. The results also argue for the 

participation of anthropologists in body recovery whenever necessary to 

maximize recovery rates. 

Forensic Anthropology, Positive Identification, Cause and Manner of 

Death 


H51 The Fourth Era of Forensic Anthropology: 


Paul S. Sledzik, MS*, National Transportation Safety Board, Office of 

Transportation Disaster Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza East, SW, 

Washington, DC 20594-2000; Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Department of 

Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; Michael W. Warren, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611; John E. 

Byrd, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


96853-5530; Christian Crowder, PhD*, Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Shuala M. 

Drawdy, MA*, International Committee of the Red Cross, 19 Avenue de 

la Paix, Geneva, 1202, Switzerland; Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, 

Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 

38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Alison Galloway, PhD*, Chancellor’s Office, 

University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064; Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Osteology Laboratory, Kansas State 

University, 204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506; Laura C. 

Fulginiti, PhD*, and Kristen Hartnett, MA*, Maricopa County Forensic 

Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007; Thomas D. 

Holland, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


96853-5530; Murray K. Marks, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Tennessee, 225 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Repatriation Office, Department of 

Anthropology, NMNH-MRC 138, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 

DC 20013-7012; Tracy Rogers, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Toronto at Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, 

Canada; Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 

Baker Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824; Tal L. 

Simmons, PhD*, Department of Forensic and Investigative Science, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston, Preston PR1 2HE, United 

Kingdom; Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Department of Applied Forensic 

Sciences, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001; 

Morris Tidball-Binz, MD*, International Committee of the Red Cross, 19 

Avenue de la Paix, Geneva, 1202, SWITZERLAND; and Douglas 

Ubelaker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, NMNH-MRC 112, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about trends in 

training, education, research, and employment that are creating the future 

of forensic anthropology as a broad-based scientific discipline. 

Forensic anthropology is experiencing new trends in training, 

education, research, and employment that are impacting its future. The 

impact of these changes will impact how other forensic disciplines think 

of forensic anthropology and its interactions with forensic anthropologists. 

As a scientific discipline, forensic anthropology is relatively new. 

Stewart (1979) and Thompson (1982) have both recognized three eras in 

the development of forensic anthropology. In the period before World War 

II, although physical anthropologists consulted occasionally on forensic 

cases, there was no formal instruction, little published research, and scant 

attention by the medicolegal community. From the 1940s to the early 

1970s, forensic anthropology garnered increased attention by the military 

(for war dead identification), other government agencies, and medicolegal 

investigative departments. The field professionalized in the 1970s with 

the establishment of the physical anthropology section within the AAFS 

and the creation of the ABFA. This third period was also characterized by 

an increase in the number of AAFS section members, research and 

publications, training programs, employment, and acceptance by the 

forensic community. 

A fourth era of forensic anthropology has recently emerged. Several 

trends characterize the era. Grounded in skeletal biology and anatomy, the 

new forensic anthropology employs a broad knowledge of anthropology, 


human variation, and human biology in solving forensic questions. 

Forensic science laboratories, crime laboratories, and medical examiner 

offices employ forensic anthropologists to do more than traditional 

forensic anthropology- laboratory management, crime scene 

documentation, missing persons administration, quality assurance, and 

forensic project management are now routinely conducted by forensic 

anthropologists. Forensic anthropologists are now asked to serve as 

forensic managers to solve large-scale human identification problems in 

cases of disasters, mass graves, human rights, and missing persons. 

Employment of forensic anthropologists with MA/MS degrees in nonacademic/applied 

positions has increased over the past decade, a trend that 

speaks to the potential of forensic anthropology outside its traditional 

roles. 

These trends in the field lead to several questions: 

• Is a new definition of the field required? 

• Are students receiving the training necessary to succeed in these 

new areas? 

• Is the field prepared to handle these new challenges? 

• What trends in biological science, law, forensic science, and 

culture will impact forensic anthropology? 

• What legal decisions and ethical trends will impact the field? 

By looking at trends in research, the evolution of training programs, 

the broad-ranging employment of forensic anthropologists, and the 

application of the science to solve complex human problems, this 

symposium examines this new era in forensic anthropology. Among the 

topics to be discussed are: 

• Future of education and training 

• Future of trauma analysis 

• Future of assessing ancestry 

• Considerations for ethical standards in forensic anthropology 

• Forensic anthropology and meeting evidentiary/legal demands 

• Management of forensic laboratories and projects 

• Changing role of forensic anthropology in medical examiner/ 

coroner setting 

• Future of human rights work and humanitarian identifications 

• Future of employment 

The session will conclude with a discussion among participants and 

questions from the audience. 

Future of education and training: The profession of forensic 

anthropology requires advanced graduate training within physical 

anthropology, especially human skeletal biology, and closely related fields 

such as human biology/anatomy and archaeology. Therefore, the 

academic programs and faculty providing the required graduate training 

share a profound responsibility as gatekeepers to the profession. Faculty at 

institutions offering degree programs that seek to prepare these future 

forensic anthropologists must provide the educational framework that 

defines the field, while at the same time the evolving roles of practicing 

forensic anthropologists must constantly re-define academic programs. 

This symbiosis revolves around twin missions: The education and training 

of the next cohort of traditional academic anthropologists; and the training 

of practicing forensic anthropologists with specialized knowledge and 

expertise that lies beyond traditional physical anthropology. 

The 1970s and early 1980s marked the establishment of the first 

graduate programs that implemented specialized curricula to prepare 

students for careers in forensic anthropology. The first graduate programs 

specializing in forensic anthropology during this “establishment phase” 

were those at Arizona, Florida, New Mexico, South Carolina and 

Tennessee. 

Our “Fourth Era” of forensic anthropology can be witnessed as the 

“expansion phase”, marked by an explosion in student interest nurtured by 

an exponential growth in media attention. This resulted in an increase in 

the number of universities teaching undergraduate courses on the topic, 

and the development of several new graduate programs specializing in 

forensic anthropology, including Michigan State, Mercyhurst, UC-Santa 

Cruz, CSU-Chico, U-Indianapolis, and SUNY Binghamton. 

322

In the past, academic training in forensic anthropology has been 

conducted exclusively within a physical anthropology curriculum, focusing 

mainly on human osteology and skeletal biology. In fact, many members of 

the AAFS Physical Anthropology section graduated from departments that 

did not provide specialized curricula on topics in forensic anthropology. 

However, the increasing breadth and scope of the field, including issues of 

human identification, skeletal trauma, estimating postmortem interval, 

taphonomic modification of bone, war crimes and mass disaster 

investigations have lead to widening roles for forensic anthropologists. Do 

these ever-widening roles require specialized, interdisciplinary skills not 

offered by traditional academic-based anthropologists? 

As the “Fourth Era” of forensic anthropology begins, a critical 

assessment must be undertaken to determine whether educational 

programs are keeping pace with recent trends and are progressing in ways 

that best serve the needs of the discipline. It is time to closely examine the 

required courses in the academic curriculum producing forensic 

anthropologists. Any consideration of the future of education and training 

in forensic anthropology must begin with a consideration of the future of 

the field itself. Originally defined as a laboratory-based discipline in which 

physical anthropologists are occasionally enlisted by law enforcement, it 

is not surprising then that, until the last ten years, only a handful of 

individuals worked full-time professionally as forensic anthropologists. 

Recently, an increasing number of non-academic jobs with forensic 

anthropology in the title or in the job description have appeared. This has 

occurred primarily because: 1) medical examiners now well-realize that 

forensic anthropologists have skills at the crime scene and at autopsy that 

provide valuable assistance to the multidisciplinary attempts at 

identification, determining cause and manner of death, and estimation of 

the postmortem interval, and 2) forensic anthropologists are indispensable 

members of both overseas human rights organizations and both private 

and governmental-directed disaster assistance teams. 

It is clear that in the Fourth Era, forensic anthropology has been 

redefined as a robust and unique scientific field that requires specialized 

training. This requires new discussions related to educational philosophy, 

as well as future goals and standards for the profession. What are the 

essential components in the graduate education and training of a forensic 

anthropologist in this new era? Essential components to be discussed 

include: 1. Experience with large samples of human skeletons to provide 

the most basic and crucial understanding in human skeletal variation; 2. 

Specialized coursework on topics within forensic anthropology; and 3. 

Hands-on experience with real forensic cases. 

It is also necessary to examine whether graduate programs with 

specializations in forensic anthropology are keeping pace with the trends 

in the field. Do the current programs meet the philosophical and practical 

needs of the profession? Such efforts by the programs at Florida, 

Mercyhurst, Michigan State, and Tennessee will be presented. 

A discussion of the differing goals of Masters and PhD programs is 

also important. Classically, the primary goal of PhD programs in physical 

anthropology is to produce academics. Has the increasing number of jobs 

in forensic anthropology impacted this goal? In addition, the role of 

Masters degree programs in forensic anthropology will be addressed. 

Does a Masters degree open up any doors in forensic anthropology, or is 

it simply a stepping-stone to a PhD program? 

Finally, basic issues surrounding graduate student admission criteria 

need to be examined. With increasing student interest and an upsurge in 

the number of applications to graduate schools, the question whether 

graduate programs have a responsibility to limit the number of students 

accepted into programs needs to be discussed. Issues such as challenges to 

fund students, access to forensic casework opportunities, and the ability to 

place graduated students in the job market must be considered. 

Changing role of forensic anthropology in medical 

examiner/coroner setting: Forensic anthropologists have long been 

consulted by medical examiners and coroners in jurisdictions across the 

United States. Historically, many were biological anthropologists who 

were either informally trained or self-taught with regard to the 

medicolegal aspects of the discipline. Primarily employed as university 

professors, their involvement with forensic casework was due to their 

expertise with skeletal remains rather than their knowledge of the 

medicolegal structure. During the last twenty years, this model has 

evolved. Programs designed to train students in all aspects of forensic 

anthropology, including areas previously the domain of law enforcement 

and the legal community, arose and flourished. Doctoral and Master’s 

level students were emerging with specialized knowledge designed 

specifically for the medicolegal arena, but they were still primarily 

involved with the academic community. The last ten years have seen a 

further evolution of forensic anthropologists employed in medical 

examiner and coroner offices, largely because of increased public, media, 

and professional attention on the field. 

During the past year, several medical examiner offices in the United 

States advertised openings for full-time forensic anthropologists. These 

individuals will join a dozen or so practitioners already gainfully 

employed as full-time forensic anthropologists working at medical 

examiner or coroner offices. In addition, there are many more individuals 

whose primary occupation is serving medical examiners as consultants or 

contract employees. 

The nature of the casework handled by these experts is also changing. 

In 1998, Reichs observed that between 1986 and 1995, approximately 

47% of all casework reported by diplomates of the American Board of 

Forensic Anthropology was derived from medical examiner/coroner 

offices. In a small sample of forensic anthropologist currently working in 

the United States, this percentage has jumped to 85%. Similarly, Reichs 

reported that skeletal remains accounted for the majority of cases for most 

of the diplomates. This number has also shifted, with the sample polled 

demonstrating that decomposed and fresh bodies have increased 

substantially, and that the number of consultations involving the 

determination of traumatic injury to bone account for a large percentage of 

the caseloads. 

Future of human rights work and humanitarian identifications: 

Over the past two decades, forensic specialists have played an increasingly 

active role in helping to expose the truth about violations of human rights 

and humanitarian law and in the humanitarian identification of victims of 

armed conflict and mass disasters. In the 1970’s and 80’s, the conflicts 

experienced by various countries throughout Latin America resulted in 

tens of thousands of disappeared persons. The first use of forensic 

anthropology to investigate these crimes was made in Argentina in the 

early eighties, resulting in the creation of a specialized team and the 

development of procedures later used elsewhere. In the mid 90’s, scores 

of anthropologists and archaeologists of various nationalities were 

seconded to the Balkans to assist in the collection of evidence for the 

International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and to work 

with various organizations in the process of identification of the victims of 

the conflicts. Investigations continue there in what is, so far, the largest 

and costliest international forensic operation ever carried out to investigate 

the missing. The media attention given to the conflicts in the Balkans 

helped to sensitize the international community to the torment experienced 

by families who have lost a family member but are without news of their 

whereabouts. It also helped boost the forensic community’s participation 

in clarifying the fate of the missing. 

However, as the 21st century progresses, it appears that the forensic 

work in the Balkans can be considered the exception, not the rule. In most 

regions of the world in which people have gone missing, there are few, if 

any external organizations addressing the issue of the missing, and the 

constraints faced by investigators are often high, including lack of 

resources and security concerns. Thus forensic professionals find 

themselves stepping out of their traditional roles in the laboratory and the 

field to offer support and advice to a number of relevant actors in these 

contexts, from governmental authorities tasked with clarifying the fate of 

the missing, to family associations seeking psychological support, to local 

forensic professionals who are unfamiliar with the complex process of 

identification of large numbers of remains. 

As forensic anthropologists and archaeologists continue to play an 

increasingly active role in exposing violations of human rights and 


humanitarian law, it is imperative that tomorrow’s scientists understand 

some of the legal, cultural and scientific challenges they may face when 

applying their skills and knowledge for humanitarian purposes. 

Forensic anthropology and meeting evidentiary/legal demands: 

The traditional definition of forensic anthropology as the application of 

physical anthropological analyses in a medico-legal setting is no longer 

sufficient to describe the current philosophical, methodological, and 

theoretical scope of forensic anthropology. In particular, methods 

developed within traditional physical anthropology are typically designed 

to address population level questions, not individual identity, and have 

little need to consider the potential legal and social ramifications of 

unreliable or inaccurate results. In contrast, forensic analyses must meet 

specific legal demands due to the evidentiary nature of the results. 

Because of the guidelines established from the United States Supreme 

Court in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 113 S.Ct. 2786 (1993), 

and from the Canadian courts in R. v. Mohan, 89 C.C.C. (3d) 402 (1994), 

and in the wake of the United States v. Plaza, Criminal NO. 98-362 (2002), 

anthropological methods may be challenged in court. Thus, it is critical 

for forensic anthropologists to ascertain, under the rubric of evidentiary 

examination, the effectiveness of current analytical methods. 

While the results of a standard biological profile are rarely the focus 

of courtroom testimonies, the submission of the forensic anthropological 

report places all of its contents under legal scrutiny. Furthermore, the 

forensic anthropologist must be cognizant of how analytical results are 

expressed within the report and on the stand. Quality assurance is 

necessary for all forensic anthropological methods to insure method 

transparency (e.g., recognize method limitations). Researchers must clearly 

state method accuracy and precision in a manner that is not only statistically 

significant, but also forensically meaningful. Research intended to conduct 

validation studies of existing techniques must be performed exactly as 

described; modifications by each new team of researchers produces 

unlimited new methodologies, not validations of existing ones. 

Standardization of research results, including appropriate statistical models 

and levels of precision, in the form of best practice protocols will help 

ensure the high quality of forensic anthropological research, and provide a 

secure foundation for forensic anthropologists in the courtroom. 

Future of trauma analysis: Historically, the physical anthropologist 

identified “more or less skeletonized” remains, with occasional requests to 

“describe any evidence of bone damage” (Stewart 1979). The traditional 

role of forensic anthropologists never considered, much less allowed, 

debates of cause and manner of death because the academician, with skills 

rooted in skeletal biology, only worked on dry, unidentified skeletons 

associated mainly with cold investigations. Today, forensic science 

demands nothing less than circumstances of death. Anthropologists can 

no longer veil or ignore these issues or their consequences in court. The 

evolution in the courtroom parallels the changes occurring in the field as 

taphonomy and trauma (ante, peri, and postmortem) interpretations now 

occupy much if not most of forensic anthropologists’ energies. 

With the emergence of this ‘new’ forensic anthropology, 

professionals, for the first time, are seeing the potential of working 

alongside forensic pathologists and realizing the value of soft tissues. This 

partnership lays the groundwork for modern anthropological trauma 

assessment where the anthropologists are privy to smoking-gun 

investigations and eyewitness accounts. Eventually, in this scenario, 

bones are retained and processed free of soft tissue for closer 

examinations, as evidence. Trauma assessment in bone essentially 

remained stagnant in anthropology until the flesh was ‘put back on’ and 

the body, not just the skeleton, was examined. The role of forensic 

anthropology is evolving, with strides toward improved trauma and 

taphonomic assessments; keeping in mind, this is the only area of 

anthropology pressured by burden of truth. 

Future of assessing ancestry: For most of the 20th century, 

American forensic anthropology approached ancestry as a three- or fourway 

decision: European, African, Native American, or sometimes Asian, 

reflecting its physical anthropological heritage and overarching American 

belief in the existence of discrete biological races. In the latter part of the 


20th century, demographic realities and Repatriation legislation 

necessitated a finer-grained assessment of ancestry than the traditional 

racial approach: assessments such as “Mongoloid” or even “Native 

American” were no longer sufficient. Evaluating ethnicity to the tribal 

level has proven to be quite doable, and unusual comparisons such as 

Alaskan Eskimo or Indian vs. Chinese, Sioux vs. Chippewa, Mandan vs. 

Arikara, and many others have been successfully conducted using 

craniometrics, mandibular metrics, cranial angles, and postcranial 

measurements. The same is true for Hispanic groups from the Americas. 

The construction of databases, especially the Forensic Data Bank, has 

proven essential to recording and evaluating human skeletal variation 

geographically and temporally. Given the increased mobility of humans 

around the world and human rights cases emerging all over the globe, 

more remains from various parts of the world need to be documented and 

added to the existing databases in order to improve the precision and 

accuracy of evaluating ancestry. The affinities of unknown remains can 

only be judged by the comparative samples available. 

During the 21st century, forensic anthropologists (and other forensic 

scientists) will abandon the race concept when generating the biological 

profile in favor of probable geographic origins. Evaluating ancestry will 

be much more appropriate, refined, and productive than assessing race. 

Craniometrics will continue to be used most extensively to quickly 

investigate possible ancestries, estimate sex, and find morphological 

outliers. Statistical methods integrating metric and non-metric attributes 

will be used more frequently. Given the changing demographics in the 

United States, all American forensic anthropologists will benefit from a 

ethnic or “tribal” outlook on human variation, minimally with the 

indigenous African, Asian, Caribbean, Central American, and South 

American groups continuing to migrate to the US. 

Considerations for ethical standards in forensic anthropology: 

Acceptable methods of handling human remains are decided by legal 

measures, professional standards and personal beliefs. For forensic 

anthropologists, professional standards are sketchy and behaviors are 

often influenced by the background of the individual investigator, 

circumstances of the death, and framework or level of institutional 

oversight. 

Ethics is the judgment system by which the profession distinguishes 

acceptable and unacceptable behaviors. These beliefs are partly enacted 

into the legal system, detailing actions which are proscribed with 

appropriate forms of punishment or retribution activated within a statute 

of limitations. Some acts are not subject to criminal prosecution but are 

contestable in civil court. 

Other actions, not illegal or formally contestable, are distasteful and 

seen as characteristic of someone not holding the same values as the 

majority of citizens. These acts may be viewed as evidence that the 

practitioner is greedy, self-centered, ignorant, misguided, or antisocial. 

Although punishment is not mandated, social repercussions may include 

diminished/destroyed reputation, shunning, or intervention. 

Professional organizations codify the distinction of what is legal yet 

unacceptable into a Code of Ethics, outlining ideals to which all should 

aspire or characteristics of unacceptability. The authority behind these 

codes varies by organization. Some consider them merely a guide for 

good behavior while others strictly enforce them, barring violators from 

continuing membership. 

Each individual is also guided by a personal code of ethics. This 

incorporates religious or spiritual beliefs and often reflects values with 

which each person was raised. There may be wide variation among 

individuals for acceptable personal behavior even though they may 

tolerate different behavioral expressions in others. 

Handling of human remains are governed by legal requirements and 

by the personal code of ethics that each forensic anthropologist possesses. 

However, professional ethics cover only the expert witness aspect of the 

work and do not bear on the use of human remains in research and 

investigation. The forensic anthropologist faces a large “gray area” in 

which claims of scientific value, or “giving voice to the dead,” only partly 

support his or her actions. 

324

It is time that forensic anthropology held its place within biomedical 

research ethics where such guidelines are considered ubiquitous and 

universal. Professional standards could provide guidance if they 

acknowledge both research and casework functions. First, forensic 

anthropologists must conduct their work with respect to disciplinary 

standards – adequate sampling strategies, acknowledgement of 

confounding factors, transparency of methodology, replicability of 

techniques, and shared information. Second, forensic anthropologists 

must conduct their work with respect toward the victims whose remains 

are examined, their surviving families, and/or recognized representatives. 

Whenever possible, families should provide informed consent to the study 

and deceased’s identity should be protected. When anatomical samples 

are taken, documentation should facilitate the repatriation back to the 

remains. Anatomical specimens should be retained only if other means of 

recording are inadequate for the study. Religious beliefs and cultural 

practices of the populations from which samples are drawn should be 

accommodated as much as possible. A common standard of ethics is 

difficult but not impossible to achieve and the authors hope to begin that 

conversation with this presentation. 

Management of forensic laboratories and projects: Ironically, the 

relative “newness” of forensic anthropology as a recognized discipline is 

also one of its strengths within the increasingly complex and integrated 

world of forensic science. Training in forensic anthropology continues to 

be broad-based and closely tied to its roots in academic anthropology. For 

this reason, forensic anthropologists are trained in, or at least exposed to, 

a wide range of procedures, techniques, and paradigms, including 

anatomy, osteology, odontology, statistics, molecular biology, 

archaeology, geology, material-evidence analysis, and cultural relativity 

and sensitivity. 

Anthropologists, by virtue of this broad academic training, are well 

suited to the task of overseeing and managing large interdisciplinary 

forensic projects in which the integration of disparate scientific fields is 

vital to a successful outcome. Further, many anthropologists who have 

become accustomed to directing research programs (such as large 

archaeological projects) accrue valuable management experience. Such 

projects typically present challenges of recruiting qualified personnel, 

managing multidisciplinary teams, working with limited budgets, coping 

with high personnel turnover, and timelines. 

I Employment in forensic anthropology: Traditionally, forensic 

anthropologists were trained as academics, with employment coming from 

within the higher education system. Some anthropologists worked for the 

military and other government agencies, with research and consultation as 

their main focus. Forensic anthropologists conducted skeletal analysis for 

identification and associated interpretations, both as casework and for the 

development of new scientific methods. Their teaching responsibilities 

included training young anthropologists in the methods of forensic 

anthropology. 

As the fourth era of the field defines itself, employment trends have 

seen forensic anthropologists using their skills beyond the traditional 

sphere. They are now employed in medical examiner offices, federal and 

state crime laboratories, disaster response agencies, non-governmental 

human rights organizations, and research institutions. This trend typifies 

the growth of forensic anthropology beyond skeletal casework. These 

jobs often include skeletal analysis as part of the responsibilities, but the 

actual position title does not usually say “forensic anthropologist.” As the 

next generation of forensically trained anthropologists begins their search 

for employment, trends in forensic science, societal pressures, and 

political agendas will impact areas of potential employment. A savvy 

forensic anthropologist may look outside traditional employment (i.e. in 

academe) to positions that may not list “forensic anthropologist” in the 

title. Federal agencies such as the Department of Homeland Security, the 

State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Department of 

Justice, and the Department of Health and Human Services can benefit 

from broadly trained forensic anthropologists who can address complex 

questions in human identification, search/recovery, and medicolegal 

interpretation. Positions such as grant officer, scientific analyst, and 

program analyst are well suited for anthropologists with broad forensic 

training. Areas such a biometrics, disaster fatality assessment, terrorismrelated 

forensic issues, and cultural issues of crime in the global setting are 

just some of the areas where a broadly trained forensic anthropologist 

could participate. Government contract firms with forensic, biometric, 

and disaster focuses are another avenue of employment. Anthropologists 

are currently employed in non-governmental organizations involved in 

human rights and humanitarian issues (International Committee of the Red 

Cross, Physicians for Human Rights, International Commission for 

Missing Persons, and Equipo Argentino de Antropología Forense), both in 

technical (fieldwork) and program management positions. In state and 

local medical examiner/coroner offices and crime laboratories, forensic 

anthropologists have proven their value to the medicolegal investigative 

process. As this employment trend continues, the field must consider the 

development of training programs for such positions. Potential 

developments in science and culture that may impact future forensic 

anthropologists could include areas such as nanotechnology, DNA 

modification, new weaponry, the man-machine interface, human cloning, 

increasingly sensitive surveillance systems, and new types and definitions 

of crime and justice in an expanding multicultural society. 

Forensic Anthropology, Future, Education 

H52 A New Method for Evaluating Orbit Shape 

Shanna E. Williams, MA*, University of Florida, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, 1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32610 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be introduced to a 

novel quantitative method of orbital shape analysis as it relates to 

discussions of sex and race in human skeletal remains. 


humanity by offering an alternative technique of data collection and 

analysis of human orbital anatomy. 

Skeletal determination of race using orbital morphology is typically 

discussed qualitatively in terms of simple, descriptive labels (e.g., round, 

square, sloping, etc.). While inherently understandable, such labels are 

incapable of meaningfully characterizing the continuum of shape 

variability within and between human populations. Further, these 

descriptors rely upon individual subjective observation to demarcate 

between one character state and another. Moreover, even when 

measurements are taken of the orbital region, they are typically in the form 

of linear distance measures (height and breath). The resultant orbital index 

is then partitioned into descriptive ranges of wide, average, or normal 

(Krogman 1962; Bass 1995). These established qualitative and 

quantitative methods of data collection may fail to capture all of the 

available information regarding individual and populational orbit shape. 

The present study addresses this issue by applying 3D semilandmarks 

to the orbital region. Semi-landmarks are often employed to 

capture anatomical structures lacking distinct landmarks, such as 

boundaries and surface curvature. One hundred twenty individuals evenly 

distributed by race (Black, White) and sex were compiled from the Terry 

Collection, Smithsonian Institution. Superior and inferior rim curvature 

for both orbits was captured by collecting a sequence of points along the 

structure’s gross outline (continuous stream data) using a Microscribe® 

3DX portable digitizer. The beginning and endpoints of the superior and 

inferior orbital curve corresponded to accepted landmarks 

(maxillofrontale and frontomalare anterior). Semi-landmarks were then 

created within a beta program (Slice 2005), which applies an algorithm 

that resamples each curve into a user-defined number of evenly-distributed 

points (10 points per curve; four curves). The semi-landmark data were 

transformed by generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA), which optimally 

translates, scales, and rotates the points into a common coordinate system. 

Multivariate statistical analyses were then performed on the resulting 

shape variables. In order to reduce dimensionality a principal component 

analysis (PCA) was performed on the covariance matrix of the aligned 


coordinates. A multiple analysis of variation (MANOVA) was then 

conducted using the PCA scores to test whether sex and race have 

significant effects on orbit shape. 

Both sex (F=2.63; df= 42; Pr>F=F=F=

set conservatively at 0.90. The average difference in trials per observer, 

regardless of direction, was 3.1 degrees. The range of variation was -15 

to +11 degrees. In all cases, these differences are highly significant. Interobserver 

error tests showed similar results. When inter-observer tests 

were conducted against a target response (the average of all twelve 

observations on each femur), significant differences were found for nearly 

every comparison. 

Two clearly defined problems were identified in this study. First, 

delineating a radiographic true lateral position in dry bone was difficult for 

the investigators. Small positional differences of each femur increased or 

decreased the subsequent angle measurement. Second, aligning a ruler 

with the “distal one third of the femur parallel to the posterior cortex of the 

bone,” as prescribed in the method’s instructions was problematic. In 

most instances, femoral curvature was such that a parallel line was 

difficult to clearly and consistently define without landmarks. Also, the 

distal one third of the femur is a relatively arbitrary location, causing 

further discrepancies between investigators’ measurements. 

Based on this study, the authors suggest that while the Craig (1995) 

method for assessing race has utility, specific radiographic positioning of 

dry bone and refined landmarks for the intercondylar shelf angle should be 

developed in order to minimize inter- and intra-observer error. For 

example, utilizing advanced digital imaging or clearly defining two points 

on the femoral shaft that would provide a means for drawing a consistent 

line parallel to the posterior cortex could be potentially useful refinements. 

It is anticipated that further experimentation will result in methods that 

decrease observer error and improve the method’s overall reliability. 

Reliability, Racial Determination, Distal Femur 

H55 Isotopic Determination of Region of 

Origin in Modern Peoples: Applications 

for Identification of U.S. War-Dead 

From the Vietnam Conflict II 

Laura A. Regan, PhD*, Armed Forced Medical Examiner System, 1413 

Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850; Anthony B. 

Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification Lab, University of 

Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, FL 32601; 

and Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command- 

Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853 


benefits and limitations of undertaking a multi-element approach when 

utilizing stable isotopes for determining region of origin of human dental 

remains. 


humanity by providing information on a method that may facilitate 

identification of unknown individuals. The method uses multi-element 

stable isotope analysis of human dental tissues to suggest the natal origin 

of individuals. It is anticipated that this technique will be especially useful 

as a lead generator for human remains that have been recovered/obtained 

from either unknown, unreliable, or suspect contexts. 

This study is novel in that it is the first of its kind, in a forensic 

setting, to compile a large reference sample of isotopic ratio values of 

multiple elements from individuals with known natal regions. The goal of 

the study was to create a database of “geolocational fingerprints” utilizing 

carbon, oxygen, strontium, and lead isotope ratios sampled from the teeth 

of modern people. This database is intended to assist in determining the 

region of origin for unidentified skeletal material without an established or 

well-documented provenance. The preliminary efforts of this project 

focused on determining the natal isotopic signatures individuals from 

Southeast Asia and the United States of America. These regions were 

primarily selected in order to assist the effort to identify the approximately 

1,800 U.S. service personnel who remain unaccounted for from the 

Vietnam conflict, but the results also apply to the identification efforts for 

service personnel who are missing from the Korean War and the Pacific 

theater during World War II. The authors utilized the operating hypothesis 

that the isotope ratios incorporated into Southeast Asian and American 

dental enamel during childhood are distinct and that these differences can 

be used to determine region of origin. 

An East Asian reference population of 61 individuals was sampled 

from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central Identification 

Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) “Mongoloid hold” collection. This collection 

consists of remains unilaterally turned over to the CIL that have been 

identified as originating in East Asia, but that have been refused 

repatriation by their country of origin. The isotopic ratios derived from the 

enamel of the East Asian reference sample were compared against those 

obtained from the third molars of 228 patients who underwent recent 

dental extractions with the 10th Dental Squadron, United States Air Force 

Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado. Living subjects completed 

surveys detailing their childhood residency and physiological, behavioral, 

and cultural factors that might potentially affect isotopic deposition in 

enamel. 

While the ranges of all isotopes examined overlapped to an extent for 

the two populations, the least squares means for all isotope values 

examined exhibited statistically significant differences between the East 

Asian and American cohorts, based on the results of a conservative 

multivariate analysis of variance. A linear discriminant function was 

created that correctly classified individuals, through resubstitution and 

cross-validation, as belonging to one of these two groups by 95% or better. 

Strontium values from individuals reared for a portion of their childhood 

in the U.S. displayed a distinct trend toward homogenization, with the 

mean value for 87Sr/ 86Sr varying only slightly from that of seawater. 

Additionally, semi-quantitative calculations of enamel lead concentrations 

indicated the concentration of lead in the East Asian teeth was at least an 

order of magnitude greater than the American values, hinting at another 

potential discriminating factor. 

When compared to isotopic signatures developed for geographic 

areas of Southeast Asia, the information in this study will assist in 

identifying the origin of unknown dental remains undergoing analysis by 

the JPAC-CIL. These data will serve as the foundation for a more 

comprehensive database of modern, human, geolocational isotope values 

that will assist not only in the identification of fallen servicemen and 

women, but could have potentially far wider reaching applications in the 

identification of victims of mass fatality incidents, undocumented and 

otherwise unknown suspected aliens who perish attempting entry into the 

U.S., and local “Jane and John Doe” cases by allowing for the inclusion or 

exclusion of potential matches based on geographic natal regions. 

Stable Isotopes, Geographic Origin, Vietnam Conflict 

H56 Richard Jantz: A Man of 

Impressive Numbers 

Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of 



impact Richard Jantz has had on the field of Forensic Anthropology. 


humanity by demonstrating the professional contributions Richard Jantz 

has made in the field of forensic anthropology. 

Richard L. Jantz was born in a rural Kansas farming community a 

while ago. He was raised in Halstead, KS, where his parents still reside. 

He attended University of Kansas for his undergraduate and graduate 

degrees, studying under the greats such as Bass, Kerley, and McKern, 

studying along side other notables such as George Gill, Doug Ubelaker, 

and Ted Rathbun. His early research in human variation yielded his MA 


thesis, Some Aspects of Laterality in University of Kansas Male Students. 

His doctoral research focused on skeletal research, specifically cranial 

variation in Arikara. It was during this period of his career that he began 

to appreciate the contributions of WW Howells. These themes have 

carried through his very productive career. 

Richard’s first academic position was held at the University of 

Missouri, where he worked for a year as an instructor prior to finishing his 

degrees. He followed this with a short two-year stint at the University of 

Nebraska. He was an instructor, then after receiving his PhD, became an 

assistant professor. While he was a Plains man, he realized that it was 

really too cold in the winter. When Bill Bass called him from the warmer 

climes of East Tennessee to offer him a position, he was more than willing 

to make that move. Thus began his 36-year (and continuing!) career at the 

University of Tennessee. 

Numbers are this man’s game. Working with students and 

colleagues, Richard has developed several different databases including 

one for dermatoglyphics (with the late H. Brehme), Plains skeletal metrics 

(with D. Owsley, P. Key, and T. Zobeck), the Boas anthropometic data 

(with D. Hunt), and probably the most familiar to this audience, the 

Forensic Data Bank (with many of you). Following in the footsteps of 

Howells, Richard’s practice of sharing the wealth of data has allowed 

many researchers to contribute to the field of study. 

Continuing in this vein, data requires statistical manipulation. 

Although not a computer geek, Richard is a number cruncher. He has 

provided statistical advice and analysis to innumerable students and 

practitioners in the field. A major contribution to the area of forensics is 

FORDISC (now available in its third version), the custom discriminant 

function software developed by Richard and his student/colleague, S. 

Ousley. FORDISC has changed the way most forensic anthropologists 

approach the analysis of unidentified skeletal remains today. 

Richard has been relatively lucky in his career as a professor. He has 

many wonderful students as illustrated by this session. After a student 

graduates, he considers him or her a colleague as evidenced in his many 

collaborations. While this session is in honor of his career, let it be 

known….his career is not over. He is looking forward to many more 

interesting projects as well as hopefully finishing many of the ones in 

which is currently involved. 

Jantz, Forensic Anthropology, Databases 

H57 Estimating Geographic Ancestry 

of Hispanic Crania Using 


Katherine M. Spradley, PhD*, and Bridget F.B. Algee-Hewitt, MA, 

The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the use of 

geometric morphometrics in ancestry estimation. 


humanity by addressing the issue of ancestry determination of Hispanic 

individuals using geometric morphometric methods. 

Correct ancestry estimation for American Blacks and Whites is 

possible due to documented reference samples such as Terry, Todd, and 

more recent collections including the William M. Bass Donated 

Collection, and the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank (FDB). However, 

there is no Hispanic equivalent of these large reference collections. The 

increasing Hispanic population in the U.S. makes it necessary to obtain 

appropriate reference samples for ancestry determination. Because there 

is no large reference collection of recent forensic Hispanic skeletons, cases 

from forensic anthropologists around the county must be relied on to better 

understand and identify the increasing number of Hispanic skeletons 

found in a forensic context. 


Traditional craniometric morphometric methods in addition to years 

of experience are widely employed in ancestry determination. Results 

presented at this meeting by the first author (2004) suggest that traditional 

craniometrics, at best, provide a 45% classification rate (cross-validated) 

for Hispanic individuals when compared to American White, American 

Black, Guatemalan Mayan, and Argentinean samples. Because Hispanic 

individuals are a hybrid population of European and Indigenous Spanishspeaking 

individuals, correct ancestry estimation is more problematic. 

Geometric morphometric methods are suggested to better discriminate 

among groups that are closely related. 

This presentation uses three-dimensional landmark data to examine 

the morphological differences between size and shape in Hispanics, 

American Whites, and Guatemalan Mayans. Because it is important to use 

samples that represent recent forensic anthropological cases that are seen 

in the U.S., for this analysis, Hispanics (n = 41), American Whites (n = 

57), and recent Guatemalan Mayans (n = 70) were used as reference 

samples. The Hispanic and American White samples are from the Forensic 

Anthropology Data Bank (FDB) and were collected by the first author. 

The American Whites are positively identified individuals and the 

majority of the individuals are from Tennessee. 

The Hispanic sample used in this paper contains either positively 

identified or contextually identified individuals. Individuals in the latter 

group are from U.S. border crossing fatalities found by immigration 

officers patrolling the border. Of the border crossing fatalities, only 

individuals with enough soft tissue present to indicate a positive 

identification of sex were used. The Guatemalan Mayan sample was 

collected from the Forensic Anthropology Foundation of Guatemala 

(FAFG); this is a recent forensic sample and consist of mostly male 

individuals. The context is modern Mayan, from Rabinal and Comalapa, 

and are either positively identified or contextually identified. 

Landmarks (n = 35) were chosen that represent the overall cranial 

vault and face. A general Procrustes analysis was performed in 

Morphologika 2 (O’Higgins and Jones, 2006) and a discriminant function 

analysis was run in SAS 9.1 (SAS INSTITUTE). The cross-validated 

classification rate for Hispanic individuals using geometric morphometric 

methods is 80.5%, an improvement from the 45% utilizing traditional 

morphometric methods. Results will be presented along with a discussion 

of the major morphological differences between Hispanics, American 

Whites, and Guatemalan Mayans. 

Ancestry, Hispanic, Geometric Morphometrics 

H58 Morphological Variation in the 

Cranial Base: Implications for 

Sex and Ancestry Estimation 

Ashley H. McKeown, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University 

of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, 

MO 65211 


patterns of morphological variation of the cranial base that characterize 

males and females and American whites and blacks and how this variation 

can be used to estimate sex and ancestry for unknown individuals. 


humanity by demonstrating how differences in the cranial base between 

males and females are primarily due to size, while variation among 

American whites and blacks are primarily due to shape. These patterns 

must be acknowledged when estimating sex and ancestry from this region 

of the human cranium. 

This research uses three-dimensional coordinate data observed on 

crania from known sex and ancestry collections and the tools of geometric 

morphometrics to evaluate morphological variation in the cranial base. 

328

Standard statistical analyses are employed to assess the utility of using the 

size and shape variation to estimate sex and ancestry. 

Variability in craniofacial morphology has been used successfully to 

estimate sex and ancestry for unidentified skeletal remains. While 

research has focused on the variation present in the face and cranial vault 

that permits relatively accurate assessments of sex and population 

affiliation, investigations into the morphological variation of the cranial 

base have been limited. Nevertheless, the research conducted thus far 

does suggest the presence of sex and ancestry based variation in the 

dimensions of the cranial base. As anthropologists are often confronted 

with fragmentary cranial remains, approaches to sex and ancestry 

estimation that utilize the cranial base can be useful. To further investigate 

the nature of the variation and assess its utility for sex and ancestry 

estimation, differences in size and shape are evaluated using three 

dimensional coordinate data observed on crania from known sex and 

ancestry collections. 

The sample is comprised of crania of known sex and ancestry 

(American white and blacks) from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal 

Collection (n=56) housed at the University of Tennessee and the Terry 

Collection (n=340) housed at the National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution. Sixteen landmarks from the cranial base were 

recorded as three dimensional coordinates and used for the analysis. The 

coordinate data was subjected to Procrustes fitting via a general least 

squares procedure that orients the configurations in a common coordinate 

system and scales the configurations to remove size differences. Size is 

retained in the centroid size for each configuration which permits the 

inclusion of this variable in analyses. Using the tools of geometric 

morphometrics, the fitted coordinates are used to explore shape variation 

between the sexes and among the groups. Further analyses based on the 

fitted coordinates and centroid size, including principal components and 

canonical discriminant analysis, were used to evaluate whether the size 

and shape variation present among the groups is useful for estimating sex 

and ancestry. 

Differences in the cranial base between males and females are 

primarily due to size, while variation among American whites and blacks 

are primarily due to shape. These patterns must be acknowledged when 

estimating sex and ancestry from this region of the human cranium. 

Sex, Ancestry, Geometric Morphometrics 

H59 Craniometrics as Jantz Taught Us: 

Multiple Lines of Evidence to Deduce the 

Affiliation of Painted “Aztec” Skulls 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD*, Hamline University, MB 196, 1536 Hewitt 

Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55104; Erin Kimmerle, PhD, University of South 

Florida, Soc 110, 4202 East Fowler, Tampa, FL 33620; and Ann H. 

Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, 

NC 27695-8107 


use linear and three-dimensional coordinate data in discriminate function 

analyses to verify the national or ethnic affiliation of crania of unknown 

geographic and temporal origin. Participants will also develop an 

appreciation for the necessity of considering and evaluating other types of 

evidence including reported mortuary practices and artistic representation 

when concluding national and/or ethnic origin. 


humanity by demonstrating the importance of using multiple lines of 

evidence to differentiate “historic” from forensic cases. This presentation 

also illustrates multiple statistical methods for estimating national and 

ethnic affiliations. 

Five painted adult skulls, reported to be pre-contact Aztec, were at 

various times on exhibit at the Field Museum of Natural History in 

Chicago, Illinois. Documentation pertaining to acquisition reveals little 

information about provenience. The markings on the skulls are elaborate, 

decorative, colorful, and primarily geometric in design. The morphology 

of the skulls suggests a more recent origin than 400 – 800 years ago. 

Additionally, the skulls lack any “indigenous” traits that would be 

expected to characterize pre-contact Mexican remains. The authors of this 

investigation thought that the postmortem modifications in the form of 

these elaborate paintings, as well as the inconsistent morphology were 

highly suspicious. To authenticate the origin of the skulls, three lines of 

evidence are used; 1) traditional craniometrics analyzed using FORDISC, 

2.0 and the known samples that comprise the associated craniometric 

database, 2) 3D Cartesian coordinate size and shape variables using 

regional data from Central America, and 3) bioarchaeological, 

archaeological, and ethnohistorical evidence of documented mortuary and 

other cultural practices of the Aztec. The inclusion of the third line of 

evidence highlights the application of the biocultural approach, the 

methodology of which puts the “anthropology” in “forensic 

anthropology.” 

First, using FORDISC 2.0 American Hispanic males (which in this 

version of FORDISC primarily consist of individuals of Mexican descent) 

as well as White, Black, and American Indian males and females are used 

in a discriminant function analysis to classify the “Aztec” skulls. Two of 

the five skulls classify as White Females. The other three skulls each 

classify as a Hispanic Male, American Indian Male, and Black Male, 

respectively. Finding that the population variation of the five skulls is 

highly heterogeneous suggests they are not of pre-contact “Aztec” origin 

or even from a single population. 

To further investigate the possible origin of these skulls, the authors 

present the among-sample variation and classification results using threedimensional 

landmark coordinates of the skulls when compared to 

samples of pre-contact Mexicans from Tezontepec (n = 6), 20th century 

Mexicans from Tarasco (n = 20), and documented samples of Spanish (n 

= 20), American Whites (n = 20), and Terry Blacks (n = 20). The 

landmark-based Procrustes superimposition approach, based on geometric 

morphometry, was used. Thirteen standard craniometric landmarks were 

used to reflect the among-group variation. A multivariate analysis of 

variance (MANOVA) and Mahalanobis squared distances (D2 ) were used 

to examine group membership. 

Given the possible age(s) and cultural affiliation of the 5 skulls in 

question, bioarchaeological, archaeological and ethnohistorical sources of 

information on Aztec mortuary ritual and other cultural practices were 

consulted and the data derived from them are incorporated into the final 

interpretation regarding national, ethnic, and/or ancestral affiliation(s). 

Variables are identified that represent documented alteration for aesthetic 

or cosmetic purposes, body preparation after death, and disposition 

practices, including evidence for cranial shape modification, dental 

alteration, painting, incising, carving, burning, dismemberment, and 

cannibalism. Central to the verification effort, was not only a comparison 

of the five skulls to the forensic databases available, but to consider the 

biological and cultural distinctions between groups living within the Aztec 

sphere of influence in order to narrow the possible ethnic or ancestral 

affiliation. These groups include those of the Triple Alliance that 

maintained their own cultural identity, those that succumbed to Aztec 

social and political influence, the Aztec, and those that were sacrificed as 

part of ritual offerings. 

This study serves as a reminder that the line between historic and 

forensic, “Hispanic”, “American Indian” or “Other” may be blurred. 

Careful consideration of multiple lines of evidence, including cultural 

practices, and the aid of statistical modeling as offered through FORDISC 

and modern methods from geometric morphometrics are imperative 

anthropological tools. 

Craniometrics, Classification, Authentication 


H60 Repeatability and Error of Cranial 

Landmark Coordinates 


Sociology and Anthropology, CB 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107; and 

Shanna Williams, MA, University of Florida, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, Gainesville, FL 32611 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be introduced to 

issues of intra- and inter-observer error in the collection of threedimensional 

landmark coordinates. 


humanity by addressing issues of repeatability and error in geometric 

morphometric methods of data collection. 

Historically, size and shape analyses have relied on the application of 

multivariate statistical methods to linear distances, ratios, and/or angles 

derived from caliper measurements (Lynch et al. 1996; Rohlf and Marcus 

1993; Ross et al. 1999). One of the limitations of caliper derived metric 

data is that the measurements are confined to the positions of the caliper 

endpoints, which are defined by anatomical locations or landmarks. The 

end result is a linear distance measure incapable of fully capturing all of 

the information available about the relative positions of these landmarks 

in space (Bookstein 1991). 

Modern methods of the geometric morphometrics address many of 

the shortcomings associated with traditional metrics by focusing on the 

analysis of landmark coordinates (Rohlf and Marcus 1993). Unlike 

traditional metrics, coordinate data fully archive all of the geometric 

information available in the anatomical structures. These newer threedimensional 

methods have gained much popularity in physical 

anthropology over the last decade being adopted by many evolutionary 

theorists, clinicians, and forensic anthropologists. Data capturing 

techniques range from direct digitization of landmarks via 3D digitizers to 

point extraction from scanned images. However, these new modes of data 

acquisition and analyses have undergone little to no systematic testing for 

accuracy. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the repeatability and 

error associated with the collection of cranial landmark data using these 

newer modalities. Three skulls were selected for this study from the C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Laboratory. Nineteen standard homologous 

cranial landmarks were collected using a Microscribe 3DX and G2X ® 

digitizer and the software ThreeSkull written by Steve Ousley. Each skull 

underwent three separate digitization sessions by two separate observers 

for a total of six digitizations for each skull. Because the skulls were not 

“fixed” in a common coordinate system between digitizing sessions, 

interlandmark linear distances (ILDs) were used in the subsequent 

statistical analysis rather than the landmark coordinates. All possible ILDs 

between the nineteen landmarks (n = 171) for each digitizing session (n = 

3) for each observer (n = 2) for each skull (n = 3) were calculated using 

the program PAST (Paleontological Statistics, 2001, http://folk.uio.no/ 

ohammer/past/download.html). Digitization error (within-subject error or 

the proportion of the total variance explained by multiple digitizing 

sessions of the same skull) was tested using a mixed model analysis of 

variance (ANOVA). Sixteen percent of the 171 ILDs showed error in 

excess of five percent. Repeatability (between-observer variation) was 

tested using ANOVA using the general linear model (GLM) routine. 

Significant between-observer difference was found for fourteen ILDs. 

The majority of the between-observer variation included Type III 

landmarks (e.g., alare and euryon). These landmarks are fairly accurate 

when instrumentally derived as linear distances in traditional 

morphometrics (e.g., maximum cranial breadth or XCB). However, they 

are highly variable when attempting to archive their exact anatomical 

location and the authors caution the use of Type III landmarks in geometric 

morphometrics. 

Cranial Landmarks, Repeatability, Geometric Morphometrics 


H61 Morphological Variation of the 

Human Knee: Implications for 

Sex and Ancestral Designations 

Erin B. Waxenbaum, MA*, C.A. Pound Human Identification Lab, 

University of Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, Gainesville, 

FL 32610; Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Lab, University of Florida, PO Box 103615, 1376 Mowry Road, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; and David R. Hunt, PhD, National Museum of 

Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Department of Anthropology, 


The goal of this presentation is to present to the participant of the 

results of analyses designed to describe the observed variation in the 

human knee joint based on age, sex and ancestry. The attendee will learn 

of the trends in morphological variation of the knee and the implications 

for both the forensic and medical communities. 


humanity by demonstrating the utility of the observed variation found in 

this analysis of the knee joint may be used to differentiate between living 

populations allowing sex and ancestral designations to be made in a 

forensic context. 

The clinical literature has noted variation in the knee joint, for the 

purposes of knee related surgeries, between male and female individuals 

of African and European ancestry. This observed variation is critical to 

pre-surgical planning for repair and or implantation of artificial devices. 

Similarly, these authors (Waxenbaum et al. 2006) highlighted significant 

variation in the intercondylar eminence length of the proximal tibia which 

was attributed solely to population (evolutionary ancestry) and not found 

to be influenced by either sex or age. This presentation expounds upon 

previous analyses in order to determine whether other factors of size 

and/or shape of the distal femur and proximal tibia correlate to the 

population variation in the knee previously detected. 

Eleven measurements (five of the distal femur; six of the proximal 

tibia) were added to the two measurements for each individual from the 

previous analysis for a total of thirteen measurements. Four populations of 

individuals were analyzed - (all material used in this analysis is housed at 

the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution) Terry 

White (n = 94), Terry Black (n = 100), Eskimo and Aleutian populations 

from Alaska (n = 201), and a population of Arikara from South Dakota (n 

= 120). Individuals were sampled from both sexes and were separated into 

“older” and “younger” categories for age analysis given the archaeological 

nature of the Alaska and South Dakota remains. 

The original intercondylar eminence data were re-analyzed including 

a small population of male, Chinese individuals (n = 51) and the 

previously detected trends held; neither sex nor age made a significant 

difference in the length of the proximal tibial eminence. However, 

population remained a significant factor (P

H62 Sex Determination in the Human Sacrum: 


Michaela M. Huffman, BS*, National Museum of Natural History, 

Department of Anthropology, MRC112, 10th & Constitution Avenue NW, 

Washington, DC 20560-0112; and David R. Hunt, PhD, National 

Museum of Natural History, Department of Anthropology/MRC112, 10th 

& Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20560-0112 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about results in 

the use of wing index as a criterion for sex determination and the variation 

found in the wing length of the sacrum. This presentation will also inform 

the attendee of the use of sacral curvature for sex determination. The 

participant will be familiarized with the morphological variation of the 

sacrum and its value as an element for sex identification in forensic 

anthropology. 


humanity by confirming that there is no significant difference in sacral 

wing width for both sexes in American Whites and Blacks and that the 

significant sex differences found in sacral curvature allows for general sex 

determination. However it is clear from this study that the range of 

variation in the sacrum is highly influenced by development in the axial 

skeleton. This greatly affects its morphology and using the sacrum as the 

single element for sex identification should be employed with caution. 

The goal of this presentation is to inform the attendee results in the 

use of wing index as a criterion for sex determination and the variation 

found in the wing length of the sacrum. This presentation will also inform 

the attendee of the use of sacral curvature for sex determination. The 

participant will be familiarized with the morphological variation of the 

sacrum and its value as an element for sex identification in forensic 

anthropology. 

Physical anthropology literature in the last 100 years has noted 

variation and sex differences in the human sacrum. In 1982, Kimura 

studied sex differences in the sacrum by the base-wing index using 

American Black and White individuals from the Terry Collection 

(National Museum of Natural History) and Japanese individuals from the 

Department of Anatomy, Yokohama City University School of Medicine. 

When measuring the wing of the sacrum, Kimura only measured the right 

side in response to the findings by Matsui in 1942 that the sacral wing was 

greater on the left side than on the right in Japanese skeletons for both 

sexes. However, Kitano (1959) found there was no significant difference 

in the right and left wing in Japanese individuals for both sexes. The 

present research assesses the variation among sacral wing widths in a 

sample of American Black and White individuals in order to gain further 

understanding in the utility of the sacral wing index as a sex determinant 

and to clarify disparity in previous publications. 

Bass has identified sacral curvature as a sex identifier, yet no citations 

or references were indicated to studies that assessed the accuracy of this 

characteristic of the sacrum being flatter in females and more curved in 

males. This present study examines sacral curvature as a criterion for sex 


Three hundred individuals were measured in this present study using 

the Terry Collection at the National Museum of Natural History. Subgroups 

of the sample were divided equally between the sexes and between 

“racial” groups of American Blacks and American Whites based on the 

identification of the ethnic affinity assigned to the individual at autopsy. 

The wing of the sacrum was measured from the lateral margin of the 

articular base to the most lateral border of the wing. The sacral curvature 

was measured sagittally (using a coordinate caliper), on the ventral side 

from the most anterior superior point of the articular promontory to the 

most anterior inferior portion of the coccyx, the depth of the curvature was 

derived by measuring at the deepest point of the sacral body. 

Overall results from the study for wing length found for the right 

wing (in millimeters): Blacks=30.83 ± 3.63; Whites=34.36 ± 3.83; 

Males=31.25 ± 4.24; Females=33.95 ± 3.52. For the left wing: 

Blacks=30.70 ± 3.68; Whites=34.41 ± 3.74; Males=31.06 ± 4.20; 

Females=34.04 ± 3.53. Within the ancestry and sex groups there is no 

significant difference between the mean lengths of the right and left sacral 

wing. However, there are significant differences (p=0.000) in the mean 

wing values between Blacks and Whites and between males and females. 

Results from the sacral curvature means (in millimeters) are: Black 

Males=15.72 ± 6.34; Black Females=12.88 ± 6.58; White Males=20.06 ± 

7.74; White Females=17.17 ± 7.74. Tests of significance found that two 

groups do not have significantly different means (Black females and Black 

males, p=0.212; and White females and White males, p=0.024), all other 

groups are significantly different at the p=0.01 level or greater. Sectioning 

points and confidence intervals will be presented for group identification. 

This study confirms that there is no significant difference in sacral 

wing width for both sexes in American Whites and Blacks, and the 

significant sex differences found in sacral curvature allows for general sex 

determination. However, it is clear from this study that the range of 

variation in the sacrum is highly influenced development in the axial 

skeleton. This greatly affects its morphology and using the sacrum as the 

single element for sex identification should be employed with caution. 

Sex Determination, Sacrum, Sacral Curvature 

H63 New Statistical Approaches to Sex 



Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012, 

NMNH MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013-7012; and John E. Byrd, PhD, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting, Central Identification Laboratory, 310 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand sex 

estimation from skeletal remains is based predominantly on overall size, 

significant shape differences between male and female crania, and that 

discriminant function analysis (DFA) is a powerful tool for analyzing 

skeletal data and accuracy can be enhanced through multiple analyses 

utilizing size and shape variation. 


humanity by providing a better understanding of sexual dimorphism 

expressed by metrics. 

Absent the bones of the pelvis, sex estimation from skeletal remains 

in forensic anthropology is often based predominantly on overall size, so 

small males and large females are more likely to be misclassified. Because 

there are different levels of sexual dimorphism and different sizes for the 

various populations in the world, an incorrect estimation of sex from 

skeletal remains can drastically affect ancestry assessment and vice-versa. 

Seriation (e.g., Rogers 2005) is not always an option and will likewise 

misclassify small males and large females. 

Forensic anthropologists have been employing DFA to determine sex 

from crania for decades. The classic papers by Giles and Elliot in the 

1960s provided numerous functions that permitted anthropologists to 

address questions of sex and ancestry using cranial measurements. More 

recently, FORDISC uses reference data from numerous human 

populations to calculate custom discriminant functions suited to a specific 

case, and some versions included a sex-only function, which combined the 

male and female samples of American Whites and Blacks. However, as 

Damann and Byrd (2004) demonstrated, DFA using raw measurements 

will tend to misclassify small males as female. This is especially true for 

groups with relatively small crania such as Hispanic males from the 

Southwest U.S. An incorrect sex assessment in the biological profile may 

affect the evaluation of ancestry and will hamper a positive identification. 

There are various statistical methods for analyzing measurements 

from males and females, including using sex-centered means, extracting 

principal components and analyzing all but the first principal component, 

calculating shape variables (Darroch and Mosimann 1985), and 

calculating C-scores (Howells 1995). The latter method was 


ecommended by Damann and Byrd (2004). Fordisc 3.0 (Jantz and Ousley 

2005) allows the user to transform measurements into shape variables and 

then perform DFA on them. The flavor of DFA used is a linear 

discriminant function, though other methods such as quadratic DFA, 

nearest neighbor analysis, and kernel discriminant analysis can be 

employed as well. 

Using 23 measurements from 171 white males and 100 white 

females, Fordisc 3.0 was 90% accurate in determining sex, crossvalidated. 

When shape variables were analyzed, the accuracy dropped to 83%, 

confirming that size differs between males and females, but also that shape 

differs significantly between them. More importantly, when the individual 

classifications were examined, 7 of the 17 males misclassified in the 

analysis using size and shape were correctly classified when using shape 

alone; 3 of the 10 females misclassified in the analysis using size and 

shape were correctly classified when using shape alone. Therefore, a 

Multi-Stage Discriminant Rule (MDR) utilizing both analyses is: If the 

size and shape classification of a cranium is male, accept the classification; 

if the size and shape classification is female, change the assessment to 

male if it classifies as a male using the shape variables. Following this rule 

results in classifications that are 94% correct for the white sample. Also, 

there were no indications of variance-covariance matrix heterogeneity. 

While the use of shape variables clearly provides greater accuracy 

within Whites, there appears to be generalized sex differences that are 

expressed in relative size and/or shape in all groups: When 274 females 

and 465 males from several different recent populations were analyzed sex 

functions were obtained with somewhat reduced accuracy compared to 

Whites alone. However, results were encouraging using stepwise variable 

selection, with as few as 12 variables providing classification accuracies 

of at least 90%, though the most valuable shape variables were largely 

independent of the most valuable size variables. In looking at how 

Hispanic individuals classified using stepwise methods on combined 

recent populations, all 11 females were classified correctly using size and 

shape; 41 males were classified 90% correctly using size and shape, 83% 

using shape, and 95% correctly using the MDR. 

Most of the metric variation between males and females has been 

thought to be due to size, but shape is also important. Combining multiple 

classification tools such as stepwise variable selection, different 

classification methods, and multiple steps can optimize sex classification 

accuracy. These tools can also be utilized with data from landmark 

coordinates and interlandmark distances (nontraditional craniometrics) to 

further improve sex classification. 

References: 

1 Damann F, Byrd J (2004) The Effects of Size in Craniometric 

Discriminant Functions. Proceedings of the American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences 10: 272-273. 

2 Darroch JN, Mosimann JE (1985) Canonical and Principal Components 

of Shape. Biometrika 72: 241-252. 

3 Howells WW (1995) Who’s Who in Skulls: Ethnic Identification of 

Crania from Measurements. Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum of 

Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University. 

4 Jantz, RL, Ousley SD (2005) FORDISC 3: Computerized Forensic 

Discriminant Functions. Version 3.0. The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville. 

5 Rogers TL (2005) Determining the sex of human remains through cranial 

morphology. Journal of Forensic Sciences 50: 1-8. 

Discriminant Function Analysis, Craniometrics, Sex Estimation 


H64 The Value of Experience, Education, 

and Methods in Ancestry Prediction 

Joseph T. Hefner, MA*, Forensic Anthropology Center, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996; Paul D. 

Emanovsky, MS, and John Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, National Museum of Natural 

History, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012 MRC 138, Washington, 

DC 20013 


results from a survey conducted at the 58th Annual Meeting of the 

American Academy of Forensic Science in Seattle, WA. 


humanity by providing insight into the value of experience, education, and 

methods in ancestry prediction. 

At the 58th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic 

Science in 2006, the authors conducted a volunteer survey and exercise to 

examine the methodological approaches to sex and ancestry 

determination. Exercise participants were asked to rank the techniques 

they use and to determine the sex and ancestry of seven specimens. A total 

of 76 individuals participated in the survey. Participant education levels 

included 15 with Bachelor degrees, one DDS, three MD, 22 Masters, 35 

PhD, and one “other.” Additional information from participants included 

the number of crania examined, years of professional experience, 

preferred methods of sex and ancestry determination, classes taught, etc. 

This presentation will focus on the determination of ancestry. 

Results support the adage “experience matters,” but only to a point. 

Individuals with advanced degrees performed superior to others and, as 

would be expected, individuals with an anthropology background 

performed better than those outside of the field. Correct estimation of 

ancestry for all seven crania by education level is as follows: MDs (19%), 

DDS’ (28.6%), BS/BA (31.4%), MS/MA (42.2%), PhD (43.3%). Among 

anthropologists, experience levels ranged from 0 years to more than 30. To 

determine experience levels for Masters, mean years in school was added 

to mean years of professional experience to equal a mean of 8 years of 

experience. PhDs had a mean of 13.5 years, indicating a considerable 

difference in the experience levels between Masters and PhDs. Despite the 

large disparity in years of professional experience, participants with 

Masters degrees performed about as well as PhDs. 

To determine if the number of correct ancestry estimations is significantly 

related to factors such as “level of education,” “number of crania 

examined,” and “number of years as a professional,” a Kruskal-Wallis 

analysis of variance test was performed. Significant interaction was noted 

for several key factors related to experience, but not degree level (e.g., 

Bachelors vs. Masters or Masters vs. Doctoral). For example, the total 

number of years as a graduate student was significant (p

than did PhDs, suggesting a generational shift in emphasis to metric 

analyses. Those with PhDs present the most surprising results. PhDs are 

associated with the following responses: “nasal morphology,” “nonmetric,” 

and “none.” These results suggest that PhDs rely on aspects of morphology 

not readily defined, perhaps Stewart’s (1979) “indefinable something.” 

Taken as a whole, the results imply that White crania may be more 

often estimated accurately: 92% of all participants correctly assessed 

ancestry for the White female. This result may be due to more frequent 

exposure to Whites in reference skeletal collections. The Hispanic 

individual was the most difficult for participants to correctly classify: only 

11% of the participants answered correctly, a pressing problem which may 

be due to a lack of Hispanics in collections as well as their mixed ancestry. 

There were also significant indications of ambiguity in assessing ancestry, 

which may be due to the presence of discordant traits within individuals. 

“Mixed ancestry,” or a similar response was used as a designation 22 

times, six times alone for the black male case consisting of a cranium and 

femur, which appeared to have nonmetric traits traditionally associated 

with both American Whites and Blacks. In several cases, participants 

weighted certain traits more heavily than others, despite a declared 

preference for other traits. In other words, it appears that the relative 

importance of traits in assessing ancestry is adjusted based on the case 

under examination, and may reflect post hoc trait selection after a general 

impression is formed, as suggested by Hefner and Ousley (2006). 

Table 1. Percentage of Masters and PhDs correctly estimating 

ancestry. 

CASE M.A./M.S. PhD 

(n = 22) (n = 35) 

% Correct % Correct 

East Asian 63.7 60.0 

White 91.0 94.3 

Hispanic 9.1 14.3 

Black 18.2 22.9 

East Asian 50.0 62.9 

Black 31.8 20.0 

American Indian 31.8 31.3 

Overall % Correct 42.2 43.3 

References: 

1 Stewart, TD (1979) Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. Springfield, IL: 

Charles C. Thomas. 

2 Hefner, JT and SD Ousley (2006) Morphoscopic Traits and the 

Statistical Determination of Ancestry II. Proceedings of the Annual 

Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Science, 58th Annual 

Meeting, Seattle, WA. 

Ancestry, Nonmetrics, Correspondence Analysis 

H65 Using Growth Data to Understand 

Secular Trends in Femur Diaphyseal 

Size and Shape among American Adults 

Daniel J Wescott, PhD*, University of Missouri-Columbia, Department 

of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the secular changes in 

femur size and shape that have occurred among Americans born in the 

1840s to the 1980s. The relationship between size and shape variables 

during growth will then be used to explain the likely proximate causes for 

the observed secular changes. Attendees will learn how stature, body 

build, and physical activity interact during life to establish adult femur 

morphology, and will also gain an appreciation of the impact that femur 

secular changes can have on the interpretation of modern forensic cases. 


humanity by demonstrating demonstrating that femur morphology is 

constantly changing and that methods for estimating sex from the femur, 

ancestry, and stature, most of which are derived from nineteenth century 

skeletal collections, must be constantly reassessed and renewed. 

Secular changes in skeletal morphology have the potential to impact 

the validity of methods used by forensic anthropologists for developing an 

accurate biological profile. From the 1840s to 1980s, the femur has 

undergone significant secular changes among American Blacks and 

Whites. In general, the femur has increased in length, decreased in 

robusticity, and the midshaft diaphyseal shape has changed from relatively 

circular to anteroposteriorly (AP) elongated due to a decrease in the 

mediolateral (ML) dimension. Interestingly, femur head diameter, midshaft 

AP diameter, and subtrochanteric shape have not changed significantly 

during this time. Increases in femur length are most likely due to dietary 

and healthcare improvements, but secular changes in diaphyseal size and 

shape are usually thought to be associated with decreases in physical 

activity levels, especially terrestrial mobility, through time. However, the 

patterns of change in diaphyseal morphology, especially midshaft shape, do 

not correspond to those expected based on a decrease in terrestrial mobility 

alone. A biomechanical model would predict that a simple decrease in 

activity levels should result in the femur diaphysis becoming smaller 

through time but retaining a relatively circular midshaft shape. 

Secular changes in femur morphology are demonstrated using 

measurements from 962 American adults with birthdates ranging from the 

1840s to 1980s. To investigate the proximate causes for the secular change 

among American adults, patterns of change in femur diaphyseal shape, AP 

and ML diaphyseal dimensions, head diameter, and length during growth 

were examined using a sample of 64 subadults (birth to 18 years of age). 

No significant sex differences in the patterns of growth were observed, so 

subadult males and females were pooled. Regression analysis was used to 

examine the correlations and partial correlations between variables during 

growth. 

The results show that subtrochanteric shape does not change 

significantly (r2 = 0.0001, p = 0.9271) after a mature gait pattern is 

established at around 5 years of age. Femur midshaft shape, on the other 

hand, changes significantly with age throughout the growth process (r2 = 

0.3983, p < 0.0001). During growth, both femur midshaft dimensions (AP 

and ML) show a significant positive correlation with growth in length and 

head diameter. The squared correlation between midshaft AP diameter and 

length is 0.8064 (p < 0.0001) and the r2 for midshaft ML diameter and 

length is 0.6978 (p < 0.0001). The relationship (r2 ) between femur head 

diameter and midshaft AP and ML dimensions is 0.7772 (p < 0.0001) and 

0.7687 (p < 0.0001), respectively. However, after controlling for growth in 

length, head diameter does not significantly (p = 0.1038) contribute to the 

variation in AP diameter. Conversely, growth in length does not make a 

unique contribution to the ML diameter (p = 0.6529) above that shared by 

head diameter. 

These results suggest that changes in the midshaft AP diameter 

during growth are primarily associated with changes in femur length (i.e., 

stature) and changes in the ML dimension are mainly related to femur 

head diameter, which reflects body build. The non-significant secular 

change in the midshaft AP dimension among adults is most likely due to 

increases in femur length counteracting the changes expected due to 

decreases in activity levels. The significant negative secular change in 

midshaft ML diameter, on the other hand, reflects a decrease in activity 

combined with the retention of a relatively constant body build over the 

past 140 years. Thus, changes in the ML dimension are more indicative of 

the level of mechanical loading of the femur in modern Americans. In 

general, the femur morphology of modern Americans reflects the 

combination of changes in stature, body build, and activity level that have 

taken place over the past one and a half centuries. Since most methods for 

estimating sex, ancestry, and stature from the femur are based on 

nineteenth century skeletal collections, it is crucial that forensic 

anthropologists understand how these secular changes may affect the 

interpretation of today’s forensic cases. 

Forensic Anthropology, Secular Change, Femur 


H66 SIRLI (Sistema de Identificación 

de Restos y Localización de Individuos): 

A Review of the First Year of Mexico’s 

Database for Missing Persons 

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Baylor University, Department of Anthropology, 

Forensic Science and Archaeology, One Bear Place #97388, Waco, 

TX 76798 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be aware of the 

formation and progress of a new database established to help identify 

undocumented immigrants that perish crossing the U.S./Mexico border. 

Attendees will be provided with instructions for submitting cases to the 

database for assistance with indentification. 


humanity by providing details of the establishment of an internationally 

functional database that will facilitate the identification of deceased 

undocumented Mexican immigrants to the U.S. 

Each year the Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores (SRE) of Mexico 

receives roughly 5,500 requests from Mexican citizens soliciting support 

to locate relatives missing in the U.S. The current Mexican population 

residing in the U.S. is estimated between 10 and 11 million which makes 

these inquiries difficult resolve. To confound this problem, it is estimated 

that more than one million individuals pass undocumented from Mexico 

into the U.S. each year. Due to a tightening of border security that began 

in the 1990s, undocumented entry into the U.S. is confined to areas of 

desolate, inhospitable terrain. As a result, many illegal entrants die along 

the 2,000 mile U.S./Mexico border and their remains are often not found 

for weeks or months if at all. In 2005, the U.S. Border Patrol recorded 

more than 500 deaths along the southern border with Mexico with more 

than half of those bodies found in Arizona. 

In 2005, the SRE launched an ambitious new database, System for 

the Identification of Remains and Localization of Individuals or SIRLI, in 

an attempt to facilitate efforts of locating the missing Mexican citizens 

both living and deceased. The SIRLI database was created by Image Ware 

Systems, a U.S. identity management firm. SIRLI incorporates 

information from missing-persons reports that can be filed by families in 

SRE offices both in Mexico and the U.S. The next phase of the project will 

allow individuals to file reports directly to SIRLI using a web-based 

interface. The information reported includes demographic information 

such as name, age, sex, known addresses in both Mexico and the United 

States, exit point from Mexico into the United States. In addition, 

photographs of the missing person as well as of scars or tattoos can be 

scanned into the system and viewed by officials at any of the 45 U.S. 

consulates or SRE offices in Mexico in order to make comparisons. Image 

Ware also incorporates facial recognition software that compares these 

images to those taken from deceased individuals. Fingerprint data along 

with signature information taken from Mexican voting cards, military and 

consular registries are entered into the database. Lastly, the database 

includes a section for the storage and comparison genetic data for both 

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence analysis and STR loci. 

Currently mtDNA analysis is being performed at Baylor University 

on a subset of unidentified remains believed to be from undocumented 

immigrants as well as for individuals that have been tentatively identified 

using other means. To date, Baylor has received 158 bone samples and 

one hair sample from deceased immigrant remains and 37 blood samples 

from living relatives of the missing. 

There have been twenty-six mtDNA matches made between bone 

samples and maternal relatives of the missing. The combined efforts of 

the U.S. medical examiner’s offices, Mexican consular offices, border 

patrol and local officials have been facilitated by this new depository of 

information focused primarily on individuals migrating from Mexico to 

the United States. SIRLI has provided a much needed tool to enhance 

communication and availability of information to those entrenched in 

identification efforts. In the future, Mexico’s SIRLI database can be used 


as a template for similar databases that are needed in other countries 

around the world. 

The Mexican government provides these services free to all Mexican 

citizens and immigrants who begin a search by contacting a Mexican 

consul office in Mexico or in the U.S. Forensic scientists are encouraged 

to contact the nearest Mexican consulate office when faced with a 

potential undocumented immigrant so that the case be included in SIRLI. 

This paper is dedicated to Dr. Richard L. Jantz who’s philosophy 

“…you can never have too much data” has inspired generations. 

Database, Migrant Deaths, mtDNA 

H67 An Argument for the Increased 

Involvement of Forensic Anthropologists 

in Mass Fatality Incidents in the United 

States, United Kingdom and Europe 

Frank A. Ciaccio, MPA*, Kenyon International Emergency Services, Inc., 

15180 Grand Point Drive, Houston, TX 77090; and Nick Haig, BA, Msc*, 

Kenyon International Emergency Services, Inc., 1, The Western Centre, 

Western Road, Bracknell, RG12 1RW, England, United Kingdom 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a clearer 

understanding of the role of forensic anthropologists in mass fatality 

incidents and the importance of having forensic anthropologists on 

national DVI teams, federal DMORT teams and private companies 

involved in mass disaster management. 

This presentation will have an impact on the global community with 

regards to the role and use of forensic anthropologists in mass disasters. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by 

looking at the comparison and contrasting role of forensic anthropologists 

in the U.S., UK, and Europe. 

In any disaster, there is always an outpouring of forensic 

professionals prepared to go into a disaster to recover the remains, conduct 

postmortem examinations and identify the victims to ensure their return to 

the families. These ‘standard’ forensic identification teams include the 

usual specialties like Forensic Odontology, Forensic Pathology and DNA 

specialists. However, forensic anthropologists, depending upon the 

geographical location of the disaster, are not always called upon or utilized 

to assist in the recovery and identification process of victims. 

In the United Kingdom (UK), the role of the forensic anthropologist 

in a mass disaster is limited. The UK depends upon its national Disaster 

Victim Identification (DVI) teams which are staffed mainly by police 

officers. Forensic anthropologists are only called upon when requested but 

are not specifically attached to any particular team. In contrast, the federal 

Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT) teams or 

private companies like Kenyon International Emergency Services, Inc. 

retain forensic anthropologists on a contractual basis as part of the forensic 

identification teams in the United States. 

Globally, disasters like aviation crashes, hurricanes and tsunamis kill 

hundreds of people of all ages, races and ethnic backgrounds. A forensic 

anthropologist is trained to examine the minutest fragment of bone and 

develop a biological profile in order to help in the confirmation of positive 

identification. It is essential that a forensic anthropologist be part of the 

team in order to process the fragmentation of bones. 

The science of forensic anthropology is a proven, essential and 

required discipline in a mass fatality incident. In today’s society there is a 

moral and ethical responsibility to provide all resources and technology 

needed to identify an individual following a disaster no matter how large 

or small. Forensic anthropology must be a recognized and required 

discipline not only in the U.S. and UK, but in all countries that deploy DVI 

teams or forensic identification teams during a mass fatality disaster. 

Mass Disaster, Mass Fatality Incident, Forensic Anthropology 

334

H68 Introducing Forensic Anthropology 

to Albania Using the Problem-Based 

Learning Model 

Thomas A. Crist, PhD*, and John H. Johnsen, PhD, Utica College, 1600 

Burrstone Road, Utica, NY 13304 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the basic 

concepts of the problem-based learning model and appreciate its efficacy 

in teaching forensic anthropology, particularly in an international course of 

relatively short duration in which proactive and cooperative group 

dynamics are critical components for success. 


humanity by raising awareness of the benefits of the problem-based 

learning model amongst forensic science educators, particularly 


This presentation describes the use of the problem-based learning 

model to teach forensic anthropology in an international field school 

setting at Butrint National Park in Albania, a country with no history of 

academic programs in physical anthropology. 

Attendees of this presentation will learn the basic concepts of the 

problem-based learning model and appreciate its efficacy in teaching 

forensic anthropology, particularly in an international course of relatively 

short duration in which proactive and cooperative group dynamics are 

critical components for success. 

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a method of teaching that uses 

actual and hypothetical cases, individual research, and group discussion to 

foster more effective acquisition of skills and knowledge by students than 

the traditional lecture format. The typical classroom interaction between 

professors and students is generally static and passive; in contrast, PBL 

creates a proactive, student-centered learning environment that provides 

students with extraordinary analytical and problem-solving skills. In use 

since the 1980s at many medical schools including Harvard, Bowman 

Gray, McMaster, and Michigan State, PBL is particularly suited for 

teaching the forensic sciences with their combination of conceptual, 

analytical, and psychomotor elements. Perhaps without realizing it, 

forensic anthropologists use the PBL method when they assign their 

students a skeleton to analyze as part of their osteology and forensic 

anthropology courses. Yet an extensive review of the forensic science 

literature reveals few papers that even mention the approach and none 

associated with forensic anthropology. 

PBL creates a dialogue between the process of learning and the 

content that is required of the discipline’s practitioners. Rather than 

simply providing answers to student questions, in PBL the professor 

identifies the relevant learning issues associated with the case, facilitates 

student research using textbooks, online sources, and interviews with 

appropriate experts; and guides the student group discussions. Students 

actively contribute to and share in their own learning process, initially by 

defining additional learning objectives and then by collecting appropriate 

information and critically evaluating their own performance and that of 

their peers. This collaborative process provides immediate feedback both 

within and outside of the group discussions, encouraging and reinforcing 

positive behavior and interpersonal communication. Faculty and students 

who participate in PBL-based programs report higher levels of satisfaction 

with their educational experience and more effective performance in 

clinical and other “real-life” settings that require analytical thinking and 

problem solving after graduation. 

Both PBL and physical anthropology are foreign to Albania, a 

country isolated from the rest of the western world from 1946 until its 

democratic revolution in 1991. Albania has produced only one physical 

anthropologist – Dr. Aleksandër Dhima – who received his graduate 

education in China. At present, no Albanian university offers any courses 

in physical anthropology. 

Since 2004, Utica College has offered a four-week, six-credit 

forensic anthropology field school at Butrint National Park in 

southwestern Albania. Butrint is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with a 

3,000-year history of occupation by numerous peoples, flourishing under 

the Greek and Romans and again during the medieval period. Using 

human remains excavated at the site, participants in the field school learn 

the basics of forensic anthropology while immersed in a culturally 

stimulating environment. PBL exercises include sorting commingled 

remains, determining demographic profiles for each individual, 

identifying evidence of disease, trauma, and activity-related 

biomechanical stress, and reporting results in a concise, professional 

manner. Over the past three summers, 33 students from eight different 

American and Canadian colleges have participated in the course, together 

with six Albanians. Dr. Dhima collaborated as a consultant and professor 

for the course in 2004 and 2005. 

PBL is especially effective for teaching this course, with its emphasis 

on group process and case-based discussions. This approach promotes 

cooperative interactions among the course’s American and Albanian 

students, quickly bridging the language barriers and cultural gaps that 

initially exist. While those field school students with some previous 

training in osteology and forensic anthropological methods benefit the 

most from the PBL exercises used in the course, novices more quickly 

grasp the basic content of the field and are prepared for further 

independent investigation after the course ends. 

Albania, Problem-Based Learning, Forensic Anthropology 

H69 The Importance of Archaeological Site 

Formation Processes and Flexible 

Excavation Strategies to the Development 

of Successful Medicolegal Approaches to 

Mass Graves Excavation: Al Hatra, Iraq 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, and Eric B Emery, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn to recognize 

some of the pitfalls of generic approaches to mass graves work, 

particularly with regards to practical issues of site assessment, recovery 

methodology, data processing, staffing, and evidence handling. Attendees 

will also recognize the importance of considering historical, sociocultural, 

political, and environmental aspects of the mass grave(s) and the funding 

authorities’ goals prior to devising a scope of work. 


humanity by providing a discussion of key considerations when devising 

an ethical and efficient investigation/excavation/analysis plan for mass 

graves. 

A number of authors have presented general guidelines to mass 

graves excavation and monitoring techniques, primarily based on 

experience in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Guatemala, and Honduras. 

While these guidelines provide valuable experience-based approaches to 

mass graves excavation, they are quite general in nature. This may have 

the unwanted effect of implying that “one size fits all,” leading the less 

experienced investigator to ignore crucial aspects of site formation and 

data analysis, preventing adequate planning. In this paper, the authors will 

point out two vital and sometimes overlooked aspects of successful mass 

graves investigation and excavation: (1) the sociocultural and political 

history of the region, and (2) the goal of the investigation or excavation. 

Examples from a mass graves site near Al Hatra, Iraq, will be provided. 

The goal of mass graves excavations varies geographically and 

temporally and can be strongly influenced by the entity providing funding. 

The object of excavation may range from individual identification and 

repatriation of remains to collection of evidence for use in the prosecution 

of war crimes. Numerous characteristics specific to the project in question 

(including the region’s political and social history, site formation 


processes, and goals of the perpetrators) may be factors in achieving these 

goals. 

Individual identification requires dedicated funds and staff for 

mtDNA sample and family reference sample collection, public records 

searches (ID cards, etc.), witness and family interviews, collection of 

antemortem dental records and medical/dental x-rays, genealogy, and 

short- and/or long-term storage. This aim also requires careful 

consideration of cultural practices, such as settlement patterns. While 

mtDNA can provide valuable data regarding identity in many situations, 

its use in a matrilocal society is complicated by the associated reduction of 

mitochondrial lineage variability, particularly in cases where a mass grave 

consists entirely of victims from a single village. Furthermore, the 

presence of members of the victims’ families as observers or members of 

the persecuted population as excavators presents significant risk of 

contamination. A primary goal of prosecution requires different planning 

strategies for long-term storage, reburial, or memorial design/dedication, 

as well as a focus on incident reconstruction and site formation processes. 

For example, the presence of multiple graves from several temporally 

distinct events, such as those seen in the Al Hatra area, may be important 

to prosecution if the aim is to prove deliberate, well-planned episodic 

genocide. Cause of death may be an important piece of information for 

prosecution, potentially requiring the involvement of forensic 

pathologists, ballistics experts, and the like. 

The goals of the perpetrators are also important considerations for 

investigators, particularly where prosecution is a primary goal. Genocide 

patterns may range from torture and a high degree of military force and 

coercion (as in the former Yugoslavia) to minimum-effort-maximumefficiency 

styles of execution accompanied by deceit (as in the Al Hatra 

area), and these patterns will be reflected in trauma patterns and the 

disposition of remains. These patterns are influenced by the political, 

social, or religious agendas of the regimes and, to some degree, the 

personal dispositions of the individuals responsible for carrying out the 

executions. Choice of weapons, demography of the victims, and 

morphology of the grave may provide important clues about these goals 

and agendas and may strongly influence recovery methods. 

Mass Graves, Excavation, Iraq 

H70 Creating a Standardized Approach to 


Anthropology: Human Rights 

Investigations in Colombia 

Jennifer L. Beatty, JD*, Department of Justice, Criminal Division, 

International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program, 1331 

F Street NW Suite 500, Washington, DC 20530; Andrew Tyrrell, PhD, 

Eric Emery, PhD, William R. Belcher, PhD, and Derek C. Benedix, PhD, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification 

Laboratory, Building 45, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 

96853-3350; and Liliana del Amparo Segura Leal, and Manuel A. Torres 

Rojas, Prosecutor General’s Office, Technical Investigation Corps (CTI), 

Diagonal 22B No. 52-01, Bogota, DC, Colombia 

The goal of this presentation is to present a study that focuses on 

determining needs for investigative teams in nations that have a history of 

large scale human rights violations. The audience will gain an 

understanding of four areas: 

1. The training needs assessment process conducted by the 

trainers and trainees. 

2. The construction and content of the training course established 

by ICITAP in Colombia. 

3. The evaluation of the training program’s success by the 

trainers and the trainees. 

4. The long term prospects for this type of training and the 

implications for Colombia’s changing legal system. 



humanity by explaining a new approach to forensic capacity-building 

programs in an anthropological context. 

The U.S. Department of Justice’s International Criminal 

Investigation Training Assistance Program (ICITAP) and the US 

Department of Defense’s Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) are 

collaborating in the construction and implementation of a training and 

capacity building program for forensic anthropology in Colombia that 

focuses upon forensic archeology and recovery techniques. The 

program’s objectives are to enhance the existing capabilities of the 

Colombian government’s human rights teams to effectively identify, 

process, and recover evidence from the clandestine disposal sites of 

individuals killed by extra-judicial executions. Built into the original 

design of this program is an assessment strategy allowing ICITAP and CIL 

to evaluate the performance of the trainers, the learning success rate of the 

trainees and the long term impact of this capacity building program on the 

trainees’ day-to-day investigative practices. 

The Colombian government is transitioning from an inquisitorial to 

an adversarial legal system and ICITAP is providing technical guidance, 

training and supplies to support the transition. Recently, the Colombian 

government has established a new initiative, the Justice and Peace 

Initiative, which has allowed human rights investigators and lawenforcement 

agencies to obtain new information about a series of mass 

graves in Colombia. The Colombian government wishes to prosecute the 

perpetrators of these crimes. To support this aim ICITAP has formulated a 

new training program with technical expertise provided by the CIL. 

After an initial assessment of the Colombian human rights team’s 

current operating standards for the investigation of clandestine graves, 

ICITAP and CIL formulated a comprehensive training program. The 

assessment was conducted through a direct visit to laboratory facilities in 

May of 2006 and a desktop review of working practices and case 

reporting. As a result of this assessment ICITAP and CIL identified the 

need for a program of textually and graphically supported, lecture and 

practical based training designed to impart the critical skills and 

theoretical foundations necessary to conduct forensic recovery of 

subterranean crime scenes and surface scatters of human remains. The 

primary aim of the training was to teach a structured and team based 

methodological framework, incorporating specific recovery skills and 

techniques. 

The course incorporated field and practical classroom exercises 

designed to demonstrate and develop skills in the following critical areas: 

• Site formation processes 

• Site disturbance processes 

• Taphonomy 

• Stratigraphic interpretation of a site 

• Excavation and recovery methodologies 

• Site recording, documentation and survey 

• Evidence identification, handling and management 

• Chain of custody 

• Long term curation and storage of evidence 

The course is designed to impart these skills so that they are 

implemented by trainees to best support criminal justice and the 

identification of victims. Furthermore the course is structured so that, in 

the future, trainees can become trainers. 

The performance evaluation procedure built into this program is 

tri-stage: 

Stage 1: Defining desired impacts and outcomes from the training 

by both the trainers and the trainees. 

Stage 2: Assessment of the training’s initial value by the trainers, 

trainees and independent observers (through videotape of the 

training sessions) at the time of the training. 

Stage 3: Assessment of the training’s actual impact on forensic 

anthropology in Colombia. 

At the time of the presentation the evaluation will be between Stage 

2 and Stage 3. A detailed outline of the training program and the results 

of the second stage of the performance evaluation will be presented. 

336

Although the ICITAP and CIL training program is initially focused on the 

current specific needs of the Colombian government, it is intended to 

ultimately be used to support other nations that request technical training 

for the investigation of large scale human rights atrocities. 

Capacity-building, Human Rights, Forensic Anthropology 

H71 The Current and Potential Role of 

Forensic Anthropology in Cambodia 

Sabrina C. Ta’ala, MA*, and Gregory E. Berg, MA, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 310 


After attending this presentation, attendees will become familiarized 

with the potential role of forensic anthropologists in investigating human 

rights violations committed in Cambodia during the period of the Khmer 

Rouge regime. 


humanity by highlighting the role that forensic anthropological research 

can play in Cambodia, despite a number of challenges that make this area 

unique from other geographical locations. 

From April 1975 to January 1979, Cambodia was taken over by a 

radical faction of communists known as the Khmer Rouge (KR). This 

regime sought to transform the entire population of the country into rural 

peasant farmers, and to this end, they relocated vast portions of the 

country’s urban population into collective farming communities. As part 

of the take over, and continuing throughout their rule, the KR regime 

particularly targeted certain members of society such as intellectuals, 

former government officials, and social elites for harsh treatment and often 

execution; however, men, women, and children from all walks of life were 

potential targets for persecution. By the time the KR’s rule in Cambodia 

ended, approximately 1.5 million Cambodians were dead from execution, 

ruthless forced work conditions, disease, and starvation. 

In the decades since the dismantling of the KR regime, there has been 

much discussion about prosecuting the KR leaders most responsible for 

atrocities. Largely because of complicated domestic and international 

politics, it was not until the late 1990s that the possibility of trials became 

a realistic expectation. International tribunals similar to those established 

for Rwanda and the former Yugoslavia have yet to be realized, despite 

continuing efforts at negotiation between the United Nations, the 

Cambodian government, and other international representatives. 

Forensic anthropologists have, to date, conducted limited work 

towards investigating human rights violations dating to the mid-to-late 

1970s in Cambodia. Research has focused on identifying locations of 

mass graves and analyzing patterns of trauma on previously exhumed 

skeletal remains. Forensic anthropological research in Cambodia has been 

limited for a number of reasons. First, there has been little demand for the 

collection of forensic evidence because of the slow-moving negotiations 

for criminal tribunals. Second, some exceptionally damning evidence has 

come from the KRs own records, which include documents detailing 

torture and execution; therefore, evidence collected from skeletal remains 

might not be considered as crucial as it would be in the absence of written 

sources of data. Finally, for a variety of reasons the goal of individual 

identification of skeletal remains is, in most cases, unrealistic. 

Nevertheless, forensic anthropologists have the potential to play an 

important role in Cambodia. Forensic investigation of mass graves and 

previously exhumed skeletal material has added detail to an historical 

record that is only partially being filled out by memoirs, witness 

testimony, and Khmer Rouge documents. As the flow of foreign tourists 

to Cambodia continues to expand, forensic anthropologists can play a 

valuable role in improving the education of the international public about 

this part of the history of Cambodia. For example, two of the most popular 

destinations for visitors in Phnom Penh are the Tuol Sleng museum and 

the Choeung Ek memorial stupa. Forensic anthropologists have played a 

small role in improving and refining interpretive displays in both 

locations, but a great deal more work can be done, particularly, in the case 

of Choeung Ek, where poor curation conditions are endangering the 

preservation of human remains, and a detailed interpretative display is 

sorely needed. 

Forensic anthropologists can go a long way in helping to describe 

human rights violations that occurred in Cambodia during 1975-1979, 

even if there is limited opportunity to identify victims and prosecute 

perpetrators. The potential role they can play in the improvement and 

refinement of public education should not be overlooked, and the value of 

such education should not be underrated. 

Forensic Anthropology, Cambodia, Human Rights Violations 

H72 Grave Problems in Iraq 

Derek R. Congram, BA Honours, MSc, MA*, 393 Pinehurst Drive, RR4 

Belle River, Ontario N0R 2A0, Canada; and Ambika Flavel, BA, MSc 

Forensic Archaeology, Regime Crimes Liaison Office, RCLO/Mass 

Graves, APO, AE 09342 


seldom talked about forensic work related to mass graves that has been 

performed to date in Iraq, about challenges in international forensic work 

and what must change for this type of work to be more effective. 


humanity by initiating discussion and cooperation amongst seemingly 

competing individuals and organizations towards unified international 

forensic assistance. It is also hoped that international protocols and 

operating procedures towards mass grave investigations will be 

developed. 

International forensic work is a growing phenomenon- for 

investigations of international law violations and as a response to mass 

fatality incidents and mass disasters. The field and practice have continued 

to evolve, with anthropology and archaeology often playing a primary 

role, but several key problems persist. These have been seen in the ex- 

Yugoslavia but now affect work in Iraq. This presentation will be a brief 

review of what has been done, what is being done and what can be done 

related to forensic investigations of clandestine, largely mass, graves in 

Iraq and the examination and potential identification of those exhumed 

from them. 

A primary problem with work thus far is that there is no 

‘international’ infrastructure to support the work. There are no set rules, 

regulations, standard operating procedures or protocols. There is mission 

overlap between organizations which results in wasted resources, 

miscommunication, gaps in authority and confusion over liaison with 

families and governments. A good example of this was seen in Kosovo 

where the same forensic site was ´processed´ by three different forensic 

teams over a period of two years. Many authors have talked about 

international standards, but despite all the rhetoric, the source and 

substance of such standards is unpublished and subjective at best. 

Iraq has mimicked Kosovo to a degree in that many different groups, 

(e.g., Coalition Provisional Authority teams, Inforce [a UK-based forensic 

charity], Archaeologists for Human Rights, a Kuwaiti forensic team, The 

U.S. Armed Forces Institute for Pathology, the US government´s Regime 

Crimes Liaison Office [RCLO], International Commission for Missing 

Persons [ICMP], Physicians for Human Rights) have all had a hand in 

some or all of site surveys/assessments, training of and liaison with Iraqis 

and field and laboratory operations. This is not to mention the many Iraqi 

non-governmental teams and personnel and Kurdish teams that have been 

involved in investigations and excavations of clandestine graves, with or 

without the knowledge and coordination of the Iraqi federal government 

and/or U.S. authorities in Iraq. The scale of multiple organizational efforts 

is unprecedented and given the lack of centralized authority, perhaps 

impossible to coordinate. 


Taken further, different organizations are often found to behave as if 

they are in competition with one another. This is not unique to Iraq, of 

course, and can be seen at local and national levels in many places, 

including the United States. However, this results in lack of transparency, 

professional disagreements that can develop into lawsuits, and confusion 

for the survivors of crimes, all of which negatively affect the primary 

objectives of the work: the needs and concerns of the families and 

communities of the victims and their interests in a process of justice, 

identification, repatriation and the advancement of scientific knowledge 

via the experience. 

Another problem being seen in international forensic work is that of 

paradigm. There is a harmful discussion in the literature of a dichotomy of 

‘forensic’ versus ‘humanitarian’ work. Experience of collaboration 

between ICTY (the International Criminal Tribunal for the ex-Yugoslavia) 

and ICMP, in the ex-Yugoslavia has shown that organizations can work on 

sites together to accomplish seemingly independent primary objectives, 

despite the obvious overlap in aims of evidence collection (ICTY) and 

identification (ICMP). Latin American teams have demonstrated that 

serving both the so-called humanitarian interests of families (e.g., 

individual identification and repatriation) and the evidentiary 

requirements of courts can be accomplished by a single organization. 

The most significant challenge for grave investigations in Iraq is 

obviously security and there is little that forensic practitioners can do 

about it. Nevertheless, the professional community should be prepared to 

assist the Iraqis when the time of safe and wide-scale investigations 

comes. International standards and operating procedures should be widely 

discussed, developed, published and distributed. Organizations and 

professionals must recognize that victims of war crimes or other grave 

violations of human rights, which include survivors such as family and 

community members of those killed, will only suffer more with a lack of 

organized and coordinated efforts. 

Osteoarchaeology, Iraq, Mass Graves 

H73 Differential Diagnosis of 

Torture in Skeletal Remains 

Jose P. Baraybar, BA, MS*, and Carmen R. Cardoza, BA, Equipo 

Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF), Arnaldo Marquez 2144-D, 

Lima, Lima 11, Peru 


recognize patterns of skeletal injuries consistent with torture as observed 

in cases of human rights abuses. Further, participants will learn key 

aspects of blunt force injuries to the skeleton and how to differentiate such 

injuries from other mechanisms of trauma or postmortem damage. 


humanity by illustrating how forensic anthropology is an important tool in 

the enforcement of human rights. This study presents cases of 

documented torture and the roles legal-medicine and anthropology play in 

documenting these types of cases and presenting patterns of abuse in 

international criminal trials. 

According to the United Nations General Assembly resolution 39/46 

(entered into force 1987), Article 27(1) of the Convention against Torture 

and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment: “the 

term “torture” means any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether 

physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes 

as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession... 

when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with 

the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in 

an official capacity...” 

During the years 1980-2000, more than 65,000 Peruvians lost their 

lives due to the armed conflicts between national security forces and the 

two guerrilla organizations, Sendero Luminoso and the Movimiento 

Revolucionario Tupac Amaru (MRTA). In 1998, Peruvian Law No. 26926 


criminalized torture and since then, three cases of torture have resulted in 

convictions. Currently, there are 118 reported cases of torture and 56 

deaths in military barracks in Peru. Current estimates point to over 11,000 

people missing as consequence of the armed conflict in Peru. The 

Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team (EPAF) is currently working to 

determine the whereabouts of the Missing, investigate these deaths, 

exhume graves, identify and return the remains to their families and collect 

forensic evidence to be used in criminal trials. 

Since the first conviction of torture by the International Criminal 

Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (November 30 2005) using forensic 

evidence (Limaj et.al IT-03-66), four cases of documented torture with 

evidence of skeletal injuries have been investigated by EPAF in Peru. A 

group of four other cases of suspected torture were also investigated. In 

these cases, cruel treatment was suspected; however, there was no witness 

testimony available to corroborate the findings. To complete a differential 

diagnosis and assess whether the injuries in these latter cases were 

consistent with patterns of abuse and torture, it was compared to the four 

documented cases involving torture and to another unrelated case, which 

resulted in similar injuries but from a different mechanism (blunt force 

trauma to the chest due to a traffic accident). All eight cases shared 

specific and diffuse traumatic injuries in the thoracic cage characterized by 

linear fractures on ribs and/or the sternum located on the anterior, lateral 

and posterior aspects. 

In the four known cases of torture, survivors provided witness 

testimony of the incidents. These witnesses stated that inhumane and cruel 

treatment was inflicted prior to the deaths of the victims, including the 

victims being stomped, kicked, and hit prior to being killed. The two types 

of injuries observed included antero-posterior compression of the chest 

characterized by fractures adjacent to the costochondral cartilage, and 

isolated and paired fractures in other various regions of the chest, likely 

resulting from direct impact. 

Differential diagnosis of the injuries sustained in cases of torture 

compared to a traffic accident, show that in the latter, injuries were 

consistent with an acceleration/deceleration mechanism. Therefore the 

pattern of injuries resulting from abuse was markedly different than a 

traffic accident. Further, the pattern of injuries observed in the torture 

cases was consistent with the witnesses’ testimony in which it is described 

how injuries were inflicted. 

Medico-legal investigations into human rights abuses must be 

focused on the types of trauma that may be inflicted to people prior to 

death. A detailed analysis of the wounds includes the locations, 

morphology, and frequency of wounds. These variables enable a 

differential diagnosis and estimation of the mechanism of injury and are 

discussed in this paper. It is concluded that in cases of human rights 

violations, thoracic trauma such as fractures to the ribs, sternum and spine, 

are good indicators of torture in cases that may or may not have 

circumstantial or testimonial evidence. This analysis demonstrates how a 

differential diagnosis can accurately estimate injuries caused by torture 

from those caused by other mechanisms, even in cases with a different 

manner of death. 

Torture, Human Rights, Blunt Force Trauma 

H74 Blasting Injuries in Human Rights 

Cases and Armed Conflicts 


Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620- 

8100; and Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc, Peruvian Forensic Anthropology 

Team (EPAF), Toribio Pacheco 216 Lima 18 Peru, Lima, 18, Peru 


prevalence of blasting injuries in cases of human rights abuses and armed 

conflicts. Participants will learn how to differentiate blasting injuries from 

other mechanisms of injury such as gunfire. 

338


humanity by demonstrating the types of injuries commonly encountered in 

human rights investigations and differential diagnosis for blasting injuries. 

This will serve as a useful tool for pathologists and anthropologists when 

estimating the most probable cause of death. 

Anthropologists and pathologists work together to reconstruct 

skeletal injuries and establish the most probable cause of death in cases of 

human rights violations and armed conflicts. Victims of modern conflicts 

often suffer multiple injuries, from conventional weapons including 

gunfire and blasting injuries (i.e., landmines, grenades, bombs, and 

mortars). Civilian and military targets differ in the prevalence of various 

injury mechanisms. When civilians are the intended target of violence, it 

is not uncommon for individuals to suffer multiple injuries from various 

mechanisms, with wounds prevalent throughout multiple regions of the 

body and from a variety of trajectories. Additionally, in attempts to hide 

the remains and crimes committed, deceased bodies are commonly blownup, 

burned, thrown off bridges or cliffs, and even buried/exhumed and 

later re-interred multiple times to hide the location of the grave. Each of 

these processes leaves a mark on skeletal remains. Distinguishing injuries, 

taphonomic alterations, and post-mortem fractures for each victim is a 

routine part of the post-mortem examination and is paramount for 

accurately diagnosing each mechanism of alteration. 

Characteristically, blasting injuries result in multiple victims from a 

single incident and injuries that are widespread throughout the body, 

affecting multiple anatomical systems. The factors that affect the wound 

morphology include the type of explosive, the range of materials used to 

construct blast and shrapnel, the location of the explosions within a 

structure or outside of a structure, the total amount of materials used in the 

construction of the explosive, location of the victim relative to the blast, 

and the presence of an intermediate target between the victim and the 

blast. Therefore, there is a wide range of variation observed among 

blasting injuries. 

Injuries from low-order explosives result from the “blast wind” and 

may include wounds from fragmented shrapnel or thermal injuries. In 

cases of high-order explosives, injuries result from the over-pressurization 

“blast wave” force. The three mechanisms of high-order explosive 

injuries that may affect the skeletal system are characterized as Secondary, 

Tertiary, or Quaternary injuries. Wounds result from penetrating shrapnel 

or fragmented bomb components, blunt force compression or crushing 

injuries from flying debris, bone fractures result from the individual being 

thrown from the blast or hit by a secondary flying object, or the traumatic 

amputation of limbs. High-order explosives tend to be military issued or 

“manufactured.” These types of blasts cause injuries that are different 

from “impoverished” explosive devices where an object is modified from 

its intended function and made into an explosive device. “Impoverished” 

devices may include scrap metal or metal objects such as household 

utensils that are cut into pieces and used as shrapnel in grenades or bombs. 

This study reviews cases of blasting injuries among civilian targets 

that resulted during armed conflicts investigated by the United Nations, 

International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia in Kosovo (1998) 

and Bosnia-Herzegovina (1991-1995) and current cases investigated by 

the United Nations, Office on Missing Persons and Forensics in Kosovo. 

This study highlights methodology for differential diagnosis of wounds 

produced by shrapnel from high-order explosives from gunfire projectiles. 

A differential diagnosis may be possible based on the number, location, 

pattern of wounds and wound morphology. This paper presents cases to 

demonstrate how the projectile tracks, the number and sequence of 

multiple injuries, and the direction/location of the blast may be estimated. 

This study investigates variation in wound morphology resulting from 

differences between “Manufactured” and “Impoverished” explosive 

devices. Finally, important trends in the demographic pattern of victims 

who incur these types of injuries, as relevant to criminal cases of violations 

to international humanitarian law, are discussed. 

Blast Injury, Blunt Force Trauma, Armed Conflicts 

H75 Decomposition in a Mass Grave 

and the Implications for Post 

Mortem Interval Estimates 

Rebecca E. White*, 1 Harlestone Court, Harlestone Road, Dallington, 

Northampton, Northamptonshire, NN5 7AP, United Kingdom 


processes that create the unique decomposition pattern observed in mass 

burials and how they differ from single burials as well as information 

regarding the effect that disturbance has on decomposition within burials. 


humanity by demonstrating information that aids in estimating with 

greater accuracy post mortem intervals from mass burials. 

The identification of human remains and estimation of post mortem 

interval (PMI) are very important in any forensic case. In the investigation 

of mass graves complications arise, as decomposition within a mass burial 

does not follow the same pattern as a single burial. Individuals within a 

mass burial have been anecdotally noted to decompose at different rates 

depending on where they are positioned within the mass (Haglund 2002). 

This introduces error into standard PMI estimation methods. Currently, 

the variables involved in this phenomenon and the resulting deviation 

from predicted decomposition patterns have not been understood or 

researched. 

The experimental research was undertaken at Newton Rigg, Penrith, 

UK for 70 days. In accordance with DEFRA regulations, rabbit carcasses 

obtained from standard pest control measures were buried, and examined 

at varying intervals. The study compared decomposition patterns between 

and within mass graves as well as between mass and single graves. 

Twenty-five rabbit carcasses were buried within two mass burials of nine 

each, and seven single burials. Carcass weight, carcass temperature, soil 

temperature (at both centre and periphery of the mass graves) and soil pH 

data were collected throughout the study and decomposition scores were 

assigned to each carcass. Disturbed and undisturbed burials were used to 

compare the effects disturbance had on subsequent analyses. One mass 

grave was exhumed and observed every 10 days; the other mass grave was 

exhumed only on day 70. One single burial was exhumed every 10 days 

providing controls. 

Results confirm the anecdotal evidence that bodies on the periphery 

of a mass grave decompose at a faster rate than those in the central mass. 

Preliminary results indicate that these peripheral bodies also decompose at 

a somewhat faster rate than singly buried individuals; in contrast, the 

decomposition rate of the centrally located bodies compares favorably 

with that of singly buried remains. Disturbance does appear to affect the 

rate of decomposition, as decomposition was at an earlier stage in the 

undisturbed burial and insect activity was notably greater in the disturbed 

burial where flies had access to the carcasses every ten days during their 

exhumation for data collection purposes. The rise in pH levels for both 

single and mass graves closely follows that predicted by Vass et al (1992). 

Mass Graves, Taphonomy, Disturbance 

H76 The Decomposition of Human Remains 

Recovered From the River Clyde, 

Scotland: A Comparative Study of 

UK Fluvial Systems 

Vivienne G. Heaton, MS*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, Department of 

Forensic and Investigative Science, University of Central Lancashire, 


The goal of this presentation is to aid investigators when faced with 

a case that involves human remains recovered from a river system. 

Postmortem timetables and equations could be used in cases to estimate 

the post-mortem submersion interval more accurately and investigator will 


enhance their understanding of the factors that most affect decomposition 

in fluvial environments. 


humanity by enabling the investigating authorities to more accurately 

predict the postmortem submersion interval. By looking at drift 

trajectories and the timing of resurfacing events, parties involved in search 

and recovery may be able to narrow down their search area. The factors 

that have the greatest influence on decomposition will also be highlighted 

so that members of the forensic community can consider the unique effects 

each specific river may have on the rate and sequence of decomposition 

and its effects on the investigation. 

Each year thousands of bodies are deposited in aquatic environments 

for a variety of reasons, yet, despite widespread acceptance that the 

process differs from that of terrestrial processes, there is a distinct lack of 

systematic research timetabling decomposition in water environments. In 

a lotic system, a body can be transported great distances from its point of 

entry and this, combined with the effects of decomposition, makes 

identification of the individual and the circumstances surrounding their 

death hard to determine. The aim of this study is to increase the accuracy 

in estimating the post-mortem submersion interval for bodies recovered 

from river systems in the UK. 

Data was collected through the examination of autopsy reports carried 

out at the University of Glasgow on bodies recovered from the Clyde, 

Scotland, over a 15 year period (1991-2006). The study sample was 

composed of 135 cases (104 males and 31 females) and covered an age 

range of 5-84 years. For each case, the body was divided into two areas, the 

head and the torso (including the limbs) and each area was scored using a 

modification of the Megyesi, et al. (2005) scale. The decomposition score 

is dependent on the advancement of progressive post-mortem modifications, 

including bloating, marbling, skin slippage and adipocere formation. These 

scores make it possible to produce a post-mortem timetable identifying the 

various stages of decomposition, the sequence in which they occur and their 

duration. Post-mortem timetables can be established by using the postmortem 

submersion interval (PMSI) and accumulative degree days (ADD). 

It can also be determined which environmental or human variables affect the 

rate and sequence of decomposition. 

Statistical analyses indicate that certain variables affect the 

decomposition process more than others. The scoring systems developed 

using data from the Clyde will be compared to similar scoring systems 

developed for the Thames (Brewer 2005). The results should not only 

allow the authors to more accurately estimate PMSI for bodies recovered 

from rivers, but also provide an indication as to whether the process varies 

between individual river systems which differ in physical, chemical and 

biological properties, or whether a single decompositional timetable can 

be applied to all UK Rivers. 

Decomposition, Rivers, PMSI 

H77 The Boy in the Chimney: A Case 

Study in Human Decomposition 

Elizabeth A. Miller, PhD*, Cal State Los Angeles and Los Angeles 

County Coroner, Department of Anthropology, 5151 State University 

Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90032 


understanding of human decomposition patterns in an unusual 

environment. 


humanity by providing a better understanding of the decomposition 

process in a residential chimney which is a somewhat unusual 

environment. 

Human remains were recovered by the Los Angeles County 

Department of Coroner (LACDOC) in March 2005 from a standard 

residential chimney in Los Angeles, California. The property was an 

abandoned juvenile “halfway house” facility, vacant for a minimum of 


five years (actual extent of vacancy is unknown). Due to transient activity 

on the property a guard is posted at the facility on a 24 hour basis. 

On the date prior to recovery of the remains the child of one of the 

guards reported to her father that, upon her inspection from the roof, she 

saw a human skull within the chimney. The guard did not immediately 

believe the child, but upon her insistence inspected the chimney himself 

the next day. He saw within the pipe of the chimney what he believed to 

be human remains and called 911. 

The external aspect of the chimney consists of an outer stone and 

cement structure approximately 5 feet long, 3 feet wide and extending 2 

feet above the flat roof surface. The top of the stone surface is covered in 

concrete. The chimney pipe is clay, extending approximately 6 inches 

from the concrete surface, and is an oval approximately 18 inches long and 

10 inches wide. 

Within the building structure, the hearth is also stone and concrete, 

with a metal liner. The hearth measures approximately 4 feet across and 

3 feet in height. The depth of the hearth box is unknown. The flue above 

the hearth box is also metal, and was closed at the time of discovery. 

Anthropological examination of the remains showed almost 

complete skeletonization with some slight remaining mummified soft 

tissue within the clothing. Both pants and shirt remained, covering the 

bones. The remains retained an organic, waxy odor and organic bone 

“grease” was visible. The bones not covered by clothing exhibited a light 

coating of soot, which was easily brushed away. The clothing was also 

covered with soot and ash. The bone showed no evidence of charring or 

burning. 

The decedent was determined to be male, approximately 13-17 years 

of age, and of African or African-American ancestry. Close examination 

of the skeleton revealed no evidence for either cause or manner of death. 

Based on the experience of the anthropologist of the normal rate of 

decomposition in the dry, urban environment of Los Angeles, postmortem 

interval was estimated at greater than one year but probably less than five 

years. 

The Identifications section of LACDOC, along with the Los Angeles 

Police Department, searched through the missing person reports in an 

attempt to identify the decedent. Additionally, because the decedent had a 

distinctive combination of facial features, a two-dimensional facial 

reconstruction was done by a forensic artist. Local television stations 

featured the reconstruction and a possible identification was made, leading 

to a positive identification of the decedent through DNA analysis. 

The decedent was identified as a 14-year-old African American male, 

found wearing the clothes in which he was reported missing in 1977. The 

extended postmortem interval shocked all LACDOC personnel involved 

with the case, and initiated a study of the preservation conditions in the 

chimney environment. The precise decomposition environment was 

impossible to duplicate experimentally. The halfway house was occupied 

over most of the almost 30 year period of slow decomposition and it is 

unknown how often the flue was left open vs. closed (changing the airflow 

patterns in the chimney), how many fires were burned during the 

decomposition period, the precise temperatures, amount of rainfall, or 

humidity within the chimney, to name only a few of the variables under 

consideration. However, using the average annual temperatures, rainfall 

and humidity, and incorporating the annual ranges of these variables, 

estimating few fires in the chimney (given the fact the facility was a 

juvenile halfway house rather than a private residence, and the fact the 

facility is in Southern California), considering the flue closed unless a fire 

was burning, and considering the time of year the decedent disappeared 

(December), a model of the decomposition process was constructed. The 

final consensus on the slow decomposition was that this chimney 

presented a unique set of environmental characteristics for decomposition, 

including low humidity, moderate temperatures, easy air flow, a porous 

“ground” surface (the clay chimney pipe), few insects (in December, when 

the boy disappeared), and enough fires to create a drying effect but 

insufficient dry air for complete mummification, leading to the extended 

decomposition period seen in this case. 

Decomposition, Skeletal Remains, Chimney 

340

H78 Patella Sex Determination by 3D Statistical 


Mohamed Mahfouz, PhD, Ahmed M. Badawi, PhD, Brandon C. 

Merkl, MS, Emam ElHak Ali Abd ElFatah, MS, Emily Pritchard, BS, and 

Katherine R. Kesler, BS, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and 

Biomedical Engineering, 301 Perkins Hall, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Megan K. Moore, MS*, Richard L. Jantz, 

PhD, and Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 250 

South Stadium Hall, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about a novel 

3D statistical method to automatically sex the patella from CT scan data 

with a high degree of accuracy and repeatability. 


humanity by demonstrating how the patella is a compact bone that often 

survives intact in forensic contexts, yet is greatly underestimated for its 

role in sex determination. 

Sex determination is one of the major challenges for the forensic 

anthropologist within a medical-legal context and is one of the essential 

steps in personal identification of an individual from skeletal remains. The 

most commonly used statistical method in analyzing this sex 

determination problem is discriminant function analysis. Most bones have 

been subjected to discriminant function analysis but not much literature 

has been found on the usefulness of measurements of the patella in the 

determination of sex using this method. This paper proposes a new sex 

determination method from patellae using a novel automated feature 

extraction technique. A dataset of 228 patellae (95 females and 133 males) 

was collected from the William M. Bass Donated Collection of the 

Department of Anthropology at the University of Tennessee. High 

resolution CT scans were conducted using a GE Lightspeed 16 slice 

computed tomography scanner. After the CT data was segmented, a set of 

features was automatically extracted, normalized, and ranked. These 

features include geometric features, moments, principal axes, and 

principal components. A feature vector of 45 dimensions for each subject 

was then constructed. A set of statistical and supervised neural network 

classification methods, were used to classify the sex patellar vectors. 

Nonlinear classifiers such as neural networks have been used to analyze 

several medical diagnosis problems. Examples include quantitative liver 

tissue characterization, bladder outlet obstruction computerized diagnosis 

and automated chromosome classification. In this paper, different 

classification methods were compared and a new method for sex 

determination is proposed which extracts more categories of features, 

other than the geodesic measurements, and analyzes the classification 

problem in a nonlinear approach using neural networks. Following the 

atlas construction and alignment steps outlined above, all the patellae 

models now lie in the same coordinate frame and have homologous points 

and faces. In this coordinate frame, six points are found to be the 

maximum and minimum values for the coordinates x, y, and z 

respectively. This yields three measures of maximum mediolateral (ML) 

width, maximum anteroposterior (AP) depth, and superoinferior (SI) 

height. Additionally, the six points are used to construct a bounding box 

around the patella, which is used to extract three features describing 

bounding box width (BBML), bounding box depth (BBAP), and bounding 

box height (BBSI). Classification success ranged from 83.77% average 

classification rate with labeling using fuzzy C-Means method (FCM), to 

90.3% for linear discriminant function (LDF) analysis. The authors 

obtained results of 96.02% and 93.51% training and testing classification 

rates, respectively using feed-forward backpropagation Neural Networks 

(NN). These promising results of the new features and the use of 

nonlinear classifiers encourage the usage of this method in forensic 

anthropology for identifying the sex from incomplete skeletons retaining 

at least one patella. 

Patella, Sex Determination, 3D Statistical Shape 

H79 The Problem-Based Learning Approach 

to Forensic Anthropology at Butrint 

National Park, Albania: The International 

Student Perspective. 

Alyson E. Jaagumagi*, University of Toronto, 100 St. George Street, 

Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada; Bo Yeon Kim*, Bryn Mawr 

College, 101 North Merion Avenue, Bryn Mawr, PA 19010-2899; 

Danielle Stollak, Haverford College, 370 Lancaster Avenue, Haverford, 

PA 19041-1392; and Meisha Bray*, Grand Valley State University, 1 

Campus Drive, Allendale, MI 49401-9401 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the value 

of a problem-based learning approach to teaching forensic anthropology 

and how this approach could lead to increased rate and quality of learning 

for students studying forensic anthropology. 


humanity by demonstrating from the perspective of four participating 

students from four different universities and three nationalities how a 

problem-based learning approach can be effectively applied to the study of 

forensic anthropology in an international field school setting. 

The problem-based learning (PBL) format is finding increasing 

acceptance throughout all levels of education and various disciplines, 

including the forensic sciences. This presentation illustrates the benefits 

gained by four undergraduates who received the majority of their instruction 

through this teaching approach while attending the Utica College forensic 

anthropology field school in 2006 at Butrint National Park in southwestern 

Albania. Located near Albania’s border with Greece, Butrint is a UNESCO 

World Heritage Site first inhabited in the 7th century BCE. 

The PBL model focuses on encouraging students to use their existing 

knowledge and exploring pertinent references to solve a problem through 

group discussion and teamwork, facilitated by an instructor. In contrast to 

traditional didactic lectures, the approach generally involves presenting 

the students with a problem that requires them to use their accumulated 

knowledge, acquire new skills and information, and reach consensus to 

find the best solution. In forensic anthropology, the problem case usually 

involves determining the biological profile and personal identity for an 

unknown skeletonized individual as well as documenting the cause of 

death and potential postmortem insults. 

During the summer of 2006, four undergraduates from four different 

universities in the United States and Canada participated together with 

nine other students in a forensic anthropology field school offered 

annually by Utica College at Butrint National Park. All four students had 

previously completed at least one undergraduate course in human 

osteology or forensic anthropology at their respective schools. As part of 

the field school experience, the four students were presented with the 

problem of sorting and assessing commingled human remains excavated 

the previous year from a medieval burial vault at Butrint. Dating from ca. 

1100-1300 AD, the well-preserved remains comprised at least five adults 

– a single primary burial subsequently mixed with at least four others. 

Employing the PBL approach, the field school instructors provided 

guidance but no specific instructions on how to sort and differentiate the 

remains of the commingled individuals. Consequently, the four students 

used textbooks and other sources of data to determine the sequence of 

procedures that were required to effectively sort the remains and 

reassemble the five individuals within the two-week period allowed for the 

exercise. 

Following the case-based discussion format that underlies PBL, the 

instructors were available for consultation and monitored the students’ 

progress daily. To ensure consistency and accuracy, the instructors 

performed all cranial and postcranial measurements that were initially 

taken by the students and evaluated their morphological analyses. The 

students used the multi-factorial approach to determine the age, sex, and 

ancestry of the five individuals from the vault, a task made more difficult 

because all five individuals were young women who had died around 


20-35 years. No evidence for specific causes of death was observed. The 

student team documented markers of occupational stress including 

squatting facets as well as evidence of infection and nutritional deficiency 

amongst all of the individuals. 

The key benefits of the PBL model for the students enrolled in this 

field school were the opportunities to learn and proactively employ the 

skills necessary for the practice of forensic anthropology in a setting where 

their decisions were a product of their own experiences and discussion. 

This approach allowed the students to concentrate in areas of their choice 

and to strengthen their expertise in specific aspects of forensic 

anthropology by actively sharing their knowledge with the others, 

garnering immediate feedback. It also served to foster a sense of 

accomplishment among the students and raise their levels of confidence in 

their own abilities once the separation and analyses of the remains were 

completed. 

In summary, the PBL model ensured that the four participating 

international students, working together in an international setting, 

acquired the practical skills necessary to work effectively in a group 

dynamic, solve logistical difficulties quickly, and reach a consensus 

resolving the problem of the commingled remains from the medieval 

burial vault. These results indicate that use of the PBL model for teaching 

forensic anthropology represents an effective approach for students to 

learn and value the crucial elements required in mass disaster responses as 

well as daily forensic settings. As such, the PBL approach should be 

considered for use in a broader range of educational settings within 


Albania, Student Perspectives, Problem-Based Learning 

H80 Long Bone Ratios for the 

Bosnian Male Population 

Alexandra M. Klonowski, MS*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, University of 

Central Lancashire, Maudland Building, Preston, Lancashire PR1 2HE, 



use the long bone ratio method for re-association of commingled human 

remains in situations where there is no physical connection between the 

upper and lower parts of the skeleton. 


humanity by demonstrating procedures of examination (re-association) of 

commingled human remains conducted by forensic anthropologists and 

exhumed from primary and secondary mass graves. The method might 

possibly lower the cost of DNA matching for identification purposes. 

The 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina left the country with 

estimated 250,000 dead, and more than 30,000 individuals were 

considered missing or unaccounted for as their whereabouts were not 

known. The majority of the exhumed individuals in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina represent severely commingled or incomplete skeletons, 

which causes great problems in the identification process in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina. 

Human remains can become commingled as the result of natural 

taphonomic processes or human postmortem activities. Natural, 

taphonomic commingling occurs in primary gravesites, such as caves, 

where bones commingle as the soft tissue decomposes. Surface remains or 

shallow graves can also undergo commingling due to animal scavenging 

and dispersal by humans, vehicles, and gravitation. Man-made 

commingling can be the result of poor exhumation procedures, frequently 

compounded by the removal and transfer of remains from original graves 

into new graves, in an attempt to hide evidence of the crimes committed. 

In the latter, heavy equipment was used to remove remains from original 

(primary) burial sites and re-deposit them into remote new mass graves, 


so-called secondary or tertiary graves. Human remains in secondary 

graves are severely commingled and dismembered, and body parts are 

often missing as bodies have been separated during removal and 

transportation. Presumably they could have been left behind in the original 

grave or deposited into one or more secondary graves. 

Methods used for sorting commingled remains are mainly 

morphological, where bones are assembled by visual examination of 

morphological similarities such as the size and shape, articulation of 

adjacent bones, patterns of muscle attachments, and age-related changes. 

This morphological method can be useful for pairing bones or reassociating 

them with incomplete skeletons missing bones from either side 

of the body. However, such re-association is only possible for remains 

recovered from primary graves, where all unassociated bones were 

recovered. Since there is no morphological similarity between bones from 

the lower and upper extremities, the visual approach fails to be sufficient 

when applied to commingled remains where bones are missing and the 

connection between the upper and lower parts of the skeleton has been 

compromised. Osteometric analysis is another method used for sorting 

and re-association of commingled remains. It is based on using bone 

measurements for the entire assemblage (Byrd and Adams 2003). 

Osteometric methods used in the identification process in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina are mostly based on data from the North American 

population. Therefore, due to the large quantity of exhumed individuals 

and to the severe commingling of remains, it is important to establish 

population specific osteometric standards for the Bosnian population. 

Long bone measurements used in this study are derived from males 

exhumed in Krajina, the north-west part of Bosnia, in the period 1998- 

2005. Comparison of lengths of right and left long bones was conducted 

on 150 individuals with all twelve long bone measurements, and 719 

individuals with measurements for one or more of the long bone pairs. 

Results obtained for the upper extremity showed that all bones of the right 

arm are significantly longer than bones from the left arm, thus confirming 

the majority percentage of right handed individuals in any population. For 

bones of the lower extremity, left femur and left fibula were found to be 

significantly longer then the respective bones from the right side of the 

body, while left tibia is on average longer than the right tibia, although this 

difference was not statistically significant. 

Long bone ratios were established from a sample of 1217 individuals 

with more then two long bones present from the left side of the body, and 

878 representing bones from the right side. Additionally, regression 

equations were established for all long bones. The ratios for 

humerus/femur, humerus/tibia and tibia/femur are presented in the table 

below. 

Left Right Left Right Left Right 

Humerus/ Humerus/ Humerus/ Humerus/ Tibia/ Tibia/ 

Left Right Left Right Left Right 

Femur Femur Tibia Tibia Femur Femur 

Mean 0.717 0.721 0.877 0.881 0.817 0.819 

Minimum 0.639 0.632 0.766 0.794 0.744 0.747 

Maximum 0.818 0.802 0.985 0.997 0.904 0.895 

Count 929 606 783 701 963 706 

The use of long bone ratios in the identification and re-association 

process of incomplete and commingled human remains may lower the cost 

of DNA supported re-associations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, by 

narrowing down the number of DNA samples required through the process 

of elimination of possible matches. 

Reference: 

1 Byrd, J. and Adams, B.J. 2003. Osteometric sorting of commingled 

human remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 48: 717-724 

Identification, Commingled Remains, Bone Ratios 

342

H81 The Mastoid Sinuses and Their 

Potential in Comparative Radiology 

for Forensic Anthropology 

Pamela M Steger, BA, MS*, Travis County Medical Examiners 

Office, 934 Sycamore Street, San Marcos, TX 78666; and Daniel 

Jackson, BA, MA, Travis County Medical Examiners Office, 104 B 

Ladybird Lane, San Marcos, TX 78666 


for establishing new and useful quantitative techniques in regards to 

human identification; specifically to comparative radiography of the 

mastoid sinuses. 


humanity by instilling the idea that mastoid sinuses are a practically 

untouched resource in widening the methods utilized for human 


Mastoid sinuses are an untouched resource in forensic anthropology 

and comparative radiology. These sinuses are presently used to aid in 

making a positive human identification by comparing an ante-mortem xray 

and a post-mortem x-ray. This method is trustworthy on a qualitative 

level but should be further pursued to enable the forensic community the 

ability to quantitatively compare the mastoid sinuses in relation to human 


This project’s purpose was to look at computed tomography scans 

(CT) of 25 males and 27 females in the computer system they were 

originated from to establish a measuring technique. A quantitative system 

was created to measure mastoid sinuses in ante-mortem and post-mortem 

CT scans and means of establishing positive identification. This 

measuring system would show extreme variability between individuals or 

between males and females therein turn creating Mastoid sinuses were 

decided upon due to their consistency throughout life after the age of 

twenty, they do not alter unless afflicted by disease, their vast complexity 

which allows for greater amounts of research and comparison, and the fact 

that they are housed within one of the strongest bony areas of the body, 

allowing the mastoid sinuses to survive extreme situations during perimortem 

events. 

The CT scans of fifty-two individuals were first examined to 

determine if there was a way using the Seimens Computer program in the 

CT scanner to measure mastoid sinuses. After testing five individuals it 

was determined that a particular slice of two views (coronal and axial) of 

a CT scan would need to be established as the measuring spots for each 

individual tested. These views, or slices, were established by looking at a 

complete set of scans for the five individuals and determining that there 

were anatomical landmarks in each person’s set of scans that were 

consistent. These landmarks were chosen enabling consistent slices for 

each individual measured in the entire project. Once these landmark slices 

were established a measuring system needed to be developed. 

The computer program used in this project the user to make the 

mouse of the computer a measuring tool for irregular shapes. This enabled 

the users to trace with the mouse curser the outline of each mastoid sinus, 

giving the area measurement. Then the user measured the length and width 

within the area measured around the sinus. Each measurement was taken 

three times, twice by the author and once by the associate researcher. Once 

these measurements were all gathered, they were entered into a database 

that was compatible with the statistics program SPSS. Descriptive 

statistics were utilized to demonstrate the range of measurements 

obtained, the ages within the sample and the differences between sexes. 

Initially, the author wanted to statistically compare each individual to one 

another to show the statistical variability between since there were no 

previous mastoid measurements or research exactly like this to compare 

against the currently gathered measurements this was not accomplished. 

The author then took all of the measurements and compared the largest 

measurement to the smallest demonstrating that there are statistically 

significant differences among the overall range of individuals. This test 

only allows the author to show the wide range of measurements and that 

each individual has their own area with length and width, but not that they 

are significantly different measurements. This project also statistically 

compared the male area measurements to the female area measurements 

to establish if there were any statistically significant differences in 

measurements between sexes. Testing was also done on the correlation 

between various measurements. These tests were run to establish what 

relationships were likely and how often they may occur, enabling the 

researcher to expect certain results in future measurements. Inter-observer 

error was tested as was intra-observer error to establish if the measurement 

technique used was reliable. 

Results indicated that the age range in this project was wide; 20 to 95 

years of age. Descriptive statistics indicated that every individual had a 

unique area measurement. There was low correlation between age and sex 

indicating that age and sex did not affect the area measurement. There was 

a high correlation between area measurements of the right and left sides of 

the individual, indicating that development rates are similar and do not 

vary a great deal after full development of the sinuses. Lastly, length and 

width were highly correlated area as would be expected due to anatomical 

consistency between the left and right sides. Overall, this project was able 

to demonstrate that the recording method established did show the 

variability between the mastoid sinuses between individuals, but leaves 

room for future research. This project did not establish a consistent and 

useable measuring system for use in daily practice but did establish that 

there is high correlation between certain measurements and that if a better 

measuring tool is utilized, a more consistent and useable measuring 

system may be established to aid in making positive identification for 


Comparative Radiology, Human Identification, Mastoid Sinuses 

H82 The Petrous Portion of the Human 

Temporal Bone Revisited: A Bayesian 

Analysis of its Potential Value in the 

Identification of Human Skeletal Remains 

Jason M. Wiersema, PhD*, Harris County Medical Examiner, 1885 Old 

Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 

The goal of this presentation is to inform the attendee of the utility of 

the petrous portion of the temporal bone, as seen on axial head CT, in the 

identification of human remains, and will discuss the results within the 

framework of Bayesian theory in light of recent federal court requirements 

regarding forensic testimony. 


humanity presenting a novel means for identifying fragmentary human 

skeletal remains with a high degree of accuracy; presenting the results of 

this research within the framework of Bayesian theory as a means to 

satisfy the most recent federal requirement for the admissibility of forensic 

testimony. 

Recent federal court decisions, most notably including the Daubert 

vs. Merrell-Dow ruling (1993) require more demonstrable levels of 

repeatability and more substantial statistical support for forensic scientific 

testimony including identifications. Currently, the content of forensic 

testimony must: (1) be testable by the scientific method, (2) have been 

peer reviewed, that is, published in a peer-reviewed journal, (3) be 

accompanied by explicit and demonstrable reliability and error rates, and 

(4) achieved general acceptance within the relevant scientific community. 

For this reason, research in forensic identification has undergone a 

transformation that has significantly influenced the development of recent 

novel identification methods. Considerable recent attention has been 

levied on the statistical basis for positive identifications made specifically 

by forensic anthropologists (Steadman et al. 2006). Traditional 

anthropological methods of identification have been short on the type of 


information necessary to satisfy the Daubert requirements. However, 

some more recent anthropological methods have been designed with these 

federal admissibility requirements in mind (Christensen 2003). 

Wiersema (2006) presented preliminary results of an evaluation of 

the potential of the morphology of the petrous portion of the human 

temporal bone as seen on axial CT scans of the head as a means to generate 

identifications of fragmentary human skeletal remains. The current poster 

presents the final results of that study and considers them within the 

context of Bayesian theory in light of the recent rulings regarding the 

admissibility of forensic testimony. 

The data used in this research were collected from axial CT images 

of the cranium. Two sets of images were collected for each of the 115 

individuals in the sample so that Euclidean distance comparisons could be 

made between images of the same individual and images from different 

individuals. Two-dimensional coordinate data were collected from 36 

landmarks on each of the CT images and the distances between each of the 

coordinate points were calculated to generate the data used in the 

statistical analyses. The author pared down this set of measurements using 

two different models (referred to as the biological and PCFA models). The 

measurement sets of both models were then compared to one another 

using nearest neighbor analysis, to test their relative efficiency in matching 

replicate images to one another. The results of both models were highly 

accurate. Three incorrect nearest neighbor matches resulted from the 

biological model and 5 from the PCFA model. The errors appear to have 

been the result of variation in the axial plane between the first and second 

scans. 

The results of the nearest neighbor comparisons were then 

considered within the context of Bayes’ Theorem by calculating likelihood 

ratios and posterior probabilities. The likelihood ratios and posterior 

probabilities were very high for both models, indicating that: 1) there is 

significant individual variability in the measurements of the petrous 

portion used in this research, and 2) this variation represents a high level 

of potential accuracy in the application of this method in the identification 

of forensic remains. This poster will illustrate these results and compare 

them to the results of other identification methods including DNA. 

Forensic Identification, Petrous Portion of the Temporal Bone, Axial 


H83 Mandibular Morphology as an Indicator 

of Human Subadult Age: Interlandmark 

and Geometric Morphometric Approaches 

Daniel Franklin, PhD*, Centre for Forensic Science, School of Anatomy 

and Human Biology, The University of Western Australia, MBDP 420, 

35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia; 

and Andrea Cardini, PhD, Functional Morphology and Evolution 

Research Unit, The Hull York Medical School, Heslington, York Y010 

5DD, United Kingdom 

The goal of this presentation is to outline how methods utilizing 

three-dimensional landmark coordinate data can be applied to problems in 

forensic anthropology. It will illustrate how these methods can be used to 

further knowledge about morphological differences in the subadult 

skeleton, with specific reference to age-related developmental remodeling 

of the mandible. This presentation will also show that in this specific 

analysis of data containing a strong allometric scaling signal, complex 

analytical techniques, compared to simple linear methods, do not 

necessarily confer a significant improvement in age prediction. 



humanity by providing data capable of predicting age using the subadult 

mandible with accuracy closely approaching that of standards based on the 

dentition. This technique has the potential to be a highly accurate means of 

age prediction in the subadult skeleton, which can be applied in situations 

where the mandible is fragmentary and/or the dentition is missing. 

Age estimation from human skeletal remains is a well established 

practice in forensic anthropology and is one of the four key biological 

characteristics important in forensic identification. Age related changes 

have been documented for almost every part of the human skeleton, with 

the selection of an appropriate technique being inherently dependant upon 

skeletal preservation and the efficacy of the available standards. When 

developing or applying age estimation standards, due consideration must 

also be given to the effects of nutritional deficiencies or other 

environmental insults, and the degree of variability among individuals of 

a given age, both within and between populations1 . 

Dental development and eruption is recognized as the set of 

developmental markers that appear to show the least variability against 

chronological age1 ; these markers are thus widely used in forensic 

investigations involving both living and deceased individuals. 

Alternatively, there is an example in the literature of an attempt to 

determine whether infants (aged birth to 2 years) can be discriminated 

based on mandibular measurements2 . ANOVA statistics demonstrated 

that the best discrimination was obtained using ramus height, although no 

age prediction standards were formulated. However, this evidence does 

suggest that subadult mandibular morphology has a potential application 

in forensic age estimation, but four key issues require clarification: 1) 

determining the standard error of age estimation using the measurement of 

ramus height; 2) determining whether geometric morphometric methods 

provide more accurate age estimations; 3) determining whether age 

estimations are accurate beyond the first few years of life; 4) determining 

whether age estimation using mandibular morphology is sex and/or 

population specific. 

The authors report here on new morphometric data designed to assess 

the potential of mandibular morphology as a developmental marker for 

estimating age at death in subadult human skeletal remains. A total of 79 

subadult individuals (aged 1 to 17 years) were sourced from two 

documented skeletal collections (The Hamann Todd Osteological 

Collection and The R.A. Dart Collection of Human Skeletons). Sex and a 

statement of age are thus known for each individual. Thirty eight bilateral 

three-dimensional landmarks were designed and acquired using a 

Microscribe G2X portable digitizer. Linear regression was used to predict 

age using both the linear measurement of ramus height and the 

multivariate descriptors of mandible size and shape based on 

configurations of three dimensional landmarks. The accuracy of the 

different predictors was compared in the pooled sample and in subgroups 

by age (pre-pubertal individuals; < 10 years and adolescents; > 10 years) 

and ethnicity. The best age predictor was then used to derive a simple 

linear regression model to predict age of subadults; the validity of the 

model was tested by cross-validation using a resampling procedure. 

Geometric morphometric analyses were performed using morphologika, 

TPSSmall 1.20 and NTSYS-pc 2.2f; statistical analyses were performed 

using SPSS 11.5 and NTSYS-pc 2.2f. 

References: 

1 Konigsberg L, Holman D. Estimation of age at death from dental 

emergence and implications for studies of prehistoric somatic growth. In: 

Hoppa RD, Fitzgerald CM, editors. Human growth in the past: studies from 

bones and teeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999;264-289. 

2 Norris SP. Mandibular ramus height as an indicator of human infant age. 

J For Sci 2002;47:8-11. 

Age Estimation, Subadult, Mandible 

344

H84 Assessment of Histomorphological 

Features of the Fourth Rib for Age 

Estimation in Koreans 

Yi-Suk Kim, MD*, Department of Anatomy, Gahon University of 

Medicine and Science, 1198, Kuwol-dong, Namdong-gu, Incheon, 

405760, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, 

Ssangyong-dong, Cheonan-si, Chungcheongnam-do 330946, South 

Korea; and Deog-Im Kim, Je-Hoon Lee, and Seung-Ho Han, PhD, 


University of Korea, 505, Banpo-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 137701, 

South Korea 

The goal of this study is to assess the histomorphological 

features, such as osteon population density, relative cortical area and 

average size of osteon and Haversian canal, of the fourth rib and 

ascertain the usefulness of histological age estimation method based 

upon Koreans. 


humanity by suggesting the possibility for histological age estimation 

method based upon Koreans. And this study is a first attempt for 

histological age estimation method using the fourth rib in Koreans, so 

it will be contribute to growth of concern for forensic anthropology of 

forensic sciences in different countries as well as Korea. 

Many studies on histological age estimation methods have been 

made for different bones and populations. Through these reports, the 

authors have a query about histomorphological variations associated with 

age in the fourth rib and have need of histological age estimation method 

applicable to Koreans. The objective of this study is to assess the 

histomorphological features of the fourth rib and ascertain the usefulness 

of histological age estimation method based upon Koreans. In this study, 

26 rib samples (13 males and 13 females) adjacent to the sternal ends 

(about 5 cm lateral to costochondral joint) of cadavers with known age and 

sex were used. The age range for the sample is 33 to 89 years with a mean 

and standard deviation of 65.0 and 16.5 years, respectively. Two thin 

sections (less than 100 um thick) per individual were prepared for 

histological analysis by manual grinding method. Osteon population 

density was counted using an Olympus BX-51 light microscope with 20x 

objective and 10x oculars fitted with 10x10 eyepiece reticule (grid factor 

0.25 mm2 ), and relative cortical area and average size of osteon and 

Haversian canal were measured using image analysis solutions (Image-pro 

Plus 4.5.1, Media Cybernetics, Inc.). Statistical regression analysis was 

performed using age at death as dependent variable. In case of combined 

sexes, osteon population density showed positive correlation coefficient 

(r=0.584) and average osteon size showed negative correlation coefficient 

(r=-0.778), while relative cortical area and average Haversian canal size 

showed no correlations with age. For simple regression method, average 

osteon size was selected as independent variable and its R squared and 

standard error of estimation were 0.605 and 10.564, respectively. 

Meanwhile an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed significant 

difference only in osteon population density between the sexes, so when 

the data for males and females were split for simple regression analysis, 

each of their R squared was increased from 0.341 in combined sexes to 

0.649 in males and 0.378 in females. These results fall within the purview 

of preliminary study but show the possibility for histological age 

estimation method based upon Koreans. 

This work was supported by the Korea Research Foundation Grant 

funded by the Korean Government (MOEHRD) (KRF-2006-331- 

E00011). 

Age, Rib Histomorphometry, Koreans 

H85 Age-Related Histomorphometric Changes 

in Fetal and Infant Long Bones 

Courtney D. Eleazer, BS*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South Stadium 



understanding of how histological changes in the long bones of fetuses and 

infants may be used to estimate age at death of fragmentary skeletal 

remains. 


humanity providing a preliminary investigation into the potential of 

utilizing histomorphometry in the estimation of age at death of fetal and 

infant remains. Microscopic methods may prove invaluable to the task of 

aging fragmentary remains that lack the characteristic features necessary 

for conventional methods. 

The goal of this study is to investigate the age-related changes in 

histomorphometry among the femur, tibia, and humerus of fetal and infant 

skeletal remains. Histological studies have become increasingly important 

in distinguishing fragmentary human remains from non-human 

remains 1,2 , as well as estimating age at death in forensic cases 3,4 . 

However, little work has been done with subadult material due to its 

distinct growth patterns and unique microscopic composition. 

This study will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by 

providing a preliminary investigation into the potential of utilizing 

histomorphometry in the estimation of age at death of fetal and infant 

remains. Microscopic methods may prove invaluable to the task of aging 

fragmentary remains that lack the characteristic features necessary for 

conventional methods. 

With permission from the mothers, cadavers were donated to the 

anthropology department by the University of Tennessee Regional 

Medical Center. Only fetuses and infants of known gestational age and 

those lacking pathological conditions that affect skeletal maturation were 

deemed adequate for study. The sample consisted of fetuses and infants of 

ages varying from 20 weeks gestation to 12 postnatal months. The femur, 

tibia, and humerus were chosen for study because previous research has 

suggested that these elements show more characteristic age-related 

changes in the adult than other skeletal elements. Since fragments of long 

bone shafts are often comprised of areas other than the midshaft, the entire 

diaphysis was utilized for study. Nine thin sections were cut from each 

bone (three each from the proximal third, middle third, and distal third of 

the diaphysis) using a high-concentration Buehler Isomet 1000 diamond 

blade saw. All sections were analyzed with a Leica DMRX light 

microscope at 5x, 10x, and 20x power magnification. Histomorphometric 

analysis was conducted using a Dell Optiplex GX270 and Image-Pro 

Express software. Seven measurements were recorded for each thin 

section - diaphyseal diameter, medullary diameter, cortical thickness, 

cortical area, osteon population density, osteon cross-sectional area, and 

percent non-remodelled bone. 

Previous research conducted on changes in urinary excretion of the 

N-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen suggests that the rate of bone 

turnover in neonates increases up to 37 weeks gestation, slows around the 

time of birth, and increases steadily thereafter 5 . These changes are closely 

associated with the pattern of growth of the neonate; therefore, researchers 

can expect histological changes to follow a similar pattern. Osteon 

population density and percent non-remodelled bone seem the more 

promising measurements in detecting age-related histomorphometric 

changes. 

References: 

1 Harsanyi L. Differential diagnosis of human and animal bone. In 

Histology of Ancient Bone: Methods and Diagnosis. Grupe G. & Garland 

AN.,eds. Berlin: Springer, 79-94. 

2 Cattaneo C, Dimartino S, Scali S, Craig OE, Grandi M, Sokol RJ. 

Determining the human origin of fragments of burnt bone: a comparative 


study of histological, immunological and DNA techniques. For Sci Inter 

1999;102; 181-191. 

3 Kerley ER and Ubelaker DH. Revisions in the microscopic method of 

estimating age at death in human cortical bone. AJPA 1978; 48; 545-546. 

4 Stout SD. The use of cortical bone histology to estimate age at death. In 

Age Markers in the Human Skeleton. Iscan, ed. Springfield: CC Thomas, 

1989, 195-207. 

5 Mora S, Prinster C, Bellini A, Weber G, Proverbio MC, Puzzovio M, 

Bianchi C, and Chiumello G. Bone turnover in neonates: changes of urinary 

excretion rate of collagen type I cross-linked peptides during the first days 

of life and influence of gestational age. Bone; 1997; 20.6; 563-566. 

Subadult, Histomorphometry, Age Estimation 

H86 Utilization of the Iscan Method on 

Multi-slice Computed Tomography 

Reconstructions for Assessment of 

Aging: A Preliminary Study 

Fabrice Dedouit, MD*, Stéphanie Bindel, David Gainza, MD, and 

Anthony Blanc, MD, Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 

1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 

31059, France; Francis Joffre, PhD, Service de Radiologie Générale, 

Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, 

Toulouse Cedex 9, 31059, France; and Daniel Rouge, PhD, and Norbert 

Telmon, PhD, Service de Médecine Légale, Hôpital de Rangueil, 1 

Avenue du Professeur Jean Poulhès, TSA 50032, Toulouse Cedex 9, 

31059, France 

The goal of this presentation is to assess the possibilities of aging on 

two (2D) and three dimensional (3D) multi-slice computed tomography 

reconstructions of the sternal end of the fourth rib using the Iscan method. 


humanity by providing an example of anthropological application of the 

computed multi-slice computed tomography in forensic sciences. 

Goal: The goal of this presentation is to assess the possibilities of 

aging on two (2D) and three dimensional (3D) multi-slice computed 

tomography reconstructions of the sternal end of the fourth rib using the 

Iscan method. 


humanity by providing an example of anthropological application of the 

computed multi-slice computed tomography in forensic sciences. 

Background: Multi-slice computed tomography (MSCT) is 

uncommonly used in forensic pathology and anthropology. MSCT allows 

two (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions, which can be 

helpful for osteoscopic analyses and consequently for age estimation. 

Purpose: To evaluate the possibilities of aging adults by examination 

of MSCT 3D reconstructions the sternal end of the right fourth rib with the 

Iscan method. 

Technique: Thirty-nine sternal ends of the fourth right rib were taken 

during medicolegal autopsies and examined before cleaning with a 

sixteen-detector row MSCT (Sensation 16, Siemens). Two filters of 

reconstruction were used: one “hard” for bone examination and the other 

one “smooth” for soft tissues examinations. The thickness of 

reconstruction was 1 millimetre and the collimation 1 millimetre. Two 

(with the MPR mode (Multi Planar Reconstructions)) and 

three–dimensional post-processing (with the VRT mode (Volume 

Rendering Technique)) were made in all cases. MPR reconstructions were 

performed in two planes: one along the long axis of the sternal end of the 

rib and one along short axis. 


Using the Iscan technique, the phase of each subject (and 

consequently the range of aging) was assessed by three different 

observers. One observer was an anthropology student and two were 

forensic pathologists with anthropological qualifications. 

The ribs were carefully cleaned with alternate baths of hot water and 

flesh removal. After a spontaneous drying, the phase of the sternal end of 

each rib was assessed by the Iscan technique by the three different 

observers. 

A first statistical analysis was performed to evaluate intra and interobservers 

variabilities on MSCT reconstructions and on dry bones by 

calculating the coefficient Gamma and the Krippendorff’s alpha reliability. 

A second statistical analysis was performed in order to compare 

estimations of phases performed on MSCT reconstructions and on dry 

bones by each observer (inter-method evaluation). Because of the little 

number of subjects studied, the statistical test used in this case was the 

Krippendorff’s alpha reliability. 

Results: The sample studied consisted of thirty-eight subject. Two 

ribs were excluded because of their partial destruction during their 

cleaning. 

The intra-observer variabilities on dry bones were excellent with the 

coefficient of Gamma equal to 0.87 and confirmed by a value of the 

Krippendorff’s alpha reliability equal to 0.79. The intra-observer 

variabilities on MSCT reconstructions were excellent with the coefficient 

of Gamma equal to 0.86 and confirmed by a value of the Krippendorff’s 

alpha reliability equal to 0.79. 

The inter-observers variabilities on dry bones were good with the 

coefficient of Gamma ranging from 0.73 to 0.91 and confirmed by a value 

of the Krippendorff’s alpha reliability ranging from 0.68 to 0.83. The interobservers 

variabilities on MSCT reconstructions were excellent with the 

coefficient of Gamma ranging from 0.82 to 0.88 and confirmed by a value 

of the Krippendorff’s alpha reliability ranging from 0.78 to 0.86. 

Concerning the inter-method evaluation for the first observer 

(student), the value of the Krippendorff’s alpha reliability ranged from 

0.55 to 0.71. The agreement between phase estimation for both methods 

was acceptable, even good. 

For the second observer, the value of the Krippendorff’s alpha 

reliability was equal to 0.69. Consequently the agreement between 

estimations of phases for both methods was significant. 

For the third observer, the value of the Krippendorff’s alpha 

reliability was equal to 0.71. Consequently the agreement between phase 

estimations of phases for both methods was significant. 

Discussion: Concerning the inter-observers variabilities, results were 

better on MSCT reconstructions. 

Concerning the intra-observer variabilities, results were equal for 

both methods. 

The inter-method error varied according to the observer. Evaluations 

of phases for both methods were seldom made with a perfect concordance. 

Percentage of evaluation with a difference of one phase (more or less) 

varied from 64% to 81%, what is correct. 

For phases 4 or more analysed on dry bones, observers had tendency 

to under estimate the phases on the MSCT reconstructions. 

Some explanations about this were made: 

- the thickness of the wall of the sternal end of the rib is sometimes 

difficult to be evaluated on MSCT reconstructions; 

- porosity of the bone is not estimable on MSCT reconstructions; 

- but analysis of fragile osteophytes on MSCT reconstructions is 

excellent. 

Conclusion: Using MSCT reconstructions of the sternal end of the 

fourth rib in order to estimate the phase and therefore the age of a person 

using the Iscan method is possible and seems to be efficient. 

This study is a preliminary study and analysis on a larger population 

is necessary to evaluate real possibilities of age estimation on MSCT 

images. 

Rib, Computed Tomography, Age Assessment 

346

H87 Estimating Time Since Death From 

Human Skeletal Remains by Radioisotope 

and Trace Element Analysis 

Sheridan J. Howard, BHS*, Centre for Forensic Science, The University 

of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; 

and Jan Meyer, PhD, School of Anatomy & Human Biology, 35 Stirling 

Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand a 

potential new technique to estimate time since death. 


humanity by giving forensic anthropologists another way to estimate time 

since death. It will also encourage people from different countries to try 

this technique on human material from their own country. 

One of the first concerns for forensic anthropologists in dealing with 

found skeletal remains in the Australian context is the determination of 

whether the remains are of anthropological, historical or archaeological 

interest. If fewer than 75 years have lapsed since death, remains are 

classified as anthropological and of forensic interest. Those from the 

historical (75-149 years dead) and archaeological (>150 years dead) 

periods are, if aboriginal subject to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander 

Heritage Protection Act 1984. However, an accurate and reliable method 

for estimating time since death (TSD) from human skeletal remains has 

thus far eluded forensic anthropologists. This study investigates the 

application in an Australian context of a novel approach recently proposed 

to dating skeletal remains from levels of radioisotopes 210Po, 238U and 

226Ra and trace elements. Radionuclide activity concentrations were by 

determined alpha spectrometry and trace element concentrations by 

inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). 

Discriminant analysis of the combination of activity concentration 

values for 210Po, 238U and 226Ra clearly separated bones derived from 

individuals who had died in the three eras of interest, as did the 

combinations of trace element concentrations. Bone radionuclide activity 

and calcium concentrations were all significantly higher in bones from the 

archaeological era than those from more recent eras, while trace lead 

concentrations from samples from the historical era were significantly 

higher than those from other eras. Barium, lanthanum, rubidium, 

strontium, cerium and neodymium concentrations were all significantly 

correlated with one another and with radionuclide activity concentrations. 

Significant differences were found between the patterns of radionuclide 

activity and trace element concentrations in different types of bone. 

The results of this study lend support to suggestions that multivariate 

consideration of trace element concentrations and radionuclide activity 

levels can aid in the estimation of time since death from bony remains in 

Australia. This was a very small study, but its results clearly indicated the 

need to take into account variations arising from lifetime activities, 

diagenesis and bone type in applying the techniques to estimations of time 

since death. It highlights the great need for a large scale study which 

systematically examines these influences on the estimation of time since 

death in bone of known ages ranging from the very recent through to 

archaeological times. 

Time Since Death, Radionuclides, Forensic Anthropology 

H88 Even in Alaska! Missing Person or 

Cremains and How to Tell the Difference 

Kathleen Day, MS*, State of Alaska Medical Examiner’s Office, 

4500 South Boniface Parkway, Anchorage, AK 99507; and David 

McMahan, MA, Alalska Department of Natural Resources, Office of 

History & Archaelogy, 3601 C Street, Suite 1278, Anchorage, 

AK 99503 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about a model 

that can be used when unidentified burned bone fragments are found and 

that will assist scientists of various disciplines to recognize human 

cremains. 


humanity by providing a model that can be utilized by investigators when 

confronted with unidentified burned osteological fragments and by 

demonstrating how microscopic analysis and the cooperation of various 

professionals can aid in the analysis of various specimens in order to 

identify missing individuals and/or cremains. 

New trends in the funeral industry are posing a challenge for forensic 

scientists. There is an increased interest in customized and non-traditional 

services, as well as a growing number of people choosing cremations over 

burials as their preferred form of body disposition. Careful collection and 

scene documentation is crucial whenever unidentified remains are found. 

The initial step in these cases will always entail attempting to determine 

animal vs. human bone. When fragments are very small, this may not be 

possible. If the fragments are human or if there are obvious artifacts such 

as teeth or clothing associated with the remains, the accepted protocol is 

then to attempt to match the remains with missing persons last known to 

be in the vicinity. All evidence and remains found at the scene need to be 

collected for further analysis. In this case study, the presenters will 

document the steps used to analyze small bone fragments, present visual 

representations of burning patterns in bones, and help forensic scientists 

determine cases involving foul play by burning versus standard cremation 

practices. The presentation will also include visual representations of 

cremation artifacts and the procedures utilized in the funeral industry 

during the cremation process. It will demonstrate how common cremation 

artifacts can be misidentified to the untrained eye and will include the 

most common type of items found when an individual is cremated and 

then their ashes scattered. 

Cremains, Physical Anthropology, Forensic Odontology 

H89 Forensic Anthropology Investigation of 

Human Rights Violations in the Ixil 

and Ixcan areas of Guatemala 

Lourdes A. Penados, MS*, CAFCA, 2a. calle 6-77 zona 1, Guatemala, 

01001, Guatemala; and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, University of Central 

Lancashire, Department of Forensic and Investigative Sciences, 

Maudland Building 114, Preston, Lancashire PR12HE, United Kingdom 


results obtained by the Centre for Forensic Analysis and Applied Sciences 

(CAFCA) from their investigations during the last five years as well as 

patterns of human rights violations during the armed conflict in the two 

areas of Guatemala as it relates to perpetrator, sex, and age of victims, and 

types of perimortem trauma. 


humanity by demonstrating a first effort to organize and analyze the data 

that has been collected by one of the Guatemalan teams (CAFCA) and to 

give emphasis to the need for further studies as a means to understand the 

magnitude of the events that occurred as well as provide elements for 

comparative studies in other countries that face a similar context. 


Guatemala lived through one of the most violent armed conflicts in 

Latin America (1960-1996). During the 1980s, the strategies created by 

the State were aimed to terrorize the civilian population. The result of 

these strategies was widely recorded by two historical investigation 

projects in 1998 and 1999. Both reports recorded a huge number of 

witness and survivor testimonies and documented the human rights 

violations with a historical and memory recovery perspective. 

Between 1992 and 2005 four forensic anthropology teams carried out 

approximately 600 exhumations, recovering and analyzing an average of 

4,000 skeletons. 1 The Guatemalan teams have provided a number of 

additional findings and have been able to document cases that were not 

reported to either of the investigation teams mentioned above. 

The analyses of the data that have been collected through the years 

offers a tool for understanding the magnitude of the violent events that 

occurred in the country and facilitates classification of events for further 

research. It might also provide elements for comparative studies since 

other nations have experienced or are at the moment going through similar 

socio-political situations. 

This presentation will show the results of the systematization and 

analysis of the data collected by one of the forensic anthropology teams, 

the Centre for Forensic Analysis and Applied Sciences (CAFCA). The 

focal areas of this research are the forensic investigations carried out in the 

Ixil (northwest highlands) and Ixcan (north lowlands) areas of Guatemala. 

Patterning in the human rights violations that occurred during the armed 

conflict are presented in terms of perpetrator, sex and age of victims, and 

types of perimortem traumata. This research is based both on eyewitness 

interviews and on the evidence that has been collected by CAFCA’s team 

between the years 2000 and 2005. 

Reference: 

1 Information from FAFG, CAFCA, ODHAG-EAF and Forensic 

Anthropology Team of the El Quiche Diocese. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights, Guatemala 

H90 Most Common Variation and Dental 

Anomalies in Skeletons Analyzed in 

the Laboratory of the Guatemalan 

Forensic Anthropology Foundation 

Shirley C. Chacón, BA*, and Leonel E. Paiz, BA, Fundación de 

Antropología Forense de Guatemala (FAFG), Avenida Simeón Cañas 10- 

64 Zona 2, Guatemala City, 01002, Guatemala 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be introduced to data 

obtained about morphology, variation, and dental anomalies of the 

skeletons analyzed in the FAFG that will demonstrate differences with 

other groups or populations. 


humanity by demonstrating the importance of odontology in forensic 

anthropology in Guatemala for identification of individuals. 

In several cases, features were observed in the teeth that are no 

common to all dentition, or to all persons. Occasionally, these features 

were scored as anomalies until a review revealed that they were in fact 

morphological variation. Occasionally, these variations were a difference 

of major or minor grade that does not alter the form of the tooth but gives 

it a different appearance. Anomalies are simply a deviation of normality. 

These deviations can occur as a result of local conditions, as well as 

inheritance or, in some cases, systematic alteration. 

Dental anomalies not only affect tooth form, size, layout, number or 

time of eruption, they are also modifications of histological structure. The 

different teeth vary in length, width, thickness, curve of the root, features 

of the crown, evolution of the marginal crest, form, and definition of the 

cusp. 


One of the most common questions is: what are the morphological 

features of the inhabitants of Guatemala? However, performing an 

investigation of this type would involve a population too big, therefore this 

study will specifically report on variation and anomalies observed in the 

permanent dentition of the skeletons recovered in the regions most 

affected by the civil war in Guatemala, which were analyzed in the 

laboratory of the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation (FAFG). 

Due to shortage of studies about dental morphology in the 

Guatemalan population, other data (from other groups) were used, because 

there are not enough investigations performed that could clearly prove if 

the dental morphology of the Guatemalan is the same or different from 

what it is commonly described. 

Dentition, Morphology, Anomaly 

H91 Diverse Stature Estimation Formulae 

Applied to a Bosnian Population 

Nermin Sarajlic, MD, PhD*, Eva-Elvira Klonowski, PhD, and Senem 

Skulj, BSc, ICMP, Alipasina 45A, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the application of three 

different stature estimation formulae to a Bosnian population. This 

research project tests the accuracy of Trotter (1970), Ross and Konigsberg 

(2002) and Sarajlic (2002) formulae for stature estimation as applied to a 

Bosnian population. 


humanity by demonstrating how correct stature calculation could be 

crucial to solve the problem of establishing positive identification in mass 

fatality situations involving related individuals. 

In cases where a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) report is generated on 

two, three or even four bothers that did not have children and cases with 

mixed remains from mass graves, especially secondary mass graves, 

accurate biological profiles, including stature estimation are critical to 

sorting the remains. Establishing which brother the remains represent, or 

(in mass graves) to find that part of the body that does not belong to the 

individual, or that only the bone from which the sample was taken belongs 

belong to the individual while other bones to somebody else can be 

assisted by correct stature estimations. 

There are still more than 14.000 missing persons in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina from the recent war who are believed to be dead. The 

process of recovery and identification of the deceased will inevitably take 

the next several years. Besides the estimation of sex and age, stature 

estimation is the next most important factor contributing to the 

individuation of unidentified persons. 

Since 1996, the Trotter (1970) formulae, developed on American 

Whites, have been used almost without exception to determine the stature 

of the population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Experience in the recovery, 

anthropological examination and identification processes showed that 

those formulae have not always produced adequate results. In 2002, Ross 

and Konigsberg presented new formulae for stature estimation for 

Balkans, using bones from unidentified Bosnian and Croatian males who 

were victims of the recent war. Because the actual statures of those 

persons were not known, the authors used the mean and standard deviation 

of stature for 19-year-old males from the literature. The same year, 2002, 

in his master thesis, Sarajlic also presented formulae for stature estimation 

of Bosnian population. The research was undertaken on male cadavers. 

The cadaver length was measured directly and the length of the long bones 

was obtained from radiographs. 

An additional problem in Bosnia and Herzegovina is lack of records 

for either measured or reported height of the missing. The majority of 

military records containing such data were destroyed during the war. 

Therefore, in more then 95% of cases data about height of missing persons 

were obtained from family members. Since there are still many missing 

348

persons in Bosnia and Herzegovina the identification of exhumed skeletal 

remains could benefit from using accurate formulae for stature estimation. 

Given the absence of antemortem data for height of the missing, estimated 

forensic stature (by close relatives) has to be considered as equivalent to 

biological stature in this situation. 

The sample for this research consists of long bones (humerus, femur, 

tibia and fibula) and was obtained from 400 males exhumed in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina. The maximum length of the long bones was measured. In 

each case, the identity of deceased persons was provided by DNA and 

confirmed by the comparison of antemortem with postmortem data. All 

individuals in the study were aged from 19 to 58 years. In only 4% of the 

cases there were either military or medical records for stature of those 

persons. In 2% of the cases family members reported exact stature of the 

missing person. In all other cases, data about height was recollected by 

family members. In each such case measurements of a surviving male 

cousin, who were mature before the war, were taken and the height of the 

missing person was estimated according to their height. 

Ross and Konigsberg showed in their research that formulae based on 

Trotter (1970) systematically underestimate stature in the Balkans. Sarajlic 

stated that the Trotter formulae underestimate the stature of tall people in 

Bosnia. In his study, the comparison with Trotter’s method was made with 

the same sample from which the new formulae were derived. However, 

none of these formulae were tested on the bones from exhumed persons. 

This study compares all three methods on a large independent sample in 

order to determine which formulae provide the most accurate stature 

estimation for the male population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

This research conducted on Bosnian remains from the recent war 

(1992-1995) might be helpful not only in the identification of the missing 

from the war, but for new forensic cases in Bosnia and Herzegovina as well. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Identification, Stature Estimation 

H92 A Simple Technique for Imaging the 

Human Skeleton: An Application 

Using the Auricular Surface for Aging 

Sherry C. Fox, PhD*, Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical 

Studies at Athens, 54 Souidias Street, Athens, Attica GR106-76, Greece; 

and Sotiris K. Manolis, PhD, and Constantinos Eliopoulos, PhD, 

Department of Animal and Human Physiology, Division of Biology, 

University of Athens, Athens, Attica GR106-76, Greece 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn a simple 

technique using a photographic scanner to record images of the human 

skeleton without the distortion that can arise from using film and digital 

cameras. An example is provided using the auricular surface of the ilium 

from a collection of known ages at death for better aging purposes. 


humanity by demonstrating The impact of this presentation on the forensic 

community is that there are numerous applications. 

A simple imaging technique utilizing a flatbed scanner is employed 

for the purpose of recording human skeletal remains without the distortion 

that can arise from using film or digital cameras. An application using this 

technique is provided in which images of the auricular surfaces of the 

pelvic ilium bones are presented in an effort to facilitate aging of the 

skeleton. The auricular surface of the ilium is a three-dimensional area that 

can be difficult to record photographically. Furthermore, some finer 

features such as granulations can be lost using film or digital cameras for 

imaging this and other skeletal structures. 

Black-and-white photographic images of the auricular surfaces of 

ilia, traditionally shown along with descriptions of different ages at death, 

demonstrate photographic contrast that can make aging difficult. Several 

factors may contribute to photographic distortion, including such variables 

as the type of lighting, the angle of the lighting source, the camera type, 

and the image resolution, but a flatbed scanner with sufficient resolution 

capabilities can provide digital images with clarity that can be readily 

shared by researchers. Additionally, image databases can be created with 

this technique. 

For the purpose of this study the following methodology is espoused 

utilizing a relatively new collection of modern human skeletal remains of 

known individuals from Europe. Fifty auricular surfaces with known agesat-death 

were scanned with a flatbed scanner possessing sufficient 

resolution capabilities. The ilia used in this study are from the Modern 

Human Skeletal Reference Collection of the University of Athens, Greece. 

The University of Athens’ Collection is comprised of approximately 200 

known individuals from around Greece with pertinent associated data, 

including individual sex, age-at-death, cause of death, and occasionally 

specific antemortem medical information. Three different observers used 

the scanned images to estimate ages at death using a well-known auricular 

surface aging method. The results were then compared to those from 

observations of ages at death made both on photographic images of this 

subsample as well as observations of these subsamples by direct 

examination of the dry bone. The data were then statistically compared 

using an analysis of variance test with the SPSS statistical package with 

results indicating the utility of this technique. It is suggested that ages at 

death from scanned images are similar to those from observations made on 

dry bone. 

In conclusion, this is a simple technique utilizing a flatbed scanner 

with sufficient resolution capabilities that allows for imaging skeletal 

features without the distortion that can present itself with digital or film 

cameras. Furthermore, this technique allows for readily sharing images 

and it can be used for the creation of digital databases as well. Discussion 

ensues regarding possible additional applications using this technique, 

such as the recording of pathological lesions or pubic symphyses of the 

pubic bones of the os coxae, again for aging purposes. 

Imaging Technique, Human Skeleton, Aging 

H93 Analysis of Commingled Remains Using 

Archaeology, Anthropology, and DNA: 

A Case Study from North Korea 

Alexander F. Christensen, PhD*, and William R. Belcher, PhD*, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and 

Sarah Bettinger, MSFS, Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, 

1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850 

After attending this presentation attendees will learn how 

archaeological context, forensic anthropological analysis, and mtDNA 

analysis can be combined to understand the nature of a commingled 

skeletal assemblage and identify the individuals represented. 


humanity by demonstrating how commingled skeletal assemblages can be 

very difficult to interpret. Using multiple lines of evidence helps forensic 

anthropologists to understand assemblage formation processes, segregate 

the remains of different individuals, and identify the individuals present. 

This presentation will provide an example of how to understand a 

complex, commingled assemblage such as may result from a mass fatality 

event. 

Teams from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) and 

its predecessor organization, the U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) have excavated numerous archaeological 

sites in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (D.P.R.K.) in search of 

the remains of U.S. servicemen who died during the Korean War (1950- 

1953). Remains recovered by these teams are analyzed at JPAC, and 

osseous and dental samples are sent to the Armed Forces DNA 

Identification Laboratory (AFDIL) for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 

sequence extraction and analysis. Remains have been encountered in 

many different depositional circumstances. Some are clearly primary, 


intact burials, whether of a single individual in a foxhole or eleven 

individuals in a mass grave. Others are secondary, with the bones of one 

or more individuals found out of anatomical position. Some of these 

secondary burials appear to be the result of recent activities by the Korean 

People’s Army (K.P.A.), with whom JPAC teams collaborate. Others 

appear to be the result of battlefield clean-up activities in the 1950s, or 

reburial of remains disturbed by farmers at some point in the intervening 

decades. The authors report on an unusual secondary burial excavated by 

the CILHI in 2002. This recovery scene does not constitute a mass burial 

in the strictest sense of the term. None of the remains are articulated and 

there is a conspicuous absence of vertebrae, ribs, and hand and foot bones. 

The recovery scene is on a break in slope below a slight draw. Although 

the assemblage of bones appears similar to those found in obviously 

staged burials—primarily long bones, from at least nine individuals, with 

no apparent anatomical ordering—the archaeological context indicates 

that it is unlikely that the remains had been disturbed in the recent past. 

The eroded condition of the remains and the absence of smaller items 

suggest that these materials may have been deposited by flowing water. 

The apparent random orientation of the long bones suggests that the fluvial 

process was not linear. This pattern is consistent with the location of these 

remains in a supposed “eddy” against a bedrock depression. The angular 

sediment could be responsible for the extreme abrasion and lack of long 

bone epiphyses, especially in a fluvial environment. Although the remains 

appeared poorly preserved at a macroscopic level, mtDNA was 

comparatively well preserved, with sequence data obtained from all 

twenty samples initially submitted. This sequence data allows the 

calculation of the minimum number of individuals present (nine). Data 

has also been compared with that provided by family references for 

casualties known to have been lost in the vicinity of the recovery scene, 

indicating that the individuals represented are indeed American soldiers 

who died nearby in the fall of 1950. 

Commingling, Archaeology, mtDNA 

H94 Investigating the Spanish Civil 

War: Forensic Anthropological 

Investigations in Santaella 

Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD*, Binghamton University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000; Elena Sintes 

Olives, MA, and Camila Oliart Caravatti, MA, Autonomous University of 

Barcelona, Department of Prehistory, Edifici B, Barcelona, 08193, 

Spain; and Jennifer M. Bauder, MA, Binghamton University, Department 

of Anthropology, PO Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000 


current internationally collaborative forensic efforts in Spain by 

highlighting the results of one of the first systematic excavations and 

identifications of a Spanish Civil War mass grave. The paper discusses 

some of the unique problems of working in Spain, including current 

political obstruction of investigations and the nature of antemortem 

information. 


humanity by demonstrating The forensic community must continue to 

contribute to the training of international colleagues and help apply 

political pressure to promote scientific human rights investigations. 

The Spanish Civil War officially began in July, 1936, as the military 

and right-wing fascists challenged the democratically elected Republican 

government. As part of a systematic strategy of terror in southern Spain, 

fascists supported local uprisings and the killing of Republicans and 

leftists. The relative peace the small village of Santaella had enjoyed that 

tumultuous summer was shattered on September 11 of that year. A group 

of fascist soldiers and civilians belonging to the Spanish Falange 

interrupted a village-wide celebration and kidnapped 18 men. The men 

were loaded onto a truck and taken to a neighboring village. One man 


jumped from the moving truck and escaped but the others were 

transported to a cemetery and forced to dig a trench for their own mass 

grave. There they were executed. A few months later several more men 

disappeared from Santaella and were suspected to be buried in the 

Santaella cemetery. All of the victims were civilians. One was a 

shoemaker, another a municipal employee and the rest were farmers. For 

the next 68 years the families were denied access to their missing and were 

purposefully intimidated by those loyal to President Francos’ authoritarian 

regime. The social climate of national amnesia related to Fascist atrocities 

continued even after Franco’s death in 1975. In 2004 the families of the 

victims were finally given some hope of finding their loved ones. 

A regional social organization, Foro por la Memoria, enlisted the 

assistance of Spanish archaeologists and an American forensic 

anthropologist to locate the mass grave(s), recover the remains, and 

identify the victims. In June of 2004 a hand dug trench was found inside 

the LaGuijarrosa cemetery. Seventeen skeletons were tightly packed 

together, side by side, with alternating head direction. Artifacts recovered 

included a variety of bullets, some metal personal effects, and leather 

clothing remnants, such as sombreros and boot soles. Simultaneously, 

another team of archaeologists searched for the other missing men in the 

Santaella cemetery. Five skeletons were exhumed from three graves at 

this site. 

In August 2005, forensic anthropologists from Binghamton 

University joined two physical anthropologists from the Universitat 

Autónoma de Barcelona (UAB) to conduct a complete analysis of the 22 

skeletons recovered from the La Guijarrosa and Santaella cemeteries. 

Standard methods of age, sex, and stature estimation were employed and 

pathological conditions were recorded. Perimortem and postmortem 

trauma were also described and diagrammed. 

All of the recovered skeletons were male and most were young. 

Skeletal estimates of age indicate seven men were between 18 and 30 

years, 14 between 30 and 50 years, and one was estimated to be over 50 

years. Sixteen of the 22 individuals (72.7%) displayed clear evidence of 

perimortem trauma, 14 from LaGuijarrosa and two from Santaella. All of 

these individuals exhibited perimortem gunshot trauma and one also 

suffered blunt trauma to the face and head. The majority of the gunshot 

wounds are observed in the torso and limbs with only three men suffering 

one or more gunshot wounds of the head. This patterning of gunshot 

wounds supports a purportedly common scenario during the war in which 

the victims stood against the cemetery wall and the assassins fired from 

the hip. 

Due to the lengthy postmortem period, antemortem information is 

derived from photographs and the recollection of family members 

concerning dental, physical and health characteristics rather than formal 

dental and medical records. Stature was not helpful for identifications 

because none of the individuals were particularly short or tall. Only one 

individual exhibited any dental treatment and was tentatively identified. 

Other presumptive identifications can be made based on antemortem 

fractures and the estimated age of the most elderly male but confirmation 

must await DNA testing. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights Investigations, Trauma 

H95 Sifting Through the “Ashes”: Age and Sex 


Traci L Van Deest, BA*, California State University, Chico, Department 

of Anthropology, 311 Butte Hall, Chico, CA 95929 

The goal of this presentation is to: 1) to examine the relationship of 

cremains weight and age and sex; and 2) to address the discrepancy in 

average weights found in previous studies in comparison to a large sample 

from northern California. 


humanity by demonstrating the potential use of cremains weight in the 

estimation of age and sex from cremated human remains. 

350

Cremated human remains have been the focus of numerous studies in 

recent years. This research has focused primarily on the use of coloration, 

shrinkage and fracture patterns to deduce the duration of heat exposure, as 

well as the condition and placement of the remains before contact with 

fire. Little research has been conducted into final cremains weight and the 

information which may be gleaned from it. Due to the practice of 

pulverization of fragments in modern cremations, traditional methods of 

sexing and age estimation are lost. Three studies have addressed this issue 

using cremains weight, with varying results. Sonek (1992) presented his 

findings at the 44th AAFS Annual Meeting, and reported a mean weight 

of 2380g for the group and 2824g and 1922g for males and females 

respectively. Warren and Maples (1997) showed similar results in their 

study of 100 individuals, with a mean weight of 2430g for the group, 

2893g for males and 1840g for females. Interestingly, Bass and Jantz 

(2004) found that remains from a commercial crematory in Tennessee 

weighed approximately 500g more for both males (3379g) and females 

(2350g) than the Sonek (1992) and the Warren and Maples (1997) studies. 

Bass and Jantz (2004) suggest that these higher weights are due to regional 

differences in populations, with people having higher bone density in 

Tennessee due to higher obesity rates in comparison with Florida and 

California. With so few studies addressing this issue, the examination of 

another comparative sample can address discrepancies between previous 

studies, in particular whether regional distinctions in populations are the 

underlying cause of the difference. 

The sample used in this study comes from the Newton-Bracewell 

crematory, located in Chico, California. Beginning in December 2003, 

crematory staff began weighing the cremains prior to release to the next of 

kin in order to combat potential litigation. With an average of twenty 

cremations monthly, each cremation was weighed on a postal scale and 

measured in pounds. The weight in pounds was converted to grams using 

the equation: Lbs x 453.6 = Grams. The cremains were weighed after 

placement into an urn, with the weight of the urn previously recorded and 

subtracted from the total. The sex, date of birth and death, cremation date 

and operator of the cremation were compiled using the operator’s log, 

along with the permit for disposition of the body. The decedent’s age was 

calculated from the birth and death dates. Unfortunately, the actual body 

weight at death was not obtained but the approximate body weight was 

noted for each individual by the funeral home staff. Individuals with a 

body weight at death higher than 300 lbs for males and 200 lbs for females 

are examined in this study to determine if higher body weight results in 

higher cremains weight. 

Preliminary analysis of a subset (n=272) of the larger Chico sample 

produced the following results. The average weight for the group 

(X=2683g), males (X=3177g) and females (X=2218g) are similar to the 

mean weights reported by Bass and Jantz (2004). The difference between 

males and females is significant (t=11.45, df=258, p=.001), confirming the 

results found in all previous studies (Bass and Jantz 2004, Sonek 1992, 

Warren and Maples 1997). The correlation between cremains weight and 

age also confirmed previous findings. Cremains weight was found to 

decrease as age increases, with females (r2 =.294, p=.001) decreasing more 

rapidly than males (r2 =.178, p=.001). The preliminary sample did not 

yield a sufficient subset of males over 300lbs and females over 200lbs for 

analysis. Further research is needed to confirm these results for the larger 

Chico sample, as well as address the relationship between body weight 

and cremains weight. These results are expected to play an important role 

in future civil and/or criminal litigation concerning cremated remains, in 

both a forensic capacity and for the funeral industry. 

References: 

1 Bass, William and Richard Jantz, Cremation Weights in East Tennessee. 

Journal of Forensic Science. 49(5):901-904 

2 Sonek, Alexander, 1992, The Weight(s) of Cremains. Proceedings of the 

44th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Science. New 

Orleans, LA. Feb. 17-22. P169-170 

3 Warren, Michael and William Maples, The Anthropometry of Contemporary 

Commercial Cremation. Journal of Forensic Science. 42:417-423. 

Cremains Weight, Age, Sex 

H96 Burned Human Remains: 

Myths in Forensic Science 

Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, 

Anthropology Department, Fayetteville, AR 72701 


observation-based experimental research improves answers to old 

questions or problems in the field. 


humanity by re-examining old problems with current techniques and 

technologies. 

Current developments in forensic anthropology have taken the field 

in a new direction by embracing methodologies, technologies, or 

techniques from other subdisciplines such as biology, chemistry, 

engineering, pathology, and fire investigation, just to name a few. 

Integrating these approaches allow the authors to reexamine old problems 

through new lenses. Experimental research allows for repeatable 

observation-based testing that either supports or provides alternative 

explanations to existing phenomenon encountered in forensic casework. 

This paper draws from observations of 12 human cadavers and 15 

individual limbs utilized in previous burn experiments. The results 

presented are responses to current misconceptions that directly influence 

recovery and analysis of burned human remains. One goal is to first 

improve the ability of scientists to look closer and with fresh eyes at the 

evidence. Then it becomes the responsibility to teach each other and other 

professionals working within the medicolegal system. In some cases, an 

alternative explanation for long-held traditions opens the door to change 

and improvement. This paper attempts to provide new ways of looking at 

old problems by responding to the comment, “I was taught that…” 

“…Blisters indicate the victim was alive or the presence of 

accelerants.” Blister production is not necessarily evidence of 

antemortem vital reaction, but instead occurs from the effects of heat to 

skin moisture in both ante- and postmortem exposure to fire. Blisters result 

from fluid (water, blood, lipids) collection at the dermal-epidermal 

junction upon initial heat exposure to skin and may precede or accompany 

early color changes in the postmortem state and in the absence of 

accelerants. 

“…Arms and legs burn away.” Contrary to popular belief, smaller 

distal bones do not burn away but simply fall below the mass of charred 

human remains as supporting soft tissues burn away from fingers, wrists, 

toes, and ankles. In most cases these are present and discoverable with 

observant excavation and recovery. Bones of extremities do not burn away 

but instead may appear absent from extreme fragmentation of weak from 

strong bone or lack of recovery. Often the charred bulky torso is assumed 

to be all that remains of a burn victim and may be prematurely removed. 

Incomplete recovery leaves body parts at the scene and disregards 

potential skeletal evidence of defensive cut marks of the hands, callouses 

of healed fractures, or any congenital deformations that would aid 

personal identification. 

“…Broken bone prevents pugilistic posture.” Several traumatized 

limbs with known sites of completely fractured bone did not prevent 

adjoining distal joints of wrists, fingers, ankles, and toes from flexing. 

Also, amputated limbs completely transected at the humeral or femoral 

midshafts did not affect flexion of distal joints as movement of these was 

influenced by localized tissue contraction. The pugilistic posture is more 

the result of contraction of tissues immediately adjacent to the joint and 

does not depend upon a ‘fulcrum effect’ involving either an intact or 

complete musculoskeletal system intended to move the joint in life. The 

fractured sites of long bones were under direct influence of contracting 

muscle, causing bone fragments to either slide over one another or split 

apart depending on thickness of the surrounding tissues. 

“…Bone color indicates temperature of the fire.” Color simply 

indicates the stages of pyrolysis of organic bone materials. Color directly 

correlates with the progression of soft tissue reduction and organic 

pyrolysis of bone rather than as an indicator of temperature levels. 


Identical features of charring and calcination can occur in a body burned 

at extremely high temperatures for a short time period or one burned at 

lower temperatures for a longer duration. Time and temperature are 

independent variables that can produce similar heat effects in burned 

human remains. Color can be superficial with an external calcined 

appearance, but still retain charring within deeper layers of bone. 

“…Bone shatters from heat.” The exterior cortical surfaces of bone 

are exposed to heat the earliest and longest compared to deeper layers 

insulated within soft tissues (tubular bone or cranial bone). Visible 

changes of color and heat-fractures commence externally and progress 

inward. Heat causes cortical bone to shrink and split into superficial heat 

fractures as it loses its organic constituents. Heat fractures likewise will 

shrink and split first at the external cortical surface and can travel through 

the bone as a full-thickness fracture. Fractures allow heat to reach lipid 

rich tissues of marrow and brain, causing them to leach and burn out, but 

not shatter bone. 

“…The skull explodes if there’s no injury.” In a fire, cranial bone 

experiences color changes and heat-fractures; often as delamination, 

crazing, or full-thickness fractures. Also external taphonomic factors 

typically present at fire scenes contribute to the ‘exploded’ appearance. 

Fragile burned cranial bone also fractures during burning from 

environmental disintegration, impacting debris of collapsing walls, 

ceiling, floor, and furniture, and from extinguishment methods. If one 

accepts the fragmented or ‘exploded-looking’ skull as proof for the 

absence of preexisting trauma, it discourages further investigation of 

evidence for possible homicides. Additional fragmentation of fragile 

burned cranial bone can result from recovery and transport from the fire 

scene. 

“…All bodies burn the same.” Trying to predict what a body will 

look like during search and recovery after an extensive fire requires basic 

knowledge of anatomy and osteology. The body is a fuel source and 

contributes to the burning process. There are obvious differences among 

individuals such as their weight, age, and sex that relate to differential 

amounts of soft tissues and body-fat ratios. Likewise, bone density and 

mineralization differs among babies, children, adolescents, adults, and the 

elderly. Denser mature bone survives heat better than osteoporotic bone of 

the elderly and immature bone of epiphyses and diaphyses of subadults. 

Prior knowledge of the victim’s information will help anticipate the final 

condition of remains during the search process. 

Exemplars from observation-based research on burned human will be 

presented to illustrate the alternative mechanisms and processes 

responsible for creating each problem discussed. 

Burned Bone, Fire Death Investigation, Myths 

H97 Establishing the Perimortem Interval: 

Correlation Between Bone Moisture 

Content and Blunt Force Trauma 

Characters 

Danielle A. Miller Wieberg, MA*, 4107 Meredith Road, Knoxville, 

TN 37921 


the details of skeletal fracture morphology, how it varies throughout the 

postmortem interval and how bone moisture content affects that 

morphology. 



humanity by exploring the uncertainty in determining the timing (relative 

to death) of skeletal fractures and the results will impact the way fracture 

timing analyses are conducted and reported. 

When determining the time of occurrence of skeletal injuries forensic 

anthropologists know that antemortem (before death) skeletal injuries are 

recognized by evidence of healing. Perimortem (at or near the time of 

death) and postmortem (after death) skeletal injuries are more difficult to 

distinguish between because neither show evidence of healing. 

Furthermore, bone does not immediately react in a postmortem manner as 

soon as an organism dies because it retains the moisture and collagen that 

gives bone its flexible nature. The perimortem interval is the period 

during the postmortem interval when a bone will react to injury in a typical 

perimortem manner rather than having the appearance of a postmortem 

modification. 

Using 60 porcine long bones, the differences between macroscopic 

and microscopic blunt force trauma fracture characteristics were 

documented as they varied when created every 28 days throughout a 141 

day period. It was also determined how those changes correlate with bone 

moisture content. The hypotheses tested were (1) there is no difference 

between fracture characteristics created during the period immediately 

after death (within 24 hours) and characteristics created five months (141 

days) after death, and (2) there is no correlation between the moisture 

content of the bone and blunt force trauma characteristics. 

An initial sample of ten bones was fractured to represent perimortem 

injury. The remaining fifty bones were placed in an enclosure to 

decompose and every 28 days another sample of ten bones was fractured. 

Once each set of ten specimens was fractured, they were photographed 

extensively before and after cleaning them in a mild detergent solution. 

The fractured bones were examined and the fracture surface appearance, 

fracture angle type, fracture outline type, and color differences were 

documented. Other observations that were recorded include: fragment 

mass, completeness of fractures, degree of bone weathering, and 

microscopic features of the fracture planes. Additionally, a small portion 

of each specimen was ashed in a muffle furnace to determine the moisture 

content of the bone at the time of fracture. Bones were assessed as having 

perimortem, intermediate or postmortem fracture morphology using all of 

the aforementioned observations. 

Statistical results indicated that there was a significant relationship 

(1) between postmortem interval and ash percentage, fracture surface, and 

fracture angle; (2) between overall assessment and postmortem interval, 

ash weight, fracture surface, and fracture angle; and (3) between ash 

weight and fracture surface and fracture angle. Results showed that bone 

moisture content influences fracture morphology significantly. 

Additionally, ten specimens were selected that represented all six 

postmortem intervals (0, 28, 57, 85, 113, and 141 days). These specimens 

were used in an interobserver study (IRB project #1054957) at the 2006 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting in Seattle, WA. 

Participants were asked to rate the fractures of each specimen as either 

perimortem or postmortem and list their determining criteria. The average 

score for the study was 6.82 and three of the 22 participants correctly 

identified the fracture timing of all ten specimens. Compilation of 

participants’ answers provided a list of six characteristics used by the 

participants: color differences between fracture surface and cortical 

surface, completeness of the fracture, presence or absence of plastic 

deformation, appearance of fracture margins, shape of the fracture outline, 

and fracture surface appearance. 

Blunt Force Trauma, Perimortem, Fracture Morphology 

352

H98 Bone-Breaking Rules: A Report of 

Six Fracture Mechanism-of-Injury 

Axioms Developed From Experimental 

Impact Testing 

Tyler A. Kress, PhD*, BEST Engineering, 2312 Craig Cove Road, 

Knoxville, TN 37919; David J. Porta, PhD, Bellarmine University, 

Department of Biology, 2001 Newburg Road, Louisville, KY 40205; 

Anne M. Kroman, MA, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996; and Bryce O. Anderson, PhD, BEST 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about six 

widely applicable bone fracture axioms, useful in a forensic setting 

investigation and reconstruction. 


humanity by helping to further the understanding of bone fracture patterns 

and mechanisms of injury. 

Understanding relationships among engineering inputs (i.e. loading 

characteristics) as they relate to anatomical outputs (i.e. fracture) of human 

long bones and the human head is very important for biomedical engineers, 

physical anthropologists, pathologists, and other forensic professionals. 

Developing widely-applicable bone fracture axioms is useful for forensic 

analyses. Therefore, a characterization of injury mechanisms of certain 

bones (i.e., in the extremities and the skull) in response to impact loading 

are delineated in the form of succinctly stated rules. 

Real-life pedestrian, motor vehicle collision, and violent impact 

trauma scenarios were modeled by dynamically loading 583 human 

cadaver specimens, including intact extremities, heads, and bare long 

bones (numerous porcine bones were also used). A cart/guide-rail 

impacting system and a drop tower apparatus were used for most of the 

tests (the ballistic tests were done with a real handgun and a real rifle in 

bench rest position). Parametric work was conducted that varied 

numerous test variables such as loading direction, impact velocity, and 

impactor geometry. 

The data support findings that may be reported in the form of 

succinct Bone-breaking Rules. Rules 1, 2, 3, and 5 are based on 558 bone 

fracture tests using intact legs and bare long bones; Rule 4 is based on 25 

human head impact tests; Rule 6 is based on numerous porcine tests. 

1) The point of a wedge is opposite of the point of impact. The 

wedge fracture pattern can definitively be used as an indicator of the 

direction of impact. A common fracture pattern for long bones is the 

wedge fracture (also referred to as butterfly or delta fracture). Wedge 

fractures of long bones clearly originate at a location directly opposite of 

the point of impact and the wedge segment radiates back through the bone. 

Long bones fail in tension when they are loaded in a transverse fashion 

and a resultant wedge will “point” in the direction of the movement of the 

impactor. 

2) Comminution does not necessarily mean “high speed” and/or 

crushing. This is somewhat of a unique observation because it has been 

commonly reported that butterfly wedges result only from high-speed 

impacts. Also, comminuted fractures often occur without entrapment 

(crushing injury). At approximately 7 m/s the inertial restraint of the tibia 

from just the mass of the thigh and foot is sufficient to result in 

comminuted fractures. 

3) Spiral fractures only appear when bones are subjected to 

torsional loads. The spiral fracture is commonly mistaken for an oblique 

fracture and often the terms are used interchangeably or combined. The 

literature is replete with phrases such as “spiral oblique fracture”. There 

is clearly a difference between the spiral and oblique fracture patterns. 

The definitive feature for distinguishing a spiral fracture is the vertical 

fracture that connects the proximal and distal portions of the helical aspect. 

To interpret which direction the bone was twisted, an examiner can note 

which direction the spiral runs around the bone; that direction is the same 

direction the torque was applied to that end of the bone. 

4) Fractures of the skull radiate directly from the point of impact. 

In fracture pattern interpretations, some researchers have suggested that 

the point of impact is at a location other than the interface between the 

impacting object and the skull. This is not correct, i.e. the fracture 

epicenter is at the location of contact by the impacting object. Bone is 

brittle and the only exception noted with respect to fracture initiation being 

somewhere other than the interface of the bone and the impacting object 

is that of long bones when tension failure occurs. 

5) Impacted fractures indicate relatively pure axial loading. 

However, an axial load can also give rise to bending fractures. If a fracture 

of a long bone is labeled as an impacted fracture, then the diaphysis of the 

bone experienced relatively pure longitudinal compression. If the 

compression (or axial load) gets “off-center”, the resulting failure 

mechanism can be bending. 

6) The degree of plastic deformation relates to the speed of impact. 

This is almost a restatement of viscoelasticity. This rule involves a 

comparison of ballistic speed versus other speeds (such as 

pedestrian/vehicle collisions). What is particularly important about this 

rule is that it is not just applicable to mechanical properties of bone but it 

is also applicable to fracture behavior. This is easily illustrated through 

forensic reconstruction of ballistically-damaged bones (which express 

minimal plastic deformation) in comparison to lower-speed blunt trauma 

impacts which demonstrate a higher degree of warping and plastic 

deformation. Note, too, that bones are not damaged from soft tissue 

pressure waves from typical small arms, and that bones will exhibit a 

temporary cavity when actually struck by a projectile. 

Bone Trauma, Mechanisms of Injury, Impact Biomechanics 

H99 Trace Element Analysis of 

Human Bone Using Portable XRF 

Jennifer J. Prutsman-Pfeiffer, MA*, University of Rochester Medical 

Center, Autopsy and Neuropathology, 601 Elmwood Avenue, Box 626, 

Rochester, NY 14642; and Peter J. Bush, BS, South Campus Instrument 

Center, School of Dental Medicine, State University of New York at 


The goal of this study was to investigate the utility of portable X-Ray 

Florescence (XRF) in the determination of trace element concentrations in 

human bone. The advent of portable analytical tools for field use presents 

new applications for the forensic scientist. However, with the new tools 

comes the challenge of sampling and data interpretation. Potential sources 

of error in interpretation of analytical results are discussed. 


humanity by providing practical insight into the application of portable 

XRF in analysis of human bone. 

Portable XRF technology is a relatively recent introduction to the 

fields of art conservation, soil science, archaeology, border security and 

forensic science. XRF analysis gives a rapid reading of the elemental 

composition of any inorganic material with good sensitivity for elements 

above phosphorus in the periodic table. The Alpha series XRF from 

Innov-X (Woburn, MA) was used in this study. This unit utilizes a 

miniaturized X-ray source for excitation instead of a radioactive isotope, 

thereby eliminating the need for special permits for transportation and 

reducing the potential occupational exposure hazard of operators. 

A pilot study of 8 cremated individuals was conducted to test the 

applicability of XRF in trace element analysis of human osseous material. 

The bone analysis using XRF focused on the trace elements lead (Pb), zinc 

(Zn), iron (Fe), and strontium (Sr), and concentrations were reported in 

parts per million (ppm). The pilot study revealed differences in elemental 

concentration between individuals as well as differences between skeletal 

elements analyzed (cranial vault, clavicle, humerus, vertebral body, femur, 

and tibia). These anatomical sites were selected because of differences in 

bone density. Two physical states of cremated bone were assessed; large 


fragments as retrieved from the cremation retort and the processed, 

powdered cremains as prepared for inurnment. 

The data show that there is variation in Pb between individuals and 

between bones. The range amongst all individuals for bone fragments was 

0-203 ppm and 0-53 ppm for processed powdered bone. The high Pb level 

of 203 ppm was in a parietal bone of one individual whose other bones 

ranged between 0-61 ppm. This high reading was concluded to be surface 

segregation or contamination because after powdering this parietal bone 

gave a reading of 46 ppm. Powdering in this case had a homogenizing 

effect. Of note, the combined powder (all powdered bone together from 

each person) amongst all individuals ranged from 0-39 ppm. Similar but 

larger effects were noted for the element zinc (range of 0-1177 ppm in 

bone pieces and 0-329 ppm in powdered bone; combined powder 0-259 

ppm). However, zinc is volatile at the temperatures experienced during 

cremation, so the resulting sublimation and evaporation effects may be 

expected to result in variations in surface concentrations. The most 

consistent data were recorded for the elements of Fe and Sr amongst all 

bones of all individuals. Only 1 of the 8 individuals had no reading for Fe 

or Sr in both the clavicle and vertebra. Excluding the zero values, Fe 

ranged from 199-2286 ppm in bone and 183-866 ppm in powdered bone 

amongst all individuals, with the combined powder range between 213- 

355 ppm. Graphically, the Fe concentration in the powdered skeletal 

elements adhered to a similar pattern for all individuals. There was a 

distinct peak for Fe (386-866 ppm) in the vertebral body powder for all 7 

individuals, whereas the other powdered skeletal elements did not exceed 

471 ppm for any individual or any bone. This finding suggests higher Fe 

concentrations in the cancellous bone of vertebral bodies. Sr 

concentrations, again excluding the zero values, ranged between 54-155 

ppm in bone, 50-128 ppm in powdered bone, and 58-130 ppm in all 

combined elements amongst all individuals. 

A possible source of error in determination of trace element levels is 

preferential surface deposition or segregation. If after homogenization, the 

element concentration appears to drop, then surface effects should be 

suspected. In addition, if bone of low density is presented to the analyzer, 

then the values for trace element concentration would be expected to be 

lower than higher density bone, assuming that the element concentration 

is the same. This is simply because less material is present in the analysis 

volume. Powdering in this case can reduce any effect associated with 

differences in bone density, assuming that the particle size in the powder 

is relatively homogenous. Furthermore, the hydration state of bone should 

be considered. In fresh bone the presence of water will absorb the 

characteristic emitted x-rays, thus giving a low concentration as compared 

to dry bone. This effect was demonstrated in this study by analyzing a 

piece of fresh parietal bone that was subsequently dried at 1000C for 30 

minutes, and then re-analyzed. 

XRF is a new technology available to the forensic community, not 

limited to anthropology, but with widespread uses in the crime scene 

laboratory in the enforcement of justice in drug trafficking, or for exposing 

the manufacture and disbursement of drugs and potential counterfeit 

materials. Also, within the field of anthropology and archaeology, 

handheld portable XRF promises to be another tool in the chemical and 

physical analysis of human remains, both biological and cultural. As with 

any other analytical technique, care must be exercised in sampling 

strategy, preparation of samples and data interpretation. The ease of use, 

rapidity of analysis and user-friendly interface of portable XRF units are 

beguiling. However, it is still a technique that demands knowledge of the 

analyst just as would a fully configured laboratory-based system. 

X-Ray Florescence (XRF), Trace Elements, Bone 


H100 Physical Matches of Bone, Tooth, and 

Shell Fragments: A Validation Study 


Laboratory, 2501 Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135; and 

Adam D. Sylvester, PhD, The University of Tennessee, Department of 

Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, 301 Perkins Hall, 


The goal of this presentation is to provide empirical support and 

validity for physical matches of bone, shell and tooth fragments. It 

provides the first documented error rates for physical matches for this 

class of material. 


humanity by meeting Daubert guidelines for a commonly used forensic 

technique. 

Physical matches are routinely used in forensic investigations as a 

way to confirm that two or more pieces of evidentiary material (i.e., glass, 

paper, metal, paint, plastic, wood, tape, fabric) were originally one piece 

of material. Bone fragments are often physically matched in the 

reconstruction of skeletal elements as part of forensic anthropological 

examinations, as well as in paleoanthropological and archaeological 

contexts. Although routinely performed and widely regarded as intuitively 

evident, the reliability and validity of physically matching fragments of 

bone, and other mineral-based biological materials, has never been 

empirically tested. In academic contexts, this may be of little concern; 

however, in the forensic arena a well-designed study would be beneficial 

given the Daubert guidelines of scientific testing and documented error 

rates. This study examines the reliability and validity of physically 

matching bone, shell and tooth fragments. Differences between 

individuals with varying levels of experience with physical matching and 

osteology are also examined. 

The specimens used included human bones (femur, tibia, fibula, 

parietal), non-human bones (long bones, vertebrae, mandible, plastron), 

non-human teeth, and shells. Specimens were fractured using a 

combination of static and dynamic loading until structural failure. Each of 

the resulting fragments used in the study were labeled with a randomly 

assigned number between one and one-hundred. The assigned numbers of 

all pairs of physically matching fragments were recorded. 

A matching exercise that consisted of 57 fragments containing a total 

of 40 correct matches and six fragments with no possible matches was 

devised. The exercise was administered to individuals with varying levels 

of education, experience and training in osteology and physical matching, 

including forensic scientists and anthropologists. Participants were 

instructed to identify, and affix together with tape, all physical matches 

they believed to be present among the fragments. In addition, participants 

were asked to answer questions pertaining to their area of expertise, 

materials with which they have previous experience performing physical 

matches, any education or training in osteology, and criteria used to 

identify the matches. They were also asked to record the time required to 

complete the exercise. Exercises were scored as a function of correctly 

identified matches compared to the number of false positive matches 

(incorrectly affixing fragments that do not match) and false negative 

matches (failing to affix fragments that do match). 

Preliminary results suggest that bone, tooth and shell fragments can 

be validly and reliably matched. No false positive matches have been 

identified by any participant. False negative matches are not uncommon, 

but do not appear to be related to the individual’s experience level. 

Anthropologists who can draw on their knowledge of osteology to 

correctly identify, anatomically orient, and re-fit bone fragments may be at 

an advantage in complex cases, but even inexperienced individuals are 

able to locate and identify correct matches without incorrectly matching 

unassociated fragments. 

Forensic Science, Forensic Anthropology, Physical Match 

354

H101 Three-Dimensional Variation in Face 

Shape in a Large Study Sample 

Martin P. Evison, PhD*, University of Toronto at Mississauga, Forensic 

Science Program, 3359 Mississauga Road North, Mississauga, ON L5L 

1C6, Canada; and Richard W. Vorder 

Bruegge, PhD, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Forensic Audio, 

Video and Image Analysis Unit, Engineering Research Facility, Building 

27958A, Quantico, VA 22135 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain basic 

understanding of the nature of face shape variation in 3D as measured 

empirically in a large study sample and its implications for forensic facial 

comparison from videotape, photographic, and other facial images. 


humanity through this first large empirical study of face shape variation in 

3D undertaken using contemporary stereophotographic measuring 

techniques. 

This paper will provide a summary of a study of face shape variation 

measured in three dimensions in a sample of over 3000 individuals 

collected in an eighteen month period from December 2003 to May 2005. 

A feasibility study will be briefly reviewed, which indicated that an 

anthropometric approach to face shape comparison in two- or threedimensions 

using traditional craniofacial landmarks was plausible on the 

empirical grounds of density and visibility of the landmarks, particularly 

in areas of the face that it is commonly believed are variable between 

individuals—the shapes of the major facial features and the positional 

relationships between them. A student project examining face shape 

variation in two dimensions conducted in collaboration with Dr Nick 

Fieller of the Department of Probability and Statistics at the University of 

Sheffield, offered further confirmation of differences in positional 

relationships between landmark datasets in different individuals. A 

substantial proof-of-concept project was initiated involving a much larger 

sample of three-dimensional landmark data, which will form the core of 

this presentation. 

The structure the collaborative research, between three University 

research groups—Sheffield, Nottingham and Kent at Canterbury, will be 

described. The process of ethical review and informed consent for the 

collection of 3D photographs of volunteer’s faces for research in crime 

prevention and detection will be reviewed. Promotion of the project, with 

the support of the Magna Science Adventure Centre, near Rotherham, 

United Kingdom, will be described. In general, the museum visiting public 

were overwhelmingly well disposed to volunteer to be photographed in 

support of research in crime prevention detection. Methods used for 

collecting data from three-dimensional landmarks using a Geometrix® 

stereophotographic scanner and FaceVision® software will be presented. 

A pilot study involving a sub-sample of thirty five faces landmarked at 

sixty sites in triplicate by two different observers offered measures of 

inter- and intra-observer error, and indications of landmarks that were 

relatively distinct in position between individuals, more or less subject to 

intra- or inter-observer error, and technically problematic with regard to 

establishing consistency in placement via a standard operating procedure. 

As a result of the pilot study, an optimal landmark set—based on accuracy 

and discriminating power—of thirty landmarks was chosen. This set of 

thirty three-dimensional landmarks was placed on a total sample of over 

3000 individuals, in duplicate. A small comparative control dataset was 

collected manually using calipers and also using a Cyberware® 3030 

RGB Head and Face scanner. Age, biological sex and ancestry 

distributions—all of which can affect face shape—will be discussed, 

especially in relation to the representativeness in an investigative context. 

Our key findings with regard to the nature of face shape variation in 

3D as assessed by the measurement of 30 landmark positions in duplicate 

in the sample of over 3000 individuals will be discussed. The distribution 

conformed to that of a multivariate normal model and normal distributions 

were indicated in pair-wise distance distributions assessed between paired 

landmarks. Landmark distributions between the most and least 

discriminating landmark pairs in the set of thirty will be described. The 

overall potential for the utility of three-dimensional landmarking in 

forensic face shape comparison will be discussed in relation to possible 

further research. 

Facial, Variation, Comparison 

H102 Facial Soft Tissue Depths in Craniofacial 

Identification: Properties Gleaned From 

a Comparative Bottom-Up Approach 

Carl N. Stephan, PhD*, The University of Queensland, Anatomy and 

Developmental Biology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 

4072, Australia; and Ellie K. Simpson, PhD, Forensic Science South 

Australia, 21 Divett Place, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn some history of 

soft tissue depth studies; and learn that traditional classifications of soft 

tissue depth data have little emperical statistical justification and are 

unnecessarily unwieldy. Attendees will retain or be able to implement 

new simplified average soft tissue depth data values for the face which 

have increased statistical power and advantages of standardization (one 

data table for adults and two for children, as opposed to the 50+ that 

currently exist). 


humanity by discussing the current soft tissue depth data available, their 

philosophical underpinnings and how they are used in practice by forensic 

artists. 

Average soft tissue depths hold a central role in the craniofacial 

identification techniques of superimposition and approximation. Overall, 

many soft tissue depth studies have been published (N>50) and large 

amounts of data have been collected (>153,000 individual soft tissue 

measurements). The traditional perception, held since the origin of soft 

tissue depth investigations in the typological physical anthropology of the 

late 1800s and early 1900s, has been that meaningful differences in depths 

exist between particular human groups (e.g., by sex, age, and race). 

However, some group differences appear to be no larger than 

measurement errors (e.g., 1-2mm) indicating that these differences may be 

of much less significance than initially thought. An over-arching, large 

sampled, multivariate analysis would be the crucial test required to 

robustly elucidate group relationships; but in its absence some insight may 

be gleaned from a comprehensive comparative review of the vast number 

of mean values that have been published. 

This study reviews the existing data means using a bottom-up 

comparative approach examining variables such as year of study 

conduction, method of measurement, age (for children

H103 Examination of Identification 

Methods Used by Medical 

Examiners: A Facility Study 

Angela Soler, BS*, and Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, 

354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; and Joyce L. deJong, DO, 

Sparrow Hospital, 1215 East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 48909 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn of the various 

categories of identifications made at Sparrow Hospital Forensic Pathology 

Section, Lansing, Michigan from a one year period. 


humanity by increasing awareness of the difficulties that arise when 

differentiating between positive and presumptive identification. The goals 

of this presentation are to discuss the necessity for a more solid 

understanding of the term “positive identification”, and to introduce the 

prospects of another category of identification. 

Positive identification is a somewhat loosely defined term that has 

been described in a number of different ways by scientists of varying 

backgrounds. Most would agree that positive identification is a scientific 

classification that compares known antemortem records with postmortem 

records of the deceased in order to determine whether or not they represent 

one and the same individual. This definition can be quite accurate for 

biological means of identification, such as fingerprinting, DNA, and 

comparative dental or medical radiography. 

Presumptive identification, on the other hand, is defined as a 

nonscientific method that would “put either a likely or tentative name on 

a decedent, or at least put the decedent into a smaller subgroup” (Baker 

2005). Both physical and non-physical characteristics, such as tattoos, 

scars, personal effects, location of body, and verbal testimony can be used 

to make the case for a tentative identification (Burns 1999). Many 

scientists would include in this category those identifications made by 

visual recognition. 

Although the definitions of positive and presumptive, or biological 

and nonscientific, identifications are somewhat clear-cut, the cases that 

come into the medical examiner’s office most often are not. Perhaps the 

current forensic definitions of ‘positive’ and ‘presumptive’ identifications 

are too simplistic to be applicable to the real world. Many factors impact 

the necessity for a more thorough investigation, such as whether a 

decedent was found within their own home, whether they were recognized 

by family members, and whether they exhibit a number of corresponding 

features. One question that is often asked is whether a very strong 

presumptive identification, with a preponderance of corresponding nonunique 

characteristics, can be considered a positive identification. If the 

answer is yes, then how many circumstantial points would add up to make 

a positive identification? If not, then should another category of 

identification be created to hold all classifications that are defined as 

neither positive nor presumptive? A third category, introduced in this 

paper, will be labeled “identification by multiple corresponding factors” 

and will include all identifications made by a multitude of non-scientific 

evidence, such as biological profile, location of body, tattoos, 

identification papers and others. 

This study aimed to quantify the number of positive and presumptive 

identifications that were made in a one year period at the Sparrow Hospital 

Forensic Pathology Section in Lansing, Michigan. 796 cases from the 

year 2005 were reviewed and the type of identification was recorded and 

then placed into one of two corresponding categories: positive and 

presumptive. Biological identifications, such as fingerprints, DNA, and 

medical and dental radiographic comparisons were placed within the 

positive category, whereas identifications made through visual and 

multiple corresponding factors were placed within the presumptive 

category. Percentages were then calculated to determine what type of 

identifications were made the most. 

Results indicate that the largest percentage of identifications were 

made visually. Of those identifications made visually, the vast majority 


also included multiple corresponding factors, such as clothing, jewelry, 

and personal effects, etc. The second most common identifications were 

made through multiple corresponding factors. These identifications varied 

in strength depending on the number and quality of factors contributing to 

the identification. The next commonly made identifications were through 

dental radiographic comparison, followed by fingerprints, medical 

radiographic comparison, and finally DNA. This demonstrates that nonscientific 

means of identification were the most common and easiest 

obtained identifications. Despite the majority of non-scientific 

identifications, most would agree that all of these cases were identified, 

although the literature would state that they were presumptive. 

In conclusion, these results indicate the necessity for a discussion 

about positive and presumptive identification. If the cases presented at the 

Sparrow Hospital Forensic Pathology Section in Lansing, Michigan are 

any indication of the kinds of identifications being made in medical 

examiner’s offices across the country, then there is obvious necessity for 

more clear-cut definitions of positive and presumptive identifications, as 

well as the possibility of the introduction of a new category of 


Human Identification, Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Pathology 

H104 The Technique of Sampling Skeletal 

Remains for Mitochondrial DNA Testing 

Audrey L. Meehan, BGS*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command/ 

Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, 



correct procedure and sampling areas for submitting skeletal remains for 

Mitochondrial DNA testing. 


humanity by demonstrating how mitochondrial DNA testing has proven to 

be a valuable tool in the identification of skeletal remains. Fragmented, 

weathered osseous material has been successfully sampled and sequenced 

providing a data base for comparison with family reference samples. The 

knowledge of how and where to sample the skeletal remains could benefit 

the general community to help resolve missing persons cases. It is 

proposed that the ME offices get their “skeletons out of the closet” and 

submit them for mtDNA testing for comparison with a maternal relative of 

the missing persons. 

The mission of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-Central 

Identification Laboratory (CIL) is to search for, recover and identify 

missing U.S. service personnel from past wars. Remains processed 

through the CIL include a wide range, from single individuals, such as the 

frozen WWII airman recovered from the mountains of California, to the 

commingled skeletal remains turned over by the North Koreans from 

former POW camps. Mitochondrial DNA testing has proven to be a very 

important tool in the identification of individuals represented by complete 

or fragmented skeletal remains. The sequence data generated also assists 

in the sorting of commingled remains from crash sites and mass burials. 

The CIL is currently at a submission rate of 900 osseous and dental 

samples per year. Contemporary missing person cases may also benefit 

from the data generated from the mtDNA testing of the skeletal remains. 

Self actuating samples are not necessary as results are compared to 

maternal relatives of the missing persons. 

A minimum sample of two to five grams of concentrated cortical 

bone is necessary for processing osseous material for mtDNA. Each test 

uses two grams of sanded, cleaned bone which is ground to a powder prior 

to amplification. When presented with a complete, single set of skeletal 

remains, an aggressive sampling strategy is not necessary as a three square 

centimeter sample from any part of the femoral diaphysis will yield a 

minimum of 10 grams of cortical bone. However, the larger long bones 

which are preferred for sampling, are not always recovered, or as in 

356

commingled remains, can not be associated with the skull or other 

recovered skeletal elements. Such cases require the utilization of optimal 

sampling areas. The choice of skeletal element is equally important when 

limiting the number of samples per case to be tested. 

This presentation will discuss the sampling strategy developed for 

submitting osseous samples to the Armed Forces DNA Identification Lab 

(AFDIL) for mtDNA sequencing. It will also review sample 

contamination precautions and recommended equipment use. 

Mitochondrial DNA, Missing Persons, Skeletal Remains 

H105 DNA Preservation of Skeletal Elements 

From the World Trade Center Disaster: 

Some Recommendations for Mass 

Disaster Management 

Amy Z Mundorff, MA*, Simon Fraser University, Department of 

Archaeology, 8888 University Dr, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; and 

Eric J Bartelink, PhD, California State University, Chico, Department of 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn which degraded 

skeletal elements recovered from a mass fatality incident are more likely 

to yield DNA for identification. Additionally, the authors will discuss 

management implications inherent in deciding which elements to sample 

for DNA identification. 


humanity by providing sampling protocol recommendations for forensic 

scientists/anthropologists who work in mass disaster identification. 

When antemortem information is available, fingerprints and dental 

radiographs are more efficient than DNA for identifying intact victims. 

However, when antemortem information is not available or in cases of 

extreme body fragmentation, remains often can only be identified through 

DNA. Temperature, humidity, UV light, decomposition, soil microbes, 

fire, water, mold and other factors all contribute to the degradation of 

DNA in human tissue. Many studies have measured DNA degradation 

rates for bone and tissue subjected to heat, fire, water, burial in soil and 

time. Previous studies have also concluded that DNA degrades in different 

human organs at different rates, with liver and kidney tissue showing rapid 

degradation and brain tissue showing slow degradation. Additionally, 

research has demonstrated that bone preserves DNA better than soft tissue, 

since the structure of bone acts as a physical barrier to the external 

influences that can readily degrade soft tissue. Because the World Trade 

Center victim identification effort highlighted many of the confounding 

taphonomic factors that influence DNA preservation, the differential 

recovery rates of DNA between skeletal elements were examined. 

DNA has been employed in disaster victim identification (DVI) for 

over 15 years. Initially, DNA was used as a last resort, usually when 

fingerprints, radiographs and dental records were not available. More 

recently, DNA has been used to reassociate larger, anatomically 

identifiable body parts, while smaller pieces were grouped as untestable 

common tissue. In 2000, DNA was first used as the sole method of 

identification for the 155 victims of the Kaprun cable car fire in Austria. 

Since then, the use of DNA has increasingly become the primary method 

of identification for victims of mass disasters and has become the most 

reliable method of reassociating even the smallest fragments. In any mass 

disaster, DNA sampling protocols have a ripple effect throughout the 

identification process, as small changes in these protocols may result in 

substantial savings in time and expense, and may greatly influence DNA 

identification rates. 

Despite the prevalence of using DNA in DVI, the literature contains 

relatively little information regarding the variability in DNA identification 

success rates between different skeletal elements. Hence, little research 

has been conducted into which elements are most suitable for DNA 

testing. Yet, choosing the most effective bone for sampling is crucial in 

the identification process. Anecdotal statements have suggested that long 

bone fragments, such as femur and tibia, are better for DNA sampling than 

cranial or rib fragments. However, these findings remain unconfirmed by 

DNA studies and are not supported by the present study. Using a subset 

of remains from the World Trade Center dataset, the variability in DNA 

identification rates between different skeletal elements were examined. 

The subset consists only of recovered bone fragments that were smaller 

than 4” and that were submitted in their entirety for nuclear DNA testing. 

Due to their size as well as the unique combination of taphonomic insults 

they had been subjected to, these remains are among the most challenging 

to identify from mass disaster sites. 

Due to the unique nature of the World Trade Center disaster, it is 

proposed that the results of this examination represent a ‘worst case 

scenario’, which could be used to help establish sampling standards and 

protocols aimed at maximizing DNA identification rates from fragmented 

human remains. These recommendations are used to highlight potential 

challenges that undoubtedly arise during mass fatality incidents that 

involve severe fragmentation of remains. 

Taphonomy, Skeletal Element, Mass Fatality Incident 

H106 Considerations in Differentiating 

Negligence From Deliberate 

Misconduct — Lessons Learned 

From Tri-State Crematorium 

Hugh E. Berryman, PhD*, Sociology and Anthropology, PO Box 10, 

Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132; and Carrie 

Anne Berryman, MA, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt 

University, 2301 Vanderbilt Place, Box 356050, Station B, Nashville, 

TN 37235 


considerations needed to differentiate negligence from deliberate 

misconduct when examining commingled cremains. 


humanity by providing insight into considerations that must be made when 

examining possible altered cremains in order to differentiate negligence 

from deliberate misconduct. The presentation will provide a better 

understanding of the north Georgia, Tri-State Crematorium case where 

over 300 remains were recovered in what is the largest, most complex case 

of its type in U.S. history. Findings from an excavation of Tri-State 

Crematorium’s retort floor, in which archaeological excavation techniques 

were used, will be presented. 

Forensic specialists are often called upon to verify the identification 

of cremated human remains when funeral homes or crematory facilities 

are believed to have accidentally released misidentified remains or 

intentionally substituted foreign materials. However, the funeral home 

industry’s use of increasingly effective mechanical bone pulverizers 

following cremation has left physical anthropologists with fewer methods 

for determining the physical attributes of the remains. Thus, forensic 

specialists often rely on the recovery of unique personal artifacts such as 

fragments of medical or dental implements to confirm or refute the 

identity of remains. 

On February 15, 2002, news began to surface of the many 

clandestinely placed bodies being found at the Tri-State Crematorium 

located in northern Georgia. A total of 339 bodies were reportedly 

recovered from the site in what is the nations largest crematorium related 

case. Based on work with the Tri-State Crematorium court case (Goins, 

Carpenter, James and Lockett law firm), this paper argues that unique, 

foreign inclusions do not always provide an adequate means of 

demonstrating deliberate misconduct or fraudulent activity on the part of 

a crematorium. Poorly maintained retort surfaces at some facilities may 


esult in negligent contamination through retention of remains and 

artifacts from previous occupants. These articles may be raked into future 

cremations, potentially resulting in questioned identity and accusations of 

misconduct. 

Pertinent data related to this problem were gleaned from 

photographic documentation of the undisturbed Tri-State retort floor, 

archaeological excavation of the retort floor, and analysis and 

interpretation of findings. The Tri-State retort chamber measured 27 

inches high by 36 inches wide by 96 inches deep, and was in a poor state 

of repair when initially examined. The fire bricks that composed the wall 

and ceiling were damaged and the floor had a loose sandy surface with a 

moist oily composition separated in places by fissures, depressions and 

pits. A cursory examination of the floor revealed numerous bones, teeth, 

screws, and other articles scattered throughout. Before the retort floor 

could be excavated, it was photographed in its undisturbed state. 

However, the restrictive 27 by 36 inch retort opening required construction 

and placement of a device to facilitate documentation without disturbing 

the floor. The device was constructed to support an aluminum beam for 

attachment of a camera, and for the later placement of a platform from 

which to work. The device would only contact the floor in four areas, each 

the size of a small screw head. A 35 mm digital camera was attached to 

the beam and overlapping photographs were made of the undisturbed 

floor, the walls and the ceiling over the length of the retort. The beam and 

camera were run along five paths from front to back of the retort floor with 

two photographs taken every 14 inches. These photographs were later 

juxtaposed to create a composite view of the retort floor. 

After photographic documentation, a platform was then set in place 

above the floor to allow entry whereby the retort floor was diagrammed, 

and undisturbed articles were identified and collected. The retort floor 

was then grid into sixteen 12 by 18 inch units and excavated. The initial, 

loose surface was excavated by brush (i.e., all material loose enough to be 

removed by a brush) while a subsequent, deeper and more solid surface 

was excavated by trowel. Material from each grid unit and each depth was 

screened through two U.S.A. Standard Test Sieves, sorted and identified. 

A total of 4507.4 grams/3545.0 milliliters of excavated material was 

examined from the upper (loose) excavation, and 5952.2 grams/6875.0 

milliliters from the lower (more solid) floor. 

In support of the negligent contamination hypothesis, excavation of 

the crematory chamber yielded human bones and teeth, hair, dental 

appliances (e.g., porcelain crowns, gold-colored tooth crowns), possible 

surgical wire, snaps/fasteners, staples, wood screws, etc. Duplicate 

skeletal elements indicated a minimum number of two individuals 

although it is likely that a larger number of individuals was represented 

among these bones and teeth. Due to irregularities in the poorly 

maintained retort floor, these articles were missed by the flat metal rake 

used to remove remains. In addition, a greater concentration of articles 

was found near the back wall of the chamber, an area more difficult to 

reach with the rake. 

Finally, of the crematory operators surveyed, 10 of 13 responded that 

minor inclusions from previous cremations were possible, even in modern 

facilities. Thus, if John Doe had no teeth yet his urn contains a tooth 

fragment, it should not be concluded that the urn does not contain the 

remains of John Doe. 

Although Tri-State provides an extreme example of facility neglect 

and mismanagement, it clearly illustrates the need for forensic scientists 

who are asked to testify in such cases to familiarize themselves with the 

type of retort used, method used for removal of remains from the vault, 

and the history of maintenance for the retort surface. Such knowledge is 

critical in differentiating negligence from deliberate misconduct when 

examining commingled cremains. 

Cremains, Tri-State Crematorium, Forensic Anthropology 


H107 The Donation Dilemma: Academic Ethics 



Bridget Algee-Hewitt, MA*, Rebecca J Wilson, MA, and Lee Meadows 

Jantz, PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, 

TN 37996 


understanding of the unique ethical issues facing the Forensic 

Anthropology Center at the University of Tennessee, so that they can 

effectively disseminate information about the body donation program and 

promote the growth of similar programs. 


humanity by better informing fellow forensic anthropologists of both the 

more practical issues facing FAC, as well as, the program specific 

obstacles that are challenging but professionally stimulating. It is the hope 

that with this knowledge and open forum of information, that the 

profession can more effectively propose a resolution, be it in the classroom 

or the professional environment. 

A panel discussion at the 2006 Seattle, WA AAFS meetings 

addressed, for the first time, the personal and professional issues facing 

forensic anthropologists in light of greater public participation. It is the 

purpose of this paper to address specifically these issues as they affect the 

Forensic Anthropology Center at the University of Tennessee, as a unique 

program that marries both a personal relationship with living donors and 

an academic interest in the skeletal remains. 

One need look no farther than popular culture in order to grasp the 

recent ubiquity of public exposure to and mainstream interest in the 

forensic sciences. Despite drastically oversimplifying the scientific 

challenges facing forensic anthropologists, representations of the forensics 

sciences in popular culture nevertheless have generated an external 

interest in the academic study of human remains. The body donation 

program at the University of Tennessee is undoubtedly the best example 

of a positive site of interaction between this growing public awareness of 

and appreciation for forensic anthropology and the rigorous scientific and 

academic understanding of the processes of death, decay and population 

variation. While this manifestation of the “CSI effect” is helpful in 

increasing interest in the donation process and acceptance of the research 

conducted at “The Body Farm”, the work at the Anthropological Research 

Facility (ARF), as a scientifically rigorous and academically valid 

endeavor is, in consequence, necessarily complicated. The Forensic 

Anthropology Center (FAC) and its body donation program, as a unique 

institution within the field of forensic anthropology, removes the scientific 

issues surrounding death from a laboratory setting and relocates them 

within the public context of living donors and grieving families. The 

questions that remain to be resolved, in addition to the scientific objects of 

investigation, are the practical, personal and ethical dilemmas that 

accompany the constructed relationship among the forensic 

anthropologists, the medical and legal communities and, most importantly, 

the social network that supports the program itself. 

The ARF at the University of Tennessee has grown to serve not only 

as a temporary repository for unidentified remains, but also as the 

intermediary resting place for the individuals donated through the body 

donation program. While the donation program ensures the continuing 

addition of the human remains necessary for research at the ARF and has 

provided an unprecedented diversity of modern skeletal materials for the 

William M Bass collection, its combined scholarly and public nature, 

particularly when coupled with its recent popularity, requires the 

anthropologists working at the FAC to operate outside of the traditional 

roles of an academic program. Whereas a typical forensic anthropologist 

focuses exclusively on the rigorous scientific investigation of individual 

remains in either a law enforcement or academic setting, those working 

with the donation program at the University of Tennessee must serve in a 

variety of disparate and often non-traditional capacities: as liaisons with 

358

the public in order to accurately and effectively educate prospective 

donors about the realities of the program; as funerary consultants for those 

contemplating donation in their final arrangements; as grief councilors 

who must ensure a high level of respect in their treatment of the donor’s 

remains and who must also communicate this respect to the grieving 

families; and, finally, as scientists and progressive academics whose 

responsibility to the donor lies in making full use of his or her remains to 

advance the knowledge of the field. To these forensic anthropologists, 

therefore, the donor is both a numbered object of scientific study and a 

named individual, who, over the course of contact with the program, make 

the transition from living to deceased. The tensions between these 

irreconcilable positions are not traditionally covered in any scholarly 

program within the field; yet maintaining these positions is necessary to 

ensure the continuing success of the FAC. The University of Tennessee’s 

body donation program therefore provides a unique site of interaction 

between the public and academic pressures of the discipline of forensic 

anthropology and the ways in which these tensions are changing in the 

face of mounting public interest, both positive and negative. It is this 

changing face of the discipline as specifically located in the academic, 

popular and ethical responsibilities of those anthropologists working with 

the body donation program at the University of Tennessee that this paper 

proposes to examine. 

It is the intention of this discussion to better inform fellow forensic 

anthropologists of both the more practical issues facing FAC, as well as, 

the program specific obstacles that are challenging but professionally 

stimulating. It is the hope that with this knowledge and open forum of 

information that the profession can more effectively propose resolution, be 

it in the classroom or the professional environment. 

Anthropological Research Facility, Body Donation, Ethics 

H108 Daubert and Kumho: Implications for 


Christopher R. Grivas, MS*, and Debra Komar, PhD, University of New 

Mexico, Department of Anthropology, MSC01 1040, Office of the 

Medical Investigator, MSC11 6131, 1 University of New Mexico, 

Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 


Daubert and Kumho Supreme Court decisions regarding expert witness 

testimony and their impact on forensic anthropological testimony. 


humanity by raising the issue as to what type of anthropological testimony 

falls under the Daubert and Kumho standards, and whether trying to fit 

certain anthropological techniques into a strict framework is appropriate. 

Within the last fifteen years, the Supreme Court of the United States 

has implemented major changes concerning the admittance of expert 

testimony in federal cases, which has forced the modification of rule 702 

regarding expert testimony in the Federal Rules of Evidence. Two 

significant judicial decisions have catalyzed these revisions. Previous to 

1993, under the Frye Rule, courts admitted scientific expert testimony if 

the technique that formed the basis of the testimony was generally 

accepted as reliable by the relevant scientific community. However, in 

1993 the Supreme Court of the United States passed down the landmark 

decision Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., based on its 

interpretation of the Federal Rules of Evidence. This decision superceded 

the Frye Rule and stated that judges were the ultimate authority in 

questions about the admissibility of expert testimony. It also established 

four guidelines for judges in determining the admissibility of expert 

testimony: the content of the testimony is testable and has been tested 

using the scientific method, the technique or theory used in the testimony 

has been subject to peer review, the technique used in the testimony has a 

known or potential error rate, and that the technique or theory has 

established standards and is generally accepted by the relevant scientific 

community. These guidelines became known as the Daubert standard, 

and forced a reexamination of scientific testimony. Significantly, in 1999 

the Supreme Court passed down a lesser known, but equally important, 

decision Kumho Tire Company, Ltd. v. Carmichael in an effort to clear up 

some misconceptions from the earlier Daubert ruling. This decision 

established that experts may develop theories based on observations and 

then apply those theories to the case before the court, as is done in 

technical expert testimony. In addition, the Supreme Court also 

established that all four Daubert standards are not applicable to every type 

of expert testimony, but the same rigor that is applied to scientific 

testimony must also be applied to technical testimony. Thus, Kumho does 

not supercede but works in tandem with Daubert, and it is the duty of the 

judge to determine under which standard the testimony should be held. 

Although these decisions refer only to federal cases, many states have 

followed suit while others are continuing to move towards applying these 

changes. 

Questions still remain as to how these decisions have impacted expert 

testimony in general, including anthropological testimony. Many recent 

forensic publications have stressed the importance of developing 

anthropological techniques to meet Daubert standards and have attempted 

to do so, but none to date have discussed the significance of the Kumho 

ruling. Physical anthropology has never been defined as a pure science, 

and nothing is preventing some types of anthropological testimony from 

being admitted as technical expert testimony, as many other scientific 

disciplines have recognized. While many anthropological techniques, such 

as sexing and aging, with definable error rates meet Daubert standards, 

other techniques such as taphonomic assessment are more of a technical 

skill relying on observation and experience rather than empirical testing. 

However, such observations are still admissible under the Kumho 

standard. Exactly where other techniques that are commonly used by 

forensic anthropologists fall, such as those used in radiological 

identifications, is less clear. Recent publications have attempted to modify 

these techniques to meet Daubert standards without considering that they 

could still be admissible under the Kumho standard, similar to testimony 

by forensic pathologists. By trying to force such techniques into the 

category of scientific rather than technical testimony, these publications 

may be trying to meet inappropriate standards, especially since the 

admissibility of these techniques has not yet been questioned in court. In 

addition, the rigidity required by Daubert may inadvertently lessen the 

power of these methods by imposing unnecessary limits to their use. 

Although the admissibility of expert testimony has become stricter, the 

Kumho standard allows that technical anthropological techniques properly 

performed do not necessarily need to meet stiffer standards. 

Forensic Anthropology, Expert Witness Testimony, Daubert and 

Kumho Rulings 

H109 Bones of Contention - The Investigation 

of a Cadaver Dog Handler 

Amy L. Michaud, BS*, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and 

Explosives, National Laboratory Center, 6000 Ammendale Road, 

Ammendale, MD 20705; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, NMNH-MRC112, Smithsonian Institution, Washington 

DC, 20560; and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

Michigan State University, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand methods 

to process and compare large scale cases involving numerous submissions 

(over 2700 bones were submitted). They will also learn about a significant 

case that affected many in the forensic community. 


humanity by showing the importance of testing and certification for all 

dog handlers working for law enforcement organizations. It will also 

emphasize the importance of creating formalized training programs which 


will utilize law enforcement personnel from within police agencies as 

canine handlers rather than relying on private individuals who cannot be 

closely regulated. This case and presentation may impact the way that all 

dog handlers interact with the forensic community in the future. 

This presentation will discuss the investigation of a well known 

cadaver dog handler who was accused of planting bones and other 

evidence at various crime scenes. The suspect in the case had provided her 

services to state, local, and federal law enforcement organizations all 

across the United States and in other countries for many years working on 

hundreds of cases. She and her K-9 companion were renowned for finding 

skeletal material, blood, and other human materials even when those who 

had searched before her had come up empty handed. 

Over the years, several individuals from various law enforcement 

organizations believed they saw the handler throw down skeletal materials 

at crime scenes; however, nothing was ever proven and they themselves 

often dismissed it by thinking that they just misunderstood her actions. 

Eventually, the handler went out on a crime scene search in Michigan to 

look for the body of a missing girl. The search resulted in the handler 

finding fourteen human bones, which were eventually submitted to the 

FBI Laboratory for mitochondrial DNA analysis. Four of the bones were 

selected randomly for examination. All four of the bones were determined 

to have different mitochondrial DNA types, and all of them were different 

than the type of the victim. At this point, it was still unclear if the handler 

was involved in any suspicious activity. Authorities may have stumbled 

across the dumping ground of a serial killer, and if this was the case, a 

more thorough search of the area needed to take place. A second search 

was conducted using the same dog handler; and this time, a forensic 

examiner from the crime laboratory witnessed her pulling a bone from her 

sock and plunging it into a creek bed. This launched a large-scale 

investigation of the handler which involved the cooperation of many 

different police and governmental agencies. Everyone that the handler 

had conducted searches for in the past was contacted, and items of 

evidence that she had recovered at crime scenes were sent in to the FBI 

Laboratory for examination and comparison to bones and other human 

material found in the handler’s residence and vehicle. The handler had 

gotten human materials from many different individuals such as dentists, 

medical examiners, anthropologists, and other dog handlers. She had also 

given human materials to many other cadaver dog handlers. All of these 

people were questioned, and materials associated to the handler being 

investigated were obtained for comparison to skeletal material found on 

the various searches she conducted. In total, well over 2700 items of 

evidence were submitted to the laboratory for examination which required 

a joint effort utilizing anthropology, trace evidence, mitochondrial DNA 

and nuclear DNA to and analyze and compare the materials. 

A detailed discussion of the events leading up to the investigation, the 

analysis of the evidence submitted in the case, the laboratory findings, and 

the eventual outcome of the investigation will all be presented. 

Bones, Dog, Cadaver 


360

H1 Estimating Time Since Injury From 

Healing Stages Observed in Radiographs 

Kevin B. Hufnagl, MA*, 601 Lindsay Place, Apartment B14, Knoxville, 

TN 37919 

After this presentation, attendees will understand some of the ideas 

and purposes behind dating fractures and the processes used in this 

research. They will understand the contribution that dating of fractures will 

bring to the forensic sciences and how this technique can be used to aid in 

the identification of unknown remains. This presentation will familiarize 

the attendees with some of the difficulties associated with dating of fractures. 

Furthermore, the attendees will be made aware of the necessity for 

cooperation between researchers from different fields in order to further 

explore the process of fracture healing. 


humanity by making the forensic community aware of the study of fracture 

healing, the need for cooperation in these studies, and the benefit of this 

work in the identification process. 

This presentation will illustrate the benefits of being able to assign 

ages to partially healed fractures. Information on when a traumatic event 

occurred is valuable in the identification process of unknown remains. The 

number of possible identity matches can be reduced if the age of a healing 

fracture [is] known and [this can] narrow the search of medical records. 

The time since injury may also help to differentiate between similar 

remains in settings of mass graves, mass disasters, and war. Fractures do 

not heal at uniform speeds for all individuals. This project examines the 

effects of sex and age on the rate of bone repair after fracture in order to 

establish a method to predict the timing of fractures. 

Successive x-rays taken during the period of fracture healing were 

collected from a private orthopaedic clinic. Based on bony change 

observable in these radiographs, six stages of bone healing were defined; 

fracture, granulation, mature callus, partial bridging, almost complete 

bridging, and complete bridging. Each x-ray was analyzed and identified 

as exhibiting characteristics of a particular stage. The date of injury was 

determined from the first radiograph. The six stages of fracture healing 

were defined as to the time they are expected to occur during healing in 

individuals of varying age and sex. 

The six stages of fracture healing were shown to be influenced by age 

and sex. Females exhibited a slight delay in onset of the various stages in 

contrast to males. Age was found to display an inverse relationship with 

the rate of fracture healing. Furthermore, these findings indicate that age 

and healing may have a linear relationship. Alternatively, age groups may 

also be used to separate the rate of bone healing. However, the results of 

such a separation did not reveal one age at which healing is significantly 

effected. From these differences, a variation in the rate of fracture repair 

was inferred based on these factors. 

With the ultimate goal of establishing timelines for the healing of fractures 

based on different stages, this project illustrates the first steps in this 

direction. The author anticipates that this presentation will spark interest in 

the establishment of healing timelines, leading to further studies focusing 

on individual factors showing influence over the rate of fracture healing. 

Fracture, Healing, Radiograph 


H2 The Human Petrous Temporal Bone: 

Potential for Forensic Individuation 

Jason M. Wiersema, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M 

University, College Station, TX 77843-4352 


potential utility of the petrous temporal bone, as seen on computed tomography 

images, as a means to make individual forensic identifications of 

persons from highly fragmentary skeletal remains. 


humanity by demonstrating the utility of the petrous temporal bone, as seen 

on CT images, as a means to make individual identifications in cases in 

which human remains are heavily fragmented as is often the case in mass 

disaster investigations. The petrous bone is of particular utility because of 

its resistance to taphonomic influence and frequent availability, in the form 

of CT images, to investigators. 

Personal identification is of primary importance in forensic investigations 

involving decomposed human remains. Frequent complications of 

the identification process can result from a vast number of taphonomic 

influences, particularly in mass disaster and human rights investigations. 

Remains are often heavily fragmented and commingled due either to 

myriad destructive circumstances in the case of mass disasters, or by intentional 

efforts to hinder identification efforts in the case of human rights 

related criminal activity. 

The forensic scientist has at his/her disposal numerous techniques 

which yield more or less definitive identifications, but that are often vulnerable 

to taphonomic complications. DNA identification for example, 

which is generally preferred for individual identification, is on many occasions 

not possible because the DNA has been destroyed by taphonomic 

influence, most commonly fire, or because there is not an antemortem 

DNA sample to which comparisons can be made. The literature is also 

inundated with published attempts to find means of extracting diagnostic 

information directly from fragmentary skeletal remains themselves. Most 

of these efforts have focused on developing methods from areas of the 

skeleton which are of known diagnostic significance. Unfortunately, the 

most individually diagnostic portions of the skeleton, such as the midface 

are often those that are most susceptible to taphonomic destruction. Even 

dental remains are often not complete enough for identification due to 

destruction of the surrounding skeletal matrix. Thus, in spite of the efficacy 

of these techniques under ideal conditions, they are rarely of practical 

utility in mass disaster and human rights investigations. A different tact is 

proposed here. Rather than developing further techniques for identification 

based on portions of the skeleton that harbor known diagnostic value in 

spite of their low representation in mass disaster, human rights, and even 

archaeological settings, this investigation will focus on establishing the as 

yet undiscovered diagnostic value of a portion of the skeleton which most 

frequently survives taphonomic destruction. 

The petrous portion of the temporal bone is widely considered to be 

the densest bony structure in the human skeleton (Swartz 1990). The consequent 

resistance of the petrous bone to taphonomic destruction is broadly 

appreciated in the forensic literature. However, little effort has been levied 

on extracting information of individually, sexually, or ancestrally diagnostic 

value from this portion of the skeleton, although recently some 

scholars have begun to explore it superficially. 

This poster tests the following hypotheses: 1) as visualized in computed 

tomography imaging, the morphology of the petrous portion of the 

temporal bone is individually variable; 2) by means of comparing ante-and 

postmortem CT images, this variability can be used to make individual pos- 


itive identifications; and/or 3) that the same variability will provide a 

reliable means to resolve issues of commingling of individual remains 

associated with exposure to the taphonomic processes associated with mass 

disasters, and archaeological excavations. More specific is the hypothesis 

that an antemortem CT image can be matched to a cranium from which the 

image is known to have been taken. Finally, it is hypothesized that an antemortem 

CT image can be correctly associated with the skull from which it 

was taken in cases in which the identity is not known, and there is more 

than one skull for comparison. 

The head CT scans of 120 adults (60 males and 60 females) were 

assessed statistically in three dimensions. Coordinate data were collected 

from 3D reconstructions of the petrous portion of the temporal bone (along 

the x, y and z axes) as distance matrices. The landmark locations and the 

measurement distances between them were tested for repeatability, and 

variability. Coordinate data collected for 18 independent landmarks were 

included in this study. The poster will show which landmarks were diagnostic 

and in which combinations they were effective in their support of the 

above stated hypotheses. It will also discuss the statistical reliability with 

which ante and postmortem CT images could be matched using these data. 

Mass Disaster, Personal Identification, Petrous Temporal Bone 

H3 Results of Forensic Anthropological 

Examination in Daegu Subway 

Disaster (2003, Korea) 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, Department of Anatomy, College of 

Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, Ssangyong-dong, 

Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si, 330946, Korea; Yi-Suk Kim, MD, and 

Nak-Eun Chung, MD, PhD, Division of Forensic Medicine National 

Institute of Scientific Investigation, 331-1 Sinwol 7 -dong, Yangcheon-gu, 

Seoul, 158707 Korea; and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, College of Medicine, 

The Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul 

137701 Korea 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the results of forensic 

anthropological examination in the Daegu subway disaster in Korea 

(2003). 


humanity by presenting the methodologies and results used to reconstruct 

the biological profiles and separate the commingled bone fragments of the 

victims by forensic anthropologist in the Daegu subway disaster in Korea 

(2003). 

Disaster victim identification normally consists of multidisciplinary 

procedures: recovery of victims, mortuary center operations, collection of 

ante-mortem data and identification methods. During the 1990’s, recovery 

of victims of mass disaster in Korea were usually performed by nonmedical 

personnel such as firefighters, soldiers, and police-officers. But, 

the Daegu subway disaster allowed for [challenged] a meticulous and 

careful investigative approach in the recovery and reconstruction of the 

victims because carbonized victims were left in situ, piled one over another 

within narrow aisles and seats inside the train. 

After mapping the disaster area, two recovery teams composed of two 

medical examiners and one forensic anthropologist began the recovery of 

corpses from the train. At first, the surface debris was cleared from inside 

the trains. The area was searched for fragmented body part and scattered 

and fragmentary remains were recovered. During the recovery, attempts 

were made to locate all parts of one body and associate them. Commingled 

bone fragments were separated by anthropological examination considering 

typical bony landmarks such as external occipital protuberance, 

greater sciatic notch, pre-auricular groove, linea aspera, and so forth. Body 

parts without bony marks were separated based on surface color of burnt 

bones - gray, yellowish, white, and black, and anatomy-humerus, tibia, 

metacarpal. The separated commingled bone fragments were packed in 


zipper bags and tagged with the area number and comments on the contents, 

e.g., male’s upper extremities, female’s hip bone. After the recovery 

team determined that one victim’s fragmented body parts and associated 

bones were present, the remains moved from the original location to a steeltray 

for autopsy, dental investigation, and DNA-sampling. 

After the results of DNA recovered from burnt fleshy were obtained, 

the recovery team began to reconstruct individuals. Cadavers from the 

same area were moved to the reconstruction room and commingled bone 

fragments were rearranged according to the DNA-results of associated 

body parts. Fragmented body parts and carbonized bones of victims were 

individually laid out in anatomical position. During the reconstruction of 

victims, the surfaces of body parts and bony fragments were brushed and 

the debris from each victim’s body was collected and stored in another 

zipper bag. After the careful investigation, less than 30 zipper bags containing 

bone fragments remained unassociated with body parts. These were 

delivered to the committee of the bereaved and cremated in a joint funeral. 

This presentation demonstrates the utility of forensic anthropological 

investigation to identify the disaster victim whose body is fragmented and 

burned. In the future, guidelines for recovery of bodies in mass disasters 

should be made on the basis of these experiences in Korea. 

Forensic Anthropology, Body Recovery, Daegu Subway Disaster 

(2003, Korea) 

H4 Population Variation in the Sacrum 

Jaime L. Loichinger, BA*, and Cynthia A. Wilczak, PhD, University of 

Maryland, College Park-Dept. of Anthropology, 1111 Woods Hall, 

College Park, MD 20742 

Upon the conclusion of this presentation, attendees will have a better 

understanding of population differences in the sacrum and the feasibility of 

using sacral morphology to identify the ancestry of human skeletal remains. 


humanity by expanding the available information characterizing population 

differences in post-cranial morphology, and also informing the forensic 

community on the limitations of using the sacrum in identifying the 

ancestry of skeletal remains. This research also serves as a case study on 

the effects of sample selection on classification accuracy relevant to all 

general research using osteometric determination of ancestry. 

This study tested the hypothesis that individuals of African-American 

ancestry could be distinguished from other populations based on osteometric 

analysis of the sacrum. The study was initially prompted by casual 

observations of a distinct “pinching” at the level of the second sacral vertebra 

and a narrower overall breadth relative to length among African- 

Americans in comparison to Americans of European descent. Using 610 

sacra from mature individuals in the skeletal collections of the National 

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, three standard measurements 

were taken as defined by the Buikstra and Ubelaker standards: 

anterior length (AL), anterior superior breadth (APB), and the maximum 

transverse diameter of the base (TDB). Two additional measurements were 

added: the curved length of the sacrum at the midsagittal plane (CL), and 

the minimum breadth at the level of the second sacral vertebrae (MS2). 

The maximum height of curvature (HC) was obtained by subtracting the 

anterior length from the curved length. Two indices were calculated by 

dividing MS2 by either AL or APB and multiplying by 100. 

Four hundred sacra sampled from the Terry skeletal collection were 

evenly distributed by ancestry (African-American, European-American) 

and by sex. The Native American sample included 84 males and 83 

females from South Dakotan Arikara sites and the New Mexican sites of 

Hawikuh and Jemez. A sample of 43 individuals of Chinese ancestry from 

California included males only. Statistical procedures for univariate 

analysis included descriptive statistics and ANOVA procedures to assess 

among group differences with a Bonferroni adjustment applied to pair-wise 

comparisons. Direct discriminant function analysis with cross-validation 

used the five measured variables (AL, CL, APB, TDB, MS2) to assess the 

362

overall effectiveness of multivariate ancestry determination. All statistical 

analyses were performed separately for males and females using Systat 11 

software. 

In males and females, the ANOVA analysis showed significant differences 

for all of the variables among African-Americans, European- 

Americans, and Native Americans. In pair-wise comparisons of males, 

African-American sacra were significantly shorter (AL and CL) narrower 

(APB) and more pinched (MS2) than either Native Americans or 

European-Americans. European-Americans had significantly greater curvature 

(HC), while Native Americans had significantly broader promontories 

(TDB) and higher indices. All trends were similar in females, and the 

only discrepancies in the results were that AL and CL differences were not 

significant between the African American and Native American samples 

for females. Discriminant function analysis correctly classified 70% of 

males and 74% of females when the three populations were included. 

While classificatory accuracy did increase to 79% for males when the categories 

were reduced to African American vs. non-African American, the 

hypothesis of a distinct morphology in the former population required some 

modification. Female accuracy did not change with the reduction to the 

two-category classification system. Correct classification was also highest 

for Native Americans at 81% for males and 88% for females versus only 

66% and 71% respectively for African Americans. When the Chinese 

sample was included, correct classification decreased to 66% for males 

(63% for African Americans; 70% for Chinese; 70% for Native Americans, 

and 64% for European Americans). While the Chinese males did show 

some of the expected similarities to Native Americans, they are also similar 

to African Americans in the measurements of pinching (MS2) and overall 

narrowness (APB). These results suggest that some of the hypothesized 

“unique” characteristics of the African Americans initially observed are 

contingent on the populations included in the analysis. The phenomenon 

of convergence among populations with the addition of larger, more diverse 

samples has been noted in other studies, but its critical importance in the 

accuracy of ancestry determination can not be overemphasized. 

The presentation of this research not only expands the available information 

characterizing population differences in post-cranial morphology, it 

also informs the forensic community on the limitations of using the sacrum 

in identifying the ancestry of skeletal remains. This research also serves as 

a case study of the effects of sample selection on classification accuracy relevant 

to all research and forensic applications that use osteometric determinations 

of ancestry. 

Ancestry, Osteometrics, Sacrum 

H5 Skull and Photo Superimposition Technique 

Used to Aid in the Identification Process 

Audrey L. Meehan, BGS*, and Robert W. Mann, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command/Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the use of 3D 

cranial/photo superimposition as a useful tool. 


humanity by demonstrating an enhancement method useful for eliminating 

possible matches to narrow the search field for missing persons. 

The mission of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification Laboratory is to search for, recover, and identify missing U.S. 

service personnel from past wars. Difficulties present themselves when the 

skeletal remains are of like biological profiles, as seen routinely at the CIL, 

and when mtDNA testing is not possible due to preservation of the osseous 

remains or lack of comparative family reference samples. This poster presentation 

shows the Skull/Photo Superimposition procedure currently being 

developed as part of an ORISE Fellowship Research Project. In conjunction 

with tested identification methods, this procedure may be useful in creating a 

short list of possible individuals when used as a means of exclusion. 

A line-up of photographs for blind analysis is set up with multiple 

views of each possible individual obtained from military records and 

families of the MIAs. Using an overlay program, the sagittal plane is 

aligned for each using the nasion and the base of the nasal spine as points 

of congruity between the photos and cranium. Adjustments are made by 

resizing the photo and tilting the skull to coincide with the subject’s angle 

in the photo. Alignment criteria scoring is used to rate the congruity of 

eight additional features within the superimpositions. Each feature is 

scored as a +1 good fit, -1 lack of alignment, or 0 for areas not seen in the 

photo or trauma to the skeletal remains. This scoring process results in a 

final comparison sum with a maximum of ten points for each photo and 

skull comparison. Individuals represented by the photos are considered 

eliminated from the possible list when inconsistencies in congruity cannot 

be explained. When the photos and skull have no apparent inconsistencies, 

this analysis may also be a useful tool for confirmation of identifications 

made by anthropological analysis, dental record, and historical record 

comparisons. 

Missing Persons, Superimposition, Skeletal Remains 

H6 Selection of Variables for Discriminant 

Analysis of Human Crania for 

Determining Ancestry 

Adam Kolatorowicz, MS*, 4510 Marcy Lane, # 41, Indianapolis, 

IN 46205 

The goal of this presentation is to present to the forensic anthropological 

community the value of using non-standard instruments in the analysis of 

unidentified human crania. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community and/or humanity 

by suggesting that biological anthropology laboratories purchase radiometers 

and coordinate calipers to record data that would be missed with spreading 

and sliding calipers. Standard measurements can be combined with nonstandard 

measurements to produce more powerful discriminant function formulae 

for the prediction of ancestry. 

Forensic anthropologists use the computer program FORDISC 2.0 

(FD2) as an analytical tool for the determination of ancestry of unknown individuals. 

There are an almost endless number of measurements that can be 

taken on the human skeleton, yet FORDISC includes only 78 measurements 

for its analysis. In particular, the program will only utilize up to 24 measurements 

of the cranium. These 24 cranial variables are used because they 

require simple, relatively inexpensive instruments that most biological 

anthropology laboratories have (spreading and sliding calipers). Also, individuals 

with a basic knowledge of the anatomical landmarks can take the 

measurements with relative ease. Unconventional measurements of the 

cranium require unusual, costly instruments (such as the radiometer and coordinate 

caliper) and are more difficult to take. This poster will examine which 

measurements of the human cranium provide the greatest classificatory 

power when constructing discriminant function formulae for the determination 

of ancestry and will answer the question of whether the use of variables 

that require more time, training, and equipment are worth the effort. 

Sixty seven cranial measurements were taken on 155 adult human 

crania from three different ancestral groups: (1) African American (n=50), 

(2) European American (n=50), and (3) Coyotero Apache (n=55). The 67 

measurements were broken up into four subsets for statistical analysis: (1) 

FD2 (1996), (2) Howells (1973), (3) Gill (1984), and (4) All 

Measurements. A predictive discriminant analysis with a forward stepwise 

methodology of p = 0.05 to enter and p = 0.15 to remove was run using the 

computer software package SPSS 13.0. The analysis produced four sets of 


discriminant function formulae. The classificatory power of each set of formulae 

was determined by comparing the hit-rate estimation (the percent 

correctly classified) of each of the subsets. First, the resubstitution rate was 

compared to the leave-one-out (LOO) rate for each subset and then both 

rates were compared across all subsets. The FD2 subset had a resubstitution 

rate of 91% and LOO rate of 85.8%. The Howells subset had a 

resubstitution rate of 96.8% and a LOO rate of 94.2%. The Gill subset had 

a resubstitution rate of 64.5% and a LOO rate of 62.6%. Finally, the All 

Measurements subset had a resubstitution rate of 94.8% and a LOO rate of 

93.5%. The non-standard measurements of the Howells subset performed 

the best and the standard FD2 measurements performed third best. Nonstandard 

measurements incorporated in the Howells formulae included 

frontal subtense, zygoorbitale radius, biasterionic breadth, occipital 

fraction, and prosthion radius. 

The formulae provided the best separation of the Apache group from 

the other two groups. Stepwise analysis showed that the use of more variables 

is not necessarily better. Not all of the variables were included in the 

final formulae. Only 12 of the 24 FD2 measurements, 18 of the 61 Howells 

measurements, 4 of the 6 Gill measurements, and 14 of the 67 All 

Measurements were used. Results show that the non-standard measurements 

can be useful for determining the ancestry of unknown human 

crania. These measurements could be especially useful for incomplete 

crania. It is suggested that biological anthropology laboratories purchase 

radiometers and coordinate calipers to record data that would be missed 

with spreading and sliding calipers. Standard measurements can be combined 

with non-standard measurements to produce more powerful discriminant 

function formulae for the prediction of ancestry. 

Ancestry Determination, Discriminant Analysis, Radiometer and 

Coordinate Calipers 

H7 Age of Closure of the Spheno-Occipital 

Synchondrosis in the Arabian Gulf Region 

M. Essam E. El-Sheikh, MD, PhD*, and Salwa Ramadan, MD, 

PO Box 1747, Farwaina 1747, Kuwait 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be provided with age 

standards for fusion of the Spheno-occipital Synchondrosis based on an 

Arabian Gulf sample. 


humanity by establishing normative age identification standards for 

Arabian Gulf area populations. 

The closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis may be regarded as 

a significant age marker when investigating incomplete human remains. 

However, the age at which the Spheno-occipital synchondrosis ossifies is 

still a matter of debate. Fusion has been described in individuals aged as 

early as ten years and as late as 25 years. The present study investigates the 

age of fusion of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis in a sample from the 

Arabian Gulf as a trial to establish a reference standard to be used locally. 

A total number of 207 subjects with known ages (between 9 and 23 years) 

were selected among those who had computed tomography (CT) examination 

for visualization of the base of skull. The state of closure of the 

spheno-occipital synchondrosis, as seen on high resolution thin-section CT 

scans, was recorded as closed or open. Partial closure was categorized as 

open. In males, complete closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis 

was observed as early as 12 years old, and all males past the age of 18 years 

exhibited closed synchondroses. In females, the corresponding ages were 

11 years for earliest fusion and 16 years for the age in which all females 

demonstrated complete closure. 

Arabian Gulf, Age of Closure, Spheno-Occipital Synchondrosis 


H8 Sexual Dimorphism in the Subadult Mandible: 

Quantification Using Geometric Morphometrics 

Daniel Franklin, PhD, and Charles E. Oxnard, MBChB, PhD, Centre for 

Forensic Science, School of Anatomy and Human Biology, The University of 

Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 

6009, Australia; Paul O’Higgins, MBChB, PhD, Functional Morphology 

and Evolution Research Group, The University of York, Heslington, York 

Y010 5DD, United Kingdom; and Ian Dadour, PhD*, and Robin Napper, 

BA, Centre for Forensic Science, The University of Western Australia, 35 

Stirling Highway, Crawley, Perth, Western Australia 6009, Australia 

The goal of this presentation is to outline how geometric morphometric 

methods can be applied to problems in forensic anthropology. It will illustrate 

how these methods can further knowledge about morphological differences in 

the subadult skeleton with increased sensitivity and objectivity compared to 

standard analytical methods. 


by providing data, based on a quantitative, rather than subjective analysis of a 

reference skeletal sample, allowing a degree of sex determination in the 

subadult mandible. Further, geometric morphometric techniques have special 

relevance in forensic anthropology because they are a practical alternative to 

biomolecular methods, which are often unavailable due to either economic 

and/or biological constraints, and are unable to be readily applied in the field. 

The determination of sex from human skeletal material is of fundamental 

importance for any forensic investigator. The most favored methods are 

selected in the hope of providing a high degree of accuracy, but also for suitability 

of assessment of material that is often damaged or fragmentary. Though 

these methods are suitable when the recovered material is adult, when applied 

to the subadult skeleton, the accuracy of sex determination falls markedly. 

Thus, the inability to reliably assign sex in the subadult age range is a significant 

problem facing even the most experienced forensic anthropologist. 

There have been numerous attempts to differentiate males from females 

on the basis of the immature skeleton. Loth and Henneberg (2001) claimed 

that shape differences in the mandible can predict sex with an accuracy of 

81%. Subsequent research, however, using different population samples did 

not achieve such high classification accuracy. Though sexual dimorphism 

exists in the subadult mandible, two key issues require further clarification: 1) 

whether this bone can discriminate immature individuals; 2) whether such differences, 

if they exist, characterize the sample population examined, rather 

than reflecting universal morphological differences. To investigate these 

issues, techniques derived from the growing discipline of geometric morphometrics 

are applied. Geometric morphometric methods utilize landmark data 

to visualize and quantify shape changes, allowing detailed assessment of differences 

among specimens. 

The authors report here on new morphometric data examining sexual 

dimorphism in the subadult human mandible. The material was sourced primarily 

from dissection hall subjects of European and indigenous southern 

African origin, consequently the sex and a statement of age are known for each 

individual. Thirty eight bilateral three-dimensional landmarks were designed 

and acquired using a Microscribe G2X portable digitizer. Measurement error 

in landmark acquisition was assessed by digitizing six different specimens on 

six different occasions; the test demonstrated that errors of precision are small 

with respect to sample variability. The shape analysis software morphologika 

(www.york.ac.uk/res/fme) was used to analyze the three-dimensional coordinates 

of the landmarks. A principal components analysis (PCA) explored the 

relationships between samples of male and female mandibles. The shape differences 

were then visualized and explored using three-dimensional wireframe 

and rendered models, and further interpreted using thin plate splines. 

This presentation will illustrate and reinforce the concept that population 

specific differences in sexual dimorphism must be considered in order to 

achieve optimal sex discrimination. This presentation will benefit the forensic 

community by providing data, based on a quantitative, rather than subjective 

analysis of a reference skeletal sample, allowing a degree of sex determination 

in the subadult mandible. 

Sex Determination, Subadult, Mandible 

364

H9 Forensic GPR: Using Ground-Penetrating 

Radar to Search for Buried Bodies 

Johh J. Schultz, PhD*, University of Central Florida, Department of 

Sociology and Anthropology, Orlando, FL 32816-1360 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how GPR is used to 

search for buried bodies in a forensic context and how to find a GPR consultant. 


by providing a better understanding of how GPR can be used to search for 

buried bodies. 

The use of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) as a search tool for buried 

bodies and evidence has become a valuable search option for forensic investigators. 

This equipment is not only important to locate forensic targets, but it 

is just as important to clear suspected areas where a body is thought to have 

been buried so investigations can be directed elsewhere. Ground-penetrating 

radar is a non-invasive or non-destructive search method that preserves the site 

during a survey. The equipment is used prior to excavating to identify target 

areas for invasive testing. Ground-penetrating radar is now routinely used in 

conjunction with other forensic search methods because the cost of the 

equipment has decreased and the equipment has become easier to operate. 

The purpose of this paper is to discuss GPR methodology while emphasizing 

how this equipment can be used to search for buried bodies by drawing from 

forensic case examples and research by the author. 

Standard GPR systems consist of a control unit, an antenna containing a 

transmitter and a receiver, and a display monitor that can also be a laptop. 

Antenna frequencies ranging from 400- to 500-MHz are appropriate for most 

forensic and archeological applications because they provide an excellent 

compromise between depth of penetration and resolution of subsurface features. 

The equipment can be configured a number of ways such as hand 

pulling the antenna with the monitor secured to the body via a harness, or the 

monitor can be placed at a fixed location while the antenna is hand pulled. In 

addition, the newest option integrates all of the components into a cart that can 

be pushed while performing a survey. 

When the equipment is used during a survey, the antenna is emitting electromagnetic 

waves into the ground as it is being pulled or pushed. As the waves 

encounter areas of contrasting properties, such as a grave or metallic object, the 

imagery is captured by the equipment as an anomaly; this is not an exact picture 

of the buried object in the ground but an indication that something is buried. 

Depending on the soil type and the burial scenario (e.g., wrapping the body and 

adding non-biologic items to the grave) an anomaly for a grave or buried body 

may appear as a distinct and localized hyperbolic shape or a localized soil disturbance. 

Once target areas are identified, invasive testing will be required to 

determine the identity of most features that produce anomalies. 

The two most limiting factors of GPR surveys that are conducted for 

forensic contexts are site conditions and operator experience. The best conditions 

for GPR surveys include open areas that are comprised of dry and sandy 

soils that are relatively free of large pieces of debris and stone cobbles. False 

anomalies can be a problem in soil containing debris and stone cobbles and in 

areas that contain trees or brush. The roots and stumps can be detected as 

anomalies that are similar in size to anomalies produced by buried bodies. 

Before, a GPR operator is consulted for a forensic survey, it is important to 

inquire about their experience. They should have experience searching in 

forensic and archaeological contexts so they would be familiar with detecting 

and interpreting anomalies produced by small features such as a buried body or 

grave and not large geologic features. In addition, GPR can be the most 

valuable search option in a forensic context when a survey for a body needs to 

be conducted over a hard-packed surface such as cement or blacktop. For 

example, if the search for a body needed to be conducted over the cement slab 

of a residential home, the GPR survey could first be performed to identify the 

location of target areas that required further testing. There would then be 

limited damage to the concrete because invasive testing would only be limited 

to target areas. 

Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR), Search Methods, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H10 A Case of Historical Homicide 

in Northern Nevada 

Ryan W. Schmidt, BS*, 1424 Santa Anita Drive, Apartment B, Las Vegas, 

NV 89119; and Jennifer L. Thompson, PhD, University of Nevada, Las 

Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV 89154 

The goal of this presentation is to provide the attendee with an introduction 

to aspects of cranial reconstruction, the difficulties of distinguishing 

traumatic from taphonomic effects on bone, and to provide a brief 

history of the Chinese population in northern Nevada in the latter part of the 

19th century. In addition, this presentation will open a dialogue about the 

geo-political climate resonating among ethnic groups in the western United 

States at the turn of the 20th century, and the violence directed toward one 

of those groups, Chinese immigrants. 


humanity by demonstrating through its application of forensic techniques 

within a broader historical framework, by confirming attitudes of hostility 

directed against particular ethnic groups during the nation’s diverse history. 

On 10 April 2002, construction workers were operating a backhoe to 

expose an irrigation line on the east side of the events center in Winnemucca, 

Nevada and noticed several bones sticking out of the dirt that appeared to be 

human. The local police were notified and a case report issued (no. 02-0351). 

Photographs were taken of the immediate area and the exposed remains, 

which were then processed by the Washoe county crime lab. The bones 

appeared to have been deposited for some time and were determined to be of 

historic, rather than immediate forensic, relevance. They were then transported 

to the University of Nevada, Reno where Dr. S. Livingston verified the 

remains to be human, most likely male, and corroborated the historical nature 

of burial by identifying a porcelain button of a style manufactured between 

the years 1850 and 1880. Dr. Livingston also noted distinctive shoveling on 

the maxillary central incisors, a variable, yet quantifiable non-metric trait 

found among Sino-American populations (East and North Asia, Americas). 

The skeletal remains were transported to the Nevada State Museum, and then 

were subsequently turned over to the University of Nevada, Las Vegas for 

additional analyses. 

Historical accounts of northern Nevada during the years 1860-1880 

indicate a steady influx of Chinese immigrants to meet the labor-intensive 

needs of the trans-continental railroad (Chung et al. 1999). In the year 

1868, the United States signed an agreement with China, called the 

Burlingame Treaty, to allow for free, unrestricted immigration and trade 

between the two nations. This brought numerous Chinese males seeking 

employment with the railroads or in various other occupations in many 

small towns across the west. This caused severe agitation among the local 

settlers who viewed the Chinese as competitors for jobs and as cheaplaborers 

brought in purposefully by the railroad companies and politicians 

to undercut their wages. A number of anti-Chinese acts were passed by 

Congress in the late 1800’s, with particular impact upon the remaining 

Chinese found in towns such as Winnemucca. Newspaper articles and 

death records document many incidents of violence directed toward the 

Chinese workers, often resulting in death. The human remains from 

Winnemucca attest to this turbulent time. 

This study presents a biological profile of an unknown individual of 

Chinese origin. Restoration of the skull allowed metric traits to be measured 

and used, along with non-metric traits, to assess ancestry. Cranial 

reconstruction was achieved using a mix of polyvinyl acetate and acetone, 

common substances often used to aid restoration of fragmentary remains. 

Adequate cranial elements were preserved to allow comparable anatomical 

restitution. Importantly, the cranial vault exhibits radiating fractures emanating 

from the right parietal and occipital. Restoration allowed a more 

accurate assessment of whether these fractures were due to blunt-force 

trauma perimortem or to taphonomic factors that occurred after internment. 

The results indicate that the ectocranial beveling was the result of trauma. 

This work supports a case of historical homicide and substantiates accounts 

of violence directed toward the Chinese during the late 19th Century. 


A case study where forensic techniques were applied to human 

remains buried in an historical context is presented. Using forensic 

methods in such cases can help to chronicle and substantiate a lamentable 

time in history that should, nonetheless, not be forgotten. 

Biological Profile, Trauma, History 

H11 What Matters - Size or Shape? 

Three-Dimensional Analysis of 

Craniofacial Sexual Variation 

Among American Populations 


Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 

8107; Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of South Florida, Department 

of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 107, Tampa, FL 33620- 

8100; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Institute for Anthropology, University of 

Vienna, Vienna, Austria; and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, University of 

Florida, CA Pound Human ID Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the sexual 

dimorphic variation among different American populations, the various 

effects of allometry in assessing sexual dimorphism, and the impact of 

allometry on sex estimation from skeletal cranio-facial remains. 


humanity by demonstrating that shape is as an important factor as size in 

the assessment of sex estimation. It is further demonstrated that 3D 

analysis of the cranio-facial region, through the use of Generalized 

Procrustes Analysis, may be an important tool in sex estimation. Finally, it 

is shown that population specific standards are needed for size and shape 

assessment in the estimation of sex. 

One of the four pillars of the anthropological protocol is the estimation 

of biological sex. The estimation of sex along with the estimation of 

ancestry are critical first steps in a biological profile, as other elements in 

the analysis of human skeletal remains, such as age and stature, are sex and 

ancestry specific and cannot be adequately determined without this very 

basic assessment. The standard protocol used consists of visually assessing 

individual skeletal morphological features of the cranium and mandible and 

the Os coxae based on a scale of 1-5, ranging from “Male” to 

“Indeterminate” to “Female.” These morphological traits are then interpolated 

or “averaged” by the investigator to estimate sex. However, visual 

assessments of these traits are subjective and the weight given to any particular 

trait varies among observers based on training and experience. 

Further problems may arise when applying these methods to different populations, 

who may innately differ in stature, physique, or general 

robustness. Consequently, a skeletally robust female may appear to be 

“male,” particularly in light of cross-population comparisons. 

A study presented by Rosas and Bastir (2002, Thin-Plate Spline of 

Allometry and Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Cranio-Facial Complex, 

AJPA 117(3): 236-245) investigating allometry and sexual dimorphism 

among a Portuguese population, demonstrated that size and sex had a significant 

influence on the shape of the cranio-facial complex. They found 

that both size and sex independently influenced shape, demonstrating that 

there is a greater amount of information to be obtained than from the visual 

methods used to assess cranio-facial morphology. 

The purpose of this study is to further examine the effect of size and 

sex on cranio-facial shape in Americans to better understand the allometric 

foundation of the skeletal traits currently used for sex estimation from the 

skeleton and to investigate possible cross-population differences. 

For this project, 3D coordinates of 17 standard craniofacial landmarks 

were collected using a Microscribe-3DX digitizer. Data were collected for 

118 White and Black males and females from the W.M. Bass Donated 

Collection and the Forensic Data Bank, University of Tennessee - 

Knoxville. 


Raw coordinate data are not directly comparable as shape variables to 

compare specimens since each set is collected in its own coordinate system. 

The data must be translated and rotated to a common coordinate system and 

scaled to a common size. To undertake these transformations a generalized 

Procrustes analysis (GPA) was used that minimizes the sum of squared distances 

between landmarks of each skull and those of an iteratively-computed 

mean. The resulting shape variables and Centroid Size were then 

used in the subsequent multivariate analyses. A principal component 

analysis (PCA) of the covariance matrix was conducted on the GPA transformed 

variables to reduce the dimensionality of the data to meet the 

requirements of the parametric test. A multivariate analysis of covariance 

(MANCOVA) was performed using the PCA scores to test whether size 

and sex have significant effects on the average shape of males and females. 

Concurring with Rosas and Bastir’s study, no difference in the 

influence of size on shape between males and females (no significant 

size*sex interaction) is found. Thus, the shape differences observed 

between males and females are not solely dependent on their respective 

sizes. In this study, sex, controlling for size, had a significant influence on 

shape in both American Whites (F=2.90; df=39; Pr > F= 0.0024) and 

Blacks (F=2.81; df=37; Pr>F=0.0035). Interestingly, the size effect did not 

have a significant influence on shape in either Whites (F=1.69; df =39; 

Pr>F=0.08) or Blacks (F=1.09; df=37; Pr>F=0.40). These results show 

that sexual dimorphism is based on underlying unique sex differences not 

simply a matter of size. 

Geometric Morphometry, Sexual Dimorphism, Americans 

H12 Estimation of Living Stature From 

Selected Anthropometric (Soft Tissue) 

Measurements: How do These Compare 

With Osteometric (Skeletal) Measurements? 

Bradley J. Adams, PhD*, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, City of 

New York, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016; and Nicholas P. 

Herrmann, PhD, University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 


The goal of this presentation is to provide research results pertaining 

to the estimation of living stature from anthropometric measurements. The 

research compares the accuracy of models using soft tissue measurements 

to models using skeletal measurements. The use of soft tissue measurements 

would be of particular utility when working with dismembered 

bodies, but the results indicate that it is worth the added time and effort to 

use skeletal measurements when feasible. 


humanity by assisting forensic anthropologists working in mass fatality 

incidents and dismemberment cases. 

Forensic anthropologists play an integral part in mass fatality resolution, 

especially in the triage and analysis of fragmentary human remains. 

Body dismemberment is a common occurrence in traumatic events such as 

aircraft crashes. Critical anthropological information will include body part 

identification (perhaps even determining human vs. non-human), recognition 

of commingling, documentation of trauma, and assessment of the 

biological profile (age, race/ancestry, sex, and stature). 

Estimation of living stature has obvious utility in the identification 

process, especially when individuals are observed to be particularly tall or 

short in comparison to their associated population. Typically, anthropologists 

estimate stature from the measurement of long bone length. As emergency 

response to a mass fatality is generally immediate, the presence of 

soft tissue on the human remains necessitates dissection to expose skeletal 

landmarks for measurement. As part of this research, a test was performed 

to observe the accuracy of regression formulae derived from standard 

anthropometric (i.e., soft tissue) data compared to osteometric (i.e., 

skeletal) data. The goal was to determine whether anthropometric mea- 

366

surements could be used in place of osteometric measurements, which 

would remove the added time and effort associated with dissection when 

working with dismembered remains. 

Medical personnel have used anthropometric measurements to 

estimate stature of the living (particularly the elderly and disabled) who are 

not able to stand erect. High correlations are cited (e.g., Cheng et al 2001) 

but most regression equations use age as a variable in the formulae. Since 

one of the goals of a forensic analysis during a mass fatality is identification, 

age is unknown and most of the published equations from the health 

literature are not appropriate. 

Using National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 

data from 1998-2002 it was possible to construct anthropometric regression 

equations from a large sample of individuals. Regression formulae were 

derived from the NHANES data based on age, race/ancestry, and sex. The 

available anthropometric variables included Standing Height, Upper Arm 

Length, and Upper Leg Length. Values for the limb portions were recorded 

to the nearest 0.1 centimeter using a measuring tape. From this data set, a 

sample of White and Black males between the ages of 18 and 50 were 

selected (n=3353). The strength of correlation between these variables was 

compared with those presented by Trotter and Gleser (1958) for skeletal 

measurements of White and Black males using the Maximum Length of the 

Humerus and the Maximum Length of the Femur. 

It was found that the correlation between stature and the selected 

skeletal measurements is higher than the correlation seen for the soft tissue 

measurements (Tables 1-3). It was hypothesized that the lower correlation 

between the anthropometric data and stature may be related to measurement 

bias. For example, there is certain to be individual variation of 

soft tissue thickness (e.g., excessive fat) that would not be related to height 

and may skew measurement accuracy. In order to test this assumption, 

Body Mass Index (BMI) was factored into the anthropometric equations. 

BMI proved to be a significant contributor to the regression equations. 

Individuals with a BMI value over 25 were removed from the sample and 

the correlations were re-calculated. The reduced BMI samples show 

slightly higher correlations as compared to the full samples (Tables 1 and 

2). Correlations with standing height improved with the removal of individuals 

with high BMI scores (>25). 

Table 1: Correlation of Upper Arm Length with Standing 

Height in 18-50 Year Old Males (NHANES data) 

White Black 

All (n=1076) BMI

method is locating alpha. The Gill definition involves drawing a line from 

zygoorbitale to nasale inferius and eyeballing the deepest part of the 

concave contour. For this analysis, the digitizer pointer was traced from 

zygoorbitale to nasale inferius and the alpha point on each side was calculated 

directly as the point of maximum departure from the straight line from 

zygoorbitale to nasale inferius. Other challenging landmarks are the 

‘deepest point on the nasal bridge,” the points used to calculate subtenses, 

which are also apparently eyeballed. The digitizer pointer was traced from 

nasion inferiorly along the midline and the smallest distance to each paired 

alpha, maxillofrontale, and zygoorbitale determined the subtense points. 

Statistics were performed using SAS and SYSTAT. Reported classification 

accuracies are cross-validated. 

Results were somewhat in agreement with Gill et al. (1988) with some 

important differences. While 103 of 117 (88%) American Indians and 88 out 

of 95 (93%) Blacks classified as non-White, only 59 of 95 (62%) Whites 

classified correctly. A sample of 20 Eskimos was classified 100% correctly. 

An analysis of the Gill measurements revealed that there are sex differences 

in the alpha index (p < .001) and the zygoorbital index (p < .05). In looking 

at measurement and index distributions, it was also clear that certain measurements 

(even when standardized by sex) showed greater differences 

between American Indians and Whites than the indices in which they were 

used. Further, DFA uses different weights according to the contribution of 

each variable to separating groups and their correlations to the other variables. 

In the Gill method, each index receives equal weight. Analyzing the 

three Gill indices in DFA, 79% of the Indians and 74% of the Whites were 

correctly classified, but the alpha index did not significantly contribute to the 

discriminant function. Analyzing the six Gill measurements used to calculate 

the indices classified the American Indians and Whites 90% correctly, and the 

alpha cord was especially valuable. A three-way DFA of American Indians, 

Blacks, and Whites classified 72% correctly. 

The advantages of more extensive data collection became apparent 

when the interlandmark distances from 20 landmarks were calculated. In 

the two-way DFA, American Indians and Whites were correctly classified 

95% of the time using up to 25 ILDs including alpha landmarks, and 92% 

without the alpha landmarks. In a three-way DFA, American Indians, 

Blacks, and Whites were classified 85% correctly using 19 interlandmark 

distances, including alpha landmarks, and 82% correctly without them. 

Gill et al. (1988) discovered important measurements that differ 

between American Indians and Whites and outlined specific measurements 

for discriminating between them. However, greater differences were found 

through collecting better-defined landmarks, and employing multivariate 

methods such as DFA. DFA also provides posterior probabilities and other 

statistics so one can know how strongly an individual classifies into a particular 

group. Also, a more comprehensive data collection routine captured 

more differences, some clearly less perceptible, between groups. As a 

result, the original problem of misclassification of Blacks as American 

Indians was greatly reduced. 

Cranial Landmarks, Interlandmark Distances, Discriminant 


H14 An Assessment of Non-Metric 

Traits of the Mandible Used in 


Nicolette M. Parr, MS*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 

The goal of the current study is to present results of the analysis of 

non-metric traits of the mandible used in the determination of ancestry and 

to demonstrate the utility of ordinal regression in the examination of 

discrete skeletal characteristics. 

This study is the first multivariate study conducted on discrete 

mandibular traits used for the determination of ancestry. Employing 

ordinal regression on a large sample of identified individuals, this study 

determines whether sex and age affect the incidence of each trait indepen- 


dently of ancestry. Additionally individuals from two separate continents 

are examined; therefore, the findings are applicable for worldwide use. 

While ancestry determination from the cranium has been established as 

reliable in the literature, a suite of characteristics derived from multiple 

bones is preferred. This presentation will impact the forensic community 

and/or humanity by demonstrating how the inclusion of mandibular traits 

builds on previous non-metric studies and helps to increase the reliability 

of ancestral determination from the skeleton. 

In the field of forensic anthropology, the construction of a biological 

profile is of utmost importance in the identification of a decedent. The biological 

profile includes the age, sex, stature, and ancestry of the individual. 

Of these, ancestry is considered the most difficult and least precise. 

The purpose of this study is to build on previous non-metric studies of 

the mandible to determine whether it may be used to differentiate between 

individuals of European and African ancestry. Several studies have shown 

that ancestry can be determined by looking at non-metric characteristics of 

the cranium. Unfortunately, few of these studies have included the 

mandible. Many relevant studies suffer from small sample sizes, did not 

control for age or sex, or were derived from collections whose ancestry was 

anatomically determined rather than known. Many of the traits commonly 

used for the determination of ancestry are found on the face. However, 

these facial bones are rather thin, are the most fragile part of the skull, and 

are usually the first to be destroyed by taphonomic forces. The mandible, 

however, is quite dense and is better able to survive in an archeological or 

forensic setting. This study looked at skeletal remains from the Hamann- 

Todd Collection, the Terry Collection, a forensic collection at the 

University of Florida, and the Pretoria Bone Collection in South Africa. A 

large sample of modern individuals (n = 921) from two continents is used, 

all having documented age, sex, and ancestry. Twelve non-metric traits 

were examined: ramus inversion, location of inversion, gonial eversion, 

mandibular border form, mandibular tori, robusticity of muscle attachment 

sites, mylohyoid bridging, accessory mandibular foramen, chin prominence, 

chin shape, number of mental foramina, and the position of the 

mental foramen. Europeans and Africans were analyzed to determine how 

traits differed from one broad ancestral group to the other. Additionally, the 

smaller subgroups were compared (e.g. European American vs. European 

African) to see if there was any difference in trait expression between the 

more closely related groups. 

Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was used to determine if there was a 

relationship between trait frequency and side. This test was also used to see 

if there was a significant amount of intra-observer error between the first 

and second scorings of the Florida sample. Ordinal regression was utilized 

to determine the effect, if any, that age, sex, ancestry, and the interaction 

between sex and ancestry have on any given non-metric trait. 

Six traits differed significantly between the left and right sides. Intraobserver 

error was relatively low, with two traits showing a significant difference 

between the first and second observations. Nine out of 12 traits 

were significantly affected by ancestry. However, due to the effects of sex, 

age, and the sensitivity of ordinal regression, some of these traits may be 

less useful than others in determining ancestry in unknown cases. Ramus 

inversion, gonial inversion, muscle attachment sites, chin shape, number of 

mental foramina, and position of the mental foramen are the most effective 

traits to use when determining ancestry. However, caution must be taken 

because all of them except the number of mental foramen are significantly 

affected by sex. The number of mental foramina may be the most reliable 

trait because it is statistically and practically significant and it is not affected 

by sex, age, or the interaction between sex and ancestry. However, multiple 

foramina are very rare in each population studied. 

European individuals were found to most likely posses little to no 

ramus inversion, no gonial eversion (straight gonia), gracile muscle 

attachment sites, a round or square chin, one mental foramen, and a more 

anteriorly placed mental foramen. Individuals of African descent were 

more likely to display moderate to extreme ramus inversion, gonial 

inversion, a round chin, and multiple mental foramina. 

Ancestry, Non-Metric Traits, Mandible 

368

H15 Discriminant Function Analysis as 

Applied to Mandibular Morphology 

to Assess Population Affinity 

Gregory E. Berg, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to use 

mandibular morphological data as a tool to potentially diagnosis the biological 

affinity of an unknown individual. 


by informing the forensic community of another potential tool for use in the 


Determination of population affinity using the mandible has been 

gaining attention. Researchers have commonly used mandibular metric data 

to classify American Whites and Blacks, but analyses using three or more 

populations (either mandibular metrics or morphology) are rarely undertaken. 

While mandibular morphological state frequencies can be found for 

three (or more) groups in the same study, complex statistical modeling of 

these frequencies is rarely encountered. This paper examines the ability to 

correctly classify an unknown individual using mandibular morphology 

through discriminant function analysis. 

Seven morphological traits of the mandible are utilized. They include 

the lower border shape, chin shape, ascending ramus shape, ascending ramus 

profile, gonial angle flare, mandibular torus, and posterior ramus edge 

eversion. Categorical scoring of these traits has been previously described, 

though in the present study, a modification to the scoring of the lower border 

was made. Here, the border has been scored as either straight, undulating, 

partial rocker, or rocker. Categorical assessments were converted to an 

ordinal score for each trait. The ordinal scores were assigned in step-wise 

fashion based on a perceived complexity of each trait. For example, the 

mandibular border was scored as a one for straight to a four for rocker, 

assuming that a curved form is more complex than a straight form. 

Some statisticians have argued that ordinal or binary variables can be 

used in linear discriminant functions instead of metric variables. Recently, 

several researchers have applied this type of analysis to cranial non-metric 

traits. Using linear discriminant functions, 90% classification rates were 

achieved between populations from just a few variables. In depth statistical 

analysis of their data did not yield substantial objections concerning the application 

of the generated discriminant functions. 

The presented analysis concentrates on male individuals from approximately 

ten different populations that include American Whites and Blacks, 

Cambodians, Vietnamese, Central American Hispanics, and Native 

Americans. The sample size is in excess of 1000 individuals; all individuals 

are assumed to have from late 19th to 20th century birth years. Linear discriminant 

function analysis was undertaken not only using two group comparisons, 

but also three, four, and five group comparisons. Each analysis was 

cross-validated using a leave-one-out method for accuracy assessment. The 

only variable to continuously fall out of the analyses was the ascending ramus 

profile shape. 

Five population comparisons yielded a 54% cross-validated accuracy 

rate, approximately three times better than the expected accuracy if based on 

chance alone. Two group comparisons fared better, some in excess of 83%, 

while three group comparisons approached 70% accuracy rates. Further, two 

group comparisons of closely related populations (Cambodian, Vietnamese) 

also appeared to function well, with a 74% accuracy rate. As a means of comparison, 

FORDISC 2.0 was used to determine classification rates for six or 

seven craniofacial/vault measurements, using three populations. In these 

analyses, classification rates of 62-87% were generated, depending on the 

populations and measurements selected. Vault measurements faired better 

than craniofacial measurements in these comparisons. Based on these results, 

the use of discriminant functions to assess population affinity via mandibular 

morphology is argued to be a valuable tool for the forensic anthropologist. 

Mandibular Morphology, Population Affinity, Statistics 

H16 Morphoscopic Traits and the Statistical 


Joseph T. Hefner, BA, MA*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Stephen D. Ousley, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 

DC 20560 

The primary goal of the presentation is to provide the audience with a 

new statistical method for utilizing nonmetric traits in the determination of 

ancestry in unidentified human crania. 


by enhancing both the process of identifying the ancestry of human remains 

and the courtroom presentation by attaching probabilities to the analysis. 

Ancestry determination is generally regarded as the most difficult aspect 

of the biological profile, primarily because of the traditionally subjective, 

experienced-based emphasis that has been taught in the past. In addition to 

subjectivity, another weakness of the classic nonmetric approach is that it 

does not provide any posterior probabilities, which indicate how likely the 

individual comes from one group as opposed to the other groups. Nonmetric 

(categorical) trait analysis is often devoid of all but the most simplified statistical 

analysis (e.g., frequency distributions and chi-square tests). 

Nonetheless, Ousley and Hefner (2005) demonstrated that morphoscopic 

traits could be analyzed statistically with classification accuracy as high as 

90% using kernel probability densities. In addition, several other methods 

(including logistic regression and linear discriminant functions), confirm the 

value of using various statistical methods in nonmetric trait analysis. The statistical 

techniques that utilize metric data provide posterior probabilities, 

usually because the data are normally distributed, but nonmetric data are not 

normally distributed, and quantifying nonmetric traits is not practical and 

may not provide additional significant information. A new multivariate statistical 

method recently introduced for use with categorical data is presented 

that not only addresses these concerns, but also addresses the Daubert issue 

using posterior probabilities, graphs, and cross-validated results. 

In the present contribution, a total of thirteen separate distance measures 

were applied to 12 nonmetric variables recorded for American Whites (n = 

89) and American Blacks (n = 105). The data were analyzed using a constrained 

ordination procedure (CAP) proposed by Anderson and Willis 

(2003) which relies on a canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) on the principal 

coordinates (PCO) of the dataset. The analysis can be performed using 

any calculated inter-individual distance matrix, and the distances need not 

follow any particular distribution or even be Euclidean. Numerous distance 

calculations can be used, so distance calculations can be fine tuned (i.e., each 

method highlights various aspects of the multivariate data), and judged by 

their classification accuracy. A “leave-one-out” resampling post hoc test of 

the CDA is then used to (1) calculate classification accuracy and (2) test the 

significance of additional PCO axes (m). This method is more applicable to 

ancestry determination than frequency distributions, as it accounts for correlation 

among variables, provides classification error rates, and allows for 

classification of a new observation. In these regards it is more consistent with 

traditional multivariate discriminant function analysis (DFA). An additional 

benefit of this method is that while conventional DFA can be applied to 

macromorphoscopic data (Ousley and Hefner 2005), the CAP approach is 

more appropriate for this type of data. 

Several CAP analyses offered interesting results, demonstrating the 

flexibility of the technique. Multiple distance measures (e.g., chi-square, 

Euclidian), were selected for the analysis in order to determine the 

weaknesses and strengths of each one of them. Among these, chi-square 

distances appear to be the most appropriate measure for categorical, 

macromorphoscopic data. For example, the chi-square distance measure 

with m = 10 produced the lowest mis-classification error, and the first three 

PCOs alone explained over half of the total observed variation. In fact, a 

CAP analysis using the five best variables (INA, NBS, ANS, IOBW) and 

the chi-square distance measure with m = 3 has cross-validated accuracies 

of 86%. 


These results indicate that the analysis of nonmetric traits through 

robust statistical models, particularly constrained ordination procedures like 

CAP, greatly enhances the process of identifying the ancestry of human 

remains. This method also addresses issues related to the Daubert decision 

by calculating classification accuracy and posterior probabilities of the classification, 

and enhances courtroom presentation through the obtained 

bivariate plot, an easily understood graphical representation. 

Nonmetric Traits, Canonical Discriminant Analysis, Ancestry 

Determination 

H17 Ontogeny of Femur Subtrochanteric 

Shape: Implications for Determining 

Ancestry Using the Platymeric Index 

Daniel J. Wescott, PhD*, University of Missouri-Columbia, Department 

of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 

The objectives of this study are to examine changes in proximal femur 

diaphyseal shape during growth and development, determine the proximate 

causes for the patterns of change, and evaluate the usefulness of proximal 

femur shape in discriminating between Native American and American 

Black/White subadult femora. Attendees will learn about changes in femur 

subtrochanteric shape during growth and development and the validity of 

the platymeric index in the estimation of ancestry from human subadult and 

adult skeletal remains. 


humanity by demonstrating how femur subtrochanteric shape develops and 

that the platymeric index can be successfully used to distinguish between 

Native Americans and American Blacks/Whites in subadult skeletal 

remains greater than six years of age. 

Gill and colleagues have suggested that subtrochanteric shape may be 

established early in life, and therefore the platymeric index (PI) may be 

useful for assessing ancestry in subadults. In this paper, the author 

examines changes in proximal femur diaphyseal shape and size during 

growth and development, and discusses the implications of the results to 

the validity of estimating ancestry in subadult (immature) skeletal remains. 

Femur subtrochanteric anteroposterior (AP) and mediolateral (ML) 

diameters and diaphyseal length were obtained for 74 Native American, 17 

American Black, and 50 American White subadult femora. Individuals 

used in the study range in age from birth to 18 years. Left femora were 

preferentially used, but the right femur was used if the left was absent or 

damaged. Since sex is difficult to estimate from subadult skeletal remains, 

males and females were pooled. Previous studies have shown no significant 

differences in subtrochanteric shape between adult American Blacks 

and American Whites, so they were pooled as a single group. 

Changes in femur subtrochanteric shape (PI) and diameters (AP and 

ML) were examined by age for each of the samples. The results show that 

the PI decreases or becomes more platymeric from birth to about five years 

of age and then generally levels off in both groups. Therefore, the author 

examined subadults less than five years old and subadults six years old and 

greater separately. This second analysis shows a significant negative correlation 

between PI and age in subadults five years and under in both 

groups, but the changes in the PI are more noticeable in Native Americans 

(slope = -0.03, r2 = 0.33) than in American Blacks/Whites (slope = -0.02, 

r2 = 0.10). The more noticeable change in Native Americans is expected 

since they are generally more platymeric as adults. After the age of five 

years there is little change in the PI, except for a possible increase associated 

with the adolescent growth spurt (slope = 0.001 and r2 = 0.005 for 

Native Americans; slope = 0.002 and r2 = 0.009 for American 

Blacks/Whites). 

An examination of the subtrochanteric dimensions reveals the proximate 

causes for the differences between younger and older subadults and 

between Native Americans and American Blacks/Whites in proximal 


femur diaphyseal shape. Between birth and five years of age the ML 

dimension increases more rapidly than the AP dimension in both groups. 

However, the difference is again more dramatic in Native Americans. That 

is, differences in the rate of growth between AP and ML dimensions is 

greater in Native Americans (AP slope = 1.60, r2 = 0.74; ML slope = 2.32, 

r2 = 0.81) than in American Blacks/Whites (AP slope = 1.92, r2 = 0.88; ML 

slope = 2.24, r2 = 0.81). This same pattern continues after the age of five 

but at a greatly reduced rate. In individuals over five years of age, the AP 

and ML dimensions increase in size with age at approximately the same 

rate in Native Americans (AP slope = 0.72, r2 = 0.63; ML slope = 0.59, r2 = 0.53) and American Blacks and Whites (AP slope = 0.69, r2 = 0.46; ML 

slope = 0.66, r2 = 0.44). 

The results of this study demonstrate that the adult shape of the 

proximal femur is established relatively early in life – probably shortly after 

the achievement of a mature gait pattern. The proximate cause for this 

early establishment of adult shape is that between birth and five years of 

age the proximal femur diaphysis grows more rapidly along the ML plane 

compared to the AP plane, especially in Native Americans. However, after 

the age of five, growth occurs more equally in the two planes. The results 

of this study also make evident that the PI can be used to distinguish 

between platymeric Native American femora and more eurymeric 

American Black/White femora in subadults over the age of six years. 

However, the results also show that subadults, like adults, exhibit great 

variation within groups, probably due to environmentally induced biomechanical 

stress placed on the femur. This variation should be considered 

when using only the PI to determine ancestry in medicolegal investigations. 

Forensic Anthropology, Platymeric Index, Ancestry 

H18 A New Method for Estimating 

Age-at-Death From the First Rib 

Elizabeth A. DiGangi, MA*, and Jonathan D. Bethard, MA, University of 

Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37916; Erin H. Kimmerle, PhD, University of South 

Florida, Department of Anthropology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, SOC 

107, Tampa, FL 33620-8100; and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of 




first rib can be used as an effective age-at-death indicator. In addition, 

attendees will learn that a Bayesian approach utilizing transition analysis 

can be used for developing robust aging methodologies. 


humanity by demonstrating that forensic anthropologists working in 

numerous contexts can improve their efforts by refining methods used to 

estimate age-at-death. Results from this research indicate that the first rib 

can be used to estimate age-at-death as an isolated element or as a component 

in a multifactorial approach. 

Forensic anthropologists working both internationally and domestically 

are often faced with the problem of developing a biological profile 

from incomplete skeletal remains. Elements commonly used for establishing 

age-at-death are sometimes absent and frequently damaged. Such 

occurrences are unfortunate; however, they underscore the importance of 

developing aging methodologies from a broader range of skeletal elements. 

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a modification of the 

Kunos et al. (1999) method for estimating age-at-death from the first rib 

could be developed. While the fourth rib has been used for some time in 

age-at-death estimation, Kunos and coworkers (1999) indicate several limitations 

with the element. Oftentimes, the fourth rib is misidentified in 

unarticulated skeletons or damage to the sternal aspect precludes its use as 

an age indicator. Moreover, Kunos et al. indicate methods that rely solely 

on morphological changes of the costal face do not utilize other aspects of 

370

the rib that change throughout life, particularly the head and tubercle. 

These authors argue that the first rib is unambiguously identifiable in 

addition to its prolonged span of remodeling into the eighth decade. 

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the method 

devised by Kunos and co-workers can be reproduced and successfully 

applied as a workable model for the estimation of age-at-death. Data were 

collected on three aspects of the first rib (rib head, tubercle facet, and costal 

facet) for 549 known-aged males and for 74 known-aged females. The data 

come from Balkan materials collected as evidence during the investigation 

of violations to international humanitarian law conducted by the ICTY. The 

ages-at-death for this sample range from 15-90 years for males (with a 

mean age of 48.2 years) and 15-96 for females (with a mean age of 51.1). 

First, a list of variables was extracted from the original study utilizing 

all three skeletal aspects of the first rib. This list was subsequently modified 

as preliminary tests based on serrations of the samples occurred during 

this investigation and resulted in a total of eleven possible variables. 

Morphological changes of costal face, rib head, and tubercle facet were 

coded with regard to numerous features that include shape, surface topography 

and texture, and marginal morphology. These variables were each 

scored using a coding system ranging from 1-4 to 1-7 depending on the 

variable in question. Second, two observers independently scored the three 

rib components using all eleven variables. The eleven variables were first 

analyzed separately. To calculate the mean, standard deviation, log-likelihood, 

and standard error of the ages-of-transition for each component, the 

unrestrictive cumulative probit model is performed. These statistics are 

further used to calculate the highest posterior density regions for estimating 

individual ages-at-death. Additionally, a multivariate analysis of the three 

components is performed. A principal component analysis (PCA) of the 

covariance matrix is conducted for the regions of the first rib to reduce variables 

with a high degree of correlation. The correlation matrix demonstrates 

that the inter-correlations of the eleven variables are low (0.496- 

0.768 for the costal facet, 0.181-0.444 for the rib head, and 0.146-0.521 for 

the tubercle facet). Findings are consistent with those of Kunos and coworkers, 

in that the morphological changes of all three components of the 

first rib are useful indicators of age-at-death. 

Age-at-Death, First Rib, Transition Analysis 

H19 Stature Estimation Based on Dimensions 

of the Bony Pelvis and Proximal Femur 

Carolyn L. Giroux, BA*, 6200 East Richland Road, Columbia, MO 

65201; and Daniel J. Wescott, PhD, University of Missouri-Columbia, 

Department of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain an awareness and 

appreciation for the advantages and limitations of using measurements of 

the pelvic region to estimate stature in mass disaster and burned remains 

cases where more commonly used bones are not preserved. 


humanity by providing ancestry and sex specific stature estimation formulae 

based on standardized dimensions of the pelvic region that can be 

applied to mass disaster and burned remains cases. 

Inspired by a study that examined the use of sacral and coccygeal 

dimensions recorded from radiographs to predict living stature, this paper 

evaluates the validity of using sacral height (SH) measured on dry bone for 

estimating stature in mass disaster and burned remains cases. The authors 

also extend this examination to include hip height (HH) and femur head 

diameter (FHD) because these components are often preserved in mass disaster 

and burn cases. The affect of sex and ancestry on stature estimation 

using these dimensions are investigated and group specific regression equations 

for estimating living stature are provided. 

Stature, SH, HH, and FHD were obtained from the Forensic Data 

Bank on over 260 Black and White males and females of known forensic 

or cadaver stature. All measures show a significant positive correlation 

with stature, except SH in White females. There were significant sex and 

ancestry differences in the variables, but no significant sex and stature or 

race and stature interactions exist for any of the variables. However, in 

general, pelvic region dimensions correlate better with stature in American 

Blacks than they do in Whites. The validity of the regression functions was 

evaluated using the squared correlation (r2 ) and mean squared error (MSE). 

For males, HH is the best single variable for predicting stature (Blacks: r2 = 0.47, MSE = 31.72; Whites: r2 = 0.26, MSE = 46.99) and SH the worst 

(Blacks: r2 = 0.19, MSE = 48.07; Whites r2 = 0.15; MSE = 51.64). Among 

females, FHD is the best single variable (Blacks: r2 = 0.32, MSE = 45.83; 

Whites: r2 = 0.18, MSE = 45.18) followed by HH (Blacks: r2 = 0.35, MSE 

= 31.72; Whites: r2 = 0.09, MSE = 54.00) and then SH (Blacks: r2 = 0.16, 

MSE = 50.58; Whites: r2 = -0.003, MSE = 56.87). 

In this study, multivariate equations out-preformed univariate models 

for all groups. A MAXR procedure was used to find the best two- and 

three-variable equations. The best two-variable models include HH and 

FHD for all groups, except White males. The best two-variable functions 

are 84.23 + 0.338*HH + 0.432*FHD (r2 = 0.53, MSE = 29.42) for Black 

males, 99.46 + 0.166*SH + 0.267*HH (r2 = 0.28, MSE = 43.95) for White 

males, 45.73 + 0.206*HH + 1.89*FHD (r2 = 0.58, MSE = 27.44) for Black 

females, and 95.94 + 0.069*HH + 1.266*FHD (r2 = 0.17, MSE = 50.88) 

for White females. The addition of the third variable does not increase the 

correlation except in Black females. The best three-variable equations for 

predicting stature for Black females is 44. 40 + 0.106*SH + 0.178*HH + 

1.792*FHD (r = 0.60, MSE = 26.77). 

The results demonstrate that dimensions of the pelvic region can be 

used to estimate stature with moderate accuracy. Dimensions of the pelvic 

region are a poorer predictor of stature than long bone lengths, but they 

perform as well as ankle bone, metacarpal, skull, or bone fragment dimensions 

previously examined for use in mass disasters. This study also shows 

that there are considerable differences in the accuracy based on ancestry, 

with HH, SH, and FHD predicting stature more reliably in American 

Blacks than for American Whites. Stature estimation in White females 

based on pelvic dimensions should be avoided due to the low correlation 

and high MSE. Sacral height alone is a fairly poor predictor of stature, 

especially in American Whites, with the error ranging from about 7.0 to 7.5 

cm. However, the precision of using SH measured from dry bone to 

estimate stature in males is nearly equivalent to that using SH determined 

from radiographs. 

Forensic Anthropology, Stature, Mass Disaster 

H20 Evaluation of Three Methods of Age 

Estimation From Human Skeletal 

Remains (Suchey-Brooks, Lamendin, 

and Two-Step Strategy) 

Rika Prodhan, BS*, 547 Cedar Branch Road, League City, TX 77573; 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, MRC 112, 

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 

Washington, DC 20560; and Debra A. Prince, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 


The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the application of a 

comprehensive (combined) method of age estimation compared with two 

isolated, individual methods. The methods considered are the Two Step 

Strategy (comprehensive method), and Lamendin and Suchey-Brooks 

(individual methods). 


humanity by demonstrating appropriate times of use of comprehensive 

methods versus individual, isolated methods of age estimation. 


Previous research suggests that a method which utilizes more than one 

anatomical part of the body will have higher accuracy in age estimation than 

a method which considers only one anatomical part. The Two Step Strategy 

(TSS) utilizes ages generated from the Suchey-Brooks (SB) method of evaluation 

of the pubic symphysis for younger adults and those generated by the 

Lamendin (L) method based on single rooted teeth for older adults. This presentation 

offers forensic anthropologists an assessment of the usefulness of 

these three methods of age determination when applied to the same individuals 

from the Terry Collection housed at the Smithsonian Institution’s 

National Museum of Natural History. 

This study compares the measure of reliability (how close a result 

comes to the true value) of those three methods when applied to the Terry collection. 

The sample consisted of 312 individuals (age 25 to 99 years, with a 

mean age of 52.97 years and a standard deviation of 14.87years): 78 black 

females (age 25 to 99 years, mean 52.75, SD 16.57), 63 white females (age 

27 to 90 years, mean 58.63, SD 14.16), 90 black males (age 26 to 76 years, 

mean 47.66, SD 13.00), 81 white males (age 27 to 85 years, mean 54.58, SD 

13.67). To ensure unbiased results the real ages were hidden from the 

observer, and each method was applied with complete independence. 

The smaller the value of the mean error (ME) is the higher the method’s 

reliability. The ME of the TSS method was 7.7 years while the ME for the 

SB and L methods were 8.6 years and 8.1 years respectively. Overall, all 

three methods underestimated ages. 

Samples were sub-grouped according to sex and ethnicity, and interestingly 

within some groups TSS was less accurate than the individual methods 

(L and SB). For example, accuracy was equal for the TSS and L methods (8.7 

years) in White females (which had the highest mean error values) where as 

the ME was 9.4 years for the SB method. The estimations obtained from the 

SB method were inaccurate enough to substantially decrease TSS’s accuracy, 

since TSS takes SB method’s estimates into account. Similarly in White 

males, the mean error values of the TSS and L methods were almost equal (8.1 

years and 8.0 years respectively, and 9.1 years for SB). In Black males, which 

had the lowest mean error values (SB: 7.2 years, L: 7.1 years, TSS: 6.8) TSS 

had much higher accuracy than the other two methods. Estimates generated 

by all the methods for males were more accurate than those for females, and 

more accurate for Black samples than for White samples. 

Overall, the comprehensive TSS method was more accurate than the 

other two individual, isolated methods (L and SB). This trend of the Two- 

Step Strategy having the most accuracy at estimating age supports previous 

research that strongly suggests comprehensive approaches, such as TSS, are 

superior to isolated ones, such as L and SBS methods (Prince and Ubelaker, 

2002; Lamendin et al., 1992; Brooks and Suchey, 1990; Helena et al., 2003; 

Baccino et al., 2003). 

However, when different subgroups were taken into account, the notion 

that combined methods have more accuracy in age estimation than individual 

methods was not well supported. This study suggests that the L method can 

be used alone for White samples, but a more comprehensive approach is recommended 

for other groups if the relevant skeletal parts are available. The 

greater accuracy of the L method when applied to White samples can prove 

advantageous since teeth offer superior preservation over pubic bones. All 

parts of the skeleton should be considered if they are available. 

MEAN ERROR VALUES (in years) 

Sub-groups SBS Lamendin TSS 

WFemale 9.4 8.7 8.7 

BFemale 9.27 8.8 7.7 

Wmale 9.1 8.0 8.1 

BMale 7.1 7.1 6.8 

Black (F & M) 8.2 7.9 7.2 

White (F & M) 9.3 8.4 8.4 

Male (B & W) 8.1 7.6 7.4 

Female (B & W) 9.3 8.8 8.2 

Overall 8.6 8.1 7.7 

Age Estimation, Lamendin, Suchey Brooks 


H21 Evaluation of Purkait’s Triangle Method 

for Determining Sexual Dimorphism 

Robert P. Brown, MFS*, 22nd Military Police Battalion (CID), 

USACIDC, PO Box 331009, Mailstop #84, Fort Lewis, WA 98433; 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum 

of Natural History, Department of Anthropology, 10th and Constitution 

Avenue NW, MRC 112, PO Box 37012, Washington, DC 20013; and 

Moses S. Schanfield, PhD, The George Washington University, 

Department of Forensic Sciences, 2036 H Street NW, 102 Samson Hall, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be briefed on a 

method for determining sexual dimorphism using measurements from the 

proximal end of the femur and its comparison and combination with more 

traditional methods. 


humanity by evaluating a relatively new method for determining sexual 

dimorphism and its application to the Terry collection. 

The ability to determine sex from isolated bones and bone fragments 

is a necessity in medicolegal investigations. Sexual dimorphism in the 

skeleton is generally based on two factors, size difference with males being 

generally larger than females, and function related differences, particularly 

in the pelvis. Differences between the sexes involve varying levels of stress 

and strain on the bones during development that lead to differences in size 

and morphology. Traditionally, when the proximal end of the femur is the 

only portion of bone available for analysis, the maximum vertical diameter 

of the head is utilized for determining sex. Purkait’s (2005) triangle method 

includes the use of points of muscle insertion that develop and change 

based on muscle strain. 

This study compares the accuracy of Purkait’s method in comparison 

and combination with the maximum vertical diameter of the head when 

applied to the Terry collection housed at the Smithsonian Institution’s 

National Museum of Natural History. The sample consists of 200 individuals 

with a balanced number of males and females, and black and white adult subjects. 

Additionally, another sample of 40 individuals equally balanced was 

measured. Purkait’s method involves measuring a triangle that is projected 

on the posterior side of the proximal end of the femur. The point projecting 

most medially on the greater trochanter and the highest point on the lesser 

trochanter were labeled points ‘B’ and ‘C’, respectively. The point on the 

articular margin of the head dipping most laterally was labeled point ‘A’. 

Measurements of the sides of this triangle (AB, AC, and BC) along with the 

vertical diameter of the head were taken from each femur. 

The data were subjected to discriminant function analysis. The accuracies 

for determining sex using the single variables of AB and AC (69% and 

70.5%, respectively) were much lower than those found in Purkait’s study 

which is reflected in the higher standard deviations found in the Terry collection 

data. BC was shown to be the best indicator using Purkait’s triangle 

method with an accuracy of 85.5%. The accuracy using the diameter alone 

was 89%. Combining the diameter and BC raised the accuracy to 90%. 

Additionally, a jackknife procedure was conducted on the data that reflected 

nearly identical results for accuracy. The threshold value for separating the 

larger male values from the smaller female values were 53.0 mm for BC and 

45.7 mm for the diameter of the head. When individuals where BC and 

diameter measurements produced conflicting results using the threshold 

approach were excluded, the prediction accuracy increased to 94.5%. The 40 

additional femora not included in the determination of the threshold values 

were tested against these threshold values. The accuracy using BC was 80%, 

diameter was 95%, and the two factors in combination (with exclusion of 

individuals with conflicting results) were 97.5%. There was no significant 

difference between the Terry collection white and black samples. 

The value of the study is the evaluation of a relatively new sexual 

dimorphism method in order to determine the population variability 

between the Terry collection and Purkait’s sample, which consisted of 

middle class Central Indian males. BC was determined to be a valuable 

372

measurement in estimating sex using the proximal end of the femur, particularly 

in combination with the maximum vertical diameter of the head. 

The measured values in the Terry Collection taken in this study were found 

to be smaller than those from Purkait’s study. More studies should be conducted 

on different populations using contemporary samples in order to 

determine proper threshold values based on population variability and to 

further document human variation in this aspect of the anatomy. 

Forensic Anthropology, Sex Determination, Femur 

H22 Sex Determination From the Hyoid Body 

Jered B. Cornelison, MS*, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology, 204 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824; Wendy L. Lackey- 

Cornelison, MA, Michigan State University, Department of Anthropology, 

426 East Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI 28824; and Brian C. Hunter, PhD, 

1215 East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 48912 

The goal of this presentation is to elucidate the utility of using measurements 

of the hyoid body to estimate sex. 


humanity by demonstrating how the hyoid bone can be used to estimate sex 

in situations where critical skeletal elements for estimating sex are not 

available or as additional data for sex estimation. 

Previous studies have shown that the hyoid bone is sexually 

dimorphic and can be utilized for sex determination of unknown skeletal 

remains. These studies are based on numerous measurements taken from 

x-rays or digital photographs. The current study illustrates that sex can be 

readily determined from three measurements, which can be obtained from 

the hyoid body directly. The method presented here will offer a relatively 

simple and reliable procedure for sex determination, particularly in 

instances of fragmentary, commingled, and/ or sparse remains. 

Skeletonized hyoid bodies of 203 individuals (N= 132 males and 71 

females) from an autopsy sample were measured in this study. Twentynine 

individuals under the age of 20, however, were eliminated due to confounding 

issues associated with growth and developmental processes. Age 

ranged from birth to 92 years with a mean age of 43.5 years. After individuals 

under the age of 20 years were eliminated the sample was composed 

of 114 males and 60 females. Three measurements were obtained to 

the nearest tenth of a millimeter using sliding calipers including, midbody 

height, maximum body height, and maximum body breadth. While each 

measurement was analyzed separately to understand the strength of discrimination 

between the sexes, it was determined that composite measurements 

may better discriminate between the sexes. The measurements were 

analyzed using SPSS 12.0. 

Using an Independent Samples T-test the significance (p

eginning union and not just the sequence of complete union. This is an 

important distinction as consistent commencement of union in one epiphysis 

does not ensure that it also completes union first. Establishing dual 

spectra patterns provides optimal application for use in the sorting and reassociation 

of commingled remains by maximizing the variables available 

for assessment. 

In conclusion, sequence of union should not be oversimplified if epiphyseal 

patterns are to be used in a forensic context. Full documentation 

of sequential variation must be examined for both the commencement and 

the completion of union if this information is to help with the re-association 

and identification of misplaced skeletal elements. 

Epiphyseal Union, Commingled Remains, Bosnia 

H24 Research Trends During the History 

of the Physical Anthropology Section 

at the AAFS Annual Meetings 

Derek C. Benedix, PhD*, JPAC-CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530; and William R. Belcher, PhD, JPAC- 

CIL, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

The goals of this presentation are to discuss the research trends that 

have occurred during the more than 30-year history of the Physical 

Anthropology Section at the annual meetings of American Academy of 

Forensic Sciences as well as physical anthropological contributions to the 

Journal of Forensic Sciences (JFS) during the same time period. 


humanity by presenting trends in physical anthropological research seen 

through the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) and JFS 

during the more than 30-year history of the Physical Anthropology Section. 

This poster will provide forensic and physical anthropologists with 

essential information for the interpretation of research importance and popularity 

of scientific research. 

In 1972, a new section was established at the annual American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS). Dr. Ellis Kerley was pivotal in the 

development of the Physical Anthropology Section at the AAFS meetings 

(Snow 1982; Stewart 1979; Ubelaker 2001). Since its inception, physical 

anthropologists and, specifically, forensic anthropologists have had a 

medium in which to share their research with others. This new section 

allowed forensic anthropologists a national meeting in which to communicate 

research and discuss problems and unique case situations. 

In the past 33 years, both professional physical anthropologists and 

archaeologists as well as student participants have presented their research 

in both oral and written formats at various AAFS meetings; during the last 

decade, poster presentations have become a more important and integral 

alternative for presentation at the Meetings. In addition to presenting 

research at the national meeting, the JFS provides an important publication 

outlet for physical/forensic anthropologists and archaeologists. 

Research trends, like anything else, wax and wane with popularity. 

This is particularly true in forensic sciences, because of the relationships 

with funding and grants for “new and unique research.” Additionally, since 

most physical anthropologists are academically-based, research that is oriented 

along new trends has a higher likelihood of being chosen for presentation 

at the meetings and publications in the JFS. This poster examines the 

main trends, including case studies; major categories of study (osteometrics, 

biological profile determinations, various forms of trauma interpretation, 

taphonomy, forensic archaeology), and historical treatises of 

importance to forensic anthropologists. 

The methodology categorizes abstracts and keywords from both 

Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual 

Meeting and the JFS since 1973 to 2004. These categories are then 

presented in graphic form in order to illustrate the major research trends in 

the field. 

Trends in Physical Anthropology, Research, History 


H25 Estimating the Postmortem Interval 

in Freshwater Environments 

Billie L. Seet, MA*, 16 Arcola Street #2, Jamaica Plain, MA, 02130 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the difficulty 

with which an estimation of the postmortem interval is in freshwater 

environments. 


humanity by attempting to gather and share more data on the process of 

decomposition in freshwater environments. This data is important because 

it is under-represented in the literature. 

Forensic investigators often deal with human remains recovered from 

water. Estimating the time since death for bodies that have been submerged 

in water, however, can be quite difficult due to the lack of data on the 

subject and the vast number of different variables possible in watery environments. 

This preliminary study is intended to provide additional data 

concerning the estimation of time since death of submerged bodies through 

the use of record research. Seventy autopsy reports containing cases in 

which human remains were recovered from bodies of freshwater were 

used. Thirty-one variables were collected from each report in a 

present/absent context. Nine of the variables were then used in logistic 

regression analyses in order to measure their relationship to time in water. 

Some of the other variables that were collected, but not used in the analyses 

were body temperature, water temperature, ambient temperature, and 

invertebrate scavengers. These variables, although important, were omitted 

due to the inconsistency with which they were recorded in the police and 

autopsy reports. 

The variables used were the postmortem interval, collected in hours, 

which ranged from two hours to 2,880 hours, or four months, and the 

presence or absence of the following: Clothing, cutis anserina, washerwoman 

skin, discoloration, marbling, skin slippage, hair slippage, and sub-cutaneous 

gas. Through the use of logistic analyses it was shown that clothing did not 

effect the postmortem changes collected for this analysis. This led to more 

statistical analyses using 70 cases total as one group rather than two smaller 

groups defined by the presence or absence of clothing. Two backward 

stepwise logistic regression analyses were then performed, splitting the postmortem 

time interval into two categories: (1) less than or equal to 24 hours 

and greater than 24 hours and (2) less than or equal to 48 hours and greater 

than 48 hours. These analyses aimed to predict the presence or absence of 

the postmortem changes based on the postmortem interval. 

Results indicate that only three of the nine variables used in logistic 

regression analysis were significant. The time since death estimate can 

only be made in large time intervals. Purge can be used to predict a time 

since death of less than 48 hours while marbling and sub-cutaneous gas can 

be used to predict a time since death of greater than 48 hours. When estimating 

the postmortem interval as less than or equal to 24 hours and greater 

than 24 hours, purge was the only significant variable. This can be used to 

predict a time since death of less than 24 hours. 

These preliminary results suggest that through the use of logistic 

regression and the presence and absence of these postmortem changes, a 

time since death can be estimated in large time intervals only, i.e. less than 

or equal to 48 hours or greater than 48 hours. 

Postmortem Interval, Freshwater, Decomposition 

H26 Missing, Present, and Left Behind 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County (Toledo) 

Coroners Office and Wayne County (Detroit) Medical Examiners Office, 

3518 East Lincolnshire Blvd, Toledo, OH 43606 

After attending this presentation, attendees should better understand 

the taphonomy (including origins and dispersal patterns) and investigative 

value of isolated bones and fragments often unexpectedly encountered by 

law enforcement. 

374


humanity by reminding the forensic community of the significance and 

probative potential of isolated (or missing) human bones or fragments. 

Forensic anthropologists are well aware that there are bits and pieces 

of human skeletons to be found in all sorts of places. Law enforcement 

should be mindful of this possibility, and the bone or fragment brought to 

them by a conscientious citizen should be examined by a forensic anthropologist 

and not dismissed as “animal” – as occasionally happens. 

Sometimes these remains are from the past - Native American, or forgotten 

cemeteries - and therefore not of forensic interest. The abundance 

of ancient and historic remains may also confuse investigators who, while 

searching for a specific missing individual, locate Native American/historic 

remains instead. 

A knowledge of taphonomy (what happens to bodies after death) 

helps explain unexpected body parts. In addition to animal activity, water, 

wind and other natural forces, human activity may be involved – especially 

agriculture and construction. Remains may even be unknowingly transported 

by trains and other vehicles after an accident. Clandestine removal 

of murdered victims’ remains may result in small bones and fragments in 

unexpected places. Medical specimens, ritual and fraternal activities also 

provide us with “abandoned” human parts. Anthropologists frequently 

receive remains that lack varying numbers of small bones or fragments. 

The explanation may be failure to recognize small bones (or fragments) as 

being human, or even as being bone at all. However, hungry scavengers do 

make off with hands, feet, or other bones that “protrude” from shallow 

graves or surface deposits. 

The authors’ proximity to several rivers, and especially Lake Erie, has 

made clear the importance of wind, currents, and aquatic scavengers in disappearing 

and dispersing body parts from both intact and dismembered 

bodies. 

Occasionally, parts of bodies are apparently retained by the perpetrator, 

as was the case when a former husband severed his former wife’s 

lower legs and feet to fit her into a too short homemade box in eastern Ohio 

in 1974. Body parts may also be deliberately dispersed to avoid identification. 

The presence of bones can yield important information. The incomplete 

skeletonized remains of a young man were found on a Maumee River 

flood plain. He had disappeared three years earlier, some 30 miles 

upstream. Bones were scattered under leaves, tangled in weeds, with some 

partially buried by repeated flooding. Several bones were never recovered, 

but recovery of small bones of the hands and feet, as well as a few finger 

and toe nails, demonstrated that although he had traveled many miles and 

over a dam, his body had been relatively intact upon reaching the floodplain. 

Occasionally the refers is seen - situations where bones or fragments 

ranging from femoral heads to carpals, tarsals, phalanges and even partial 

maxillas and crania have been recovered as isolated finds. 

The explanation for isolated finds may be more complicated, 

involving such aspects of taphonomy as the human and animal activity discussed 

above, erosion, agricultural or construction projects that involve 

removal and dispersal of soil. These processes are a frequent source of 

Native American and historic remains in many parts of the country, 

including Ohio and Michigan. It has also been noted in relation to the 

shallow burial of massacred Guatemalan peasants in recent times, whose 

remains were then dispersed by agricultural activity. 

A variation on the non-recognition of small elements during recovery 

that actually serves the cause of justice involves attempts by perpetrators to 

cover up individual or mass clandestine deaths by returning to the original 

deposition site some time afterwards and “disappearing” remains by 

moving them elsewhere to avoid discovery and/or confound identification. 

During such procedures, the easily seen and recognized bones are more 

likely to be collected, while less easily located and recognized small bones, 

fragments and individual teeth may be left behind. In some cases, this “collection” 

seems to have been followed by disposal of remains in several different 

and widely separated locations. Fortunately, these small initially 

unrecognized bones and fragments are sometimes left behind to bear 

witness to the original crime. Such instances of exhumation, reburial, and 

dispersal of victims of genocide have been documented in several countries, 

including Bosnia-Herzegovina. 

Forensic Anthropology, Taphonomy, Small Bones 

H27 Gooney Birds and Rocky Clouds: 

Perimortem Trauma in World War II 

C-47 Crashes From Papua New Guinea 

Alexander F. Christensen, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Ave., Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will observe multiple cases 

of extreme perimortem skeletal trauma and understand possible explanations 

of why different individuals may suffer different patterns of trauma 

from the same type of aircraft crash. 


humanity by demonstrating detailed description of trauma patterns from 

one particular class of aircraft crashes which will allow a better 

understanding of the variability observed in current and historic aircraft 

incidents. 

This paper will present several cases of extreme perimortem trauma 

observed in aircraft crashes. By focusing on one type of aircraft, the C-47 

Dakota (also known as the Gooney Bird), and one type of crash, collisions 

with terrain in Papua New Guinea (P.N.G.) it will control for some of the 

variability that may underlie the different trauma patterns observed in different 

aircraft crashes. The primary incident considered occurred in P.N.G. 

in 1944. The aircraft involved was carrying four crewmembers and one 

passenger. One wing was torn off upon impact with a mountain peak, and 

the remainder of the airplane fell several hundred feet down slope. All five 

individuals were recovered by the Central Identification Laboratory- 

Hawaii (CILHI) and Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) over 

the course of three missions, in 1981, 1982, and 2004. The extensive perimortem 

trauma observed in these individuals was compared to the patterns 

seen in two other C-47 recoveries from P.N.G. Traumas were recorded by 

region; because of the fragmentary condition of many of the remains, midshaft 

fractures of the lower legs and arms were recorded by limb, rather 

than bone, treating the radius and ulna as one unit and the tibia and fibula 

as another. Most notable was the high incidence of complete, generally 

comminuted, fractures of the femoral shaft. As the largest and strongest 

long bone, the femur is also the most resistant to fracture, and femoral fractures 

generally result from high energy events, such as motor vehicle 

crashes. Of thirteen individuals with at least one observable femur, seven 

exhibited a perimortem midshaft fracture, and of 20 observable femora, 14 

were fractured. The humerus exhibited a similar incidence of complete 

midshaft fractures, with seven of 13 individuals exhibiting such trauma, 

and nine of 18 bones fractured. Forearms and lower legs were also frequently 

broken. Eight of ten individuals exhibited complete forearm fractures, 

and four of ten complete lower leg fractures. Victims were divided 

into two groups by seating position, comparing pilots and copilots to all 

others. Although sample sizes were small, there was one statistically significant 

difference: Seven of ten humeri from pilots were fractured, while 

only two of eight from passengers and other crew were. Pilots also 

exhibited a slightly higher incidence of broken forearms, although this was 

not statistically significant. One possibility is that the higher incidence of 

arm fractures in pilots is a result of impact with the dashboard. Leg fractures 

occur at a similar frequency in both groups, as their legs were not subjected 

to different forces at impact. 

Perimortem Trauma, Skeletal Pathology, Aircraft Crashes 


H28 Of Butterflies and Spirals: 

Interpretation of Fractures in 

Motor Vehicle vs. Pedestrian Accidents 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, Kristen M. Hartnett, MA, Kevin D. Horn, MD, 

and Ruth E. Kohlmeier, MD, Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 



for improving the diagnostic process of fracture interpretation in pedestrian 

victims of motor vehicle accidents. The role of the forensic anthropologist 

in these cases will be discussed. Comminuted fractures and analysis of 

direction of force will be addressed. 


humanity by exposing the forensic community to the advantages of a multidisciplinary 

approach during the reconstruction of events around a pedestrian 

vs. motor vehicle accident. Fracture patterns can provide a more complete 

understanding of the dynamics of the blunt force and the interpretation 

of these fractures on bare bone can help to illuminate the direction of 

force and may assist in the resolution of cases where charges are pending. 

At the Maricopa County Forensic Science Center in Phoenix, Arizona, 

a multidisciplinary approach to accident reconstruction is employed. The 

investigating officer, pathologist, and anthropologist each bring a unique 

perspective to the positive outcome of these cases. An area of particular 

interest in recent years is the interpretation of fracture patterns in order to 

determine direction of force to the bones of pedestrians impacted by motor 

vehicles. These fractures often involve the pelvis, lower vertebral column, 

and lower extremities. Maceration and reconstruction can aid in the interpretation 

of these fractures and in the evaluation of the sequence of events 

surrounding the fatal accident. 

In the cases presented, three victims, all pedestrians, were impacted by 

a motor vehicle. The pathologist obtained full body radiographs, performed 

complete autopsies, and removed the lower limb bones for maceration 

by the anthropologist. The anthropologist was asked to reconstruct 

the fractured bones for analysis. 

In the first case, a 16-year-old girl was struck while crossing the road 

in a rural setting. The driver of the vehicle was impaired and charges were 

brought. The pathologist removed portions of the left distal tibia and fibula 

which were macerated and reconstructed. Analysis revealed that the victim 

had been struck from the right side as the left foot was bearing weight. 

In the second case, a male was found on the side of the roadway in a 

rural setting. There were no witnesses to suggest the sequence of events 

causing his death. Autopsy revealed a skull fracture and badly shattered 

right lower leg. Radiographic analysis by the anthropologist demonstrated 

a Duverny’s fracture of the right ilium. Based on the autopsy and lack of 

avulsion pockets, the pathologist surmised that the victim had been thrown 

from, or jumped from a vehicle, striking his head. There was concern, 

however, because the fractures of the tibia and fibula did not appear to 

support this reconstruction. The pathologist removed the shaft of the right 

tibia and fibula and requested maceration to enhance the diagnosis. 

Anthropological analysis revealed that the victim was likely struck from the 

right by a vehicle. 

In the final case, a male was struck by a moving vehicle as he 

attempted to cross a busy street. The vehicle did not stop and the accident 

was investigated as a hit and run. Witnesses claimed that the individual was 

struck as he was crossing by the vehicle in the curb lane after the cars in the 

left and middle lanes had stopped for him. The pathologist removed the 

shafts of the right and left tibia and right fibula which were macerated and 

reconstructed to facilitate interpretation of the accident. Anthropological 

analysis revealed that the victim’s right leg was struck from an anterior and 

lateral direction while the left leg was struck from a medial and slightly 

posterior direction. 

In each of the above described cases, the leg bones of the victims’ 

exhibited combinations of complete, spiral and comminuted “butterfly” 

fractures. In all cases, some reconstruction was necessary to determine the 


direction of force. Butterfly fractures are wedge-shaped, produced by a 

combination of complete transverse forces, and typically occur when the 

limb is weight-bearing. Since bone fails first under tension, the point of 

impact in a butterfly fracture is at the bottom of the wedge opposite the 

apex of the triangle. In one of the cases, a spiral fracture was observed on 

the left fibula. Spiral fractures of the distal fibula are typically caused by 

pronation/external rotation of the ankle joint. This individual (#3) also 

exhibits “boot top” fractures which are typically caused by direct or rotational 

forces. 

The direction of force in each of these cases was discerned based on 

interpretation of the types and locations of the limb fractures. Careful dissection, 

removal, maceration, and reconstruction allow for a more intensive 

analysis of the direction of force and the relative position of the pedestrians 

legs to the vehicle. The multidisciplinary approach results in a more complete 

and detailed accident reconstruction in these types of cases. 

Fracture Interpretation, Forensic Anthropology, Accident 


H29 Orthopedic Devices and the William M. Bass 

Donated Skeletal Collection: Implications 

for Forensic Anthropological Identification 

Rebecca J. Wilson, MA*, Jonathan D. Bethard, MA, and Elizabeth A. 

DiGangi, MA, The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology, 


The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate a chronology of orthopedic 

devices used in hip, knee, and shoulder arthroscopic surgeries in relationship 

to the osseous healing process. In doing so, it will provide 

summary statistics on the demographic profile of those exhibiting orthopedic 

devices within the William M. Bass Donated Collection compared to 

National Inpatient Survey (NIS) data. 


humanity by augmenting attendees’ existing knowledge of the varieties of 

orthopedic devices and their manufacturers, the demographic profile of 

those receiving these orthopedic devices, and to examine the degree to 

which healing can be used in the forensic investigation. 

This paper stands to demonstrate a chronology of orthopedic devices 

used in hip, knee, and shoulder arthroscopic surgeries in relationship to the 

osseous healing process. In doing so, it will provide summary statistics on 

the demographic profile of those exhibiting orthopedic devices within the 

William M. Bass Donated Collection compared to National Inpatient 

Survey (NIS) data. 

Hemiathroplastic or total arthroplastic surgery involves prostheses 

used to replace arthritic damage and relieve pain in a joint complex. 

Prostheses are typically manufactured from stainless steel, titanium, or a 

cobalt/chromium alloy and contain wear-resistant polyethylene plastics 

anchored by bone cement. The design of prostheses are usually trademarked 

by a particular manufacturer, such as the Gunston knee or the 

Exeter Hip. Ubelaker and Jacobs (1995) provided information on the 

identification of orthopedic device manufacturers enabling identification 

using company logos. However, manufacturers were not required to place 

logos on their products prior to 1993 (Ubelaker and Jacobs 1995). 

Prosthetics manufactured before1993 may not have these identifying logos 

and if present the logo may be obscured by new bone growth. Therefore, 

understanding the chronology of particular designs could help identify possible 

manufacturers, as well as indicate the timing of the surgery. 

Furthermore, understanding the osseous response to orthopedic devices in 

conjunction with the timing of implantation will provide a better time of 

insult estimation for the forensic investigator. 

According the National Impatient Survey (NIS) more than 557,000 

total hip or knee replacement surgeries occurred in 2002. Knee replacements 

have become the leading arthroscopic surgery performed in the 

United States followed by total hip replacements. According to the NIS, 

376

381,000 knee replacements occurred in 2002 with those 65 or older 

accounting for 241,000 of these replacements. NIS also noted that females 

(235,000) out numbered males (146,000) on a 2 to 1 margin. However, 

NIS did acknowledge a growing trend for total knee replacements within 

the 45-65 age group (131,000 individuals) which is a 6 percent increase 

from the previous survey. 

Hip replacements are not as common as knee replacements with 

193,000 total and 114,000 of these going to those 65 years or older. Like 

knee replacements, hip replacements are more common in females 

(112,000) than males (81,000). Data for partial replacements and shoulder 

replacements are yet to be available. 

The William M. Bass Donated Collection (N=436) was surveyed for 

individuals demonstrating partial or total hip, knee, and shoulder joint 

replacements. Demographic information for individuals displaying evidence 

of arthroscopic surgery were obtained and compared to the NIS statistics. 

Each device was observed for the presence of a logo, the location 

of a logo, and specific design characteristics. This information was compared 

to manufacturer data to determine the specific manufacturer of the 

appliance and the years for which that appliance was made. Also, the 

amount of osseous healing was noted. The results from these were compared 

to a chronology of specific device designs established using reference 

samples from the major orthopedic device manufacturers. 

Very few individuals demonstrated early varieties of hip or knee 

replacements and few individuals demonstrated a shoulder replacement 

(N=2). Knee replacements are more common than hip replacements in the 

collection, but not to the predicted NIS amounts. Females (N=107) demonstrated 

a higher percentage of replacements, particularly knee replacements, 

compared to males (N=329), which corresponded to that which was 

predicted. Appliance designs varied greatly between individuals. 

However, far fewer logos could be found on the appliances suggesting that 

these cannot be solely relied upon to identify the manufacturer of an orthopedic 

device. 

It was estimated that most individuals displaying orthopedic devices 

at a joint complex had these devices implanted within 10 years of death if 

not sooner than 5. This is supported by the minimal amount of osseous 

response on affected bones. Conclusions are limited by the degree of 

healing observed on the individual bones. More studies must be completed 

to fully appreciate the use of the osseous response in the timing of an insult. 

It is necessary to continually update references, especially those 

involving manufacturing companies, for use by the forensic anthropologist. 

Human Identification, Orthopedic Devices, Osteoarthritis 

H30 The Effects of Household Corrosive 

Substances on Human Bone and Teeth 

Darcy J. Cope*, and Tosha L. Dupras, PhD, University of Central 

Florida, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Orlando, FL 32816 


of how various household corrosive products, chiefly those products used 

in masking the identity of a victim, effect human bone, and teeth. 

Application of this information can assist in the analysis of human remains 

and possibly provide an identification of the chemical. 

At present, the forensic literature does not provide the needed information 

to determine how these household chemicals can affect the bone 

and teeth of the victim and how the identification process is hindered by the 

use of such chemicals. In an effort to provide such information, this presentation 

will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by assisting 

investigators in determining the affects of common household corrosive 

agents on bone and teeth. 

Often times a murderer will attempt to destroy the body of their victim 

with the prospect of deterring the investigative process of determining the 

identity of the victim’s remains. Forensic literature does address body disposal 

with the purpose of annihilating a victim’s identification such as 

incineration or dismemberment of the limbs and head, but surprisingly 

there is a gap in the literature concerning the chemical effects that 

household products may produce on human bone and teeth. These highly 

corrosive household products are easily attainable by the general public and 

include such products like drain cleaners, toilet bowl cleaners, and muriatic 

(hydrochloric) acid. 

A total of eight chemicals were utilized for this experiment. Of these 

chemicals, seven products were purchased at general stores and one 

chemical was prepared by dissolving sodium hydroxide pellets. Each 

product is categorized according to the pertinent amount of corrosive 

chemical found within the product. The corrosive acid/base categories 

include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, and sodium 

hydroxide. Two products from each acid/base category were used to represent 

a higher and lower concentration of the corrosive acid/base found 

within the products. 

Two human teeth, an incisor and molar, were allocated for experimentation 

in each chemical. To simulate the position of the teeth in the 

mandible/maxilla, a hole was drilled through the root of each tooth and a 

wire was fed through this hole. A wooden dowel was used to suspend the 

tooth, which allowed concentration of the chemical reaction to occur only 

on the occlusal surface of the molars and the incisal surface of the incisors. 

The teeth were suspended over a beaker holding 40ml of a chemical. Each 

sample was emerged in the chemical for 24 hours with documentation of 

changes after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, and 24 hours. 

For experimentation on human bone, a fresh human humerus was cut 

into eight segments, originating from the shaft of the bone. Only one 

segment was used for each chemical. The bone samples were submerged 

in a beaker holding 200ml of a chemical for a total duration of 24 hours. 

Documentation of changes was recorded after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, and 

24 hours. 

Documentation of the chemical effects on the teeth and bone comprised 

of gathering quantitative and qualitative data. A fifteen minute 

interval was allotted for each measurement period. A spreading caliper was 

used to take measurements of the crown width and length of the tooth as 

well as the length and diameter of the bone segments. Weight measurements 

were taken with a digital scale. With the use of a digital camera 

microscope, pictures were shot of the teeth and bone during every measurement 

interval period. 

The results of this experiment showed destruction of the teeth and 

bone with certain chemicals like hydrochloric acid, while other chemicals 

demonstrated an insignificant effect. In certain cases, within one hour the 

enamel portion of the teeth was completely obliterated while the bone segments 

demonstrated almost complete loss of tissue and afterwards a 

decrease in inorganic matter. Continuing changes of both the teeth and 

bone was witnessed in their basic morphology and quantitative aspects. 

The longer undisturbed exposure the samples had with the chemical, the 

greater the destructive effects. 

Corrosive Agents, Human Bone, Human Teeth 

H31 Artists Contribution to Facial 


Gloria L. Nusse, BFA*, Clay and Bones, 129 Stanford Avenue, Mill 

Valley, CA 94941; and Alison Galloway, PhD*, University of California, 

Santa Cruz, Anthropolgy Department, Social Science One FS, Santa 

Cruz, CA 95064 

The goal of this presentation is to understand whether the artists incorporate 

their own anatomy into their work and how this tendency may be 

counteracted. 


humanity by addressing an aspect of facial reconstruction that has previously 

only received anecdotal attention. Artists may incorporate their own 

features into reconstructions by referring to their own faces for guidance. 

However, attention to instruction in facial anatomy appears to provide a 

way of avoiding this situation. 


Facial reconstruction or approximation is a delicate balance between 

scientific analysis and artistic interpretation. If either exists without the 

other, the reconstruction appears both lifeless and vague or is a poor match 

to the individual. The question of accuracy in facial reconstruction is 

debated with claims of 10-60%. One fundamental aspect of these tests has 

been neglected, however, and this is the experience and talent of the artist. 

In the present study, the authors assess whether or not beginning facial 

reconstruction artists unconsciously put their own facial anatomy in their 

work. The study attempts to find out if observers can identify which artist 

did which facial reconstruction when all the artists used the same skull and 

technique. Human subjects’ approval from SFSU and UCSC was obtained 

for all participants. 

Students enrolled in a scientific illustration course were asked to complete 

a half reconstruction based on identical model skulls as part of their 

regular assignment. Instruction in the technique was provided by an experienced 

reconstruction artist (GN). Photographs were taken of the reconstructions 

and the artists. Images were constructed of a “full face” by 

flipping the half reconstruction using Adobe® Photoshop® 6.0 and 

cropped to limit the image to the facial region. Photographs of the artists 

were similarly cropped to the facial region. 

Groups of individuals with varying levels of skill were then asked to 

compare a selection of four skull reconstructions and six artist faces. Some 

were experienced anthropologists or graduate students; others work in 

identification of remains while others are undergraduate students with no 

exposure to forensic identification. 

The four reconstructions selected showed differences in morphology, 

particularly in the midface. The associated artists also showed a range of 

facial features although all were young adult females. Preliminary results 

of the matching exercise show that there are clear preferences to associate 

particular facial reconstructions with artist faces. However, there is no clear 

pattern in which the correct match is made. 

This study suggests that, with proper training, the tendency to rely on 

the artist’s own anatomy may be minimized. Such training should include 

information on facial anatomy and the principles by which the soft tissue 

can be interpreted and individualized from the skeletal data. 

Facial Reconstruction, Facial Approximation, Facial Anatomy 

H32 Superficial Ancestral 

Characteristics of the Nose 

Stephanie M. Crider, BA*, 4525 North Leata Lane, La Canada, CA 91011 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn, retain, and 

implement the newest additions to Olivier and Thomas nasal characteristics. 

Attendees will also find a new understanding of the nose and root 

superficial characteristics, as well as the characteristics that are common 

among different ancestral groups. 


humanity by being a catalyst for further research into the genetic work on 

the varying aspects of what composes the superficial ancestral characteristics 

of the nose. Also, this presentation serves as the beginning of a catalogue 

of varying nose and root types, including images and text explaining 

in detail the differences between nose and root types. All of these would be 

extremely crucial for Forensic Facial Reconstruction. 

Facial reconstruction or approximation depends on the ability of the 

artist to utilize the landmarks on the skull to build a replica of the soft tissue. 

The primary features of the face (the eyes, nose, and mouth) useful for 

facial recognition are the areas most concern for the artist. A closer understanding 

of the relationship of bone to soft tissue and of the variation 

present in contemporary human populations is essential. 

Classification systems for the nose are relatively limited and are often 

based on broad divisions of ancestral groups into 3-4 main clusters. These 

categories do not recognize the diversity represented in the contemporary 

American population nor do they recognize the amount of admixture of 


ancestral lineages. This study explores the variation of nose proportions, 

nasal bridge and root shapes, and nasal angles. 

Sixty-seven individuals from five ancestral backgrounds (Mongoloid, 

Hispanic, African, Caucasoid, and Mixed Ancestry) were selected. Frontal 

and lateral photographs were taken of the nasal area with scales. 

Measurements of the features were then taken using NIH’s ImageJ. The 

data are compared and analyzed for their superficial nose characteristics. 

Specific measurements include Angle from glabella to the bridge 

(nasofrontal angle); angle from the tip of the nose to the philtrum of the 

nose (nasolabial angle); length of nose; and width of nose. In addition the 

types of nose and root are assessed according to the Olivier and Thomas 

chart. As not all individuals could be assigned to these categories, new categories 

were created to accommodate for these trends. The new categories 

for nose type include Slight Curve and Deep Curve; for nose root, the new 

categories are Slight Point, Flat Point, and High Elevated Point. 

The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel and ImageJ. Linear 

measurements were converted to proportions. ANOVA was used to assess 

the difference between ancestral groups while Chi Squares was utilized for 

the categorical date. 

Results show that the most common nose type across all five ancestral 

groups is Elevated Point with a Slight Curve. It is only the secondary traits 

of the nose and root that differentiate the various ancestral groups. Also, 

individuals of Mongoloid ancestry have the lowest nasal measurements 

altogether, while individuals of Caucasoid ancestry have the highest nasal 

measurements altogether. And finally, the author has noticed that the 

frontal views of the noses are quite different, while the lateral views of each 

of the noses tends to be extremely similar. 

Ancestral, Nasal, Characteristics 

H33 Morphometrics Using Radiographic 

Study of Thyroid Cartilage for 

Age-Estimation in Korean Males 

Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, PhD*, and Jeong-Sik Ko, PhD, Department of 

Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 366-1, 

Ssangyong-dong, Chungcheongnam-do, Cheonan-si, 330946, Korea; and 

Deog-Im Kim, MA, U-Young Lee, MD, and Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, 


of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 505 Banpo-dong, Sochogu, 

Seoul, 137701, Korea 

The goal of this presentation is to show the results of a study on the 

analysis of the thyroid cartilage of unknown Koreans by morphometrics 

using radiography for age estimation. 


humanity by demonstrating the usefulness of thyroid cartilage for age estimation 

in Korean males and another method for age estimation using radiographic 

analysis of thyroid cartilage. 

The need for accurate methods for age estimation has increased in the 

last decade. One reason is the increasing number of unidentified cadavers 

and human remains, and the other is a rise in cases requiring age estimation 

in living individuals with no proof of date of birth (Ritz-Timme et al., 

2000). Most of earlier studies of age estimation are focused on the hard 

tissue such as teeth and bones. However, studies about the soft tissue such 

as cartilage are fewer. The thyroid cartilage, the biggest among the 

laryngeal cartilages, undergoes endochondral ossification with age. There 

are several references on the patterns of ossification of the thyroid cartilage, 

but reports on quantitative analysis of ossification are lacking. The purpose 

of this study is to estimate the age of the Koreans whose age is unknown, 

based on radiographic analysis of the thyroid cartilage. 

The thyroid cartilages were separated from the larynx and dissected 

from the surrounding connective tissue. Dedicated mammography was 

carried out in 124 specimens of the thyroid cartilages including 76 males 

and 48 females. Radiographed films were scanned and 17 quantitative 

378

measurements were carried out with Adobe® Photoshop® CS (version 

8.0). Using this program, the scanned radiographs were converted into 

gray scales, with the command “Histogram,” and it was possible to distinguish 

the pixels for ossification or calcification of thyroid cartilages. These 

measurements were analyzed using SPSS (version 11.0) statistical software 

package. 

The radio-opacity increased with advancing age in both sexes, but the 

pattern of ossification was different. The data were divided into four age 

groups as follows: G0: age below 14 years, G1: age between 15 ~ 30 years, 

G2: age between 31 ~ 45 years, G3: age above 46 years. The discriminant 

functions for the age group and multiple regression functions for each age 

group were obtained for age-estimation of male subjects, but the application 

for female subjects was still limited due to the small sample size for 

each age. In male subjects, the ossification appeared first at the posterior 

border and spread along the inferior border, the anterior angle (anterior 

border) and the notch, and finally resulted in the formation of the window 

with advancing age. In female subjects, the ossification appeared first at 

the posterior border and spread into the middle and the upper part of the 

laminae, but the front parts of the lamina and midline remained cartilaginous. 

This research indicates the thyroid cartilage is useful in estimating the 

age for Korean male subjects whose age is unknown. Further investigations 

must be conducted to verify its utility and the application in for female 

subject. 

Thyroid Cartilage, Age Estimation, Koreans 

H34 Isotopic Determination of Region of 

Origin in Modern Peoples: Applications 

for Identification of U.S. War-Dead 

From the Vietnam Conflict 

Laura A. Regan, MS*, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, 

PO Box 112545, Building 114, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Andrew 

Tyrrell, PhD, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command-CIL, 310 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the benefits 

and limitations of undertaking a multi-element approach when utilizing 

stable isotopes for determining region of origin of dental remains. 


humanity by facilitating identification efforts in a variety of contexts. 

When compared to isotopic signatures developed for geographic areas of 

Southeast Asia, the information in this study will assist in identifying the 

origin of unknown dental remains unilaterally turned over to, or recovered 

by, the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central Identification 

Laboratory. Additionally, this information may be applied to identification 

efforts of fallen servicemen and women in conflicts outside of Southeast 

Asia, the identification of decedents resulting from mass fatality incidents 

and in the identification efforts of undocumented aliens or otherwise 

unprovenienced human remains. 

To facilitate the construction of identification shortlists, especially 

from large open ended decedent populations, a highly effective means of 

excluding possible candidates for identification would be the establishment 

of the geo-political region of origin for a set of remains. However, ascertaining 

the national origin of unidentified human skeletal remains whose 

provenance is either unknown or suspect is particularly problematic. 

Factors that can encumber this process include long postmortem intervals, 

highly fragmented friable remains, and diagenesis. 

The goal of this study is to create a geographic “fingerprint” utilizing 

carbon, oxygen, strontium, and lead isotope ratios sampled from the teeth 

of modern people. This fingerprint will enable identification of region of 

origin for unidentified skeletal material without an established or well-documented 

provenance. The initial efforts of this project have focused on the 

approximately 1,800 service members who remain unaccounted for from 

the Vietnam conflict. The authors have utilized a two-pronged approach 

based on the operating hypotheses that: 1) discernable differences exist 

between the isotope ratios incorporated into North American and South 

East Asian tooth enamel and that these differences can be used to determine 

region of origin; and 2) regional differences in natal isotopic signatures are 

also discernable within populations raised within the United States (and 

hence, by implication, other global regions as well). 

Stable isotope analyses, long used in paleontological and archaeological 

studies, are emerging as a powerful tool in the forensic realm as 

well. Forensic pilot studies have hinted at the utility stable isotopes may 

provide to forensic anthropology. This study is unique in that it employs a 

multi-element approach in combination with a large sample size. The 

standard deviations of isotope ratio values often overlap in single-element 

studies making discrimination between regional signatures virtually impossible. 

This tendency is reduced through the introduction of multi-element 

analyses to forensic work. A multivariate, multi-element approach should 

allow finer resolution, especially since deposition of different elements 

within dental enamel depends upon very different factors. Carbon isotope 

ratios reflect the photosynthetic pathways of ingested plants and echo cultural 

food preferences. It is expected that individuals who have subsisted 

on a rice-based (C3 plant) South East Asian diet will differ significantly in 

their carbon isotope signature from individuals who have subsisted on a 

heavier corn and sugar-reliant (C4 plants) American diet. Oxygen isotope 

signatures rely on the variation of oxygen isotope ratios in meteoric water 

according to variations in temperature, altitude, and distance from major 

bodies of water. Variations in strontium and lead isotopes reflect underlying 

bedrock and soil as well as exposure to pollutants. 

Tooth enamel is ideally suited for isotope studies. Teeth are much 

more robust than bone, exhibiting preferential preservation and reduced 

susceptibility to diagenetic processes. Dental enamel does not remodel and 

hence the in- and outflow of materials ceases once amelogenesis is complete. 

This means that examining the permanent dentition provides a 

snapshot of the “nutritional ecology” of that individual during the period of 

crown mineralization for a specific tooth. 

A Southeast Asian reference population of 61 individuals was 

sampled from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) Central 

Identification Laboratory’s “Mongoloid hold” collection. Remains originating 

from South East Asia are unilaterally turned over to the Central 

Identification Laboratory. Despite best efforts, the Governments of South 

East Asia are often reluctant to repatriate those remains thus obtained by the 

Central Identification Laboratory that are identified as Asian in origin. This 

reference sample was compared against stable light isotope ratio data 

obtained from living subjects at two separate dental facilities, the U.S. Air 

Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado and the Malcolm Randall 

Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Gainesville, Florida. At each clinic, 

patients already identified for tooth extraction were asked to donate their 

extracted teeth and participate in a brief survey listing their childhood residency 

and biological and cultural factors that might potentially affect isotopic 

deposition in enamel. Military members and their dependents were 

chosen as subjects due to their varied geographic backgrounds. Spatial 

analyses were layered with temporal analyses by comparing cadets (ages 

18-25) to veterans. The results to date are presented as well as the distinct 

advantages and limitations to undertaking a mosaic approach to stable 

isotope analyses of dental tissues. 

Stable Isotopes, Region of Origin, Vietnam Conflict 


H35 Non-Destructive Microscopic Differentiation 

of Human From Non-Human Fragmentary 

Burned Bone 

Elayne J. Pope, MA, Trey Batey, MA*, and Jerome C. Rose, PhD, 

University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the Nondestructive 

methods for differentiating human from non-human bone in 

cases of fragmentation and burning encountered in mass disasters and 

forensic cases. 


humanity by improving field analysis of fragmentary and burned bone for 

differentiating human from non-human bone. 

Fragmentary burned bone presents challenges to field investigators 

questioning the fundamental probability of skeletal remains being of 

human or animal origin. This affects the development or termination of 

criminal investigations, recovery techniques, and methods of identification. 

These issues are important when human remains are suspected in addition 

to animal remains or encountered among debris of mass disasters (aircraft 

and mass transit accidents, wild fires, or explosions) involving fragmentation 

and burning. Normally this problem is resolved by identifying morphological 

variations in anatomical landmarks present on suspect fragments. 

However, fragmentation of brittle burned bone reduces diagnostic 

features producing small pieces of compact cortical and trabecular bone as 

primary specimens for analysis. In these cases, examining microscopic 

structures of bone is necessary for differentiating human from non-human 

fragments. 

Routine forensic cases encounter this issue when unknown skeletonized 

remains are discovered by the public and relinquished to law 

enforcement for identification. To the untrained observer, this question is 

resolved by consulting a biological anthropologist, zooarchaeologist, or 

medical professional trained in osteology. Morphological variants of size 

and shape in skeletal anatomy distinguish extreme cases of small (cat, 

opossum, or chicken) and extremely large (horse or cow) animals as obviously 

differing in size from humans. However, postcranial skeletal remains 

of medium-sized animals such as pig, deer, sheep, or large canine may 

resemble human bone in relative dimensions of cortical thickness for 

extremely fragmented remains and require definitive identification. 

Burning increases the difficulty of this task and the degree of fragmentation 

of bone, especially if larger diagnostic remains are purposely crushed or 

removed to a secondary location for disposal to conceal criminal acts and 

destroy evidence of identity. 

Compounding the identification problem is the variable degradation 

of bone’s structure through stages of unburned, initial burning, charring, 

and calcination. Pyrolosis of organic constituents through progressive 

stages of cremation gradually leaves bone structurally deficient as a dry and 

brittle material. In calcined bone this reduction produces shrinkage, deformation, 

embrittlement, and heat fractures from prolonged burning. Partial 

fragmentation of skeletal material is expected from the dynamic fire environment 

from heat, movement, or impact. Changes in microstructure of 

human burned bone have been previously documented by Bratmiller and 

Buikstra (1981) and Nelson (1992). The presenter’s intention is not to 

redefine their research but instead expand it into the general identification 

of animals similar in human size or cortical thickness called into question 

as potential forensic specimens. 

A sample of southeastern American domestic and wild animal species 

were selected as household food refuse and common animal types suspected 

as human remains; Sus scrofa (pig), Odecolius virginanis (white 

tailed deer), Canis familiaris (medium-large dog), Bos tarus (cow), Ovis 

aries (domestic sheep), and Terrapene carolina (box turtle carapace). 

Specimens were burned and sampled for cranial and postcranial exemplars 

of unburned, charred, and calcined bone for each species. Identical burn 

stages of human cranial and postcranial bones were obtained for comparative 

analysis. 


Due to the fragmentary nature of burned bone, traditional destructive 

and expensive techniques were not necessary since fracture margins were 

exposed and amenable to microscopic analysis. Specimen margin surfaces 

were visually examined under a basic stereoscopic laboratory scope with 

low power magnification (10-40X) and angled lighting. Specimens were 

placed on a variable height platform, often secured with clay under the lens, 

analyzed, photographed, and morphologically documented first for progressive 

degradation from burning within each species and then later comparatively 

to identify differences among species. 

Characteristics of human microstructure were first established in dry 

bone for cranial and postcranial fragments, noting differential size, shape, 

and distribution of osteons ranging from endosteal to periosteal lamellar 

bone and texture of external cortical surfaces. The identical protocol was 

applied to each non-human species. Fragmentary surfaces of non-human 

bone yielded unique patterns of osteon size, distribution, shape, banding, 

and external cortical surface morphology different from human. 

Microscopic analysis of fleshed bone fracture surfaces presented difficulties 

under low power magnification as grease and organic materials 

were still present in Haversian canals and skeletal matrix. Charred bone 

with its uniform blackened structures was also challenging to visually differentiate 

unique microstructural patterns for each species. Calcined and 

dry bone surfaces yielded the best conditions from loss of their organic constituents 

for accurately analyzing microscopic characteristics. Descriptions 

of techniques and a comparative visual atlas of microstructural differences 

among human and non-human specimens will be presented for use in problematic 

cases involving fragmentary and burned bone. 

Burned Bone, Fragmentary Bone, Mass Disasters 

H36 The Detection of Microscopic Markers 

of Haemorrhaging and Wound Age 

on Dry Bone: Beating the Barriers 

Between Forensic Anthropology and 

Forensic Pathology 

Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, MD*, and Eloisa Marinelli, MD, Istituto di 

Medicina Legale, via Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; Salvatore 

Andreola, MD, Istituto Nazionale per la Cura Dei Tumori, via venezian 1, 

Milano, 20133, Italy; and Pasquale Poppa, BSc, and Marco Grandi, MD, 

Istituto di Medicina Legale, via Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn that it is worth 

trying to apply immunohistochemical techniques on dry bone in order to 

verify the antemortem nature of a fracture. 


humanity by demonstrating that the application of histopathology techniques 

for detection of survival may be useful also on dry bone and 

therefore in forensic anthropology. 

An example of the barriers and conceptual differences between 

forensic anthropology and pathology can be seen in determining the vitality 

of a wound. Pathology can make use of skin color and microscopic techniques, 

anthropology needs different criteria. The diagnosis of the vitality 

of a wound (whether it is produced ante-mortem or postmortem) as well as 

determination of the time elapsed between the production of the wound and 

death is a crucial issue in forensic pathology. In fresh skin, the red-purplish 

coloration of a cut or bruise will reveal its vitality whereas the change in 

coloration, from a macroscopic perspective, will reveal the time of survival. 

In more difficult cases, microscopic analyses can be performed. A plethora 

of data from classical histological techniques and newer immunohistochemical 

techniques provides more accurate statements of survival time, 

although this depends on the stain used, time from death, etc. One however 

must keep in mind that unless there has been at least a four hour survival 

time, histological distinction between ante-mortem and postmortem skin 

wounds is not possible, regardless of sporadic studies which declare better 

380

esults for short survival times with immunohistochemistry. Similar statements 

can be said concerning bone trauma, in particular fractures. Bone 

follows similar “laws” with regards to the progression of histological 

changes during healing. Even if the beginning of the healing process 

(periosteal bone production and callus formation) can be detected macroscopically 

and radiologically, these processes require a long time. 

The scope of this pilot study was therefore to collect bone fractures 

from cadavers with a known time of survival, have them undergo a simulated 

putrefaction procedure until they became “dry bone” and perform 

macroscopic and microscopic analysis to verify the potential of histology 

in identifying “vital” processes in putrefied soft-tissue-free bone. This 

would allow one to verify if histopathological techniques can be useful in 

determining the antemortem nature of fractures in dry bone. 

Six samples of fractured bone (cranium, rib, tibia) were taken from 

cadavers with known time of survival between trauma and death. Time 

intervals ranged from a few seconds after the bone fracture had been 

inflicted, to several hours, days, and weeks. A negative control was 

included (postmortem fracture). At the time of sampling, before starting 

the decalcifying process (using the following solution: distilled water 80%, 

HCl 10%, formic acid 10%), ink was painted onto the fracture surface to be 

studied. Fractured edges were observed macroscopically and then macerated 

in water in order to clear the bone of residual soft tissue and “simulate” 

dry bone. The bone was then decalcified and stained with H&E, 

PERLS (for the demonstration of hemosiderin deposits), and PAS, PTAH 

and Weigert (for the demonstration of fibrin). Immunohistochemistry was 

performed using a monoclonal antibody anti-human Glycophorin A. Two 

staining methods were used for antigen detection, the first with boiling of 

the sections and the second with incubation at room temperature. 

Preliminary results indicate that not only do the PTAH and glycophorin 

tests show the presence of thrombi and red blood cells residues, 

respectively, on the fractured margin, but also within Haversian canals. 

This study, though certainly not conclusive, shows that it may be worth pursuing 

the study of bone fractures from a histopathological point of view 

even on “dry bone.” 

Bone Fractures, Microscopy, Haemorrhaging 

H37 Differential Diagnosis of 

Gout in Skeletal Remains 

Christopher R. Grivas, MS*, University of New Mexico, Department of 

Anthropology, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 

The goal of this study is to describe the lesions created from gout that 

can be identified through osteological and radiological examination. 


humanity by defining characteristic skeletal lesions from gout that can be 

used in creating a more specific osteological profile. 

Characterized by the deposition of monosodium urate monohydride 

crystals, gout is the most common form of degenerative arthritis in males 

over 40, affecting approximately 1% of males in Westernized regions. It is 

predominately a male disorder, with rates ranging from 7:1 – 9:1 incidence 

of males to females. Typically first attacks of gout occur in males 30-50 

years of age and in females after menopause. The prevalence of gout is 

rising worldwide, especially in the elderly, often in association with drug 

therapies such as loop diuretics and with organ transplants. 

Without treatment, gout typically progresses through stages of acute 

inflammation known as acute gouty arthritis, followed by periods of no 

symptoms known as intercritical gout. As gout progresses, the intercritical 

periods become shorter and eventually nonexistent as the attacks become 

chronic. The development of urate crystal masses, called tophi, characterizes 

this stage. On average, chronic tophaceous gout develops twelve 

years after the initial attack but with a wide range; gout associated with a 

known cause tends to progress more rapidly than idiopathic gout. Osseous 

lesions typically develop when the tophi dissolve the underlying cortical 

bone. Roughly 50-70% of untreated gout cases progress to chronic tophaceous 

gout, but with treatment less than 5% of cases progress to tophaceous 

gout. Most individuals who develop tophaceous gout will develop skeletal 

lesions. 

Gout shows a predilection for smaller joints and lower limbs, especially 

the 1st metarso-phalanygeal joint and can be monoarticular, oligoarticular, 

or polyarticular. The lesions can be located on the intra-articular 

surface, periarticular surface, or the diaphysis near the joint surface and 

tend to be asymmetrical in occurrence and/or severity. Clinically, the 

presence of urate crystals is considered to be diagnostic, but they are not 

always present at the time of diagnosis so a combination of other characteristics 

such as hyperuricemia, asymmetric joint swelling, and multiple 

attacks can also define gout. However, these characteristics are all associated 

with soft tissue and/or patient history and will be obscured and/or 

absent in decomposed and skeletal remains. Urate crystals are watersoluble 

and most likely will not be present in skeletal remains. 

Radiological studies have identified unique features of skeletal gout 

lesions. These lesions are characterized as being round or oval, eroded and 

scooped-out with well-defined, sclerotic margins, and little to no bone 

density loss. 

A gross osteological examination of gout lesions has never been made 

from clinically diagnosed gout. Recently, an individual with a documented 

case of gout donated his body to the Maxwell Museum at the University of 

New Mexico. Gross skeletal examination of this case confirms the radiologic 

description of gout lesions as the scooped-out circular erosive lesions 

that remain in the subchondral surface and do not invade the marrow cavity. 

The well-defined overhanging margins are more obvious than in radiographs, 

are sclerotic to varying degrees, and can have a slightly different 

texture than the surrounding bone. Some cortical expansion may be 

present, but with subchondral destruction. 

Gout lesions can be differentiated from similar conditions by combining 

osteological and radiological observations. Rheumatoid arthritis 

produces erosive symmetrical lesions with osteopenia and nonsclerotic, 

less defined margins that are limited to the joint surface. Early skeletal 

lesions can have a slight overhanging edge, but more developed lesions do 

not. Chondrocalcinosis, a form of calcium phosphate deposition disease, 

produces erosive, irregular symmetrical lesions with nonsclerotic, poorly 

defined margins that are limited to the joint surface. Psoriatic arthritis produces 

erosive symmetrical and asymmetrical lesions with little to no 

osteopenia but with poorly defined margins limited to the joint surface. 

Septic arthritis can produce erosive asymmetrical lesions not limited to the 

joint surface, but typically the lesions invade the marrow cavity with a less 

organized underlying bone structure. Furthermore, radiological analysis 

shows less defined margins and a lace-like periosteal reaction. 

Amyloidosis resulting in carpal tunnel syndrome, which is rare, can create 

erosive lesions with sclerotic margins which are not limited to the joint 

surface, but are often accompanied by a loss of bone density. No gross 

osteological description has been made for this condition. 

As gout skeletal lesions are relatively rare, identifying gout lesions can 

be an important step in creating an osteobiography from skeletal remains. 

The severity of the disease required to produce a lesion should be an identifiable 

characteristic of an individual in life. 

Gout, Differential Diagnosis, Osteological Profile 


H38 Bevel, Bevel in my Bone, Be it Bullet 

or Be it Stone? Misidentification of 

Blunt Force Trauma as Ballistic Entrance 

Wounds in Burned Cranial Bone 

Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, 

AR 72701; O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 381 Cherry Hollow, Cordova, TN 

38018; and Kate M. Spradley, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South 

Stadium Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996 


understanding how heat affects preexisting injury. During the postmortem 

examination, it is possible to mistake blunt force trauma for ballistic if one 

is simply looking for an internal bevel to evidence injury type. Awareness 

of bone’s plastic deformation from blunt insults, the telltale tags of bone 

driven into the calvarium and detached by heat, and metric analysis, can 

overcome misidentification of traumatic injury. 


humanity by providing awareness to the possibility of blunt force traumatic 

injury in crania being mistaken as ballistic injury in burned human remains. 

Analysis of gunshot wounds in cranial bone utilizes characteristic signatures 

of entrance wounds and its associated internal beveling. These 

defects are produced by a high energy projectile penetrating the external 

table, punching out and beveling the diploe, and finally creating a defect on 

the internal table of a diameter greater than the external defect. Focally 

delivered blunt force trauma is similar in mechanism but is of lower energy 

and forces create depression fractures with crushing, plastic deformation, 

and incomplete beveling of the opposite impacted surface in viscoelastic 

bone. Fresh blunt force skeletal wounds typically appear as internally 

levered bone or a punched in plug partially attached or driven into the 

cranial vault. Burning of the body after these events can produce confusing 

appearances if the thermal effects are not taken into account. 

With burned human remains, heat degrades organic components, 

leaving bone brittle, and subject to fragmentation. The internally levered 

fragments or bone plugs from blunt impacts become highly fragile and may 

detach from the original wound defect. The absence of levered bone or 

bone plug leaves an internal bevel for postmortem analysis identical to ballistic 

beveling. Misidentification of this wound type as ballistic injury 

instead of blunt force trauma allows erroneous estimation of death determination, 

a misguided search for weapons, and contradictory autopsy 

findings against testimony. 

In order to investigate morphological differences among blunt force 

and ballistic wounds in burned cranial bone, twelve cadaver heads were 

subjected to mechanical focal blunt impacts with known weapons and 

injury sites. Specimens were burned in environments simulating forensic 

fires. Wound morphology, internal beveling of focally traumatized crania 

and radiographs were compared to fifteen crania with ballistic injury, 

burned under similar conditions, and evaluated for morphological differences 

between traumatic injury types. 

Visual inspection revealed blunt injuries ranging from patterned 

external depressions, crushing with plastic deformation and partial or full 

penetration of external and internal tables. Focal injuries produced by 

hammer faces, blunt angled instruments, and edged weapons created circular, 

angular, or rounded injuries with corresponding internally levered 

bone or detached plugs in the neurocranium. The embrittlement typified in 

charred to calcined cranial bone left internally beveled fractures easily 

mimicking gunshot wounds. The wound morphologies for thirteen blunt 

force injuries penetrating layers of cranial bone were found to have an 

internal bevel similar to ballistic entrance wounds. At times portions of 

bone remain attached in unburned blunt force trauma, but the effects of heat 

causes structural embrittlement and fragmentation; therefore leading to the 

detachment of this delicate bone evidence during burning or following 

recovery. Evidence of this fragile fragment remained attached in only one 

of the experimental specimens. Blunt injuries were distinguishable from 

gunshot wounds only when small tags of internally levered bone remained 


around the external surface of the impact site, reflecting slow deformation 

and shape of instrument. 

Diameters of entrance wounds and their corresponding internal bevel 

dimensions from blunt force trauma and ballistic injury were subjected to a 

MANOVA. Results demonstrate the two trauma groups are statistically 

different (p

Churchill County, a few miles further East of the supermarket. Sheriff’s 

deputies investigated the call and soon found the remains of a partially 

mummified, buried, and burned body. Blunt force trauma to the head was 

suspected as the cause of death and over the next few weeks DNA positively 

identified the remains as the mother. On September 28 the Washoe 

County Coroner’s Office of Reno, NV delivered the remains to the Physical 

Anthropology Human Identification Laboratory (PAHIL) at California 

State University, Chico. The authorities were particularly interested in confirming 

the cause of death, but more specifically the nature of the bludgeoning 

instrument. 

While the DNA analysis was performed a typical 

morphological/forensic anthropological examination of the remains 

revealed a classic appearing female who had died between the ages of 

approximately 30 and 40 years. The decedent’s age was assessed from the 

degree of dental development and ware, the recent closure of the sternal 

ends of both clavicles, and the lack of vertebral osteophytes. While both 

morphologically and discriminant function analyses suggested the victim 

was of White ancestry, slightly shovel shaped incisors were notice on teeth 

numbers 7, 8, and 9. Furthermore, the decedent’s stature was estimated at 

60.5 + 2.3 inches. In addition to extensive evidence of blunt force trauma 

to the head and thorax a unique cut-mark was encountered on the upper left 

humerus, just proximal to a burned area and proximate spiral fracture. A 

microscopic analysis of the cut revealed various small associated fractures 

as well as a laterally directed hairline fracture. The combination of these 

features as well as what was deemed an appropriately wide kerf was used 

to suggest that a heavy dull-bladed instrument, perhaps a shovel, had been 

used in striking the bone. The possible use of a shovel to create all of the 

trauma was then reported to the Nevada authorities. At that time the investigating 

officer reported that the then identified victim’s three-year-old son, 

who did not speak English, had said that his mother had been beaten with 

a “pala”. However, due to both the witness’ age and confusion in the term’s 

translation the authorities were not certain if a shovel or “pala” had been the 

bludgeoning instrument, or a club, or “Palo.” 

The skeletal analysis suggesting the use of a shovel was accepted as 

affirmation that the young boy had used the Spanish word “pala.” When the 

suspect was confronted by investigators with the evidence he began to 

express remorse and on December 9, 2004 he was found dead in a jail cell 

in Salt Lake City after having hung himself with his bed sheets. 

Blunt Force Trauma, Cut-Marks, Taphonomy 

H40 Scanning Electron Microscopy of Saw 

Marks in Bone: Assessment of Wear- 

Related Features of the Kerf Wall 

Laurel Freas, MA*, Department of Anthropology, CA Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 112545, Gainesville, FL 32611 


qualitative and quantitative analysis of wear-related patterns of change in 

cut mark morphology, as visualized in scanning electron microscope 

images of kerf walls from saw marks in bone. 


humanity by addressing the utility of scanning electron microscopy for the 

analysis of saw marks in bone, and will refine the understanding of the 

impact of increasing tool wear on cut mark morphology and the forensic 

interpretations thereof. 

The use of scanning electron microscopy in the analysis of patterns of 

bone modification, including cut marks, is favored because of a number of 

features and capabilities of the scanning electron microscope, including 

greater image resolution and depth-of-field; a broad range of continuous 

magnification (sometimes up to 3000X); and improved visualization of 

surface contour profiles and bone microstructure, relative to normal light 

microscopy. In recent years, the SEM’s enhanced image-capture capabilities 

have been used frequently and to great advantage by archaeologists 

and paleoanthropologists in their analyses of bone modification patterns 

from their respective contexts. Such studies have yielded important 

insights on many facets of cut mark analysis, including differentiation of 

true cut marks from “mimics” produced by scavenging animals, sedimentary 

abrasion, and other taphonomic processes; determination of the 

directionality and sequence of individual cut marks; and distinguishing 

among cut marks produced by different materials (e.g., stone versus metal 

tools). Yet in spite of the potential gains to be derived from the application 

of electron microscopy to the analysis of tool marks in bone from forensic 

contexts, only a few such studies exist. This limited use is owed to several 

factors, including the restrictions on sample size imposed by the dimensions 

of the SEM vacuum chamber; the need to cast and/or sputter-coat the 

sample to be imaged; the difficulties of imaging a material so structurally 

complex as bone; and the considerable cost of SEM imaging. It is easy to 

see why forensic anthropologists would be reluctant to submit irreplaceable 

forensic specimens to such analyses. However, recent advances in 

scanning electron microscope technology have gone a long way towards 

ameliorating many of these concerns, such that SEM imaging is drawing 

nearer to the realm of practicality for use in forensic anthropology, particularly 

with regards to cut mark analysis. 

A poster by the author at the 56th Annual Meeting of the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences presented the results of a preliminary study 

investigating the impact of increasing saw blade wear on the appearance of 

the kerf wall. Under light microscopy, it was observed that the patterns of 

coarse and fine striations visible on the kerf walls became progressively 

more shallow and indistinct with increasing saw blade wear. The purposes 

of the present study then, are two-fold: 1) to further consider these patterns 

of change—and their impact on the interpretation of saw marks in bone— 

by reexamining these sequences of cut marks under a scanning electron 

microscope; and, 2) to evaluate the utility of SEM imaging for the analysis 

of saw marks in bone. 

Qualitative analysis of the SEM images of the kerf walls confirmed 

the prior observations of progressive loss of fine detail over the course of 

the cut mark sequences, and supports the interpretation that such changes 

are due to the blunting of sharp edges on the saw teeth. Nevertheless, other 

diagnostic features of the kerf wall persist in spite of these wear-related 

changes, indicating that even well-worn saw blades will still leave behind 

clues as to their class characteristics. In recognition of the growing drive 

within the forensic science community to develop quantitative analytical 

methods, it had also been hoped that the greater detail observable in the 

SEM images would permit accurate quantification of the features of the 

kerf walls, thereby facilitating statistical analysis of the observed patterns 

of wear-related changes. However, two separate approaches to quantification 

of these patterns were met with a number of difficulties, and ultimately 

proved to be unworkable, suggesting that such cut marks are 

perhaps not suited to a statistical analysis. 

These results suggest that, although forensic investigators should consider 

wear-related features of the kerf wall during their analyses of saw 

marks, such features do not necessarily undermine the validity of the established 

methods for determining the class characteristics of the saw in 

question. Furthermore, the difficulties encountered in the analysis of the 

SEM images suggest that this imaging modality may not be of significant 

advantage to the forensic analysis of saw marks in bone. 

Cut Mark Analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Forensic 

Anthropology 


H41 Seasonal Variation of Scavenging and 

Associated Faunal Activity on Pig 

Carcasses in South Western Australia 

R. Christopher O’Brien, BA, MFS*, University of Western Australia, 

Centre for Forensic Science, 35 Stirling Highway, Mail Bag M420, 

Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; Shari L. Forbes, PhD, University of 

Ontario Institute of Technology, Faculty of Science, 2000 Simcoe Street, 

North, Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada; Jan Meyer, PhD, University of 

Western Australia, School of Anatomy and Human Biology, 35 Stirling 

Highway, Mail Bag M360, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia; and Ian 

Dadour, University of Western Australia, Centre for Forensic Science, 

35 Stirling Highway, Mail Bag M420, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have some understanding 

of the pattern of scavenging of carcasses by animals in south 

Western Australia and how this varies with seasonal climactic factors. 


humanity by demonstrating that seasonal faunal scavenging variation does 

occur in south Western Australia. Such information is useful to the forensic 

community when examining a body that has animal modifications associated 

with it. These modifications can influence the rate of decomposition, 

removal of bones and soft tissue, and artifacts created on the tissues by the 

act of scavenging. 

Scavenging after death is inevitable for bodies which remain exposed 

for any length of time. Previous research on the effects of scavenging on 

the body focused mainly on the activities of carnivores and rodents which 

are indigenous to North America and Europe including coyotes, wolves, 

bears, dogs, cats, and rats. There has been little direct observation of scavenging 

in the wild, however, and no research on scavenging in Western 

Australia (surrounding the capital city, Perth). 

This project was designed to discover which animals scavenge 

remains and how this varies with seasonal climate changes. Female pig 

carcasses, weighing approximately 40 kg, were placed outdoors in different 

seasons and allowed to decompose to roughly the same state, partial skeletonization 

with mummification of the remaining skin in environments 

which would allow access by scavengers. Decomposition of the pigs was 

filmed using an infrared camera and recorded on a time lapse VCR. The 

resulting videos were viewed and records made of the state of the carcass 

(in terms of decomposition), each feeding animal, time of scavenging, and 

length of feeding session. The type of feeding was also noted, either direct 

feeding on the animal or indirect feeding (feeding on the animals and 

insects associated with the body). Weather data (temperature, rainfall, and 

hours of sunshine) were collected from the Australian government’s Bureau 

of Meteorology which has weather stations situated throughout the area. 

Animals which were observed feeding on and around the body 

included bandicoots, varanid lizards, possums, skinks, honeyeaters, Willie 

wagtails, frogs, and rats. The predominant animal which scavenged on the 

bodies was the Australian raven (Corvus coronoides) which fed throughout 

the year both directly on the body and the associated insects. Birds were 

more active in scavenging during the winter months when other food 

resources were unavailable, while in summer, when food resources were 

scarce, reptiles fed on the body and the associated insects. Mammalian 

scavenging by possums, bandicoots, rats, and mice occurred almost exclusively 

at night in all seasons. 

This study has demonstrated that seasonal faunal scavenging variation 

does occur in south Western Australia. Such information is useful to the 

forensic community when examining a body that has associated animal 

modifications. These modifications can influence the rate of decomposition, 

removal of bones and soft tissue, and artifacts created on the tissues 

by the act of scavenging. This preliminary research suggests that further 

studies of this type should be conducted throughout Australia. 

Scavenging, Seasonal Variation, Western Australia 


H42 A Preliminary Investigation of 


Ann W. Bunch, PhD*, State University of New York at Oswego, 

310 Mahar Hall, Department of Anthropology, Oswego, NY 13126 

After attending this presentation, attendees will how cold climate 

generally affects the decomposition process. Such information will be 

useful to medico-legal practitioners for the estimation of postmortem 

interval (PMI) of decedents recovered from comparable environments. 

The research findings presented will be useful for forensic scientists 

practicing in cold climate environments in the United States and internationally. 

This is a much-needed data set, as to date; no systematic cold 

climate assessment of decomposition has been conducted and widelyreported. 


humanity by assisting Medico-legal professionals in utilizing these data for 

general comparative purposes in estimation of postmortem interval (PMI) 

for decedents recovered from similar environmental and climatic contexts. 

Actualistic studies of environmental factors affecting PMI have been 

ongoing in particular regions of the United States for years (Anderson and 

VanLaerhoven 1996; Baldridge et al. 2004; Cornelison 1999; Dupras and 

Williams 2001; Haefner et al. 2004; Haskell 1996; Latham et al. 2004; 

Lopes de Carvalho and Linhares 2001; MacGregor 1999; Shean et al. 

1998; Walsh-Haney and Warren 1999). At the most recent meeting of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), 18 separate studies 

directly addressing decomposition were featured (e.g., Wallace and 

Zimmerman 2005, Forbe et al. 2005, Gremillion 2005, Srnka 2005, 

Synstelien 2005, Schoenly et al. 2005, Russo 2005, Wacker et al. 2005, 

Bullard 2005, Tibbett and Carter 2005, and Carter et al. 2005). 

None of the above-referenced studies and publications addresses the 

issue of decomposition in cold climate. A systematic study of decomposition 

in this type of environment represents a large gap in the scientific literature. 

The most relevant study is that of Komar (1998), which reviewed 

past cases of the Edmonton, Alberta Medical Examiner’s Office. Here 

Komar presents preliminary data regarding the impact of cold climate on 

skeletonization and decomposition, since, in her words “studies in cold 

weather climates typical of the northern United States and Canada have not 

been widely reported” (1998). 

Small grant funding was obtained from the State University of New 

York at Oswego’s Rice Creek Field Station in 2004 to begin a preliminary 

study of this problem (Bunch 2005). The initial 2004-2005 project, which 

is still ongoing, used three child-sized (approximately 35-40 lbs) pigs (Sus 

scrofa) as surrogates for human remains. Numerous current and prior 

studies use/have used pigs in this capacity (Baldridge et al. 2004; 

Cornelison 1999; Dupras and Williams 2001; Gremillion et al. 2005; 

Haefner et al. 2004; Haskell 1996; Latham et al. 2004; Lopes de Carvalho 

and Linhares 2001; MacGregor 1999; Shean et al. 1998; Wacker et al. 

2005; Walsh-Haney and Warren 1999). The pigs were placed in three distinct 

microenvironments (sparse hardwood forest near water source, dense 

hardwood forest, and spruce forest) soon after they were killed in late 

October 2004. Enclosures were set up to protect the pigs from larger scavengers 

so that stations could be easily monitored until skeletonization had 

occurred. 

Preliminary results indicate that, as in other types of well-studied environments, 

decomposition rates vary greatly from one microenvironment to 

another: while the spruce forest specimen is in an extremely advanced state 

of decomposition as of Day 224, the two hardwood forest specimens are 

still completely fleshed and could be described as moderately decomposed. 

Possible reasons for this discrepancy will be discussed. In addition, the 

activity of insects and scavengers varied greatly. Spruce forest insect 

activity was relatively minimal yet mammal scavenging did occur at this 

station; hardwood specimens attracted numerous insects until mid- 

December and again in spring months, yet scavenger activity was notably 

absent. 

384

The results of this study will be useful as comparative data for forensic 

science practitioners. It is important to note that not only local law 

enforcement and medical examiners/forensic anthropologists will find this 

information useful, but those located in similar climates in the US, Canada, 

and abroad would undoubtedly be able to utilize these results for their own 

general comparative purposes. 

PMI, Microenvironment, Decomposition 

H43 Assessing the Effect of Repeated 

Physical Disturbance Associated With 

Data Collection in Experimental 

Decomposition Studies 

Rachel E. Adlam, MSc*, and Tal L. Simmons, PhD, University of Central 

Lancashire, Department of Forensic and Investigative Science, Maudland 

Building, Preston, PR1 2HE, United Kingdom 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn whether the type 

of physical disturbance associated with data collection affects the progress 

of decomposition. They will learn how the decomposition process is 

reflected in a number of variables such as weight loss, soil pH, and temperature; 

and how these variables relate to each other. In addition they will 

have received information about the legislation governing decomposition 

studies in the UK. 


humanity by identifying how the act of data collection may alter variables 

under study in decomposition experiments. It identifies the need for adequate 

controls, an understanding of the varying ways in which decomposition 

can be measured, and how these measured variables interact. 

Postmortem interval can be estimated using a variety of methods. 

One of those is the assessment of the stage of decomposition of the remains 

in question. The stages of decomposition have been well documented and 

many studies have been made of the relationship between decomposition 

and the elapsed time interval since death. 

Few of these studies, however, make any reference to the effects of 

physical disturbance that may have occurred as a result of data collection. 

How accurately do existing published studies actually reflect the process of 

decomposition as it occurs naturally? This study compares physically disturbed 

rabbit carcasses with a series of undisturbed carcasses in order to 

assess the presence and magnitude of any effects. 

The carcasses were placed on scrub-free level ground at the edge of a 

wheat field in Dickleburgh, Norfolk, UK, for a period of three weeks during 

July 2004. Environmental data was obtained from a computer-controlled 

weather station that took readings every 30 minutes. Experimental data 

collected included carcass weight (taken by suspending the carcass from a 

spring balance), internal temperature, soil temperature (at a depth of 5cm), 

and interface temperature (surface soil temperature from directly beneath 

the carcass). In addition, soil samples were taken from beneath the carcass 

for pH analysis. Visual observations of the state of the carcass and insect 

activity associated with the carcass were also recorded. Three replicates of 

eight carcasses were used, and the experiment was concluded once skeletonisation 

had been reached. 

Synchronous placement of all carcasses minimized environmental differences 

between the groups. Decomposition was scored using a visually 

based scoring system based on that used by Megyesi (2001, 2005), where 

individual anatomical regions are scored independently, and the scores 

summed to give an overall indication of decomposition. Some carcasses 

were repeatedly picked up and replaced in order to take measurements of 

weight loss, temperature, soil samples, etc. The remainders were left undisturbed 

and once data had been taken from them they were not disturbed 

again until the end of the experiment. This enabled a time series of data for 

undisturbed carcasses to be constructed from the composite data that was 

acquired. The effect of disturbance on weight loss, carcass temperature, 

soil pH and overall decomposition was studied. 

Predictions of the time taken for the carcasses to skeletonise were 

made using data from Vass et al., (1992). Time to skeletonisation was calculated 

in accumulated degree-days (ADD) and converted to days using 

average daily temperature data for the area. This was necessary to allow 

the correct number of carcasses to be obtained depending on how long the 

experiment would take. These predictions were shown to be accurate to 

within just a few hours. 

Analysis of the results showed disturbance to have a significant negative 

effect on both weight loss and carcass temperature, i.e. both weight 

loss and internal temperatures were reduced compared to the undisturbed 

carcasses. No significant differences could be found, however, between the 

disturbance groups in terms of soil pH change or overall decomposition 

stage. It was not clear whether disturbance had any effect on time to skeletonisation 

of the carcasses. An insect-mediated mechanism for the disturbance 

effect in weight loss and carcass temperature is suggested, along with 

indications as to why this effect may be lost in overall decomposition. 

Studies comparing the effects of disturbance in the presence or absence of 

insects could confirm or refute this assertion. 

Conclusions drawn from this work indicate that further research is 

needed in order to understand the effects that repeated disturbance has on 

individual decomposition parameters. In particular, study of the time to 

skeletonisation and the relationship between carcass temperature and 

weight loss merit further attention. 

Decomposition, Accumulated Degree-Days, Disturbance 

H44 Beetle Poop: Interpret With 

Caution in Southeast Texas 

Dwayne A. Wolf, MD, PhD*, Harris County Medical Examiner Office, 

1885 Old Spanish Trail, Houston, TX 77054; Harrell Gill-King, PhD, 

University of North Texas, PO Box 305220, Denton, TX 76203; Lee M. 

Goff, PhD, Chaminade University of Honolulu, 3140 Waialae Avenue, 


The goal of this presentation is to present new data on Coleoptera peritrophic 

membrane. The observed postmortem interval (documented by 

investigational evidence and independent entomologic data) is significantly 

shorter than has been previously described, specifically as little as one 

month. The results suggest that use of peritrophic membrane as a temporal 

marker should be only cautiously made when correct species/variety can be 

established and when detailed environmental information is available. 

Through novel data, this paper extends the usefulness of coleopterids, and, 

in particular, the peritrophic membrane, as forensically useful time markers 

in the estimation of death interval. 


humanity by presenting new data documenting the presence of Dermestes 

maculatus peritrophic membrane associated with a recent, well-documented 

recovery, autopsy and subsequent entomological evaluation in a 

case with a postmortem interval of approximately one month. Independent 

documentation of the minimum period of time since death, including developmental 

data for a species of Phoridae (Diptera), Megaselia scalaris, is 

presented. This case suggests that presence of peritrophic membrane may 

be associated with significantly shorter postmortem intervals than previously 

reported. 

Numerous species of Coleoptera (beetles) are associated with insect 

mediated decomposition of human remains. These different species have 

different relationships to the remains and, typically, arrive in a predictable 

successional pattern. This pattern has been used to provide an estimate of 

the minimum period of time since death. Typically, those Coleoptera 

species feeding directly on the remains tend to arrive during the mid to late 

stages of decomposition (postdecay to skeletal). Insect species produce a 

peritrophic membrane to protect their gut from mechanical trauma after 

ingestion of hard food particles. In late arriving species, particularly those 

in the family Dermestidae (skin beetles), this peritrophic membrane is quite 

durable; its appearance on remains provides a temporal landmark for esti- 


mation of minimum time since death. At present, most documented cases 

involve remains with a postmortem interval of at least three months. 

The decedent was a 67-year-old man with a medical history of atherosclerotic 

disease, including coronary artery stenosis, cerebrovascular atherosclerosis 

(with prior ischemic cerebral strokes and resultant hemiparesis), 

depression and shortness of breath. He was also a heavy alcohol 

user. His prescription medications were common drugs for cardiovascular 

disease, with consistent pill counts. A neighbor reported having not seen 

the decedent in one month. A survey of the man’s house confirmed the 

neighbor’s recollection in that the oldest dated mail was from one month 

prior to discovery of his body. Independent entomological confirmation of 

the minimum postmortem interval in this case was provided by developmental 

data for a species of Phoridae (Diptera), Megaselia scalaris, also 

present at the scene. The setting was in southeast Texas (Houston), during 

late June – early July. The month in question was quite warm with 

unusually low humidity and precipitation; the average high temperature 

was 95.2° F (range 82 – 101° F), the average low 74.1 °F (range 69 -80° 

F), and the total precipitation measured 4.19 inches. The decedent was in 

a locked and secure residence, with all windows and doors closed and 

secured, and all curtains and blinds drawn. An air conditioner unit was 

available but was not on. The decedent was inside the residence, supine on 

the floor of the living room. The anterior aspect of the body was mummified, 

while the posterior aspect was moist, with skin slippage. Abundant 

adult and larvae of Dermestes maculatus beetles were on the body surfaces, 

and crawling through the orifices. Abundant tangled masses of peritrophic 

membrane were packed on various parts of the body. The decedent’s genitalia 

were essentially replaced by a mass of the stringy residue, with 

admixed beetle larva and exuviae. 

Our observations present new data on Coleoptera peritrophic membrane. 

The observed postmortem interval (documented by investigational 

evidence and independent entomologic data) is significantly shorter than 

has been previously described, specifically as little as one month. The 

results suggest that use of peritrophic membrane as a temporal marker 

should be only cautiously made when correct species/variety can be established 

and when detailed environmental information is available. Through 

novel data, this paper extends the usefulness of coleopterids, and, in particular, 

the peritrophic membrane, as forensically useful time markers in the 

estimation of death interval. 

Coleoptera, Peritrophic Membrane, Postmortem Interval 

H45 Temperature Variability 

in the Burial Environment 

Misty A. Weitzel, PhD*, Oregon State University, Waldo 212, Corvallis, 

OR 97333 


knowledge of the relationship between body temperatures during decomposition 

and the ambient and sediment temperatures of the burial environment. 


humanity by helping in establishing time since death estimations when 

temperature data is used in relation to decomposition and/or insect data. 

The aim of this study is to demonstrate the relationship between 

external body temperatures throughout decomposition and corresponding 

sediment and ambient temperatures of the burial context. Rates of decomposition 

are temperature and thus insect dependent making them useful for 

time since death estimations. Therefore, ambient temperature data is often 

used in forensic investigations in relation to rates of decomposition and/or 

insect evidence. Temperature data are usually collected from the nearest 

weather station or weather station records, which are corrected using site 

temperature data, but the potential variability between temperatures of the 

body, surrounding sediment, and air has not been well established. A better 

understanding of the relationship between all relevant temperatures of the 

burial environment will help in estimations of time since death. 


In this investigation two pigs (Sus scrofa) were buried using two 

burial types, one under stone and one under sediment, in Edmonton, 

Alberta. A datalogger was installed next to the burials with thermisters 

attached to the top and bottom of the thoracic regions of each pig as well as 

in the sediment adjacent to one of the pigs. Ambient temperature data were 

collected from an on-site weather station. Temperatures were recorded for 

four months from July 7 to October 6, 2002. Unobtrusive observations 

regarding insect activity and collapse of burial provide insight as to the 

associated stages of decomposition. 

Temperatures varied between each probe and between the probes and 

ambient temperature throughout the study. In no cases did the temperatures 

of each of the probes and ambient air exhibit the same temperature results. 

However, as ambient and sediment temperatures of the burial environment 

changed, similar changes occurred in exterior body temperatures of both 

anterior and posterior thoracic regions. These changes depended on factors 

such as burial type. Patterns are seen throughout each day and throughout 

the four-month time span of the study. Daily patterns tend to follow an sshaped 

curve in which temperature increased throughout the day and 

decreased at night with some notable exceptions. Temperatures throughout 

the day fluctuated more among stone-covered than sediment-filled burials 

and more at the top of the burial than at the bottom. Body temperatures 

showed less fluctuation than those of both the surrounding matrix and 

ambient air during the four months. Temperatures on the anterior thoracic 

region (top of pig) were consistently warmer than the posterior (bottom of 

pig). Temperatures of both the top and bottom of sediment-filled burials 

were generally warmer than stone-covered. All temperatures followed the 

same general pattern of fluctuations throughout the study period. 

Ambient Temperature, Decomposition, Body Temperature 

H46 The Shallow Grave as an Option for 

Disposing of the Recently Deceased: 

Goals and Consequences 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, and Luis L. Cabo, MS, Mercyhurst College, 

Department Applied Forensic Sciences, Zurn 119A, 501 East 38th Street, 


The goal of this presentation is to show that processing a clandestine 

grave following a classic approach will result in the destruction of contextual 

evidence, as this type of evidence can only be accessed and registered 

sequentially. Consequently, scene processing must be planned with 

consideration of the multi-layered structure of the evidence, and ultimately, 

can only be properly processed by employing contemporary archaeological 

methods. 


humanity by increasing the awareness about the risk of information-loss 

derived from improper shallow grave recovery. 

Edmond Locard’s astute observations (Locard’s Exchange Principle) 

regarding the correlation of evidence, suspects and place have served as a 

central tenet in the discipline of forensic science and forensic investigation 

since the turn of the 20th century. As a guiding principle during the location 

and collection of evidence at the indoor crime scene, the resultant precise 

documentation of the minutest of details has served the discipline well. 

Unfortunately, the application of these principles at outdoor scenes has 

lagged very far behind. 

In the present contribution a perpetrator is followed who has chosen 

to hide a body through emplacement in a shallow grave. The different 

alternatives presented to her during the process will be examined, from the 

time of acquisition of the body, through transport to the grave location, and 

finally, through the act of digging the grave. For example, early in the 

grave digging process, the perpetrator faces an important decision 

involving a trade-off between time employed in the entire process (from 

killing, to transport, to digging of the grave) and likelihood of body 

detection. The longer the time and greater the effort spent in hiding the 

386

ody, the less likely the remains will be discovered and the case investigated. 

On the other hand, a protracted effort to hide the body will increase 

”exposure” time (time involved in transporting the body and digging the 

grave) and increase the probability of the perpetrator being discovered 

while doing so. 

Aside from the transference of physical evidence, depending on the 

option chosen at each step of the process, different types of contextual evidence 

will be produced and imprinted on the scene in a sequential way. 

Therefore, the sequential nature of the decision-making and inhumation 

processes translates into a layered ordination of the contextual evidence, 

similar to the deposition of geological and archaeological materials at larger 

time scales, so that the relevant contextual information can only be 

retrieved through a similarly ordered and sequential process. Classical 

scene processing methodologies, however, focus almost exclusively on the 

amount of physical evidence present at the scene (which is believed to be 

primarily a function of the area, number of victims and physical objects, 

and cause and manner of death). This mindset results in scene recovery 

protocols in which the recovery of discrete and isolated types of evidence 

(fingerprints, body parts, blood stains, etc) is tantamount. This approach, 

however, does not take into account the order in which that evidence was 

deposited on the scene. For example, parameters related to the shape of the 

grave or the shape and number of tools employed in its digging will be 

altered or completely destroyed if not identified at the moment when they 

are revealed in the recovery process. The same applies to relative position 

of items of evidence in different stratigraphic layers. Therefore, the 

advantage gained from the larger amount of information imprinted on the 

scene by more complex efforts to hide the evidence on the side of the perpetrator 

will be lost if stratigraphic and archaeological principles are not 

applied during the processing of the shallow grave. 

This presentation will show that processing a clandestine grave following 

this approach will result in the destruction of contextual evidence, 

as this type of evidence can only be accessed and registered sequentially. 

Consequently, scene processing must be planned with consideration of this 

multi-layered structure of the evidence, and ultimately, can only be 

properly processed by employing contemporary archaeological methods. 

Shallow Grave, Recovery Methods, Trade-Offs 

H47 How to Look a Gift Corpse in the Mouth: 



Vicki L. Wedel, MA*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

California, 1156 High Street, SS1 Faculty Services, Santa Cruz, CA 

95064-1077; Shannon Bowman, BA, Texas A&M University, Department 

of Anthropology, College Station, TX 77483 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how dental 

cementum increment analysis can help forensic anthropologists narrow 

their estimates of postmortem interval. 


humanity by helping forensic anthropologists using this technique to be 

able to better assist law enforcement in determining time since death. 

Forensic anthropologists are often called upon to estimate time since 

death in the analyses of decomposing and skeletonized human remains. 

Estimates are based on the overall condition of the remains, the presence of 

insect activity, and the decomposition microenvironment. Postmortem 

interval estimates are usually expressed as broad ranges of months or years, 

especially when forensic anthropologists are not present at the time of 

recovery. Dental cementum increment analysis could help us make much 

more specific determinations. 

Dental cementum anchors teeth into their sockets via the periodontal 

ligament. Increments are identified in the cementum deposits on the roots 

of human teeth, and under microscopic examination appear as alternating 

dark and light bands, analogous to tree rings. Research with comparative 

samples of known-age and known date-of-death individuals has demonstrated 

a consistent relationship between annual seasons and the formation 

of distinct increment types. In general, the winter or arrested cementum 

increment appears as an opaque band while the summer or growth 

increment appears as a translucent band. Together these represent one year 

of an individual’s life, providing an annual record of that person’s life 

history. The total number of increments provides a means of determining 

the individual’s age at death (Wittwer-Backofen 2004). 

Zooarchaeologists have long used dental cementum increment analysis 

to estimate season at death in mammals (Pike-Tay 1991; Lubinski and 

O’Brien 2001), yet the authors are aware of no study to date that has tested 

this method in humans. The current project seeks to identify the timing of 

increment formation in humans and thus provide a means by which seasonof-death 

could be determined in forensic cases. Once the transition periods 

are identified, they can be correlated to seasons of the year. 

A pilot study for which extracted teeth were donated by the patients of 

Santa Cruz oral surgeon Dr. Erick Eklund was conducted. Each tooth was 

cleaned and embedded in Buehler Epoxide. Embedded teeth were sectioned 

to a thickness of 400 microns, mounted to glass slides, and ground 

and polished. The polished sections were viewed under 125X magnification 

and transmitted polarized light using an Olympus BX40 light microscope. 

Digital photographs were taken using a Nikon D70 SLR camera 

mounted directly to the microscope. Once the outer (nascent) band was 

identified, the widths of like bands were measured and averaged in Adobe 

Photoshop. The thickness of the outer band was divided by this average 

thickness to determine the percent growth. For example, if the outer band 

was translucent, its width was divided by the average thickness of the other 

translucent bands present in the section. 

An outer increment 75-100% complete marked the end of the growth 

cycle. An increment 50-75% complete indicated growth three-quarters 

completed, 25-50% complete half completed, and 0-25% just beginning. 

The pilot study results indicate that dental increments are visible on cross 

sections of human teeth, and they appear to vacillate between opaque and 

translucent in regular cycles. Preliminary data suggest that the transition 

between the growth (translucent) and dormant (opaque) seasons occurs 

between August and October. Teeth extracted during these months have 

nearly complete outer translucent increments. Teeth extracted between 

November and January has newly visible opaque outer increments. It 

appears that the translucent increment is completely formed by late 

September or early October, with the opaque increment beginning to form 

immediately following and visible under magnification by the second week 

of October. 

Dental cementum increment analysis for estimations of season at 

death shows great potential for use in forensic anthropology. Teeth are very 

durable and are commonly recovered, even at death scenes where bone 

tissue quality is poor, advanced mummification or fragmentation is present, 

or cremation has occurred. As such, one full calendar year’s worth of 

samples needs to be examined, and the sample size needs to be expanded. 

At present, the method appears most effective in middle to older aged 

adults, as the increments are more clearly identified than in adolescents and 

early adulthood when some of the dentition has only recently erupted. 

Postmortem Interval, Dental Cementum, Season at Death 


H48 Anthropological Saw Mark Analysis 

on Bone: What is the Potential of 


Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; Anne M. 

Kroman, MA, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 

250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, 

Hamline University, Department of Anthropology, St. Paul, MN 55104; 

and Christopher W. Rainwater, BA, and John J. Matia, MS, Mercyhurst 

College, Department of Forensic/Biological Anthropology, Erie, 

PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a better understanding 

of the utility of saw mark analysis on bone, and the five features 

that can be used to correctly identify the class of tool used in 



humanity by enhancing the utility of saw mark analysis, and purposes a 

standard methodology for the recognition of saw mark features and characteristics 

in bone. 

Tool mark analysis is a highly specialized area of forensic science 

with new techniques for the refinement of weapon analysis and comparison. 

Despite recent advancements, saw mark analyses have received 

little research attention and currently have few standards for analysis. 

Regardless of the lack of standardization and Daubert criteria, forensic 

practitioners, including anthropologists and pathologists, continue to 

conduct saw and knife mark analysis and testify on the results. The high 

number of these “unusual” cases and the investigative and judiciary benefit 

of the testimony, coupled with the lack of a standard methodology, demonstrate 

a growing need in the forensic community. 

Even though a majority of this research was done over a decade ago 

by the first author (Symes 1992), forensic anthropological tool mark 

analysis appears stagnant, while at the same time, criminalists seldom work 

with saw marks in human bone. Even more alarming is the continued lack 

of communication between criminalists and anthropologists, despite the 

fact that each is attempting tool mark analyses with similar goals in mind. 

The authors propose a tool mark recognition system that approaches 

analysis of cut marks from five recognizable class features. Within these 

class features, there are multiple characteristics, ranging from simple to 

complex. This presentation will illustrate the utility of how even the simplest 

characteristics of a saw mark can contribute to systematically narrowing 

the potential class of tool used in a criminal act. By examining saw 

mark trauma for each of these recognizable class features, it is possible to 

detect many of these characteristics without extensive training and sophisticated 

equipment. The recognizable class features presented by this 

research include: 

1. Saw Cut Direction—After documentation and retrieval of all contextual 

evidence, bones can be examined for saw kerfs, useful in determining 

orientation and direction of cut. This information is dependent 

upon an understanding of osteology and saw cut action. Direction of saw 

progress is indicated by false starts and entrance cuts progressing to break 

away spurs and notches. Direction of power stroke is essentially parallel to 

wall striations with exit chipping occurring in the power direction. 

2. Saw Power—Since mechanically powered saws cut with more 

force and speed, their blades are manufactured to withstand more pressures 

(unless the blade is supported in a frame like a band saw, or the blade has 

little movement like a cast/autopsy saw). The simple fact that power saws 

generally have wider blades means that a simple measurement of minimum 

kerf width quickly seriates the saw class potentially used. If you add the 

features of energy expression and polish, differences between hands versus 

mechanical saws are recognizable. 

3. Saw Design (Shape)—Saws are generally classified into rip versus 

crosscut. This simply indicates whether a saw has filed teeth or not. 

Because filed teeth essentially taper more to a point than non-filed teeth, 


filed teeth form a ‘W’ shaped kerf floor as opposed to non-filed teeth that 

form a flat, squared-off floor. Curved versus straight blades also fit into this 

category. 

4. Saw Tooth Size—Erratic sawing behavior can leave solid evidence 

behind. If a saw is stopped in mid-stroke and removed, measurable features 

may exist. Close examination with low powered magnification may 

indicate tooth imprints on kerf floors, pull out striae may indicate the saw 

tooth frequency, or simply the introduction of succeeding teeth to a cutting 

stroke may create a wavy striation that indicates distance between teeth. 

Each of these features provides the potential for a measurement between 

teeth that can result in Teeth per Inch (TPI) assessments. 

5. Saw Tooth Set—Saws designed to cut hard materials usually have 

tooth set. Set is simply lateral bending to the teeth so that the combination 

of bent teeth creates kerfs wider than the actual blade cutting the bone. 

Tooth set is usually in the form of alternating, but can be a wavy or raker 

set. Tooth set influences blade drift. Where raker set doesn’t appear to let 

the blade drift, alternating set does put the blade in motion with the introduction 

of every tooth, and this motion is predictable and measurable. 

Wavy set is like alternating, but on a larger scale. 

This research attempts to confront existing misconceptions, communication 

gaps, relieve anthropologist ‘microscope anxiety,’ and ignore individual 

characteristics mindset (as opposed to class characteristics), while 

giving a hierarchy of recognizable characteristics among cut mark features, 

many of which can be scored without expensive equipment or SEM 

confusion. Finally, it is important to realize that every aspect of the proposed 

research will communicate the potential of highly ignored types of 

evidence found in every case of dismemberment and mutilation—tool 

marks in bone. 

Saw Marks, Bone, Class Characteristics 

H49 Working With Family Members of 

Decedents: A Discussion of Techniques 

for Forensic Scientists 

Paul S. Sledzik, MS*, National Transportation Safety Board, Office of 

Transportation Disaster Assistance, 490 L’Enfant Plaza East, SW, 

Washington, DC 20594; Lee Meadows Jantz, PhD*, Forensic 

Anthropology Center, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Simon Fraser 

University, 611-1485 West 6th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V6H 4G1, Canada; 

Giovanna M. Vidoli, MSc*, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First 

Avenue, New York, NY 10016; Thomas D. Holland, PhD*, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Darinka X. Mileusnic- 

Polchan, MD, PhD*, University of Tennessee Medical Center, 

Department of Pathology/Knox County Office of the Medical Examiner, 

1924 Alcoa Highway, Knoxville, TN 37920; and Mercedes Doretti*, and 

Luis Fondebrider*, Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense, Av. 

Rivadavia 2443, Piso 2 Dep. 4, Buenos Aires, 1034, Argentina 

This session features short presentations and a discussion by forensic 

scientists who have worked with family members of decedents in a range 

of events and a variety of ways. The goal of these presentations is to elucidate 

techniques to help forensic scientists interact more effectively with 

family members. The areas of disasters, human rights, body donation, and 

the medical examiner office are represented on the panel. 


humanity by demonstrating how forensic scientists possess important information 

for the family of the murdered, missing, or killed. Sharing this 

information allows families to understand the circumstances of death and 

may help them move through the grief process. The techniques used by 

forensic scientist to provide this information to family members are 

important in the humanitarian efforts of the field. 

388

For the family and friends of the murdered, missing, or killed, an 

important measure of dignity afforded them is the professionalism 

employed by forensic scientists when analyzing and identifying the 

remains of the deceased. Despite differences in the process of grief 

throughout the world, families typically want information about the death 

of the deceased. Obtaining information about the circumstances of death 

(whether through intentional violence, natural disaster, accident, or suicide) 

helps family members move through the grief process, despite the fact that 

the particulars of the death may be difficult to hear. When families seek out 

this information, they often turn to forensic scientists, whose knowledge, 

experience, and work product become the sources for answers to their 

questions. 

This session features short presentations and a discussion by forensic 

scientists who have worked with family members of decedents in a range 

of events and a variety of ways. The presenters will elucidate techniques 

to help forensic scientists interact more effectively with family members. 

The areas of disasters, human rights, body donation, and the medical 

examiner office are represented on the panel. 

Interacting with family members of the deceased presents the forensic 

scientist a challenge. Forensic scientists engage with family members in a 

variety of situations, from individual cases to group settings, in person and 

via email or telephone, but most have little or no training in working with 

the bereaved, despite knowing that forensic information is vital for family 

members. Families expect compassion, directness, and honesty from 

forensic scientists. However, forensic scientists may not be able to reveal 

all aspects of their analysis for legal reasons. The counterpoise to family 

needs is the sometime conflicting demands of science. Data collection, 

sampling, and storage ensure that scientific methods are created and 

refined. Forensic scientists are often the lone representatives of science to 

families, and they must reflect the importance of science and the nature the 

remains play in the scientific process. 

The Aviation Disaster Family Assistance Act of 1996 tasks the 

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) with managing family needs 

following aviation disasters. To provide this support, the NTSB establishes 

and manages a multi-agency family assistance center. Among other types 

of information, the center provides updates about the search for and 

recovery of remains and the identification process. Families who visit the 

accident site often have questions of a forensic nature. After departing the 

center, NTSB staff members keep families updated as the investigation proceeds, 

and often answer forensic questions that were not asked at the center. 

Their desire for information may often extend for months or years following 

the accident. Family concerns encompass questions of suffering of 

the deceased just prior to their death, information related to condition of 

remains, and methods used to identify remains. 

The experience of the body donation program at the University of 

Tennessee Forensic Anthropology Center (FAC) reveals that families want 

their experience to benefit others who may go through similar experiences 

in the future. Body donations originate by self-donation, family donation 

or, as in Tennessee, as unclaimed remains donated by the state medical 

examiner. For FAC staff, interaction with the family is very important. 

When a person donates their own body as an expressed desire, the next of 

kin must agree to the donation, or the donation will not occur. Because 

donation to the FAC is different than traditional anatomical school donations, 

families may not understand the process of donation and what 

happens to the remains. Many are concerned about what remains, if any, 

will be returned to them. FAC staff realize that once families understand 

the process and grasp the importance of the science that will result from the 

donation, the donation takes on greater meaning, and families become more 

comfortable with the process. 

The primary function of medical examiners is to document the condition 

of remains and the presence of illness and injuries. Sometimes overlooked 

is the importance of providing family members with information to 

understand the circumstances of death. Based on the experience of one 

medical examiner’s office, several actions appear to be appreciated by families. 

These actions, sometimes overlooked by medical examiners, include 

initiating contact with the family, facilitating access to other appropriate 

services and agencies, and making provisions for adequate viewing and/or 

meeting facilities. 

At the World Trade Center disaster, family members relied on anthropologists 

for clear and honest descriptions of the remains recovered. The 

questions from family members extended beyond description of remains to 

include explaining decomposition, fragmentation, and the process of preserving 

remains, of which the anthropologists were a part. Anthropologists 

went beyond their expertise in analyzing human remains to help family 

members understand the forces involved in the disaster and why the 

decedent was not completely recovered. 

The Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF) supports 

improved direct contact between families of victims and forensic teams. 

EAAF believes that forensic scientists should assist victims’ families in 

gaining access to investigative sites. Families are provided basic information 

before, during, and after forensic examinations, and the potential 

outcomes of a mission are explained to them. EAAF anthropologists 

address families’ concerns, doubts, questions, and objections and they 

promote tools to provide families with the results of forensic investigations 

(following international recommendations and forensic protocols.) EAAF 

also supports respect for cultural differences in religious and funeral rites, 

with the goal of assisting families with dealing with grief. The group 

believes that failure to consider these issues may lead to a secondary assault 

for family members—that forensic scientists may cause additional suffering 

to those they are assisting. Cultural and religious practices of death 

and reburial should be respected during the investigation. 

The experience of the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command/Central 

Identification Laboratory with family members is unique. The visibility 

and political nature of the POW/MIA issue in the United States complicates 

their interactions with families. 

Family Members, Death Information, Grief Process 

H50 Anthropologist Directed Triage Teams 

From Three Distinct Mass Fatality 

Events Involving Human Fragmentation 

Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Simon Fraser University, 611-1485 West 6th 

Avenue, Vancouver, BC V6H4G1, Canada 

After attending this presentation the attendee will learn the various 

functions that can be performed by anthropologist directed triage teams at 

mass fatality events involving human fragmentation. 

Due to the increasing number of incidents involving human fragmentation, 

this presentation will impact the forensic community and/or 

humanity by helping the forensic community learn about the skills and contributions 

of forensic anthropologists during these types of events. 

This presentation will describe the process of triage as the first stage 

in identifying fragmented human remains from mass fatality incidents. 

Specifically, it will discuss the role of forensic anthropologist directed 

triage teams in three distinct mass disaster events. 

Triage is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as, “the actions of 

sorting according to quality” “to pick or cull” and, “… the assignment of 

degrees of urgency…in order to decide the order or suitability of 

treatment…” It was commonly used in the early 1700’s when describing 

the sorting of wool in degrees of fineness and quality. Triage has also been 

used in the military to describe the sorting of injured in accordance to the 

seriousness of their injuries, to ensure that the most critical are medically 

treated first. 

In mass disasters, the first stage in the identification of human remains 

is often the triage station. Traditionally, an anthropologist or pathologist, 

depending on the disaster type and the condition of the remains, directs 

triage. This paper will discuss anthropologist-directed triage stations in 

three very different mass fatality scenarios, involving significant variation 


in the number of human remains as well as their condition and degree of 

fragmentation. Significantly, the process of recovery was also quite different 

in all three incidents, which affected the composition and duties of 

the triage teams. The World Trade Center disaster, with 2749 victims, 

involved nearly 20,000 fragments of human remains, recovered predominantly 

by fire personnel, over a period of eight months. The crash of 

American Airlines Flight 587, with 256 victims, involved just over 2000 

fragments of human remains, recovered within a few days by police personnel, 

with the assistance of the medical examiner’s staff. Finally, the 

Staten Island Ferry crash will be discussed, with 10 victims, involving the 

recovery of approximately 35 fragments of human remains. These were 

recovered within a few hours, again with the assistance of the medical 

examiner’s staff. In each of the three disasters mentioned above, the human 

remains had first been collected at the scene of the disaster and later transported 

to the Office of Chief Medical Examiner for processing and identification. 

Upon reaching the Medical Examiner’s office the remains were 

examined at the Triage Station, which was directed by a forensic anthropologist. 

This was an important first step in the lengthy process of identification. 

The triage team was empowered to sort human from non-human 

remains, separate out commingled remains and multiple remains in one 

recovery bag, as well as to re-articulate or re-associate disparate pieces 

within a body bag. This team also labeled anatomical elements and 

recorded recovery locations, which were later documented at the medical 

examiner’s table. Importantly, the differential manifestation of fragmentation 

in each of these incidents dictated that the anthropologist’s role at 

triage be tailored to that incident. 

In addition to detailing the differences and similarities between the 

role of triage at these three distinct mass disaster events, this paper will 

present lessons learned, including proposals for actions to be undertaken by 

anthropologists at triage stations, depending on the type of disaster. 

Triage, Commingling, Human Fragmentation 

H51 The Accuracy of Ante-Mortem Data 

and Presumptive Identification: 

Appropriate Procedures, Applications 

and Ethics 

Tal Simmons, PhD*, Department of Forensic and Investigative Science, 

University of Central Lancashire, Preston PR1 2HE, United Kingdom; 

and Mark Skinner, PhD, International Commission on Missing Persons, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will have gained an 

awareness of ante-mortem data collection procedures in mass fatality situations, 

mass disasters, and mass disappearances relating to violations of 

human rights. Methods for tailoring the ante-mortem data questionnaire to 

individual circumstances will be discussed. The presentation will 

emphasize transparency and the need to provide a realistic understanding 

of expected identification outcomes to both relatives of the missing and 

other concerned parties. 


humanity by increasing awareness of problems with presumptive identification, 

particularly in relation to mass disasters, mass fatality incidents, and 

mass disappearances related to human rights violations. It is hoped that 

after attending the presentation, participants will be able to make more 


informed and ethical choices regarding both employing standardized 

methods of presumptive identification and presenting identifications to 

victims’ families in a transparent manner. 

Increasingly during the last ten years, forensic anthropologists have 

been members of teams of forensic scientists working to identify victims of 

mass disasters, mass fatality incidents, and mass violations of human rights. 

Traditional forms of ante-mortem data (including the individual’s biological 

profile as well as details of their clothing and personal effects) have been considered 

useful in the identification process. Presumptive identification is not 

usually conducted in a particularly systematic manner. Codifying the procedure 

for matching ante-mortem and postmortem data has rarely been 

attempted and “identifying” an individual via this method, particularly in 

post-conflict situations, has seldom come under close scrutiny. It is even rarer 

that quality assurance procedures are employed to assess the outcomes and 

provide feedback as to the advisability of the process. Yet, presumptive identification 

for repatriation of remains has been utilized extensively as “identification” 

in post-conflict situations throughout Latin America, in the Balkans, 

and in East Timor (e.g., Gruspier 2001). 

Recently however, significant questions have arisen concerning 

reliance on traditional antemortem data for identification and the advisability 

of conducting presumptive identification at all. Figures for regions 

from the former Yugoslavia, including Kosovo, obtained by the 

International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) indicate that 30- 

38% of those individuals exhumed by various agencies, or government 

authorities involved in the exhumation and identification of victims from 

the conflicts between 1992 and 1999 have proved incorrect subsequent to 

comparative analysis with the DNA of purported relatives. These presumptive 

identifications were often based on clothing identifications made 

by families supplemented by consistent postmortem observations. The 

DNA-based system of identification, fully implemented by ICMP at the 

end of 2001 provides exclusion reports and prevents misidentifications 

based on ‘presumptive’ markers. Prior to this system, bodies exhumed in 

the former Yugoslavia were identified using presumptive markers and 

returned to authorities and families for burial. As is now known, a significant 

proportion of these may have been misidentified which presents a 

technical problem and an ethical dilemma to those involved with identification 

procedures, both then and now. 

In 2000, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe 

(OSCE) began an undertaking to presumptively identify those individuals 

in Kosovo exhumed by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former 

Yugoslavia (ICTY) via a standardized and systematic approach of 

weighting variables and assigning agreement scores. This system operated 

in parallel with ICTY’s data on presumptive identifications attested to by 

surviving relatives. It is unfortunate that, given the high failure rate of presumptive 

identification in regions of the former Yugoslavia as shown by the 

DNA, data are unavailable concerning which presumptive method was 

used to identify the victims in both the correctly and incorrectly identified 

cases. It would be important to know if a more standardized means of comparison 

improved the correct identification rate. If not, then the usefulness 

of conducting any presumptive identification might well be questioned. 

Without universally applicable antemortem and postmortem databases 

(designed to allow the inclusion or exclusion of relevant and 

available data) and a rigorous and standardized system of comparison, presumptive 

identification should be approached with caution. If presumptive 

identification is to be employed, then all the stakeholders need to aware of 

the potential for misidentification. It is imperative that the use of the word 

“identification” be qualified when identification is not done through 

accepted means of positive identification. 

Presumptive Identification, Ante-Mortem Data, Ethics 

390

H52 Anthropological Aspect of Mass Disasters 

Laurent Martrille, MD*, Service de Medecine Legale, Chu Lapeyronie, 

191 Avenue du doyen Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 34295, France; 

Cristina Cattaneo, MD, PhD, Istituto di Medicina Legale, Università 

degli Studi di Milano, via Mangiagali 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; Yves 

Schuliar, MD, IRCGN, 1 Boulevard Théophile Sueur, Rosny Sous Bois, 

93111, France; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de Medecine Legale, 

Chu Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du doyen Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 

34295, France 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the usefulness of 

forensic anthropology in the context of a mass disaster. The role of anthropologists 

varies from one mass disaster to another. Three examples will illustrate 

the subject. 


by facilitating the discussion of the anthropological aspects of three examples 

which confronts the experiences of other specialists in the field. 

Forensic anthropology can make a vast difference in providing important 

information for describing the biological profile of victims by determining 

age, sex, ancestry, and height. Nevertheless, the usefulness of this discipline 

depends on the kind of disaster. An accident concerning a well known group 

of non-decomposed airplane passengers requires a different approach with 

respect to a traffic accident with no list of victims. The authors therefore illustrate 

three concrete and very different mass disaster situations: the tsunami 

incident of December 2004 (Phuket, Thailand), a tunnel traffic accident 

(Mont-Blanc, France, 1999), and an airplane crash (Linate, Italy, 2001). 

During the tsunami event of December 2004 in south-east Asia, about 

270 000 people were killed. Approximately 5400 people died in Thailand 

with an equal number of Thai and foreign victims. Within a few days, all of 

the countries who had citizens listed as possible victims sent disaster victim 

identification (DVI) teams. Recovery of the bodies and separation between 

presumed Thai and foreigner bodies was organized by the Thai authorities. 

Each body was put in a separate container (containers for foreigners and containers 

for Thai people). This selection was possible and relevant for the first 

two or three days, but soon became almost impossible because of decomposition, 

even though body recovery went on for days. Thus, it was clear that 

containers marked “foreigners” contained Thai people, and containers 

marked “Thai” contained foreigners. During the first month no global protocols 

were used by all the teams in the field (fingerprint, pathology, anthropology, 

odontology, DNA sampling). After the opening of Site 2, a global 

approach was applied with standardised protocols inspired by Interpol procedures. 

The first two months, the DVI teams were supposed to collect postmortem 

data on foreigners only, so Thai authorities allowed access only to the 

containers marked “foreigners”. In this context, the quality control team 

decided not to estimate the anthropological features, though the Interpol protocol 

entails it, in order to avoid wrongly excluding individuals. Two other 

reasons were the small number of skeletonized bodies and the lack of forensic 

anthropologists on the site. Most of the bodies were decomposed but not 

skeletonized, so anthropological features could not be used without sampling, 

which brings up questions of conservation, preparation, and restitution of the 

samples. Positive identification was to be performed with DNA, odontological 

data or fingerprints. 

In the case of the Linate mass disaster, with 118 victims, it was clear 

from the ante-mortem data available that most carbonized victims would be 

identified by odontological or genetic methods. However the applied protocol 

took into account the possible application of anthropological methods. 

Therefore sampling of pubic symphysis, fourth ribs, and monoradicular teeth 

was performed. Aging turned out to be useful in quick exclusion of possible 

decedents and in creating possible ante-mortem and postmortem matches to 

be confirmed by dental and DNA methods. 

In the case of the Mont-Blanc mass disaster, 39 victims died in the 

tunnel. Because of the effects of the intense heat, DNA analysis could not be 

performed. In this context, anthropological methods had an essential importance 

in the identification procedure. 

Mass Disaster, Anthropology, Identification 

H53 Traumatic Modifications of Human 

Remains of Victims of Mass Disasters 

and Long-Term Abuse 

Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD*, Cornell University, Department of Ecology 

and Evolutionary Biology, 231 Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how conditions 

of preservation of decomposed bodies and skeletons of human victims of 

natural and man-made fatalities are compared with markers of long-term 

abuse, as with prisoners and kidnapped individuals held under harsh circumstances. 

Three forensic anthropological case histories are examined by 

this investigator in defining distinctive markers of trauma of victims of 

mass disasters and long-term physical abuse. Absence of skeletal and 

dental markers of tortured individuals may indicate non-invasive practices 

of interrogation. 


humanity by acquainting forensic anthropologists with military and civil 

law practices of interrogation of political and criminal prisoners, some 

methods revealing markers of abuse on bone tissues. These are more easily 

recognizable among inmates imprisoned after civil court sentencing than 

among prisoners under military jurisdiction, as at Guantanamo and Abu 

Ghraib where psychological stressors are inflicted with less involvement of 

the cranial and postcranial skeleton. The author’s examination of the 

skeletal series of prisoners from a civil prison in a foreign country is 

described in order to alert forensic anthropologists to recognize markers of 

interrogation or punishment. Humanity benefits from this and related 

prison studies in questioning the ethical practice of physical and psychological 

torture. 

How may forensic anthropologists distinguish traumatic modifications 

of human body parts resulting from mass disasters from skeletal evidence 

of long-term abuse, as among prisoners held under harsh conditions? 

Victims of suicide bombers, airplane and train crashes or of natural 

agencies (earthquakes, floods, mud-slides, fires, etc.) are often represented 

by fragmentary body parts, thereby making positive personal identification 

a challenge for forensic scientists associated with Disaster Mortuary 

Operational Response Teams, the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 

Central Identification Laboratory, and other recovery teams. However, for 

incarcerated individuals personal identity is usually known. The problem 

posed in this investigation is the determination of methods used by prison 

staff for interrogation, punishment, neglect, or withholding of medical 

treatment. Markers of these traumatic conditions may be documented as 

skeletal evidence of abuse. 

Stress markers are not uncommon on skeletal remains of prisoners 

who were incarcerated by civil law. The author has investigated a series of 

skeletons of twentieth century prisoners, all males, from prisons in a 

Eurasian nation. Trauma is frequently encountered in cases of unset fractures 

of long bones inflicted by wooden or metal rods (fellow prisoners 

would not have the skill to reset bones), facial damage resulting in loss of 

anterior teeth, and injuries of the cranial vault. In cases where dental reconstruction 

was attempted (following traumatic force to the face), the crudest 

and cheapest materials were used. Medical records are not available for 

this prison series, but sex, age and time of death, pathological conditions, 

and estimates of time passed since the infliction of injuries can be assessed. 

Illustrations of skeletal modifications induced in this series of civil 

law prisoners who were victims of abuse in order that forensic anthropologists 

may more clearly recognize bone modifications under stressful penal 

conditions, features less often encountered in victims of mass fatalities or 

in psychological methods of interrogations, will be presented. 

Forensic Anthropology, Mass Fatalities, Prisoners 


H54 Anthropology Responds 

to Hurricane Katrina 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, 15015 South 14th Place, Phoenix, AZ 85048; 

Michael W. Warren, PhD, and Joseph T. Hefner, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 

32611; Larry R. Bedore, MS, District 8 Office of the Medical Examiner, 

Gainesville, FL 32601; Jason H. Byrd, PhD, Department of Criminology, 

Law & Society, University of Florida, PO Box 115950, Gainesville, FL 

32611; Vincent Stefan, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Lehman 

College, CUNY, Bronx, NY 10468; and Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Department Applied Forensic Sciences, Zurn 119A, 

501 E 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about the unique 

challenges of victim identification presented by Hurricane Katrina and the 

subsequent failure of the levies surrounding New Orleans. 


by conducting a review of the forensic response to the Hurricane Katrina 

disaster and offering a positive after-action critique of the way in which 

several new challenges were met. The forensic effort following Hurricane 

Katrina serves as a way-point in further developing an efficient model for 

victim identification following a major natural or man-made disaster. 

When Hurricane Katrina slammed into the coastal towns in Louisiana, 

Mississippi, and Alabama, and breached the levies surrounding New 

Orleans, it created some extraordinary obstacles for the disaster aid workers 

responsible for recovering and identifying the victims. Among the many 

challenges were a recovery effort that spanned a broad geographic area; 

poor preservation of the bodies from prolonged exposure in a warm, wet 

environment; and contamination of the bodies by water-borne bacteria, 

chemicals and toxins. The storm surge also damaged coastal cemeteries 

and mausoleums, resulting in previously interred and entombed bodies 

being scattered among the debris. Two other unique factors posed significant 

problems for victim identification. The evacuation of hundreds of 

thousands of people who lived in the path of the approaching storm – as 

well as evacuations during the aftermath – hampered the ability of federal 

personnel to set up a single, physical location to serve as a family assistance 

center where antemortem data could be collected to facilitate identification. 

Additionally, the loss of antemortem medical and dental records destroyed 

by winds and flooding, combined with the relatively low socio-economic 

status of many of the victims, made acquisition of the required medical and 

dental information difficult, and in some cases, impossible. The widespread 

flooding and subsequent loss of housing also prevents collection of 

nuclear DNA exemplars from the homes of victims, resulting in decreased 

effectiveness of the best identification tool. 

Hurricanes Katrina marked the first time that the Disaster Mortuary 

Operational Response Team (DMORT) deployed two Disaster Portable 

Morgue Units (DPMUs) to one event. Having both morgues operational 

required an extraordinary effort to insure adequate numbers of qualified 

personnel, supplies and provisioning, physical plant, and the many other 

considerations that make such a response successful. The subsequent 

passing of Hurricane Rita forced a shutdown of all disaster victim identification 

efforts for several days, creating a severe test for those involved in 

logistics and planning. 

In this presentation, the authors hope to address many of these issues 

and provide several different perspectives on the response by DMORT 

members and others in the forensic community, as well as answer questions 

by attendees. 

Mass Disaster, Hurricane Katrina, Forensic Science 


H55 To Measure or Not to Measure: An Analysis 

of Maximum Length of the Tibia 

Erin B. Waxenbaum, MA*, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, PO Box 112545, 

Building 114, Gainesville, FL 32611; David R. Hunt, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC 20560; and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. 

Pound Human Identification Lab, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, PO Box 112545, Building 114, Gainesville, 

FL 32611 

The goal of this presentation is to inform the reader of the history of 

metric analyses of the tibia and present the possible adjustments necessary 

dependent upon the metric technique applied. 


humanity by presenting correction factors necessary for alternate methods 

of metric analysis for the maximum length measure of the tibia for stature 

estimation. 

The goal of this presentation is to inform the reader of the history of 

metric analyses of the tibia and the implication of these estimates on 

stature. The attendee will learn the possible adjustments to be applied, 

dependent upon the metric technique utilized. 

Techniques of metric analysis for post cranial human remains have 

been developed in physical anthropology to quantify the morphological 

features of these elements. However, in recent years some of these methods 

have been modified and re-formulated to suit the changing direction of 

morphological analysis or in the case where the original definitions have 

been forgotten, lost, or misinterpreted. This presentation offers a re-evaluation 

of the maximum length measure of the tibia including and excluding 

the intercondylar eminences, and tests the accuracy and validity of these 

metric methods experimentally across population, age, and sex. 

Trotter and Gleser (1952) analyzed the remains of WWII war dead 

and a sample from the Terry Collection, in order to develop living stature 

estimation formulae. These authors later (1958) re-evaluated their stature 

assessment by including a sample of Korean War casualties. Upon reexamination 

of Trotter and Gleser’s original sample data by Jantz et al. 

(1994) it was discovered that, contrary to Trotter’s own definition, her 

maximum length measurements of the tibia for the WWII and Terry collection 

excluded the malleolus from assessment. Measurements of the 

Korean War casualties were also unusually shorter than expected, however 

those measurements were taken by technicians utilizing Trotter’s definitions 

and the original human remains were not available for re-analysis by 

Jantz et al. 

Other authors, such as McHenry’s (1974:330) analysis of stature in 

Australopithecines, describe the maximum or “total length” measurement 

for the tibia as the maximum distance between the “most proximal and 

most distal points” on the tibia. This definition leads the reader to believe 

that the intercondylar eminences are to be included by McHenry’s 

description of the measurement, as these eminences are truly the tibia’s 

“most proximal point.” 

This presentation explores three main points: (1) Why were intercondylar 

eminences originally excluded from the maximum length measurement 

of the tibia? (2) If these eminences do bias the maximum length 

measurement as age progresses, is this a universal effect or is it population 

or sex dependent? (3) If there are no significant differences produced by 

including the intercondylar eminences in the maximum tibia measurement 

by sex, age and ancestry, is there a common adjustment that can be applied 

for measurements including/excluding the intercondylar eminences to 

determine maximum length of the tibia? 

Results show that the inclusion of the intercondylar eminences has no 

significant effect on age or sex estimates. However, the significant differences 

between the means of the two measurements (inclusion or exclusion 

of the intercondylar eminence) were noted when considering ancestry 

(Terry White N=94, Terry Black N=100, and South Dakota Arikara N=138 

– all housed at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

392

Institution)(P < 0.0001). Standard correction factors (sums of the differences) 

were calculated for each population and an overall correction factor 

was included in cases when ancestry is unknown. 

Terry White Terry Black Arikara Overall 

Correction Factor 3.27 mm 2.46 mm 1.86 mm 2.44 mm 

Possible reasons for excluding the intercondylar eminences from 

maximum length analysis for the tibia include age-related arthritic 

changes or the high frequency of eminence fracture in archaeological and 

modern assemblages. 

Tibia, Metric Analysis, Intercondylar Eminence 

H56 Extensive Rat Modification of a 

Human Skeleton From Central Indiana 

Sarah A. Kiley, BA*, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna 

Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227; Nicolette M. Parr, MS, University of 

Florida, PO Box 117305, Gainesville, FL 32611; and Stephen P. 

Nawrocki, PhD, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be provided with a 

discussion of the pattern of rat modification on a nearly complete human 

skeleton with hypertrophic bone formation due to diffuse idiopathic 

skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). 


by illustrating the ability of hypertrophic bone growths to withstand rodent 

modification due to the density of the bony growths. Future studies on the 

density of remodeled bone may provide insight into similar cases. 

In September of 2004, partially skeletonized human remains with 

apparent degenerative joint disease were found on a couch inside an abandoned 

house. The presumed decedent had been missing since January of 

2004. The remains were transported to the University of Indianapolis 

Archeology and Forensics Laboratory for processing and analysis. Initial 

examination revealed mold growth on the remains and clothing. 

Additionally, the individual was wearing several layers of clothing that contained 

rodent feces. The remains were simmered in a water, borax, and 

bleach solution for four to six hours and then air dried for 48 hours. The 

individual had already been positively identified from dental records; 

therefore, the analysis focused on three primary issues: making sure that 

only one individual was represented in the assemblage that all bones were 

consistent with those of the presumed decedent, and checking for any evidence 

of perimortem trauma. A full battery of measurements and analysis 

of morphological characteristics was conducted. The analysis determined 

that the remains were consistent with those of an African American male 

between the ages of 60 to 80 years. Stature could not be determined 

because all of the long bones had extensive rodent damage to the proximal 

and distal ends. No perimortem trauma was observed on the skeleton. 

This individual exhibited bony abnormalities on the spine and os 

coxae. Osteophytic lipping was present on the vertebral bodies, and calcification 

of the anterior longitudinal ligament was observed on the right side 

of the lower cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebra, and lumbar vertebrae. 

Osteophytes with a ‘candle wax’ appearance connected several vertebral 

bodies; however, there was no fusion between the elements. 

Enthesopathies were present on the ischial tuberosities and iliac crests. 

There was also extensive calcification of the costal cartilage. However, the 

sacroiliac joint was not involved and the intervertebral spaces were maintained. 

This overall pattern of bone formation is consistent with DISH. 

Extensive rodent modification was present on all skeletal elements, 

especially on the proximal and distal ends of the long bones and the vertebral 

bodies. Bony eminences and areas with only thin cortical bone were 

heavily modified, including the eye orbits, mandibular condyles, coracoid, 

and acromion processes. The ‘pedestal phenomenon’ (isolated arches of 

bone) was found on the ends of the long bones due to chewing and tunneling 

into the spongy bone in the rodents’ attempt to retrieve trapped fats. 

Striae arranged in parallel bands or fan-shaped arrangements were found in 

many areas of the shafts of long bones. The narrow striae were consistent 

with the chisel-like incisors of the rat rather than those of larger rodents 

(such as squirrels), and the destructive pattern of tunneling is also more 

consistent with scavenging rather than with field rodents opportunistically 

chewing dried bones. 

There was little modification to the hypertrophic, sclerotic bone 

growth associated with DISH. This phenomenon may be due to small 

rodent tooth size relative to the density of the osteophytes. Despite 

extensive rodent modification of much of the skeleton, important pathological 

indicators remained. 

Rodent Modification, Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis, 

Taphonomy 

H57 Mass Disasters and Non-Human Remains 

Deborah W. Gray, MA*, Riverside County Sheriff-Coroner, 800 South 

Redlands Avenue, Perris, CA 92571; and Judy M. Suchey, PhD, 

Department of Coroner, Los Angeles County, 1104 North Mission Road, 

Los Angeles, CA 90033 

The goal of this presentation is to stress identification of non-human 

remains. 


humanity by demonstrating how identification of non-human remains can 

dramatically alter an investigation and why proper identification can save 

investigation time and expenses. 

When disaster struck on 9-11 anthropologists from across the United 

States responded to lend their expertise. As in any disaster, large or small, 

anthropologists are often called upon to perform the same or similar tasks 

that they face in their own forensic setting at home. Often the importance 

of human verses non-human determination is underplayed in the mass disaster 

arena. During the 9-11 response 30% of the remains the first author 

examined in a three-day period were non-human and did not need further 

identification processing. The frequency and type of animal remains 

recovered or found in a mass disaster certainly depends on the setting. 

Airplane crashes in the ocean usually result in a variety of sea mammal 

remains; those in an urban setting often include processed domesticated 

animals, such as pig, cow, bird, sheep, or pets such as cats and dogs. This 

poster focuses on a problem in identification which is not stressed in the literature. 

In a review of bone specimens submitted over a ten-year period to 

Southern California Coroner offices in Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, 

and San Bernardino counties, the authors of found the “pig knee” to be the 

most problematic. Variability in “pig knees” is shown using photographs 

and line drawings and comparisons are made with the adult human 

skeleton. Graphs are also presented to show the frequency of animal types 

from 9-11 and from a year (2004) at the Riverside County Sheriff-Coroner. 

While the fully cleaned “pig knee” or ham bone does not necessarily offer 

a challenge to the trained anthropologist, partially fleshed ham bones pulled 

from garbage cans by the neighborhood dog have proven to be the most 

often misidentified element by specialists with some degree of knowledge. 

In the cases presented the “pig knee” was misidentified as being human by 

emergency room doctors, chiropractors, radiologists, and an orthopedic 

surgeon. 

Mass Disaster, Human/Non-Human Identification, Faunal Analysis 


H58 Antemortem vs. Perimortem Infant Rib 


Murray K. Marks, PhD*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Mariateresa A. Tersigni, PhD, Joint 

POW/MIA Accounting Command Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Darinka 

Mileusnic, MD, PhD, Knox County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1924 

Alcoa Highway, U-71, Knoxville, TN 37920 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand healing (or 

chronic) infant rib fractures compared to acute (or perimortem) and the histological 

appearance of these fractures. This knowledge will better enable 

them to specifically identify these lesions in both fresh and dried specimens, 

i.e., at autopsy or in the field, respectively. 


humanity by demonstrating how the diagnosis of antemortem and perimortem 

rib fractures in infants and children has major significance to the 

forensic investigation. Being able to sequence these wounds enables the 

investigator the ability to provide a history of abuse which allows the 

pathologist discernment of the cause and manner of death and the investigator 

a time line to possibly place a perpetrator with a victim. 

Even though malleable, infant ribs are vulnerable to fracture when the 

torso is impacted during abuse. Besides numeric, sequencing and 

mechano-functional interpretation, a temporal understanding of rib fractures 

is critical to the forensic investigation, especially in diagnosis of antemortem 

from perimortem breakage. Interpretation is more difficult than 

seemingly simple visual ascertainment of a fresh fracture versus callus formation. 

Decipherment of the antemortem insult becomes complex when 

the woven bone callus disintegrates under a later perimortem stress to 

reveal a macroscopic fresh break. How are such events interpreted and 

what effect may this have on the admissibility of evidence on a temporal 

assignment of antemortem fracture? For instance, a suspect is charged on 

a specific date with perimortem assault and the anthropologist may or may 

not be prevented from testimony that demonstrates a history of abuse. 

What can the anthropologist contribute to the interpretation of “time since 

trauma” when it comes to rib fractures? Sauer (1998) advanced the initial 

understanding of these phenomena by explaining precise criteria for diagnosis 

of these events. Can accuracy be achieved macroscopically or is histology 

a necessity to diagnose? 

Six antemortem and perimortem fractured ribs from two abused infant 

victims and the distal humerus from one of them were transversely sectioned 

for light microscopy following the methods of Tersigni (2005). 

These wounds were inflicted four to eight weeks prior to death. All 

damaged bone was past the inflammatory and in the reparative phase of 

healing as defined by Martin et al, (1998). From the midline of the fracture 

callus posterior to the non-traumatized bone cortex, half of each rib was 

embedded in epoxy resin and sectioned using a Buehler Isomet 1000 with 

a diamond blade. The sections were glass slide mounted with Permount 

and reviewed using a Leica DMRX research light microscope at 15x, 50 xs, 

and 100x magnification. Digital images were taken using a Sony video 

uplink and captured using Image Pro Express 4.0. The anterior half of the 

rib was reviewed using SEM using a LEO 1525 Field Emission. This rib 

portion from the other side was examined to identify the extent of active 

bone remodeling following the segments anterior to the fracture. 

Not surprisingly, under LM and SEM the fracture callus appears as a 

disorganized, amorphous mass of woven bone similar in many ways to a 

periosteal inflammatory response or the response involving cartilage. The 

latticework within the callus is poorly organized and minimally and marginally 

attached to the underlying periosteal surface of the rib through small 

bony spicules/projections. The callus structure functions specifically as an 

immobilizer for the compromised bone so that healing may take place at 

the fracture site. The resulting osseo-cartilagenous structure is congruent 

with the typical blastic events characteristic of the ossification processes of 

the hematoma. However, the quality of bone making up the callus proper 


is not the quality of uncompromised bone given the lack of true lamellar 

and Haversian organization. In the heart of the callus there is evidence of 

a specific endosteal/ medullary callus forming between the originally 

severed ends. 

In the non-traumatized bone adjacent to the fracture site there is a 

gradual level of involvement typical of the inflammatory tissue response of 

the periosteum. However, this may be difficult to decipher. The adjacent 

periosteal layer demonstrates a gradual thickening from the fracture site to 

normal thickness further away from the fracture. The cortical bone 

appearance within the fracture proper and immediately adjacent demonstrates 

remodeling given a higher rate of blastic activity. The SEM examination 

of the rib surfaces moving away from the callus reveals a three 

dimensional cone-shaped zone of healing that gets narrower as the 

examiner moves toward uncompromised bone along with a decrease in cortical 

thickness. 

Given the time frame of one to two months post-trauma, all wounds 

examined were beyond the inflammatory phase and the reparative phase is 

active and near completion. In fact, within one month, Martin et al’s (1998) 

inflammatory response, i.e., the reason for the callus and the reparative 

phase of callus formation has been achieved and is moving toward the 

remodeling phase. Here, diminution of the woven bone callus with new 

bone contoured and molded as the re-instated functional demands are 

placed on the structure is seen. 

Like any newly formed woven bone, the quality of bone in the fracture 

callus is poor and unsuited to withstand subsequent rigors of compression 

trauma/loading. Therefore, it is not uncommon, in cases of episodic child 

abuse, to find seemingly fresh breaks contained within the antemortem 

callus since no remodeling of the original fractured parts are macroscopically 

visible until the bone initializes Martin et al’s “remodeling phase.” If 

the portions of the callus are lost at autopsy or during skeletal processing, 

care must be taken not to interpret a perimortem fracture site from an antemortem 

event 

Histology, Child Abuse, Infant Bone Fractures 

H59 Evaluation of the Relationship Between 

Fifth Metatarsal Length and Foot Length/ 

Shoe Size: A Possible Aid in Human 


Robert F. Pastor, PhD*, University of Bradford, Biological Anthropology 

Research Centre, Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford, West 

Yorkshire BD7 1DP, United Kingdom; and Angela J. Reynard, MSc*, 

Bureau of Forensic Science, Ltd, Temple Chambers, 3-7 Temple Avenue, 

London, EC4Y OHP, United Kingdom 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate new methods for 

assisting in the identification of human remains utilizing bones of the foot, 

specifically the length of the fifth metatarsal. This particular element is 

useful because it can be manually palpated and measured in test subjects, 

thus avoiding invasive procedures or ionizing radiation. 


humanity by demonstrating that the metatarsal bones of the foot, specifically 

the fifth metatarsal, can provide information useful to forensic anthropology 

research and casework, contributing information potentially useful 

for personal identification. This seemingly inconsequential bone has an 

unprecedented body of data to share and this study demonstrates the strong 

association between the length of the fifth metatarsal and weight-bearing 

foot length and also in the estimation of potential shoe size worn by an 

unidentified individual. In general, the findings of this study may prove 

useful as an additional resource when faced with the difficulty of attributing 

individual characteristics to unidentified isolated osteological material. 

The results also warrant consideration by the footwear industry with regard 

to the standardization of shoe sizes. 

394

Significant data exists with regard to the information gleaned from the 

metatarsal bones. This has been well documented by a number of 

researchers, in particular with regard to the estimation of sex, stature, and 

race. However, there is potentially additional valuable information to be 

obtained from this unique collection of bones, which are easily identifiable 

and often survive due to there size and robusticity. This research explores 

the relationship between the length of the fifth metatarsal and overall length 

of the human foot. This data is of potential relevance to a multitude of disciplines 

including forensic podiatry and the footwear industry. In an effort 

to raise the issue of utilizing feet and footwear evidence to assist with the 

identification process, the research also considered the relationship 

between the fifth metatarsal size and an individual’s correct (recommended) 

shoe size, as a possible unique supporting aid in the identification 

process. This could potentially provide supplemental information to well 

established techniques when more conventional means of anthropological 

identification, such as examination of skeletal anomalies or sinus configurations, 

are not possible. 

This research was conducted with the intention of testing two alternative 

hypotheses: First, that a strong positive relationship exits between 

the length of the fifth metatarsal of the foot and the overall foot length and 

second, that a similar relationship also exists between the length of the fifth 

metatarsal of the foot and shoe size worn by test subjects. 

Biological and metric data, including the fifth metatarsal length, foot 

length, weight, shoe size worn and correct shoe size, were collected from 

120 British subjects (50 males and 70 females, of primarily European 

ancestry) with ages ranging from 18–94 years old. The fifth metatarsal 

length, defined as ‘the measured distance between the most laterally-protruding 

aspect of the styloid process (approximating the proximal end), and 

the distal head of the bone’, was measured to the nearest millimetre using 

digital sliding calipers. The individual extremities were located by manually 

palpating the lateral side of the foot. Foot length and ‘correct’ (best 

fit) shoe size were determined using a modified ‘Brannock’ device, with the 

subjects standing in a weight-bearing position. Interestingly, slightly more 

than half the subjects were found to be wearing an incorrect shoe size (i.e. 

0.5 to 1 size too large), a result which was greater for women, due to factors 

such as personal choice and variation in manufacturing practices. Linear 

regression equations were constructed from the data using least squares formulae 

to determine the degree of relationship between the pairs of data. A 

blind test was subsequently undertaken using a small sub-sample of data 

collected independently, but consistent with the population from which the 

main sample of individuals were taken, to assess the reliability and 

accuracy of the calculated regression equations. 

The construction of the linear regression equations revealed that the 

fifth metatarsal length displays a significant correlation with foot length 

(left foot: r = 0.764; right foot: r = 0.778, p< 0.0005). For the right foot, the 

calculated regression equation is Y1 = 149.102 + 1.531 x MT (where: Y1 

= right foot length, MT = fifth metatarsal length; r 2 = 0.605). In addition, 

a significant relationship was shown to exist between the fifth metatarsal 

size and the determined correct shoe size, with strong positive correlations 

identified between left and right metatarsal lengths and ‘correct’ shoe size 

(r = 0.741 and 0.782, respectively; p < 0.0005). The calculated regression 

equation for right-foot shoe size is Y2 = -5.344 + 0.188 x MT (where: Y2 

= correct shoe size, MT = fifth metatarsal length; r 2 = 0.612). The blind test 

results indicated that foot length can be predicted to within ± 7.3 mm of the 

actual values, within a 95% confidence interval, using known fifth 

metatarsal lengths of either side. The regression models correctly assigned 

85% of individuals to within ±0.5 (one-half shoe size) of their correct shoe 

size and the remaining 15% correct to within ±1 whole shoe size. These 

small inaccuracies are consistent with the errors calculated in the subjects 

wearing the incorrect shoe size for their foot. 

The results of this study demonstrate that the metatarsal bones of the 

foot, specifically the fifth metatarsal, can provide information useful to 

forensic anthropology research and casework. This seemingly inconsequential 

bone has an unprecedented body of data to share and has in this 

instance been shown to have a strong association to foot length and also in 

the estimation of potential shoe size worn by an unidentified individual. In 

general, the findings of this study may prove useful as an additional 

resource when faced with the difficulty of attributing individual characteristics 

to unidentified isolated osteological material. The results also warrant 

consideration by the footwear industry with regard to the standardization of 

shoe sizes. 

Foot Length, Fifth Metatarsal Length, Shoe Size 

H60 Nail or Bullet? A Comparison of Typical 



Wendy E. Potter, BA, MS*, Department of Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001; and Russell T. 

Alexander, MD, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC11-6030, 1 

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to distinguish 

between typical gunshot wound entrances and a defect resulting from a nail 

gun utilizing the morphology of the cranial defect and patterns of secondary 

fractures. This can assist investigators and anthropologists in assessing the 

type of projectile producing circular cranial vault defects in rare cases when 

the projectile is not recovered, contextual evidence is missing, or only 

skeletonized remains are present. 


humanity by presenting both the bony morphological characteristics for a 

nail and typical bullet wounds, aiding in the identification of the projectile 

used, and by elucidating factors contributing to the difference in mortality 

between contact wounds involving nails versus bullets. 

The medical literature on nail guns revealed numerous construction 

site accidents but relatively few incidences of their use in suicides or homicides. 

The preponderance of on-the-job cranio-cerebral injuries occurred 

as a result of accidental discharge or ricochet; fatalities from these injuries 

were uncommon. The intentional use of a nail gun to commit suicide is 

rare. Based on published cases of cranial nail gun injuries, most wounds 

were survivable with prompt medical attention. Deaths resulting from accidental 

and suicidal nail gun wounds were typically prolonged and 

attributed to sequelae. 

A male, who had committed suicide by shooting himself in the head 

with a nail gun, was drawn from the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology 

documented collection to illustrate the bony morphology of a nail entrance 

wound. This defect was directly compared to .22 caliber bullet entrance 

wounds in the crania of four individuals drawn from the Museum’s various 

skeletal collections. This caliber was specifically chosen to ensure comparability, 

as .22 caliber bullets are nearly equal in diameter to the nail’s head 

(1/4 inch) and are likely to produce defects similar in size to the nail gun 

wound. 

An examination of the cranial defect in the suicide victim revealed an 

entrance wound located roughly 8 millimeters posterior to the coronal 

suture, just superior to the frontal angle of the right parietal and inferior to 

the temporal line. The nail removed a plug of bone as it entered the 

cranium, leaving a sharp-margined circular defect approximately 8 millimeters 

(1/3 inches) in diameter. Spalling produced irregular beveled 

edges internally, with a wider beveled area along the anterior and superior 

aspects. No exit wound or radiating fractures were present, and no secondary 

fractures of the orbital plates resulted. 

The typical .22 caliber bullet entrance wounds were round or oval in 

shape, with sharp edges and internal bevelling. Uniform bevelling was 

typical for right angle gunshots, whereas irregular bevelling indicated 

oblique strikes. Orbital fractures were often present; these thin plates of 

bone were particularly susceptible to fracture because of the sudden 

increase in intracranial pressure produced when the bullet entered the 

cranium. Differences in gunshot wound morphology were noted between 


short and long cartridges, as well as among various ranges of fire. With the 

exception of the orbital plates, short cartridges rarely produced secondary 

fractures in the cranium. In contrast, long cartridges usually produced 

orbital plate fractures as well as linear fractures of the cranial vault. These 

fractures resulted from temporary cavity formation and, in the case of 

contact wounds, the additional pressure produced by the expansion of gases 

entering the neurocranium. Distant .22 caliber gunshot wounds often 

lacked sufficient energy to produce exit defects, whereas contact wounds 

resulted in perforating injuries. 

Although they share some similarities, the nail gun wound described 

is distinct from .22 caliber bullet wounds. Differences in the defect morphology 

and variation in secondary fracturing serve to distinguish between 

nail and bullet wounds. Perhaps more interesting is the dramatic difference 

in lethality recorded in the literature between contact gunshot and nail gun 

wounds, even when comparing roughly equivalent projectile diameters. 

Factors influencing the survivability of intracranial injuries following 

gunshot and nail gun contact wounds will be discussed. 

Nail Gun, Penetrating Cranial Defect, Lethality 

H61 Observations of Decomposition in 

Southern Coastal North Carolina 

Midori Albert, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of North 

Carolina Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403- 

5907; Jeffery K. Tomberlin, PhD, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M 

University, 1229 North U.S. Highway 281, Stephenville, TX 76401; and 

Christina Johnson, BA, Department of Sociology and Criminal Justice, 

University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 S College Road, 

Wilmington, NC 28403-5978 

The goal of this presentation is to allow attendees to gain information 

on decomposition rates and patterns during early spring in a southeastern 

coastal U.S. region. These findings can be used to more accurately assess 

the postmortem interval specifically in this type of geographical location. 


humanity by increasing knowledge of rates and patterns of decomposition 

in a southeastern U.S. subtropical microclimate allowing for more accurate 

assessments of time since death. 

The authors hypothesized that in a coastal microclimate; there would 

be similarities in the overall pattern of decomposition, but differences with 

regard to rates of decomposition and entomological findings due to variations 

in temperature, humidity, and or rainfall when compared to other 

locales. 

Inasmuch as pig carrion is an acceptable substitute for human 

cadavers, eight pigs ranging from 18-50 pounds were used in this study. 

For protection from possible scavenging, five of the pig carcasses were 

placed on the surface of the ground inside a chain link fenced area open at 

the top. Three pig carcasses were placed on the surface of the ground just 

outside the fenced area. All eight pigs were within ten feet of a saltwater 

marsh with no shade. The study lasted from March 28, 2005, when the pigs 

were initially laid out, until April 20, 2005, when full skeletonization was 

reached. During the course of the study, observations of decomposition, 

weather, temperature, humidity, wind speed, insect activity, and plant 

growth were recorded daily. 

Patterns of decomposition—such as bloating, discoloration, skin 

slippage, and breakdown of tissues—were found to be similar to what 

would be expected in most other regions. However, it was interesting to 

note that in early spring, when the average temperature approached 70 

degrees Fahrenheit with 55.37% humidity and significant rainfall, full 

skeletonization was attained in three weeks. Sun bleaching was evident on 

many of the bones. All three of the unprotected pig carcasses exposed on 

the surface were lost to scavenging, but not until much decomposition had 

already occurred. Details of insect activity on the five remaining pig carcasses 

will be discussed, along with features of peculiar and rapid plant 


growth. These findings, compared to findings from other similar studies, 

will also be discussed. Results of this study will provide descriptive data 

useful in assessing the postmortem interval in a southeastern coastal subtropical 

region. 

Postmortem Interval, Decomposition, Forensic Entomology 

H62 The Differential Diagnosis of Skullbase 



Stephanie L. Child, MA*, The University of Missouri-Columbia, 701 

Swallow Hall, Columbia, Missouri 65211; and Dana E. Austin, PhD, 

Tarrant County Medical Examiner’s Office, 200 Felix Gwozdz Place, 

Forth Worth, Texas 76104 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the importance 

of microscopic examination in the diagnosis of pathological conditions 

and the necessity of cooperative efforts in the resolution of cold cases. 


by calling attention to the occurrence of skullbase osteomyelitis secondary 

to necrotizing otitis externa and illuminating the potential usefulness of a 

differential diagnosis in the evaluation of pathological conditions. 

A case study in which the skeletal remains of a man recovered in 1963 

were recently identified through the cooperative efforts of forensic specialists 

will be presented. Initially described as a woman in 1963, the 

remains were stored as evidence at the Fort Worth Police Department for 

40 years. In 2004, the remains were turned over to the Tarrant County 

Medical Examiner’s Anthropology Laboratory for reevaluation. Metric 

and non-metric evaluation indicated that the remains were those of a white 

male, age 33-45 years. A facial reconstruction was produced and recognized 

in a local newspaper by friends of the decedent. Identification was 

confirmed through mitochondrial DNA comparison with a maternal first 

cousin. No antemortem medical records were located. The decedent’s military 

records had been destroyed in a fire in 1973. 

Differential diagnosis began with gross and radiological evaluation of 

the skull. Multiple osteolytic lesions affecting the endocranial lamina and 

diploë of the cranium were noted. The lesions bilaterally affected the 

petrous bones, the sphenoid, and the frontal bone at the terminations of the 

middle meningeal arteries. Two lesions were removed from the cranium 

and retained for microscopic analysis before the remains were released to 

the family. 

The lytic samples were embedded in epoxy resin and thin ground sections 

were prepared for microscopic examination. Microscopic examination 

revealed the presence of abnormal bone resorption due to osteoclastic 

hyperactivity and reactive new bone growth at the lytic foci. This 

resorptive and formative bone behavior is a diagnostic characteristic of 

skullbase osteomyelitis. 

Skullbase osteomyelitis (SBO) secondary to necrotizing otitis externa, 

first described by Meltzer and Kelemen in 1959, is an inflammatory pyogenic 

infection affecting the temporal and sphenoid bones. It is an 

uncommon complication that arises from chronic ear infections. The 

infection begins in the soft tissues within the external auditory canal and 

extends into the retromandibular fossa through the Santorini fissure. The 

infection continues its extension into the parotid space and throughout the 

petrous apex and sphenoid. Pus is produced within the bone, causing 

abscesses. These abscesses deprive the bone of its blood supply, causing 

necrosis of the bone tissue. If left untreated, the progressive infection will 

continue its extension posteriorly and medially, resulting in cranial nerve 

palsy, sigmoid sinus thrombosis, intracranial extension, and death (Schultz, 

2001). If prompt and aggressive antibiotic treatment is administered, the 

infection may be arrested. This particular individual shows progressive 

skullbase osteomyelitis, an anticipated finding in a case associated with the 

pre-antibiotic era. 

396

This poster presents the differential diagnosis of skullbase 

osteomyelitis secondary to necrotizing otitis externa. Anecdotal information 

obtained from the family members supports this hypothesis as this 

individual suffered from chronic ear pain. 

Osteomyelitis, Necrotizing Otitis Externa, Differential Diagnosis 

H63 Sexual Dimorphism in the Vertebral Column 

Amanda S. Allbright, BA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 


The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the extent of sexual 

variability existing throughout the vertebral column. 


humanity by demonstrating sexual dimorphism in the vertebral column and 

the usefulness of various vertebrae as sex indicators. 

This poster will demonstrate the potential ability of the vertebral 

column to assist in sex estimation. Sex determination is a key characteristic 

in developing a biological profile of an individual. Sexual dimorphism 

has been demonstrated in various skeletal elements, including the pelvis 

and cranium. Previous studies have also demonstrated that elements of the 

axial skeleton are useful in determining sex. The atlas, axis, twelfth thoracic, 

first lumbar, and sacrum have all demonstrated usefulness as sex indicators. 

Since forensic and archaeological remains are often fragmentary, 

the ability to determine sex from as many skeletal elements as possible is 

important. The ability to determine sex from any specific vertebra would 

prove very useful. 

A series of measurements were taken on a small sample of males and 

females from the William M. Bass Donated Collection at the University of 

Tennessee. This collection was utilized because it represents a sample of a 

modern population of known age, sex, and ancestry. Though studies have 

already demonstrated that the axis, atlas, twelfth thoracic, and first lumbar 

are sexually dimorphic, measurements from these vertebrae were included 

in this study in order to obtain a better picture of the variability of the entire 

vertebral column and to consider the variability of these vertebrae in a different 

population from the ones in which they were originally tested. 

Measurements used in this study were based on measurements defined by 

previous studies on vertebrae. Measurements taken on all vertebrae include 

the anterior-posterior length of the vertebral foramen (LVF), length and 

width of left superior and inferior facets (LSF, WSF, LIF, and WIF, respectively), 

maximum breadth between superior/inferior facets (SFB/IFB), 

maximum height from superior to inferior facets (MHF), maximum length 

of the vertebra from posterior point of spinous process to most anterior 

point of the vertebra (XSL). Width of the fovea (WFV) was taken on first 

cervical vertebrae and the maximum height and diameter of the dens 

(MHD/MWD) was taken on second cervical vertebrae. Measurements 

taken on all but the first two cervical vertebrae include the maximum 

sagittal and transverse length of the vertebral body (SLVB, TLVB) as well 

as the anterior and posterior heights of the vertebral body (MHVA, 

MHVP). All measurements were taken to the nearest millimeter using a 

Mitutoyo digital sliding caliper. 

Preliminary analyses of results in this study indicate several features 

may exhibit sexual dimorphism throughout the vertebral column. The 

maximum length of the vertebrae appears to exhibit strong variability 

between the sexes, while the length of the vertebral foramen does not. The 

differences in the lengths and widths of the superior and inferior facets also 

suggest sexual dimorphism. Breadth between facets, height of superior to 

inferior facets, and dimensions of the vertebral body also appear to demonstrate 

differences between the sexes. Though differences are noted between 

the heights of the vertebral bodies of males and females, this pattern may 

be due more to age than to sex. These preliminary results suggest that 

sexual dimorphism exists throughout the vertebral column and that vertebrae 

can be used in estimating sex. Further investigation using a larger 

sample of individuals from the Bass Donated Collection will be conducted 

to determine the extent of sexual dimorphism in the vertebral column and 

the level of accuracy and reliability obtainable when using vertebrae to 

determine sex. This research could demonstrate that any vertebra can be 

used for estimating sex, possibly even if fragmented and/or specific vertebra 

number is unidentifiable, which could prove useful in forensic and 

archaeological situations, especially where skeletal material is fragmented 

or commingled. 

Sex Determination, Vertebrae, Physical Anthropology 

H64 Heat Intensity Versus Exposure 

Duration Part I: Macroscopic 

Influence on Burned Bone 

Joanne B. Delvin, PhD*, and Anne Kroman, MA*, University of 


Knoxville, TN 37996; Steve Symes, PhD, Mercyhurst College, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences , Erie, 

PA 16546; and Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD, University of Tennessee, 252 

South Stadium Hall, Department of Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996 

The goal of this presentation is to provide attendees with information 

regarding the impact of duration of exposure compared to intensity of 

heating upon bone. 


humanity by providing an understanding of the contribution and interaction 

of intensity of heating and duration of exposure to the state of burned 

remains. 

Throughout the last several decades burned bone has received copious 

attention in the anthropological literature, as the focal point of numerous 

forensic and archaeological examinations. Specifically, investigations, 

both laboratory and replicative, have focused upon developing criteria for 

identifying and assessing the degree of heat alteration through classification 

of color variation. Research has also focused upon change in surface morphology 

towards determination of pre-incineration condition. In addition, 

examinations have sought to recognize the micromorphological impact of 

heating. 

At the most basic level, the condition and appearance of burned bone 

is due to exposure to heat, specifically the combined factors of duration and 

the intensity of heating. As noted in the literature, these two variables 

undoubtedly have a profound impact upon the condition of the remains, 

color changes, and fracture patterns. Nonetheless, the degree to which 

these variables influence the modification or destruction of the organic 

component of bone has not been systematically assessed. To potentially 

illuminate this situation, and understand the contribution and interaction of 

the intensity of heating and the duration of exposure to the state of burned 

remains, bone was heated using two exposure scenarios. One model represents 

a residential structure fire in which temperatures grow gradually 

and reach a maximum of approximately 1000 degrees Fahrenheit (F). The 

second model mimics an automobile fire in which temperatures build 

rapidly, exceeding 1400 F after less than two minutes. These models 

provide an opportunity to compare the varied effects of duration and 

intensity of heating on specimens and the resultant impact upon bone. 

Our sample (15 specimens in total) was divided into two groups to 

represent each of the scenarios. Samples were heated in an electric kiln. 

Thermocouple devices positioned inside the kiln continuously monitor 

temperatures which are then relayed to a laptop computer running 

DaqView 5.0. For each model, seven samples of fresh bone, complete with 

soft tissue, were loaded into the kiln, prior to heating. One specimen was 

retained as a control. For model one, temperatures were raised in increments 

of 150 degrees every 3 minutes, resulting in a maximum temperature 

of 1050 degrees F over an interval of 21 minutes. For model two, the temperature 

was raised in increments of 250 degrees every 2 minutes resulting 

in a maximum temperature of 1750 degrees F over a period of 14 minutes. 

Prior to each temperature increase interval, one specimen was removed for 

analysis. 


All extracted specimens were evaluated macroscopically. Surface 

color was assessed using a photospectrometer. Resultant analysis showed 

the differing effects of the two variables, specifically their impacts upon 

surface colors and fracture patterns. Specimens from scenario one, a lower 

temperature, longer duration fire displayed a range of color changes and 

fracture patterning. Specimens from burn scenario two, characterized by a 

high intensity shorter duration fire experienced a rapid loss of the organic 

component generating warping and characteristic fracture patterns. The 

differences seen in surface color changes, as well as fracture patterns 

between the two scenarios offer criteria to the forensic anthropologist 

tasked with interpreting and examining burned remains. 

Burned Bone, Heat Fractures, Fire Models 

H65 Odd Man Out: Separation and 

Identification of Terrorist Remains 

in Suicidal Bombings 

William C. Rodriguez III, PhD*, Office of the Armed Forces Medical 

Examiner, 16465 Old Frederick Road, Building 102, Rockville, MD 

20850 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be familiar with basic 

methods and techniques useful in separating commingled remains of terrorist 

in suicidal bombings. In addition the attendees will be provided 

information concerning injuries sustained by suicidal bombers in relationship 

to the type of explosive device detonated. 


humanity by assisting the forensic community in conducting investigations 

dealing with terrorist bombings and helping to determine remains which 

may be those of the bomber. 

One of the biggest threats facing the world at large today is terrorism. 

In many countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Israel there are 

constant attacks by terrorists on both military and local civilians. The 

attacks commonly employed are those committed by suicidal bombers, 

who strap themselves with explosives and detonate them in strategic areas 

of commerce or other areas where crowds coalesce. Detonation of these 

explosive devices has caused tremendous causalities in addition to 

destruction of property. The greatest perpetrators of these suicidal 

bombings are fanatical Islamic fundamentalists who believe that by killing 

themselves, they will become martyrs and will be richly rewarded in 

heaven. 

Forensic examination of evidence recovered after a bombing includes 

the identification of fatalities including the bomber, and associated 

explosive injuries. In most cases there will be commingling of both the 

remains of the bomber as well as the innocent personnel. Separation of the 

bombers remains from those who were killed is important for two reasons. 

One it is important to identify the remains of the innocent by-standers and 

return them to their families to help provide some degree of closure. 

Secondly it is important to identify the remains of the bomber as they 

provide important clues as to the identity of the bomber, and the type of 

explosive device utilized. 

In many bombing cases separation of the commingled remains 

requires forensic anthropological examination of the remains in order to 

determine the anatomical portions represented and the minimum number of 

individuals present. Once the minimum number of individuals is established 

the anthropologist can undertake developing a biological profile for 

each set of remains identified in reference to sex, age, and race. In addition 

to anthropological separation based on morphological characteristics, the 

anthropologist can collect tissues specimens for DNA analysis. 

Anthropological separation of the bomber’s remains can also be 

accomplished by identifying the personal characteristics of the bomber. 

Characteristics utilized in identifying middle-eastern bombers includes 

evidence of dark or olive skin tone, abundant body hair, dark head and body 

hair which is thick or coarse, presence of a beard, dry and worn feet 


(evidence of everyday sandal wear in a desert environment), absence of 

U.S. or European dental work, and the presence of embedded electrical 

components such as wires in various body portions. Although these traits 

are not necessarily exclusive they have been found to be extremely useful 

in separating those of Middle Eastern decent from Europeans. Age estimation 

can also be of use, as the great majority of suicide bombers encountered 

are between seventeen and thirty years of age. 

Examination of injuries involving belt type explosive devices worn by 

the bombers leads one to expect to see separation of the body into two to 

four major portions (being the upper torso from above the lower rib cage in 

addition to one or both arms out to the elbows, and the inferior pelvic 

border which may be attached to one or both upper legs). The lower arms 

and lower legs tend to be separated from their respective torso area and may 

be also further separated from the hands at the wrist and feet at the ankle. 

Injuries involving larger explosives such as those carried in a large 

backpack or transported as a car bomb produce greater fragmentation of the 

body with upper limbs separated into the hands, the lower arms and wrist 

complex, the elbow complex, the upper arm and shoulder complex, the 

lower limbs separated into the feet, lower leg and ankle, middle femoral 

shaft, the left and right innominate and their respective proximal femur 

head and neck, the lumbar vertebrae column, the lower thoracic vertebral 

column and inferior rib cage, the upper thoracic vertebral column and upper 

rib cage, the cervical vertebrae column with a portion of the inferior base 

of the skull and mandible portions, and the upper cranium divided into four 

sections, the maxillary and temporal portions, the occipital bone, and the 

parietal portions. 

The use of nuclear DNA extracted from soft tissues or bone can 

provide evidence of an unknown profile or “odd-man-out.” Additional 

DNA studies, in particular mitochondrial profiling can be used to denote a 

possible suicide bomber based on sequence comparison to reported world 

databases indicating that an individual is likely of Middle–Eastern origin. 

Multiple case examples of suicide bombings will be presented, highlighting 

anthropological methods for sorting the human remains involved. 

Anthropology, Bombs, Explosive Injuries 

H66 Evidence vs. Identification: The Role 

of Humanitarian Organizations in 

the Balkans 1992-2002 

Abbie K. Cuff, MSc*, and Tal Simmons, PhD, University of Central 

Lancashire, Department of Forensic & Investigative Science, Preston, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will appreciate the need 

for a co-ordinated approach to victim identification and the determination 

of cause and manner of death in situations of mass violations of human 

rights, to prevent duplication of effort between organisations and re-traumatisation 

of victims’ families. 


humanity by contributing to the ongoing discussions regarding the development 

of best practice methodology for dealing with ‘missing person’ and 

identification issues following a mass disaster (natural or man-made) or 

mass violation of human rights. 

Following the ethnic cleansing and genocide in the Balkans in the 

1990s, over 30,000 individuals were thought to be missing. There were 

many humanitarian organisations active in the region investigating these 

disappearances, each with a different mandate. There was ample scope for 

duplication of efforts if a coordinated approach was not taken to the issue 

of missing persons and the identification of recovered remains. 

The humanitarian organisations performed a variety of roles, mainly 

exhumation, determination of cause and manner of death, victim identification, 

and psycho-social support. No one organisation had a complete 

portfolio of services at that time, and depending on their mandate, different 

emphasis was placed on the importance of identifying remains. It is 

398

inferred that initially, identification was of secondary concern to evidence 

collection (Nowak, 1998). The artificial separation of responsibilities 

between organisations, specifically victim identification, and the determination 

of cause and manner of death created inefficiencies in the identification 

process. Postmortems had to be repeated, families re-interviewed 

and in some instances remains re-exhumed. This not only lengthened the 

process, but also re-traumatised families, as they had to go back over details 

for a second or even third time (Keough, et al., 2004). 

A cross-sectional survey (41% response rate) was carried out on individuals 

who worked for international humanitarian organisations in the 

region (ICTY, ICRC, PHR, ICMP, TPO, OSCE) to examine the interaction 

amongst organisations. The results showed that in a majority of cases the 

various entities cooperated and collaborated well together, however, it was 

clear that some organisations had territorial issues, an issue also discussed 

by Skinner & Sterenberg (2005) in their paper of turf wars, and this influenced 

working relationships both in the field and the laboratory, and in turn 

impacted the frequency and usefulness of information exchanged. The 

survey suggested that in the absence of formalised lines of communication 

and information flow, the information exchanged among organisations was 

on an ad-hoc basis with variable impact on the task of identification. The 

emergency intervention programme run in Kosovo by PHR with ICTY is 

an example of how organisations can collaborate to meet the needs of both 

the forensic experts and the families. PHR acted as family liaison between 

the ICTY’s forensic teams and families (Keough et al., 2004). The programme 

was successful because each entity had a defined role and they 

work closely together with each other and local organisations to achieve 

their aims. 

Providing a complete portfolio of forensic and community services, 

managed by either one organisation or by a working group depending on 

the size of the project is the best approach to dealing with missing person 

and identification issues. If the situation does not allow for this then internationally 

agreed standards and protocols should be adopted to ensure there 

is no disconnect between organisations and to avoid duplication of effort. 

The ICRC conference “The Missing” in 2003 began the task of 

bringing together experts to formally discuss missing person issues (ICRC, 

2003). They ran a panel session on the collection, exhumation, and identification 

of human remains whose aim was to show the necessity of a 

standard framework of action. The participants came from both national 

and international organisations, many of whom had carried out work in the 

former Yugoslavia, Latin America, and Rwanda. One outcome of the 

session was a set of recommendations for a framework, incorporating the 

needs of all parties concerned – evidence, identification (anthropological 

and DNA) and psycho-social support. The framework would cover such 

things as terms of reference, resources, equipment, logistics, and legal considerations. 

Importance was also placed on the need for standard guidelines 

and protocols relating to exhumation, postmortem, and identification. 

Unfortunately, there is no information in the public domain concerning any 

further work resulting from these recommendations. 

The recent tsunami in Southeast Asia and the mass graves in Iraq have 

raised the issue of managing large scale recovery and identification initiatives 

effectively and with due care given to the victims’ relatives. Isn’t it 

about time the forensic community became more proactive than reactive? 

Identification, Organisational Dynamics, the Balkans 

H67 Children’s Traumas Caused During 

the Civil War in Guatemala 

Shirley C. Chacon, BA*, Avenida Simeon Canas 10-64 zona 2, 2 Avenida 

8-28 zona 18 Residenciales Atlantida, Guatemala, 01002, Guatemala; 

and Leonel E. Paiz, BA, Avenida Simeon Canas 10-64 zona 2, 



different perimortem traumas in subadult skeletons. 


humanity by revealing to the international community the violations 

against children during the civil war in Guatemala. 

During the civil war in Guatemala, children suffered in a cruel way the 

violation of their essential human rights. Their right to live was affected by 

arbitrary executions, death of the unborn, neonates, and death as a result of 

forced displacement and forced disappearance. The right to physical and 

psychological integrity was violated by acts of torture and sexual violation. 

Their right to individual liberty was affected through the illegal privation of 

liberty and forced servitude. 

According to data registered by the Guatemalan Historical 

Clarification Commission (CEH) “18% of the total of violations to human 

rights (against victims of known age) was performed against children“ 

(4,249 out of 23, 313). This means that at least one out of five victims is 

under age. Of the total of victims with known age, children comprise 20% 

of the people killed by arbitrary execution; 14% of victims of torture or otherwise 

cruel, inhumane, and denigrating treatment; 11% of victims of 

forced disappearance; 16% of the deprived of their liberty; and 27% of the 

sexually violated. 

Even though these cold numbers and the horror of civil war in 

Guatemala are known, there still exists unresolved issues that are products 

of war such as: children separated from their families after witnessing acts 

of extreme cruelty against their loved ones; children found alive after massacres 

or confrontations; children lost during forced displacement or left in 

the custody of people or institutions; and children deprived of their fundamental 

human rights, including the right to have an identity, a name and to 

have a family free from illicit interference. 

The forced movement of juveniles from their ethnic group to others, 

especially after massacres to indigenous communities, causes a loss of 

identity and affects the children’s cultural rights. At the same time, it 

affects the collective rights of the ethnic group by impeding biological and 

cultural reproduction of the group. 

During more than 13 years the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropological 

Foundation (FAFG) has performed more than 500 forensic anthropological 

investigations. In each one of them testimonies are collected and bone evidence 

that unveil the cruel violations of fundamental and specific human 

rights that children have suffered. In this report, the authors will show violations 

to human rights of children using specific cases as well as general 

data that FAFG obtained through forensic anthropological investigations. 

Finally, it will be stated how, after the peace accords signature, the 

culture of violence borne of the civil war, still affects this most vulnerable 

group of children. 

Children, Massacre, Trauma 


H68 Burial Patterns of Korean War Casualties 

as an Indicator of the Social Relationships 


William R. Belcher, PhD*, and Derek C. Benedix, PhD, JPAC-CIL, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

The goal of this presentation is to present two case studies of battlefield 

casualty burial pattern as examples of the social relationship between 

the decedent and the burial party. This paper will provide forensic investigators 

in both modern and ancient recovery/crime scenes with essential 

information for the reconstruction of events and relationships to the 

decedent. 


humanity by discussing critical elements of the social relationships 

between the living and the dead concerning burial practices encountered in 

several post-battlefield bio-archaeological settings in North Korea. These 

observations can be applied to war time casualties as well as modern crime 

scene investigations. (Needs to cite Holland 2001) 

The position of a body in a burial has long been important in the 

understanding of the reconstruction of past events, whether this occurred 

several years ago or in a recent crime scene. Additionally, body position in 

a burial is often seen as an indicator of the relationship between the 

decedent and the burial party. Examination of burial practices at two sites 

associated with the Korean War (1950-1953) sheds light on this relationship 

and its importance in scene reconstruction. The primary social 

relationships that will be examined are whether the decedent held friendly 

or enemy status. 

Two recovery scenes are examined below, both are associated with the 

Battle of Ch’ongch’on. In late November 1950, the 25th and 2nd Infantry 

Divisions had advanced up the Ch’ongch’on River basin to the town of 

Kujang-Dong. The Chinese forces launched a major attack along both divisions’ 

line of defense. Due to overwhelming odds, the divisions were 

forced to withdraw to the town of Kunu-ri for consolidation. 

In September 2000, a scene was located on the southwestern slope and 

ridge line of Hill 219. Scattered over the area were numerous “foxholes,” 

one of which contained a burial of three individuals. The positions of the 

bodies ranged between extended to semi-flexed. The position of limbs and 

orientation of bodies suggest rapid placement with little or no concern for 

any ritual position. The burial feature consisted of the expedient use of an 

already dug pit (i.e., “fox hole”). The presence of a fragment of looped 

wire suggests that the bodies were dragged to this pit from some other 

locale. The bodies were oriented west, east and roughly south. 

In 2004, three separate individuals were excavated from a drainage 

ditch that functioned as a makeshift cemetery located near a known 

Prisoner of War holding area in Pyongan Putko, North Korea. The bodies 

were separated by approximately 12 meters, with one individual buried 

alone and two individuals buried in close proximity to another. The body 

positions of all three burials were extended. Particularly interesting is that 

in two of the burials, an arm was placed across the chest. One burial (minus 

skull) had both hands crossed in front of chest. Care was obviously taken 

in the placement of these bodies. The bodies were oriented such that two 

were oriented to the south and one was oriented to the north. According to 

witness testimony, these individuals had died during captivity and their 

fellow internees buried them under guard by members of the Chinese 

Volunteer Army. 

From these two examples, two situations representing the opposite 

ends of a continuum are presented. One represents a series of burials that 

appear to have been done in haste as well as suggesting a social relationship 

of antagonism. The second scene represents three burials in which care was 

taken to lay the individuals out in a standard Western (re: Christian) pattern, 

save for the body orientations. However, these burial patterns are more 

common when the social relationship is amicable. 

Forensic Archaeology, Burial Pattern, Battlefield Casualty 


H69 Characterizing Primary and Secondary 

Mass Graves and Their Impact on 

Identification Methodology: The Experience 

in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Ana Boza Arlotti, PhD*, International Commission for Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn new ways of 

approaching the methodology of exhumation, recognizing it as the first 

stage in the identification process. Furthermore, the attendee will learn of 

the different types of mass graves and its influence on the identification 

process. 


humanity by showing that a more detailed analysis of the archaeological 

context of the recovery and a customized exhumation strategy is an 

important first step in the identification process. 

This presentation evaluates the procedure of body identification in 

remains obtained from primary and secondary mass graves. It is maintained 

that the process of identification starts with a sound methodology for 

collecting the body parts in the field using a procedure which acknowledges 

the characteristics of the mass grave. The material evidence that indicates 

a primary grave is reviewed to show how it differs from the more common 

cases found in the Bosnian, secondary mass graves. The author also 

describes a third situation: the robbed mass grave. The characterization of 

a mass grave is dictated, to start with, by the archaeological data 

encountered during excavation. However, in many cases, human physical 

remains often provide evidence that runs contrary to the archaeological 

interpretations. 

This small-scale study is based on data recovered in the excavation of 

mortal remains from the mass graves of Tomašica and Stari Kevljani, two 

of the many graves produced during the 1992-95 war in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina. The excavation was a joint task between the International 

Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) and the local National 

Commission for the Disappeared. This joint task force for identification of 

victims of the war has been working over the past five years to identify as 

many remains as possible, including isolated body parts. Currently, the 

identification is made with the use of DNA testing, which has replaced traditional 

methods as the primary means of identification. 

The objective of the excavations of mass graves by ICMP and the 

National Commission in Bosnia is to identify the bodies recovered. As 

such, the process of identification begins in the field, where it is imperative 

to collect parts of a single body together. Furthermore, it is paramount to 

have a clear understanding of the conditions of the grave: Is it primary 

grave? Is it a secondary grave? Or is it a grave used during a period of time 

that only resembles a secondary mass grave, where body parts of a single 

individual might be spread over a small area? The author uses archaeological 

as well as anthropological evidence to define the various possibilities 

of graves: primary, secondary, combination of primary and secondary 

graves, as well as robbed graves. Evidence is presented that is used to link 

remains obtained from robbed graves with remains, from the same body, 

and from secondary graves. There have been several cases of a body reassociated 

from body parts from several sites. 

It is concluded that an exhumation strategy subordinated to the 

assessment of the kind of mass grave being excavated will greatly facilitate 

the re-association work at the morgue, as it will help in keeping parts of the 

body intact. This more detailed work in the field will save time and money 

in the process of identification, even in the context of a DNA-based identification, 

where re-association is important to produce the more complete 

bodies for their return to families and final reburial. 

Exhumation, Mass Graves, Re-Association 

400

H70 Forensic Anthropology and the Current 


Chelsey A. Juarez, MA*, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High 

Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 

The goal of this study is to identify the current and forthcoming U.S. 

immigration policies that have an influence on border deaths and to discuss 

the potential impact of these policies on the forensic anthropology 

community. This research highlights the capability of forthcoming policies 

to prevent deaths along the U.S. Mexico border and the political sway that 

forensic anthropologists can exert to stop border deaths and continue 

repatriations 


humanity by pinpointing current and upcoming policies that may heavily 

impact the numbers of border deaths, providing up to date information on 

what these effects might be, and clarifying pathways to action for forensic 

anthropologists working on the border. 

Immigrant deaths on the U.S.-Mexico border pose a tremendous 

problem to U.S. death investigators. Third-world nations like Mexico lack 

the appropriate databases for missing persons to which U.S. investigators 

are accustomed. The U.S.-Mexico border has long been a popular gateway 

of entry for immigrants attempting to enter the U.S. economic system and 

has consequently been the site of a number of crossing-related deaths. 

Motivated by a Mexico-U.S economic discrepancy of more than 8: 1, 

undocumented immigrant workers from Mexico are a cheap, readily 

available labor pool. As non-citizens, immigrant workers have been historically 

considered a docile community existing beyond the law. It is 

under this pretense that these individuals have been systematically incorporated 

into the economic fabric of this nation for the cheap, often unregulated 

labor they provide. Revolutions of economic instability and threats of 

terrorism in the U.S. have encouraged the formation of regulatory national 

and state policies targeted at keeping undocumented immigrants from 

crossing the border. Unfortunately these polices have often increased both 

the dangers and numbers of deaths associated with the border. With border 

deaths on the rise, the forensic anthropological community must familiarize 

itself with the effects of enforcement policies, the ever changing demographics 

of undocumented border crossers, and proactive measures the 

forensic community can take to help stop border deaths. 

In conjunction with an up to date assessment on border crossing 

demographics this analysis focuses on several key policies including 

IRCA, IIRIRA, the PATRIOT act, the Gatekeeper Complex, the Secure 

America Act, and AG jobs. Results from this policy analysis suggest that 

the current waves of immigration policy may have a highly negative impact 

on border deaths. The majority of current polices equate long time flows 

of immigrants from Mexico as a terrorist threat and systematically work to 

criminalize both legal and illegal immigrants, which effectively increases 

the numbers of border deaths. Only a few policies such as AG jobs and the 

Secure America Act demonstrate the potential to reduce the numbers of 

border deaths; unfortunately, these bills currently lack the support needed 

to pass. 

A review of the literature demonstrates a dire lack of communication 

concerning the affect of current immigration policies on border areas. 

Statistics on county and state costs and numbers of deaths per area are 

highly variable in the literature. Forensic anthropologists working in 

border regions are in the ideal situation to bring the numbers and case 

accounts to policy makers and demonstrate the anthropological side of 

policy failure. While politics and policy has traditionally been out of the 

realm of forensic anthropology the current status of border deaths demonstrates 

the need for anthropologist to be up to date on immigration policy 

and active in policy change. 

Immigration, Policy, Border Death 

H71 Identification of the Living From Video 

Tape and Photographs: The Dynamic 

Orientation Technique 

Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Michigan State 

University, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the Dynamic Orientation 

Technique (DOT), an image capturing and analytical improvement for the 

identification of the living from video tape and photographs. This new 

technique is an enhancement of the conventional image comparison and 

superimposition methods that the authors previously employed in identification 

cases involving the living. The DOT has a variety of applications, 

including images of the face, parts of faces, the hands, and other body parts. 


humanity by providing a useful identification tool for a variety of forensic 

cases, including: crimes recorded on surveillance video tape; internet 

crimes depicted on digital photographs (such as criminal sexual conduct 

involving children); and the publication of photographic images without 

the subject’s permission. Case examples will be used to demonstrate the 

utility of the technique. 

Photographic image analysis and superimposition have been used for 

human identification for many decades. Dating back to the famous 1930s 

Van Ess/Ruxton case, forensic scientists have been comparing antemortem 

photographs with skulls for the purpose of positive identification and 

exclusion. A number of improvements have been added to the process, 

such as the employment of a dual camera and mixer system to facilitate orientation 

and the addition of landmark indicators to facilitate alignment. 

Possibly because of the relative lack of antemortem X-rays, skull/photo, 

and photo/photo superimposition is more advanced in some countries in 

Asia and Europe. For example, Yoshino and colleagues have developed a 

“3-D physiognomic range finder” and computer assisted identification 

system. 

At the Michigan State University Forensic Anthropology Lab, the 

authors have recently consulted on a variety of identification of the living 

cases in which the Dynamic Orientation Technique has been employed. 

These cases have included the identification of perpetrators in bank and 

store robberies, ATM violations, internet crimes (criminal sexual conduct 

involving children), and the publication of images without a subject’s permission. 

In addition, it is believed that the Dynamic Orientation Technique 

can enhance the ability to identify perpetrators of terrorist activities in 

public places, such as mass transit systems, where images have been captured 

on surveillance video tape. 

One of the most significant problems with identification from video 

tape or photographs involves orientation. The known and unknown images 

must be sufficiently similar in orientation that the investigator is confident 

that an exclusion (or failure to identify) is due to actual proportional differences, 

not because images were not oriented properly. In the past, the 

authors’ method for increasing the likelihood of proper orientation was to 

take multiple photographs of a suspect (or known individual) in hopes of 

capturing images that sufficiently match the image of the unknown individual. 

The method is cumbersome, time consuming and necessarily “hit 

and miss.” On several occasions the authors have asked investigators to 

take multiple images of a suspect only to have to ask for more when none 

have lined up properly with the unknown images. The authors now call 

that the “get lucky” method. 

In response to this problem, the authors have recently developed, and 

routinely incorporate, the Dynamic Orientation Technique to capture 

images of suspects, or other known individuals, for comparison. The 

process involves the use of a high definition digital video camera, a suitable 


playback machine, a mixer, and a quality monitor. A digital video camera 

is essential in this process because each image is complete and clear and 

there is no possibility of an image being caught between frames. Ideally, 

all of this equipment, and studio lights if needed, must be portable so that 

images may be captured in a prison or other security facility. The technique 

is relatively quick (rarely more than an hour with a suspect is needed), the 

equipment is readily available, and the likelihood of success is much higher 

than the still image method. 

With the equipment set up, either in or away from a lab, the following 

steps are taken: 

1. A selected unknown still image is projected and held on a video 

monitor. 

2. The suspect, or known individual, is seated and positioned in such 

a way that the face (or other body part) is oriented similarly to the held 

image. 

3. Using a digital video camera and mixer, a live image is received 

through the camera and superimposed onto the held image on the monitor. 

Careful attention is paid to orienting the live image exactly onto the held 

image. By moving the camera up and down, side to side, and in circular 

patterns, the likelihood of capturing images with matching orientation in 

increased. From the video footage produced during this Dynamic 

Orientation Technique, the best images are selected in the lab. 

4. Carry out side-by-side comparison and superimposition analysis. 

A short 3-5 minute video will be played to illustrate the process and 

the expected results to the audience. 

Facial Identification, Video Image Analysis, Photographic 

Comparison 

H72 Trace Element Analysis of Medical 

School Cadaver Cremains 

Tom E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner Office, 3202 

Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37406; Timothy Brooks, and 

Gretchen E. Potts, PhD, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, 

Department of Chemistry, 615 McCallie Avenue, Grote Hall, 4th Floor, 

Chattanooga, TN 37403; and Stephanie Smullen, PhD, University of 

Tennessee at Chattanooga, Department of Computing Sciences, 615 

McCallie Avenue, Department 2302, Chattanooga, TN 37403 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how the identification 

and concentration (mg/kg) of trace elements in human cremains 

can determine whether the cremains are legitimate or have been contaminated 

with non-human “filler.” This technique is being developed to 

provide a new scientific methodology to assist in crematory/funeral home 

litigation. 


humanity by demonstrating the utility of trace elemental analysis in the 

examination of cremated remains. 

Complete powderization of cremated bone fragments is becoming the 

standard among professional crematories, leaving no identifiable bone fragments 

for the forensic anthropologist to analyze. At present, the current 

methodology used in forensic anthropology to analyze human cremated 

remains (cremains) lacks the ability to identify scientifically the powderized 

portion of the cremains set. A critical question in the Tri-State 

Crematory Incident, Noble, GA, USA, revolved around the powderized 

portion of cremains. Was it human ash or non-human “filler?” Because of 

this past incident, and so forensic scientists are prepared for future litigation, 

an empirical method to determine if the powderized ashes are 

human or not must be developed Attendees will independently test this 

technique to verify or refute the findings. 

Cremains, Trace Elements, Forensic Anthropology 


H73 Bone Fracture Mechanics: In Vitro 

Strain Gauge Analysis of the Ribs 

and Mandible During Failure 

David J. Daegling, PhD*, Jennifer Hotzman, MA, Casey J. Self, MA, and 

Michael W. Warren, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, PO Box 117305, 1112 Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611 

The goal of this project is to employ in vitro strain gauge analysis to 

better understand the mechanism of two types of fractures which are commonly 

seen in forensic cases: (1) rib fractures secondary to thoracic compression 

and/or blunt force, and (2) indirect mandibular fractures secondary 

to high velocity gunshot wounds of the cranial vault. 


humanity by helping to understand how bone responds to particular loading 

conditions. This information will allow investigators to more accurately 

reconstruct how rib and mandibular fractures occur, thus better understand 

their forensic importance. 

Understanding the mechanism of trauma to the skeleton is vital if 

forensic anthropologists are to address issues of cause and manner of death. 

In this paper, the authors utilize in vitro strain gauge analysis, a technique 

used by biomechanists and anthropologists to examine the relationship 

between morphology and function of bone, to explore two different types 

of fractures for which the mechanism is unclear. Strain gauges measure the 

amount of bone deformation, i.e. strain, at the specific sites to which the 

gauges are bonded. The skeletal material for this project consists of 

teaching specimens that were re-hydrated in a saline solution. For both projects, 

the specimens were secured beneath the transducer of an MTS 

mechanical testing system so that they could be placed under a load along 

an axis simulating the direction of force under investigation (i.e., for the 

ribs, an anterior-posterior compression of the thorax, and for the mandible, 

lateral expansion of the condyles). The strain gauges were bonded along 

several locations where the greatest loads were anticipated, based on 

common fracture locations. 

The first research problem is a buckling fracture of the ribs as noted 

by Symes et al. (2005). Long bones fail initially on the side experiencing 

tension, but Symes and colleagues have provided evidence that curved 

structures such as ribs can fail in compression. This has been noted during 

autopsy and is contrary to currently understood biomechanical beam 

theory. Initial experiments confirmed the findings of Symes and colleagues, 

that is, the authors were able to load a rib and reproduce a buckling 

fracture with the side in compression failing before the side in tension. This 

phenomenon was further explored experimentally by attaching strain 

gauges to several ribs along various locations (inner angle, outer angle, 

inner shaft, and outer shaft). The strain gauges allow the local bone deformation, 

i.e. strain, to be measured quantitatively. Each rib was loaded individually 

until failure. Both load cell forces and types of fractures are 

reported. 

The second problem is a type of lesion best described as a secondary 

fracture of the mandible, often produced by a single gunshot wound to the 

cranial vault. This fracture is particularly well-documented among victims 

of genocide killed with 7.62 mm. projectiles, as well as in domestic 

homicide cases in which a relatively high velocity and/or high energy projectile 

is the cause of death. The fracture is known as a Kolusayen fracture 

among Turkish human rights investigators. In many of these cases, blunt 

trauma to the face and mandible can be ruled out on the basis of lack of 

associated fractures to the fragile bones of the face, alveolar bone, and dentition. 

These mandibular fractures can occur in the corpus at the canine 

alveolus, the gonial angle, the mental foramen, or the mental symphysis 

and they are often unilateral. The fractures are rarely found in the ramus or 

neck of the condyle where many blunt force fractures occur. Because the 

fracture is associated with uniformly fatal gunshot lesions of the cranial 

base and vault, it has been of little clinical interest and is therefore not referenced 

in the clinical literature. Since the mandibular fracture is sec- 

402

ondary to the primary cause of death, this lesion is most likely underreported 

in autopsy protocols and is only discovered during examination of 

remains that have become skeletonized. Reconstruction of the events surrounding 

the death of the victim would be erroneous should these 

mandibular fractures be interpreted as being the result of direct blunt force 

trauma. 

These experiments sought to record the amount of force needed to 

cause a mandibular fracture via lateral displacement of the condyles and 

test whether rapid glenoid expansion secondary to basilar fracture or temporary 

cavitation of a passing projectile can generate sufficient strain forces 

to produce a Kolusayen fracture. The condyles and superior rami were 

embedded in a resin compound and then one condyle was restrained. The 

contralateral condyle was then pulled away from the restrained condyle, 

simulating a spread of the glenoid fossae and the temporo-mandibular joint 

capsules. Initially a manual load was applied to gain a better understanding 

of how much strain the mandible experienced. After the manual application 

of load the mandibles were positioned beneath the transducer and the 

mandible was pulled until the bone failed. Preliminary data confirm that 

when the mandibular condyles are distracted, the corpus fails in tension and 

a fracture occurs in the most vulnerable part of the mandible. Again, both 

load force and fracture type is reported. 

Forensic Science, Functional Morphology, Trauma Analysis 

H74 Evaluation of Date of Death Through 

Analysis of Artificial Radiocarbon in 

Distinct Human Skeletal and Dental Tissues 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, MRC 112, 

National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 

Washington, DC 20560; Bruce A. Buchholz, PhD, Center for Accelerator 

Mass Spectrometry, Mail Stop L-397, Lawrence Livermore National 

Laboratory, PO Box 808, Livermore, CA 94551; and John Stewart, PhD, 

Federal Bureau of Investigation, DNA Analysis Unit II, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, Quantico, VA 22135 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand how radiocarbon 

analysis of different human tissues within an individual can be used 

to clarify the approximate date of death 


humanity by allowing forensic scientists to determine the date of death of 

skeletonized human remains with greater precision. 

Estimation of the date of death from human remains recovered from 

forensic contexts represents an important but frequently elusive aspect of 

anthropological analysis. Such interpretation can be augmented through 

analysis of artificial radiocarbon, especially in consideration of the type of 

tissue sampled and the age at death of the individual. 

Atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices between about 1950 

and 1963 produced artificially elevated levels of carbon-14 which are 

reflected in tissues of humans and other terrestrial organisms. Atmospheric 

levels of carbon-14 increased dramatically between 1950 and 1963 and 

subsequently declined following cessation of such testing. Interpretation of 

carbon-14 values in human remains recognizes that different tissues are 

formed at varying periods in the human lifespan and have distinct rates of 

turnover. Dental enamel forms during the childhood years and does not 

remodel. Many areas of cortical and cancellous bone not only have distinct 

times of formation but also different rates of turnover. Radiocarbon values 

derived from dental enamel and selected areas of cortical and cancellous 

bone from the same individual provide opportunities to determine if death 

occurred before or during the bomb-curve period. If radiocarbon analysis 

suggests that death occurred after 1950, the values for the different tissues 

assist correct placement on the curve and thus more precise estimation of 

the date of death. Most cancellous or trabecular bone, especially that 

located in areas of red or hematopoietic marrow has more rapid bone 

turnover than most cortical bone. Thus radiocarbon values of the former 

would more closely approximate atmospheric levels at the time of death 

than those derived from the latter. If bone formation occurred between 

1950 and 1963 (the ascending range of the bomb-curve) radiocarbon 

analysis should reveal greater fraction values for cancellous bone than for 

cortical bone. If bone formation occurred more recently than 1963 (during 

the descending age range of the bomb curve) cancellous bone values should 

be less than those of cortical bone. 

Samples were collected from two human female skeletons of known 

birth and death dates. These samples consisted of permanent teeth, cortical 

bone from the femoral diaphyses, and cancellous bone from vertebral 

bodies. One individual was born in 1925 and died in 1995 at the age of 70 

years. The other individual was born in 1926 and died in 1959 at the age 

of 33 years. Radiocarbon analysis was conducted at Lawrence Livermore 

National Laboratory using standard techniques. 

As expected, analysis of the dental tissues revealed carbon-14 fractions 

below 1.0 suggesting that formation of those tissues predated the 

bomb-curve. The dental tissues studied in these two individuals formed 

between the dates of 1925 and 1933. 

Three of the four bone samples yielded modern fractions which fell 

above 1.0 and thus within the bomb-curve. The exception was a cortical bone 

sample from the 33-year-old. In consideration of the ages at death of the individuals 

and the shape of the bomb-curve, the radiocarbon analysis suggests 

more recent formation of the trabecular bone than the cortical bone, as 

expected, although in the older individual the difference was only about one 

year. The formation date for the cancellous bone (calculated from radiocarbon 

analysis) preceded death by about five years in the younger individual. 

In the older individual, analysis suggested death was preceded about 

39 years in the average formation of cortical bone and about 38 years in cancellous 

bone. This nearly four decade differential between average bone formation 

and death reflects the slower bone turnover in older adults. 

Radiocarbon values derived from dental structures, especially enamel 

provide information about the dates of formation during the childhood 

years. Such data can be used to suggest a pre-bomb curve childhood date 

or help establish the birth date if the dental radiocarbon values fall within 

the bomb-curve. 

Variation of the values derived from bone reflects variation in the 

timing of both bone formation and remodeling. If these values fall within 

the bomb-curve they provide the information needed for proper placement 

on either the earlier ascending or later descending aspect of the curve. 

Once values are correctly placed on the curve, the date of death can be estimated, 

in consideration of the age of the individual and other factors. 

Although radiocarbon analysis provides unique and valuable information 

attention must be given to both the age of the individual and the 

sampling site. Dental enamel provides the ideal source of information to 

estimate the birth date, particularly if that date falls after 1950. In the 

absence of soft tissue, cancellous bone from the central skeleton provides 

radiocarbon values ideal to evaluate the death date and in comparison with 

values from cortical bone and the age at death can help determine if death 

occurred on the ascending or descending sides of the bomb curve. 

Artificial Radiocarbon, Date of Death, Tissue Analysis 

H75 The Impact of High Speed-High 

Resolution Three Dimensional CT 

Scans on Forensic Anthropology 


Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 20850 

After attending this presentation, attendees become aware of scientific 

advancements involving the examination of human remains utilizing high 

speed/high resolution CT scans. In addition attendees will be informed on 

the various applications this new technology will have in forensic 

anthropology. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community, forensic 

Anthropology, and forensic pathology by demonstrating new imaging technology 

which will allow for non-evasive anatomical examination. 


In the past few years tremendous scientific advancements have been 

made in the field of three dimensional medical imaging. One of the greatest 

advancements has involved the development of Computerized 

Tomography scanners which can produce high resolution – three dimensional 

images of the human body within a matter of minutes. The new generation 

CT scanners utilized in hospitals and medical clinics have had an 

unparalleled impact on the diagnosis and treatment of living patients. 

Recent research by scientists at the Institute of Forensic Medicine, 

University of Bern, Switzerland, have pioneered a new use for the CT 

scanners, that being in the field of forensic pathology. Unlike in living individuals, 

the postmortem examination of bodies by high speed CT is not 

limited to regulated radiation safety levels, and therefore greater resolution 

can be obtained during CT scans by increasing the power/radiation levels. 

In 2005 the U.S. military acquired an advanced CT unit, a GE Light 

Speed 16, for postmortem examinations at the Dover Port Mortuary located at 

Dover Air Force Base, Dover Delaware. The mortuary is a large state of the 

art morgue facility utilized by the Armed Forces Medical Examiner. Presently 

the CT unit is being utilized routinely to scan the bodies of military fatalities 

from around the world. Use of the CT scanner in the postmortem examination 

of fatalities, has provided a wealth of new information not obtainable by the 

two dimensional views provided by standard film or digital radiography. 

One of the primary focal points of postmortem examinations is the 

presence of skeletal injuries. Cases involving skeletal trauma may require 

removal of the particular skeletal element/s in order to conduct a detailed 

examination. Removal of the skeletal elements and associated soft tissues 

may not be practical or acceptable, and therefore a limited amount of information 

may be obtained. Extensive fragmentation of skeletal elements can 

also pose many problems, as it may be very difficult to access the pattern 

of damage due to disruption of anatomical position. Similar problems are 

encountered when dealing with badly decomposed remains. In cases 

requiring anthropological evaluation, the skeletal element/s must be rendered 

free of soft tissues and decompositional debris, which requires 

expertise and time. The use of new generation CT scanners virtually eliminates 

problems associated with removal of skeletal elements and soft 

tissues, and provides a new level of assessment of skeletal trauma and 

anthropological attributes which is non-invasive. 

Key attributes of the new generation CT scanner utilized at the Dover 

Port Mortuary, include its rapid scan speed, high resolution, three – dimensional 

capability, and the ability to target in on differential densities so as to 

provide specific imaging of various anatomical features such as skin, 

muscles, internal organs, the skeleton, or injury sites. The resolution 

obtained by the Dover CT unit is .26 mm and the average full body scan 

can be accomplished in as little as two minutes. Images created by the scan 

can be viewed in as fixed two dimensional images represented by single or 

multiple sectional views, two dimensional overall views, or animated threedimensional 

views. Highly accurate measurements can be made from two 

or three dimensional views of virtually any anatomical location. 

Measurements include linear, area, and density. 

The impact of the new CT technology will have profound effects in 

forensic anthropology. For example in the case of a fresh body with 

extensive blunt force trauma to the skull, examination of the cranial fragmentation 

pattern may be difficult to determine as a portion of fragments 

may be displaced into the cranial vault, covered by soft tissues and fluids, 

or possibly missing. Also manual manipulation of the skull to examine a 

fracture site may result in collapse of the cranial fracture site thus requiring 

cranial reconstruction. Utilizing the new CT technology one would be able 

to see the actual positional state of fragmentation in a three dimensional 

view, and each fragment can be isolated for detailed examination of the 

fracture lines and edges along the fractured bone. 

Anthropometric analysis of various aspects of the human body will 

greatly be enhanced, as the CT scans are non-invasive and will allow for 

detailed measurements of body parameters, and areas of the skeleton such 

as the cranial vault or sinuses, which are not readily accessible by calipers 

or other measuring tools. Osteometric data collection will be brought to 

such a high level that biological traits such as racial classification will 

become more highly refined allowing differentiation between geographical 


populations. Osteological changes relating to skeletal age, for the first 

time, can be accurately quantified, rather than relying on subjective 

assessment of bony changes. All of the images produced by the scanner 

can be easily stored and transmitted as they are in a digital format supported 

by most computer systems. 

Although the CT units are very expensive at this time, the price will 

decrease over time and the units will become available for use by universities 

and colleges. The use of the new CT imaging technology will be a 

major new stepping stone for forensic anthropology, answering old questions 

and creating new ones. 

Anthropology, Digital Imaging, Radiology 

H76 Identification of the Living on Video 


Danilo De Angelis, DDS*, and Pasquale Poppa, BSc, Istituto di Medicina 

Legale, via Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy; Remo Sala, PhDc, 

Politecnico di Milano Facolta di Ingegneria Industriale Dipartimento di 

Meccanica Sezione di Misure e Tecniche Sperimentali, via Magiagalli 37, 

Milano, 20133, Italy; and Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, MD, Istituto di 

Medicina Legale, via Mangiagalli 37, Milano, 20133, Italy 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn that the use of a 

total station may ameliorate the quality of identification of the living from 

images taken from video surveillance systems. 


humanity by demonstrating the comparison of height and facial physiognomy 

of images of criminals taken from video surveillance systems 

with those of suspects the use of a total station may provide a more accurate 

means of identification. 

More and more often the identification of criminals whose facial or 

body image has been taped on videos and photographs (thefts, pedopornographic 

material, etc.) is performed by comparing such bidimensional 

images and photographs with bidimensional images of suspects. However 

visual identification is frequently difficult or impossible due to several 

problems: the low resolution of images, distortion, inclination of the face or 

the presence of glasses, hats, and other artifacts used to hide physiognomy. 

These are cases in which experts are called in to determine whether it is 

possible to identify the criminal as the suspect, or, indeed, to exclude him 

or her. Commonly used methods include height estimation, the comparison 

of facial morphological traits, facial anthropological indices and in the 

superimposition of the two images (pertaining to the criminal and suspect). 

A novel method which consists in using a total station, which gives 

tridimensional coordinates of set points via a laser beam, and which has 

been used in three actual judicial identification cases will be described. The 

total station was used to obtain topographical information of the environment 

in which the crime took place and from this information a virtual 

reconstruction of that environment was performed. This virtual environment 

was then superimposed onto images of the environment on video; 

in order to correct any distortion caused by the optics of the video surveillance 

systems. This method also allowed the authors to calculate the height 

of the subjects represented on the videos. 

The total station was also used to pinpoint on the suspect standard 

cephalometric points and a series of other points between these. This data 

allowed for the subsequent tridimensional reproduction of the cephalometric 

points (anthropological landmarks) and of the facial profile of the 

suspect (who must give his or her consent) which was reconstructed on the 

computer. This reconstructed face of the suspect was then superimposed 

onto the face of the criminal (or rather, the facial images of the criminal 

extrapolated from the video surveillance system) and matching of anthropological 

landmarks was then assessed. The use of the total station resulted 

in a useful and accurate comparison of height and facial morphology in 

order to exclude or confirm identity of a criminal. 

Identification, Living, Total Station 

404

H77 Lumbosacral Transitional Vertebrae, 


Prevalence in a Modern Forensic 

Skeletal Population 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD*, and Laurel E. Freas, MA, University of 

Florida, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, PO Box 112545, 

Southwest Radio Road, Gainesville, FL 32611 

Attendees will be introduced to the prevalence of the varying 

presentations of transitional vertebrae in clinical populations and a modern 

forensic sample. Implications for their usage as unique identifying features 

will be discussed. 

Sacralization of the fifth lumbar vertebra (L5) (i.e., fusion to S1) is generally 

thought to be an abnormal morphological expression of the anatomical 

transition between the lumbar and sacral spine. Information in the clinical literature 

indicates that the majority of all cases of anomalous transitional vertebrae 

occurs low on the lumbar spine and typically involve the sacrum. The 

specific cause of sacralization is not well understood, but is usually considered 

to be of developmental, rather than activity-related, origin. The 

timing of this fusion has been noted as early as birth, but most instances seem 

to manifest during early childhood development. In adults, sacralization of 

L5 is often accompanied by degenerative spondylolisthesis (translation or 

movement) of L4 relative to L5. In this instance, the degeneration of the 

L4/L5 articulation is due to intersegmental instability and facet arthropathy. 

Many forms of non-traumatic transitional vertebrae exist; their morphological 

expression is highly variable, and they (transitional forms) have 

been associated with different demographic profiles. For example, isthmic 

(anterior translation) spondylolytic lesions are less prominent in young 

females, while adult females appear to be more prone to progressive displacement 

and may need surgical intervention more often than males. The 

congenital forms of spondylolisthesis (e.g., dysplastic type) comprise 14- 

21% of all cases of spondylolisthesis and occur in a 2:1 female-to-male 

ratio, with symptoms beginning around the adolescent growth spurt. 

Congenital/dysplastic spondylolisthesis has been documented in children 

as young as 3.5 months; more commonly, however, they go undiagnosed 

until later in life, after an individual has been ambulating for some time. 

Degenerative spondylolisthesis also occurs more commonly in females, 

with a 5:1 female-to-male ratio and the incidence increases after age 40. 

In addition to varying by sex, the frequencies of transitional vertebral 

and lumbosacral vertebral defects also appear to vary by 

population/ancestry group. A review of the literature finds that sacralization 

has been observed in 18% of Australian aboriginals (Mitchell), 16% 

of Indians (Bustami), 10% of Arabs (Bustami), 8.1% of natives of Britain 

(Brailsford), and 5.8% of Japanese (Toyoda). Bustami studied 340 sacra of 

two population groups (Arab and Indian). Of these 340 sacra, 46 instances 

(13.5%) of sacralization were observed, with 32 (9.4%) showing unilateral 

sacralization and 14 (4.1%) showing bilateral sacralization. Lumbarization 

was not found in that sample. The incidence of total sacralization was 10% 

in Arab and was 16% in Indian population groups, with Arab males and 

Indian females having higher incidences of all stages of sacralization within 

their respective population groups. Isthmic spondylolytic defects have 

been found to affect roughly 6.4% of white males and 1.1% of black 

females. Degenerative spondylolisthesis also affects black females more 

commonly than white females (and females are more commonly affected 

than men. Additionally, Eskimo (Inuit) populations are observed to have a 

very high incidence of spondylolytic defects due to a combination of 

genetic and environmental factors. 

Over the past several years, the authors noted what seemed to be a 

rather high incidence of abnormal transitional vertebrae and spondylolysis 

in human skeletal remains under examination at the C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory at the University of Florida. These instances 

were noted on the individuals’ biological profile and presented to the 

medical examiner or submitting agency as unique, individuating characteristics 

with the associated caveats. 

Since 1996, 27 instances total of transitional vertebrae were noted in 

the total sample of approximately 800 human cases (3.375%). Of these, 16 

were males, 11 were females; 22 were European or white (12 M/ 10F) and 

included two possibly Hispanic males and one possible Hispanic female. 

Further breakdown reveals one (1) Asian female, one (1) Black male, one 

(1) male of mixed or admixed ancestry, and two (2) unknown or unspecified 

males. Of these, there were 15 instances (to varying degrees) of 

sacralized L5’s, including two cases of ankylosing spondylitis (7M/8F; 

13W/1B/1Asian); two instances of spondylolisthesis of L5 (both White 

males) and six (6) cases of spondylolysis of L5 (5M/1F; 3W/1 “mixed”/two 

unspecified). Of these 27 two cases presented with cervical ribs that were 

both White females and two cases with “lumbarized” S1; both White 

males. 

Comparisons show that the frequency of anomalous lumbosacral transitional 

vertebrae in this modern forensic sample percentage-wise compares, 

albeit on the low end, favorably with clinical findings of such anomalies in 

4 to 8 percent of the clinical population. Thus, the frequency of these defects 

in the forensic population is not an idiosyncratic characteristic of this population. 

Despite their frequency within the general population, the presence 

of and unique morphological configuration of these anomalous vertebrae in 

a given individual should still be of considerable value to the forensic 

anthropologist in antemortem versus postmortem identifications. 

Sacralization, Individuating Traits, Forensic Anthropology 

H78 “The (Almost) Exhumation of Billy the Kid: 

Why We Aren’t Digging Him up 

(and Why You Shouldn’t Either)” 

Debra A. Komar, PhD*, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC11 6030, 

1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131-0001 


conduct “biohistorical” forensic investigations, specifically how to identify 

a well-known historical figure using modern forensic methods 


humanity by serving as a cautionary tale, describing the dangers inherent in 

participating in “criminal” investigations driven by politicians and the 

media. 

“Sometimes biohistorical analysis is undertaken for commercial consideration 

or mere sensationalism” (Andrews et al., 2004). 

On June 10, 2003, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson held a 

press conference to announce his support for the reopening of the investigation 

into the events surrounding the death of Billy the Kid (BTK). The 

focus of the investigation was to determine whether the remains of the legendary 

outlaw were buried in a well-known tourist attraction in New 

Mexico or, as had been previously claimed, interred in either Texas or 

Arizona. Leading the BTK investigation was a team comprised of the 

sheriffs of Lincoln and De Baca counties, the Mayor of Capitan, a county 

attorney and a University of New Mexico History professor. 

Conspicuously absent were the forensic scientists necessary to achieve the 

goal of the investigation as stated in the press release: “to put modern 

forensic science to the test to answer the questions surrounding those days 

in New Mexico history.” 

Following the press conference, the senior management of the New 

Mexico Office of the Medical Investigator (OMI) felt that the high-profile 

nature of the case warranted greater involvement by the OMI, as New 

Mexico statutes (1978 NMSA 24-14-23D) outlines the involvement of the 

OMI in exhumations. To lend credibility to the pursuit, and to clarify jurisdictional 

issues, the BTK investigators declared the case a criminal investigation, 

going so far as to open an official homicide file three days before 

the press conference (case no. 03-06-136-01, Lincoln County Sheriff’s 

Office). Despite repeated requests by the OMI for a copy of the file during 

the early stages of the investigation (and through the legal battles that ultimately 

ensued); no official documentation was ever provided. 


“At the very least, investigators should disclose to the group the investigative 

question posed” (Andrews et al., 2004). 

During preliminary meetings, the BTK investigators outlined the 

primary goals of the criminal investigation: 1) to determine if Sheriff Pat 

Garrett did, in fact, shoot William Bonney (aka Billy the Kid) at the 

Maxwell House in Fort Sumner, NM on July 14, 1881; 2) in order to 

determine this, the investigators proposed to exhume the remains of 

William Bonney for the purposes of DNA testing; 3) the investigators also 

proposed exhuming the remains of William Bonney’s mother, Catherine 

Antrim, to serve as the comparative standard for mitochondrial DNA tests 

with William Bonney’s remains. With this information, the author began 

research into the determining the exact location of the graves of both Billy 

the Kid and his mother, as well any information that could assist in establishing 

identity. Following data collection at seven major archives in New 

Mexico and Arizona, as well as Fort Sumner and Silver City (the reported 

location of the grave of BTK’s mother), it was the opinion of the author that 

the exact location of the remains of Billy were not known and that the 

exhumation of Catharine Antrim may result in the disturbance of adjoining 

graves. Upon informing the investigators of these findings, it became clear 

that the focus of the investigation would be the exhumation of Catharine 

Antrim, as the general location of her grave was at least known. 

“Often, investigators fail to pose an investigative question capable of 

resolution by genetic testing” (Andrews et al., 2004). 

When asked what purpose Antrim’s exhumation would serve to the 

criminal investigation, absent the exhumation of BTK, the investigators 

indicated that a direct male heir of William Bonney had stepped forward 

and that they proposed testing his DNA against that of Catharine Antrim. 

Despite the author’s best attempts to explain how mitochondrial DNA 

worked and how such a test was scientifically invalid (not to mention 

pointless within the context of the criminal investigation), the investigators 

remained resolved. They also indicated their intent to test Antrim’s DNA 

against “Brushy” Bill Roberts, a well-known character in the southwest 

who claimed to be Billy the Kid and John Miller, an individual from 

Arizona also claiming to be BTK. As both these men were deceased, this 

line of inquiry would necessitate their exhumations as well. At this stage, 

the medical examiner’s office declined to issue a permit for any 

exhumation and stated that the office would require either a letter from 

Governor Richardson or a court order before proceeding. 

This presentation will detail the court battle that then ensued and the 

research findings that indicate the remains of Billy the Kid are unlikely to 

ever be found. It also serves as a cautionary tale regarding participating in 

“criminal” investigations involving private funding and documentary film 

companies, and how media or politically driven biohistorical investigations 

can rapidly spiral out of control. 

Biohistorical Investigations, Personal Identification, DNA 

H79 Reducing Observer Error Through Choice 

of Histological Evaluation Technique 

Christian M. Crowder, PhD*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 

Central ID Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853-5530 


of scrutinizing techniques used in methods of skeletal analysis in 

order to limit the amount of observer error. 


humanity by underlining the importance of identifying and differentiating 

method error from biological variability. Addressing the issue of method 

repeatability is essential for selecting current, as well as developing new, 

macroscopic, and microscopic methods of skeletal analysis in the field of 


The traditional approach to the estimation of adult age at death has 

been a macroscopic, morphological evaluation. Another approach utilizes 


a microscopic, histomorphological evaluation, which is often presented as 

less subjective and more accurate than gross morphological methods. 

Compared to morphological methods histological methods of age estimation 

have been tested haphazardly, leading to a literature that is confusing, 

inconsistent, sometimes conflicting in terms of recommended 

methodology, and reported rates of precision and accuracy. The application 

of histological methods has been criticized from a number of different perspectives 

ranging from problems with intra- and inter-population variation 

caused by environmental and hormonal influences on skeletal physiology 

to the influence that skeletal preservation holds over effectively using such 

methods. Furthermore, research demonstrates that there will be a spatial 

and temporal variance in remodeling dynamics in response to mechanical 

loading. These concerns may all be deemed secondary to the concerns 

inherent in the methods themselves. This paper focuses on an aspect of 

observer error related to the histological technique in order to determine the 

best technique needed to develop more precise histological methods of age 

estimation. Differentiating method error from biological variability will 

provide a baseline interpretation of histological methods as useful age predictors 

for skeletal analysis. Furthermore, a more solid methodological 

foundation for future histological methods will be established. 

The Singh and Gunberg (1970), Thompson (1979), and Ericksen 

(1991) techniques for collecting histomorphometric data were compared in 

this research allowing for the comparison of precision amongst three different 

data collection techniques. The Singh and Gunberg method uses 

osteon counts per open circular microscopic field. The Thompson method 

requires a 100-square grid to perform the point count method. The 

Ericksen method uses a combination of microstructure counts per rectangular 

photographic field and predominant microstructure type per square in 

a 100-squared grid. To evaluate intra- and inter-observer error, 30 femur 

thin-sections were randomly selected from a larger sample of 187 femoral 

sections. A true test of inter-observer error would require individuals with 

a certain level of familiarity with the methods or histological analysis in 

general. Instead, three individuals (1 per method) with little to no histological 

experience were used, thus testing the ability for novices to learn the 

methods. The author refers to this error as the novice application error. 

Each observer was given an extensive tutorial at the microscope, the article 

associated with the method that they were selected to perform, and Chapter 

7 from Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton (Robling and Stout, 

2000). This chapter provides a comprehensive discussion on the application 

of cortical bone histomorphometry for the estimation of age at death. 

Two statistical methods of observer error analysis were employed. The 

first analysis followed the procedure outlined by Bland and Altman 

(1986, 1995) for testing the repeatability of methods. The second followed 

the procedure outlined by Nichol and Turner (1986), which is a 

commonly used method for error analysis in anthropology. Observer 

error was evaluated for the microstructure counts and age estimates 

between the two trials. 

The intra-observer results indicate that only the Thompson method 

passed repeatability standards. This method uses a predictive variable that 

consists of two variables. Evaluating the constituent variables individually 

produced some repeatability failures, indicating that the combined variable 

will reduce the amount of potential error in determining the microstructure 

type. Therefore, it is not surprising that the other methods, which use single 

and not combined microstructure counts, failed repeatability standards. 

The largest variable intra-observer error occurred using the Ericksen 

method. Higher error levels can be expected in the Ericksen method using 

the subjective determination of the predominant microstructure per square 

in a 100-squared grid. 

The novice application error demonstrates that, for the most part, the 

novice observers were unable to repeat the results of the primary 

investigator, thus indicating that more experience is necessary to perform 

histological analyses. The Singh and Gunberg method produced the 

highest percentage of novice application error (43% for the variable and 

25% for the age estimates) suggesting that open microscopic field methods 

have potential to produce higher levels of observer error. 

406

Histological methods of age estimation have been presented in the literature 

as being more objective than the traditional gross morphological 

methods. This analysis shows that the histological evaluation technique 

chosen is an important factor in the amount of objectivity, accuracy, and 

observer error that is expected or introduced. Open microscopic field evaluations, 

such as that of the Singh and Gunberg method, provide no reference 

points for counting structures. In older individuals, with large 

numbers of intact and fragmentary osteons, one can easily loose their place 

in the microscopic field. Using a grid in the microscope provides points of 

reference and reduces observer error. The Thompson method demonstrated 

the lowest intra-observer error, which may be due to a combination of the 

point count grid method and simple variable definitions. Furthermore, 

methods that employ the principles of stereology, such as the point-count 

method, allow for changes in grid size, and are less subjective compared to 

methods that are based on assessing the percentage of a microstructure in a 

gridded area. 

Precision, Histology, Histomorphometry 

H80 Resolving Extremely Commingled Skeletal 



Jennifer O’Callaghan, MFS*, and Jacqueline Raskin-Burns, MS, Armed 


Building 101, Rockville, MD 20850; Alexander F. Christensen, PhD, 

Central Identification Laboratory, Joint POW/MIA Accounting 

Command, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; Audrey Meehan, BGS, and Mark 

Leney, PhD, Central Identification Laboratory, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, 

HI 96853; and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, and Brion C. Smith, DDS, Armed 



After attending this presentation, attendees will learn how to 

implement bioinformatic strategies into their standard practices for separating 

out extremely commingled sets of remains. 

One of the primary missions of the Armed Forces Identification 

Laboratory (AFDIL) mtDNA section is to aid the Joint POW/MIA 

Command, Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC-CIL) in the identification 

of missing service members from past U.S. military conflicts, 

including World War II, the Korean War and the conflict in Southeast Asia. 

While all of the conflicts have large numbers of commingled remains, the 

Korean War has presented sets of remains that are particularly difficult to 

resolve into individuals. 

The Korean War, often (1950-1953) and resulted in over 30,000 

American casualties of which, over 8,100 service members are still considered 

missing. More than 800 of these missing are buried as unknowns 

in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific, known as the 

“Punchbowl.” Two hundred eight caskets of skeletal remains were unilaterally 

returned by North Korea to the United States between 1990 and 

1994. The remains of approximately 200 other individuals have been 

recovered through Joint Recovery Operations (JRO) undertaken by JPAC- 

CIL inside North Korea since 1994. 

Over the past five years, AFDIL has processed a total of 1472 skeletal 

elements from the 208 unilaterally repatriated remains stored at JPAC. 

MtDNA has confirmed what anthropologists had already discovered: that 

most unilateral turnovers purported to represent one individual actually represents 

numerous individuals. After the anthropologists have sorted each 

set of remains into hypothetical individuals, the next step in determining the 

extent of the commingling is to test samples from each set to generate a 

mtDNA profile. Concurrently, a massive outreach to the public has been 

underway in order to collect maternal DNA references. The Defense 

POW/MIA Personnel Office holds a meeting every month in different parts 

of the United States in order to update family members on the progress of 

the identification process as well as collect any references that may not yet 

be in the database. To date, there are references for over 3,000 of those 

missing in the Korean War in the AFDIL mtDNA database. This represents 

over 42% of the missing, all of which have been processed either in both 

Hypervariable Regions One and Two or the entire Control Region of the 

mtDNA genome. While the ultimate goal is to build a database consisting 

of references for 100% of the missing individuals, this current system of 

testing the control region of the mtDNA genome has its limitations, not the 

least of which is that many individuals with the most common mtDNA 

types cannot be individualized. New technologies are currently in validation 

at AFDIL that have the potential to overcome many of these issues. 

As any laboratory that has processed a mass disaster is aware, interpreting 

the data from over a thousand evidence specimens and thousands of 

references specimens is a daunting task; one that cannot be achieved manually, 

at least in any desirable time frame. By building a database of representing 

42% of the missing individuals of the Korean War, bioinformatics 

techniques for database searching have provided numerous leads for JPAC- 

CIL and AFDIL to follow in the search to bring even more missing soldiers 

home. Other scientists can take these techniques for use in their own laboratories 

and perhaps expand upon them for more efficient database 

searching protocols. 

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and not The 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, the U.S. Army Surgeon General, nor 

the U.S. Department of Defense. 

Bioinformatics, mtDNA, Commingled Remains 

H81 Reducing Problems With Osteological 

and Dental Samples Submitted to 

Missing Person DNA Databases 

John E.B. Stewart, PhD*, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit I, Quantico, VA 22135; 

Patricia J. Aagaard, BS, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit II, Quantico, VA 22135; 

Deborah Polanskey, BS, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 

2501 Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit II, Quantico, VA 22135; 

Eric G. Pokorak, BA, Federal Bureau of Investigation Laboratory, 2501 

Investigation Parkway, DNA Analysis Unit I, Quantico, VA 22135; and 

Mark R. Ingraham, MS, and H. Gill-King, PhD, Laboratory of Forensic 

Anthropology and Human Identification, Department of Biological 

Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203 


about the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s National Missing Persons DNA 

Database (NMPDD) Program and how it may better assist forensic anthropologists, 

odontologists, medical examiners, coroners, law enforcement 

officials and those they serve in identifying human remains. 

Using case examples, this presentation will impact the forensic community 

and/or humanity by 1) illustrate how samples of various types are 

submitted and entered into NMPDD; and 2) through case examples, share 

information and suggestions concerning storage, handling, and sample 

preparation methods which will insure increased success in using the 

database. This presentation will impact the forensic science community by 

providing a more thorough understanding of the types of samples which 

will yield useable DNA for identification purposes. 

Over the past five years, tissue samples from unidentified human 

remains have been submitted to the NMPDD by anthropologists, odontologists, 

medico-legal authorities, and law enforcement agencies. Most of 

the unknown specimens are osteological materials. These samples are 

typed for mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA (STRs). Genetic profiles 

from the unidentified remains are compared to genetic profiles of missing 

persons and appropriate biological relatives of missing persons entered into 

the database. Osteological samples that cannot be associated with a 

missing person are uploaded into the National DNA Index System, (NDIS), 

of the Combined DNA Index System, (CODIS). 


Osteological specimens represent some of the most challenging 

samples that DNA analysts process. Challenges to successful genetic 

typing of osteological specimens will likely arise when the useable DNA 

content of specimens have been degraded or lost by improper sampling, 

cleaning techniques or other environmental insult. Experience shows that 

successful DNA extraction and comparison correlate with the initial condition 

of samples received. Improved methods of DNA extraction and the 

sensitivity of DNA typing techniques also means increased sensitivity to 

degradation and contamination. Thus, successful genetic typing and the 

identification process are hindered from the outset by factors which can be 

controlled by fairly simple means. Problem areas may be reduced to issues 

of 1) recovery, handling, and long-term curation; 2) maceration and 

cleaning; and 3) sampling. 

As remains are collected or exhumed, all operators should attempt to 

reduce contamination by gloving, using clean containers and instruments, 

and reducing the number of individuals handling the remains. Those 

charged with maceration, cleaning, and sample selection should avoid 

using chemicals that damage DNA, (especially oxidizing agents), and high 

temperatures. This is particularly important when samples are small and 

already highly degraded, particularly when additional samples cannot be 

obtained for re-extraction. Instruments used for cutting samples should be 

used only once to avoid cross-contamination when multiple samples are 

involved, (single-use fiber Dremel blades should be used once and discarded). 

Some laboratories prefer to cross-link DNA on contaminated 

sample surfaces before sanding or cutting. 

Case examples will demonstrate model working relations between 

various forensic agencies and laboratories already in operation. Clearer 

mutual understanding of various functions and responsibilities will 

improve sample processing and lead to an increase in the numbers of 

missing person identifications. 

Missing Person DNA Database, Osteological and Dental Samples, 

CODIS 

H82 Is This Bone Human or What? In Pursuit 

of Human vs. Non Human Determinations 

in Small Osseous Fragments 

Mark D. Leney, PhD*, Central Identification Laboratory, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the advantages 

and disadvantages of applying osteological, histological, and immunological 

and DNA based analyses to determining human versus non-human 

from small and degraded osseous fragments. 

Protein radio-immunoassay, osteohistology, and cytochrome-B testing 

have been around for years but have not been applied much to forensic 

casework. This study examines and compares the techniques on a series of 

known samples, closely simulating actual casework with tiny and degraded 

osseous fragments. This presentation will impact the forensic community 

and/or humanity by providing scientists a better place to make good choices 

in their own casework in this area after examining the lessons learned in 

these trials. 

Forensic anthropologists are sometimes faced with osseous fragments 

obtained from a recovery scene that are either too small or too degraded to 

make a definite determination of human versus non-human origin on the 

basis of traditional comparative osteological methods. Determining what 

is and is not human can assist in defining the scope of further investigation 

in the field. In the event that only morphologically uninformative bone 

fragments are recovered from a particular location, species determination 

(or minimally human/non human determination) for such items could be a 

critical evidentiary finding. A number of technologies for approaching this 

problem have been available for some time. This study reports preliminary 

comparative results for a set of test samples. Each test sample was derived 

from known human or faunal remains obtained from a variety of highly 


challenging recovery environments. The relative merits of four techniques 

are compared: traditional comparative osteology, histological osteology 

from thin section, protein radio-immunoassay (pRIA), and sequencing of 

species-specific mitochondrial DNA (cytochrome-B). The advantages and 

limitations of these methods will be evaluated in the context of the test 

sample set. 

Histology, Immunology, DNA, Osteology 

H83 Applications of DNA Identification to 

Human Rights: Additional Informative 

Sites in the mtDNA Genome 

Karen P. Mooder, PhD*, and Mary-Claire King, PhD, Division of 

Medical Genetics, University of Washington, Box 357720, Seattle, 

WA 98195-7720 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain a broader understanding 

of the variability found in the mtDNA genome and how this 

knowledge can be applied to better discriminate individuals sharing 

common mtDNA sequence motifs. 


humanity by demonstrating the value of mtDNA analysis as a principal 

identification strategy in human rights and mass-disaster investigations. 

Over the last decade, the use of the mtDNA genome in forensic identification 

has increased due both to its suitability for identification of 

degraded human remains and for its capacity to be used in a highthroughput, 

cost-efficient manner. High throughput and low cost are particularly 

important when developing strategies to identify those killed in 

extrajudicial executions, a situation where sheer numbers can overwhelm 

available resources. For over two decades, the authors have been working 

with human rights organizations and families of disappeared persons to 

identify human remains. The initial analysis compares HVI and HVII 

sequences retrieved from human remains with those from maternal families. 

Consistent with current forensic standards, remains are considered 

excluded from membership in a family if they differ at two or more sites in 

HVI and HVII. Those who cannot be excluded are analysed for nuclear 

markers to further resolve the probability of family membership. 

There are, however, situations where human remains are found to 

differ from multiple families by only zero, or one sites in HVI and HVII and 

thus cannot be excluded from family membership. This study considers 

whether sufficient mtDNA variation exists outside HVI and HVII to be 

informative in these situations. To address this question, anthropologists 

considered a single test family and 28 unrelated individuals who all share the 

same HVI and HVII motif of 16223 16298 16325 16327 and 73 249D 263 

290D and 291D respectively. Outside of this combined HVI and HVII 

motif, the 28 unrelated individuals each differ by only zero or one substitutions 

from the test family. Three regions outside of HVI and HVII were 

selected for sequencing. These included HVIII (nt 438 to 574) and portions 

of the MTATP8/MTATP6 (nt 8366-8900), and MTCYB (nt 14750-15887) 

genes. Sequence data produced from these regions revealed three common 

single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs); these were found in HVIII at nt 

493, nt 8772 in MTATP6 and nt 15740 in MTCYTB. The HVIII nt 493 A/G 

substitution was particularly informative in this comparison. Of the 23 unrelated 

individuals with one difference from the test family in HVI and HVII, 

18 were also found to differ from the test family at 493 and could thus be 

excluded from membership. Additional private polymorphisms were 

detected in MTATP at nt 8790 and MTCYTB at positions 15462, 15644 and 

15700. When all of the SNPs detected in these three regions were included 

in the analysis, 24 of the 28 unrelated individuals (86%) were found to differ 

from the test family at two or more sites. These results suggest that there is 

value sequencing additional mtDNA loci outside of HVI and HVII in order 

to discriminate individuals with shared mtDNA motifs. 

mtDNA, Coding-Region SNPs, Human Rights 

408

H84 MtDNA From Degraded Human 

Skeletal Remains: Is Quality Affected 

by Storage Conditions? 

Suni M. Edson, MS*, and Suzanne M. Barritt, MS, Armed Forces DNA 

Identification Laboratory, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, 

Rockville, MD 20850; Mark D. Leney, PhD, Central Identification Lab, 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 

Air Force Base, HI 96853; and Brion C. Smith, DDS, Armed Forces DNA 

Identification Laboratory, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the effects of storage 

practices on degraded skeletal remains as demonstrated by a case study 

involving remains of missing U.S. service members from the Korean War. 


humanity by providing the forensic community with a case study 

describing the impacts of storage conditions upon the quality and quantity 

of mtDNA from degraded skeletal remains. Forensic laboratories facing 

similar situations can take some guidance from the results of this study; 

potentially implementing the suggestions for their own labs. Osseous 

samples need to be stored in a manner in which DNA will be preserved. 

Failure to do so could lead to an inability to identify a missing individual in 

the future. 

In the missing persons program for the United States military, skeletal 

remains are recovered from a variety of environments. Anthropologists 

from the Central Identification Laboratory of the Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command (JPAC-CIL) go into the field to recover the remains 

and any other archaeological information that may lead to the identification 

of the individuals. Frequently, samples taken from the osseous remains are 

sent to the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL) for generation 

of a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) profile for comparison to profiles 

garnered from maternal reference materials. 

Examination of remains submitted to AFDIL for testing over the past 

ten years has shown that there is a marked difference between osseous elements 

and the mtDNA sequence information that they yield, a result possibly 

dependent not only on the structure of the bones themselves, but on 

environmental conditions (Edson, et al., 2005; Leney, 2006). Hence, there 

is also a difference in ability to generate full mtDNA profiles between the 

different conflicts. The environments in which remains are located vary in 

the extreme, depending on the conflict in which the individuals were lost. 

Incidents from World War II tend to have the most varied recovery sites, 

from salt marshes in Tunisia to mountainous regions in China, while 

remains from the conflict in Southeast Asia are found across sites that are 

more environmentally homogeneous. 

Remains from the Korean War have been recovered in two specific 

manners. First, remains from this conflict are not always recovered in situ 

from the incident site. Between 1990 and 1994, the Democratic People’s 

Republic of Korea (DPRK) repatriated 208 caskets of osseous samples to 

the U.S. government. These sets of remains were supposedly comprised of 

single individuals. However, upon anthropological examination by JPAC- 

CIL and mtDNA testing by AFDIL, multiple individuals were found to be 

present in each group of samples. These remains were stored for an indeterminate 

period of time since death, presumably at room temperature. 

Secondly, anthropologists from JPAC-CIL have been allowed into the 

DPRK under extremely regulated conditions to recover remains from 

burial sites in what are called Joint Recovery Operations (JRO). 

The quality of the mtDNA obtained from skeletal elements submitted 

from both JRO and the unilateral turnovers will be presented. In this 

instance, quality is determined by the number of bases of mtDNA 

sequenced from each skeletal element in each group of remains. Success 

rate is presented as having a reportable sequence of 100 or more base pairs. 

In order to report sequence information for a sample, AFDIL requires two 

separate amplifications from a single extract or one amplification from two 

extracts of that sample. Success rate is standardized by extending the same 

reporting criteria across all samples. The goal is to determine if the random 

storage conditions of the unilateral turnovers had a detrimental effect on the 

mtDNA of the remains versus those of samples recovered in a JRO. 

Skeletal elements that have remained in situ since the time of the fatal 

incident are subjected to the ambient regional temperatures and conditions 

irrespective of whether they are left on the surface or interred by local residents. 

Internment in these instances typically does not include any type of 

preservation of the remains, but rather simply the placement of the body in 

the ground. Soil pH, water levels, temperature, and other environmental 

conditions are thus free to act upon the remains, potentially damaging or 

preserving them. These effects will also be discussed. 

By examining the effects of storage on samples that have a similar 

time of origin, guidance can be given to other laboratories that specialize in 

the handling and treatment of skeletonized human remains. Appropriate 

measures should be taken to preserve osseous remains even if mtDNA 

testing is not currently being considered as a means of identification. 

Anticipation of this future need is a conservative step to be taken as failure 

to sufficiently preserve remains in the present may lead to an inability to 

identify and return the remains to the families of the missing. 

The views expressed herein are those of the authors and not necessarily 

those of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, the U.S. Army 

Surgeon General, nor the U.S. Department of Defense. 

mtDNA, Degraded Skeletal Remains, Storage Conditions 


H1 Rodent Modification of Human Skeletal 

Remains: Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) 

vs. Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) 

Walter E. Klippel, PhD*, and Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA, University of 



The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate that members of the 

taxonomic order Rodentia have different incentives for gnawing bone, and 

that tooth marks on bones reflect species-specific motivations. 

Postmortem scavenging by brown rats and gray squirrels appear to 

vary in time sequence due to different motivations for modifying bone. 

These observations will impact the forensic community and/or humanity 

by allowing for more informed estimates of time-since-death when accompanied 

by species-specific modifications to bone. 

The most frequently reported scavengers of human skeletal remains 

are carnivores and rodents. Research detailing carnivore modification has 

established the scavenging sequence, sites of bone destruction, and the 

tooth marks most characteristic of this taxon. Canid behavior, in particular, 

has been well illustrated and sufficient evidence exists to show that modifications 

to long bone ends occur secondary to extracting grease and 

marrow from spongy portions of the bone. Attributes of rodent gnawing 

are often described as paired, broad, flat-bottomed grooves: a reflection of 

their chisel-shaped incisors. ‘Rodents’ are stated to modify the densest 

parts of the skeleton as they attempt to sharpen their teeth or extract calcium 

and other minerals from bone. The apparent motivations and gnawing 

attributes for any one species of this order has been presumed diagnostic of 

all members based on shared taxon and similar dental morphology. It is not 

uncommon, however, to read seemingly contradictory reports that claim 

rodents prefer fresh, spongy bone. In addition, published illustrations can 

be found that cite textbook motivations yet display rodent gnawing along 

regions deficit in compact bone. 

Extended observations at the University of Tennessee’s 

Anthropological Research Facility - a 2 ½ acre plot of land set aside for 

human decomposition research - demonstrates multiple case studies of 

rodent modification across the spectra of fresh (‘greasy’) bone to weathered 

(‘dry’) bone. Two cohabitants of the research facility will be used to illustrate 

this point: the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) - a species responsible for 

bone modification that bares slight resemblance to conventional descriptions 

and illustrations of rodent damage to bone, and the gray squirrel 

(Sciurus carolinensis) - a species that manifests ‘typical’ rodent 

modification. 

The brown rat is a commensal rodent that is heavily dependent on 

humans for food and protection; it feeds predominantly on cereal grains, 

but has developed a taste for nearly anything consumed by humans - 

including meat and fat. Cohabitation and dependency on humans has 

resulted in commensal species developing food preferences unlike most 

other rodents: yet even among ‘commensal rodents’ food preferences 

appear to vary - a fact well recognized by the food science industry. 

To demonstrate the relationship between food predilection and site 

and type of bone modification, a singular experiment was conducted. Two 

unprovenienced human clavicles were obtained from the UTK Forensic 

Anthropology Center. The first clavicle was ivory in appearance and 

texture and had been previously snatched by ‘rodents’ during a bone scatter 

training simulation at the facility. This bone was later discovered wedged 

in the side of a tree stump with multiple, parallel flat-bottomed grooves traversing 

the compact bone at midshaft. The second clavicle was selected 

from an autopsy collection known to have been processed by hand-dipping 

in household chlorine bleach but was still sticky to the touch, manifested a 

dark golden-orange hue, and considered representative of a ‘grease’-laden, 

or fresh clavicle. The two clavicles were individually secured to the top of 



a fallen tree trunk with approximately four feet separating the two specimens. 

This site was selected due to gray squirrels having been spotted in 

the area and its distant location from any known brown rat territories. It 

was hypothesized that gray squirrels would only show interest in the ‘dry’ 

bone. The clavicles were monitored periodically over several months for 

signs of disturbance. In conjunction, donated individuals placed at the 

facility near brown rat burrows and nesting locations were monitored for 

bone modification. 

Photographic documentation of scavenging activity was obtained 

using passive infrared receivers to trigger camcorders and wildlife cameras. 

Tooth marks were documented by field notes and digital images acquired 

during site visits. To date, gray squirrels have only been photographed 

gnawing on the ‘dry’ clavicle and brown rats have only been captured modifying 

‘greasy’ bone. 

Rodents, Bone Modification, Postmortem Scavenging 

H2 Postmortem Interval Field Research 

at Three High Elevation Biogeoclimatic 

Zones in Southwest Colorado 

Maria T. Allaire, MA*, 16 Pinedale Lane, Durango, CO 81303 

The goal of this presentation is to present the result for each decomposition 

stage and the arthropod taxa associated with pig carrion from three 

high elevation biogeoclimatic zones in southwest Colorado. 


humanity by presenting research, which describes an interdisciplinary 

animal model, involving the fields of anthropology and entomology, from 

high elevation sites in the southwest Colorado region. 

This project is a result of master’s thesis research while working 

toward an MA in anthropology at Louisiana State University. Postmortem 

interval field research was conducted during the summer of 2002 from June 

through August, in La Plata County and San Juan County, Colorado. Prior 

to this initial research, no previous postmortem interval research had been 

conducted in southwest Colorado. Subadult pig (Sus scrofa) carcasses 

were placed on the ground (within a specifically designed bottomless cage) 

in three biogeoclimatic zones and sun exposure scenarios. Daily collection 

and recording of carrion associated arthropods; decomposition stage, and 

meteorological data were conducted through fly emergence. After 

emergence, site monitoring occurred every other day until the designated 

research end date. 

Results of the research are: 1) as elevation increased, the rate of 

decomposition lengthened due to a prolongation of the bloat stage; 2) of the 

63 taxa collected, an overlapping of 30 species occurred in two of the biogeoclimatic 

zones; 3) there is a strong indication of elevational preference 

for the Sarcophagidae species due to no overlapping; and 4) a previously 

undescribed hybrid cross of Boettcheria was collected. 

The three biogeoclimatic zones, sun exposure scenarios, and research 

lengths are as follows: 1) pinyon-juniper, mesa top at 6,700 feet, full sun 

for 40 days; 2) aspen grove, east facing slope at 8,700 feet, shade for 40 

days, and 3) timberline pine, west facing slope at 11,100 feet, partial 

sun/shade for 30 days. 

At the 6,700 feet sun exposed scenario, the lengths of decomposition 

were: less than 24 hours for the fresh stage; two days in the bloat stage; two 

days in the active decomposition stage, and one day in the advanced 

decomposition stage. Dry remains stage was reached on the seventh day 

since time of death. Emergence occurred during the 12th - 14th days since 

time of death. The maximum temperatures ranged from 94ºF to 106ºF with 

a mean temperature of 100ºF. The minimum temperatures ranged from 

48ºF to 61ºF with a mean temperature of 55ºF. Relative humidity levels 

410

anged from 8 to 45 percent with a mean of 20 percent. No measurable 

precipitation occurred during this 14 day period. 

At the 8,700 feet shaded scenario, the lengths of decomposition were: 

three days for the fresh stage; five days in the bloat stage; two days in the 

active decomposition stage, and two days in the advanced decomposition 

stage. Dry remains stage was reached on the 13th day since time of death. 

Emergence occurred for seven days between the 20th and 28th days since 

time of death. The maximum temperatures ranged from 69ºF to 89ºF with 

a mean temperature of 82ºF. The minimum temperatures ranged from 50ºF 

to 60ºF with a mean temperature of 54ºF. Relative humidity levels ranged 

from 6 to 65 percent with a mean of 23 percent. Precipitation of 15mm was 

recorded during this 28 day period. 

At the 11,100 feet partial sun/shade scenario, the lengths of decomposition 

were: five days for the fresh stage; 14 days for the bloat stage, and 

11 days in the active decomposition stage. The maximum temperatures 

ranged from 43ºF to 73ºF with a mean temperature of 63ºF. The minimum 

temperatures ranged from 32ºF to 48ºF with a mean temperature of 42ºF. 

Relative humidity levels ranged from 10 to 93 percent with a mean of 38 

percent. Precipitation of 72mm was recorded during this 30 day period. 

Of the 28 Diptera taxa collected, Phormia regina was the sole 

Calliphorid that overlapped all three biogeoclimatic zones. Cochliomyia 

macellaria, P. sericata, B. plinthopyga, and T. sulculata were collected only 

at the 6700 feet site. Sarcophaga nearctica and T. montanensis were collected 

only at the 8,700 feet site. Calliphora alaskensis, C. cadaverina and 

a previously undescribed hybrid cross of Boettcheria latisterna and 

Boettcheria litorosa were collected solely at the 11,100 feet site. 

Of the 28 Coleoptera taxa collected, Thanatophilus lapponicus overlapped 

all three biogeoclimatic zones. Dermestes marmoratus, 

Nicrophorus marginatus, Nitidula ziczac, Cynaeus angustus, and Trox 

sonorae were collected only at the 6,700 feet site. Dermestes lardarius, 

Ontholestes cingulatus, and Omosita discoidea were collected solely at the 

8,700 feet site. Aphodius fimetarius was collected only at the 11,100 feet 

site. 

Southwest Colorado consists of multiple biogeoclimatic zones; 

therefore, additional research has been ongoing in order to determine the 

decomposition rates and carrion associated arthropods in the various 

ogeoclimatic zones and elevations. 

Postmortem Interval, High Elevation Biogeoclimatic Zones, 

Hybrid Boettcheria 

H3 Decomposition in the Santa Monica 

Mountains: A Seasonal Taphonomic 

Analysis of Buried and Exposed Remains 

Diana A. Dupuis, BA*, 2610 110th Avenue, NE, Bellevue, WA 98004 

This poster represents many of the taphonomic processes at work in 

the Santa Monica Mountains. This ecosystem is representative of a specific 

type of climatological area found in Los Angeles County as well as 

southern Africa, southwestern Chile, southwestern Australia, and the 

Mediterranean. Aattendees will gain insight into the seasonal differences 

in decay rates of both buried and exposed remains. 

As the first study of its kind in the greater Los Angeles area, this 

presentation will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by 

providing much needed data to law enforcement and coroner agencies in 

Los Angeles. Inaccurate assessment of the postmortem interval is counterproductive 

to the expeditious manner in which these agencies attempt to 

identify decedents who are found in Los Angeles County, particularly in the 

mountainous environment of the Santa Monica region. 

Taphonomic studies allow scientists to more accurately estimate postmortem 

interval, making identification and investigation proceed more 

smoothly. The process of decomposition may be categorized into five 

stages: fresh, early decomposition, advanced decomposition, skele- 

tonization, and extreme decomposition 2 . The duration of each stage is 

greatly influenced by many factors including: temperature, humidity, 

burial, soil type, trauma, and clothing 4 . 

Several studies have been done on postmortem interval in specific 

areas of North America including Galloway 1997; Galloway et al. 1989; 

Komar 1999; Mann et al. 1990; Rhine and Dawson 1998; Rodriguez and 

Bass 1983; Schoenly et al. 1991; Shalaby et al., 2000; Shean et al., 1993. 

However, due to the variation in local rates of decay, these studies are of 

limited utility outside the local geographic and climatic regions in which 

they are conducted. This study involved collection of data of decomposition 

rates in one climatic and geographic region of Los Angeles County, 

in order to more accurately determine postmortem interval in this area. 

A 16-month field study was conducted on decomposition and 

scavenging rates in the Santa Monica Mountains (located in Los Angeles 

County, California). This area has a Mediterranean microclimate, involving 

relatively high daily temperatures, little rainfall, and both large and small 

scavenging animals. This microclimate is found only in the Santa Monica 

Mountains, southern Africa, southwestern Chile, and southwestern 

Australia. Due to their approximate human body size, their skin texture, 

and relative hairlessness, domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) were used as human 

models in this decomposition study. A total of eight pigs were used, two 

placed during each season; one pig was left on the surface, secured inside 

a chain link cage to prevent removal from the site by animal scavengers. 

The second pig was buried in a shallow grave 2 feet below the surface. 

This was done to document decomposition differences between seasons as 

well as between buried and exposed remains. 

Significant differences were noted in decomposition rates between the 

spring and summer surface pigs. The two sets of pigs took approximately 

the same time to reach the advanced decomposition stage, but the spring 

pig reached skeletonization far more quickly than the summer pig despite 

the greater heat during the summer. The fall pig remained in the early stages 

of decomposition four times longer than either the spring or summer pig, 

and carnivores ended this experiment when they extracted the pig from the 

cage and removed it from the site. 

The buried pigs fell victim to carnivore activity as well, although the 

timing of their excavations varied significantly. The spring pig spent 10 

weeks underground, the summer pig a mere four days, and the fall pig two 

weeks. Differences in extraction times are possibly due to the soil porosity 

during the time of interment, with the pigs buried in moister, and hence 

denser, soil, remaining buried for longer periods of time. These specimens 

experienced adipocere formation as well, although it is unclear whether the 

adipocere development was due to moisture content or duration of 

interment. Data collection for the winter pigs is still underway, although 

winter decomposition rates appear similar to those of spring and summer 

(possibly due to a lack of rainfall this year). 

The unexpected tenacity of the coyote population proved problematic, 

although the placement of the pigs does not appear to have attracted additional 

scavengers into the area, as the fall pig remained in the ground for 

two weeks, and the winter pig showed no signs of carnivore activity for 

more than five months. 

As well as providing pertinent data to Los Angeles County decomposition 

rates and how they compare with rates documented in other areas of 

North America, this study also demonstrate the significant differences in 

decomposition rates seasonally within one microclimate. Additional 

studies are suggested to address this issue. 

References: 

1. Galloway A, Birkby WH, Jones AM, Henry TE, Parks BO. Decay rates 

of human remains in an arid environment. J Forensic Sci 1989; 

(34):607-16. 

2. Galloway A. The process of decomposition: a model from the Arizona- 

Sonoran desert. In: Haglund WD and Sorg MH, editors. Forensic 

taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. Boston: CRC Press, 

139-50, 1997. 

3. Komar D. Forensic taphonomy in a cold climate region: a field study in 

central Alberta and a potential new method of determining time since death 

[dissertation]. Calgary, Alberta: University of Alberta, 1999. 


4. Mann RW, Bass WM, Meadows L. Time since death and decomposition 

of the human body: variables and observations in case and experimental 

field studies. J Forensic Sciences 1990; (35):103-11. 

5. Rhine S, Dawson JE. Estimation of time since death in the southwestern 

United States. In: Reichs K, editor. Forensic Osteology: advances in the 

identification of human remains. Springfield: CC Thomas, 145-60, 1998. 

6. Rodriguez WC, Bass WM. Decomposition of buried bodies and 

methods that may aid in their location. J Forensic Sci 1985; (30): 836-52. 

7. Schoenly K, Griest K, Rhine S. An experimental field protocol for investigating 

the postmortem interval using multidisciplinary indicators. J 

Forensic Sci 1991 (36):1395-1415. 

8. Shalaby OA, deCarvalho LML, Goff ML. Comparison of patterns of 

decomposition in a hanging carcass and a carcass in contact with soil in a 

xerophytic habitat on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. J Forensic Sci 2000; 

(45):1267-73. 

9. Shean BS, Messinger L, Papworth M. Observations of differential 

decomposition on sun exposed v. shaded pig carrion in coastal Washington 

State. J Forensic Sci 1993; (38):938-49. 

Forensic Anthropology, Taphonomy, Decomposition 

H4 Escaping Tennessee: Regions for Taphonomy 

Research Beyond Eastern Tennessee 

Tracey A. Tichnell, BS*, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology, East Lansing, MI 48824 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand where 

taphonomically relevant regions are located in the continental United States 

and the possibilities for furthering the work begun at the Anthropology 

Research Facility in Tennessee. 

By providing locations of taphonomically relevant regions, 

researchers can investigate climatic variables affecting the rate of decomposition 

further than is possible in eastern Tennessee, allowing for more 

accurate time since death estimates. 

Since 1981, groundbreaking research on the processes, the results, and 

the factors affecting decomposition has come out of the Anthropology 

Research Facility at the University of Tennessee. The results of this 

research have revealed several factors affecting the speed of decomposition 

and thus the time-since-death estimate. These factors can be lumped into 

two groups: intrinsic variables specific to the body, like clothing and 

trauma, and extrinsic variables, such as climate and environment. Though 

extrinsic variables are known to affect intrinsic variables, the magnitude of 

that effect is unknown. Many researchers examining any of these variables 

express the need for further work to be done, in different climates and environments. 

Even the investigators at the ARF, however inventive, are constrained 

by climate. Though they recognize their findings may be 

applicable only to one specific region, what defines different taphonomically-relevant 

climate zones is not known. By using variables known to 

have a large affect on decomposition rates, regions can be mapped defining 

where these variables differ. 

Several things need to be thought out when undertaking this kind of 

mapping. The distribution of cases, what variables, and the length of time 

they are being studied all need to be taken into consideration. The cases 

should cover the whole area being mapped and should be as evenly spaced 

as possible. When mapping, it is important to keep in mind three very 

influential climatic variables which can divide a region into taphonomically-relevant 

climates: temperature, humidity, and precipitation. Beyond 

the regions created by these factors, microclimates can further subdivide 

regions to account for the unique features of a particular area. As all the 

climate factors that affect taphonomy are unknown and the full effects of 

the known ones are uncertain, these microclimates hold a great deal of 

potential. Analyzing any of these variables for only a month or a season is 

unlikely to provide an accurate assessment of a region’s climatic variability. 

A year’s worth of data is required to account for the differences between 


seasons; more than one year is better to allow for anomalous weather conditions. 

By considering time, variation, and distribution, accurate regions 

can be mapped displaying the differences in climate. 

In this study, 129 cities across the United States were used. For each 

of these cities, data for three variables were downloaded from the National 

Climatic Data Center’s website run by the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration. For average temperature, daily data were 

downloaded for five years (1999-2003). Daily precipitation data only for 

2003 were downloaded. Only one year was used due to extensive missing 

data for the previous four years and only those cases with 95% of the data 

available were used to map regions. All daily data were converted to 

monthly averages for more efficient analysis. The available humidity data 

came as monthly averages. All the data were analyzed by variable using a 

hierarchical analysis in SPSS 12.0. The resulting groups were plotted on a 

map of the U.S. and regions drawn. Each of the three variables was 

mapped independently, producing three maps. The maps were then 

overlaid on top of each other and composite regions drawn, creating a 

fourth map of overall climatic differences. 

Temperature divided the country into five regions. Most of the 

country split into rows becoming progressively warmer with lower latitudes. 

Along the west coast is a band of a more moderate climate without 

the large difference between highs and lows seen in the rest of the country. 

Humidity creates five regions as well. The most humidity is seen in 

the northwest corner with a thin band of humidity down the west coast. The 

remainder of the country splits into a checkerboard. First, a line through 

the central plains divides the rest of the country into an arid region in the 

west and a humid one in the east. These are further subdivided into a 

northern more humid area and a southern more arid one. 

Similar to humidity, precipitation splits the majority of the U.S. into 

two regions with a line down the central plains. To the west of this line are 

three drier regions with two wet regions to the east. The exception to this 

pattern is a small area of extremely wet weather along Oregon’s pacific 

coast. The southern regions tend to have higher precipitation levels than 

the northern ones. 

Using temperature, humidity, and precipitation maps, a composite 

map was drawn showing 11 regions. These regions do not follow state 

lines, though most states fit decidedly in one region. The North East is 

characterized as cold, humid, and wet and involves Maine, New 

Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 

Just to the south is the Central East, a temperate, humid, and wet section 

including Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 

Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, eastern Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 

Missouri, and Iowa. The hot, humid, and wet zone of the South East contains 

North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 

Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and western Tennessee. The North 

Central is characterized as cold, humid, and dry includes Minnesota, North 

Dakota, and South Dakota. The temperate, humid, and dry region of the 

Central Plains contains Nebraska and Kansas. To the south is the South 

Central area, a hot, humid, and dry area involving most of Oklahoma and 

Texas. The cold, arid, and dry territory of the North West contains 

Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. The Central West is characterized as 

temperate, arid, and dry and involves Idaho, eastern Oregon, Utah, and 

Nevada. To the south is the South West region of New Mexico and Arizona 

characterized as hot, arid, and dry. The west coast is divided into two 

regions with Washington and western Oregon in the moderate, humid, and 

wet north area and California in the moderate, humid, and dry south. 

In a country that goes from the Atlantic to the Pacific and encompasses 

nearly every possible climate from the Arctic Circle to the Tropics, 

the potential for extensive and groundbreaking forensic taphonomic 

research is astounding. By using the three known influential climate variables, 

eleven regions in the U.S. were created. Each differs from its 

neighbor by temperature, humidity, or precipitation. Climate is the result 

of the interaction between these factors. In order to study how this interaction 

affects decomposition rates, at least one facility should be created in 

each region with the same goals as the ARF at UT. Though ideal, this is 

412

not likely to be feasible. However, each region is home to at least one 

forensic science program. Studies done through these programs could offer 

the same necessary information required to validate and fine-tune existing 

theories and methods and discover new ones that could not be found in the 

temperate, wet region of eastern Tennessee. Dr. Bill Bass and the faculty 

and staff at the Anthropology Research Facility have taken the first steps 

with sporadic efforts across the country to take the next ones. There is 

justification for further studies and facilities outside of Tennessee, both 

climatic and environmental. New facilities need to be created to contend 

with all the possibilities offered by the many different climates available in 

the U.S. 

Taphonomy, Decomposition, Body Farm 

H5 Insect Colonization of Child-Sized Remains: 

Behavioral Analysis of Pig Carcasses via 

24 Hour, High Resolution Video Surveillance 

Abigail Gremillian, BA*, 17862 East General Forrest, Baton Rouge, LA 

70817; and Robert J. Morton, MS, and Wayne D. Lord, PhD, FBI 

NCAVC, FBI Academy, Quantico, VA 22135 

The goal of this presentation is to document the behavioral patterns 

and activities of arthropods colonizing child-sized remains as observed via 

24-hour high-resolution video surveillance. 


humanity by reinforcing the need for careful review of all factors when 

considering postmortem interval estimations. 

The purpose of this research was to test the relationship between 

delays in arthropod colonization of child-sized remains and climatic 

conditions. The effects of weather conditions, particularly temperature, on 

insect colonization are well documented in the research literature. Most 

studies relied upon on-site observations, conducted several times a day. 

The traditional sampling methodology provides a limited view of arthropod 

colonization by framing the number of field observations in snippets of 

time. The restrictions of limited observations fail to account for 

unobserved arthropod species and activity, as well as the affect of the 

micro-climate. 

The FBI’s National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime 

(NCAVC) is routinely consulted by federal, state, and local authorities in a 

variety of cases of bizarre and repetitive violent crimes, including child 

homicides. The NCAVC has previously conducted research on the 

taphonomy of child-sized remains. This study provided observations on a 

24-hour basis, via high-resolution video camera, and collected weather data 

from the microenvironment at the disposal sites, as well as macroenvironment 

data from a national weather collection site located nearby. 

During the time period March 2004 through June 2004, the remains of 

two child-sized pigs (approximately 25 pounds) were deposited in an 

isolated wooded area in a suburban area of Virginia. The sites were 

secluded, approximately 250 feet from any dwellings. The pigs were placed 

on the surface, one was clothed, the other nude. Wire cages were placed 

over the two specimens to prevent larger scavengers from consuming the 

corpses. Pig carcasses were initially placed at study sites on days 

characterized by inclement weather conditions to assess the effects of such 

climatic conditions on arthropod colonization and succession. Two highresolution 

video cameras were set up utilizing an infrared light source for 

night viewing. The cameras were set up to record on a 24-hour basis. 

Taping was conducted every day throughout the period. Remains were also 

physically monitored twice a day, arthropods collected, observations noted 

and temperature and humidity readings taken with a psychrometer. Data 

for the microenvironment was collected from the U.S. Marine Corps 

Meteorology and Oceanographic Division, which provided hourly data on 

wind speed and direction, temperature, humidity, sky cover, and weather 

observations. Two replicates of the study were conducted. Tapes were 

reviewed to document the number of arthropods visiting the sites, as well 

as genus and activity. Inter-rater reliability was performed to ensure genus 

documentation was accurate. 

The results of this study demonstrate the relationship between weather 

and delays in arthropod colonization. For both replicates, rainy, overcast 

weather conditions delayed colonization even though temperatures were 

above established thresholds for activity. During initial spring replicate, 

such conditions contributed to a 17-day delay in carcass colonization by 

carrion frequenting insects. Similarly, a 3-day delay was observed in the 

late spring replicate. This study also showed the effect of seasonality on the 

succession of various arthropods and reinforced arthropod temporal 

predilections. Calliphorid activity was largely diurnal, beginning during 

midmorning and peaking in afternoon. Carrion beetle activity, however, 

was characterized by both diurnal and nocturnal activity patterns. Carrion 

beetle activity was not as dependent on temperature as fly activity. The 

study further highlighted the interspecific and intraspecific competition 

among insects for viable food sources and demonstrated exclusion and 

succession. Vertebrate scavenging was also a factor for decomposition, 

even though study carcasses were secured in wire mesh cages. The scavenging 

activities of small mammals and vultures clearly illustrated competitive 

interactions inherent between vertebrates and invertebrates competing 

for patchy carrion resources. Results of this study reinforce the need 

for careful review of all factors when considering postmortem interval 

estimations. 

Postmortem Interval, Arthropod Colonization, Child-Sized Remains 

H6 Human Decomposition in the Detroit River 

Paula A. Perry, BA*, Bournemouth University, Talbot Campus, Poole, 

Dorset BH12 5BF, United Kingdom 


taphonomic variables specifically associated with the Detroit River affect 

decomposition. A decomposition model for this unique riverine 

environment will be established for the future application to similar 

environments. 


humanity by assisting in the understanding of decomposition rates in a 

unique riverine environment and identify factors that affect tissue 

breakdown in order to develop a model that will aid forensic personnel in 

establishing the postmortem interval. 

The Detroit River is an international channel that links Lake St. Clair 

and the Upper Great Lakes to Lake Erie and is often the site of fatal 

accidents and suicides. The Detroit River contains dangerous levels of 

pollutants and organic waste products and as a result of industry, very little 

natural shore bank remains, preventing: fish spawning; vegetation growth; 

wildlife feeding, and natural sediment transfer. Because the environment 

surrounding the Detroit River and the waters themselves are extremely 

unique, it is necessary to identify the variables that influence decomposition 

rates in the Detroit River and study their affects on tissue breakdown in 

order to develop a model that will aid medical examiners in establishing the 

postmortem interval. 

Sixty-nine case files of human remains recovered from the Detroit 

River from over the past nineteen years were studied. Cases included 55 

males and 14 females ranging from aged six to eighty-five years. 

Submersion intervals were known in all cases and ranged from two hours 

to one hundred and twenty-nine days. Decomposition was recorded for 

each case in order to determine a progression of soft tissue loss in a freshwater, 

riverine environment. 

Of the sixty-nine cases examined; 30.4% (n= 21) were classified as 

stage 1 decay, 11.6% (n= 8) as stage 2 decay, 31.9% (n= 22) as stage 3 

decay, 23.2% (n= 16) as stage 4 decay and 2.9% (n= 2) as stage 5 decay. 

In the Detroit River, stage 1 remains lack discoloration or bloating, 

rigor or livor mortis may be present and are recovered between zero to two 

days. Stage 2 decomposition is observed between two to nine days and 


consists of early discoloration, bloating and marbling, with minimal skin 

slippage. Stage 3 remains show advanced skin slippage and significant 

discoloration and bloating, and are found between nine to twenty-four days. 

Stage 4 is observed between twenty-four to fifty-eight days and displays 

tissue erosion and the purging of fluids. Stage 5 is characterized by the 

exposure of skeletal elements and is seen in remains that have been in the 

Detroit River for over fifty-eight days. 

When compared to models of tissue decay developed by previous 

research, it was found that decomposition in the Detroit River follows a 

similar sequence, but the rate of decay is slower. Contributing factors are 

low water temperatures and the absence of postmortem feeding by aquatic 

organisms. 

Further analysis showed that within the Detroit River, body weight 

and pollution affect decomposition with heavier individuals and higher 

levels of pollution in the water speed the rate of decay. 

Detroit River, Decomposition, Postmortem Interval 

H7 Observed Taphonomic Changes and Drift 

Trajectory of Bodies Recovered From 

the Tidal Thames, London England: 

A 15-Year Retrospective Study 

Victoria L. Brewer, BSc*, Bournemouth University, School of 

Conservational Sciences, Talbot Campus, Poole, Doreset BH12 5BB, 


Attendees will gain a general understanding of the processes involved 

in marine/aquatic taphonomy and its application for the determination of 

postmortem submersion interval. It is hoped that after gaining an understanding 

of the basic principles of fluvial transportation, attendees can 

apply these in future casework within their own spheres to determine 

cadaver location and enhance recovery from aquatic environments. 

With the discovery of human remains, one of the most important 

issues to be considered is the postmortem interval (PMI), as it is used to 

examine missing persons files in search for a likely match. It is imperative 

that accurate PMI determinations can be established as it can mean the 

difference between the positive identification of an individual or that 

individual remaining unidentified in the morgue. In forensic settings there 

is a growing need to understand aquatic decomposition in order to interpret 

decompostional changes as an aid to the determination of perimortem 

interval. The environmental context in rivers, lakes or oceans is different 

to that on land. Therefore, separate decomposition and preservation models 

need to be developed. This presentation will impact the forensic 

community and/or humanity by providing insight into the principles and 

forces that act upon a human cadaver in an aquatic environment. This data 

can potentially be applied to fluvial drift models that aid in not only the 

determination of search strategies for locating human remains, but to also 

the calculation of location at which they entered the river. 

In 2002, River Thames lifeboat crews responded to approximately 

400 cases of attempted suicides and suicide victim recovery. Many of their 

cases were recovered from the 62.14 km stretch of the tidal Thames, which 

runs through the Boroughs of Central and Greater London, particularly 

between Eel Pie Island and Barking Point. Bodies deposited in this area of 

the Thames are subject to diverse and ever changing conditions, as the river 

alters from fresh water to a marine environment; both of these settings have 

a unique and specific effect on the movement and decomposition of these 

bodies. 

A retrospective study was carried out on 103 closed case files from the 

Marine Support Unit, Thames division of the Metropolitan Police. Each 

body used in the study had been positively identified; information such as 

demographic data, date last seen, and date recovered were present. The 

remains (84 males and 19 females) were recovered between December 

1988 to June 2004 between Richmond and Barking Point. The aim of this 


study was to form a decompositonal table based on taphonomic changes 

related to the Postmortem Submersion Interval (PMSI), thereby creating a 

more accurate form of assessing PMSI to aid the process of identification. 

Another objective of the study was to evaluate the drift trajectory of the 

remains recovered in order to assess the viability of a predictive drift 

model. Such a model would provide insight into the fluvial transportation 

of human remains and, therefore, could be used to predict recovery 

locations as well as point of entry into the tidal Thames. The preliminary 

results are presented here. 

PMSI was calculated from dates taken from missing person’s reports 

or witness statements of sightings of the individual either in or entering the 

Thames. The PMSI ranged from 0 to 333 days, with a mean of 

20.2787±4.74911 days and a mode of 3 days. 

Using data from the 103 individuals recovered, taphonomic tables 

were developed focusing on a total of 13 variables for decomposition. 

Photographs exhibiting a minimum of 50% of the body, along with postmortem 

examination and police reports, were used to assess decompositional 

changes. As a result of a multivariance analysis test (MANOVA), 

which indicated a statistically significant relationship (Λ= 0.048, sig’. 

0.000) between the decompositional variables and the season in which the 

remains were removed from the Thames, the taphonomic tables were 

further divided into two seasons, winter (November-April) and summer 

(May-October). Further analysis of variables that may account for the 

observed decomposition is presently underway. 

Of the 103 cases, 47 had known points of entry into the Thames 

provided by witness statements and emergency calls. Drift distance both 

nautical miles and kilometers was analyzed in order to determine if a drift 

trajectory model could be developed for this stretch of the Thames, and also 

to determine if set variables could aid in determining the location of where 

a body may have either entered the river or would be expected to be 

recovered. Drift was calculated by using standard distances developed by 

the Port of London Authority, with London Bridge as the point of reference. 

Negative drift, moving upstream from the point of entry, was observed in 4 

cases. The mean drift was 3689.8511 meters ±1000.389 meters (1.9836 ± 

0.54119 nautical miles), with the PMSI ranging from 0 to 270 days. 

Preliminary analysis of variables affecting drift through the use of Pearson 

correlation (P

The forensic anthropologist’s examination of skeletal material usually 

includes determination of the biological profile (age at death, sex, ancestry, 

and stature), estimation of postmortem interval, and detection of any 

trauma/pathology and its timing relative to the death. At present, estimates 

of postmortem interval, the amount of time that lapsed between death and 

discovery, are based on state of decomposition of the remains and their 

associated ecological conditions, and are generally given in broad ranges of 

months to years. Cementum increment analysis in humans has the potential 

to help narrow the estimate of postmortem interval to the actual calendar 

year and season during which the individual died. This project applies 

proven methods for determining season-of-death among mammals to the 

analysis of human teeth. Although age at death studies have been 

conducted, no known study has attempted to apply these methods to season 

of death. The theoretical underpinnings that make it possible to determine 

the time of year that an animal died simply from the microstructures in its 

teeth are the same for animals and human beings, and therefore a successful 

outcome is anticipated. 

Dental increments are identified in the cementum deposits on the roots 

of human teeth and under microscopic examination appear as alternating 

dark and light bands, analogous to tree rings. Research with comparative 

samples of known-age and known date-of-death individuals has demonstrated 

a consistent relationship between annual seasons and the formation 

of distinct increment types. In general, the winter or arrested cementum 

increment appears as an opaque band while the summer or growth 

increment appears as a translucent band. Together these represent one year 

of an individual’s life, providing an annual record of that person’s life 

history. The total number of increments provides a means of determining 

the individual’s age at death (Wittwer-Backofen 2004, Kagerer and Grupe 

2001, Jankauskas et al. 2001, Geuser et al. 1999). 

Methods of increment analysis are broadly similar. Increments are 

exposed by sectioning teeth and grinding or polishing the cut surfaces, 

which are then viewed under magnification. Research into the biology of 

cementum formation (Lieberman et al. 1992; Lieberman 1993) suggests 

that the petrographic method of sectioning is most appropriate for both 

archaeological samples and comparative samples because it takes 

advantage of changes in polarized light diffraction resulting from biological 

variation in the structure of cementum increments. With the petrographic 

method, teeth are embedded in either an epoxy or plastic matrix to help 

maintain the structural integrity of the tooth, thin sections are cut with a low 

speed saw fitted with a diamond blade, mounted on glass slides, and then 

ground and polished. Thin sections are viewed under 125X magnification 

with a transmitted, polarized light source. Cementum increments are 

counted and measured for thickness. 

For this investigation, the authors have acquired extracted teeth, the 

individual’s date of birth, and date of extraction from local dentists. Recent 

studies involving human teeth (Wittwer-Backofen 2004, Kagerer and 

Grupe 2001, Jankauskas et al. 2001, Geuser et al. 1999) have indicated that 

no statistical difference exists in cementum accumulation of different teeth 

within a single individual. For this reason a specific tooth was not required. 

Precise interpretation of dental increments is predicated upon 

establishing seasonal formation times in the particular taxon under analysis. 

In the case of humans, no comparative study has recorded the specific 

timing of increment formation. The current project seeks to identify the 

timing of increment formation in humans and thus provide a means by 

which season-of-death could be determined in forensic cases. Results of 

the pilot study will be presented in this report. 

Cementum Increment Analysis, Dental Anthropology, 

Season at Death 

H9 The Meeting of Old and New: Luminol 

Application to a Suspected Ritualistic 

Heathen Stone From Viking Times 

Thora S. Steffensen, MD*, University Hospital of Iceland, Department 

of Pathology, Rannsoknastofa H.I. vid Baronsstig, Reykjavik, IS 108, 

Iceland; and Omar Palmason, Reykjavik Police Department, Hverfisgata 

115, Reykjavik, IS 108, Iceland 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the audience to heathen 

worshipping ceremonies in Iceland in the Viking times as they relate to a 

recently discovered special stone that was, upon examination with 

Luminol, found to be focally positive. 


humanity by demonstrating the potential for Luminol to contribute to 

knowledge of this an ancient ceremonial stone in Iceland. 

During the last year, the expansion of a summer home in the northwestern 

part of Iceland called Strandir, uncovered an unusually shaped 

stone, which some locals recognized to coincide with old descriptions of 

artifacts used during heathen worship. The stone had and external triangular 

shape with smooth and straight sides and on the base of the triangle 

was a deep cup-shaped depression in the surface. According to the stories 

blood was contained in this depressed area during the ceremonies. The 

local authorities in Strandir approached the forensic community and asked 

for possible aid in determining if blood had ever been contained in the cupshaped 

part of the stone. Luminol application to the stone showed a very 

weak positive luminescence localized to the cup shaped area of the stone, 

with other areas of the stone being negative. 

Luminol is known to detect old blood; however, it cannot determine 

when this presumptive blood was deposited. Geographical evaluation will 

be obtained to try to determine possible age of the chiseling of the stone. 

Anthropology, Luminol, Heathen Ceremonies 

H10 Lifestyles of the Unidentified: 

Challenges in Positive Identification 

Heather C. Backo, MA*, and John Verano, PhD, Tulane University 

Anthropology Department, 1021 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate skeletal features that may 

provide insight into an individual’s lifestyle as well as aid in positive 

identification if antemortem records can be found. 


humanity by demonstrating that certain skeletal profiles can be linked to 

lifestyles such as homelessness. It is proposed that, despite the presence of 

distinguishing characteristics, many of these individuals remain 

unidentified due to their lifestyle. 

The human skeleton exhibits many characteristics unique to an 

individual that can aid in positive identification. These include congenital 

and developmental variants as well as traits acquired during life, such as 

healed trauma, medical appliances, and dental restorations. The presence 

of rare or unique traits, however, is no guarantee of identification in cases 

of skeletal remains of unknown decedents. Certain lifestyles can, in fact, 

lead to a greater likelihood that a positive identification will not be 

achieved. 

This poster will present skeletal profiles indicative of certain lifestyles 

that can impede the identification of an individual, leading to an increased 

probability of a case remaining unsolved. This will be illustrated by two 

cases of human remains recovered in 1996 and 1998 from Jefferson and St. 

Tammany Parishes in Louisiana. The first individual, a white male adult, 

is a partially skeletonized body recovered from an enclosed space in 

December 1998. The cause of death was determined to be compression 

asphyxia, due to a failed attempt to enter a building through an exhaust 


shaft. Skeletal features indicated an age of 30-35 years, and a height of 

approximately 5’8”. Also present was an amalgam on the upper molar, 

indicating dental work had been completed at some time in the past. 

Another feature that could aid in identification is a healed fracture of the 

left maxillary bone, as well as clothing and personal items recovered at the 

scene. Radiographs produced good visualization of the frontal sinuses, 

another trait unique to an individual that can aid in identification. 

The second individual, found in an outdoor setting, was completely 

skeletonized, with the exception of the left hand and the feet. The left hand 

had preserved mummified tissue, while the feet were located within intact 

socks. However, no other clothing was found at the scene. Skeletal 

features were that of a black male, age 30-40 years, and a height of approximately 

5’7”. Although there was extensive tooth decay at time of death, 

the presence of multiple amalgams and an upper denture with a single false 

tooth (upper left lateral incisor), indicates that dental work with potential 

for x-rays had been completed at some time in the past. Also present are 

several developmental anomalies that would also appear in radiographs, 

including asymmetry at the distal end of the sternum, incomplete fusion of 

sacral units 4 and 5, and ossification defects of the patellae. Antemortem 

trauma includes a healed fracture of the right ulna, and a fracture of the 

proximal phalanx of the left great toe, both of which may have required 

medical attention in the past. 

Despite the fact that both skeletons showed antemortem pathologies 

and unusual skeletal features that could lead to a positive identification, no 

potential matches with missing persons were made, and the two individuals 

remain unidentified. In the second case, facial reconstruction was also 

attempted. In both of the above cases, there were also indications of certain 

lifestyles that could hinder identification from being reached. Both individuals 

showed antemortem fractures that could be indicative of a violent 

lifestyle. The first individual suffered from a facial fracture that could have 

been sustained by a blow to the face below the left eye. The second individual 

suffered from a possible parry fracture of the lower right arm. 

Secondly, although both individuals had received professional dental 

care sometime in the past, at the time of death tooth decay, extensive 

enough to cause antemortem loss and significant discomfort was present 

indicating that medical care had not been sought for some time. Finally, 

personal effects and circumstances of discovery are also indicative of 

certain lifestyles. The first individual was found to have hypodermic 

needles within the pockets of his clothing. Although no personal effects 

and very little clothing were recovered for the second individual, the 

location of discovery was a parking area used by a traveling carnival, indicating 

that the individual could have lacked a permanent address. Taken as 

a whole, the above evidence can be used to develop a profile of individuals 

who, despite possessing multiple skeletal and dental traits that could aid in 

identification, follow a lifestyle that in effect hinders such attempts, leading 

to greater likelihood of a “cold case.” 

Identification, Skeletal Remains, Cold Case 

H11 Internal Cranial Fractures 

Alison Galloway, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Social Science One 

FS, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; and Lauren Zephro, 

MA, Monterey County Sheriff’s Office, 1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, 

CA 95006 

The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic anthropological 

community with examples of internal cranial fracturing and to emphasize 

the need to include internal examinations of the cranial bones in the 

protocol for forensic analysis of perimortem trauma. 


humanity by emphasizing the importance of examination of the internal 

cranial vault in assessing skeletal trauma. 

The literature on cranial injuries focuses primarily on those visible on 

the external surface such as depressed fractures or those that transgress both 


inner and outer tables such as linear fractures. Experience with recent cases 

has highlighted the importance of internal examinations even in the 

absence of external indications of damage. 

The anatomy of the skull is that of a sphere with a number of areas of 

weakness produced by foramina and areas of increased strength produced 

by buttresses. The outer table of dense bone provides a protective coat that, 

in many places of the cranial vault, covers a layer of trabecular bone known 

as diploe. The inner table provides direct protection for the brain and major 

blood drainage systems associated with the central nervous system. 

Bone fracturing occurs when the abilities of bone tissue to withstand 

exceeds the bone’s resilience. Being a combination of organic and 

inorganic materials, bone is capable of both elastic and plastic deformation 

prior to failure. Once bone is broken, however, the fracture will be 

transmitted through the bone until the energy is dissipated. Cranial 

fractures are usually depicted in the forensic literature as affecting primarily 

the outer table with secondary ramification on the inner table. In the two 

cases presented here, the outer table damage was minimal or absent while 

inner table or internal damage suggested more serious insults. 

In the first case, the decomposed remains of an adult male were found 

in a field. Skeletal analysis for trauma was requested. The remains were 

cleaned and found to retain evidence of extensive sharp force trauma 

including multiple stab wounds to the back and lower side and cuts on the 

cervical vertebrae. External examination of the skull showed little 

evidence of damage however, internally, two points of impact were evident 

with extensive incomplete fracturing radiating from these points. 

Examination under low power magnification showed fine fracturing on the 

outer table but insufficient to give the impact points as clearly. Information 

gleaned about the crime suggested the victim was hit twice over the head 

with a flashlight, and was tortured with a knife before having his throat cut. 

Similarly, in a case presented previously, compression fractures in the 

posterior portion of the supraorbital plates in the remains of an adult female 

in her mid-fifties suggested compression fracturing. External damage was 

limited to minor incomplete fracturing in the left lateral portion of the 

anterior vault and some in the orbits. 

These cases suggest that internal examination either by craniotomy or 

illumination and visual examination are critical for a complete anthropological 

evaluation. The energy exerted on the outer table may be 

transmitted through these bones with little damage but passed through to 

the inner table in such a manner that fracture point is reached. Cranial vault 

injuries are more complex than is often appreciated and require more 

detailed analysis. 

Trauma Analysis, Cranial Fractures, Protocol 

H12 Perimortem Bone Fracture Distinguished 

From Postmortem Fire Trauma: A Case 


Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, Department of 

Forensic/Biological Anthropology, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546; 

James J. Woytash, DDS, MD, Erie County Medical Examiner’s Office, 

462 Grider Street, Buffalo, NY 14214; Anne M. Kroman, MA, Department 

of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and Andrew C. Wilson, BS, Department of 

Forensic/Biological Anthropology, Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA 16509 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the use of burned bone biomechanics 

to distinguish perimortem trauma from postmortem trauma. 


humanity by using a case study to demonstrate the potential of burned bone 

examination. 

Burned bone fractures have been a curiosity to anthropologists for 

decades. Thermal destruction to bone has a recent renewed interest with 

increased popularity of forensic science analyses of taphonomic influences 

and also because of human rights issues. 

416

A recent case in the Buffalo, NY, area illustrates a situation where a 

body was discovered when a blaze was extinguished in an abandoned 

building. It was soon determined that the fire was act of arson used in an 

attempt to conceal a death. While the heat and flames damaged the remains 

of this adult female, the third author (JJW) discovered head trauma in 

autopsy, thus a homicide was officially identified. 

Past research in the area of thermal destruction of bone by the first 

author and others (1) has shown predictable patterns of destruction of 

human remains when observing and assessing body position, soft tissue 

influence, alteration of bone color, and burn fracture patterns, where 

charted normal patterns enable researchers to recognize abnormal patterns. 

Examination of the burned victim’s right hand and wrist presented an 

unusual pattern of destruction. At and above the wrist, severe burning 

occurred where there was complete separation of the radius and ulna. 

While wrist destruction is common for early fire destruction1 , the hand 

demonstrated atypical damage. The fingers were not in pugilistic posture, 

and distal phalanges are heat damaged or missing. Since atypical postcranium 

burning was diagnosed along with perimortem head trauma ruled 

as a homicide, the medical examiner (JJW) decided that all bones should be 

removed and examined in a dry state by anthropologists. 

Re-examination of the right radius indicated heat damage and traumatic 

perimortem fracture at the distal end of the shaft. The radius indicates 

bending blunt force trauma of the shaft with the forearm shaft bending 

anterior (compression) to posterior (tension), the opposite direction of a 

typical Colles fracture that occurs when a person falls, and catches their 

weight on their wrist and hand. 

Indications of pre-fire forearm trauma are confirmed by fracture and 

burn patters. There is a fracture pattern that is continuous and uniform 

through burned and unburned bone. The fact that the fracture did not alter 

in direction or form in the unburned and burned portions of the bone indicates 

that the bone fractured in a green state, unburned. A second feature 

indicating fresh bone fracture is an incomplete butterfly fracture. While 

only visible under microscopic examination, this fracture illustrates a 

typical green bone butterfly fracture. The fractures described above appear 

to be the product of perimortem trauma. This trauma likely compromised 

the forearm and restricted pugilistic posture formation in the right hand 

since the fulcrum for the powerful forearm wrist flexors is absent. The 

distal ulna burned beyond analytical capabilities. 

When the hand of a fire victim was viewed as atypical after burning, 

close examination indicated fracture characteristics that could have 

occurred only before the fire. This case illustrates that knowledge of 

normal burn patterns assists in the examination of perimortem trauma in 

human remains. This combined with knowledge of biomechanical properties 

of green bone fracture aided in the diagnosis and interpretation of a 

homicide, even in an incident when criminal behavior has attempted to alter 

evidence with arson. 

References: 

1. Symes SA, Smith OC, Berryman HE, and Pope EJ. Patterned Thermal 

Destruction of Human Remains. Paper presented to the 30th Anniversary 

Edition of the T. D. Stewart Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. 

1999. Sponsored by the Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, and the 

Smithsonian Institution. 

Burned Bone, Pugilistic Pose, Bone Fracture 

H13 Mandible and Cranial Base Fractures 

in Adults: Experimental Testing 

Anne M. Kroman, MA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; Tyler Kress, PhD, University of Tennessee, 250 

South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Steven A. Symes, PhD, 

Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546 

This goal of this presentation is to outline results from a recent study 

on fracture production and propagation in the human skull, and 

demonstrate the biomechanical forces behind blunt force trauma, cranial 

base fractures, and mandible fractures. 


humanity by showing the biomechanics behind the creation and propagation 

of cranial base and mandible fractures using experimental testing. 

Fracture biomechanics can contribute a great deal to the field of 

physical anthropology, with trauma analysis aiding in determining cause 

and manner of death (1). Postmortem trauma assessment is an essential 

tool for identifying the type of trauma location of impact sites, sequencing 

blows, and establishing the characteristics of the object responsible for 

injury (1). In anthropological trauma analysis, one of the most complicated 

and confusing areas is blunt force trauma. Within the realm of blunt force 

trauma, cranial base fractures and mandible fractures are two areas that are 

extremely hard to interpret and have confused anthropologists for years. 

Fractures that travel through the cranial base have been designated a 

wide range of terminology, and an even wider range of biomechanical 

explanations for their creation. They have been attributed to falls, blows to 

the top of the skull, and hinge fractures (1). However, the exact mechanisms 

behind the creation and propagation of cranial base fractures remain 

unclear. Mandible fractures are similarly confusing, due to the unique 

shape and biomechanical properties of the mandible which can produce 

abnormal fracture patterns. The curved shape of the mandible causes it to 

react to forces in a different manner than do more regular bones, such as the 

long bones leading to difficulty identifying point of impact. 

To illuminate the creation and propagation of cranial base fractures 

and mandible fractures, a study design was developed that would utilize the 

cutting edge technology in the fields of industrial and biomedical 

engineering, while keeping with the needs of anthropology. Because of the 

unique biomechanical properties of the human skull, it was decided that a 

non-human substitute was not an option. Fifteen fully fleshed, unembalmed 

cadaver heads were used. A small portion of the cranial vault 

was removed from each head, as well as the brain to allow viewing of the 

creation of the cranial base fractures by high-speed film. An engineering 

drop tower system was constructed to delivered calibrated, fully monitored 

blows to each specimen. 

Each specimen was impacted in several designated areas in a 

controlled experiment to produce cranial base fractures. In addition, each 

head was impacted in the mandible, with five heads impacted at the apex 

of the chin, five at the midline of the horizontal ramus, and five at the gonial 

angle. Five data acquisition load cells monitored the biomechanical 

response of the skulls for compressive and shear stress in the X, Y, and Z 

moments in millisecond intervals. With the data from the load cells, the 

forces throughout the impact and fracture propagation were charted and 

analyzed. After testing, each of the specimens was examined, with 

fractures charted and photographed. Each head was then processed and 

reconstructed to analyze the fracture patterns that resulted from each impact 

location. The experimental design allowed for complete monitoring 

throughout the impact event, and provided extensive data on how the 

cranium responds to blunt force trauma and how fractures occur. 

Results from the testing showed that cranial base fractures can be 

created by a strong blow to the lower parietal region, and fracture propagation 

travels through the areas of least support with in the base. Radiating 

fractures were also observed around the external auditory meatus. The 

mandible was shown to have characteristic fracture patterns correlating to 

the location of impact and resulting stress. Each of the three test areas 

displayed different patterns, and characteristic areas of tension and 

compression. Results from testing may help forensic anthropologists to 

understand confusing fracture patterns in the cranial base and mandible, 

and provide better trauma analysis. 

References: 

1. Berryman HE, Symes SA. Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial trauma 

through fracture interpretation. In: Reichs KJ, editor. Forensic Osteology: 

Advances in the identification of human remains. Illinois: Charles C. 

Thomas, 1998. 

2. Galloway A. Fracture patterns and skeletal morphology: introduction 

and the skull. In: Galloway A, editor. Broken 


Bones. Springfeild, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1998. 

3. Symes SA, Berrryman HE, Smith OC. The changing role of the forensic 

anthropologist: pattern and mechanism of fracture production. Lecture presented 

at Mountain, Swamp, and Beach meeting of practicing forensic 

anthropologists. Gatlinburg, TN, 1989. 

Cranial Base Fractures, Mandible Fractures, Impact Biomechanics 

H14 Unusual Cranial Base Trauma in 

Victims of the Khmer Rouge 

Sabrina C. Ta’ala, MA*, and Gregory E. Berg, MA, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command Central ID Lab (JPAC/CIL), 310 Worchester 



an unusual pattern of cranial trauma observed in skeletal remains of Khmer 

Rouge victims. 


humanity by disseminating information to the forensic community 

regarding a pattern of trauma stemming from extreme interpersonal 

violence. Hypothetical scenarios will be proposed concerning the specific 

origin of this trauma. 

The skeletal remains described in this study represent victims of the 

Khmer Rouge; the remains are currently housed in a memorial stupa at 

Choeung Ek, near Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Between 1975 and 1979, 

approximately 15,000 men, women, and children were executed and buried 

in mass graves at Choeung Ek. It is likely that most of these individuals 

were originally detainees in Phnom Penh’s Tuol Sleng prison. In the early 

1980s, Vietnamese officials excavated roughly half of the mass graves at 

Choeung Ek. When the remains were disinterred, they were disarticulated, 

sorted by bone type, and later stored in a stupa built on the site. The 

Cambodian government now administers the site as a museum and it is 

popularly referred to as “the Killing Fields,” although numerous such sites 

are scattered throughout Cambodia. 

Witness accounts suggest that members of the Khmer Rouge 

generally avoided using up scarce ammunition on executions – gunshot 

was not necessarily the standard method of execution. Alternate means 

such as stabbing, strangulation, suffocation, and bludgeoning were often 

employed instead. 

A random sample of 85 crania housed in the stupa was examined for 

morphological variation and trauma. Subadult crania were excluded and a 

sex estimate was recorded for each individual. Sex estimates were based 

solely on cranial morphology, as all crania were disassociated from their 

respective post-cranial portions. Since sex and age estimates were fairly 

generalized, patterns of differential execution treatment were difficult to 

assess. 

Out of the 85 crania examined at Choeung Ek, ten individuals (12%) 

display blunt force trauma to the occipital. The trauma typically presents 

as a sizeable loss of the occipital bone from the middle of the foramen 

magnum to the external occipital protuberance (roughly between opisthion 

and opisthocranion). Half of the fractures are focused centrally on the 

squamous portion of the occipital, the other are oriented to the left or right. 

In several cases, the foramen magnum is fractured posterior to the occipital 

condyles; in many cases the entire occipital base is absent. The breakage 

pattern includes fractures that migrate across the spheno-occipito sutures 

and into the lesser wings of the sphenoid. Often, fractures run from the 

margins of the missing bone toward lambda and the mastoid processes. 

Some of these fractures even split large external occipital protuberances. 

Multiple blows are apparent on several crania. Radiating fractures are 

visible on nearly all crania; concentric fractures are associated with some 

as well. Beveling is present on the margins of the affected bones, typically 

on the inner table, though a few instances of external beveling occur, suggesting 

that differential forces were applied to the cranial base. 


The cranial trauma appears to represent a unique and deliberate 

pattern of execution. While most interpersonal violence is directed at the 

face, forehead, and sides of the head, here it is directed at the cranial base. 

Two possible methods of producing the observed trauma are proposed. 

One hypothesis is that the individuals were struck while in a crouched 

“execution-style” position, much the same as would be appropriate for a 

beheading. A second possibility is that the executed individuals were struck 

with an upswing directed at the skull base, while standing. In either case, 

this trauma demonstrates an effort to maximize the effectiveness of the 

blow - this area of the skull is strongly supported, but potentially sensitive 

because of its connection with the spinal column. 

Forensic Anthropology, Cranial Trauma, Execution 

H15 Microscopic and Cross Section Analysis 

of Occult Intraosseous Fracture 

(Bone Bruise) of the Skull 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, and Cristin Rolf, MD, State Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY 40601; and 

Warren Mitchell, Kentucky State Police Laboratory, 100 Sower 

Boulevard, Suite 202, Frankfort, KY 40601 

The goal of this presentation is to present a case report in which crosssection 

analysis of a so-called “bone bruise” of the skull revealed extensive 

microfracture of the bone. 


humanity by raising awareness of the forensic importance of bone crosssection 

analysis for occult intraosseous fracture, and show the possibility of 

using this pattern of microfracture in comparative tool mark analysis. 

Occult intraosseous fracture of bone, otherwise known as a “bone 

bruise,” is usually the result of compressive and/or impaction forces - 

including falls, car accidents, sports injuries, and other injuries including 

deliberate blows received at the hands of others. In the clinical setting, a 

bone bruise is often considered an area of trabecular bone microfracture 

with bony alterations similar to those seen in stress fractures, and there is 

little or no limitation of motion or function. In these clinical settings, bone 

bruises are poorly defined, and are not visible on plain film radiographs. 

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) often reveals subtle variations in 

signal intensity of the medullary bone, but this MRI modality is not readily 

available in most forensic autopsy settings. Gross examination of the bone 

at autopsy often demonstrates discoloration of the bone due to hemorrhage, 

but with a bone bruise there are no visible cracks in the bone, nor variation 

in the contour of the bone’s surface. However, gross and microscopic 

cross-section examination of these areas can reveal evidence of impaction 

or compression forces sufficient to break the bone. This cross-section 

analysis of the bone can also be valuable for determining the precise area 

of bone which sustained the blow. Measuring the extent of discrete areas 

of microfracture has the potential to prove useful for tool mark comparison 

studies. 

In this case study, the decomposing body of an adult female was found 

outdoors partially covered by forest debris. The skull was essentially skeletonized, 

although there was a considerable amount of soft tissue remaining 

on the lower trunk and extremities. The cause of death was determined to 

be sharp force trauma. The only area of apparent injury to the skull was a 

1 X 3 inch teardrop - shaped area of discoloration in the frontal bone at the 

midline. 

Gross examination of both the ectocranial and endocranial surfaces of 

the bone revealed no break in the contour of the bone. Plain film radiographs 

of the bone did not reveal the presence of any fractures. Within the 

darkened hemorrhagic area, however, there was a small semicircular line of 

darker discoloration on the ectocranial surface. A wedge-shaped section of 

frontal bone, including this line, was harvested with an oscillating bone 

saw. On cross-section, the gross appearance of the entire wedge of bone 

418

evealed the hemorrhagic discoloration had seeped through the outer cortex 

to the diploë, and portions of the diploë were filled with blood. The bone 

exhibited fractures parallel to the ectocranial surface. Cross section examination 

also revealed other numerous tiny fractures, which extended into the 

diploë. These fractures could be seen by the naked eye. The fractures were 

essentially parallel, with separation of their margins being wider at the 

ectocranial surface of the bone, and becoming progressively narrower as 

they approached the diploë. None of the fractures crossed the diploë. The 

microfractures stopped abruptly at the outline of the semicircular line on 

the ectocranial surface of the bone. 

Analysis of the semicircular line was done by the side-by-side 

comparative microscope technique usually reserved for ballistic 

comparative analysis. 

Bone Bruise, Trauma, Tool Marks 

H16 Disappearance, Torture, and Murder 

of Nine Individuals in a Community 

of Guatemala 

Shirley C. Chacon, BA*, Leonel E. Paiz, BA, and Renaldo Acevedo, BA, 

Fundacion de Anthropology Forense de Guatemala, Avenida Simeon 

Cañas 10-64 Zona 2, Guatemala, 01002, Guatemala 

The goal of this presentation is to discuss a case in which fifteen individuals 

disappeared from the Ixil region of Guatemala between 1980 and 

1982, and suggest the role that the Guatemalan Army played in the case. 


humanity by demonstrating that nine of these individuals were victims of 

systematic torture and murder during the Guatemalan Civil War. 

The committee for Historical clarification of Guatemala (CEH) 

registers 32 massacres which took place between 1980 and 1982 in the Ixil 

ethnic region of Guatemala. Also occurring during this time was the total 

or partial destruction of 90 villages in the area, and the displacement of a 

major part of the rural population from its territory. The case presented here 

involving the nine recovered individuals is from one of these 32 massacres. 

The purpose of this investigation is to give this case exposure and provide 

scientific evidence to the justice system in order to start a trial. 

The investigations carried out by the CEH revealed the existence of a 

clandestine cemetery in the hamlet ¨Batzcorral.” This case appears twice 

in the report, with different dates. The first version relates that during 

February 1982 the bodies of five persons displaying signs of torture were 

found in the above-mentioned hamlet. The second version mentions that 

during the year 1985 a battle between the army and the guerillas occurred. 

This was the reason why army members, as revenge, tortured, and executed 

fifteen persons, whose bodies where dismembered. 

The testimonies gathered by the Fundacion de Antropologia Forense 

de Guatemala, through interviews with members of the families of the 

disappeared, indicate that after a battle between the guerillas and the army 

of Guatemala, the soldiers started to search the outskirts of Nebaj for 

individuals who were allegedly involved in the conflict. On July 10, 1982, 

five men where captured. Five weeks later 10 more were reported missing. 

According to the testimonies, some of them were at their places of business. 

Neighbors say that they saw army members taking the missing persons to 

the military base. The wife of one of the missing related that she went to 

the base and asked for her husband. She was told that he was not there and 

that he might have gone to another place. 

On September 15 of the same year, the owner of a nearby field 

informed family members that he found bodies being bitten by dogs, and 

that they presented signs of torture. Therefore, family members and 

neighbors decided to dig a grave to bury the bodies. 

In the results obtained by the FAFG, two clandestine graves were 

found. In total, nine incomplete skeletons and eighteen limb bones (twelve 

arms and six legs) were recovered. 

During the analysis of the bones, it was found that the nine skeletons 

were male (eight adults and one subadult). Each case presented trauma 

caused by sharp and blunt forces to the arms and legs, as well as blunt force 

trauma to the ribs. Cuts to the clothing were also observed. Seven bodies 

were mutilated, which was, according to the CEH, typical during the civil 

war in Guatemala. The trauma to these individuals is evidence of 

systematic torture. Therefore, according to the International right, the 

crimes of torture and murder were committed in these cases. 

Torture, Mutilation, Massacre 

H17 Morphoscopic Traits and the Statistical 


Stephen D. Ousley, MA, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 7012, NMNH MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013- 

7012; and Joseph T. Hefner, MA, Department of Anthropology, CA Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, Gainesville, 

FL 32605 


humanity by showing how they can utilize non-metric traits in a statistical 

approach and immediately start using these techniques to assess ancestry. 

Their opinions will be more reliable because they can state a probability of 

group membership and will know the samples and sample sizes their results 

and conclusions are based on. 

The primary goal of the presentation is to provide statistical guidelines 

and results for using nonmetric traits in the determination of ancestry. It 

will be made clear that several statistical methods provide enhanced 

utilization of non-metric traits in the classification of unidentified human 

crania. 

Hefner (1, 2) has shown empirically that the “typical” nonmetric traits 

of African-, Asian-, and European-derived groups are not found at 

frequencies suggested by forensic anthropologists such as Bass, Byers, 

Gill, and Rhine. These traits were highly valued by Earnest Hooton, and 

come predominantly from his “Harvard List” of traits. Hooton prepared 

illustrations of the “Harvard List” but apparently, neither he nor any of his 

students published group trait frequencies. While the extreme trait 

expressions are not as frequent as suggested and thus, not as reliable for 

estimating ancestry, the traits were nonetheless demonstrated to have value 

in discriminating between American Blacks and Whites. Hefner et al. (3) 

introduced a Binary Optimized Aggregate Score (BOAS) statistic that classified 

a sample of 165 American Blacks and 160 American Whites into 

ancestry 80% correctly. BOAS weighed each variable equally: it was 

simply the sum of binary trait scores (0 or 1) heuristically derived from the 

ordinal trait scores. 

Discriminant functions (DF) optimize the weights of each variable to 

maximize group separation. However, Linear Discriminant Functions 

(LDFs) usually require multivariate normality and approximately the same 

level of variation in order to produce reliable results. LDFs are aided by 

the central limit theorum, which tends to increase the normality of data as 

more and more individuals are added. Some statisticians (4) have suggested 

that dichotomous or ordinal variables could be used in a LDF as if they 

were metric with certain caveats. One criterion of a valid two-way DF is 

that the DF scores of each group should be approximately normally distributed. 

This way, the sectioning point is guaranteed to be the optimum 

and should be valid for future samples, and posterior and typicality probabilities 

will represent the correct values. However, sectioning points can 

still be derived whether or not the DF scores are normally distributed. For 

example, if a measurement or function completely separated groups, it 

could be used no matter what the distribution was. One caveat is that the 

posterior and typicality probabilities may be misleading. 

Logistic regression (LR) has been used to discriminate among groups 

and does not require assumptions of group variation and multivariate 


normality. LR can incorporate categorical data as well as continuous data, 

and can utilize both in analyses. LR calculates a probability of group 

membership directly, rather than first calculating a composite score, then 

comparing group scores, and only then calculating a probability, as in 

LDFs. Similarly, two non-parametric DFs, Kernel DFs (KDFs) and Nearest 

Neighbor DFs (NNDFs), calculate probabilities directly, independent of 

group distributions. 

For this study, the same ordinal data from Whites and Blacks were 

analyzed using LDF and a curious pattern emerged. The DF scores and 

probabilities for each group were skewed but in opposite directions in 

nearly every analysis, including LDF, KDF, NNDF, and LR of the original 

variables, as well as LDF of the principal components of the conventional 

and polychoric correlation matrices of scores. The principal component 

loadings of the polychoric and Pearson correlation matrices of the traits 

were remarkably similar (rho = 0.92). Transformations of scores did not 

appreciably affect the distributions. Cross-validated accuracies up to 90% 

were achieved using as few as three traits. 

LR was the best method overall, in three-group analyses as well, but 

LR does not produce typicality probabilities. To substitute for typicality 

probabilities, nonparametric methods such as ranked probabilities and 

ranked interindividual similarity measures can be employed. 

Analyses using KDFs and NNDFs also produced very good results, 

with crossvalidated accuracies approximately 88%. These results were 

better than using a basic Bayesian approach, which assumes independence 

of traits and weighs each trait equally. Problems with a simple Bayesian 

approach were illustrated by using a trait such as postbregmatic depression, 

which was present in 44% of the Blacks and 17% of the Whites. 

Postbregmatic depression was attenuated in LDF and LR through much 

lower function coefficients. 

Our results show that the nonmetric traits examined can be analyzed 

in ordinal or binary scales (minimizing interobserver error) using DFs. LR 

produced slightly better results and provides a more robust and reliable 

prediction of ancestry using nonmetric traits. The results also empirically 

confirm the value of using nonmetric traits in a statistical framework, as 

Hooton had hoped. Daubert concerns can be addressed through using 

appropriate and large samples, recorded group frequencies and probabilities, 

graphs, and cross-validated results, rather than relying solely on the 

experience and intuition of the observer. 

References: 

1. Hefner JT. An Assessment of Craniofacial Nonmetric Traits Currently 

Used in the Forensic Determination of Ancestry. Paper presented at the 

54th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 

Atlanta, Georgia, 2002. 

2. Hefner JT. The Utility of Nonmetric Cranial Traits in Ancestry 

Determination - Part II. Paper presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Chicago, IL, 2003. 

3. Hefner JT, Ousley SD, and Warren MW. An Historical Perspective of 

Nonmetric Traits: Hooton and the Harvard List” Paper presented at the 56th 

Annual meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Dallas, 

TX, 2004. 

4. Krzanowski WJ. Principles of Multivariate Analysis. Oxford University 

Press, Oxford, 2000. 

Non-Metric Traits, Logistic Regression, Determination of Ancestry 


H18 Forensic Identifications and the 

Complexity of Determining Biological 

Affinities of “Hispanic” Crania 


Sociology and Anthropology, Campus Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695- 

8107; Dennis E. Slice, PhD, Wake Forest University, School of Medicine, 

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Division of Radiologic Sciences, 

Winston-Salem, NC 27157; and José V. Pachar, MD, Morgue Judicial, 

Instituto de Medicina Legal, Panama-Ancon, Panama 

The attendees will be presented with results of a three-dimensional, 

geometric morphometric analysis of cranial shape illustrating variability in 

modern Latin American populations likely associated with differing 

migrational histories. 


humanity by raising appreciation of the biological diversity of “Hispanic” 

populations. 

The use of “Hispanic” as a classification or category does not provide 

an adequate biological profile because it groups together populations of 

varied genetic backgrounds. In the U.S., the term “Hispanic” includes all 

persons of Spanish speaking countries. However, in the forensic setting the 

use of such an umbrella term is problematic because it ignores the distinct 

ethnohistories and migration patterns of each geographical region. 

According to the 2002 U.S. Census, more than one in eight people in the 

United States are of Hispanic origin and are more geographically 

concentrated in specific regions of the U.S. than non-Hispanic Whites. 

These statistics could have major implications in the medicolegal setting 

for the identification of unknown skeletal remains. 

In recent studies, the authors demonstrated that modern Cubans show 

a strong African affinity followed by a Spanish component and lack an 

indigenous Amerindian biological affinity suggesting a complete 

replacement of the indigenous Cuban population. Contra, Mexicans show 

a different biological pattern entirely, lacking both the African and Spanish 

components, while having a strong indigenous Amerindian affinity. 

This study presents ongoing research documenting the diversity of 

“Hispanic” populations. In order to further investigate the regional and 

geographic variation of Hispanic populations, the authors present the 

among-sample morphological variation of modern Panamanians (n=9), 

Afro-Antillean or West Indian Panamanians (n=6), modern Cubans (n=23), 

prehistoric Cubans (n=6), Prehistoric Ecuadorians (n=13), Spanish (n=30), 

Mexicans (n=31), American Whites (n=52), and Terry Blacks (n=18) using 

landmark-based Procrustes superimposition from the geometric 

morphometry. Twenty-three standard craniometric landmarks were used to 

reflect the among-group variation. A Microscribe G2X® digitizer was used 

to collect the coordinates using the software Three Skull, developed by 

Stephen D. Ousley. 

A nonparametric MANOVA comparing the sum-of-squares accounted 

by group membership to that of 999 random permutations of group 

membership detected significant group differences. In addition, an 

Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmatic Mean (UPGMA) 

clustering analysis was performed from the generalized squared distance 

matrix to characterize relative shape similarities between the groups. Terry 

blacks, modern Cubans, Spanish, and American whites form a cluster 

distinct from the Ecuadorian, Mexican, Panamanian, and West Indian 

Panamanians samples. Interestingly, the West Indian Panamanians are 

more closely related to groups with strong Amerindian affinities rather than 

African affinities. 

The majority of the Panamanian population is mestizo or admixed 

(Amerindian and Spanish or Amerindian, Spanish, West Indian, and 

Chinese). Panama’s history has been shaped by its unique geography. First 

exploited by the Spanish as the crossroads and point of transfer for the gold, 

making its way from South America to Spain and, more recently, by the 

building of the Panama Canal. During the construction of the canal, 

420

Panama saw a large influx of West Indians and Chinese immigrants brought 

as laborers, which had a lasting impact on the country’s genetic make-up. 

Notably, these results further support that populations broadly 

grouped together as “Hispanics” are not all the same and emphasize the 

importance of investigating regional or geographic morphological 

variations while taking into account the unique ethnohistorical origins of 

Hispanic populations. Incorporating these unique patterns of variation 

along with census/demographic data into forensic practice could 

substantially aid in the identification of unknown skeletal remains. 

Forensic Anthropology, Hispanic Populations, Geometric 

Morphometrics 

H19 Biological Variation Among Hispanic 

(Spanish-Speaking) Peoples of the Americas 

Martha K. Spradley, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, University of 


Knoxville, TN 37996; David M. Glassmann, PhD, University of Southern 

Indiana, School of Liberal Arts, 8600 University Boulevard, Evansville, 

IN 47712-3596; and Alan G. Robinson, MSc, Fundacion de Antropologia 

Forense de Guatemala, Avenida Simon Canas 10-64 Zona 2, Ciudad de 

Guatemala, Guatemala City, 01002, Guatemala 

The goal of this presentation is to present the biological variation that 

exists among Hispanic (Spanish-speaking) peoples of the Americas and 

how this variation allows for the development of better standards in 

ancestry identification. 

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the biological variation 

that exists among Hispanic (Spanish-speaking) peoples of the Americas. 

This paper will also attempt to show that craniometric data from different 

geographic areas in Latin America and Mexico could aid in the determination 

of the geographic origin of unknown individuals identified as 

Hispanic. Additionally, this paper will explore postcranial variation of 

Hispanic groups when compared to American Blacks and Whites. The 

impact of this research can aid in the development of better craniometric 

standards for use in ancestry identification on an international level. For 

example, FORDISC 3.0 will have more appropriate samples for use in 

Latin America and other parts of the world. 

The determination of ancestry or group affiliation is one of the 

primary factors in a forensic anthropological analysis. Craniometric data is 

commonly used as a means of ancestry determination. However, sample 

specific standards may not always be readily available for a particular 

group. In the United States, “Hispanic” refers to individuals originating 

from Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, South or Central America, or other 

Hispanic/Latino origin (U.S. Census Bureau 2003) and therefore does not 

have precise genetic meaning. In general, Hispanics are hybrid populations 

composed of various African, Native American and European genetic backgrounds. 

Caribbean Hispanics may have large African components, while 

Mexican Hispanics may have large Native American components. For 

example, Ross et al. 2004, using geometric morphometric methods, found 

Cuban Americans nearer to American Blacks, indicating the term Hispanic 

as too broad. 

When analyzing biological variation from skeletal metrics, a 

commonly used method is biological distance or Mahalanobis D2 , a 

measure of population divergence based on polygenic traits (Buikstra et al. 

1990). Samples used in this analysis are Guatemalans, Argentineans, 

American Hispanics and American Whites. All samples are modern and 

forensic in nature. The D2 distances among all groups are all significant at 

the .001 level, indicating that group centroids are significantly different. 

The D2 distance matrix indicates that the smallest distances, therefore the 

most similarities are found between American White and American 

Hispanic females, followed by males from the same groups. Argentinean 

males are more similar to American Hispanic males and furthest from 

Guatemalan males. Overall, Guatemalans are most differentiated from all 

other groups. When the first two canonical means are plotted they show, 

again, that Guatemalan males are furthest from the centroids and therefore 

more differentiated from the other groups. CAN 1 separates the sexes and 

indicates that American White males have taller, wider and longer cranial 

vaults. CAN 2 indicates that Guatemalan males have more facial forwardness, 

a wider face with wide nasal aperture, a wide palate and a wide 

interorbital breadth. 

While all groups exhibit differences, Guatemalans appear to be most 

differentiated from all other groups. The most likely explanation for these 

results is that the Guatemalan sample is comprised of Indigenous individuals, 

i.e. more or less pure Native Americans, while Argentinean and 

American Hispanics have more European admixture. Additionally, craniometric 

data of known individuals from different groups could potentially 

aid in identifying more specific geographic origins of individuals who die 

in U.S. border crossings. 

Biological Variation, Hispanic, Craniometric 

H20 Classification and Evaluation of 

Unusual Individuals Using FORDISC 

Donna Freid, MA*, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996; Richard L. Jantz, PhD, University 

of Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 3799 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a greater appreciation 

of how to interpret FORDISC output, especially when using it with 

crania originating from populations different from FORDISC’s reference 

samples. The importance of the use of an appropriate reference sample will 

be emphasized. 


humanity by increasing the forensic investigator’s knowledge of the utility 

of the FORDISC program and other discriminant function analyses in 

identifying unknown remains. 

FORDISC is an interactive computer program designed to classify an 

unknown adult cranium based on known samples from the Forensic 

Anthropology Data Bank and the Howells (1989) world sample. 

FORDISC uses discriminant functions to construct a classification matrix 

and assign group membership of the unknown cranium into one of the 

selected reference groups. 

The utility of FORDISC for use in classifying worldwide populations 

has been criticized in the past for its “attempts to constrain worldwide 

human cranial variability into discrete biological groupings, or races” (1) 

and for classifying sex based on size (robust vs. gracile) rather than shape. 

These analyses are misleading for two reasons and demonstrate the two 

most common misapplications of FORDISC: use of inappropriate 

reference samples and failure to properly evaluate the typicality and 

posterior probabilities provided by the program. 

FORDISC is designed to classify unknown crania based on the 

reference samples in its database. The researcher guides the analysis by 

choosing the populations against which to classify the unknown, choosing 

from eleven population samples from the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank 

or 28 population samples from Howells’ worldwide database. Reference 

samples chosen for comparison should be those most likely to be the source 

population of the unknown cranium. The posterior and typicality probabilities 

together indicate the strength of the classification. The posterior probability 

evaluates the probability of group membership under the assumption 

that the unknown belongs to one of the groups in the function (3) . Under the 

assumptions of the discriminant function analysis, the unknown cranium 

must be assigned to one of the groups chosen. The typicality probability, 

however, represents how likely the unknown belongs to any particular 

group, and includes the probability that the unknown may belong to several 


or none of the groups selected. This value indicates how atypical the 

unknown skull would be in the populations chosen for comparison. 

In this paper, classifications will be evaluated using data from the 

Forensic Anthropology Data Bank and Howells’ worldwide data, using 

crania from populations known not to belong to any of the reference 

samples. Posterior and typicality probabilities usually indicate that a 

cranium is not similar to any reference sample. In order for FORDISC to 

perform effectively, it must be applied in regions or contexts where 

reference samples adequately represent cranial variation. 

References: 

1. Belcher R, Williams F, Armelagos GJ. (2002) Misidentification of 

Meroitic Nubians using FORDISC 2.0. Am J Phys Anth: 42-42 Suppl. 34 

2. Ousley SD, and Jantz RL. (1996) FORDISC 2.0: Personal computer 

forensic discriminant functions. The University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

3. Tatsuoka MM. (1971) Multivariate analysis. New York: John Wiley and 

Sons. 

FORDISC, Classification, Unusual Crania 

H21 Ur-FORDISC, or Early Statistical 

Methods in Forensic Anthropology 

Eugene Giles, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, 

607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 

The goal of this presentation is to review the early extension of quantitative 

statistical methods in forensic anthropology that provided the 

impetus for the development of FORDISC for use in research and 

casework. 


humanity by providing help to forensic anthropologists and other forensic 

scientists in understanding the origins of the multivariate statistical 

techniques used in their field. 

A statistical approach to skeletal identification and description 

developed in the nineteenth century with the use of indices to quantify 

observational characteristics of features such as skull shape, nose shape, 

relative long bone lengths, and the like. An index so used had the 

advantage of ostensibly removing size from consideration, and allowed its 

adherents to claim a quantitative group characterization of shape. The 

French anthropologist Paul Topinard wrote in 1894 that a cephalic index 

(100 X head breadth - head length) of 75 and under was “universally 

adopted” (but there were exceptions) as defining long-headedness or 

dolichocephaly. Topinard also combined several sets of skeletal measurements 

to form a database for determining stature by average long 

bone/stature ratios. For example, he found stature to be seven times 

maximum radius length, so stature (cm) = 7(radius length [cm]) plus 3.5 cm 

(a constant he employed only to move from skeletal to living stature). 

Topinard’s ratio approach seriously misrepresented both ends of the 

stature range. His remedy was to divide the sample into tall, short and 

medium sized people. A more adequate solution, which underpins today’s 

FORDISC, was first used by the British biometrician Karl Pearson at the 

turn of the century. Pearson applied regression, said to be the most used 

and least understood type of statistical methodology, in its most elementary 

form, linear regression, to the calculation of stature. As Pearson (1899) put 

it, “The theory of regression shows that the most probable value of B [for 

example, stature] is expressible, so long as the correlation is normal, as a 

linear function of A [for example, femur length].” 

A step of significance in the application of statistics to forensic anthropology 

came in the middle 1930s. Sometimes called the Fisherian stage of 

discriminatory analysis after its principal originator, R.A. Fisher, the linear 

discriminant function was initially applied by colleagues of Fisher’s to 

problems familiar to forensic anthropologists. E.S. Martin in 1935 used 

Fisher’s linear discriminant function to sex a collection of Egyptian 


mandibles, and M.M. Barnard in 1936 used discriminant function analysis 

to determine the secular variation in Egyptian skulls. Barnard used seven 

very familiar cranial measurements: maximum breadth and length, nasal 

width, and height, and the bregma-nasion-basion triangle. He stressed the 

applicability of the technique to supplement visual sexing of crania, 

particularly “to investigate further the minority of cases where the sex 

cannot be determined, without doubt, anatomically.” 

The next important mileposts, theoretically at least, on the road to 

FORDISC appeared in the Cambridge PhD thesis of the Indian statistician 

C.R. Rao in 1948. Fisher’s discriminant function dealt with two categories; 

no doubt one reason that early applications involved human crania was that 

sexing conveniently offers two such categories. Rao, however, provided 

the theoretical basis for expanding discriminant function analysis to many 

categories, and, if that wasn’t enough for one thesis, developed a test which 

answered his own question on the need to establish how many characters 

to use, “All right, given a set of measurements, is there further information 

in an additional set of measurements?” 

Of the two preeminent physical anthropologists of the first half of the 

twentieth century, one, Ales Hrdlicka, suffered, as Alice Brues put it, from 

“math anxiety” and detested statistics. Fortunately the other, Earnest 

Hooton, did not, nor did his students, many of whom, well-placed academically, 

contributed to modern forensic anthropology such as Harry Shapiro, 

Bill Howells, Fred Hulse, Charles Snow, Alice Brues, and Larry Angel. In 

the late 1950s to early 1960s publications utilizing discriminant functions 

by Fred Thieme, Kazuo Hanihara, Jose Pons, Eugene Giles and Orville 

Elliot, and others began to appear. Giles and Elliot’s papers in particular 

focused on forensic applications and their work was referenced in the first 

forensic anthropology text, W.M. Krogman’s The Human Skeleton in 

Forensic Medicine (1962). Forensic anthropology statistics, although 

regarded suspiciously by some and grudgingly accepted by some others in 

the 1960s and later, and facilitated by the replacement of calculators by 

computers, led by the end of the twentieth century to the spectrum of aids 

to forensic anthropology incorporated in such now indispensable tools as 

FORDISC. 

Discriminant Functions, History of Forensic Anthropology Statistics, 

Fordisc 

H22 The Next FORDISC: FORDISC 3 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, NMNH, MRC 138, 

Washington, DC 20013; and Richard L. Jantz, MA, PhD, University of 



After attending this presentation, attendees will appreciate the power 

and utility of the next generation of FORDISC, and have a heightened 

awareness of modern American population variation. They will also use 

statistical procedures more critically. 


humanity by showing enhancements to the program and some lessons the 

authors have learned about multivariate analysis and American skeletal 

variation. 

The goal of this presentation is to describe changes, additions, and 

improvements to FORDISC 2.0, the popular interactive computer program 

that uses Discriminant Function Analysis to classify unknown skeletal 

remains based on known samples using cranial or postcranial measurements. 

The presentation will introduce the power and utility of the next 

generation of FORDISC, and heighten awareness of modern American 

population variation. FORDISC 2.0 has been used extensively to aid in 

ascertaining the biolgical profile of skeletal remains. To date over 400 

copies have been sold. The impetus to develop FORDISC came from 

increasingly frequent requests from forensic anthropologists to calculate 

“madetoorder” discriminant functions (DFs) using data from the Forensic 

422

First, the reference group sample sizes have been increased, especially 

for Hispanics from the Southwest U.S. There are approximately twice as 

many Hispanic males available for analysis, as well as a substantial 

Hispanic female sample. Additionally, samples of 19th century whites and 

black males and females have been added, making FORDISC more useful 

in archaeological, as well as forensic, contexts. Despite warnings, many 

users have been using FORDISC to analyze non-20th century remains 

anyway. 

Second, FORDISC 3 incorporates more measurements in the reference 

databases, namely the full Howells (2) Data Base (FDB). The power of DFs lies in the fact that DFs maximize the 

differences in bone size and shape among groups. Such custom DFs are 

necessary when measurements required by published DFs, for example 

Giles and Elliot (1), are impossible to obtain. DFs are also desirable when 

one wishes to compare the unknown to different reference groups. 

FORDISC 2 allows anthropologists to construct DFs using two to eleven 

modern groups, some including males and females, using up to 34 craniometrics, 

or two to four groups using up to 39 postcranial measurements. 

Additionally, FORDISC 2 enabled the easy estimation of stature from long 

bone lengths. FORDISC 3 expands on the utility of FORDISC 2 in several 

areas and addresses many of the caveats of using discriminant functions (7) 

that have been derived from theoretical and empirical results. 

set of measurements. More 

useful measurements are now available to help discriminate among groups. 

Additionally, the basic FDB measurements have been expanded to include 

biasterion breadth, zygomaxillary breadth, and mid-orbital width. These 

three measurements vary among groups and the landmarks are easy to 

locate. 

Third, FORDISC 3 will analyze and incorporate other data sets. This 

will allow different reference samples to be used for comparisons. 

Samples, for example, of Plains Indian tribes, can be analyzed against each 

other or against Howells or FDB groups. It will also analyze any set of 

variables, including cranial interlandmark distances (ILDs), which have 

been shown to be quite useful in discriminating among a variety of groups 

(3, 4, 5, 6) . 

Statistical enhancements are numerous. Stepwise selection (forward, 

backward, and exhaustive) of variables using multivariate criteria and classification 

accuracy is incorporated. DFs are sensitive to outliers, and a 

robust DF option will be available. Transformations of measurements into 

natural logs and shape variables can be easily selected. Logistic regression 

and non-parametric analyses are planned as well, including K-nearest 

neighbor classification and kernel DFs. Stature estimation will be possible 

through Model I and Model II Regression. 

Enhancements to the program itself are numerous and will be 

ongoing. Graphic output will include kernel densities or adjustable histogram 

widths for 2-group analyses, and 2- and 3-D scatter plots of more 

groups. As program changes and enhancements or database updates 

become available, Fordisc 3 can be updated on the user’s PC through an 

internet connection. With feedback from users, incorporate further 

enhancements will be incorporated. 

In short, FORDISC 3 is a quantum leap in the power and utility of 

FORDISC 2.0. 

References: 

1. Giles E, and Elliot O. Race Identification from Cranial Measurements. 

J Forensic Sci 1962; 7:147-157. 

2. Howells WW. Cranial Variation in Man. Papers of the Peabody Museum 

of Archaeology and Ethnology 1973; 67. Harvard University, Cambridge, 

MA. 

3. Mann MM, and Ousley SD. Using Nontraditional Craniometrics to 

address Museum, Repatriation, and other Forensic Questions. Presented at 

the 53rd Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 

Seattle, WA, February 19-24, 2001. 

4. Ousley SD. New Approaches to Human Variation and Forensic 

Anthropology (including Repatriation). Paper presented at the 52nd Annual 

Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Reno, NV, 

February 20-26, 2000. 

5. Ousley SD, and Billeck WT. Assessing Tribal Identity in the Plains using 

Nontraditional Craniometrics (Interlandmark Distances). Poster presented 

at the 70th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Physical 

Anthropologists, Kansas City, MO, March 28-31, 2001. 

6. Ousley SD, Seebauer JL, and Jones EB. Forensic Anthropology, 

Repatriation, and the “Mongoloid” Problem. Presented at the 55th Annual 

Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Chicago, IL, 

February 17-22, 2003. 

7. Ousley SD, and McKeown A. A Comparison of Morphometric Data and 

Methods in Classification. Poster presented at the 73rd Annual meeting of 

the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Phoenix, AZ, April 

23-26, 2003. 

Discriminant Functions, Biological Profile, Multivariate Statistics 

H23 Anatomy of a Cauldron: Sociocultural 

Contributions to Understanding a 

Forensic Case 

Kerriann Marden, MA, ABD*, and John W. Verano, PhD, Tulane 

University, Department of Anthropology, 1021 Audubon Street, New 

Orleans, LA 70118 

The goal of this presentation is to offer a sociocultural perspective to 

the medicolegal investigation of ritual objects. 


humanity by demonstrating the use of ethnographic data in deconstructing 

the elements comprised in a nganga, or ritual cauldron, found in a suburban 

New Orleans setting. This research will aid investigators and anthropologists 

in understanding the purpose and meaning of these increasingly 

commonly discovered religious objects and origins of the human bones 

contained therein. 

Santeria, a widespread religious practice originating in the Yoruba 

culture of Northern West Africa and Palo Mayombe (also called Palo 

Monte), which derives from Central African Congo, are often misinterpreted 

as constituting the same beliefs and practices, along with other 

religious traditions of Afro-Caribbean origin such as Haitian Voodoo, 

Obeah, and Brazilian Candomble. Each is a syncretism of indigenous 

African beliefs and the Catholicism of the Spanish colonial cultures, and 

although they share a similar symbolic structure, the belief systems are 

distinct. However, since Palo Mayombe is traditionally associated with 

“black work,” a practitioner of Santeria (santero/a) may also be 

indoctrinated into Palo Mayombe to perform more nefarious purposes for 

which Santeria offers little option (4) . Palo Mayombe rituals, then, can be 

adopted by the devotees of other religious traditions when harmful deeds 

are required. 

The ritual life of Palo Mayombe is focused on an nganga, or cauldron, 

which serves as a receptacle for a spirit that will carry out supernatural 

work as bidden by the practitioner, or palero. The nganga typically 

contains sacred soil, iron implements, botanical specimens, animal bones 

and horn, feathers, stones, sticks, and other ritually significant items, 

arranged around a small collection of human bones, usually the skull and 

long bones (4) . Once the bones are introduced into the nganga, the spirit is 

propitiated with sacrifices and kept in the service of the palero by heavy 

iron chains and other iron objects to weight it from escape. 

Cauldrons associated with Palo Mayombe religious practices have 

become increasingly common in forensic cases, reported first in the Florida 

and New York, and now in other areas of the nation as well (1, 2) . Police 

began discovering these cauldrons with some frequency after the 1980 

Mariel boat lift, when 150,000 Cubans migrated to South Florida. With 

them came their culture, including their belief systems and the associated 

use of human bones (3) . The presence of human skeletal elements in the 

nganga, of course, brings their discovery under the purview of medicolegal 

death investigators and forensic anthropologists charged with analyzing the 

human remains and determining whether a crime has been committed. 


The forensic significance of the nganga cannot be ignored. Police 

officers have encountered ceremonial sites in homes while conducting 

searches, serving warrants or other unrelated investigations, raising 

questions concerning the origins of the bones. Aside from possible grave 

desecration to obtain the necessary body parts, other criminal activities may 

be associated with Palo Mayombe as well. The religion has been associated 

with drug smugglers and other criminals who attempt to exploit its powers 

in the commission of criminal activity (3) . Furthermore, as the nganga must 

be ritually dismantled upon the death of the practitioner, it is also possible 

that skeletal components so utilized will be recovered outside of their overt 

ritual context (2) . 

Because of the upsurge in cauldron recoveries in a forensic context, it 

is important to better understand the components of the material artifacts 

associated with these religious practices. The essentials of Santeria and 

Palo Mayombe have been well explicated in previous research contextualizing 

the religious practices within the greater cultural system (2) . This 

research will expand upon previous studies by examining the cauldrons and 

their component parts specifically, in order to be able to ‘read’ the motives 

of the practitioners, which in turn will allow a better understanding of the 

motives of the practitioners and the most likely origins of the bones. The 

number of cauldrons in the home, the type of bones contained within the 

nganga (bones of a child, of a murder victim, of a politician, etc), the kinds 

of faunal and botanical remains employed, and the other associated 

materials that comprise the cauldron can all convey useful information if 

interpreted correctly. 

Incorporating forensic sources, sociocultural literature, and interviews 

with local practitioners, this research serves as a starting point for understanding 

the ritual significance of each component of a recovered cauldron, 

thereby discerning its purpose. This analysis may aid the forensic 

community in interpreting ngangas: to identify the source of the bones used 

therein, and reveal potentially valuable details that may indicate the motive, 

as expressed in the desired ‘work’ being performed, or the identity of the 

practitioner. 

References: 

1 Godoy A. and Martinez R. Synopsis of the Santeria Religion. C.I.B. 

Yearly Report, 1995, Miami-Dade County Florida Police Department 

C.I.B. Intelligence Review. 

2 Pacenti J. Cop of the Occult: Miami detective specializes in religious-oriented 

crimes” Sun Coast Times, 15 Feb 1998. 

3 Wetli CV and Martinez R (1981) “Forensic Sciences Aspects of Santeria, 

a Religious Cult of African Origin” J Forensic Sci 1981; 26(3):506-514. 

4 Wetli CV and Martinez R. Brujeria: Manifestations of Palo Mayombe in 

South Florida” The Journal of the Florida Medical Association, Aug. 1983. 

Santeria, Sociocultural, Ritual 

H24 Not for the Passive: The Active Application 

of Electronic Resistivity in the Excavation 

of a Mass Grave 

Hugh Tuller, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


96853-5530; and Jon Sterenberg, MS, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate the use of geophysical 

examination, in this case electrical resistivity, as an active element in the 

excavation strategy of a mass grave located near Belgrade, Serbia, and 

Montenegro. 


humanity by demonstrating the comparison between the survey data and 

the use of the electrical resistivity results in excavation of this mass grave. 

This demonstrates that active use of geophysics can be a positive element 

in excavation strategy. 


In the past geophysical examination has been used in the search for 

mass and individual graves but to the presenter’s knowledge never in the 

planning of the actual excavation of the feature. This presentation will 

demonstrate the use of geophysical examination - in this case, electrical 

resistivity - as an active element in the excavation strategy of a mass grave 

located near Belgrade, Serbia/Montenegro. 

An unreasonably short deadline, based on political propriety, was 

given to complete the full excavation, recording, and removal of all human 

remains and related evidence from the mass grave. While the general size 

of the grave feature was known through prior archaeological delimitation 

of the surface feature, the excavation planners could only speculate as to the 

contents based on other graves already excavated within the same area. 

The time it took to excavate all the previous mass graves exceeded the short 

deadline the excavation team now faced. To complicate matters, as the end 

of the year was approaching most team members including the principle 

archaeologists were scheduled to leave for winter holiday vacation. It was 

feared that the excavation would not be completed within the allotted time 

frame and no ‘Plan B’ was forthcoming from the political authorities in 

charge of the site; postponement until spring was impossible and the 

excavation was to be completed in the time allotted. 

To assist in organizing a strategy aimed at accelerating the excavation 

time, geophysical testing using electrical resistivity was conducted over the 

targeted mass grave. Results allowed planners a glimpse at the general size 

and shape of the grave’s forensically significant deposits. This understanding 

of the body mass shape in the context of the grave feature allowed 

for a more rapid and safe removal of forensically sterile overburden by a 

construction machine. It is estimated that the use of the construction 

machine saved at least a week of time and resulted in the safer removal of 

sterile overburden from the bodies than would have occurred if the planners 

attempted the remove of overburden without advance knowledge of the 

body mass shape and size. 

During the excavation of the grave, electronic survey data was 

gathered to represent all recovered human remains, artifacts, and features 

in two and three-dimensional maps. This survey data was then compared 

to the electrical resistivity results to judge the reliability of the results and 

attempt to understand what type of items in the grave produced the greatest 

resistivity results. Unfortunately, comparison of the evidence types to the 

resistivity results is mixed and cannot be narrowed down to a particular 

type(s). However, in general, it was found that the results were very 

consistent with the survey data when the data was filtered to show the 

forensically significant deposits as a whole. The comparison with the 

survey data and the use of the electrical resistivity results in excavation of 

this mass grave demonstrates that active use of geophysics can be a positive 

element in excavation strategy. An understanding of soil types and 

geophysical equipment type limitations are of course necessary. It is 

suggested that survey data from future excavations where geophysics are 

used be investigated to gain a clearer understanding of exactly what 

elements in a grave give the best readings. 

Geophysics, Forensic Archaeology, Excavation Strategy 

H25 When Experts Disagree: There May 

be a Rodent Involved – Part I: 

The Request for a New Trial 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas County Coroner’s 

Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; Steven A. 

Symes, PhD, Departments of Anthropology and Applied Forensic Science, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001; and Carl 

J. Schmidt, MD, Wayne County Medical Examiner’s Office, 1300 East 

Warren Avenue, Detroit, MI 48207 

After attending this presentation, attendees should be alerted to the need 

to assess qualifications and experience of “experts,” and to evaluate their 

findings using a comprehensive examination of the actual remains in question. 

In cold cases this also requires a review of all previous documentation. 

424

The forensic anthropology component of this case began in 1981 when 

Dr. WM Krogman was asked to examine remains found in a sleeping bag in 

Chautauqua County, NY. Krogman’s analysis indicated the individual was 

male, 35-40, and “Caucasoid (white) with an ethnic origin (nationality) 

probably from Central/West Europe.” He was approximately 5’ 7 ¼ “of 

moderately slender body build, weight 145-155 pounds. Time elapsed since 

death c 1-2 years. Additional comments included “an unhealed (recent) 

injury which exposes the cancellous composition of the upper orbital margin 

and the frontal bone above it. At first it was thought to be caused by a knifeslash, 

but it may have been caused by the glancing impact of a bullet.” 

NOTE: the latter statement will be revisited inasmuch as it relates to a “new 

theory of the crime.” 

In 1992 the skeleton was positively identified dentally as Frank Carroll. 

The remains were shipped to Ohio because of a tip that he had been murdered 

in Lake County Ohio in 1980. Eyewitness testimony in a 1993 trial alleged 

that Carroll’s death resulted from gunshot wounds fired from a 22-caliber 

pistol by Larry Schlee, who was convicted. Later, Schlee, with a good lawyer, 

found the loophole of evidence not submitted at trial. A quest for a new trial 

began, using affidavits from a forensic pathologist, a “forensic” anthropologist 

(still not Board Certified nor a member of the AAFS) best known for 

his work in paleoanthropology, another physical anthropologist who does 

“not usually use the term ‘Forensic Anthropologist’ as a formal title,” and a 

“Biomechanical Consultant specializing in Forensic Biomechanics.” 

In 2002, at the request of Vincent Culotta, Chief Assistant Prosecuting 

Attorney of Lake County Ohio, the Sauls examined the skeletal remains of 

Frank Carroll. They looked for the presence of antemortem, perimortem, and 

postmortem trauma, as well as any taphonomic modifications, and attempted 

to evaluate and reconcile differences of opinion present in the various earlier 

reports. The Sauls found that the only perimortem trauma were gunshot 

injuries. They noted postmortem trauma/defects that included rodent damage 

to the supraorbital ridges (see Krogman’s comment) and other bones, carnivore 

damage and defects due to postmortem removal of bone for analysis 

as well as handling. 

Upon reading the expert’s affidavits, they were startled to learn that a 

new trial was being requested based on a new “theory of the crime” - death 

by sharp force. This was the other experts’ interpretation of the postmortem 

damage noted above. A linear groove in the superior surface of the 7th 

cervical vertebra body, noted by one expert as being “consistent with application 

of an edged instrumentality,” was present only in a 1993 photograph 

as an impression in what the Sauls suspected was clay used to position 

vertebrae for photography. 

Several of the experts stated that gunshot injuries could not have been 

responsible for Carroll’s death for various reasons, including failure of the 

bullets to pass through vital structures. Although the Sauls do not consider 

themselves gunshot experts, Frank P. Saul is Professor Emeritus of Anatomy 

at the Medical College of Ohio, and felt that the experts’ anatomical reasoning 

was deficient. Furthermore, the Biomechanical Consultant’s detailed 

analysis of the eyewitness account of the shooting and the expected angle and 

direction of fire based on relative heights and handedness would not apply to 

all the gunshots fired (“Frank fell to the ground. Larry shot all the rounds 

from his automatic in Frank’s head and neck”) - a fact apparently never considered 

by the expert. 

With Mr. Culotta’s permission, questions concerning the gunshot 

injuries and survivability of the victim were reviewed by Carl J Schmidt, 

MD, D-ABP-FP, Chief Medical Examiner of Wayne County Michigan 

(Detroit), who is very familiar with gunshot wounds. Dr. Schmidt stated that 

aside from the life threatening damage caused by the gunshot wound in the 

right maxilla that exited through the right alveolus and hard palate, the 

gunshot wound in the right mandible was a probable “contact GSW and the 

blast effect would have killed him.” 

The Sauls received permission to forward the remains to Dr. Steve 

Symes, then at the Memphis Regional Forensic Center, for further analysis. 

Although Symes’ analysis essentially agreed with and amplified the Sauls’ 

analysis, Schlee was granted a new trial. Symes’ analysis and trial testimony 

is continued in Part II: The New Trial. 

Cold Cases, Skeletal Trauma, Rodent/Carnivore Damage 

H26 An Assessment of Tissue Depth 

Measurement Tables Used for 

Facial Reconstruction/Reproduction 

Keri Reeves, MS*, and Jill Haslasm, MS, University of New Haven, 300 

Orange Avenue, West Haven, CT 06516; Shannon Butler-Williams, BS, 

University of California, Davis, Department of Anthropology, 1 Shields 

Avenue, Davis, CA 95616; and Brandi J. Schmitt, BS, MS*, University of 

California, Davis, School of Medicine, Anatomical Services Division, 

Davis, CA 95616 

After attending this presentation, attendees will see that tissue depth 

tables require further research and data set collection in order to produce the 

most accurate facial reproduction renderings. 

Basic research for tissue depth measurements is limited and this 


showing how further collection of data is necessary to lend any validation 

to techniques in facial reproduction. 

An assessment of standard tissue depth measurement tables used for 

forensic facial reconstruction, versus recorded postmortem tissue depth 

measurements, was performed. The purpose of this study is to examine 

current facial reconstruction standards for their accuracy related to age, sex, 

and ethnicity of the cranial specimen for which facial reconstruction(s) was 

performed. In addition, areas of future facial reconstruction research were 

evaluated.Previous studies and research have documented the various 

techniques including, computerized tomography, ultrasound, and needle 

insertion, for acquiring tissue depth measurements. However there is not 

one uniform method for acquiring these measurements. 

There is debate in the field regarding the acquisition of measurements 

from live versus deceased individuals as well as the distortion of accurate 

measurements that may occur in some of the previously mentioned 

methods. Both experts and artists, who perform reconstruction techniques, 

use a variety of the tables depending on accessibility, knowledge or 

preference. Some of the tissue depth tables that are used were created over 

one hundred years ago. Additionally, a summary of previous studies, 

research, and tables is not available, which ultimately limits the accessibility 

of data necessary to accurate facial reconstruction/reproduction. 

This study contributes additional data sets and elaborates on a previous 

preliminary tissue depth study. Cranio-facial measurements were 

submitted to facial reconstruction experts for a blind study examination. 

Tissue depth measurements were taken from a whole body donor and will 

be compared to the measurements used to create the facial reconstruction/reproduction 

model(s). Data will also be reported on accuracy of 

the various rendering techniques the experts chose to perform. 

Tissue depth measurements were taken at twenty-one established 

anthropological and forensic measurement sites on the facial surface of a 

whole body donor. Eight other facial soft tissue measurements were taken 

for comparison with the facial reconstruction renderings. The cranial measurements 

were acquired following natural entomological decomposition 

techniques rendering the entire skull free of soft tissue and exposing the 

cranial surfaces and structures. Prior and subsequent to decomposition, 

photographs were taken of the donor. 

The collected craniofacial measurements and photographs, as well as 

a questionnaire, were submitted to rendering participants. The experts were 

asked to create two and/or three-dimensional renderings, which will be 

compared to the documented tissue depths and craniofacial measurements 

taken from the donor. Additionally, experts were asked to report their 

choice of technique and/or table. Their chosen measurements will also be 

compared with the collected tissue depth measurements. Discrepancies 

between the donor measurements and the tissue depth tables will be 

reported as the study is concluded. 

During this study, further research needs have been identified. A comparison 

study of tissue depth measurements performed prior to death via a 

computerized tomogram and another computerized tomogram after death 

on the same individual would answer one of the questions about the effect 

of dehydration on the tissue depth measurements. Potentially, this added 


esearch data would assist those performing facial reproduction/reconstruction(s) 

in producing a more accurate representation of the aesthetic 

identity of an individual. 

Tissue Depth Measurements, Facial Reproduction, 

Craniofacial Measurements 

H27 Blasting Caps: An Alternate Source 

of High Velocity Trauma in Human 


Maria T. Allaire, MA*, 16 Pinedale Lane, Durango, CO 81303; and 

Mary H. Manhein, MA, and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 227 Howe- 

Russell Building, Baton Rouge, LA 70803 

The goal of this presentation is to present to the forensic community 

an unusual case of high velocity trauma that mimics bullet wounds to the 

skull. 


humanity by illustrating the advantage of interdisciplinary cooperation in 

unusual injury cases, and to document the hard tissue impact of high 

velocity trauma that does not involve guns. 

On August 31, 2003, investigators with the La Plata County Sheriff’s 

Office in Colorado were notified of an unattended, suspicious death of a 

white male in a travel trailer located at an elevation of 7000 feet. 

Investigators contacted Allaire, requesting assistance in estimating time 

since death based on the stage of decomposition and the arthropods present 

at the death scene. 

The travel trailer was 23-feet long by 8-feet wide. No lights, air 

conditioning or heating source were on inside. All of the trailer’s glass 

windows were closed and screened, except for one, which was shattered, 

though the screen remained intact. The decedent was lying on his back on 

the bed in the rear portion of the trailer. The shattered window was directly 

above his head. Bed linens were present beneath his lower body, while his 

head rested on top of two feathered pillows. He was wearing a shortsleeved 

pattern shirt and canvas-type shorts with a belt. 

The decedent’s head appeared to have extensive, “high-velocity type” 

damage. It was misshapen and multiple fractures were evident. Desiccated 

tissue held the bones together. Post cranially, the body showed skin 

slippage in some regions and desiccation in others. 

Evidence of blood and soft tissue were found on the wall at the head 

of the bed, on the window screen, and on the ceiling, extending the entire 

length of the bed. An electrical power strip with an on-off switch was 

positioned between the decedent’s left forearm and waist. The ends of two 

sets of electrical wires, which had presumably been connected to the power 

strip at one time, were located next to the decedent’s right shoulder. The 

other end of each set of wires ran to what remained of a blasting cap on 

either side of the decedent’s head. Vertical tears and burn-scorched areas 

were present on the pillow where both of the blasting cap ends were found. 

Insect evidence collected at the scene included the Diptera species 

Phormia regina, in stages ranging from larvae to adults. Also present were 

yellow jackets, and various types of beetles, including Hister beetles, C. 

maxillosus and N. rufipes. All insect evidence present was collected for 

preservation, rearing and analysis. Insect evidence suggested an estimated 

time since death of six to eight days prior to discovery. 

At autopsy, the chest cavity and abdominal regions were found to be 

devoid of all internal organs. Because the trauma to the skull was 

extensive, the coroner shipped it to Louisiana State University Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) Laboratory 

for further analysis. Once the skull was cleaned and partially reconstructed, 

the overall fracture pattern was evident. As expected, the damage was most 

significant in the temporal and parietal regions, resulting in many small 

fragments of bone. The blasting caps produced localized injuries on both 

sides of the skull similar to gun shot entry wounds and exhibiting internal 


beveling. In contrast, the face and mandible remained relatively 

undamaged and the teeth in both the maxilla and mandible were intact. By 

cleaning and reconstructing the skull, the damage to hard tissue caused by 

the blasting caps can be clearly documented. 

This case provides an example of interdisciplinary cooperation 

involving the fields of entomology, anthropology, pathology, and law 

enforcement. Though the death scene appeared relatively straightforward, 

further analysis of the remains by forensic anthropologists helped to 

document the extensive nature of the trauma. This documentation provided 

evidence that blasting caps produce damage that may mimic bullet wounds 

and, thus, should be considered an alternate source of injury in cases where 

high velocity trauma is apparent. 

Forensic Anthropology, Blasting Cap Trauma, Fracture Patterns 

H28 Modern Day Cranial Trepanation: 

The Ventriculosotomy 

Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, University of Arizona, Department of 

Anthropology, Tucson, AZ 85721; and Thomas P. Gilson, MD, Office of 

the Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016 

Attendees will become familiar with the recognition of a cranial 

surgical procedure that may be unfamiliar to the forensic anthropologist. 


humanity by better informing forensic anthropologists of the variety of 

surgical procedures that may affect the human skeleton. 

This case study involves a 32-year-old Mexican man whose remains 

were recovered in a remote desert location in southwestern Arizona. The 

remains were discovered by law enforcement personnel who were 

patrolling an area known for illegal immigration into the United States. A 

presumptive identification was obtained via personal effects recovered with 

the decedent. The remains were partially skeletonized with extensive areas 

of mummification of the skin and desiccation of the tissues within the thoracoabdominal 

and cranial cavities. Of concern to the forensic pathologist 

was an apparent fracture of the left ala of the thyroid cartilage. A forensic 

anthropology consultation was requested to address the possible traumata 

and issues relating to identification. 

Results of the forensic anthropology examination revealed that the 

decedent was likely a Hispanic male who was 28 to 38 years old. One tooth 

had residual restorative material present, but lacked the complete 

restoration. The remains were estimated to have a postmortem interval of 

between one and six months. Healed fractures were present to the left 

maxilla, the mental eminence of the mandible, and the thyroid cartilage. 

All of these fractures could have been produced by a single traumatic event. 

The most remarkable characteristic revealed during the forensic 

anthropology examination was a circular defect to the right aspect of frontal 

squamous. This defect had been transected by an autopsy saw during the 

craniotomy. The external beveling of this defect suggests that the cranium 

had been trephined. Present within the external bevel was fibrous and fatty 

tissue. This defect was discussed with the forensic pathologist who opined 

that it was likely the result of the surgical placement of a subarachnoid 

screw for the monitoring of intracranial pressure. 

Further history was obtained and revealed that the decedent had been 

involved in a motor-vehicle accident ten years earlier. The decedent had 

been the operator of a motor vehicle that struck a utility pole at a high rate 

of speed. He sustained facial fractures as well as a significant closed-head 

injury that required emergent ventriculostomy for intracranial pressure 

monitoring. No neck injuries were documented but evaluation was only 

clinical beyond radiographs of the cervical spine to rule out fracture. After 

ten days the ventriculostomy catheter was discontinued and the decedent 

was transferred to a rehabilitation facility from which he was eventually 

discharged. 

Closed head injury frequently produces elevations in intracranial 

pressure (ICP) which requires treatment to prevent deleterious, possibly 

fatal, sequelae. As clinical examination is unreliable in assessment of ICP, 

426

various invasive methods for direct measurement have been developed. In 

general, these invasive methods employ a burr-hole drilled into the 

posterior right frontal bone (assuming right hand dominance) for access to 

the cranial cavity for pressure transducing monitors. This site corresponds 

to the location where the defect was located in the decedent’s cranium. 

Duration of monitoring is usually on the order of days and no further 

treatment follows the removal of the monitor except closure of the scalp 

defect and local wound care. 

Ventriculostomy, Intracranial Screw, Trepanation 

H29 SEM Analysis of Mummified Skin: 

A Preliminary Study of Obsidian 

and Chert Induced Trauma 

Alaina K. Goff, BA*, and Debra Komar, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of New Mexico, 


The goal of this study is to identify the potential for mummified 

tissues to retain information involving soft tissue trauma to identify classes 

of stone tools based on kerf wall morphology. This research highlights the 

capability of mummified tissues to retain wound morphology, and the value 

of using Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) analysis for identifying 

class characteristics of weapons in soft tissue trauma. 


humanity by studying the microscopic analyses of stone tool trauma from 

mummified skin which provides two important contributions. First, this 

study shows that mummified tissues are capable of retaining information 

pertaining to soft tissue trauma. Thus, mummified tissues may represent an 

alternative source for analysis of trauma and for weapon identification. 

Second, the results have shown consistent class characteristics that can aide 

in the identification of stone tool-induced trauma. These class characteristics 

may be identified in soft tissue trauma from both pre-historic and 

modern forensic contexts. Future studies should examine the mummified 

kerf morphology produced by other weapon types, and the effects of 

distortion on kerf morphology. 

While osteologists typically assess biological attributes from skeletal 

remains – such as age, sex, and population affininity - there is growing 

interest in biological anthropology to identify and interpret trauma. 

Differentiating perimortem trauma from postmortem artifacts provides 

information on scavenging, cannibalism, and episodes of homicidal 

violence. Recently, SEM has been used to identify key features of cut bone 

surfaces (1, 2) . These have provided an advantage over traditional analyses 

using light microscopy because the SEM offers the ability to capture the 

third dimension in trauma. The SEM combines high-resolution and 

increased depth of field to produce a three-dimensional image that 

enhances the topographical morphology. Thus, features invisible to the 

naked eye become observable, discernable, and available for analysis. 

Previous SEM analyses of trauma have demonstrated that the 

morphology of kerf surfaces can indicate the class of implements that 

produced the kerf (2) . Thus, SEM analysis of skin trauma from pre-historic 

mummies or modern homicides should reflect the class of implements that 

produced the trauma. Although trauma can be caused by innumerable 

weapons, the present study will be limited to the analysis of mummified cut 

marks inflicted by chert and obsidian stone tools on fresh human skin. 

The tissue media used for this study were skin samples harvested from 

fresh bodies donated to the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology at the 

University of New Mexico. To simulate trauma, obsidian and chert stones 

were knapped and used to induce trauma by striking the stone onto the 

intact and in situ skin. One-inch sections of the kerf were then harvested 

and prepared for SEM analysis. 

Tissues were harvested from three different body donors, for a total of 

9 samples. The obsidian-induced trauma samples consist of two naturally 

mummified samples and three silica-induced mummified samples. The 

chert-induced trauma samples consist of two natural and two silica 

mummified skin samples. Mummified skin samples were taken to the 

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of New 

Mexico to obtain SEM images of the kerf walls. 

Results from the SEM analysis show that of the skin samples retain 

information on trauma, although the naturally mummified tissues are less 

detailed when compared to the silica skin samples. Nevertheless, all of the 

obsidian-induced traumas have flat kerf surfaces and striations that are 

wide and smooth, while the chert-induced traumas are characterized by 

rugged kerf topography, deep and thin striations, and distinctive scratches 

that were produced when the stone was withdrawn from the tissues. 

The results from this preliminary study suggest that 1) there are 

distinct morphological differences between tissues that are mummified 

naturally versus artificially; 2) the kerf morphology in mummified tissues 

is typically retained and class characteristics remain discernable; and 

3) SEM analyses could allow for chert-induced trauma to be differentiated 

from trauma produced by obsidian. Class characteristics and SEM 

comparisons of the mummified tissues will be presented in detail. 

Studying the microscopic analyses of stone tool trauma from mummified 

skin provides two important contributions. First, this study shows 

that mummified tissues are capable of retaining information pertaining to 

soft tissue trauma. Thus, mummified tissues may represent an alternative 

source for analysis of trauma and for weapon identification. Second, the 

results have shown consistent class characteristics that can aide in the 

identification of stone tool-induced trauma. These class characteristics may 

be identified in soft tissue trauma from both pre-historic and modern 

forensic contexts. 

Future studies should examine the mummified kerf morphology 

produced by other weapon types, and the effects of distortion on kerf 

morphology. 

References: 

1. Bartelink EJ, Wiersema JM, Demaree RS. Quantitative analysis of sharpforce 

trauma: an application of scanning electron microscopy in forensic 

anthropology. J Forensic Sci 2001; 46(6):1288-1293 

2. Tucker BK, Hutchingson DL, Gilliand MFG, Charles TM, Daniel HJ, 

Wolfe LD. Microscopic characteristics of hacking trauma. J Forensic Sci 

2001; 46(2):234-240. 

Scanning Electron Microscopy, Kerf Wall Morphology, Mummified 

Soft Tissue Trauma 

H30 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis, 

Pharmacological Treatments, 

and the Potential for Individuation 


Meghan M. Cotter, MSc*, Burial Sites Preservation Program, Wisconsin 

Historical Society, 816 State Street, Madison, WI 53706 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to identify 

common growth abnormalities and degenerative changes associated with 

juvenile idiopathic arthritis and some of the pharmacological treatments 

used to treat the disease. The attendee will also have an appreciation for the 

changing face of skeletal pathology in light of advancing pharmacological 

treatments. 


humanity by shedding light on not only the importance of the study of 

skeletal pathologies such as juvenile idiopathic arthritis, but also encourage 

the investigation of modern pharmacology and its effect on the skeleton and 


The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic community with 

an evaluation of the classic osseous changes seen in juvenile idiopathic 

arthritis, the osseous changes caused by the medications used in treatment, 

and to present the need for re-evaluation of skeletal pathologies and effects 

of modern medications on the growing skeleton. 


This work will present the results of a thesis written for a Master of 

Science degree in Forensic and Biological Anthropology at Bournemouth 

University. This thesis is an evaluation of the past literature of representative 

skeletal lesions and current literature on common pharmacological 

treatments and outcomes of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. 

One in one thousand children are affected by some form of arthritis. 

One of these forms, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, develops before the age of 

sixteen, involves inflammation of the joints, and has no known cause. 

Unlike arthritis in adults, juvenile idiopathic arthritis affects the skeletal 

system differently than adult forms of arthritis because the skeleton is still 

growing and developing. Not only do degenerative changes such as 

erosions and ankylosis occur in juvenile idiopathic arthritis, but stunted 

growth of the bones also occurs. Chronic inflammation may be the cause 

of growth disturbances in the mandible, long bone epiphyses, and 

phalangeal epiphyses. 

The pharmacological therapies used to treat the inflammatory and 

autoimmune manifestations of this disease also have effects on the 

skeleton. The purpose of the pharmacological treatments is to reduce 

inflammation in affected area, and in some cases halt the progression of the 

disease. Corticosteroids, such as prednisone, have potent anti-inflammatory 

effects, but also halt growth, and promote the development of osteoporosis. 

Methotrexate and etanercept slow the radiographic progression of 

bone erosion in studies on adult arthritis, and may also have the same effect 

in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Recombinant human growth hormone is 

often used to combat the effects of the growth cessation due to the disease 

and its treatments. 

Pathological conditions, like juvenile idiopathic arthritis, sometimes 

leave specific patterns of lesions on the skeleton. Forensic anthropologists 

can augment their analysis and identification of an individual by looking 

for these patterns of lesions. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis has the potential 

of being this kind of individuator. There are no growth abnormalities or 

skeletal manifestations that are pathognomonic of juvenile idiopathic 

arthritis, but severe cases of the disease may be able to be identified by a 

forensic anthropologist. The pharmacological treatments of this disease, 

however, may hamper the diagnosis by the forensic anthropologist. 

Currently, the knowledge of and treatment of juvenile idiopathic arthritis is 

evolving, and this will affect the appearance of the lesions on the bones. 

Consequently, the usefulness of juvenile idiopathic arthritis as an individuator 

will change as treatment regimens progress. 

The changing faces of juvenile idiopathic arthritis and adult 

rheumatoid arthritis in response to rapidly improving pharmacological 

treatments serve as examples of the changes that paleopathologists and 

forensic anthropologists will need to make to identify classical signs of 

disease. Additionally, the future of anthropological analysis will be 

affected by not only the treated conditions, but by the treatments themselves. 

The forensic community should be aware of the evolution of pharmacological 

treatments and their beneficial and deleterious effects for 

future casework. 

Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis, Pharmacological Treatments, 


H31 The Lady in the Box 

Frank P. Saul, PhD*, and Julie M. Saul, BA, Lucas County Coroner’s 

Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, Toledo, OH 43614-2674; and Steven A. 

Symes, PhD, Departments of Anthropology and Applied Forensic Science, 

Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 16546-0001 

After attending this presentation, attendees will realize the importance 

of perseverance and interagency cooperation in the resolution of cold cases. 


humanity by demonstrating how cooperation of law enforcement agencies 

and forensic specialists is especially important in cold cases. 


In 1974, five days after her divorce from John David Smith, Janice 

Hartman “disappeared” from Doylestown, OH. Police investigated, but the 

investigation went cold until 1992. In 1991 Smith’s second wife, Betty 

Fran Gladden, also went missing in West Windsor, NJ. Her “departure” 

was especially suspicious because she had a broken hip. Her sister, Sherrie 

Gladden-Davis, learned of the 1974 disappearance of Smith’s first wife. 

Attempts to locate the missing women in 1992 were unsuccessful. 

Robert Hilland, a former West Windsor policeman now with the FBI 

in 1998, working with Detective Sergeant Brian Potts, Wayne County Ohio 

Sheriff’s Department (who had pursued Hartman’s case) was able to 

establish rapport with Smith’s younger brother, who revealed John had 

constructed a plywood box (58” x 18”) for “storing his estranged wife’s 

clothing.” In 1979 he looked inside and saw his sister-in-law wearing a 

strange multi-colored rainbow wig. He telephoned John, in Indiana, to ask 

him about the box. His brother quickly returned, put the box into his 

Corvette, and drove off. 

In 1999, following a lead from the brother, the Wayne County 

Sheriff’s Office and Cleveland FBI ERT brought in GPR specialists and the 

Sauls (ERT consultants) to search under the floors of garages in Seville, 

OH, that were under construction by Smith’s stepfather’s company when 

the box disappeared. Nothing of consequence was found. Later, Potts 

helped by Sherrie Gladden-Davis, contacted coroners and law enforcement 

agencies along the route (80) that Smith would have taken back to Indiana, 

asking about human remains discovered subsequent to Smith’s departure 

with the box. Amazingly, these inquiries produced a response in March 

2000 from Morroco, Indiana, where a box with decomposed remains and 

clothing was found in 1980 near Route 80. 

A 1980 “autopsy” and skeletal analysis indicated the remains were a 

“Hispanic” female, 20-35. The skull and mandible were retained in the 

coroner’s office, while both proximal tibiae and left fibula (the remainder 

had been cut off below the knee), the intact right femur and both patellae 

were stored in the Indiana State Police evidence locker. The rest of the 

skeleton and clothing were interred in the local cemetery. 

In March 2000 a court order was obtained based on the probability 

that the remains found in 1980 were those of Janice Hartman. Following 

exhumation the Sauls received three separate sets of skeletonized remains 

at the Lucas County Coroner’s Office. Although the three sets of remains 

were presumed to belong to the individual found in a box in 1980, their 

original continuity had been disrupted. All sets were considered to be from 

the same individual based on direct articulation. The Biographic Profile of 

each set matched, and there was no duplication of elements. The skeletal 

remains were those of a 20-30-year-old white female who was about 5’3”– 

5’6” tall. In the absence of antemortem radiographs, the FBI DNA laboratory 

used bone samples for positive identification. No cause of death 

could be determined. 

Both tibiae and the left fibula in Set 2 and the right fibula in Set 3 were 

severed below the knees. The Sauls forwarded the cut bone to Dr. Steven 

Symes, Memphis Regional Forensic Center to obtain information on the 

tool(s) used for dismemberment as well as the dismemberment process 

itself. Symes determined the cutting instrument was a serrated knife, not a 

saw as previously believed. He also determined that the right tibia was cut 

from front to back while the left tibia was cut from back to front. Since the 

striated side of the blade was applied to the proximal surface of each bone, 

it was likely that one leg was removed and the body rolled over before the 

second leg was removed. The instrument used was never located. 

Why were the lower legs removed? Was the box too short? Why 

were the missing portions not in the box into which he put her clothing? FP 

Saul and SA Symes testified at the trial. Prosecutor Jocelyn Stefancin’s 

final remarks revealed the meaningful secret of the “rainbow hair” seen by 

Smith’s brother in 1979 – “The Shroud of Janice.” Smith was sentenced to 

15 years to life. 

Cold Cases, Forensic Anthropology, Tool Mark Analysis 

428

H32 Forensic Anthropologist and Forensic 

Pathologist: Why Work Together? 

Some Illustrative Cases of Homicide 

Joao Pinheiro, MD, MS*, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Largo 

da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 3000-213, Portugal; Eugénia Cunha, PhD, 

Departamento De Antropologia, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, 

3000-056, Portugal; Cristina Cattaneo, PhD, Università degli Studi di 

Milano, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia, Università degli 

Studi di Milano, Milano, 3330, Italy; and Francisco Corte Real, PhD, 

Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé Nova, Coimbra, 

3000-213, Portugal 


of interdisciplinary cooperation for the resolution of current forensic 

cases involving bodies in various states of preservation. 


humanity by showing the experience of two European countries in this 

field. 

It is well known that while the forensic pathologist mainly deals with 

fresh cadavers, the forensic anthropologist “prefers” skeletonized remains. 

Yet, very often, bodies present an array of preservational states which fall 

in between these two extremes. In all such situations, from putrefied to 

skeletonized remains, the presence of both experts should be mandatory. In 

order to construct accurate biological profiles and, particularly, to interpret 

traumatic injuries to the skeleton, both anthropological and pathological 

expertise are crucial from the crime scene, where retrieval of every bone 

and tooth is significant, to the actual autopsy. 

Four homicide cases are discussed, two performed at the Portuguese 

National Institute of Forensic Medicine and two cases from the Institute of 

Legal Medicine in Milano, which emphasize the need for interdisciplinarity 

to increase the frequency of successful cases. 

In one case, a routine autopsy of a partially skeletonized body found 

at a residence revealed apparent perimortem blunt force trauma to the skull. 

It was concluded that this injury was the cause of death. This led to the conviction 

of a suspect. A second case involved a suspected gunshot wound to 

the head. In this case, an examination of the nearly skeletonized remains 

was conducted five years after the initial incident and revealed concentric 

and radiating fractures involving the parietal and temporal bones. Although 

a gunshot wound could not be excluded as the cause of death, the injuries 

were more consistent with blunt force trauma. The third case, involving 

skeletal remains found in a cellar, illustrates the necessity of the anthropologist 

in distinguishing between very recent antemortem trauma and periostitis. 

Finally, the fourth case, involving a badly decomposing body, demonstrates 

the importance of osteological expertise in the recovery of skeletal 

elements at the scene. 

Skeletonized, Homicide, Interdisciplinarity 

H33 Reducing Intra- and Inter-Observer 

Error Through Histomorphometric 

Variable Selection 

Christian M. Crowder, MA, and Zoe H. Morris, BSc*, University of 

Toronto, Department of Anthropology, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, 

ON M5S3G3, Canada 


selection of variables can affect the precision and, in turn, the accuracy of 

histological age estimation. 


humanity by demonstrating the importance of exploring the precision of 

histological variables before they are entered into prediction equations 

where the output may mask precision issues. This will ultimately lead to 

better selection and definitions of variables for future methods. This 

research also provides an indication of the experience needed to perform 

certain histological analyses, concern for which may be the cause of nonintegration 

of quantitative bone histology in forensic examinations. 

Associated with histological methods of age estimation are the 

numerous ways to count and define histological structures. For most 

methods, intact and fragmentary osteons are the core variables that carry 

the most statistical weight with known age at death. These variables are 

often entered separately into regression equations. The inability to correctly 

identify osteon types directly affects age estimations. Using osteon 

population density (OPD), which combines the intact and fragmentary 

osteon counts and divides them by the amount of cortical area evaluated 

within a cross-section of bone, is a technique designed to reduce the 

counting error if an intact osteon is misidentified as a fragment or vice 

versa. The goal of this project is to determine the precision of osteon population 

densities versus separated intact and fragmentary densities ( I OPDs 

and F OPDs) within and between observers. Intra-observer analysis, performed 

by a researcher with histological experience, and inter-observer 

analysis, incorporating observations by a researcher with no histological 

experience, will determine how well the OPD variable corrects for inconsistency 

and inexperience in identifying osteonal structures. 

Rib cross-sections from 234 individuals of known age and sex from 

the cemetery site of Spitalfields, London, were evaluated. An independent 

researcher randomly selected 30 individuals for the analysis of intraobserver 

error (14 male, 16 females; aged 27-79 yrs.) and another sample 

of 30 individuals were selected for the analysis of inter-observer error (18 

females, 12 males; aged 23-80 yrs). The independent researcher was 

instructed to select non-diagenetically modified samples for the interobserver 

sample. Data was collected using osteon definitions from Cho 

and colleagues (1) and the grid counting method from Stout (2) . Plotting the 

difference between observations against the mean of the first and the 

second observation was utilized for OPDs, I OPDs and F OPDs. Absolute 

mean percent differences were calculated to quantify the magnitude in variability 

between measurements with the 10% error level as the cutoff for 

acceptance. 

The results for the intra-observer analysis show that absolute mean 

percent difference in OPD values is 8.5%. The mean difference is not significantly 

different from zero, further indicating that repeatability was 

achieved. Considering the OPD variables separately increases the absolute 

mean percent difference to 11% ( I OPD) and 22% ( F OPD). The mean difference 

for I OPD is significantly different from zero indicating a lack of 

variable agreement. The F OPD mean difference is not significantly different 

from zero, but less than 95% of the differences are within the limits 

of agreement, indicating a lack of agreement. 

The results for the interobserver analysis show that absolute mean 

percent difference in OPD values is 11.4%. A plot of the mean differences 

indicated a magnitude bias in measurements requiring the data to be logged 

transformed to provide a clearer picture of agreement. The overall mean 

difference of the transformed data is significantly different from zero and 

less than 95% of the values are within the limits of agreement, thus indicating 

lack of inter-observer agreement. Considering the OPD variables 

separately produces larger error levels ( I OPD=20%, F OPD=27%). The 

I OPD mean difference is significantly different from zero and the F OPDs 

mean difference is not significantly different from zero; however, less than 

95% of the F OPDs values are within the limits of agreement. Both I OPD 

and F OPD demonstrate a lack of inter-observer agreement. 

Analysis of the OPD variable indicates that the combination of intact 

and fragmentary osteon densities reduces overall intra- and inter-observer 

error compensating for some identification inconsistencies. Individually 

the measurements exceed the 10% error level, indicating difficulty in differentiating 

or identifying osteons. The larger differences in F OPD compared 

to I OPD indicates a bias in identification and/or counting possibly 

due to the subjectivity in determining if more than 10% of the Haversian 


canal is remodeled or differentiating a fragment without any remnant of a 

Haversian canal from crowded interstitial lamellar bone. Observer 2 

demonstrated more difficulty in differentiating intact osteons from 

fragments. Despite the higher individual variable error levels, observer 2’s 

combined OPD error level was just above the 10% cutoff. While this 

indicates that some histological training/experience is needed, it also 

demonstrates the ability of the consolidated OPD variable to compensate 

for identification inconsistencies. Fragments consistently produce higher 

intra- and inter-error levels, indicating that better definitions may be 

needed. For example, it may improve accuracy to define intact osteons as 

having a complete Haversian canal removing the subjectivity in deciding 

what percentage is unremodeled. This research has shown that more error 

is associated with individual intact and fragmentary osteon counts. 

Histological methods of age estimation that do not consolidate counts are 

subject to significantly higher levels of precision error. 

References: 

1. Cho H, Stout SD, Madsen RW, and Streeter MA. Population-specific 

histological age-estimating method: a model for known African-American 

and European-American skeletal remains. J Forensic Sci, 2002; 

47(1):12–18. 

2. Stout SD. The use of bone histomorphology in skeletal identification: 

The case of Francisco Pizarro. J Forensic Sci, 1986; 31(1):296–300. 

Observer Error, Histomorphometry, Osteon Population 

Density (OPD) 

H34 Dental Enamel Thickness as a Method 

of Subadult Sex Determination 

Leilani E. Beltran, MFS, Forensic Sciences Program, National 

University, 11355 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037; and 

A. Midori Albert, PhD*, Anthropology Program, University of North 

Carolina at Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about efforts to 

further explore dental enamel thickness as a possible subadult sex determination 

method from the dentition. 


humanity by providing awareness of a new potential subadult sex determination 

method for unknown human remains. 

There is a paucity of sex determination methods for subadults. The 

methods that do exist can be highly subjective and/or variable in accuracy. 

The purpose of this study was to determine if dental enamel thickness could 

be used to determine sex in subadults. Past studies have shown that females 

with two X chromosomes generally have thicker enamel than males with 

one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. In order to test if females 

have thicker dental enamel than males, data were collected from bitewing 

radiographs from an ethnically diverse group of 89 children between the 

ages of two to 13 years. Dental enamel thickness measures were recorded 

from up to as many as eight separate teeth: right and left mandibular first 

and second molars, and right and left maxillary first and second molars 

(i.e., two teeth in each of the four quadrants). For each tooth, two measures 

were recorded: mesial enamel thickness and distal enamel thickness. Data 

for as many as 16 variables were recorded for each of the 89 children in the 

sample. 

Results indicate statistically significant sex differences in the enamel 

thickness for the left maxillary first molar distal (p

associated with population differences was also investigated. An expanded 

suite of metric characters consisting of twelve diameters and dimensions 

were examined, including the height of the anterior centrum at midline 

(CENAN), antero-posterior and medio-lateral diameters of the centrum 

(CENAP and CENLAT, respectively) and vertebral foramen, maximum 

medial-lateral width across the transverse processes (TRANPRO), 

maximum spinous process length (SPINPRO), maximum distance between 

the inferior articular facets (INTFAC), and the maximum height and width 

of the articular facets (ARFACVER, ARFACWID, respectively). The first 

phase of this study was conducted on the 18th/19th century Spitalfields 

documented collection comprising a White immigrant population (French 

Huguenots) housed at the British Museum of Natural History, London. A 

total of 53 vertebral pairs from a split-sex sample consisting of 23 males 

and 30 females were analyzed. The ages of this group ranged from 18-89 

years. Significant sex differences were determined for 7 of 12 traits and 8 

of 12 traits for the T12 and L1 vertebrae, respectively (Student’s t-tests, p 

< 0.05 to 0.001). 

Subsequently, a larger study was conducted to investigate the degree 

of sexual dimorphism and potential population variation for these traits in 

a second documented sample, the Smithsonian’s Terry Collection 

(Washington, DC), with the aim of developing discriminant functions 

useful for sex determination. The Terry sample consisted of T12/L1 vertebral 

pairs (n=124) from 27 White males, 26 White females, 41 Black 

males, and 30 Black females with ages ranging from 19-63 years. Two 

additional variables (n=14) were added to the suite of metric traits: the 

maximum diameter in the sagittal and transverse (medio-lateral) planes 

between the limits of the superior annular epiphyses (rings) of the centra 

(CENAPA and CENLATA, respectively). 

Separate discriminant function analyses were conducted on the 

datasets to control for differences by skeletal element and race. The results 

showed significant sex differences for both vertebrae in the Spitalfields and 

Terry samples. Using T12, White males and females in the Terry Collection 

were correctly sexed on average 88.9% of the time using two of the 

fourteen measurements (CENAP, SPINPRO). Using L1, Terry White 

males and females were correctly sexed on average 91.8% of the time with 

the variables CENAPA and INTFAC. For Terry Black males and females, 

two variables (CENAP, CENLAT) yielded an average correct sexing of 

86.6% for T12 and 85.1% for L1. Discriminant function analyses of the 

Spitalfields male and female sample yielded widely different results for the 

two vertebral elements. For T12, the highest average correct sexing was 

76.7% using the single measurement CENLAT, but for L1 a high of 100% 

average correct sexing was provided predominantly by the variable 

TRANPRO, with smaller contributions from the variables ARFACWID, 

CENAP, and CENAN. The more disparate results for the Spitalfields 

sample may be due to greater occupational or other sex differences, to 

secular differences between this and the more contemporary Terry sample, 

or as a result of the overall younger age range in the Terry sample. 

The results of this study demonstrate that the lower thoracic and upper 

lumbar vertebrae are highly dimorphic. Of the 12-14 metric variables 

examined, a small subset of measurements for centrum diameters, length of 

the spinous and transverse processes, and articular facet width were found 

to provide reasonably accurate sex classification in the range of, or higher 

than, other postcranial elements such as the lower limbs or pelvis. This is 

especially true for the first lumbar vertebra of the two White samples. Both 

vertebrae should be considered for metric sex determination with complete 

skeletons and especially in fragmentary forensic assemblages from aircraft 

and other mass disasters. 

Sex Determination, Thoracic-Lumbar Vertebrae, Discriminant 

Functions 

H36 Race as a Variable in Dental Health 

of Korean War Military Personnel 

Joan E. Baker, PhD*, and Helen D. Wols, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Command Central Identification Laboratory (JPAC CIL), 

310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 

The goal of this presentation is to educate the forensic anthropological 

community on the impact of dental health and dental treatment of Korean 

War military personnel as it relates to race and sociocultural and historical 

events. 


humanity by de-emphasizing the importance of acknowledging the 

potential influence of pre-conceived notions concerning dental care as 

related to race, ethnicity, and national origin. In this case, data analysis 

provided objective statistical support for subjective experience-based 

assessments. The potential effect of historical events and psychosocial 

factors on characteristics of dental and skeletal remains should not be 

ignored during forensic analysis. 

This paper will present data concerning the influence of race on dental 

treatment and health of soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines serving 

during the Korean War. This research was spurred by a realization that preconceived 

notions regarding dental health as it varies by race, ethnicity, and 

national origin (and as reflected in forensic analyses of human remains) can 

affect the analyst’s perception of racial classification. Specifically, in the 

case of a Korean War-era individual with mixed skeletal indicators of race, 

extremely poor dental health led one analyst to surmise that the individual 

was of Korean descent, while another analyst noted that similar degrees of 

dental disease were frequently seen in African Americans of the same era. 

This paper is an effort to quantify and/or verify these subjective observations 

using a sample of individuals from a temporally and occupationally 

similar background. 

The sample for this research was drawn from a database of unresolved 

Korean War casualties and consists of individuals whose racial classifications 

were recorded by military officials as “W” (White) or “C” (Colored). 

All data were taken from original military dental records and represent the 

most recent documentation available for each person. The age of the White 

individuals in this sample ranged from 17 to 36 years (average age = 22.7), 

while the age of the non-White individuals ranged from 17 to 33 years 

(average age = 21.3). Data coded by the researchers included untreated 

carious lesions, restoration locations and materials, extractions, degree of 

calculus buildup, presence or absence of periodontoclasia, dental 

prostheses, and other oral diseases or anomalies. Class of dental health (a 

military designation between I and IV that ranks a service member’s need 

for dental treatment) was also recorded. 

Preliminary analyses indicate that degree of calculus differed slightly 

between groups, with non-Whites being more likely to have heavier 

buildup. Periodontoclasia was uncommon in both groups. The number of 

non-White individuals whose records showed unfilled/untreated carious 

lesions was more than double the number of untreated White service 

members (p < 0.01, Fisher’s exact test). The number of extracted teeth in 

the White group was nearly double that recorded for the non-White group 

(p < 0.01, Fisher’s exact test), and White individuals were far more likely 

to have dental prostheses, including fixed bridges and dentures, than their 

non-White counterparts (p < 0.01, Fisher’s exact test). More than three 

times as many restorations were recorded for White individuals when 

compared to non-White service members (p < 0.01, Fisher’s exact test), 

although the material used (i.e., silicate versus amalgam) did not vary significantly 

between the two groups on an individual basis (p > 0.10, Fisher’s 

exact test). Somewhat surprisingly given these figures, dental class (I 

through IV) did not vary significantly by race (p > 0.10, Fisher’s exact test). 

These findings seem to indicate that the two groups experienced differential 

dental treatment, with White service members being more likely 

to have sought and received dental care than non-White individuals. 

Previous research on modern military samples indicates that non-White 


military recruits are less likely to have sought dental care prior to entering 

the military 1 , a phenomenon that seems to be reflected in this Korean War 

sample. Furthermore, some research indicates that race influences the perceived 

need for dental care in modern military personnel2 . Pre-recruitment 

socioeconomic status of military personnel and ethnic/cultural perceptions 

of dental care may have played a role in this disparity. Two other events, 

namely integration of troops and a dramatic increase in the number of 

military dentists, may have influenced access to dental care for Korean 

War-era service members. 

References: 

1. Chisick MC, Poindexter FR, York AK. Factors influencing dental 

utilization by U.S. military recruits. Mil Med 1996; 161:743-745. 

2. Chisick MC, Poindexter FR, York AK. Factors influencing perceived 

need for dental care by active duty U.S. military personnel. Mil Med 1997; 

162: 586-589. 

Race, Dental Health, Military 

H37 Stable Strontium and Geolocation: 

The Pathway to Identification of 

Unidentified Mexican Aliens 

Chelsey A. Juarez, BA*, UC Santa Cruz, Department of Anthropology, 

1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 


incorporation of stable strontium into human teeth and bone, and how 

inductively coupled mass spectrometry analysis of this material can assist 

the process of identification. 


humanity by providing the assessment of a new technique to the troubling 

and complex issue of cross boundary forensic identification. 

The goal of this presentation is to present the progress on the development 

of a mass spectrometry-based method for the identification of an 

individual’s region of origin through analysis of strontium in the permanent 

first molar. The application of stable strontium to the identification of 

deceased Mexican undocumented aliens is a new frontier for this type of 

research. 

Background: Strontium isotope ratios and strontium concentrations 

collected in teeth and bones have been analyzed by archaeologists to investigate 

patterns of residential mobility and migration among prehistoric 

peoples. In this study a similar methodology is applied to forensic material 

to determine the region of origin for Mexican individuals who died while 

crossing the border into the United States. Strontium, absorbed through the 

small intestine, commonly substitutes for calcium and becomes fixed in the 

crystalline lattice of bones and teeth. Unlike oxygen or nitrogen, the 

isotopes of strontium are geologically specific, and through mass spectroscopy 

analysis can be traced to their original source. Strontium levels in 

bone vary depending on bone structure. Cancellous bone has higher rates 

than cortical bone, but is also subject to higher rates of diagenesis 

(fractionation as a result of burial or leaching). The strontium present in 

cortical bone reflects a fifteen year history of incorporation, a change that 

is a result of the remodeling behavior of compact bone1 . Conversely, 

strontium levels in the roots of permanent teeth reflect the geochemistry of 

childhood residence and, unlike bone, do not go through significant diagenesis 

or remodeling. Tooth enamel incorporates strontium only during 

amelogenesis (process of enamel formation), which for most teeth takes 

place in early childhood. This strontium signal would provide the region 

of the individual’s origin and potentially narrow down the search area. 

Methodology: The teeth for this project came from several bay area 

clinics that donated the extracted teeth of their Mexican- born patients. 

This preliminary investigation utilized the permanent first molars of 25 

individuals originating from four different Mexican states. These tooth 

samples were accompanied by information on the individuals’ regions of 


origin within Mexico, their ages, and sex. Each tooth was washed with 

diluted acetic acid to ensure the removal of any depositional contamination 

and processed. The tooth strontium was then analyzed using Inductively 

Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS). The delta units obtained 

through this analysis were compared to known geological ratios for the 

provided areas. 

Results and Discussion: The goal of this project is to provide the 

most accurate pathway to identification possible. In order to achieve this 

goal, region of origin information has been broken down into the two-tiered 

analyses of state identification and region identification (within the state). 

The Strontium database initial results reveal four specific ranges for each 

of the four states involved in the analysis. The presence of these complex 

but clear ranges demonstrates the possibility to identify individuals at a 

state level. At this point in the study, within-state regional identification is 

highly complex because the strontium signatures demonstrate a significant 

amount of overlap. While providing a glimmer of hope, this information 

suggests the need for study expansion and the incorporation of other lines 

of evidence. 

Stable Strontium, ICPMS, Mexican Aliens 

H38 Stature Estimation of Hispanics: 

The Most Appropriate Stature 

Regression Equations 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Lehman College - CUNY, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, West, Bronx, NY 10468 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be aware of the most 

appropriate stature regression equations for the prediction of stature for 

individuals of Hispanic biological affinity. This presentation will illustrate 

various methods, and their results, which can be utilized to estimate the 

stature of Hispanic individuals. Discussion of the most appropriate stature 

regression equations for stature estimates of individuals of Hispanic 

biological affinity will provide invaluable knowledge to forensic 

anthropologists and pathologists who wish to provide more accurate stature 

estimation. 


humanity by demonstrating, discussing, and illustrating the various stature 

regression equations available for individuals of Hispanic biological 

affinity and identify the most appropriate equations. 

Background: The debate as to the “biological reality” of “race” is 

still ongoing and heavily contested even within the field of forensic anthropology. 

Yet, even among the more generally accepted racial groups of 

Caucasian (White), African American (Black), Native American Indian, 

Asian, etc., there is debate as to whether “Hispanics” (Mexicans, Puerto 

Ricans, Cubans, etc.) should be considered a “biological race” or a “social 

race.” As noted by Ross et al. (2004:1), “the term ‘Hispanic’ includes all 

persons of Spanish speaking countries. However, in the forensic setting, 

the use of such an umbrella term is problematic because it ignores the 

distinct ethnohistories and migration patterns of each geographical region. 

The use of ‘Hispanic’ as a classification or category does not provide an 

adequate biological profile.” Despite the ambiguities in the classification 

and/or identification of Hispanic individuals, forensic anthropologists are 

still required to develop a comprehensive biological profile of an individual 

who may be of an Hispanic biological affinity. Outside of the racial 

assessment itself, stature estimation is potentially among the most 

problematic aspects of the biological profile. 

Depending on the geographic region, an Hispanic individual may be 

a genetic and morphological mosaic of European (Spanish), Native 

Amerindian and/or African biological elements. Hispanics from Mexico 

and the Southwest United States have varying degrees of European and 

Amerindian biological affinity, while Hispanics from the Caribbean (Puerto 

Rico, Cuba, etc.) have varying degrees of European biological affinity, and 

may have a stronger African biological affinity with minimal Amerindian 

432

iological affinity. Traditionally, when it came to estimating the stature of 

an Hispanic individual, forensic anthropologists have relied on the stature 

regression equations developed by Genoves (1967), which were built on 

data from Central Mexican (Mesoamerican) males. As result of the reference 

data set Genoves utilized to build those stature regression equations, 

they may not be appropriate for Caribbean Hispanics. What may have been 

overlooked by some or many forensic anthropologist is a recommendation 

made by Trotter and Gleser (1958), which may resolve this problem. In 

their classic study of Caucasian (White) and African American (Black) 

male and female stature estimations, and Native American Indian 

(Mongoloid) male stature estimations, a small sample of Puerto Rican individuals 

were also included. Ultimately stature regression equations were 

not developed for the Puerto Rican sample, however, Trotter and Gleser 

recommended utilizing the Negro (Black) stature regression equations due 

to the similarities in limb proportions and relationships of long bone lengths 

to stature seen in both the Puerto Rican and Negro (Black) samples (Trotter, 

1970:82; Trotter and Gleser, 1958: 113-114). This preliminary study will 

test the various stature regression equations for the estimation of stature of 

known “Caribbean” Hispanics. 

Anthropological Examples: In order to evaluate the various stature 

regression equations available and traditionally utilized to estimate the 

stature of Hispanic individuals, and to identify the most appropriate stature 

regression methods, long bone measurements of two positively identified 

“Caribbean” Hispanic individuals were taken to calculate estimated 

statures via these various stature regression equations. 

The first individual, Case No.WCME02-1574, was from the 

Dominican Republic; and the second individual, Case No. SCME03-3734, 

was from Puerto Rico. The table below displays the results obtained from 

the various stature regression equations. As is evident from the table, for 

the “Caribbean” Hispanic individuals the old Negro male stature regression 

equations from Trotter and Gleser (1958) provided the closest stature estimations 

to the actual recorded stature for those individuals. 

Case Measurement White* Negro-New* Negro-Old† Mexican* Genoves‡ 

“Caribbean” Hispanics 

WCME02-1574 – Reported Stature: 70,” ~177.8cm 

Femur 49.9 180.172 175.639 177.01 180.426 179.153 

Difference 2.372 -2.161 -0.79 2.626 1.353 

SCME03-3734 – Reported Stature: 66,” ~167.64cm 

Humerus 33.1 172.398 170.006 170.808 170.592 

Radius 24.4 171.242 165.008 166.438 167.33 

Ulna 26.7 172.84 166.332 168.21 169.612 

Femur 45.5 169.7 166.355 167.77 169.69 169.209 

Tibia 37.5 173.12 168.145 167.485 169.12 167.252 

Fibula 37.2 171.476 167.118 167.118 168.44 

Fem + Tib 171.19 166.49 167.2 

Average 171.71 167.06 167.86 169.13 168.23 

Difference 4.07 -0.58 0.22 1.49 0.59 

*Trotter, 1970 

† Trotter and Gleser, 1958 

‡ Genoves, 1967 

Conclusions: The estimation of stature for “Hispanic” individuals is 

not a simple and straight forward process. The morphological assessment 

and biological affinity determination of Hispanic individuals is complicated 

and difficult on its own; now the geographic origin of a Hispanic individual 

needs to be considered in order to ensure the most accurate and thorough 

assessment of not only race but stature as well. Because of the differing 

genetic and morphological composition of “Caribbean” and 

“Mexican/Southwest” Hispanic individuals, the forensic anthropologist 

needs to consider the potential geographic origin of the individual when 

selecting the appropriate stature regression equation. These preliminary 

results indicate that the old Negro (Black) stature regression equations of 

Trotter and Gleser (1958) may be the most appropriate equations for estimating 

the statures of “Caribbean” Hispanic individuals. Additional data 

from “Caribbean” Hispanic individuals will be obtained to further test and 

confirm the results seen in this preliminary investigation. Additionally, data 

from “Mexican/Southwest” Hispanic individuals will be obtained to 

compare the results obtained through application of the Genoves, as well as 

the Trotter and Gleser stature regression equations. 

Stature Estimation, Stature Regression Equations, Hispanics 

H39 Anatomical Stature Estimation: 

Why Not Fully Accurate? 

Donna M. McCarthy, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, University of 



After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the possible 

problems associated with the anatomical method of stature estimation. 


humanity by helping to more accurately estimate statures of unknown individuals 

in a forensic context. 

The purpose of this paper is to introduce and discuss a possible bias in 

the estimation of statures using the Fully Anatomical Method. 

Traditional regression equations require knowledge of an individual’s 

sex and ethnicity (and often age) in order to be applied correctly. The 

anatomical method proposes that an individual’s stature may be determined 

- if the skeleton is sufficiently complete - without regard to these variables 

by determining an individual’s skeletal height and adding a soft tissue correction 

of 10 to 11.5 centimeters. This correction factor, purportedly 

applicable to all individuals regardless of ethnicity, sex, and age, will be 

tested in this paper using regression analysis. 

Skeletal heights of 129 individuals from the Terry Collection were 

obtained using the anatomical method. This included measurements of the 

head height (basion-bregma), anterior vertebral heights from 

C2 to S1, the bicondylar length of the femur, maximum 

length of the tibia, and the height of the articulated calcaneus 

and talus (ankle height). To these skeletal heights, the correction 

factor (based on overall skeletal height) was added to 

each individual. All of the individuals used in this study had 

cadaver lengths on file. These were converted to an estimate 

of living stature by subtracting 25 mm, an adjustment which 

had been determined by previous researchers. Each 

anatomical stature was then compared to the adjusted 

cadaver length to determine the accuracy of the estimation. 

The differences between the “living statures” and the 

anatomical statures ranged from -9.00 to +7.10 centimeters 

with an average difference of -1.36 and a Pearson correlation 

of 0.935. While these results were an improvement over 

long bone regressions, such as those of Trotter and Gleser, 

the fact that error still remained required further explanation. 

Mean soft tissue correction values were calculated for each 

group; with both black and white females having an average adjustment of 

101 mm and black and white males an average of 104 mm. Lowess regressions 

on the data set, however, suggested that the original soft tissue correction 

factor may be too low, and in most cases in this study the differences 

between skeletal height and cadaver length were between 110 and 115 mm. 

Typically, errors resulting from long bone regressions are due to differences 

in body proportions such that statures of individuals with long 

trunks and short legs are generally underestimated and vice versa. The 

original soft tissue correction factors calculated by Fully were based on 

French citizens in an Austrian concentration camp, and while Fully’s data 

set has never been published, it is possible to conclude that the French may 

have had shorter trunks, either due to shorter vertebral heights, thinner 

intervertebral discs, or both. More research is needed to determine whether 

the soft tissue corrections calculated by Fully may truly be applied to other 

populations and both males and females. 

Stature, Fully, Regression 


H40 The Effects of Skeletal Preparation 

Techniques on DNA From Human 

and Nonhuman Bone 

Stephanie L. Rennick, BS*, Michigan State University, Forensic Science 

Program, School of Criminal Justice, 560 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

48824; Todd W. Fenton, PhD, Michigan State University, Department of 

Anthropology and Forensic Science Program, Baker Hall, East Lansing, 

MI 48824; David R. Foran, PhD, Michigan State University, Forensic 

Science Program, School of Criminal Justice and Department of Zoology, 



negative and positive effects that standard and alternative methods for 

cleaning skeletal material have on the DNA found within human and nonhuman 

bone. 


humanity by encouraging anthropologists and others who analyze skeletal 

remains to refrain from using bleach cleaning techniques on bone, and 

instead adopt alternative methods such as the powdered detergent/sodium 

carbonate technique tested here. Subsequent DNA analysis of cleaned 

skeletal material will not be negatively impacted, and in fact may even be 

improved. 

The goal of this presentation is to inform the forensic community 

about the effects bone cleaning techniques have on subsequent DNA 

analysis. 

A common technique used by anthropologists and others who work 

with skeletal remains is to clean bone with adherent soft tissue by boiling 

it in a bleach solution. This method, while effective, causes damage to the 

exposed surfaces of the bone, which may have detrimental consequences in 

a forensic investigation. Furthermore, bleach, owing to its strong oxidative 

properties, is known to damage DNA, although the extent of which, if any, 

in a boiled bone sample, is not clear. In response to bleach’s known detrimental 

effect on bone, alternative cleaning techniques have been proposed. 

A skeletal cleaning method is considered successful if it is as fast and 

effective as commonly used techniques, while being less destructive to the 

sample. The impact these procedures have on the DNA within bone is, 

however, more difficult to discern. 

In the study presented here, an alternate tissue removal technique that 

consists of boiling bones in powdered detergent and sodium carbonate1 , a 

standard bleach boiling protocol, and a control of boiling bones in water, 

were examined. Animal bones with adhering tissue, as well as human 

bones from a forensic case, were cleaned using all three techniques. DNA 

was then isolated from each of the samples using a standard organic 

extraction, and DNA yields quantified using UV spectrophotometry or Real 

Time PCR. Gel electrophoresis or PCR amplification of progressively 

larger pieces of mitochondrial DNA were then used to determine how 

degraded mtDNAs were following each cleaning. 

These experiments demonstrate that significantly less DNA is 

recovered from bone samples cleaned in bleach than from water cleaned 

controls. Further, bleach cleaning was shown to cause DNA degradation. 

In contrast, the powdered detergent/sodium carbonate cleaning method1 produced DNA for which quantity and quality were similar to or even 

exceeded the water control. The results from these experiments indicate 

that not only does bleach cause damage to the bone in addition to having a 

notable negative effect on DNA when compared to the water control, but 

the powdered detergent/sodium carbonate technique may protect DNA 

during bone cleaning procedures. 

The results presented should encourage anthropologists and others 

who analyze skeletal remains to refrain from using bleach cleaning techniques 

on bone, and instead adopt alternative methods such as the powdered 

detergent/sodium carbonate technique tested here. Subsequent DNA 

testing of cleaned skeletal material will not be negatively impacted, and in 

fact may even be improved. 


References: 

1. Fenton TW, Birkby WH, J Cornelison. A Fast and Safe Non-Bleaching 

Method for Forensic Skeletal Preparation. J Forensic Sci 2003; 

48(1):274-276. 

Skeletal Remains, DNA Degradation, Bone Cleaning Procedures 

H41 An Assessment of DNA Degeneration 

Due to Air-Drying Preservation for the 

Remains of the World Trade Center 

Benjamin J. Figura, MA*, PO Box 538, Empire, MI 49630 

The goal of this presentation is to detail the results of genetic tests 

performed on the human remains from the World Trade Center from before 

and after preservation through air-drying. These results help to assess the 

drying process as a viable option for preservation in future mass fatality 

incidents. The details of the drying process itself were presented in a paper 

at the 2003 meetings in Dallas, TX. 


humanity by presenting an assessment of possible DNA degradation due to 

a preservation process that has not been used previously in a forensic 

context before. This information will allow forensic professionals to judge 

the viability of air-drying as an option for the preservation of human 

remains from future mass disasters. 

This paper will present a statistical analysis of DNA tests performed 

on the human remains from the World Trade Center before and after their 

preservation through air-drying. The results of this statistical analysis illustrate 

the effect the air-drying preservation method has on the genetic 

material held within the remains. 

The remains recovered from the World Trade Center site in the 

months following September 11th, 2001 were preserved using a method of 

air-drying. The air-drying method was utilized as an attempt to preserve the 

remains without significantly degrading the genetic material contained 

within, allowing for future DNA testing if warranted. 

To assess the impact of the drying process on the genetic material in the 

remains, two different experiment designs were used. For the first experiment, 

soft tissue samples were extracted from a random sample of the 

remains during their preparation for the drying process. A second sample 

was extracted from the remains after the drying process was completed. 

The second experiment was designed to control for sample location, 

length of time spent drying, and size of sample. In this test, strips of muscle 

of approximately 50ml were taken from 30 sets of remains. Each sample 

strip was divided in half; with one half sent directly for DNA testing. The 

second half of each sample was subjected to the drying process, then, upon 

completion, sent for DNA analysis. 

All tissue samples were taken following a strict sampling process. 

Samples were taken from portions of remains featuring large muscle 

groups enclosed under unbroken skin to ensure both ample size and no contamination. 

New, sterile disposable scalpels were used for each sample. At 

least one scalpel was used to make the initial incision through the outer skin 

layers, while another was used to cut out the tissue to be taken. The muscle 

strips were extracted using reusable forceps thoroughly cleaned with 10% 

bleach water. 

The samples were tested using both DNA IQ and Organic DNA techniques, 

with the results ranging from 0 - 16 loci. For both experiments, a 

paired samples t test was performed using the corresponding pre-dried and 

dried variables. The t tests will show if there is a significant increase or 

decrease in the average number of loci recovered from the dried samples 

when compared to the pre-dried samples. 

Statistical analysis of the test results from both experiments shows that 

a significant decrease in loci yields did occur between the pre-dried and 

dried samples. After a number of other possible factors were ruled out, it 

was concluded that the drying process itself was the cause of the decrease 

in loci through the combination of temperature shock, the high temperature 

434

itself, and the already fragile state of the DNA. However, while the experiments 

showed that the drying process did significantly degrade the DNA 

of the remains, they also show it was still possible to retrieve DNA. The 

DNA was not completely degraded in every sample, as other preservation 

options would have done. 

Because the remains were preserved and DNA can still be retrieved, 

drying may be a viable option for preservation in the future should the 

needs of a particular disaster warrant its use and available resources allow 

for it. In addition, until now, research on DNA stability in a forensic 

context has been limited to the effects of various environmental factors 

occurring in common situations and do not reflect those that occur at the 

extremes. Information may be drawn from this research regarding the 

stability of DNA in extremes of both high temperature and low humidity. 

Mass Disasters, Preservation, DNA Degradation 

H42 Elemental Analysis of Human Cremains 





Thomas E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner Office, 

3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37406; and Gretchen E. 

Potts, PhD, Kira Shurtz, and Timothy Brooks, University of Tennessee at 

Chattanooga, Department of Chemistry, 404 Grote Hall, Chattanooga, 

TN 37403 

After attending this presentation, the forensic anthropology 

community will be exposed to new technology that can aid in the analysis 

of human cremains. The purpose of this project is to develop an objective 

and more definitive means of identifying whether human cremains are 

legitimate or contaminated. 

Following recent crematory controversies, many families question 

whether the cremains returned to them are human or not. This presentation 

will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by offering an 

objective method to distinguish between legitimate and contaminated 

human cremains. 

The purpose of this project is to develop an objective and more definitive 

means of identifying whether human cremains are legitimate or contaminated. 

The need for this information has arisen from dissatisfaction and 

limitations in the current methods of cremains analysis available to forensic 

scientists. The most common methods of cremains analysis employed by 

forensic anthropologists are visual inspection, x-ray analysis, and microscopic 

analysis. Visual inspection is useful to determine whether or not the 

cremains contain identifiable bone fragments. X-ray analysis is helpful to 

detect radiopaque objects that may be helpful to the examination. 

Microscopic analysis is useful to examine not only small bone fragments, 

but also other non-bone items such as contaminate inclusions. Contaminate 

inclusions are burned or non-burned items including, but not limited to, 

small rocks, textiles, sand, staples, screws, or durable clothing items like 

metal buttons. These items provide even more clues as to the history of the 

cremains. Unfortunately, the laboratory hours needed to completely 

examine a set of cremains by microscopic means could take weeks or 

months. Some contaminate inclusions should be expected due to the construction 

of cremation boxes, how retorts are built and swept out, and how 

ashes are processed. Only in rare instances has any examiner made a positive 

identification of cremains. This project does not purport to be able to 

identify a person from the ashes, only whether or not the cremains given to 

a family are legitimately human or not. Nor does this project intend to supplant 

existing analytical techniques, but rather enhance the analysis with 

advanced technology. The goal is to develop a technique to analyze human 

cremains that is relatively affordable in forensic investigations and 

available at many different laboratories and universities, instead of relying 

on exotic and expensive machinery. 

To determine what survives the cremation process, this project has 

tested the technologies of Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry 

(GC/MS), Total Attenuated Reflectance Infrared Spectroscopy (IR), and 

Inductively-Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES). 

Organic extractions of the cremains were analyzed by GC/MS, but no 

organic compounds were detected. Additionally, the cremains analyzed by 

IR only exhibited absorption due to the phosphorous/oxygen bond found in 

phosphate. Due to the elevated temperatures of the cremation process 

(1625ºF, or 885ºC), organic residues were not expected. Therefore, an indepth 

elemental analysis was undertaken using ICP-OES. 

Five sets of cremains were tested using ICP-OES: two human 

cremations (one embalmed, the other not embalmed) performed by the 

author (TEB) and a professional crematory; a cremated dog as a 

mammalian comparison; a set determined to be questionable by current 

analytical methods; and a set known to be questionable by its medicolegal 

context. Results show the elemental profiles (inorganic metals) of the two 

known human cremains were consistent with one another, indicating that it 

is possible to develop expected concentration ranges and mean values using 

this technology. There was no apparent difference between the embalmed 

cremains and non-embalmed cremains, which was expected because 

modern embalming fluid is a hydrocarbon molecule that completely 

combusts at cremation temperatures. Problems to be addressed in this 

study include calibration issues with the ICP-OES instrument, sample 

preparation and variation, and sociocultural obstacles in obtaining known 

human samples (to increase sample size). Following recent crematory 

controversies, many families question whether the cremains returned to 

them are human or not, and this project hopes to offer an objective method 

to distinguish between legitimate and contaminated human cremains. 

Cremains Analysis, Cremation, Forensic Anthropology 

H43 Elemental Characterization of Skeletal 



Arpad A. Vass, PhD*, and Madhavi Martin, PhD, Oak Ridge National 

Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, 1505, MS 6038, Oak Ridge, TN 37831- 

6038; Jennifer Synstelien, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; and Kimberly Collins, BS, 


The goal of this presentation is to discuss unique elemental profiles 

differentiating human and animal bone which could accelerate skeletal 

element identification in the field through the use of laser-induced 

breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS). 


by allowing the forensic community to become aware of an extremely useful 

forensic tool with many applications and advantages, which could be used 

in the field for evidence analysis with real time results. It is expected that 

this presentation will make the forensic community, criminal investigators, 

and the legal community aware of the potential value of LIBS and hopefully, 

they will adopt this technology for future use in their organizations. 

The first question asked of the forensic anthropologist and/or medical 

examiner when presented with skeletal remains is, “Are they human?” 

Identification as human initiates legal investigation whilst animal does not. 

An individual experienced in mammalian osteology can readily make the 

distinction when presented with as little as a single fragmentary bone. More 

difficult is the separation of remains by less experienced osteologists or in 

cases of unidentifiable, or extremely fragmented, remains. Traditional 

methods of differentiating human from animal bone rely on macroscopic 

and microscopic evaluation; however, the margin of error associated with 

these methods is dependent upon experience and some fragments are 

indistinguishable to even skilled osteologists. Additionally, microscopic 

evaluation is time consuming and destructive to the specimen. Given the 

legal ramifications involved in accurate identification of skeletal remains, a 


more reliable means by which to distinguish human from animal bone is 

desirable. This research utilized Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy 

(LIBS) for nondestructive characterization and separation of elemental bone 

composition profiles from several commonly recovered mammalian 

species. 

LIBS is an established, versatile method of determining elemental 

compositions. Laser pulses are delivered to the sample from a laser spark, 

or plasma, for vaporization and atomization of the target material. 

Spectroscopic detection of the light released from the plasma contains the 

emission spectra which permits identification of the elements through their 

unique spectral signatures. Advantages of LIBS compared to conventional 

methods of elemental analysis include: 

• Rapid (seconds) sampling 

• Minimally destructive (1.0 - 0.1 mm diameter) 

• Simultaneous multi-element detection 

• Low detection limits 

• Little or no sample preparation 

• Ability to remove surface contaminants and provide depth-profile 

Eight adult human femora (two of each: male, female, African 

American, European American) and a tibia or femur from 14 skeletally 

mature animals - pig, gray fox, raccoon, dogs, bear, pig, rabbit, cows, deer, 

and sheep - were selected from the William M. Bass Forensic Skeletal 

Collection for LIBS analysis. Mammals selected represent a continuum of 

dietary trophic levels and commonly recovered species in forensic cases 

involving skeletal remains. The outer cortical shaft of bone was targeted by 

the Nd-YAG laser and multiple shots were delivered over a representative 

area to ensure adequate sampling. Adult cortical bone contains less intraindividual 

variation than cancellous and is more stable having a slower 

turnover rate (3-5% turnover rate per year) ensuring greater representation 

of an individual’s lifetime. Preliminary comparison of spectral data showed 

sufficiently significant elemental differences among humans and between 

humans and animal bone. It was specifically noted that there was a significant 

amount of titanium present in white male and female bones but not in 

black female bones. The amount of barium was also quite substantial in the 

white female, present in small amounts in the black female but noticeably 

absent in the white male bones. These differences could be attributed to the 

uptake capacities of the different elements based on their respective bone 

densities and porosities. This would lead to the identification of the bones 

based on gender, sex, and race in the case of human bones. 

Identification of compositional differences between human and animal 

remains may provide an elemental fingerprint by which to distinguish 

human from animal bone for more efficient and rapid identification of fragmentary 

remains. As a minimally destructive method of elemental analysis, 

LIBS provides many benefits for use in a variety of trace evidence analyses. 

Bone, LIBS, Elemental Analysis 

H44 An Experimental Test of the Accuracy 

of Human Forensic Identification 

Techniques for Analysis of Burn- 

Damaged Bone and Tissue 

Michelle Kaye, MA*, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Department of 

Anthropology, 310 Eielson Building, PO Box 757720, Fairbanks, AK 

99775-7720; Elayne J. Pope, MA, University of Arkansas, Department of 

Anthropology, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 72701; Frank Cipriano, 

PhD, San Francisco State University, Conservation Genetics Laboratory, 

Hensill Hall 745, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94132; and 

O’Brian C. Smith, MD, UT Medical Group, Inc, Regional Forensic 

Center, 1060 Madison, Memphis, TN 38104 

The goal of this presentation is to provide the forensic community 

with information about the potential for errors in DNA-based forensic identification 

of hard and soft tissues with increasing burn damage. 


While technical methods continue to improve the potential for the 

analysis of degraded DNA samples, forensic analysts should be cautioned 

that, especially in cases involving highly degraded skeletal material where 

the amount of DNA extracted is very small, the potential for problems may 

be of concern. Further study and improved coordination between DNA 

analysts and forensic scientists will impact the forensic community and/or 

humanity by becoming useful in the development of guidelines for forensic 

identification of different types of highly degraded human remains. 

Forensic scientists have been challenged by recent events, such as the 

tragedies of 9/11 and genocide incidents abroad, which have highlighted 

the difficulties of DNA analysis from fragmented and thermally degraded 

remains. Previous studies have investigated the effectiveness of alternate 

methods for extraction of highly degraded DNA. Here, the authors use an 

experimental framework to investigate the accuracy, relative to results from 

unburned tissue, of the commonly used molecular forensic identification 

methods. Specifically, the authors address how results vary with increasing 

temperature and duration of the thermal event, document the consequences 

for identification methods as human DNA is exposed to heat of varying 

intensity, and discuss the limitations of current technologies in cases 

involving burned tissue and bone. 

Microsatellite (STR) loci, mitochondrial and nuclear DNA have been 

amplified with varying degrees of success from burn-damaged tissues. 

Thermally induced deamination with increasing DNA chain fragmentation 

in burned samples has been implicated as the mechanism of DNA damage 

that has made molecular analysis difficult in some cases. This study tested 

samples from fleshed, human remains, not embalmed, without burning, and 

with increasing levels of burn damage. Prior to burning, unburned control 

samples for muscle, skin, bone, and teeth were collected from seven individuals, 

then the remains were burned in simulated forensic fire environments 

fueled by wood without accelerants. Scorch-damaged soft tissue and 

tooth samples were collected following charring of the muscle and skin 

(after 42-45 minutes of burning at a fire temperature of 600-700oF). With 

increasing time and temperature, superficial soft tissues retract and burn 

away, leaving charred bone from carbonization of organic materials, and 

prolonged heat exposure results in brittle grayish calcined bone (samples 

taken after 90-100 minutes of burning at a fire temperature of 600-800oF). DNA was extracted from hard and soft tissues with increasing burn 

damage using three extraction methods: CTAB/QIAquick, DNeasy, and 

CTAB/phenol-chloroform/QIAquick. Amplification of three types of 

genetic markers (mitochondrial control region HV1, microsatellite and a 

sex chromosome marker) was attempted for each tissue type and burn 

damage level. For testing potential variability in the effect of burn-induced 

DNA degradation, five microsatellite loci representing small to large 

amplicons were analyzed in this experiment. A series of control region 

primers covering the HV1 region were used to determine the maximum 

amplicon size associated with different tissue types and burn damage 

levels. Amelogenin primers flanking a sex-specific indel were used to 

assess variability in the effectiveness of sex determination. 

All extraction methods were successful; however the CTAB/phenolchloroform 

/QIAquick combination produced the highest DNA yield (consistent 

with results reported by Ye et al., 2004). As expected, amplification 

of larger control regions segments was more difficult with higher levels of 

burn damage. Potential difficulties associated with increasing burn damage 

include: (1) DNA so highly fragmented that amplification of some loci 

(especially larger amplicons) is difficult or impossible; (2) inhibition of 

amplification by chemical byproducts that persist despite purification procedures 

during extraction; (3) PCR artifacts resulting in altered control 

region sequences and microsatellite allele sizes, resulting from chemical 

byproducts in burned tissues; and (4) bias in microsatellite amplifications 

due to fragmentation damage leading to a higher percentage of null alleles. 

While technical methods continue to improve the potential for the analysis 

of degraded DNA samples, forensic analysts should be cautioned that, 

especially in cases involving highly degraded skeletal material where the 

amount of DNA extracted is very small, the potential for problems as listed 

above may be high. 

436

Experimental verification of which molecular markers and analysis 

methods are robust to progressive stages of thermal degradation in various 

tissue types, and when such methods may be inaccurate, biased, or misleading, 

is needed to produce guidelines for effective and appropriate 

analysis of burn-damaged human remains. The preliminary results suggest 

that further study and improved coordination between DNA analysts and 

forensic scientists are needed to clarify if and when DNA analysis techniques 

can effectively be used in forensic identification. 

Forensic Identification, Burned Bone, DNA Degradation 

H45 Semi-Automated Ultrasound Facial 

Soft Tissue Depth Registration: 

Method and Preliminary Results 

Sven De Greef, DDS*, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Faculty of 

Medicine, School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology and Maxillofacial Surgery, 

Forensic Odontology, Kapucijnenvoer 7, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium; 

Peter Claes, MEng, Wouter Mollemans, MEng, Dirk Vandermeulen, PhD, 

and Paul Suetens, PhD, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, ESAT, Medical 

Image Computing, Herestraat 49, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium; and Guy 

Willems, DDS, PhD, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Faculty of Medicine, 

School of Dentistry, Oral Pathology and Maxillofacial Surgery, Forensic 

Odontology, Kapucijnenvorer 7, Leuven, B-3000, Belgium 

The goal of this presentation is to provide an update of facial soft 

tissue depth data for the European Caucasoid based on a scientifically 

sound registration method. 

The database of facial soft tissue depths for the European Caucasoid 

based on in vivo measurement of a large population will impact the forensic 

community and/or humanity by leading to more accurate manual, as well 

as computer-aided, facial reconstructions. 

Introduction: Trying to recreate the face of a deceased individual 

based on his or her remains, with the hope that recognition would be 

triggered, researchers developed different two- and three-dimensional 

facial reconstruction techniques. Several of these techniques use soft tissue 

depth tables. 

Aim: A mobile semi-automated ultrasound echographic system is 

presented, the validation procedure, and preliminary results for the 

European Caucasoid. 

Materials and method: As a part of an ongoing project on computeraided 

3-D craniofacial reconstruction approximately 1,000 White Belgian 

volunteers subdivided following gender, age, body mass index, and facial 

profile had to be scanned on 52 different facial landmarks. For this purpose 

a mobile and user-friendly ultrasound scanning system was conceived 

enabling in vivo, fast, non-destructive soft tissue depth measurements. 

The system is composed of a compact and lightweight mobile digital 

ultrasound “A-mode” scanner (Epoch 4B with a 10MHz 0.6mm∅ transducer, 

Panametrics Inc., Waltham, USA), a database (MySQL), and a selfdesigned 

interface program. The interface program controls the bi-directional 

data transfer between the database and the scanner, which allows 

automatic depth calculation to avoid interpretation errors of the scanner 

signal, automatic storage of the result and automatic adaptation of the 

scanner settings for every specific landmark. 

The next step in the project consisted in defining an exact measurement 

protocol. Reviewing the literature the researchers decided to 

measure three times the tissue depths of 52 facial landmarks (10 midline + 

21 bilateral). 

Results: A repeatability test was performed with an interval period 

varying between 2 and 57 days on a test group of 33 volunteers. Intraobserver 

agreement was statistically analyzed using a paired t-test. Eightyeight 

% (n=46) of the landmarks showed no significant difference (p>0.05) 

between the first and second measurement. For 5.7% (n=3) of the landmarks 

no significant difference was found at the p>0.01 level. Only 5.7% 

(n=3) of the landmarks showed a significant difference (p

were 43 left femora and 36 right femora, of which 31 femur pairs could be 

found. The MLNI estimate based solely on these femora is 49 individuals, 

with an approximate 95% confidence interval (“highest density region”) of 

48-54 individuals. A combined estimate using the pair-matching results for 

the tibia, os coxa, humerus, and femur is an MLNI value of 50, with an 

approximate 95% confidence interval of 48-52 individuals. The MNI for 

this example is only 43. 

The MLNI technique could be easily applied to modern forensic 

contexts and these figures will provide number estimates that are of much 

greater interpretive value than the MNI counts. 

Lincoln Index, Commingling, Statistics 

H47 Osteometric Sorting of 

Commingled Human Remains 

John E. Byrd, PhD*, JPAC Central Identification Laboratory, 310 

Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853; and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 First Avenue, New York, NY 10016 


osteometric sorting methods that can be used to sort commingled remains. 


humanity by introducing and describing methods that can be used to sort 

commingled human remains. Commingled human remains frequently 

result from mass disasters such as warfare, aircraft crashes, and terrorist 

attacks. 

Assemblages of commingled human remains present special 

problems in the identification process. Biological profiles of individuals 

cannot be developed until the remains have been segregated into individuals. 

Though the presence of soft tissue can, in some cases, usefully 

inform the process (i.e., hair color and texture, skin tone, etc.), most of the 

information used to resolve commingling is obtained from the skeleton. 

The primary categories of information used to sort commingled remains are 

age, articulation, visual pair matching, size, build, taphonomy, and DNA 

sequence data. No one of these categories is sufficient as a sole basis for 

sorting most assemblages. The authors advocate the systematic use of 

these methods to sort commingled remains, so that each step in the sorting 

process is documented and can be replicated by other anthropologists (2, 4) . 

There are strong correlations among the sizes of the bones of the 

skeleton. Thus, a large humerus is associated with a large femur and a large 

metatarsal. This allometric reality can be exploited in the sorting process 

by formally comparing the sizes of two bones. Byrd and Adams (4) propose 

that a test of the null hypothesis that the two specimens are of a size to have 

originated in the same individual with the use of statistical tests. This 

approach requires the calculation of statistical models from a large reference 

data set appropriate to the population of interest. This method can 

be effectively applied to comparison of right with left paired bones, but has 

the advantage of being applicable to comparison between virtually any two 

elements in the skeleton. Naturally, some elements exhibit greater correlations 

in size with one another than with others. Recommend are three basic 

approaches to osteometric sorting: 1) comparison of left and right bones 

with models that key on shape, 2) comparison of adjoining bones with 

models recognizing that corresponding areas tightly covary (3) , and 

3) comparison of the sizes of bones with the use of regression models. 

Each approach is described below following a brief description of the 

reference data. 

The reference data used in this study (hereafter referred to simply as 

“the reference data”) was developed at the JPAC CIL for broad applications 

in research and casework. The data is comprised primarily of postcranial 

measurements. The measurements include the standard measurements 

found in the Forensic Databank at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville (5) 

as well as new measurements designed by the authors to be taken on 

fragmented bones. The measurement numbering scheme was designed to 


integrate with the forensic databank. A considerable portion of the 

reference data consists of Forensic Databank data generously given to the 

authors by Dr. Richard Jantz. The individuals in the reference data set are 

as listed in Table 1. 

TABLE 2- Reference sample broken down by collection, race, and sex. 

COLLECTION SEX BLACK WHITE ASIAN TOTAL 

CIL F 0 1 0 1 

M 5 42 4 51 

CMNH-HT F 2 2 0 4 

M 7 7 0 14 

SI-TERRY F 14 10 0 24 

M 14 2 0 16 

UT-BASS F 3 9 0 12 

M 4 7 0 11 

FDB F 12 46 0 58 

M 17 108 0 125 

ICMP F 0 0 0 0 

M 0 41 0 41 

TOTAL 78 234 4 316 

CIL, JPAC Central Identification Laboratory 

CMNH-HT, Cleveland Museum of Natural History Hamann-Todd 

collection 

SI-TERRY, Smithsonian Institution Terry collection 

UT-BASS, University of Tennessee Bass collection 

FDB, University of Tennessee Forensic Data Bank 

ICMP, International Commission on Missing Persons 

Models for comparison of right and left paired bones were developed 

that emphasize shape. These models respond to many of the same attributes 

that make visual pair matching (2) possible and in some cases perform 

equally well. Measurements of length and of girth at numerous positions 

along each bone are utilized. Where length measurements are not available 

(due to fragmentation), models utilizing only girth measurements are 

calculated. These models take the general form, 

D = Σ (ai – bi ) (1) 

where a is the right side bone measurement, i and b is the left side bone 

measurement, i for each of the measurements included in the comparison. 

The null hypothesis of no difference is tested by way of a t test comparing 

the value of D against “0” (no difference) and using the reference data 

standard deviation for D. The authors recommend the 0.05 significance 

level for this test. This method has performed well in test applications, but 

would benefit from a larger reference sample. 

Models for comparison of adjoining bones are calculated using the 

difference in size of adjoining areas as their basis. See Buikstra et.al., 1984, 

for an example of this approach. For example, the innominate and femur 

are compared by subtracting the maximum diameter of the femur head 

(measurement #63 in Moore-Jansen et.al. 1994) from the maximum 

diameter of the acetabulum (1) . The model takes the general form, 

D = ci –dj (2) 

where measurement i of bone c is subtracted from measurement j of bone 

d. The null hypothesis that the two specimens are of an appropriate size to 

have originated in one individual is evaluated with a t test comparing the D 

value obtained from the case specimens to the mean D value calculated 

from the reference data. The 0.05 significance level is recommended. 

Models for comparison of different bone sizes are generally more 

complex in their derivation. After experimenting with numerous 

approaches, Byrd and Adams (4) settled on the following linear combination 

as an acceptable index for bone size. The available measurements on a 

bone are simply summed and the natural logarithm of this sum is the value 

438

used in regression models. Since length measurements typically show the 

highest correlations with one another, models including length measurements 

perform best. The addition of breadths and girth measurements into 

the indices offers a slight, but noticeable improvement in the statistical 

models. A surprising finding is that models utilizing several breadth and 

girth measurements, with no length measurements, perform nearly as well 

in some cases as those including length (4) . This fact has great significance 

when working with highly fragmented assemblages. Error rate for the 

method as a whole, using the 90% prediction interval, has been found in 

one study to be approximately 5%. See Byrd and Adams (4) for a full 

account of this method. 

The application of osteometric sorting in case work at the JPAC CIL 

is currently done in an ad hoc manner, where the appropriate statistical 

models (utilizing measurements available in the case specimens) are calculated 

from the reference data as the need arises. Osteometric comparisons 

of paired bones and adjoining bones are most advantageous when sorting 

large assemblages where it is impractical to make visual comparisons of 

every possible match. Further, this method is superbly suited to computer 

automation. The authors hope to develop an approach whereby all available 

measurement values for the case specimens are entered in advance, and all 

relevant comparison results can be produced as the analysis proceeds, 

without having to generate the statistical models for each comparison as 

separate steps for the anthropologist. As specimens are sorted apart by the 

various methods described in this report, they can be eliminated from consideration 

within the software application. 

References: 

1. Adams BJ, Byrd JE. Interobserver variation of selected postcranial measurements. 

J Forensic Sci 2002; 47(6):1193-1202. 

2. Adams, BJ, Byrd, JE, Resolution of Small-Scale Commingling: A Case 

Report from the Vietnam War. Forensic Sci Int, in press. 

3. Buikstra JE, Gordon CC, and St. Hoyme L. The case of the severed 

skull: individuation in forensic anthropology, in T. A. Rathbun and J. E. 

Buikstra (Eds.). Human Identification: Case Studies in Forensic 

Anthropology, C.C. Thomas, Springfield, 1984. 

4. Byrd JE and Adams BJ. Osteometric sorting of commingled human 

remains. J Forensic Sci 48 (2003) 717-24. 

5. Moore-Jansen PM, Ousley SD, Jantz RL. Data Collection Procedures for 

Forensic Skeletal Material. Report of Investigations no.48. Knoxville: 

University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology; 1994. 

Osteometric Sorting, Commingled Remains, Forensic Identification 

H48 Resolving Commingling Issues In 

Mass Fatality Incident Investigations 

Paul S. Sledzik, MS*, National Transportation Safety Board, 490 

L’Enfant Plaza, SW, Washington, DC 20594; and Elias J. Kontanis, BS, 

Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Joint POW MIA 

Accounting Command-Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester 


Attendees will gain an understanding of the forensic and ethical issues 

pertaining to commingled remains from mass fatality incidents. The 

concept of a triage station in the disaster morgue operation will be presented. 

Additional concerns, such as the decision to identify all remains or 

all victims and the impact of commingling on the notification of identification 

and release of remains to family members, are examined. 


humanity by providing the forensic community an understanding of the 

role of the triage process in managing mass fatality incidents. 

Mass fatality incidents often expose human remains to a variety of 

factors causing fragmentation, thermal modification, and commingling. 

Resolving the complexities of identification and re-association of highly 

fragmented remains recovered from disasters requires not only the use of 

DNA technology but the application of certain management principles in 

morgue operations. Establishing a triage station to sort remains before processing 

by forensic specialists is an effective way to categorize remains 

based on their potential for identification and re-association. This paper 

examines the use of triage in resolving issues of commingling, identification, 

and remains re-association, and explores some issues related to 

next-of-kin considerations. 

Identifying fragmented and commingled human remains from mass 

disasters involves both scientific methods and ethical considerations. The 

role of DNA technology gives forensic scientists powerful tools to identify 

and re-associate remains that would have been previously considered 

unidentifiable. However, the existence of these tools does not argue for 

their exhaustive application. Before the processing of remains, thought 

should be given to whether the focus will be on identifying all the victims 

or on identification of all remains. This decision is based on the degree of 

fragmentation, the family and public expectations, the quality and quantity 

of antemortem information, and the resources available. Complete or 

nearly complete remains (where the ratio of remains to victims is near 1:1) 

demand the identification of all remains because, in this case, it refers effectively 

to all victims. Typically, dental and fingerprint methods are used to 

identify whole remains and the process is completed fairly quickly and at 

relatively low cost. 

In the case of high fragmentation, the number of remains per victim 

increases which influences decisions about the use of the limited resources 

of personnel, time, and funds. At the disaster site, fragmented remains are 

by definition commingled. Only remains connected by anatomical tissues 

are considered a single specimen. Proximity of remains cannot be used as 

a method of re-association; each remain must be examined on their own for 


In the morgue operation, developing and applying a probative index 

system allows triage personnel to systematically classify human remains 

according to their identification potential or investigative value. A categorization 

system relates the number of positive and presumptive identifying 

features to the potential for a DNA, dental, fingerprint, or medical identification. 

The probative index needs to be incident-specific, as factors such 

as availability and accuracy of antemortem information can impact the 

value of data. 

Triage brings an additional benefit for understanding taphonomic 

processes related to the disaster. Because it is the only morgue section 

staffed by a multidisciplinary team, the triage station can be used to observe 

patterns in the types of remains as they relate to search areas. These patterns 

could suggest improper recovery techniques and thus assist in guiding 

search and recovery efforts. Effective triage serves as a communications 

link between search and recovery and the morgue, one that can minimize 

the potential for recovery-induced commingling. In addition, patterns may 

also help elucidate some aspects of incident causation. 

Resolving the biological issues addresses only one part of the overall 

problem commingling represents. Commingling also impacts the family 

members of the victims, particularly in the areas of notification of identification 

and return of remains. Current practice dictates that family members 

of the deceased are allowed to choose when and how often they are 

contacted about the identification of remains. Because the DNA identification 

(and thus the re-association) often takes weeks or months, families 

often choose to be notified of the initial identification and then once again 

at the completion of the identification and re-association process. Families 

rarely choose to be notified each time a specimen is identified. 

In nearly all recent aircraft accidents involving fragmented remains 

there have been remains that are unidentifiable, despite the liberal 

application of DNA technology. Often referred to as common tissue or 

group remains, they represent tissues potentially from all victims. Current 

practice dictates that the family members, as a group, decide upon the final 

disposition of these remains. 

Mass Fatality Incident, Commingling, Human Remains 


H49 Methods and Techniques for Sorting 

Commingled Remains: Anthropological 

and Physical Attributes 


Examiner, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 102, Rockville, MD 21771 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a basic understanding 

of the methods and techniques commonly utilized by the federal 

government for sorting of commingled remains. 


humanity by assisting forensic scientists with the sorting and re-association 

of commingled remains. Methods will be discussed which have been 

utilized for a number of years in a federal capacity which have greatly 

improved the processing of human remains in mass fatalities. 

With reference to personal identification, one of the most difficult 

tasks facing forensic scientists is the sorting of commingled human 

remains. Incidents commonly resulting in commingling of remains include 

explosions, fires, and genocide involving mass burials. Four major factors 

that determine the degree of difficulty in sorting commingled remains 

include 1) the number of deceased involved, 2) the degree of body fragmentation, 

3) the degree of biological diversity among the deceased, and 

4) the survivability of skeletal structures. The difficulty of sorting remains 

increases exponentially with the increase of the number of deceased, and 

the same is true with the increase of body fragmentation. In retrospect the 

greater the biological diversity among the deceased, and increase in the survivability 

of skeletal structures can lessen the complexity of sorting commingled 

remains. 

Separation of commingled remains can be accomplished utilizing a 

combination of anthropological and serological methods. Anthropological 

methods can be broken down to osteological comparisons based on gross 

and metrical osteological analysis, and also by physical comparisons which 

include biological attributes such as hair and epidermal characteristics, evidence 

of scars, tattoos, pathological conditions or prior surgical intervention. 

Serological methods can include ABO blood typing and DNA 

comparisons. 

The first step in dealing with commingled remains is the initial triage 

of the remains. Each body portion/fragment should be carefully examined 

to insure that it represents a single specimen. In many cases, the remains 

examined may initially appear as a single anatomical specimen – however, 

detailed examination can reveal the specimen to be actually composed of 

two or more anatomical structures that are not physically bound to one 

another. One cannot assume that the multiple anatomical specimens are 

from the same individual even though they may have been recovered 

together, or in close proximity to one another. Once a single specimen is 

identified it should be x-rayed as well as photographed. Radiographic 

examination provides a detailed record of what skeletal structures are 

present and can greatly assist in the anthropological assessment of the 

specimen/s. Additionally, radiological examination can help limit the 

amount of soft tissue dissection required for determining what skeletal 

structures are present. If a question about a certain specimen occurs later 

in time, it is much easier to access and examine the radiographic record vs. 

locating and examining the actual specimen. 

Although soft tissue structures are important, it is the skeletal 

structures, which, in many cases, will provide the most meaningful answers 

relating to human identification. Upon documenting the skeletal and soft 

tissue structures present, including size and weight of the specimen an 

anthropological assessment based on gross morphology and/or 

osteometrics should be conducted. Biological assessment should include if 

possible sex, age, race, and stature in the case of intact long bones. Age 

estimates do not necessarily have to be specific, as a specimen can be 

assigned to a general age group such as infant, child, teen, young adult, 

middle age or senior. Other techniques, which can be useful in sorting 

remains, are alternate light sources such as UV lamps. Alternate light 

sources are particularly useful in the sorting of skeletonized remains. 


Skeletal elements, which share commonalities of physical make-up, 

environmental exposure will also share patterns of florescence. Similarity 

in the physical coloration of a skeletal specimen, such as in the case of 

tetracycline labeling which results in a yellow discoloration of the bone is 

also another comparative technique for separating remains. Other physical 

methods of sorting/re-associating skeletal elements include similarity of 

size, muscle marking and foramina patterning, articular surface 

morphology, matching of fracture sites, and articular fit. 

Not only is the task of sorting commingled remains difficult but so are 

the issues concerning the final disposition of remains which cannot be separated 

or identified. Issues involving cultural or religious burial practices, 

family objections to common/group burials, and objections to common 

burial when commingled remains may contain anatomical portions 

belonging to a terrorist/s are problematic. The purpose of this presentation 

is to review the primary methods and techniques utilized by the federal 

government in sorting commingled remains in a number of different 

scenarios. 

Commingling, Identification, Physical Anthropology 

H50 The Importance of Using Traditional 



Laura N. Yazedjian, MSc*, Rifat Kesetovic, MD, Ana Boza-Arlotti, PhD, 

and Zeljko Karan, MD, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia-Herzegovina 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate, using several case 

studies, that even with the use of advanced DNA technology for the 

identification of large numbers of missing persons, traditional methods of 

anthropological analysis are still necessary. 


humanity because it is an illustration that commingling, from whatever 

source, cannot be totally resolved using DNA. Traditional anthropological 

methods are not only more cost-effective, but they allow more complete 

resolution of commingled case, as it is not possible to produce a DNA 

profile for every bone and bone fragment. It is important for the forensic 

community as well as for non-forensic scientists and laypersons to dispel 

the myth that using DNA for identification of individuals is the only step in 


In Bosnia-Herzegovina, the International Commission on Missing 

Persons (ICMP) is using a large-scale DNA-led system to identify approximately 

30,000 individuals who went missing as a result of the conflict in 

the 1990’s. This has led to a misconception, especially among laypersons, 

that a positive DNA match between a set of remains and his or her family 

members constitutes a positive identification of that individual. 

Unfortunately, due to various taphonomic factors, such as scavenging, 

deliberate attempts to hide evidence and poor excavation methods, many of 

these remains are highly commingled. 

Cases that have positive DNA matching reports are examined by 

anthropologists; during anthropological analysis, a complete biological 

profile of the individual is created in a specially designed database. The 

methods commonly used for age determination are the Suchey-Brooks and 

Todd methods for pubic symphysis development, the Iscan-Loth method 

for the sternal rib end, the Lovejoy method for the auricular surface, the 

Lamendin dental method and sternal clavicle, vertebral ring and S1-S2 

unions. The Trotter and Gleser formulae are used for stature determination. 

The pathologist then uses this report during antemortem-postmortem comparison, 

in association with other information such as clothing and personal 

effects, to reach an identification. 

Case 1: A partially complete body from a secondary mass grave near 

Srebrenica, missing the lower left arm, lower left leg and right femur, and 

a few other fragments. The age-at-death estimation was 45-55 years; 

however, the chronological age of the individual represented by the DNA 

440

was 23. The femur, which had been sampled, appeared consistent with the 

rest of the skeleton, and the articulation of the femoral head with the 

acetabulum was not inconsistent. A second DNA sample was taken, from 

the left humerus, confirming that two individuals were present. 

Case 2: A virtually complete body from the same secondary mass 

grave, missing several fragments, including most of the right os coxae. The 

DNA report on the right femur was for an individual in his early 20s; 

however, most of the remains belonged to an individual over 60 years old. 

The results of the second DNA test are pending. 

Case 3: A DNA report for a male individual was issued for a partially 

complete female body. Only the femur which had been sampled belonged 

to the identified individual with the rest of the skeleton representing a very 

robust female. 

Case 4: Two virtually complete individuals were collected from the 

field in one body bag. Both were almost the same stature, but one was 

slightly more robust and one individual was in his early 20s and the other 

in his mid-30s. Using pair-matching and articulations to separate the 

uppers and lowers into two individuals, and using the ages to distinguish 

the skulls, vertebrae and ribs meant only two DNA samples had to be taken 

from each, one from a femur and one from a humerus, to ensure they were 

correctly separated. 

Examination of the remains and the creation of a biological profile 

ensure that the remains present belong to only one individual and that the 

remains are consistent with the individual represented by the DNA 

matching report. This not only helps to return the correct and most complete 

remains to family members, it also reduces the number of bone 

samples that need to be cut to test for DNA. 

Forensic Anthropology, DNA Identification, Bosnia-Herzegovina 

H51 The Importance of Body Deposition 

Recording in Event Reconstruction 

and the Re-Association and Identification 

of Commingled Remains 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


96853-5530; Ute Hofmeister, MA, International Commission on Missing 

Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina; and 

Sharna Daley, MSc, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 


proper mass grave excavation and recording techniques can assist in the 

re-association and identification of remains. 

Proper mass grave excavation techniques are not ideas that should be 

lightly tossed aside when time and money constraints are considered. This 


demonstrating how such techniques have direct influences on mortuary 

analysis and the identification process and so should be considered just as 

an important part of the process as laboratory work. 

Dumping of bodies in a mass grave usually happens in stages where 

several loads of bodies are deposited one after the other. Careful excavation 

and recording of these separate deposits and their contents can assist 

in the understanding of the grave formation process. The past activity that 

created the grave is thus better understood. Physical evidence recovered 

and recorded from the grave can then be used to corroborate witness statements. 

In addition to assisting criminal investigations, recording of body 

deposits can directly help in the re-association of disarticulated body parts 

to their bodies and in identification process as a whole. 

Bodies buried within mass graves have usually been subjected to 

massive trauma both from the wounds that lead to the death and often from 

the burial activity usually carried out by heavy machinery. Trauma caused 

by the digging activities of heavy machinery is especially noted in 

secondary graves where remains have been dug up from their first resting 

place and reburied with the intention of concealing them in a better or more 

secure location. In addition, the regular taphonomic conditions within the 

grave, particularly older ones where the remains have had longer exposure, 

will have taken their toll on the remains. As a result remains are often 

recovered with parts missing. 

The re-association of hundreds of disarticulated body parts from a 

large mass grave is a complex and time-consuming process. However, the 

identification and recording of deposits within the grave and the human 

remains within a particular deposit can help lessen the burden of the anthropologist 

in the mortuary by first limiting search parameters. Instead of 

trying to match a particular body part to all the bodies missing that part 

within the entire grave, the search can first be limited to just those elements 

within the same deposit. The assumption here is that those disarticulated 

remains within a deposit are most likely to belong to bodies or other body 

parts within the same deposit. Searching elements by deposit instead of 

grave could be particularly helpful in mortuaries with limited space to 

layout all the body parts and bodies missing parts from the whole grave. 

Recording of deposits may also assist in identifying bodies that have 

resisted DNA analysis and traditional mortuary identification methods. It 

can be assumed that vehicles used to transport the bodies were loaded at or 

near the location where the people were killed and/or buried. If a number 

of bodies from a specific deposit are positively identified then, through 

those identifications, it may be learned where those bodies generally originated. 

Often this origin will often be the location near where the people 

lived or were last seen. It is very probable that the unidentified bodies 

within that same deposit originated from the same area; that those unidentified 

bodies were loaded up on the vehicles at the same time and place as 

those that have been identified. Thus, it would be prudent to inquire as to 

who may still be missing from that point of origin. Additional blood and 

antemortem data could be collected from the surviving family members, 

friends and neighbors in that location. In essence this gives a direction 

from where next to search for information (or collect blood) regarding the 

remaining unidentified. 

This presentation will outline the process of identification of deposits 

within mass graves and demonstrate some examples of re-association of 

body parts within deposits, and the potential of locating the area of origin 

of unidentified bodies from mass graves containing the remains of Kosovar 

Albanians killed in 1999. 

Mass Grave, Forensic Archaeology, Commingling 

H52 Commingled Skeletonized Remains in 



Sofia Egaña*, Silvana Turner, Patricia Bernardi, Mercedes Doretti, and 

Miguel Nieva, Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), Avenue 

Rivadavia 2443, 2nd Floor, Office 3-4, Buenos Aires, C1034ACD, 

Argentina 


the considerations on the application of standard forensic anthropology 

procedures to investigations of human rights violations involving the 

commingling issues of skeletonized remains. 


humanity by contributing to the discussion, development, and dissemination 

of the best forensic anthropological practices for the treatment of 

commingled skeletonized remains in the investigation of human rights 

violations. 

Based on the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team’s (EAAF) 

experience in forensic investigation, the scope and limitations related to 

recovery procedures, osteological analysis, and use of historical documentation 

with skeletonized commingled remains will be addressed. 

In forensic cases, the methodological treatment of commingled 

skeletonized remains presents specific challenges that need to be discussed 


in order to reach a consensus on the best guidelines for their anthropological 

treatment. These guidelines should fall within the framework of 

general forensic principles. The cases evaluated were carried out in the 

context of forensic investigation of human rights violations in Argentina 

and El Salvador which presented different conditions for the burial and 

recovery of human remains. The cases in which the remains were 

recovered by personnel without training in forensic techniques are 

differentiated from those in which the EAAF participated in the 

exhumation and analysis. 

In both cases, the impact of the recovery procedure is considered to be 

particularly relevant. In addition, the burial context in both cases was 

different: in one case from Argentina there were mostly single burials in 

cemeteries; in the second case from El Salvador, there were partially or 

completely disarticulated remains which were buried after having been 

exposed on the surface for several weeks. 

In the case from Argentina, several exhumations were ordered by the 

Federal Tribunals at the beginning of 1984 after the return to a democratic 

government. Because the exhumations and analyses were conducted by 

personnel without training in forensic anthropological and archaeological 

techniques in the early cases, there was minimal possibility of identifying 

the remains and contributing substantive information to the judicial 

investigation. The majority of these exhumations took place in the 

Province of Buenos Aires, and most of the remains were sent to the Medical 

Legal Institute of the La Plata Department of Justice (Asesoría Pericial). In 

addition, inadequate storage conditions led to the loss of reference labels, 

the jumbling of remains, and the damage and loss of bones, thus making 

their analysis even more difficult. 

At the same time, the historical background research that EAAF 

carried out in Argentina led to the presumption of the identity of missing 

persons whose remains could be found among the Asesoría Pericial cases, 

making their analysis an increasingly pressing issue. Finally, at the end of 

2002, a judicial order enabled EAAF to retrieve 91 containers with skeletal 

material, clothing, ballistic evidence, documents, and labels with partially 

legible references for analysis. Because they were exhumed in an unscientific 

manner, these skeletal remains and the associated evidence, which 

originally came from single graves of articulated individual found in 

cemeteries, were commingled when EAAF retrieved them twenty years 

later. 

In the case from El Salvador, commingled skeletal remains in different 

degrees of articulation were exhumed from graves after having been 

exposed to natural elements on the surface during different periods of time. 

This case reflects the EAAF’s experience in the investigation at El Mozote, 

the largest massacre in El Salvador’s 12-year civil war. In December 1981 

the Salvadorian armed forces conducted a large-scale operation in the 

northeastern region of the country, during which they allegedly massacred 

approximately 800 civilians in six neighboring villages. Over 40% of the 

victims were children under ten years of age. Most of the victims’ bodies 

were buried in clandestine graves or left where they had been killed. 

Because the troops returned to their temporary camp each night, the 

surviving residents of the other villages were able to sneak into the 

massacre sites after dark to inter as many of the victims as they could in 

common graves. For a variety of reasons, however, they could not bury 

many of the victims, whose bodies remained where they had been killed. 

After remaining on the surface for more than three weeks, these remains 

were eventually interred by the villagers. 

Based on the experiences in these two cases, the goal of this 

presentation is to present the scope and limitations related to the recovery 

procedures, osteological analysis, and use of historical documental sources 

with skeletonized commingled remains. 

Forensic Anthropology, Commingled Remains, Methodological 

Procedures 


H53 Exhumation and Identification of a 

Particular Individual in a Mass Grave 

Eugénia Cunha, PhD*, Maria Cristina Mendonça, PhD, and Duarte 

Nuno Vieira, PhD, Universidade de Coimbra, Departamento 

Antropologia, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Largo da Sé-Nova, 

Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal 


importance of the recovery of remains and the collection of antemortem 

data on victims for the purpose of individualizing commingled remains for 



humanity by providing knowledge of the forensic anthropology work 

performed in Portugal and the need for interdisciplinary teams to deal with 

the type of mass graves found there. 

In June 2003, the authors were sent to East Timor to exhume the 

remains of a former member of the Portuguese military force who was 

executed along with 25 other prisoners during the invasion of the territory 

by Indonesia, in 1975. Portuguese authorities sponsored a mission to 

recover the remains of the military individual in order to deliver them to his 

family in Portugal. The bodies had been buried in a mass grave in 

Asirimou, a location in the mountains, about 45 Km from Dili. The excavation 

took place over three days. This presentation will discuss some of 

the major difficulties involved in the complex field work, including: 1) the 

individualization of the target individual from among the remains of at least 

16 other individuals, 2) a hostile taphonomic environment, and 3) disarticulated 

and commingled skeletonized remains with a majority of the clothes 

preserved. 

The relative position of the individual in the pit was a major contributor 

to the poor preservation of the remains. It is also possible that the 

grave may have been disturbed at some point. During the extraction of the 

individual involved, it was necessary to manipulate several of the adjacent 

sets of human remains. The process of identification was carried out 

mainly on the basis of sociocultural affiliation, individualizing traits, and 

personal belongings. Contextual information and associated artifacts were 

crucial to the identification. The previously collected antemortem data on 

the victim was paramount to the resolution of this difficult case, as a 

reliable assignment of the disarticulated, commingled and fragmented 

bones to the victim was particularly challenging. 

Personal Identification, Mass Graves, Exhumation 

H54 Separating Commingled Remains 

Using Ancient DNA Analysis 

Franklin E. Damann, MA*, and Mark D. Leney, PhD, JPAC Central 


96853-5530; and Suni M. Edson, MS, Armed Forces DNA Identification 

Laboratory, 1413 Research Boulevard, Building 101, Rockville, 

MD 20850 

Attendees will learn strategies and capabilities of using DNA testing 

in conjunction with other lines of evidence to resolve commingled skeletal 

remains. 


humanity by providing an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages 

of mtDNA analysis, and its benefits to forensic anthropology. When 

used in conjunction with other lines of evidence, mtDNA sequencing 

strengthens a case for postmortem identification and facilitates the 

segregation of commingled remains. 

This presentation combines the analysis of ancient DNA with other 

lines of evidence to achieve segregation of commingled skeletal remains. 

The authors examine strategies and capabilities of using DNA testing to 

resolve commingling, including advantages and shortcomings of 

442

conventional mitochondrial (mtDNA) analysis, recent advances in mtDNA 

technology mitigating the common-sequence problem, prospects for other 

types of DNA testing, and summarize expectations of likely success or 

failure in testing ancient remains. These issues are addressed through a 

case study from the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification Laboratory (JPAC CIL) where mtDNA was used to augment 

and test osteological and osteometric techniques for the segregation of 

commingled remains. 

During a 1942 combat mission over Kiska Island, a United States 

Navy PBY-5 aircraft was lost. In August 1943 the U.S. regained control of 

Kiska; the remains of the seven crewmembers were recovered and buried 

in a common plot near the crash site. In 2001 a wildlife biologist on Kiska 

discovered aircraft wreckage, including a data plate inscribed with the 

number 04511 and a bone. The number correlated to the lost PBY-5. 

Armed with this new information, a JPAC CIL Search and Recovery team 

located and recovered human remains. 

Laboratory analysis of the remains indicated a skeletal MNI of seven. 

An initial sorting hypothesis utilizing pair matching, osteometric analysis, 

articulation, and taphonomic indicators identified seven clusters of partial 

upper and lower bodies, leaving several duplicated elements not associable 

to an individual. 

Elements from each skeletal cluster and the unassociated elements 

were sampled for mtDNA analysis. Sample selection was guided by MNI 

and preservation. Twenty-nine samples were taken from skeletal and 

dental elements. DNA test results were used to associate and segregate 

remains, confirming and challenging initial sorting hypotheses, and 

ultimately strengthening postmortem identification by adding an additional 

line of evidence. 

DNA analyses confirmed the presence of seven individuals by identifying 

seven different mtDNA sequences. However, formal differentiation 

of sequences requires a minimum of two polymorphic differences. In this 

case, two sequences could not be excluded from one another because of 

sequence similarities and additional sequencing outside the standard hypervariable 

region was required. Recently developed mtDNA SNP assays 

offer additional means to discriminate individuals with shared haplotypes. 

Any sequence consistency between evidence samples and staff 

requires added procedures to identify potential contamination. Sequences 

derived from skeletal elements in this case were consistent with the 

mtDNA sequence of a JPAC CIL external consultant. A review of evidence 

management records showed the evidence had not been exposed to the 

consultant, thus excluding him as a potential contaminator. Multiple 

evidence samples consistent with a staff sequence typically indicate a 

shared type, not contamination. 

Locating reference samples for casualties can be a lengthy process. 

Genealogists are frequently contracted to locate a maternal relative. In this 

case, no references were available; however, a unique resolution to this 

problem is proposed. Six of seven individuals are linked to dental 

elements. DNA samples from these teeth serve as internal references, 

associating postcranial remains. Using internal references works here only 

because the individuals form a closed population. Through exclusion, the 

seventh sequence must represent the seventh individual. 

MtDNA is not unique to an individual, which can complicate 

segregation of commingled remains; however, new techniques are 

increasing individuation power. Points to consider when applying mtDNA 

analysis to commingled remains include population parameters (i.e., case 

background), skeletal MNI, and efficient sampling strategy. Understanding 

advantages and disadvantages of mtDNA analysis adds value to forensic 

anthropology. When used in conjunction with other lines of evidence, 

mtDNA sequencing strengthens a case for postmortem identification and 

facilitates the segregation of commingled remains. 

Commingled Remains, Ancient DNA, Forensic Anthropology 

H55 Marrying of Anthropology and DNA: 

Essential for Solving Complex Commingling 

Problems in Cases of Extreme Fragmentation 

Amy Z. Mundorff, MA*, Robert Shaler, PhD, Erik T. Bieschke, MS, and 

Elaine Mar, MS, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New 


The goal of this presentation is to describe how a combined effort of 

anthropologists and DNA scientists is essential to sorting out undetected 

commingling in cases of extreme fragmentation from mass disasters. 


humanity by providing useful tools to be used in large-scale identification 

efforts from mass disaster situations. This has been one of the largest 

identification efforts, and many lessons have been learned. It is important 

to disseminate this information for future use. 

On September 11th 2001, American Airlines Flight 11 and United 

Airlines Flight 173 crashed into the twin World Trade Center towers and 

initiated a sequence of events that eventually felled both towers and five 

other commercial buildings, murdering 2749 individuals, of which 1565 

have been identified to date. The rescue and the subsequent recovery lasted 

until May 2002, but the identification of the almost 20,000 fragments of 

human remains is on going with no end in sight. The World Trade Center 

work is the largest forensic identification effort in U.S. history and the 

problems have been magnified by the extreme fragmentation and commingling 

of the human remains. 

Massive fragmentation of the victims and extensive commingling of 

the bodies characterized the World Trade Center disaster. The commingling 

had several contributing factors: two airplane crashes causing 

multiple building collapses where people died together, long recovery time, 

extensive watering from fire management, decomposition, the recovery 

techniques requiring large mechanical equipment, and attempted 

reconstruction of remains at the site by untrained personnel. 

The DNA scientists did not initially believe commingling was a 

problem as long as it could be identified and the appropriate pieces could 

be separated. However, the DNA scientists were not in a position to see 

when duplicate pieces, such as two right feet, had identical DNA profiles. 

This is a problem that can have many origins: poor sampling techniques 

during the autopsy, tissue commingling within the remains, DNA contamination 

in the laboratory, and simple transcription errors. 

This made commingling one of the most confounding problems 

encountered during the identification process. Initially, this was thought to 

be easily identified when tissue and bone samples ostensibly from the same 

case were giving different DNA profiles in the laboratory. However, in one 

case, a requested review of the remains uncovered the top and bottom 

portions of a torso did not actually articulate with each other indicating 

possibly two different individuals. The imminent release of the torso identified 

by DNA, to a single family, created concern about the accuracy of the 

identification. DNA typing of only one of the torso pieces tested identified 

the appropriate family. The other torso fragment, however, did not have a 

DNA test. Subsequent DNA testing after re-sampling confirmed the 

anthropologist’s suspicions. This case initiated a new protocol where a 

‘final anthropological review’ of all remains was necessary before the 

confirmation of every identification and subsequent release to the families. 

After any identification is made, regardless of the scientific modality, 

an anthropologist does a visual inspection of the remains to confirm the 

level of detail recorded in its file as well as its congruity to the previously 

identified fragments of that individual. Often times, many fragments have 

been identified to one person. To date, the most fragments identified to one 

person are 209. Information such as the sex and age of the identified victim 

is considered, as well as a detailed review of all of the other fragments 

previously identified to that victim. Because the identification efforts have 

lasted so long, multiple fragments of remains have been identified to a 

single person years apart. These previously identified remains often have 

already been released to funeral homes. It has been through this final 


eview process, that the majority of commingling and contamination 

mistakes have been identified and corrected. This paper will describe in 

detail how this task was accomplished. 

Marrying both sciences, the authors discovered that the synergy of the 

two disciplines was necessary to ensure that commingling was found. 

Using World Trade Center examples of each of the different mechanisms 

of commingling, this paper will demonstrate how to identify that a problem 

exists and trace back to its root and from this information, solve the 

problem and put procedures in place so they can be recognized or avoided 


Commingling, Identification, Mass Disaster 

H56 Mass Graves, Human Rights and 

Commingled Remains: Considering 

the Benefits of Forensic Archaeology 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Luis M. Cabo, MS, and James M. 

Adovasio, PhD, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, Erie, PA 

16546; Vicente C. Rozas, PhD, Centro de Investigaciones Forestales y 

Ambientales de Lourizán, Departamento de Ecología, Aptdo. 127, 

Pontevedra, Galicia 36080, Spain 

The goal of this presentation is to consider the primary role of archaeological 

recovery methods in the excavation of mass graves and eventual 

prosecutorial efforts. 


humanity by reevaluating the immediate and long range goals of mass 

grave recovery in human rights cases, and the implementation of comprehensive 

forensic archaeological methodologies 

The widespread investigation of human rights violations and abuse in 

many areas of the world during the past few decades has attracted a 

renewed interest to the recovery and investigation of human remains from 

multiple victim burial features (i.e. “mass graves”). Understandably, focus 

has been placed on personal identification issues and efforts to return the 

remains of victims to their families as soon as possible. However, as noted 

by Rothenberg (2002), the number of perpetrators that have faced 

prosecution is far below the number of episodes of gross human rights violations 

and abuses documented during this period, even when just considering 

the cases of extraordinary brutality. This situation stands in stark contrast 

with the strict juridical definition of the human rights concept, 

including the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals 

for acts violating the fundamental rights of any individual (Article 

8 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN General Assembly 

resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948). 

The corollary of these considerations is that any investigation of 

human rights violations or abuses must be conducted in such a way as to 

allow for effective presentation of the case in a court of law. Failure to do 

so, or any destruction or negligent recovery of significant evidence will, in 

fact, result in a new violation of basic human rights. 

With respect to the recovery of multiple-victim burial features (“mass 

graves”) in human rights cases and eventual successful prosecutorial 

efforts, the proper documentation of contextual data through formal 

forensic archaeological protocols, standardized to allow for inter-site comparison, 

is especially critical in attempts to sort out specific depositional 

episodes, sequences of body deposition, and understanding associations 

between physical evidence, including human remains, even in complex 

commingling situations. 

Mass grave features may appear, at first glance, to represent very 

unique and recent scientific situations, requiring special techniques and 

methodologies; however, professional archaeologists have been excavating 

and analyzing these rather complex features for many years. Precedent in 

recovery techniques and methodologies can be found, therefore, in the field 

of contemporary archaeology. 


In this presentation, a prehistoric Native American ossuary feature, 

containing the remains of over 160 individuals, will serve as a conceptual 

model of how the implementation of appropriate contemporary archaeological 

methods, especially, comprehensive mapping protocols, can address 

multiple issues related to the commingling of human remains and 

depositional events within the burial feature itself; methods and analyses 

that are directly applicable to modern forensic settings, including mass 

graves in human rights cases. 

As a result of the rigorous, comprehensive and standardized collection 

of contextual data, it is possible to identify and interpret the effects of a 

broader range of taphonomic agents and depositional sequences, leading to 

a much better reconstruction of past events (especially, with respect to 

human behavior), including, possibly, determinations of individual body 

placement sequences and the ability to more precisely define associations 

between artifacts/physical evidence. In addition, with the embellishment of 

contextual data, more sophisticated statistical analyses can be brought to 

bear on relevant issues such as commingling patterns. 

Regarding the Orton Quarry ossuary site, the marked commingling of 

remains within the burial feature led to preliminary observations that the 

cranial elements were clustered in one area of the ossuary, while the postcranial 

elements exhibited no recognizable pattern of spatial distribution 

(with respect to original anatomical articulation). Indications were that 

very few skeletal elements, if any, were articulated (i.e., no tissue remained 

on the bones, or processing of fresher remains resulted in disarticulation of 

all elements) at the time of deposition in the burial feature. In order to test 

this observation scientifically, a sequential battery of statistical tests was 

designed, based on formal hypotheses of spatial distribution patterns of 

skeletal elements. 

In this case, the bivariate Ripley’s K function K12 (t) was used to study 

the interaction of multiple series of points (proximal and distal locations of 

long bones) distributed on a plane. This method is more informative than 

its equivalent parametrical counterparts, such as nearest-neighbor analyses, 

as it provides information not only on the presence and type of spatial 

association, but also on its intensity and scale (range). 

Results indicate that, in fact, at least some of the individuals or 

anatomical units were placed in the Orton Quarry burial feature in an articulated 

state. Further, these findings suggest that spatial proximity of 

anatomical units (such as proximal tibia/distal femur) can be used 

effectively as a valid criterion for selecting potential matches of bones from 

the same individual. 

The implications for addressing issues of commingling within mass 

graves in human rights cases are clear. Although most attempts to 

determine which bone belonged to which individual rely almost 

exclusively on skeletal features such as size, chronological age, sex, 

idiosyncratic variation, or even taphonomic modification of elements, 

significant stream-lining of the process can be accomplished through the 

careful recovery of contextual information during the recovery phase of the 

project. 

Finally, if these investigations are to be considered “forensic” in 

nature, and if they follow the original intent of human rights legislation, the 

goal should not be confined to the identification of the victims. Forensic 

evidence takes the form of not only the biological remains of humans 

interred in the burial feature, but the contextual relationship of all associated 

evidence, such as personal effects, weapons, trace evidence; as well 

as, environmental evidence, such as stratigraphic data, faunal, botanical, 

and geological evidence (soils types, water movement through deposits, 

etc.). The collection and ultimately, the interpretation of this collage of 

evidence permits investigators to not only identify the victims but to 

provide a comprehensive, testable hypothesis of events surrounding the 

burial episode. 

Mass Graves Excavation, Context, Prosecution Consideration 

444

H57 Advances in the Assessment of Commingling 

Within Samples of Human Remains 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, Department of 

Anthropology, NMNH, MRC 112, Washington, DC 20560 

Attendees will gain an understanding of the issues involved in the 

assessment of commingling in the analysis of human remains. 


humanity by offering an overview to the symposium on commingling 

being organized by others. It will synthesize concepts and issues presented 

by others in the symposium as well as present the authors’ own views on 

the methodology and logic of such analysis. 

This presentation provides an overview of approaches to the study of 

commingling in the analysis of human remains and discusses the potential 

for new research. 

Forensic anthropological analysis of human remains routinely 

includes assessment of commingling. Such evaluation is a component of 

the study of apparent single individuals to assure that remains of others are 

not included. Commingling analysis is especially important in complex 

assemblages of multiple individuals and in cases of extreme fragmentation. 

Inventory represents an important first step in commingling analysis. 

Careful inventory can immediately yield evidence of multiple individuals 

in the form of duplicated bones. Inventory of bone type (including side) 

can be supplemented with information on age at death, sex, bone size, and 

robusticity, other aspects of bone morphology and patterns of articulation. 

Specialized techniques that have been used to further commingling 

analysis include ultraviolet light analysis, radiography, serological study, 

neutron activation, bone weight, trace element analysis, molecular analysis, 

and bone density study. 

If evidence of multiple individuals is detected, it is important to 

establish the minimum number of individuals represented. This number 

can be generated through combinations of the procedures summarized 

above but may under-represent the actual number of individuals present. 

Additional research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of the 

varied approaches to commingling analysis, in consideration of human 

variation and the complex taphonomic factors that frequently are involved 

in the preservation of human remains in forensic contexts. 

Commingling, Human Remains, Forensic Anthropology 

H58 Closed Case Files: Sequelae of a Case 

of Complex Postmortem Mutilation 

Kerriann Marden, MA*, and John W. Verano, PhD, Tulane University, 

Department of Anthropology, 1021 Audubon Street, New Orleans, 

LA 70118 


potential usefulness of anthropological analysis in the reconstruction of a 

complex postmortem mutilation. 


humanity by presenting a detailed case study of a complex dismemberment 

which underscores the utility of anthropological analysis in the 

corroboration of documented details of a crime. 

This poster describes the follow-up to a serial murder case that is 

being presented as a paper at these meetings (Dr. John Verano, Tulane 

University), in which the perpetrator and his accomplice strangled, 

dismembered, and dispersed the parts of three women. Whereas Dr. Verano 

has amply covered the details contributing to the resolution of the case, this 

poster details the follow-up examination of the torso of one of the victims 

as a case study in complex postmortem treatment involving dismemberment 

and extensive fragmentation. This case is unique in that the 

accomplice has provided law enforcement personnel with a detailed 

confession chronicling the murders and their aftermath, against which the 

accuracy of the anthropological analysis could be tested. 

The perpetrator had intentionally disfigured and dismembered the 

victim after her murder, in an effort to both dispose of the body and to 

prevent her identification in the event that the parts were discovered. 

Working on information provided by the accomplice in the murders, the 

Jefferson Parish Sheriff’s Office recovered a severed Caucasian female 

head from a St. Charles Parish swamp. Separately, New Orleans Police 

recovered the partially decomposed torso of a Caucasian female in the New 

Orleans area in January 2002. Because the torso bore characteristics 

similar to open dismemberment cases in Jefferson Parish, the N.O.P.D. 

transferred the torso to the Jefferson Parish Coroner’s Office for autopsy 

and analysis. The torso was recovered in a state of moderate decomposition, 

and was comprised of the thorax from cervical to lumbar vertebrae 

with the right shoulder and arm attached, but the fingers removed. The 

other appendages, pelvis and sacrum were never recovered, although the 

head collected by J.P.S.O. from a separate context was suspected to be from 

the same victim. Relevant portions of the skeleton were removed for 

anthropological analysis by Dr. John Verano of Tulane University, and the 

remainder of the torso was stored in the morgue freezer at the Jefferson 

Parish Forensic Center. The head was ultimately determined to be from the 

same individual and a positive identification was made. Due to the preponderance 

of evidence, both perpetrators eventually plead guilty in the case. 

After adjudication and before interment of the victim’s remains, the 

torso was also analyzed to examine the extent of the perpetrators’ efforts to 

conceal the body. The bulk of decomposed tissue was first removed 

mechanically by gentle manipulation with wooden tools by the death investigator 

in the case, Bill Donovan of the Jefferson Parish Coroner’s Office, 

and the presenting author. The bones were then macerated and degreased 

using a non-bleaching method (1). Due to extensive fragmentation, some 

adherent soft tissue was left surrounding shattered elements, which were 

wrapped individually in cheesecloth during the process to retain all fragments. 

Subsequent to removal of soft tissue, the skeletal elements were 

refitted and analyzed by the presenting author to determine the type and 

sequence of damage, which included various forms of cut marks and 

extensive fragmentation. Anthropological analysis revealed significant 

fracturing and cutting consistent with both the observed damage to the head 

of the same victim and with certain damage to the remains of the successive 

victims. An unusual tool mark on the clavicle was also consistent with distinctive 

tool marks observed on the head. 

The tool marks and degree of destruction observed in anthropological 

analysis were then compared with the tools used by the perpetrators, which 

were collected from a local bayou by law enforcement agents based on a 

statement from one of the perpetrators. The cause and sequence of damage 

surmised by the anthropologist was also compared with the actions of the 

perpetrator and his accomplice, as gleaned from extensive taped confessions 

made to law enforcement officers. Comparison with documented 

details of the case supported the anthropological analysis, stressing the 

effectiveness of anthropological analysis in reconstructing complex postmortem 

treatment. 

References: 

1. Fenton TW, Birkby WH and Cornelison J. A fast and safe non-bleaching 

method for forensic skeletal preparation. 

J Forensic Sci 2003; 48(1): 274-476. 

Dismemberment, Reconstruction, Forensic Anthropology 


H59 A Tale of Two Bodies: Separating 

Commingled Skeletal Remains With 

Similar Biological Profiles 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, 701 West Jefferson, 

Phoenix, AZ 85007; Kristen M. Hartnett, MA, Arizona State University, 

Department of Anthropology, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287; and 

Philip E. Keen, MD, Maricopa County Office of the Medical Examiner, 

701 West Jefferson Street, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

After attending this presentation, attendees will gain insight into how 

separation of two biologically similar commingled individuals can be 

achieved through meticulous examination, anatomical congruencies and 

differential weathering patterns. 


humanity by presenting two individuals recovered from a remote desert 

area. At the time of recovery, the skeletal remains were commingled and 

spread across a square mile. Careful examination of the condition of the 

remains, anatomical congruencies and radiographic analysis allowed the 

authors to successfully separate the remains and achieve positive identification 

on one individual. These results allow the investigators to more 

aggressively investigate the circumstances surrounding the deaths and the 

families to bury their loved ones. 

Commingling of skeletal remains often confounds investigators 

attempting to discover the identity of unknown individuals. A recent case 

in Arizona highlights the difficulties with commingled remains and offers 

an example of how radiographs, condition of the remains and anatomical 

congruencies can assist in the separation of individuals in these types of 

cases. 

On June 1, 2004, Sheriff’s deputies from Maricopa County, Arizona 

convened in a remote desert area to recover skeletal remains allegedly 

discovered by a camper. The first author accompanied the detectives in 

order to assist with the recovery. Initial survey of the scene indicated that 

the skeletal remains represented at least two individuals. The anthropologist 

was able to quickly confirm these findings. Clothing and other artifacts 

from two individuals were also located during the search. The 

remains were documented according to standard scene processing 

protocols. The skeletal elements and clothing were bagged and transported 

to the Maricopa County Forensic Science Center for examination by the 

pathologist and anthropologist. 

The skeletal remains were incomplete and had suffered from 

carnivore predation. In addition, one of the initial findings at the autopsy 

was that these two individuals were both males, very similar in age and 

height and had little to distinguish them from one another. However, the 

two skeletons had responded to the environment in very different ways, 

allowing a preliminary division that could then be verified by more scientific 

means. The coloration, degree of adherent tissue and overall texture 

and quality of bone was very different between the two men. The first 

author performed the initial partition and then the second author confirmed 

her findings. 

After the separation, anatomical congruencies between the recovered 

elements were evaluated. These confirmed the findings based strictly on 

observed differences. At the end of this procedure, there were two 

phalanges, a fibula shaft and miscellaneous bone fragments that could not 

be assigned to either decedent. 

Anthropological assessment based on sternal rib ends, pubic symphysis 

and epiphyseal closure revealed that the men were in their twenties 

at the time of death. Long bone lengths produced living stature estimates 

of 5 foot 10 inches and 5 foot 8 inches respectively. Ancestry could not be 

accurately assessed due to incomplete recovery. One of the males had 

bilateral septal apertures of the humeri, a non-metric trait with a frequency 

of between 4 and 13% based on assessment of known human skeletal 

series. The other male had a more robust skeletal structure, with heavier 

elements and more developed muscle attachment sites. 

At the time of the autopsy, the case agent had delivered radiographs of 

a male missing from the area. The radiographs contained images of the 


thorax, abdomen and right arm. Comparison of the right arm in the antemortem 

radiographs to the anatomy of the recovered right arm from one of 

the skeletal remains revealed morphological similarities that supported a 

positive identification. The right arm in the antemortem and postmortem 

radiographs exhibited a large sternal aperture in the olecranon fossa of the 

humerus. Given the low frequency of this non-metric trait in human 

skeletal series, as well as its proclivity to manifest more often in females 

and on the left side, this supported the ten other morphological similarities 

identified between the films. Further investigation by the sheriff’s office 

revealed that this man had gone missing with his close friend and neither 

had been seen for several months. These findings were in concordance with 

the condition of the remains. 

This poster presents two individuals recovered from a remote desert 

area. At the time of recovery, the skeletal remains were commingled and 

spread across a square mile. Careful examination of the condition of the 

remains, anatomical congruencies and radiographic analysis allowed the 

authors to successfully separate the remains and achieve positive identification 

on one individual. These results allow the investigators to more 

aggressively investigate the circumstances surrounding the deaths and the 

families to bury their loved ones. 

Skeletal Remains, Commingling, Radiographic Comparison 

H60 Performance of FORDISC 2.0 

Using Inaccurate Measurements 

Adam Kolatorowicz, BS*, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, and Stephen P. 

Nawrocki, PhD, Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, University of 

Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227 


community the necessity of proper training in the collection of 

metric data for use in discriminant function analysis. 


humanity by showing the sensitivity of discriminant function analysis to 

measurement errors. These results demonstrate the necessity of receiving 

proper training in the collection of metric data as well as the need to check 

instrumentation used to collect metric data. It is suggested that only 

individuals who have received a substantial amount of training should be 

using FORDISC 2.0 in a professional arena. 

Once decomposition has progressed beyond the point of recognizing 

the soft tissue indicators of an individual’s sex and ancestry (“racial” 

affiliation), it becomes the job of the forensic anthropologist to make these 

determinations. The determination of sex and ancestry are part of the 

biological profile that the anthropologist constructs during a skeletal 

analysis. The anthropologist uses both non-metric and metric analyses to 

determine these characteristics. However, the determination of ancestry is 

not always a clear or simple task. In recent years the use of metric analysis 

has become more prominent due to the advancement of computers and use 

of statistical software. FORDISC 2.0, distributed by the University of 

Tennessee at Knoxville, is a program that facilitates the collection and use 

of metric data in discriminant function analysis to determine sex and 

ancestry from the skeleton. The program was developed using the Forensic 

Data Bank, which is an electronic accumulation of data from modern 

forensic cases from around North America. The use of FORDISC 2.0 is 

prevalent in the field of forensic anthropology and at times it may be used 

by individuals having only a cursory knowledge of measurement techniques 

and morphometrics. This poster will examine the outcome of poor 

data input into FORDISC 2.0 to determine how well the program performs 

with inaccurate data. 

The 24 standard FORDISC 2.0 cranial measurements were taken on 

four carefully-selected crania that had been positively identified or had 

enough soft tissues at autopsy to make a determination of sex and ancestry. 

The measurements were entered into the program to classify each specimen 

using the “White” male, “White” female, “Black” male, and “Black” 

446

female reference groups. Two of the specimens were chosen because they 

were classified as strongly belonging to one of the reference groups, while 

the others were weakly classified. The measurements with the highest 

relative weights in the discriminant functions were then selected and 

manipulated by the addition and subtraction of 1 to 5 mm from the original 

measurement, and the changes in probabilities and classification were 

recorded. Measurements were changed all at once and in isolation. Results 

demonstrate that individuals who are classified strongly into a reference 

group remain strongly classified in that same group even with significantly 

altered measurements. Individuals with a weak classification into a 

reference group can be subject to a significant change by the addition or 

subtraction of even as little as 1 mm to a single measurement. It is 

generally accepted that interobserver error among trained individuals can 

reach 2 to 3 mm. Depending on the measurement and the morphology of 

the subject, errors of this magnitude can have a significant influence on the 

discriminant function analysis. These results demonstrate the necessity of 

receiving proper training in the collection of metric data as well as the need 

to check instrumentation used to collect metric data. These findings in no 

way suggest the abandonment of the use of FORDISC 2.0 or other forms 

of discriminant function analysis, however, the authors suggest that only 

individuals who have received a substantial amount of training should be 

using FORDISC 2.0 in a professional arena. 

Ancestry Determination, FORDISC 2.0, Discriminant Function 

Analysis 

H61 Testing Determination of Adult Age at Death 

Using Four Criteria of the Acetabulum 

Angela Hampton, BS*, University of New Mexico, Department of 

Anthropology, MSC01-1040, 1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 

NM 87131 

The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the usefulness of a new 

aging technique based on degenerative changes to the acetabulum. 


humanity by demonstrating how accurate aging techniques are integral to 

identification of human remains. A method of age assessment from the 

posterior os coxa, such as the acetabulum, is desirable since this region is 

commonly preserved in forensic and archaeological contexts. 

This poster will present the results of a study testing a recently 

published aging technique. This method, developed by Rouge-Maillart and 

colleagues (2004), sought to quantify degenerative changes to the 

acetabulum and equate these to age ranges. Because the acetabular region 

of the os coxa tends to be preserved in both forensic and archaeological 

contexts, an accurate aging method utilizing this area could increase the 

amount of useful information gained from the analysis of human skeletal 

remains. 

Four features were scored based on degenerative changes: the rim of 

the acetabulum, porosity of the acetabular fossa, porosity of the lunate 

surface, and “apical” activity (degenerative changes of the posterior cornu 

of the lunate surface). The original study examined 30 white males, 

ranging in age from 24 to 81. Results showed a “significant” correlation 

between age and the acetabular rim and fossa. The purpose of the current 

research was to test the method for the ability to replicate the results as well 

as to expand the sample to include white females. In this study, all observations 

were made on adult Caucasians between the ages of 19 and 100 in 

the documented skeletal collection housed at the University of New 

Mexico’s Maxwell Museum. The sample size was 103, with 53 females 

and 50 males. During the data collection phase of this research, the 

observer was unaware of the age of the individuals observed. Scores for 

each of the four criteria were recorded and documented ages were matched 

to the individual scores for the final statistical analysis. 

The results of this study show statistically significant correlations 

between age and acetabular rim, and age and acetabular fossa for males. 

For the female sample, age correlates with the acetabular rim, acetabular 

fossa and also with apical activity. The results of the porosity of the lunate 

surface are not significant for either sample population (? α 0.05). Despite 

the significance of the results, the correlations are not strong, with apical 

activity in females having the highest correlation (0.63). Also, the results 

of the current study are not discreet; there are large age ranges and 

significant overlap of ages between the stages. In addition, a high rate of 

intra-observer error was noted for both sexes. 

A useful refinement to this method would be to create more 

descriptive definitions of each stage. Clearer descriptions of “extensive” 

osteophytes vs. “substantial” osteophytes in stages three and five of the 

acetabular rim, for example, will help other observers to apply this method. 

Further clarification of what is meant by “localized” destruction of the rim 

and when it becomes “generalized” destruction and thus progresses to the 

next stage of degeneration may also make this technique replicable by other 

observers as well as improving intra-observer error. 

Rouge-Maillart’s et al. method may be most effective for categorizing 

specimens into broad age ranges because of the large overlap in scoring for 

all age groups. Perhaps this technique may be best applied in conjunction 

with other methodologies, such as the auricular surface. Although the 

present study found that the technique did not produce highly accurate 

results when tested on specimens drawn from the Maxwell Museum’s documented 

collection, the method may still contribute useful data for the 

assessment of age from skeletal remains, particularly when other diagnostic 

features are not observable. It may be possible in the future to narrow the 

ranges and increase accuracy if more detailed descriptions of the stages are 

produced. 

Acetabulum, Degenerative Changes, Aging Technique 

H62 A Potential New Morphological 

Indicator of Biological Affinity 

in Human Skeletal Remains 

Debra A. Komar, PhD*, Office of the Medical Investigator, MSC11 6030, 

1 University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131 

The goal of this study is to introduce a new cranial non-metric trait 

which can aid investigators and anthropologists in assessing the population 

affinity of unidentified skeletal remains. 


humanity by presenting a new method of assessing biological affinity in 

unidentified remains. 

Establishing population affinity in cases involving unidentified 

decomposed or skeletal remains is an integral part of a complete osteological 

analysis. Determining the ethnic affinity of skeletal remains found 

in forensic contexts greatly reduces the number of antemortem records 

searches needed to establish identity. Anthropologists have traditionally 

relied on both morphological and metric indicators to determine racial 

identity. Determining ancestry from non-metric traits relies on a skull 

exhibiting traits believed to be representative of a particular population. 

This study introduces a new morphological indicator, the infraorbital 

“fold,” which demonstrates the potential to differentiate White individuals 

from those of Black, Hispanic or Native American ancestry. The morphology 

of the lateral infraorbital margin, specifically the presence/absence 

of an “infraorbital fold,” appears to be an accurate indicator of ancestry. 

The infraorbital fold, when present, is a projection or crest of bone 

emanating from the lateral portion of the infraorbital margin. The superior, 

medial portion of the zygomaticomaxillary suture protrudes anteriorly, 

forming a transverse crease. This bony projection is restricted to the zygomatic 

bone; the fold terminates medially at the zygomaticomaxillary suture. 

The trait was scored as present if the fold was evident bilaterally; the trait 

was scored absent if neither infraorbital region displayed the fold. 

The sample was drawn from the documented collection housed at the 


Laboratory of Human Osteology of the Maxwell Museum at the University 

of New Mexico. Additional individuals were taken from the Office of the 

Medical Investigator’s forensic collection, also housed at the Maxwell 

Museum. All individuals included in the sample had known sex, age, and 

ethnic affinity. This trait was scored on a total of 418 adult skulls; 276 were 

males, 142 were females. The sample included 228 White, 104 Native 

American, 77 Hispanic, and 9 Black individuals. 

The fold was present in 93.4% of the White individuals but only 2.6% 

of the Hispanic, and 6.7% of the Native American individuals. The fold 

was completely absent in the small number of Blacks included in the study. 

Knowledge of the anatomy of the suborbital region aids in understanding 

why the trait varies among populations. The orbital surface of the 

zygomatic bone is the site of the orbital fat pad and the insertion for the 

inferior oblique muscle of the eye. The lateral infraorbital margin serves as 

the site of attachment for the palpebral and orbital portions of the orbicularis 

oculi muscle as well as the levator labii superioris and zygomaticus 

major and minor. Variations in these soft and hard tissues among racial 

groups have been reported previously. 

Population variation of a closely associated trait – the angle of the 

zygomaticomaxillary suture – provides further insight. The morphology of 

the suture varies among Whites, Black and Native Americans. Suture 

structure typifying Whites is described and illustrated as “s-shaped,” with 

the superior and inferior portions of the suture oriented medially and the 

midpoint of the suture deviating laterally. It is the upper portion of the 

zygomatic, superior to the suture’s midpoint deviation, which makes up the 

infraorbital fold (when present). Although described respectively as 

“angled” or “curved,” suture morphology for both Native Americans and 

Blacks is illustrated as an arc with its medial most point inferior to the orbit. 

The absence of a sharp change in direction within the suture may provide 

greater joint stability and raises the possibility that the infraorbital fold 

represents a buttress for muscle attachment. 

Ethnic affinity cannot accurately be determined by a single indicator 

or isolated trait. The infraorbital fold trait, when used in concert with other 

cranial non-metric traits, appears to contribute significantly to the correct 

assignment of ancestry in unidentified crania. Additional studies on larger 

Black samples, as well as other ethnic groups, are warranted. 

Osteology, Population Affinity, Identification 

H63 An Evaluation of Racial Differences 

in the Human Mandible Using 


Marie Danforth, PhD*, University of Southern Mississippi, Department 

of Anthropology and Sociology, 118 College Drive, #5074, Hattiesburg, 

MS 39406 


potential value of mandibular measurements in the assessment of ancestry 

in the human skeleton, specifically focusing on discriminant function 

analysis. 


humanity by demonstrating that the determination of race from the skeleton 

is one of the most difficult areas of assessment in forensic anthropology. 

This presentation will provide another technique in such assessment using 

a bone that is often well preserved. 

As most in the forensic community are aware, determination of 

ancestry using the human skeleton is often challenging. The mandible is 

not traditionally regarded as featuring many reliable indicators of race with 

only a few non-metric differences, such as the more pointed chins seen in 

whites, having been noted in discussions of racial assessment (Rhine 1990). 

Researchers, however, have observed that at times entry of ascending 

ramus data into Fordisc 2.0 analysis changed the racial assignment of a particular 

skull. Although this is likely attributable to the small sample sizes 

of the referent populations used in generating the statistical functions 


employed, it also suggests that a comprehensive study of mandibular 

metrics for blacks and whites might prove useful. The mandible would be 

an especially valuable bone since it is often well preserved. Consequently, 

such an analysis was undertaken, using the Terry Collection at the 

Smithsonian Institution to determine which parts of mandible, if any, are 

diagnostic in assessment of ancestry. 

The Terry Collection is composed of complete skeletons from medical 

school cadavers dating to the first half of the 1900s. As a result, individuals 

are of known sex, race, and age. Some 211 mandibles were evaluated with 

sample selection being severely limited by extensive antemortem tooth 

loss. It was desired that individuals have at least three of the six molars 

present to minimize the effects of loss on ramus morphology. The final 

sample was distributed as follows: black males – 68; white males – 68; 

black females – 33; and white females – 14. An additional 28 individuals 

composed a control sample. Eighteen measurements were taken using 

sliding calipers or a mandible board. Most measurements were standard for 

the mandible, although several concerning dental arcade dimensions were 

created for this project. Data were evaluated using stepwise discriminant 

function analysis in SPSS with groupings comprised of the entire sample, 

only males and only females. 

The variables that statistically entered into the three functions were 

consistently drawn from the same set: M2-prosthion length, bigonial 

breadth, minimum ramus breadth, alveolar length, and ramus height. All of 

the functions had Eigenvalues greater than 1.0, canonical correlations over 

.700, and Wilk’s lambda values less than .500. Classification success rates 

were 75.3% for the entire sample (BM, BF, WM, WF), 86.2% (males 

alone), and 93.0% (females alone). When the discriminant functions were 

applied to the control sample, the success rates were 72.0%, 89.5%, and 

87.5%, respectively. 

These results suggest that consistent metric differences are present in 

mandibles between whites and blacks, although the diagnostic features do 

not seem to cluster in one area of the bone (i.e. the ramus or the dentition). 

The similarity in variable selection for the functions for each sex was surprising, 

suggesting that racial differences are indeed being detected. It 

should be noted, however, that the classification results were much better 

when the sexes were separated. Although these findings are very encouraging, 

further work still needs to be conducted, especially with a larger 

sample size of white females. It is also important that the role of antemortem 

tooth loss be more directly addressed since individuals evaluated 

by forensic anthropologists often suffer from extensive dental pathology. 

Mandible, Measurements, Ancestry 

H64 Evaluation of Regression Equations 

to Estimate Age at Death Using 

Cranial Suture Closure 

Carlos J. Zambrano, BA*, Archaeology and Forensics Laboratory, 

University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, 

IN 46227 


community the utility of regression formulae to estimate age at 

death using cranial suture closure. 


humanity by demonstrating that cranial suture closure can be a useful tool 

to estimate age. 

Age at death is one of the primary components of the biological 

profile constructed by forensic anthropologist during a skeletal analysis. 

There are several indicators used to estimate age at death for adults, 

however, some are employed more frequently than others. The study of 

cranial suture closure and its relationship with age dates back to the 16th 

century. However, since that time and continuing into the present, there 

have been doubts about the applicability of suture closure to age estimation. 

Even with this skepticism, researchers continue to examine suture closure 

448

as an indicator of age at death. Most recently Nawrocki (1998) introduced 

14 regression equations to estimate age using cranial suture closure. Testing 

of the performance of these equations as well as their applicability as an age 

estimator has been limited. This study examines 6 of the regression equations 

(Equations 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8) created by Nawrocki using recently 

deceased individuals. The test sample contains 356 individuals (111 

females, 255 males) of European ancestry. The majority of the test sample 

is derived from documented skeletal collections curated by the University of 

Tennessee and the Maxwell Museum at the University of New Mexico. A 

small percentage of individuals were forensic cases processed by the 

University of Indianapolis Archeology and Forensics Laboratory. 

In total, 31 landmarks were scored on each specimen: 18 ectocranial 

(external) surface, 7 endocranial (internal) surface, 2 facial, and 4 from the 

palate. Following Meindl and Lovejoy (1985), one-centimeter segments 

along the cranial sutures were scored from 0 to 3, where 0 is no closure, 1 

is 1-50% closure, 2 is 51-99% closure, and 3 is complete obliteration. The 

endocranial and palatal sutures were scored following Nawrocki’s (1998) 

guidelines. Age was estimated for each individual using up to 4 different 

equations: 2 general equations (EQ 1 and 2) and 2 group-specific equations 

(i.e. all females, European females). Inaccuracy and bias were calculated 

for each equation to assess its performance. The percentage of individuals 

whose estimated age falls within each equations ± 2SE prediction interval 

was also calculated. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to 

determine if suture closure is influenced by an individual’s sex. 

Inaccuracy is the average absolute error of the estimate. For Equation 

1, inaccuracy was 12.81yrs (M + F). Inaccuracy for Equation 2 was 

13.44yrs (M + F). The 2 male-specific equations (EQ 4 and EQ 8) had 

inaccuracies of 12.58 and 15.64 years respectively. The inaccuracy for the 

2 female-specific equations (EQ 3 and EQ 7) was 22.18 and 18.84 years 

respectively. Bias is a measure of the overall under- or over-estimation. 

Bias for EQ 1 was –5.61yrs (M + F). Bias for EQ 2 was –7.61yrs (M + F). 

Bias for the 2 male-specific equations (EQ 4 and EQ 8) was 2.21 – and 8.25 

– years respectively. For the 2 female-specific equations (EQ 3 and EQ 7), 

bias was –19.13 and –4.21 years respectively. The percentage of individuals 

falling within ± 2SE for the general equations ranged from 73.6 to 

93.5. For the male-specific equations (EQ 4 and EQ 8), 84.4% and 74.7% 

respectively fell within ± 2SE. The percentage for the female-specific 

equations (EQ 3 and EQ 7) was 52.6% and 59.5% respectively. The 

ANCOVA results suggest that summed suture score is influenced by sex. 

This study found that the general equations performed well and in general 

had better results than the group-specific equations. The male-specific 

equations performed better than the female-specific equations. The poorer 

performance for the females may be due to a larger number of older individuals 

in that subgroup compared to the males. Cranial suture closure 

does correlate with age, however, sex influences that relationship and needs 

to be accounted for when using sutures to estimate age. In conclusion, 

cranial suture closure can be a useful tool to estimate age and the longlasting 

skepticism should be reconsidered. 

Cranial Suture Closure, Age at Death Estimation, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H65 Test of an Alternative Method for 

Determining Sex in the Hip: 

Applications for Modern Americans 

Ginesse A. Listi, MA*, Louisiana State University, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology, Baton Rouge, LA 70803; H. Beth Bassett, 

MA, Louisiana State University, Department of Geography and 


The goal of this research is to test the success rate of a recently 

published method for sexing the pelvis in modern American populations. 


humanity by providing information on a new technique, which could be 

used in cases where sex determination is ambiguous. 

Many techniques exist for determining sex in the skeleton based on 

pelvic morphology. These methods yield success rates that vary between 

80-95% depending on the methodology and population. In the last decade, 

violent crime rates have been consistently high in south Louisiana1 . This 

increased crime rate has resulted in an augmented number of forensic cases 

in which an anthropologist has been needed to determine the sex of the 

individual in putrefactive or skeletal remains. An investigation of alternative 

techniques for sexing the pelvis may prove beneficial in identifying 

unknown individuals in such cases. 

A recently published method for sexing the pelvis alleges a 98% 

success rate2 . This methodology is based on five “characters” of the hip, 

including aspects of the preauricular surface, greater sciatic notch, form of 

the composite arch, morphology of the inferior pelvis, and ischiopubic proportions. 

Using these characters, eleven possible “conditions” are observed 

that can be scored as male, female, or intermediate. For each character, the 

conditions are combined to form a composite score. Then, the sum of the 

composite scores is used to determine the sex of the individual. While the 

accuracy of this method reportedly is high, all collections used in this 

research are European (specifically, French and Portuguese), and one 

cannot assume the methodology would yield equally high success rates in 

other populations. Therefore, further testing, specifically on modern 

American collections, is necessary to ensure the technique’s applicability in 

the United States. 

The purposes of the present study are: 1) to evaluate the success rate 

of the Bruzek methodology for modern American pelves using different 

population subgroups; 2) to compare the success rate of this method with 

traditional techniques3 ; and 3) to determine the replicability and ease of this 

method for other observers. 

A total of 450 os coxae from individuals of known sex have been evaluated 

from the Donated Collection housed at the Forensic Anthropology 

and Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) Laboratory at Louisiana 

State University, the William M. Bass Donated Collection housed at the 

University of Tennessee, and the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection 

housed at the Smithsonian. All data were collected using macroscopic 

visual examination and photographic images of the os coxae. 

Preliminary results from a subset of the data demonstrate that the 

Bruzek method correctly identified sex in 81% of the cases, with 9.5% classified 

as “ambiguous” and 9.5% assigned the incorrect sex. The traditional 

methods yielded a success rate of 86%, with the remaining 14% classified 

as “ambiguous.” Additionally, many aspects of the Bruzek method were 

difficult to replicate, which therefore increased the potential for interobserver 

error. 

The overall applicability of the Bruzek method is questionable given 

these preliminary results. However, certain aspects of this methodology, 

such as analyzing the greater sciatic notch by dividing it into proportions, 

provided new ways of evaluating conventionally subjective regions of the 

hip. Combining such aspects with traditional methods may be useful when 

trying to determine sex in ambiguous or fragmentary remains. 

References: 

1. Bouzon H. Assessing increases in violence: an analysis of homicide 

cases from Orleans Parish, Louisiana. MA Thesis, 2004. Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography and Anthropology. 

2. Bruzek J. A method for visual determination of sex using the human hip 

bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 2002; 117:157-168. 

3. Rogers T and Saunders S. Accuracy of sex determination using morphological 

traits of the human pelvis. J Forensic Sci 1994; 39:1047-1056. 

Forensic Anthropology, Sex Determination, OS Coxae 


H66 Sexing the Zygomatic Bone 

Rebecca J. Wilson, BS*, University of Tennessee, Department of 


Attendees will learn the zygomatic bone is sexually dimorphic and has 

a potential to be used when addressing questions of sex, especially when 

using the skull in creating a biological profile. 


humanity by demonstrating the sexual dimorphism of the zygomatic bone 

and its applicability to sex estimations through traditional cranial 

measurement and geometric morphometric approaches. 

The goal of this presentation is to demonstrate sexual dimorphism in 

the zygomatic bone and its potential for metric sex estimations through the 

use of a Microscribe 3-DX Digitizer. 

This poster will demonstrate the potential of the zygomatic bone for 

sex estimation. The attribution of sex is an important component of the 

biological profile, and relies on the sexually dimorphic characteristics of 

the human skeleton for its assessment. Sexing involving the skull relies on 

non-metric traits, such as mastoid size, and/or comprehensive cranial 

measurements. Investigating individual components of the skull, such as 

the zygomatic bone, metrically, could strengthen sex estimation using the 

skull. However, measuring the zygomatic bone is problematic when using 

a traditional caliber approach, since intra-observer variation in measurements 

is often the same as the corresponding error. Geometric morphometrics, 

using coordinate data could eliminate much of this problem. 

As early as Woo (1930-31), the need for focusing on the metric 

assessment of individual elements of the skull was established. Ancestral 

differences in the zygomatic bone cannot be properly assessed without 

addressing intra-population sexual dimorphism first. A metric analysis of 

the zygomatic bone will demonstrate its potential to become a criterion in 

the suite of characteristics examined when assessing sex, especially when 

using the cranium. 

The zygomatic bone is situated in the superior, lateral aspect of the 

face comprising the cheek, lateral wall of the orbit, and the infratemporal 

fossa (Gray 1973). It has three surfaces: the lateral, which bears the malar 

tubercle, the temporal for attachment of the temporalis muscle, and the 

orbital, which bears the eminentia orbitalis for attachment of the check ligaments 

(Gray 1973, Whitnall 1911). Three processes: the maxillary, 

frontal, and temporal with corresponding borders are discernable. On the 

posterior-superior border, a tuberosity, called the tuberculum marginale or 

marginal process, is located for attachment of temporal fascia (Oxnard and 

Wealthall 2003). This process tends to be more strongly developed in 

males (WEA 1980). The marginal process appears early in childhood 

development, between the second and third years, whereas the malar 

tubercle and masseteric attachment do not form until puberty (Scheuer and 

Black 2002). This marginal process, the height and width of the zygomatic 

bone will be assessed for significant sex differences. 

Coordinate data were collected from a random sample of 60 males 

and 60 females of European ancestry using a mechanical arm Microscribe- 

3-DX digitizer. 14 landmark data points were taken to provide an accurate 

depiction of the bone. A centroid point was established and was the basis 

for calculating three measurements: the height, width, and projection of the 

marginal process. These measurements were evaluated using the SPSS statistical 

software package for significance at a p< 0.05. When analyzed separately, 

the mean and standard deviation of the height, width, and marginal 

process projection suggest the zygomatic bone displays sexually dimorphic 

features. However, in a multivariate analysis, the height and width were the 

only measurements significant at the p< 0.05 level suggesting that the 

sexual dimorphism seen in the marginal process is eliminated when size is 


controlled-for. 

This research indicates the zygomatic bone is sexually dimorphic 

within a European population. Further research addressing shape 

characteristics and inter-population variation needs to be completed before 

the utilization of the zygomatic bone in sex estimation. While there are 

implications for its use in sexing, further investigations must be conducted 

to verify its utility, especially in accurately determining sex. 

Forensic Anthropology, Zygomatic Bone, Sex Estimation 

H67 The Morphometric Study of the Hyoid 

Bone for Sex Determination of Koreans 

Deog-Im Kim*, U-Young Lee, MD, and Je-Hun Lee, Department of 

Anatomy, Catholic Institute for Applied Anatomy, 505, Banpo-dong, 

Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South Korea; Dae-Kyoon Park, MD, 

Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, 

646 Eupnae-ri, Shinchang-myun, Cheonan, 330090, South Korea; and 

Seung-Ho Han, MD, PhD, Department of Anatomy, Catholic Institute for 

Applied Anatomy, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, 

505, Banpo-dong, Socho-gu, Seoul, 137701, South Korea 

The goal of this presentation is to present research on the hyoid bone 

which might be useful for sex determination of Koreans in archaeological 

and forensic studies. 


humanity by investigating sexual dimorphism in the hyoid bone and the 

usefulness of the hyoid bone as a sex indicator. Use of the hyoid bone 

would make sex determination more scientific and exact, and racial differences 

by this study would be easier than before. 

Sex determination is usually the first step of the identification process 

because many of the subsequent methods for age and stature estimation are 

sex-dependent. Most of the older studies of sex differences are centered on 

morphological traits. For example, the shape of the hyoid bone is sexrelated. 

Newer studies on the hyoid focus on morphometry in a largely 

quantitative and statistical sense. This study focuses on morphometry of 

the hyoid bone for sex determination. 

The hyoid bones were examined from 52 Korean males and 33 

Korean females. As for the age range of the subjects, all age categories 

over 20 years took part in the data, for both males and females. In each 

case, the hyoid bone was separated from the larynx and dissected surrounding 

connective tissue. Each specimen was photographed with a 

digital camera. For each bone 34 measurements were taken directly from 

the photograph with a computer program, and statistically analyzed with 

the computer program SPSS 11.0. 

Twenty of 34 measurements have significant sex differences. They 

include maximum sagittal length, width of body of the hyoid bone, and 

length of greater horn, etc (p

Hyoid Bone, Sex Determination, Koreans 

H68 Evaluation of the Sternal Rib End Age 



Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison 

Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104; Gina Hart, MA, Regional Medical 

Examiner’s Office, 325 Norfolk Street, Newark, NJ 07103; and Brian 

Spatola, MA, 125 5th Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002 

Following this presentation the audience will have an understanding 

of the value of the sternal rib end aging technique in the medical examiner’s 

setting. 


humanity through the evaluation of a well respected age estimation method 

by applying it to a modern medical examiner sample. 

The phase method using the sternal end of the fourth rib for estimating 

age at death developed by Iscan, Loth, and Wright (1,2) has been shown to 

be a reliable and accurate method. This method is also enriched by several 

advantages. Sternal rib end changes do not appear to be effected by 

biomechanical stresses and no consistent association between accuracy of 

age determination and cause of death, medical history, height, weight, or 

occupation has been found. The sternal rib end is easily accessible in a 

medical examiner setting, especially when working with fresh or only moderately 

decomposed bodies. Unlike the pubic symphysis, it is harvested 

easily without excessive cutting of the body. Finally, commercially 

available casts (3) enable the practitioner the benefit of comparing the 

specimen to a three dimensional object. Given the advantages of this 

method, the goal of this study is to evaluate the phase method by applying 

it to a modern medical examiner sample of known individuals. 

Evidentiary skeletal materials archived at the Regional Forensic 

Center, Memphis were used in this study. The right and left fourth rib 

sternal ends of 50 individuals were examined. The sample included Black 

and White males and females ranging in age from 13-75 years. The 

specimens were harvested during autopsy for bone trauma analysis or identification 

purposes during a 14-year period (1990-2003). The soft tissue 

was removed from the specimens by soaking them in a water and degreaser 

bath at an elevated temperature. Marrow was removed by soaking them in 

a water and peroxide bath at an elevated temperature. 

Three independent judges evaluated each specimen in a blind test. 

The true ages were concealed until all specimens were assigned a phase. 

The race and sex of the specimen was known in order to apply the appropriate 

standard. Both the photographs and text of the original articles (1, 2) 

and the commercially available casts (3) were used. The judges are forensic 

anthropologists working in medical examiners offices. All have a 

minimum of a Master’s education level and several years of field 

experience. 

Thirty-seven percent of the sample was correctly assigned the age 

corresponding phase. Eighty-one percent of the sample was correctly 

assigned within one phase and 97% were correctly assigned within two 

phases of the age corresponding phase. Of the subgroups, Black males 

were the only group of reasonable size for statistical analysis, 28 

individuals. The results show this group was significant over-aged. The 

tendency to overage Black males is consistent with Iscan et al. findings that 

Black males were younger for each phase and emphasizes the need to 

develop race specific standards (4) . 

The value of the study is the evaluation of a well respected age 

estimation method using a modern medical examiner sample and the most 

appropriate tools: the original articles and the three-dimensional 

casts (1, 2, 4) . 

References: 

1. Iscan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Age estimation from the rib by phase 

analysis: white males. J Forensic Sci 1984; 29(4):1094-104. 

2. Iscan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Age estimation from the rib by phase 

analysis: white females. J Forensic Sci 1985; 30(3):853-63. 

3. Iscan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Casts of age phases from the sternal end 

of the rib for White males and females. France Casting, Fort Collins, 

Colorado. 

4. Iscan MY, Loth SR, Wright RK. Racial variation in the sternal extremity 

of the rib and its effect on age determination. J Forensic Sci 1987; 

32(2):452-66. 

Forensic Anthropology, Age Estimation, Sternal Rib Ends 

H69 A Test of Four Macroscopic Methods for 

Age Estimation of Human Skeletal Remains 

(Lamendin, Lovejoy Auricular Surface, 

Iscan, Suchey-Brooks) 

Laurent Martille, MD*, Service de Medecine Legale Chu de Montpellier, 

CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, Montpellier, 

34295, France; Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 

NMNH, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560-0112; and 

Fabienne Seguret, MD, and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de Médecine 

Légale, CHU Lapeyronie, 191 Avenue du Doyen Gaston Giraud, 

Montpellier, 34295, France 

The goal of this presentation is to show how to combine the 

Lamendin, Lovejoy, Iscan, and Suchey-Brooks methods for age estimation. 


humanity by demonstrating how macroscopic methods for age estimation 

are well-known but they are not often compared. Forensic anthropologists 

may be interested to have a comparison of those four methods on the Terry 

collection 

Age estimation at death of human skeletal remains or non-identified 

bodies is a difficult task in forensic practice, because no method has proven 

to be both accurate and simple. Four macroscopic indicators for age 

estimation were tested and compared (pubic symphyseal face, auricular 

surface, sternal end of fourth rib, translucency of the tooth and periodontosis). 

Method: This study compares the accuracy of those four methods 

when applied to the Terry collection housed at the Smithsonian’s National 

Museum of Natural History. The sample consists of 210 individuals with 

a balanced number of males and females, and black and white subjects, 

ranging in age from 25 to 90 years. For the pubic symphysis the authors use 

the Suchey-Brooks method (SB), for the auricular surface the Lovejoy 

method (LJ), for the ribs the Iscan (IC) method and for the teeth, the 

Lamendin method (LM). Each of the indicators was applied with complete 

independence from all others. For this reason, pubic symphyseal faces were 

covered during auricular aging. Bias, inaccuracy, and the intraclass 

correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated which assesses similarity and 

proximity between quantitative data. 

Results: The inaccuracy was for each method and all ages (mean +/ - 

standard deviation) as follows: IC 10 +/- 8.6 years, SB 10.7 +/- 9 years, LM 

11.3 +/- 8.2 years and LJ 11.6 +/- 9.1 years. Taking in account age group 

by decade, from 25 to 40 years the most accurate method is the SB method 

and from 40 to 60 years the most accurate method is the LM method. 

Between 61 and 70 years of age, all methods are quite equivalent. After the 

age of 70, all methods are inaccurate although the IC method is the most 

outstanding. Concerning bias, results show a global underestimation for all 

methods, although less using the LM method. By decade, as in several 

studies, this study highlights the tendency to overestimate the age of young 

individuals, and vice versa. The Spearman correlation coefficients were 

respectively 0.67 for the IC method, 0.66 for the SB method, 0.59 for the 

LM method and 0.57 for the LJ method. The ICC was respectively 0.62 for 

the IC method, 0.55 for the SB method, 0.43 for the LM method and 0.45 

for the LJ method. 

Discussion and conclusions: Overall, the accuracies of these four 


anthropological methods for age estimation are close, but when age groups 

are taken into account, each method may not be applied during all of the 

lifespan with the same weight. The difficulty is to find the good 

combination of methods. Two approaches could be distinguished – the 

multifactorial aging method described by Lovejoy and the Two Step 

Procedure proposed by Baccino. For aging techniques, the correlation 

coefficient is not the best informative parameter. Inaccuracy and bias are 

more useful. Experience and training may change results obtained by the 

various methods, and more particularly for the LJ method which is less 

useful in forensic practice. 

Age Estimation, Forensic Anthropology, Comparison of Methods 

H70 The Application of the Lamendin and 

Prince Dental Aging Methods to a 

Bosnian Population: Formulas for 

Each Tooth Group Challenging One 

Formula for All Teeth 

Nermin Sarajlic, MD*, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina; Zdenko 

Cihlarz, PhD, Departmen of Forensic Medicine, UKC, Tuzla, 75000, 

Bosnia and Herzegovina; and Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, and Piotr 

Drukier, MS, International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 


The goal of this presentation is to evaluate the application of the 

Lamendin dental aging method and Prince’s modification of the Lamendin 

method to a Bosnian population. This research project tests the accuracy 

of formulas developed for dental age estimation for each tooth group in 

comparison with one formula for all teeth, made by Lamendin and Prince’s 

modification of the Lamendin method as applied to a Bosnian population. 

The sample consists of 847 teeth (incisors and canines) from 200 males of 

known age. 


humanity by demonstrating a successful application of this technique, 

which can be used as a tool for age determination of skeletal remains. 

The unique DNA led identification process created by ICMP in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina on such a large number of missing persons also 

requires accurate aging techniques for antemortem-postmortem 

comparison. 

One of the more recently developed techniques, which has proved to 

be simple and accurate (Soomer et al. 2003), is the Lamendin method for 

age determination of adults from single-rooted teeth (Lamendin et al. 

1992), as derived from a French population. The primary components of 

this method are measurements of periodontosis and root transparency. 

Lamendin presented the following simple equation for age assessment: A = 

0.18 x P + 0.42 x T + 25.53 (where: A = age in years, P = periodontosis 

height / root height x 100 and T = transparency height / root height x 100). 

Prince and Ubelaker (2002) modified Lamendin’s method by adding 

root height (RH) to the equations for white and black males and females. 

The equation for white males is: A = 0.15 x (RH) + 0.29 x P + 0.39 x T + 

23.17. Prince claimed that inclusion of root height reduced the mean 

difference and therefore improved accuracy. 

Skeletal remains found in mass graves in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

present additional problems that can be addressed with improved age determination 

techniques. The remains are often commingled or incomplete, 

with skulls often separated from the rest of the skeleton. Therefore simple, 

quick and accurate dental aging methods may facilitate the re-association 

of crania and mandibles to postcranial elements. With passing time, 

exhumed remains are more deteriorated and sometimes only teeth are 

available for age estimation. 

The Lamendin method and Prince’s modification of the Lamendin 

method have already been proven useful when applied to a Bosnian popu- 


lation (Sarajlic et al. 2003) but both authors, Lamendin and Prince, 

developed only one formula for all single rooted teeth. According to their 

methodology, the authors developed six formulae for dental age estimation, 

three for maxillary and three for mandibular teeth: central incisors, second 

incisors and canines. The estimated ages obtained by those formulas have 

been compared with the estimated ages obtained with the original 

Lamendin and Prince formulae as well as with the estimated age from the 

formula developed on the whole sample. 

The estimation of age according to the formulae developed for each 

tooth group was significantly more accurate than the estimation of age from 

Lamendin’s and Prince’s formulae and than the estimated age from the 

formula developed on the whole sample. 

The best results were obtained with the second maxillary incisors 

giving mean error of 6.60 years with standard deviation of 5.08 and 

standard error of 0.50. The lowest mean error, 4.82 years, was produced by 

the age group of 40 – 49 years. 

However, regardless of which formulas are used, there is a consistent 

overestimation of age in younger individuals and underestimation of age in 

older individuals. 

Dental, Age Estimation, Bosnian 

H71 Age Determination From Adult Human 


Clotilde G. Rougé-Maillart, MD*, Nathalie C. Jousset, MD, Arnaud P. 

Gaudin, MD, and Michel P. Penneau, MD, PhD, Service de Médecine 

Légale, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire - 4 rue Larrey, Angers, 49100 


The goal of this study is to test a simple method using the Gustafson’s 

criteria and to compare it with the Lamendin method. 


humanity by demonstrating a new method for age determination that may 

be most effective on older individuals. 

Materials: A total of 43 teeth were examined (38 extracted teeth, and 

5 teeth were removed from corpses at autopsy). The age range of the 

individuals sampled was 13-73 years. The authors worked with the entire 

group to test this method, but to compare the method with Lamendin’s 

method; only the teeth were worked with issuing from individuals greater 

than 30 years of age. Teeth were intact without pathological processes and 

marginal periodontitis. 

Method: The age estimation of each tooth was carried out by one 

examiner. First, periodontitis was estimated. The labial and lingual faces of 

teeth were drilled to obtain a central section 1mm thick. At this stage, 

researchers estimated root transparency. Then, a central section 0.25 mm 

thick was obtained. The four other criteria were estimated. Then the point 

allocated to each of the six age related changes listed above were summed 

and used the Gustafson’s regression line. 

Statistical Analysis: Descriptive and comparative statistics using 

SPSS software was produced. After having determined the ages according 

to the authors’ method, the results were compared with the real age and the 

mean of the errors was calculated. Then, methods were compared with 

Lamendin, using only the teeth from individuals more than 30 years of age. 

Parametric methods were used in view of the small sample size (test of 

student). 

Result: This method is easy. All that is needed is a drill and a turbine. 

Preparation takes only half an hour. The results show that this method had 

a mean error of approximately 6 years. In age groups under 60 years, error 

was important and underestimates were predominant. Concerning age 

groups between 30 and 60 years, the differences between this method and 

Lamendin were not statistically significant. Concerning the oldest people 

(> 60 years), the range of error is very significant for the two methods. But, 

it was noticed that when ages were underestimates, root transparency was 

452

ight quoted (2 or 3). The criteria was corrected (adding a coefficient) in 

the cases where root transparency was estimated at stage 2 or 3 with all 

others criteria estimated at stage 1. This eliminated the error in the case of 

the oldest individuals. 

Conclusion: This method is easier than Gustafson’s method and 

there’s a good correlation between criteria and ages. This method isn’t as 

effective for estimating ages between 30 and 60. Lamendin’s method is 

simplest. But this method can be used because there are no significant differences 

between the two methods. However, this method can be used with 

the youngest people. It can be an easy method when pubic symphysis aging 

is not an option, or to complete the estimation. Perhaps this method will be 

most useful to estimate ages of people in the oldest age group, using a coefficient. 

Physical Anthropology, Age Estimation, Teeth 

H72 Serial Bone Histology: Inter- 

and Intra-Bone Age Estimation 

Mariateresa A. Tersigni, MA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 


After attending this presentation, attendees will better appreciate bone 

micro-morphology, attendant visualization, and quantification methods 

used to histologically discern differences throughout the human cortical 

long bone shaft. 


humanity by identifying the degree of differentiation of microstructures 

used for histological aging throughout the shafts of the long bones, in order 

to determine the validity/accuracy of aging fragmentary remains using 

microstructures. 

Few publications are available on the histological (microscopic) 

differentiation throughout human or non-human mammalian long bone 

cortices. That is, are osteon population dynamics specific to proximal, midshaft 

of distal segments? This study utilizes Kerley’s (1965) four quantification 

categories (non-Haversian canal, osteon, and old osteon fragment 

number, and percent circumferential lamellae) to estimate age as well as to 

quantify the differential structure counts from human femur, tibia and 

fibula based upon section location. Each long bone was evaluated 

metrically following the Chicago Standards. From each midshaft onecentimeter 

increments were marked moving proximally and distally, which 

resulted in twenty-five to forty segments per bone. Three thin sections 

were cut from each one-centimeter segment using a high-concentration 

diamond blade mounted on a Buehler Isomet 1000 saw. This technique 

employed a modification of the methods individually created by Stout and 

Ubelaker. 

The Kerley quantification categories were used to enumerate the same 

microstructures in the humerus, radius, and ulna to identify structural 

change from the proximal to distal ends. Age estimation via the Kerley 

method is not made on the pectoral girdle elements, because the method 

was not intended for these bones. All sections were subjected to quantification 

identical to Kerley’s quadrant (anterior, posterior, medial, and 

lateral) using a Leica DMRX light microscope at 5x, 10x and 20x power 

magnification. Morphometric analysis of the Kerley’s quantification categories 

was conducted using Image-Pro Express software on the Dell 

Optiplex GX270. 

Quantification of the aforementioned microstructures indicates there 

are statistically significant differences throughout the shaft, which will 

create significantly different age estimations depending upon section 

location. Paired T tests were conducted on the above categories to discern 

the mean intra and inter bone differences. ANOVA used the variables of 

osteon population, old osteon fragment number, and non-Haversian canal 

populations against the variables of within and between bones. Age assessments 

using the Kerley method based on the femur, tibia, and fibula 

revealed that estimates made on segments away from midshaft were 

significantly different to the .05 level. 

These findings generate two related conclusions. First, metabolically, 

histological bone maintenance/remodeling varies greatly throughout the 

shaft. Second, it is imperative that the fragment location is correctly identified 

and that midshaft is used for this method, because, as this research 

explains, moving away from midshaft when using this method can lead to 

significantly different age estimations. These results are particularly 

pertinent to fragmentary remains, suggesting that quantification on 

fragmentary remains can provide incorrect age estimates. Furthermore, 

this research underscores the fact that age estimates of fragmentary human 

remains must account for significant difference of microstructure 

populations throughout the shaft as well as within one thin section. 

Skeletal Biology, Bone Microstructure, Histological Aging 

H73 Measure Twice, Cut Once? Measurement 


Christian M. Crowder, MA*, University of Toronto, Department of 

Anthropology, 100 St. George Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand a method 

to assess repeatability between measurements, the amount of measurement 

error within rib cross-sections and between serial cross-sections, and if 

multiple cross-sections are warranted for evaluation. 


humanity by underlining the importance of exploring measurement and 

sampling error levels in histological methods. This research stresses that 

the repeatability of measurements is paramount and demonstrates a 

statistical method to evaluate measurement agreement. Addressing issues 

surrounding repeatability are the first steps to further the use of quantitative 

bone histology in the field of forensic anthropology. 

Compared to the myriad of gross morphological methods available to 

forensic anthropologists, histological methods for estimating age at death 

are underutilized. Uncertainties regarding how much bone to evaluate and 

the associated levels of sampling error may cause this underutilization. 

Significant sampling error can occur within and between cross-sections, 

with the latter’s sampling error increasing dramatically as the amount of 

cortical area evaluated decreases (2) . A rib cross-section with 10mm 2 of cortical 

area may demonstrate several hundred percent difference in bone formation 

between serial bone cross-sections (5) . Frost (2) recommends a 

minimum of 50mm 2 of cross-sectional bone in non-pathological individuals 

be analyzed to minimize sampling error. Stout (4) asserts that the 

time necessary to increase the amount of histological samples must be 

weighted against the gains. It is for this reason that he recommends the 

evaluation of two rib cross-sections per individual. Conflicting reports of 

measurement error within and between studies may arise due to inadequate 

methods of error assessment, such as correlation or paired t-tests, producing 

misleading results (1) . Another issue is the absence of clear guidelines for 

how much error is acceptable. This ultimately means that it is the decision 

of the researcher; however, a 10% error level is commonly used. The goals 

of this research are to evaluate precision in rib intra-site histomorphometric 

measurements and assess inter-site measurement agreement to determine if 

two cross-sections are adequate. 

Two rib cross-sections were evaluated from 30 individuals of known 

age and sex (14 females, 16 males; aged 27-79 yrs) selected at random from 

a collection of 234 individuals from the cemetery site of Spitalfields, 

London. None of the individuals demonstrate any gross or histological 

morphology indicating a pathological condition. Osteon population 

densities (OPD = number of intact + fragmentary osteons ÷ surface area) 

were recorded following the Stout (1986) method. A plot of the difference 

between measurements against the mean of the first and the second 

measurement was utilized for both intra- and inter-site values. Absolute 

mean percent differences were calculated to quantify the magnitude in 

variability between measurements with the 10% error level as the cutoff for 


acceptance. 

The results show that absolute mean percent difference in OPD values 

for the intra-site evaluation is 8.5% indicating repeatable measurements. 

The mean difference is not significantly different from zero, further 

indicating that repeatability was achieved. The absolute mean percent 

difference in OPD values for the evaluation of serial cross-sections is 15%. 

The plot of the mean difference indicates a magnitude bias; therefore, the 

data was logged transformed to provide a clearer picture of agreement. The 

overall mean difference was significantly different from zero indicating 

that repeatability was not achieved. Interestingly, the minimum difference 

in error between serial sections was less than 1% and the maximum was 

~ 50%. 

Overall intra-site precision error is below the 10% level, but individually 

7 of the 30 samples exceeded the acceptable error level. Fifteen of the 

30 samples demonstrate moderate to large amounts of diagenesis. Six of 

the 7 samples that failed acceptance are within the diagenetic group. When 

diagenesis is present a cross-section should be measured twice and the 

average value recorded in order to minimize the chance of intra-site measurement 

error. 

Overall the inter-site error for the serial cross-sections failed to meet 

the 10% level of acceptance, but individually 12 out of the 30 were below 

the 10% level. These samples have a mean cortical area of 16.5mm2 (range: 9-24mm2 ), while the rejected samples have a mean cortical area of 

13.8mm2 (range: 8-20mm2 ). The amount of cortical area overlap and the 

lack of a pattern between error levels and diagenesis, indicates that serial 

section measurement variability is random. A slight magnitude bias in the 

error was detected, indicating a systematic increase in error as OPD 

increases. Because OPD is a calculated value, it is difficult to determine 

the cause. Most likely, it is a combination of the decrease in cortical area 

and the increase in fragmentary osteons over time. Because substantial differences 

can exist between serial cross-sections, measuring one section 

twice will not account for this error. This indicates that the evaluation of 

multiple cross-sections is required. As a result of the random nature in 

measurement error (despite the slight trend with increased error and 

decreased cortical area), Stout’s recommendation for the use of only two rib 

cross-sections from a normal individual should be sufficient in the attempt 

of minimizing the potential error. 

References: 

1. Bland JM, Altman DG. Statistical methods for assessing agreement 

between two measurements of clinical measurement. The Lancet, 1986; i: 

307–10. 

2. Frost HM. Tetracycline-based histological analysis of bone remodeling. 

Calcif Tissue Res, 1969; 3:211–237. 

3. Stout SD. The use of bone histomorphology in skeletal identification: 

The case of Francisco Pizarro. J Forensic Sci, 1986; 31(1):296–300. 

4. Stout SD. Histomorphometric analysis of archaeological bone. Ph.D. 

Dissertation, Washington University, Missouri, 1976. 

5. Wu K, Schubeck KE, Frost HM, Villanueva A. Haversian bone formation 

rates determined by a new method in a mastodon, and in human diabetes 

mellitus and osteoporosis. Calc Tissue Res, 1970; 6:204–9. 

Precision, Histomorphometry, Osteon Population Density 

H74 The Effects of Cerebral Palsy on Age 


Mary S. Megyesi, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, 

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824; and Norman 

Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, Michigan 

State University, East Lansing, MI 48895 

Attendees will learn how systemic diseases like cerebral palsy may 

have dramatic effects on skeletal indicators of age at death. 

This presentation will illustrate the potential effects of systemic 


disease on skeletal indicators of age at death and address how such diseases 

can impact other aspects of a forensic case, such as identification. 

In 2002 the authors were asked to examine human remains believed 

to be those of a 25-year-old male with a known history of severe cerebral 

palsy (CP). While the circumstantial evidence for a correct identification 

is compelling, there are significant inconsistencies between the biological 

profile indicated by the remains and the profile of the missing person. Most 

of the age indicators on the skeleton suggest an age of 12-18 years at the 

time of death with the highest likelihood at around 15 years (10 years 

younger than the known age of the victim). Since current estimates place 

the number of individuals with some form of CP in the United States at 

around 500,000, it is important to know if this case is an exception or if 

such variation is to be expected in known or suspected cases involving 

cerebral palsy. This paper has two objectives. First, a case is presented 

involving a CP patient and attendant maturational disparities to the forensic 

anthropology community; and second, the authors report on existing 

medical literature on the effects CP on growth and maturation. 

The skeletal remains in question presented with unfused long bone 

epiphyses and sphenooccipital synchondrosis and partially fused ilium, 

ischium, and pubis. According to the anthropological literature on skeletal 

development in the general population, such conditions are associated with 

an age at death of 12-18 years. In general the skeleton is unusually gracile 

and individual bones are quite small. In addition, the remains display 

several developmental anomalies, such as proximal epiphyses on the 2nd 

metacarpals and a midline defect on the anterior arch of the first cervical 

vertebra. In contrast to the immature developmental indicators, dental 

attrition is extensive and suggestive of a much older individual. It is 

possible that this wear is related to the involuntary contraction of jaw 

muscles, a condition often associated with CP. 

The effects of systemic disease on rates of skeletal maturation are 

poorly understood. For example there are indications that acromegaly may 

lead to premature suture closure (Marushia, M. and N.J. Sauer 1997) and 

diseases like osteoarthritis may suggest that a skeleton represents a much 

older individual. With respect to CP, Worley, et al. 2002 report on a cross 

sectional study of 207 affected children, that the completion of sexual maturation 

was significantly delayed compared to the general population. It 

may be that there is a causal relationship between delayed sexual maturation 

and skeletal development. This relationship in general and with 

respect to congenital diseases warrants further study. 

Forensic anthropologists need to be aware of the variation in age 

indicators that may be associated with certain systemic diseases. This case 

is an important warning for anthropologists pay attention to indicators of 

disease stemming directly from the remains under study or from supporting 

documentation such as medical records. 

Age Indicators, Cerebral Palsy, Dysmaturation 

H75 The Impact of Age Related Changes in 

Vertebral Column on Age Determination 

for Identification Purposes 

Eva E. Klonowski, PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, MD, Piotr Drukier, MS, and 

Alexandra M. Klonowski, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 71000, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the impact of a recently 

improved method of age-at-death estimation using progressive morphological 

changes in the vertebral column for the identification process in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina. 


humanity by showing the results of using changes in the vertebral column 

on age determination and their impact on narrowing age ranges and 

therefore increasing the accuracy of predicted ages. 

The exhumation and identification process in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

454

egan in autumn 1995 and during the first years, only traditional methods 

were used for establishing the identity of unknown human remains. The 

basic method that was used relied on the recognition of clothing, personal 

artifacts, and eventually documents that were rarely recovered with the 

victim. If the recognition of clothing and artifacts was supported by 

positive results during postmortem and antemortem comparison of the 

individual’s biological profile, such as sex, age, stature, and dental status, 

the remains were declared identified and released to the family. With the 

lack of other more sophisticated methods (at the beginning of the 

exhumation/identification process, costly DNA testing was not available) 

this procedure was accepted and widely used all over Bosnia and 

Herzegovina. Traditional methods worked well in the identification of 

victims buried soon after death by surviving family members or neighbors 

in single or multiple graves; however, when it came to identify victims 

recovered from mass graves, traditional methods failed. The sheer number 

and state of the remains representing victims of similar age, mostly male, 

combined with a lack of detailed medical and dental information reduced 

the effectiveness of traditional identification. Despite intensive efforts, a 

very limited number of victims were identified from mass graves. 

The situation changed significantly when ICMP was established to 

help clarify the fate of the missing persons in the Former Yugoslavia. Using 

recent advances in DNA technology, ICMP introduced a pioneering DNA 

program on a massive scale as a new strategy for the identification of 

unknown remains. In two and half years, 4,163 individuals have been identified 

with help of DNA. However, even with the tremendous success of 

the DNA matching process, it is essential that the biological profile of the 

remains generated by anthropologists during postmortem examinations is 

as accurate and close to the chronological age of the decedent as possible. 

A high accuracy of age determination is particularly important in the case 

of remains that have been exhumed from mass graves containing the 

victims of ethnic cleansing in 1992 and the fall of Srebrenica in 1995. 

During both events thousands of men were killed and many families lost all 

male family members. It is not uncommon that three or four brothers lost 

their lives. Since a DNA match cannot distinguish their identity, it is 

essential to determine narrow age ranges that will help in identification. 

During the examination of skeletal remains exhumed in BiH several 

methods are routinely used for age at death determination of mature 

remains. They are: Suchey & Brooks and Todd methods for the pubic 

symphysis; Iscan & Loth method for sternal end of rib, epiphyseal closure 

of sternal end of clavicle, closure of S1 and S2; Lovejoy method for 

auricular surface of ilium; Lamendin dental method; Albert & Maples for 

union of vertebral ring; and Drukier et al. for absorption of vertebral ring 

and age related changes in vertebral body. 

Within 5703 positive DNA matching reports, almost 500 were issued 

for more than one name. In a situation when none of the brothers had 

children, an accurate age at death determination can be one of the most 

helpful factors in successful identification. Routinely conducted comparisons 

of chronological and estimated age at death show that age related 

changes observed in the vertebral column have a distinctive influence on 

narrowing estimated age ranges. They are regarded by the authors as one 

of the most useful age indicators, especially for individuals from 20 to 40 

years of age, who make up the majority of missing persons in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina. This presentation will show the results of using changes in 

the vertebral column on age determination and their impact on narrowing 

age ranges and therefore increasing the accuracy of predicted ages. 

Aging Techniques, DNA Supported Identification, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H76 Finding Clues on the Bony Surface: 

The Use of Markers of Occupational 

Stresses as Aids to Identification and Age 

Determination in Skeletonized Remains 

J. Marla Toyne, MA*, John W. Verano, PhD, and Laurel S. Hamilton, MA, 

Tulane University, 1021 Audubon Street, Department of Anthropology, 


Attendees will gain an understanding of methods for assessing 

osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal stress markers, and the importance of 

these morphological features in forensic casework. 


humanity by highlighting the importance of assessing all features from 

skeletonized remains; and suggesting the use of standardized methods to 

assess osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal stress markers in forensic cases to 

aid identification and supplement age estimations 

Forensic anthropologists often have a limited amount of physical 

material with which to investigate the possibility of a crime or to attempt to 

identify human skeletal remains. Therefore, it is important to incorporate 

as many lines of evidence that can be observed from the skeleton as possible. 

It has been noted that frequently forensic anthropology case reports 

include basic data on sex, age, race, stature estimates, and trauma from the 

skeleton, but they may not include additional morphological characteristics 

such as patterns of osteoarthritis (OA) or musculoskeletal stress markers 

(MSM). These bony changes are considered to result from biomechanical 

stresses applied to the bones during life and can be used to suggest possible 

lifestyles or activity patterns of the individual. Since bone progressively 

responds differently to such stresses with age, the degenerative nature of 

OA could provide additional clues as to the age at death of the individual. 

In New Orleans in 2004, a case was investigated where the particular 

features of osteoarthritis of the shoulders, hands, and spinal column of the 

deceased could have provided important clues to identification had antemortem 

records been available. The suspected decedent was described as 

an elderly female who worked as a local seamstress in her home. The 

results of an osteological examination of the skeleton demonstrated that the 

deceased had extensive degenerative change in both shoulders, as well as 

severe bilateral changes in the 1st metacarpal-trapezium joint. The individual 

did not exhibit typical clinically reported patterns of joint degeneration 

of the hand, in that there was little deterioration of the distal phalangeal 

joints. This suggests some activity-related etiology was affecting 

that joint of the thumb specifically. The extent of the spinal osteoarthritis 

and scoliotic curvature of the lower spine would have produced a visible 

phenotype and greatly affected the individual’s mobility. This pathological 

feature would be useful in aiding identification of the remains through 

interviews with known associates such as neighbors. The pathological 

changes observed in the skeleton present a unique pattern that would have 

had visible characteristics when the individual was alive. 

Additionally, while there are no published sources for comparison 

with contemporary populations, the assessment of MSM and the contrast of 

the deceased’s MSM scores with some prehistoric archaeological samples 

are of potential application. The MSM scoring patterns are not similar to 

prehistoric females, as expected since she lived in the Twentieth Century; 

however, the individual did demonstrate a high overall average score for 

MSM of the upper limb indicating a physically active life. In general, the 

osteological evidence is consistent with the suggested occupational activities 

of the individual as someone who used her arms and especially her 

hands a great deal, such as a seamstress would, but it does not definitively 

exclude other types of physical actions or possible occupations. The 

overall degree of joint deterioration and high MSM score is consistent with 

the suspected decedent’s age at death. 

While the analysis of OA is an important area of research in the 

modern medical field and is of interest to archaeologists studying health in 


ancient populations, forensic anthropologists do not frequently incorporate 

this data into their investigations. Observing and scoring of OA and MSM 

from skeletal cases in a systematic fashion can aid future investigations not 

only in describing clues for positive identification based on specific 

pathological conditions, but also in aging the skeletons. Additionally, such 

investigations could provide a significant counterpoint to clinical literature 

where the distribution and degree of bone modification is reported only 

from radiographs and patient commentary. Having modern data on individuals 

of known age, sex and life history can enlighten other areas of 

research on human biology and lifestyle. 

Osteological Features, Osteoarthritis, Markers of Occupational Stress 

H77 Cross-Sectional Diaphyseal Geometry, 

Degenerative Joint Disease, and Joint 

Surface Area in Human Limb Bones: A 

Comparison of American Whites & Blacks 

Heather A. Walsh-Haney, MA*, CA Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 112545, Gainesville, FL 32611 

The goal of this presentation is to examine the accuracy of skeletal 

markers of age and occupation through analysis of cross-sectional diaphyseal 

geometry, degenerative joint disease, and joint surface areas. 


humanity by adding to knowledge concerning the creation of a biological 

profile for an unknown victim that is based upon skeletal analysis. 

Aging and physical activity are key variables affecting normal adult 

bone structure. Marked differences in skeletal rugosity are typically referenced 

in forensic anthropology cases when determining life history parameters 

(i.e., age, sex, occupation) necessary to establish a presumptive or 

positive identification as evinced by variation in (1) diaphyseal size and 

shape (i.e., a marker of load baring) and (2) degree of degenerative joint 

disease expression (i.e., DJD; marker of age). While there is no shortage 

of research that explores how diaphyses and joints structurally change with 

physical activity and age, far too little research has examined how these 

variables covary within the same skeletal samples. Studied separately, 

contradictory results suggest that neither occupation nor age have a 

consistent effect on long bone remodeling, which possibly leads to the 

creation of inaccurate biological profiles of unknown individuals. As part 

of a broader research study examining distinctions between the effects of 

age and behavior-related changes to joint surfaces by comparing samples 

disparate in occupation (i.e., mild, moderate, strenuous activity level) and 

age group, this study examines cross-sectional diaphyseal geometry, degenerative 

joint disease, and joint surface areas of bones of the shoulder, elbow, 

hip, and knee in African American and European American industrialists 

from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection and William Bass Donated 

Collection (N=125 and N=130, respectively) to set baseline data. These 

data answer the following questions: 

• Does the joint lipping associated with DJD increase joint 

surface area as a functional response to force applied to the 

joint surface over time (i.e., repetitive physical activity) thus 

making an individual appear biologically older? 

• Are long bone diaphyses more accurate indicators of load 

history associated with repetitive activity than joint surface 

areas and the expression of DJD? 

• Can individuals with less active lifestyles be differentiated from 

more active individuals based upon analysis of diaphyseal 

cross-sections, joint surface areas, and degenerative joint 

disease? 

To answer these questions, the left humerus, radius, ulna, femur, and 

tibia of each individual were grossly and radiographically examined. Only 

those individuals with known age at death, weight, and occupation were 

included in the study sample. Individuals that were immature, under- 


weight/overweight relative to height (i.e., below 42 kg and above 90 kg), 

or grossly pathological were excluded. The joint surfaces of the shoulder 

were grossly evaluated for DJD using a 4x hand lens and identified through 

the presence of lipping, bone spurs, and exostoses, porosity and eburnation 

using a grade based system. Additionally, joint lipping was scored as either 

trace, mild, moderate or severe and degree of lipping was measured using 

sliding calipers (mm). Joint surface areas were determined using Scion 

Image. Lastly, cross-sectional diaphyseal geometry was evaluated with 

computed tomographic (CT) scanning and subsequent biomechanical 

analysis (i.e., each CT image was generated using a 1.5mm thick slice with 

a 4 second exposure time at 170 MA and 120 kV). 

All data were tested for violations for assumptions of parametric tests 

using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. These data were not normally 

distributed. Therefore, test means and standard deviations (z-scores) for 

each activity variable (DJD, JSA, or CSD) was determined and these data 

were pooled – data by sample, age and sex – to compare the arm, forearm, 

thigh, and leg using nonparametric tests (Mann-Whitney U and X2 analysis 

of variance). The skeletal samples were also compared using MANCOVA 

to determine the best predictor of activity (DJD, JSA, CSD, or MSM) 

within samples and between samples for the upper or lower extremity. 

Cross-sectional geometries and joint surface contours were evaluated using 

elliptical Fourier coefficients which computed average distances between 

groups. Then, the shape-based distances between the groups were 

examined using principle coordinates analysis (PCO). Physical activity 

effects were not significantly different between these two samples; though 

a significant interaction between JSA, lipping, and DJD expression was 

indicated. 

Cross-Sectional Analysis, Degenerative Joint Disease, Occupational 

Markers 

H78 Skeletal Markers of Obesity 

in the Lower Leg 

Megan K. Moore, MS*, Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 


biomechanical effects of obesity on the bones of the lower leg and the 

subsequent skeletal markers, which can suggest obesity during life. 


humanity by providing researchers further insight into the relationship 

between soft tissues and skeletal tissues during life. The University of 

Tennessee has the unique opportunity to provide this type of research due 

to the large donated collection with extensive antemortem records. 

Obesity in the United States is reaching epidemic proportions. More 

than fifty percent of all adults are overweight, with a fast growing 

percentage of obese children. Skeletal markers of obesity are investigated 

as a combination of multiple traits due to the complex nature of obesity on 

the human skeleton. The purpose of this study is to examine the biomechanics 

of obesity in the vertebral column, hip and knee and its relationship 

with osteoarthritis, diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (D.I.S.H.), and 

the frequency of fracture. This project investigates osteoarthritis of the 

medial and lateral tibial plateau and proximal femur, fracture of the distal 

fibula and proximal femur, as well as the presence of D.I.S.H. A total of 44 

skeletons from obese (n=21) and non-obese (n=23) adult individuals were 

analyzed, with ages ranging from 20 to 86 years. The skeletons represented 

in this sample are from individuals of known age, height and weight, from 

the donated collection of the Forensic Anthropology Research Facility at 

the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

In a review of clinical literature on the biomechanics of obesity, the 

effects of obesity in the leg can be separated into two separate suites of 

traits for the two dominant types of knee malalignment associated with 

obesity. Genu varum is responsible for greater torque on the hip and knee, 

456

decreased joint space on the medial knee joint, 100% of weight bearing on 

the medial side and osteoarthritis of the medial tibial plateau. There are 

relatively few effects of this varus malalignment on the foot. In contrast, 

genu valgum preserves the integrity of the knee and hip, compromising the 

integrity of the foot and ankle, which will be investigated in a future 

research project. From clinical reports, the ankle is more prone to severe 

lateral malleolar fracture and greater rear foot movement as a result of this 

condition. Obese individuals will exhibit greater asymmetry, with individuals 

typically favoring the right side. The findings of this skeletal 

analysis support some of these clinical findings. Osteoarthritis of the left 

lateral tibia, the right medial tibia and the right proximal femur all show 

fairly significant Chi-square relationships to obesity at the level p = 0.1, 

with these results being asymmetric and not completely consistent with the 

clinical findings. The presence of D.I.S.H. was significantly correlated 

with obesity at the level p = 0.1. There was no significant correlation 

between obesity and ankle fracture or between obesity and hip fracture in 

this skeletal sample. 

As the number of obese individuals living today increases, so will the 

number and frequency of obese in skeletal populations. Thus it is of significant 

forensic concern to be able to determine whether a skeletonized 

individual was obese or not and whether this can be ascertained from the 

skeleton. This preliminary research, despite the small sample size, shows 

promise for the future for determining obesity in the skeleton. Skeletal 

markers of obesity investigated as a suite of traits could prove useful to 

identification in the field of forensic anthropology. Furthermore, the biomechanics 

of obesity need to be better understood in order to stop the cycle 

of obesity. 

Obesity, Skeletal, Biomechanics 

H79 Serial Murder With Dismemberment 

of Victims in an Attempt to Hinder 



John W. Verano, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University, 

1021 Audubon Street, New Orleans, LA 70118 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the importance of collaborative 

forensic investigation, and highlight the specific contributions of 

forensic anthropology to resolving complex cases involving postmortem 

mutilation of bodies to conceal their identity, and cause and manner of 

death. 

Collaboration between forensic anthropologists and other medicolegal 

investigators has proven increasingly important in the investigation of 

homicides, particularly in cases where bodies have been extensively altered 

postmortem in an attempt to conceal the identity of victims and the cause 

and manner of death. Positive identification of victims and the linking of 

crimes by patterns of postmortem dismemberment are increasingly 

recognized as areas where forensic anthropologists can make important 

contributions. 

This paper presents a serial homicide case that was resolved through 

the active collaboration of homicide detectives, the District Attorney’s 

Office, and various forensic scientists. Key to the prosecution’s strategy in 

this case was a linking of three homicides and positive identification of the 

victims. While identification of the second and third victims was relatively 

straightforward, the first (Victim 1) was more complex, and required 

collaboration between the Assistant District Attorney, a local hospital, and 

the forensic anthropologist. Victim 1’s body was intentionally mutilated 

and dismembered, and parts had been disposed of over a wide geographic 

area. Some remains (a torso and attached right arm) were subsequently 

found by chance, while investigators were led to others (the head, upper 

neck and severed left forearm) by the co-defendant in the case, whose 

testimony was key in revealing details of the postmortem history of Victim 

1 that would otherwise have been difficult to reconstruct from the physical 

evidence alone. The co-defendant also led police to tools allegedly used to 

dismember the victim. Matching of the different parts of Victim 1’s body 

was achieved through forensic anthropological analysis. The remains were 

defleshed and patterns of sharp force trauma associated with the intentional 

severing of the head and fingers were identified and compared. Skeletal 

analysis revealed that the head had been severed between the fifth and sixth 

cervical vertebrae by multiple blows with an edged weapon (later identified 

in testimony to homicide detectives as a machete). In addition to a match 

between chop marks on the neck vertebrae recovered from the two 

locations, a small portion of the transverse process of the fifth cervical 

vertebra was found still attached to the trunk, and was matched with the rest 

of the vertebra found still articulated with the neck and head. Similarities 

in the manner and location at which the fingers were severed linked all 

three victims. 

Although DNA analysis was successful in demonstrating a match 

between Victim 1’s head, left arm, trunk and bloodstains found in the 

defendant’s apartment and storage locker, this was not sufficient for a 

positive identification because comparative DNA could not be obtained 

from living relatives. Examination of the defleshed skull, however, 

revealed evidence of an apparent healed gunshot wound to the left frontal 

and parietal bones. The injuries had not been seen at autopsy, as they were 

concealed by soft tissue. The forensic anthropologist requested a search for 

local hospital records with the hope that antemortem and postmortem 

comparisons of the gunshot wounds might lead to an identification. After 

an extensive search, both a police report and hospital records were located. 

Comparisons of antemortem and postmortem radiographs revealed 

multiple points of correspondence, allowing a positive identification. Upon 

reviewing the evidence against him, and facing a capital murder trial, the 

key defendant in the case pled guilty to the murders and is now serving 

three consecutive life terms in prison. 

Dismemberment, Postmortem Modification, Positive Identification 

H80 Fifty Years of Questions: 

The Re-Evaluation of a Korean 

War Soldier Buried in the United States 

Mary H. Manhein, MA*, and Ginesse A. Listi, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Baton Rouge, 

LA 70803 

The goal of this presentation is to inform researchers of problems and 

rewards associated with exhumation and reanalysis of previously identified 

soldiers from the Korean War era who have been returned home and buried 

in the United States 


humanity by showing that taphonomic processes can affect the DNA 

extraction from well-preserved bones, and that dental identification 

continues to be a valid tool in forensic science. 

On December 2, 1950, PFC James B. Sanders, of the United States 

Army, Company D, 32nd Infantry Regiment, was reported missing in action 

while helping to secure the town of Hagaru-ri in the Chosin Reservoir of 

Korea. In the fall of 1953, the Sanders family received a telegram that noted 

there was reason to believe that Cpl Sanders (promoted to Cpl after he was 

missing in action) might be or might have been in communist custody. In 

February, 1954, the Department of the Army declared Cpl Sanders “to be 

dead.” According to the Army’s report, they based this declaration on “the 

lapse of time without information to support a continued presumption of 

survival.” Following the end of the war as part of “Operation Glory,” 

communist forces reportedly recovered ten sets of buried remains from an 

area within the region of the Chosin Reservoir. In the fall of 1955, the Army 

advised the Sanders family that they had approved the identification of one 

set of the remains as those of Cpl James B. Sanders. According to official 

government documents, “Association of Cpl Sanders ... is based on 


favorable dental; very favorable comparison of physical characteristics, and 

place of casualty in relation to recovery site of remains.” Cpl Sanders’ 

remains were shipped home to the United States in a sealed casket. 

However, on May 27, 1957, Cpl Sanders’ name once again appeared in a 

government publication entitled “Return of American Prisoners of War Who 

Have Not Been Accounted For by the Communists” (1) . 

For close to fifty years following the burial, the Sanders family felt 

that the remains in the casket might not be those of their son and brother. 

Their fears were based in part on the fact that his name continued to appear 

on various lists of soldiers missing in action that were published after Cpl 

Sanders’ remains were returned home. In addition to that were the medical 

records associated with the recovered remains which indicated that Cpl 

Sanders had a healed, broken foot bone. The family knew of no broken 

bone. Also, Cpl Sanders’ brother Lloyd, a soldier himself in that era, was 

not allowed a furlough to attend his brother’s funeral. Sealed caskets; list 

after list of prisoners of war thought to be in enemy custody; ambiguous 

government papers; an undocumented healed, injury; and seemingly 

unwarranted decisions about a funeral furlough added to a grieving 

family’s concern. 

Eventually, through association with a victims’ advocate group, the 

family contacted the Louisiana State University Forensic Anthropology and 

Computer Enhancement Services Laboratory (LSU FACES Lab) and asked 

for assistance in opening Cpl Sanders’ grave, reanalyzing the remains, and 

sampling bone and teeth for DNA confirmation of his identity. In the 

summer of 2003, FACES Laboratory personnel exhumed the casket. 

Unknown to surviving family members, the casket was enclosed in a 

metal vault. The vault, a Clark, was still sealed; so was the casket. When 

the casket was opened, the state of preservation of the interior casket lining, 

associated burial goods, and the skeletal remains themselves (which were 

tightly packed in a bundle) encouraged the researchers to conduct a 

complete skeletal analysis and to sample the remains for DNA testing. One 

unusual, though not totally unexpected, feature of the burial was a heavy 

coat of grayish-white powder covering all of the bones in the bundle. 

Referred to by some as “burial powder,” this material was known to have 

been placed in soldiers’ caskets at a particular mortuary in Japan. 

According to one researcher, this powder had affected the extraction of 

DNA from at least one other case from that era (personal communication). 

Results of the reanalysis of the skeletal remains by anthropologists 

and a forensic odontologist showed congruency with the antemortem 

dental records for Cpl Sanders. Additionally, cranial features and other 

skeletal markers were consistent with the description of Cpl Sanders in life. 

Though no small foot bones showed any obvious, healed break, x-ray 

equipment used for confirmation of the old injury by the Army was not 

available in the embalming laboratory where the skeletal analysis took 

place. 

Subsequent x-ray diffraction analysis of the powder from Cpl 

Sanders’ casket showed that it is comprised mainly of inorganic calcium 

sulfate in varying degrees of hydration. Calcium Sulfate is the main 

component of Drierite, a popular desiccant. Also, after months of 

exhaustive efforts to extract DNA from the bone or tooth, Reliagene 

Laboratory in New Orleans was unable to do so. However, the biological 

profile and the dental profile confirm that Cpl Sanders is buried in Cpl 

Sanders’ grave. 

References: 

1. Return of American Prisoners of War Who Have Not Been Accounted 

for by the Communists. Hearing before House of Representatives 

Subcommittee. U.S. Government Printing Office, May 27, 1957, p 28. 

Korean War Soldier, Forensic Anthropology, Burial Powder 


H81 Diagnosis of Anencephaly, a Common 

Lethal Neural Tube Defect, From 

Taphonomically Altered Fetal or 

Neonatal Skeletal Remains 

J. Christopher Dudar, PhD*, and Steve D. Ousley, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian 

Institution, PO Box 37012, MRC 138, Washington, DC 20013-7012 

Attendees will learn about the prevalence and appearance of 

anencephaly and how it can be overlooked, or even misdiagnosed, in 

certain recovery contexts. Attendees will be able to implement a robust 

quantitative osteometric method to determine anencephaly from abandoned 

fetal or neonatal remains that have been scavenged or otherwise 

taphonomically altered. 

Anencephaly is a relatively common birth defect that universally 

results in miscarriage or neonatal death. Establishing the cause of death is 

essential in cases of abandoned newborns, however, the determination of 

anencephaly from taphonomically altered fetal or neonatal skeletal remains 

can be difficult when recovery is incomplete due to scavenging animals or 

other taphonomic variables. A robust osteometric procedure was developed 

from documented cases of anencephaly which provides a probability 

statement that will impact the forensic community and/or humanity by 

assisting in the establishment of differential diagnoses of cause of death in 

abandoned fetal or neonatal remains. 

Anencephaly is defined as the complete absence of a skull vault 

resulting from a failure of closure in the anterior neuropore. The prevalence 

of this lethal neural tube defect ranges between 1 in 1000 live births in the 

U.S. to between 5 to 7 in 1000 live births in some regions of Ireland and 

Wales. Establishing the cause of death is essential in cases of fetal or 

neonatal abandonment; however, the forensic anthropology and 

paleopathology literature displays a deficiency of diagnostic criteria to 

identify this relatively common defect when various taphonomic processes 

result in incomplete or altered fetal or newborn remains. Even fetal 

remains that are completely mummified can lead to initial misdiagnosis of 

anencephaly (Dupras et al., 2002). 

Osteometric data was collected from 7 clinically documented 

anencephalic skeletons curated at the National Museum of Natural History, 

Smithsonian Institution, and contrasted with normal fetal database standards 

from Fazekas and Kosa (1978). Comparisons involving the proportions 

of basi-cranial elements (those most likely to be preserved in recovery 

contexts) yielded statistically significant differences related to the 

congenital abnormalities of this condition. Random sampling of the small 

documented anencephalic collection assisted in the creation of a suite of 

logistic regression models. These models were then tested on a partially 

preserved, archaeologically recovered, fetal skeleton that has been demonstrated 

to possess morphological traits strongly indicative of a profound 

neural tube defect involving the skull and vertebral column (Dudar, 2002). 

This archaeological case study was predicted to be anencephalic with a 

probability of p>0.99 with the developed logistic regression model. 

This maximum likelihood-based method provides a robust procedure 

that will generate a probability of anencephaly that will assist in the differential 

diagnosis of cause of death in forensic contexts from taphonomically 

altered or scavenged remains. 

458

Fetal Remains, Anencephaly, Cause of Death Diagnosis 

H82 Utilizing Taphonomy and Context to 

Distinguish Perimortem from 

Postmortem Trauma in Fire Deaths 



The goals of this presentation are to demonstrate interactions of fire 

environments with the condition and preservation of human remains; to 

illustrate the importance of correlating the in situ position of burned bone 

with lab analysis for differentiating skeletal traumatic injury from 

taphonomy of heat and fire; to introduce problems of interpreting original 

body position in structural fires; and to discuss spatial relationship models 

for human remains in advanced stages of cremation for purposes of scene 

reconstruction. 


humanity by introducing benefits of experimental modeling demonstrating 

how soft and hard tissues of the human body are affected by heat and how 

these results are applicable to forensic casework dealing with extensively 

burned human remains. This modeling has the potential to identify features 

differentiating preexisting traumatic injury created in fresh bone from postmortem 

fractures caused by taphonomic changes to bone by fire and heat. 

With the exception of crematoriums, human remains rarely burn in 

ideal conditions free of structural debris, dynamic environmental change, or 

body shifting during the reduction process. Heat alone causes muscle 

shrinking and dehydration, thus repositioning arms, legs, torso, and head 

into the flexed ‘pugilistic posture.’ Fire simultaneously impacts the 

surrounding environment, reducing construction materials and collapsing 

exposed spatial areas into layers of debris. Environmental changes 

potentially aid preservation or produce further damage by impacting and 

fragmenting brittle burned bone. Reduction of supporting materials of 

furniture, floors, or levels also contributes to fragmentation and dispersed 

spatial relationships of remains. Similar to decomposition, favorable 

conditions of ample oxygenation, circulation, and fuels accelerate soft and 

hard tissue destruction by fire, whereas restricted conditions impede proper 

combustion, thus producing visual differences in final appearances of 

burned human remains left for forensic analysis. Considering these 

taphonomic variables can assist scene reconstruction and differentiation of 

heat-related fractures from preexisting traumatic injuries in fragmentary 

burned skeletal remains. 

Experimental burn research with human cadavers served as a model 

for observing interactions of the body, environment, and heat-related 

changes to known position and preexisting trauma in soft tissue and bone. 

Remains were photographically documented prior to, during, and 

following burning in conditions replicating forensic fires. Analysis began 

with the in situ position of remains at the scene, noting deviations from 

known original positions, influence and degradation of construction 

materials, spatial relationships of remains, relative fragment size and 

distance from the body, and condition of traumatic injuries in bone 

following incineration. 

Distorted repositioning of limbs are observable heat-related changes 

to skin and muscles. Living skeletal tissues undergo similar dynamic transformations 

where heat pyrolyses and removes organic components (lipids, 

collagen, protein, water), producing black carbonization or charred bone. 

Depletion of organic materials weakens structural properties of remaining 

inorganic bone, appearing as white or gray calcined bone after heat drives 

off remaining carbon. Color changes occur simultaneously with shrinking 

and deformation of remaining inorganic skeletal structures, creating heatrelated 

fractures and brittle bone. These are expected taphonomic 

processes for advanced stages of burned bone and are produced differently 

than traumatic injury in fresh bone from applied external force. 

Preexisting wounds in fresh bone are vulnerable to thermal damage 

through accelerated exposure by penetrated tissues, abnormally positioned 

long bones from shrinking muscles, or exposed fracture margins, particu- 

larly in cranial bone. Exposure to heat caused soft tissue injuries, modeled 

by surgical incisions, to exaggerate wound morphology due to shrinking 

skin, muscle, and fat. Superficial soft tissue injuries were difficult to 

discern for advanced stages of cremation (calcination) in the absence of 

associated color or tool marks in bone. Skeletal fractures in long bones 

were overpowered by contracting muscles from heat, pulling broken 

margins apart like an open hinge. In thicker tissues shrinking muscles overlapped 

fractured ends embedding deeper into surrounding tissues, thus 

shortening the limb. 

Evidence of preexisting skeletal fractures in long bones was best 

represented by correlating abnormal in situ positions with photographic 

images following extinguishment and skeletal analysis of reconstructed 

specimens. Cranial bone requires similar attention to the in situ position or 

distribution of fragments. Fragmentation results from biochemical 

reduction of organic materials from living bone (which leaves inorganic 

calcined bone and heat fractures), preexisting skeletal trauma, collapsed 

debris (walls, ceiling, roof, windshield), body shifting or falling during the 

fire, and/or handling and transport of fragile bone. Since traumatic 

fractures are produced by force impacting or penetrating fresh bone, it is 

possible to differentiate them from heat-related fractures produced by 

organic pyrolysis, shrinking, and deformation of inorganic skeletal 

structures. Traumatic fracture margins were eroded, weathered, and 

deformed from heat exposure and more noticeable in thinner cortical and 

cranial bone than thicker cortical structures. 

Context at the scene is an invaluable source of information for investigating 

fire deaths. Time and intensity of heat exposure contribute to the 

progressive degradation of human remains. Bodies salvaged earlier sustain 

less tissue damage when compared to advanced or complete reduction by 

fire. Similar logic applies to structural materials surrounding the body. 

Degraded or collapsed materials can either reduce possibilities of finding 

intact skeletal remains because of increased impact and skeletal fragmentation, 

or create artificial protection with fallen debris shielding tissues of 

the body from heat. Documenting context and relationship of human 

remains within the immediate environment yields contributory information 

toward explaining burn patterns of the body and scene. However, caution 

should be given to interpreting original position or behavioral body 

language (protective stance) of the victim since contracting muscles alter 

the body’s posture and throughout burning remains can shift position, 

become artificially restrained, fall, or become impacted and repositioned by 

larger debris. These factors provide challenges directly associated with 

their unique environments (structural, vehicular, public transportation, or 

mass disaster) and should be integrated with laboratory analysis of burned 

soft and skeletal tissues for reconstructing identity and differentiating 

perimortem traumatic injury from postmortem taphonomic changes to bone 

by fire. Examples of these differences will be illustrated with models from 

experimental burn research and forensic casework. 

Burned Bone, Perimortem and Postmortem Trauma, Taphonomy 

H83 Burned Beyond Recognition: 

Attempts to Destroy Evidence of Death 

Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, 

AR 72701; Alan G. Robinson, MSc, Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology 

Foundation, Guatemala City, Guatemala City, 01002, Central America; 

Kate Spradley, MA, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 37996; and O’Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic 

Center, 1060 Madison, Memphis, TN 38104 

The goals of this presentation are to illustrate differences among postmortem 

and perimortem effects of burning to osseous tissues as a means to 

destroy evidence of death or identity; to describe techniques for identifying 

signatures of perimortem trauma in extremely burned skeletal remains, 

especially cranial bone; to demonstrate utilities of actualistic modeling as a 

tool for analyzing difficult cases of burned human remains; and to provide 


examples of intentional attempts to destroy human remains and traumatic 

evidence with fire. 


humanity by introducing techniques for differentiating perimortem and 

postmortem trauma in burned human remains. 

Analysis of burned human remains presents many challenges since 

fire alters familiar personal features of hair, skin, fingerprints, and unique 

facial soft tissues used for visual identification. More extreme cases require 

additional methods developed in anthropology and odontology to assess the 

biological profile, unique features of osseous and dental tissues for personal 

identification, and presence or absence of traumatic injury. Intentional use 

of fire to obscure or destroy human remains complicates these analyses but 

does not render them impossible. Contrary to popular belief, burning 

human remains whether fleshed or as dry bone, does not completely 

destroy all evidence. Such cases are difficult to process since heat degrades 

organic structures of bone, creating embrittlement, deformation, and fragmentation 

of bone. Accompanying dynamic changes of human tissues with 

heat, external factors of impacts with fallen debris or intentional reduction 

by the assailant further complicates analysis of surviving remains. 

Experienced anthropologists recognize skeletal structures of age and sex in 

fragmentary bone, but analyzing traumatic injury in remains intentionally 

burned to destroy evidence of death during the perimortem or postmortem 

interval presents a challenging task for reconstructing fatal events. 

The authors conducted a comparative study involving cases of 

traumatic death and intentional burning from repatriated Guatemalan sites 

known for indigenous genocide by their military within the past 30 years 

and experimental human cadaver burn research to test identification 

techniques of traumatic injury in cranial and long bones. For the control 

sample, the researchers replicated perimortem blunt force trauma in five 

fleshed crania, removed soft tissue, burned specimens in a dry or partially 

fleshed state, and compared signatures of skeletal injury with four traumatized 

crania and long bones burned in the flesh to examine differences of 

perimortem and postmortem burn patterns. 

Presence of soft tissue contributed to visual differences between 

fleshed perimortem burn patterns and postmortem burning of partially 

fleshed or dry bone. Through experimental burn research with human 

cadavers it is understood how different anatomical areas of the body burn 

predictably from known distributions of soft tissues (skin, muscle, fat) 

around each bone. Fleshed specimens with perimortem trauma exhibited a 

range of color changes to bone, showing progressive heat damage over 

large exposed bones of the upper face and vault versus skeletal structures 

deeply protected by lower facial and neck muscles that remained unburned 

or less severely compared to the exposed vault. Dry or partially 

decomposed specimens with perimortem trauma presented different burn 

patterns with more consistent blackening and calcination of the exposed 

bone and teeth lacking soft tissue protection. Color changes were valuable 

distinguishers of perimortem from postmortem burning episodes. 

Perimortem traumatic injury was more difficult to discern in fleshed 

and defleshed specimens. Intact cranial bone fractured naturally from heat 

stress. Preexisting traumatic fractures undergoing thermal alteration 

appeared different than natural heat-related fractures. Disruptions or 

weakness in bone structure from fractures, impacts, or penetration became 

early failure points as bone shrinks from heat exposure, intensifying these 

discontinuities and producing permanent deformation. Heat causes fractures 

to open and remain exposed, producing an eroded, worn, weathered 

appearance opposed to heat-related fractures created by shrinking in dry 

charred and calcined bone. Characteristics of traumatic and heat-related 

fractures should be examined following cranial reconstruction and not on 

individual fragments. Perimortem fractures produced in green bone were 

also compared to postmortem fractures in grease-free dry bone to simulate 

a prolonged postmortem interval and features of non-lethal breaks in bone 

(environmental and taphonomic factors noncontributory to death). 

Known features of traumatic injury for experimental specimens were 

compared to reconstructed skeletal remains of the genocide victims excavated 

in Guatemala. Field samples examined consisted of individuals 

violently murdered and burned to destroy evidence of death or identity (1) . 


Field cases were independently analyzed to test the validity and 

reproducibility of traumatic signatures in experimental research as an 

effective tool for modeling forensic casework. Successful techniques for 

identifying features of preexisting trauma in burned bone will be presented 

for use in the forensic community. Examples of both known traumatized 

features and case examples will be used to demonstrate effective techniques 

for identifying traumatic injury in burned human remains. 

References: 

1. REMHI (Recovery of Historical Memory Project) and ODHAG (Human 

Rights Office of the Archdiocese of Guatemala) Guatemala Never Again! 

Orbis Books Maryknoll, New York. 1999. 

Burned Bone, Traumatic Injury, Postmortem Burned Bone 

H84 Dismembered Bodies - 

Who, How, and When 

Tzipi Kahana, PhD*, Israel National Police, 67 Ben Zvi Street, PO Box 

8495, Tel Aviv, 61085, Israel; Inmaculada Aleman, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 

18012, Spain; Miguel C. Botella, MD, PhD, Deptartment of 

Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, 

18012, Spain; and Jehuda Hiss, MD, National Centre of Forensic 

Medicine, 67 Ben Zvi, PO Box 8495, Tel Aviv, 61085, Israel 

Attendees will become familiar with various forensic aspects of postmortem 


In the forensic literature there are many isolated case reports of postmortem 

dismemberment, this presentation will impact the forensic community 

and/or humanity by attempting to provide a comprehensive view of 

the main features common to the majority of dismemberment cases. 

Close scrutiny into 14 cases of body dismemberment of homicide 

victims, analyzed at the National Centre of Forensic Medicine – Israel 

National Police (Israel) and the laboratory of Anthropology of the 

University of Granada (Spain), provides insight into various aspects of this 

type of postmortem mutilation. 

The sample includes eight males and six females whose ages ranged 

between 12 and 67 years old. Four of the bodies are unidentified while the 

remaining ten were identified by means of a variety of techniques including 

fingerprints comparison, dental and medical data, and comparison of DNA 

profiles. 

The investigation into these cases reveals common features regarding 

intent, state of mind of the perpetrator, cutting method, anatomical location 

of the severing cuts, and most commonly used tools to accomplish the 

deed. 

The approach for an exhaustive analysis of all aspects of dismemberment 

cases requires careful handling of the remains to avoid damage 

during autopsy, thorough photography prior to removal of the severed parts, 

systematic documentation of the anatomical distribution of the cutting 

activity and examination of the walls of the cut-marks to expound the 

nature of the tool employed. 

The objective of the perpetrator can be elucidated by the care or lack 

thereof in concealing the dismembered cadaver. In 5 cases (35%), the perpetrators 

cut off the hands and heads of their victims in order to hinder the 

identification of the deceased. This assertion is confirmed by the removal 

of portions of skin from the chest and back of two of the victims to eliminate 

tattoos that could have been conducive to positive identification of the 

cadavers. The disposal of the victims is a good indicator of the aim of the 

perpetrator; often the objective is to “send a message.” In two cases the 

assassins decapitated their victims and left them to be found in their own 

homes; in five instances the mutilated body parts were left in areas of easy 

access to the public. 

The most common reason for dismembering a body is to facilitate 

concealment and transportation; in 35% of the cases the taphonomic features 

indicated that the body parts were kept under refrigeration and were 

460

subsequently disposed of – either buried or wrapped separately and thrown 

in scattered garbage containers. 

The state of mind of the person behind the murder can be ascertained 

by the number of cut marks on the cadaver. As a rule, a very high number 

of cuts or stabs are considered indicative of “overkill” or high disregard for 

the victim. This phenomenon was encountered in ~45% of the cases 

examined. 

Oftentimes the postmortem interval precludes determining the cause 

of death; in six of the 14 cases, lethal stab-wounds were detected while in 

one case the perpetrator confessed that he had strangled the victim. For the 

remaining seven cases, the cause of death is undetermined. 

The skills required to successfully dismember a cadaver are revealed 

by the neat results obtained by perpetrators somewhat proficient in human 

anatomy or in meat processing that cut very near or within the joints, 

utilizing dedicated tools like surgical scalpels or butcher knives. In six 

cases, the perpetrator’s knowledge of anatomy was reflected in the small 

number of incisions and a minimum of kerf marks. In contrast, the 

unskilled perpetrator utilizes heavy utensils and due to his lack of 

knowledge in anatomy leaves many “false starts” In two cases (one from 

Israel and one from Spain) the perpetrator severed the body in half through 

the lumbar vertebrae but couldn’t separate the limbs from the torso. The 

cut-marks left in the soft tissue in the vicinity of the axillary and inguinal 

areas are good indicators of the cutting sequence in these cases. 

The implementation of 3-dimensional techniques including casting 

and photography will be illustrated. Typical marks associated with specific 

cutting devices will be described in detail. In 20% of the cases the 

perpetrators used more than one tool to accomplish the dismemberment; 

this information was instrumental for the police investigation. 

Dismemberment, Taphonomy, Tool Marks 

H85 Differential Human Decomposition 

in the Early Stages: An Experimental 

Study Comparing Sun and Shade 

Carrie F. Srnka, MA*, 6352 Iradell Road, Trumansburg, NY 14886 

The goal of this presentation is to provide information to help further 

the accuracy of the estimate of time since death (or postmortem interval, 

PMI) in cases that involve decomposition in very sunny locations such as 

a field, or those in very shady locations such as a dense forest. 


humanity by presenting research which examines the affects of sun and 

shade on the early stages of human decomposition. The results of this study 

should further the base knowledge on PMI estimation for the forensic 

anthropology community. 

The analysis and estimation of time since death has long been a 

significant contribution of the forensic anthropologist to the death investigation. 

It is also, perhaps, the most difficult portion of data that the forensic 

anthropologist must analyze. It is widely known that many factors directly 

affect the rate of decomposition and therefore blur the actual PMI. 

Throughout the years many experimental studies have been conducted, 

attempting to generate information about decomposition. The purpose of 

this study was to analyze two possible extremes that arise in most 

casework: the affects of positioning a body in the direct sunlight or in 

complete shade. 

To examine differences in decomposition in the early stages, a study 

using five human bodies that were un-autopsied, unembalmed, and had no 

soft tissue trauma was conducted. The study took place in 2002 at the 

Anthropology Research Facility in Knoxville, TN. The remains were 

placed out at the facility as soon as they became available during the 

summer months. All remains were placed in a supine position, with no 

clothing. During the study, data was observed, and collected daily 

including information on the weather, the remains and the amount of insect 

activity. Weather data that was collected independently at the two sites 

included current temperature, high and low temperature for the 24-hour 

period, humidity, rainfall, and sky conditions. Decomposition data that was 

observed included marbling, skin slippage, bloat, discoloration, 

desiccation, and skeletonization. In order to have data that would be 

relevant to actual casework, all other environmental factors were not 

eliminated from the study (except animals access, as scatter would have 

greatly detracted from the observations). 

Results from the study were quite confounding but will be examined 

more thoroughly. The decomposition patterns of remains left in direct 

sunlight differed slightly from those of remains placed in complete shade. 

The remains in the sun progressed evenly through early decomposition but 

then hit a plateau during which time there were minimal changes in 

coloration, marbling, bloating, skeletonization, and insect activity. On the 

other hand, the remains in the shade maintained a constant rate of 

decomposition and did not run into the same type of stall in progress. 

Therefore, the remains in complete shade actually decomposed faster, some 

reaching skeletonization earlier. The weather data was more informative in 

terms of fieldwork. The temperature readings indicated that the sun bodies 

experienced highs that averaged about 10 degrees Celsius above those in 

the shade, where lows were very similar. In addition, the rain gauge 

readings indicated that remains in open, sunny locations are exposed to 

much higher rainfall levels. The forest canopy actually worked to block 

and redistribute rain limiting the amounts that reach the remains in heavily 

shaded areas. The data recorded daily and the photographs can serve as a 

great comparative sample when analyzing actual casework, weather 

comparisons, and fluctuation analysis. 

The study was very informative, but the evaluation of the data 

maintains that analyzing PMI is truly an estimate. The more studies such 

as this, combined with actual known PMI casework can only help to 

increase the accuracy of the estimation that the forensic anthropologist is 

asked to make in death investigations. 

Decomposition, Postmortem Interval (PMI), Forensic Anthropology 

H86 Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Foraging as a 



Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, and Walter E. Klippel, PhD, University of 


Knoxville, TN 37996; and Michelle D. Hamilton, PhD, Eastern Band of 

Cherokee Indians, Tribal Historic Preservation Office, PO Box 455, 

Cherokee, NC 28719 

Attendees will acquire an appreciation for the remarkable strategies 

employed by an opportunistic carnivore to exploit the insect species 

attracted to carrion. 

Human medicolegal investigations increasingly rely on entomology to 

estimate time-since-death based on species’ presence or absence, and stages 

of development. Estimates, however, may deviate when carrion-seeking 

insects are subject to predation themselves. Ants, wasps, beetles, and birds 

have been documented to scavenge carrion for fly eggs, larvae, or both. 

The authors have observed brown rats (Rattus norvegicus) ingest developing 

larvae found on human remains. These predators alter the entomological 

evidence which can be collected from the scene, and record of their 

presence must be taken into account when estimating the postmortem 

interval. To the authors’ knowledge, there has been no prior record of 

mammals directing as much, if not the majority, of their efforts towards 

locating, and recovering, insect fauna, as they do in scavenging carrion. 

This paper examines the foraging strategies of the raccoon at the 

University of Tennessee’s Anthropological Research Facility—a 2 ½ acre 

plot of land set aside for human decomposition research. Prompted by the 

paucity of literature on small mammal scavenging behavior, multiple 

cameras were stationed at the Facility to record the nocturnal behavior of 

animals inhabiting, or frequenting, the Facility. The cameras were main- 


tained throughout most of the September 2003 through July 2004 calendar 

months, after which point they were sporadically operated. Ancillary visits 

in daylight enabled detailed photographic documentation of any previous 

night’s activity. 

Raccoons (Procyon lotor), in the order Carnivora, can be found 

throughout much of the United States. Although highly adaptable to diverse 

habitats, they prefer hardwood forests near streams, lakesides, or other 

bodies of water. They may establish dens in hollow trees, abandoned 

ground burrows, brush piles, caves or rock piles, drain pipes; and in, or 

under, buildings and structures. Urbanization has attracted many raccoons 

into metropolitan areas due to easily obtainable food, water, and shelter. 

Exceptionally inquisitive, their unique dexterity enables them to 

manipulate objects and probe crevices extracting contents within reach for 

examination. 

Raccoons forage at night for a variety of foods including fruit, berries, 

nuts, fish, mollusks, snails, earthworms, insects, crayfish, clams, frogs, 

turtles, carrion, and small rodents and birds as well as their eggs. They may 

incorporate new foods into their diet – such as corn, grain, vegetables, pet 

food, melons, birdseed, and garbage – by watching the behavior of other 

raccoons. In temperate regions of the United States, they have been known 

to uproot lawns in urban areas while ‘grubbing’ for insects and their larvae. 

This behavior usually begins in the fall when many young raccoons are 

responsible for finding their own food, leading biologists to believe it may 

be preparation for winter when doubling their weight is required to survive 

into spring. 

Bacteria, insects, and soil microbiota are the primary drivers of 

decomposition. Insects are attracted to carrion for sustenance for themselves 

or their offspring; whether via the corpse itself, or by other species 

frequenting the site. Post-feeding, the larvae of beetles and flies burrow 

beneath ground litter and into soil adjacent to, and underneath, the corpse, 

seeking protection from predators and other elements in preparation for 

pupation. While newly transformed beetles and flies emerge from the soil 

within several days, dead adult insects may remain in the soil; in some 

instances, many years after death. Blow fly larvae are normally found in 

the first three to five centimeters of soil, while larvae of some of the gnatlike 

flies can be found in buried remains up to depths of four feet. In temperature 

regions, the soil insect fauna beneath the skeletal remains at the 

ground surface will return to normal in approximately two years. 

Recorded video and photographs visually demonstrate raccoon foraging 

to be an agent of soft tissue modification and scene alteration secondary 

to the quest for entomological nourishment. Indeed, a good deal of 

time and effort is spent probing for larvae feeding deep within the internal 

body cavities, snatching-up wriggling larvae from the body and ground, 

and unearthing larvae pupating within the soil. 

Forensic Entomology, Animal Activity, Postmortem Interval 

H87 Interdisciplinary Forensic Science 


Jeffery K. Tomberlin, PhD*, Texas A&M University, 1229 North U.S. 

Highway 281, Stephenville, TX 76401; A. Midori Albert, PhD*, 

University of North Carolina at Wilmington, 601 South College Road, 

Wilmington, NC 28403; Jason H. Byrd, PhD, Office of the Medical 

Examiner, 1360 Indian Lake Road, Daytona Beach, FL 32164;and David 

W. Hall, PhD, David Hall Consultant, Inc., 3666 Northwest 13th Place, 


After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the need to 

record observations regarding the decomposition process of animals used 

as models for conducting forensic workshops; understand the value of such 

observations for the development of research objectives; and understand 

the value of such observations from various regions of the United States, or 

even the world, for future forensic investigations. 

Forensic workshops are primarily conducted to educate law 


enforcement personnel on the novel use of various disciplines as a means 

to solve crime. This presentation will impact the forensic community 

and/or humanity by demonstrating that these workshops can also be used 

to record observations on insect and botanical demographics and 

taphonomy. 

Workshops are a common vehicle for educating law enforcement 

personnel on the application of entomological, anthropological, and 

botanical techniques to gather forensically important information. From 

June 8 to June 11, 2004, such an interdisciplinary workshop was conducted 

outside of Charlotte, NC. The American Academy of Applied Forensics, 

under the auspice of the Central Piedmont Community College, hosted this 

workshop. 

In preparation for this workshop, three pigs weighing individually 

between 40 to 60 kg were sacrificed and placed in the field on June 4, while 

three pigs of similar size were killed and placed in the field on June 7. The 

carcasses were placed at three sites. Two of the sites, separated by approximately 

20m, were in a wooded lot, while the remaining site was in a sunlit 

area approximately 10m from the nearest wooded site. Two carcasses, one 

from each kill date, were placed approximately 1m apart at each site. 

During the afternoon session on the last day of the workshop, participants 

collected three Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) (Diptera: 

Calliphoridae) 3rd instar maggots from one pig that was killed on June 7; 

these data represent the first record of this forensically important insect 

species in North Carolina. Furthermore, these data provide evidence of this 

species expansion into new geographic regions of the United States. 

The interdisciplinary nature of this workshop allowed participants to 

understand the intersection of entomology, anthropology, and botany. The 

new entomological information gathered may have implications for body 

decomposition patterns and rates, thus leading to new research ideas to 

further contribute to forensic science applications. 

Anthropology, Entomology, Botany 

H88 Society of Forensic Anthropologists 

(SOFA): An Introduction 

Craig H. Lahren, MA*, North Dakota Department of Health, Office of 

the Medical Examiner, PO Box 937, Bismarck, ND 58502; and Thomas 

E. Bodkin, MA, Hamilton County Medical Examiner’s Office, 3202 


After attending this presentation, attendees will be aware of the newly 

formed Society of Forensic Anthropologists (SOFA), its members’ contributions 

to active medicolegal investigations, and professional concerns the 

members believe affect the evolving practice of forensic anthropology in 

the 21st century. 


humanity by introducing the Society of Forensic Anthropologists (SOFA) 

to the larger forensic community and invite their discussion of the group’s 

overall mission and professional concerns affecting the discipline. 

In recent years an increasing number of forensically trained anthropologists 

have found professional employment in the medical examiner 

system. Often these individuals carry a dual role within the office serving 

as a medicolegal death investigator and/or autopsy technician in addition to 

being the forensic anthropologist. Typically, they are the only forensic 

anthropologists practicing within their office, contrary to the academic 

setting where you may have several peers. This environment has led to a 

feeling of isolation and limited means of professional communication. As 

a result, several forensic anthropologists working in the medical examiner 

system have formed the Society of Forensic Anthropologists (SOFA). For 

the most part, SOFA is a web-based discussion forum enabling its members 

to consult on cases, discuss advances in the field, and raise concerns 

regarding the evolving practice of forensic anthropology in the 21st 

century. 

462

SOFA formally came to be in February 2003 and is currently 

comprised of 20 members who work professionally throughout the United 

States. Education levels of members include Masters, PhD or PhD, 

D-ABFA. Most lecture and train other anthropologists through various 

institutions. A statistical survey of SOFA members conducted in July 2004 

revealed that members manage all forensic anthropology cases in areas 

ranging in size from a single county to a complete state. During 2003, 

members were assigned 628 anthropology cases and wrote 545 formal 

reports. Reports were filed with various legal agencies. Many of the 

members have testified and/or been subpoenaed to testify as expert 

witnesses in court. In sum, SOFA members make a large professional 

contribution to current medicolegal casework and thereby, the growth of 


During the past year, group members have brought two professional 

concerns to the forefront of discussion. One concern is the lack of policy 

for certification of forensic anthropologists practicing within the medical 

examiner system; and a second is the lack of a standardized system to peer 

review formal reports written by isolated forensic anthropologists. The 

purpose of this presentation is two fold: first, to introduce SOFA to the 

larger forensic anthropology community; and second, to define and raise 

awareness of these concerns. 

Forensic Anthropology, Professional Communication, Society of 

Forensic Anthropologists (SOFA) 

H89 The Forensic Anthropology Society 

of Europe: An Introduction 

Eric Baccino, MD*, Service de Medicine Legale, Hopital Lapeyronie Chu 

de Montpellier, Montpellier, 34295 Cedex 5, France; Christina Cattaneo, 

Instituto di Medicine Legale, Via Mangiagalli, Milano, 20133, Itlay; Yves 

Schuliar, MD, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie 

Nationale, 1 Boulevard Theophile Sueur, Roisny-Sous-Bois, 93110, 

France; Eugenia Cunha, PhD, Departamento da Anthropologia, 

Universitate de Coimbra, Coimbra, 3000-056, Portugal; Randolph 

Penning, Institut Fur Rechtsmedizin, Frauenlobstrasse 8a, Munchen, 

80337, Germany; and Jose Luis Prieto, Instituto de Medicina Forense, 

Severo Ochoa s/n, Madrid, 28040, Spain 


forensic anthropology is organizing itself in Europe. 


humanity by improving transatlantic collaboration in forensic anthropology 

and the certification process in Europe in this field. This is the introduction 

of a European scientific association dedicated to forensic anthropology and 

to the development of international collaboration in this field. 

The first board of FASE (Forensic Anthropology Society of Europe) 

was elected at the IALM (International Academy of Legal Medicine) 

Congress in Milan, September 2003 during a plenary session which was 

officially announced at a preliminary FASE meeting held during the 

International Academy of Forensic Sciences meeting in Montpellier in 

September 2002; it is made of people from five European countries. 

The Board is composed of one President, two vice-Presidents, a 

Secretary a Treasurer, and one auditor. Offices are of the duration of three 

years. All Board members may be reelected for a second term of office. 

The newly elected Board takes over official duties on 1 January following 

elections. 

The FASE was created to bring together anthropologists, forensic 

pathologists, odontologists, geneticists, and other experts in the fields of 

forensic medicine and forensic science, in the scientific and academic promotion 

and development of the discipline of forensic anthropology across 

Europe. 

The goals of FASE are: 

• To encourage the study of, improve the practice of, establish and 

enhance standards for, and advance the science of forensic 

anthropology and related disciplines; promote knowledge and 

research in the field 

• To harmonize techniques and diagnostic procedures in forensic 

anthropology across Europe 

• To encourage and promote adherence to high standards of ethics, 

conduct, and professional practice in forensic anthropology 

• To promote training and certification in forensic anthropology 

and eventually create Boards of certificates and inform the 

existence of trained forensic anthropologists in order to 

guarantee high quality performance in the medicolegal study 

of human remains; 

• The formation of working groups in different areas of forensic 

anthropology and the accreditation of protocols and laboratories. 

Membership: In order to become a member of FASE one must be a 

member of the International Academy of Legal Medicine (IALM). 

Applications for membership must therefore be made to IALM, according 

to the statutes of the Academy, specifying that he/she also wants to become 

a FASE member. 

Board and General Assemblies: The General Assembly will elect 

members of the FASE Board, decide on congresses and meetings, on 

rules/statutes, and other matters dealing with the aims of the Society. The 

General Assembly will meet once every year, at FASE or IALM meetings. 

The Secretary of the Board will forward invitations to the meeting together 

with the Agenda of meetings six weeks before the date of the meeting. 

Yearly assessment: One year after its creation, FASE has officially 30 

registered members (16 MD, anthropologists, dentists, etc.,) coming from 

eight different countries (2 non-Europeans). A one week workshop in 

forensic anthropology (the 7th) was given in Milan from June 28 to July 2 

to 10 students. The first yearly meeting of FASE was held in Frankfurt on 

the 22nd an 23rd of October (more than 20 oral presentations); next year it 

will be held in Monastir during the 2nd Mediterranean Academy of 

Forensic Sciences Biennial meeting (June 22-25, 2005) and in Budapest in 

2006 (IALM meeting). Two newsletters were written (one published in the 

International Journal of Legal Medicine). More up to date information will 

be provided on February 2005. 

Forensic Anthropology, Europe, Organization 

H90 The Louisiana Identification Data Analysis 

Project (IDA): A Comprehensive Analysis 

of Missing and Unidentified Cases 

H. Beth Bassett, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services Laboratory, 

Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 


The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic community with 

information about an effort to solve long-term, unresolved cases. The 

outcome of the presentation includes the potential for cooperative efforts 

among forensic scientists to share resources and methods that may assist 

with such cases. 


humanity by providing information about the Louisiana IDA project, a 

method for establishing a central location for identification data (including 

both missing persons and unidentified remains). The Louisiana IDA 

project may be used as a template for forensic scientists in other areas of 

the country who are addressing the same identification issues. Finally, the 

IDA project has potential for providing the public with resolution of 

unidentified and missing persons cases. 

Thus far, the focus of research in the field of forensic anthropology 

has included the proliferation of principles and methodologies whose applications 

result in the successful resolution of cases of unidentified remains 

(Krogman and Iscan 1986). Additionally, many authors have presented 

case studies which highlight unusual techniques and/or applications that 


have led to identifications (Bennett and Benedix 1999 and Walsh-Haney et 

al. 1999). Yet, unresolved missing persons and unidentified remains cases 

are rarely discussed in presentations and literature (Grisbaum and 

Ubelacker 2001 and Marks 1995). Additionally, many states lack a 

centralized location for information on missing people and unidentified 

remains. This results in a breakdown of communication among different 

agencies that deal with these types of cases and ultimately leaves 

unresolved cases open for long periods of time. 

The Louisiana Identification Data Analysis Project (IDA) initiated at 

the Louisiana State University Forensic Anthropology and Computer 

Enhancement Services Laboratory (LSU FACES Lab) involves the 

systematic collection and storage of traditional identification profile information 

along with DNA profile data on Louisiana’s cases of missing 

persons and unidentified remains. Throughout the history of the LSU 

FACES Lab there have been 91 cases of unidentified remains (with varying 

degrees of completeness) that have been analyzed to an exhaustive degree 

yet have never been identified. These unidentified individuals are from 

many locations across the state of Louisiana and from other states as well. 

Many of them have unique characteristics (such as tattoos, healed skeletal 

fractures, and dental restorations/features) that could corroborate or negate 

their potential identity when compared with information about missing 

people. Also, some Louisiana agencies have retained or buried unidentified 

remains that have never been evaluated by an anthropologist and/or 

odontologist. 

To initiate the IDA project, data on approximately 400 missing 

persons and unidentified remains cases from across Louisiana and the 

country was collected. This number represents only a fraction of these 

types of cases from Louisiana and the nation. Through the IDA project, the 

Forensic Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services Laboratory is 

becoming the central location for data on Louisiana’s missing and unidentified 

people. It is hypothesized that some identifications could be resolved 

by providing a centralized location for the information on these cases. 

Currently, the researchers are continuing to compare the data on missing 

people from across the state and country with known cases that have been 

found but are unresolved. The systematic data collection on Louisiana’s 

missing people and unidentified remains has begun using the WINID3 

software package, a Windows-based dental and demographic program. 

Additionally, bone, hair, and tooth samples are being provided to the North 

Louisiana Criminalistics Laboratory for DNA profiling of the unidentified 

remains. Concurrent with the analysis of accessible cases, the database is 

being built by gathering additional information on other missing persons 

from across Louisiana. Finally, the authors aim to collect biological and 

DNA profile information of all people missing from Louisiana. 

The goal is to resolve as many of these cases of unidentified remains 

and missing persons as possible. As the Louisiana database continues to 

build, the authors wish to invite other anthropologists to consider this 

model and join in this substantial effort. 

References: 

1. Bennett JL and Benedix DC. Positive Identification of Cremains 

Recovered from an Automobile Based on Presence of an Internal Fixation 

Device. J Forensic Sci 1999; 44; 1296-1298. 

2. Grisbaum GA and Ubelacker DH. An analysis of forensic anthropology 

cases submitted to the Smithsonian Institution by the Federal Bureau of 

Investigation from 1962 to 1994. Smithsonian Contributions to 

Anthropology No. 45. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, 

2001. 

3. Krogman WM and Iscan MY. The Human Skeleton in Forensic 

Medicine. Springfield: CC Thomas, 1986. 

4. Marks MK. William M. Bass and the Development of Forensic 

Anthropology in Tennessee. J Forensic Sci 1995; 40; 741-750. 

5. Walsh-Haney H. Katzmarzyk C. and Falsetti AB. Identification of 

Human Skeletal Remains: Was He a She or She a He? In Fairgrieve, SI, 

editor. Forensic Osteological Analysis. Springfield: CC Thomas, 1999, 

17-35. 

Forensic Anthropology, Unidentified Remains, Missing Persons 


H91 FAD - A Database Application for 

Forensic Anthropology in Human Rights 

Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Porzellangasse 48/12a, Alipasina 45a, Vienna, 

1090, Austria; Anahi Ginarte, Lic., EAAF, Rivadavia 2443, dpto 3 y 4, 

Buenos Aires, C1034ACD, Argentina 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce the forensic community to 

a new database application as a tool for forensic anthropology and to show 

the advantage of using such an application in the practice of forensic 

exhumations, examinations, and identifications. 


humanity by presenting a new tool to facilitate and standardize Forensic 

anthropological work in a human rights context. 

In order to support forensic anthropologists working in a human rights 

related field, the authors, in cooperation with the Argentine Forensic 

Anthropology Team (Equipo Argentino de Antropologia Forense – EAAF) 

created a special database application for exhumation and identification of 

human remains. The Forensic Anthropological Database (FAD) facilitates 

the process of identification of skeletal remains and has been instrumental 

in assisting the EAAF in organizing and processing their world-wide case 

load. It features modules on exhumation, anthropological analysis, sorting, 

and re-association of commingled remains, and antemortem information on 

missing persons that can be matched with the postmortem data obtained 

from anthropological analysis. In addition, the database supports general 

conclusions and statistical analysis from examined cases, such as biological 

and traumatic profile of skeletal populations. In this electronic format, the 

data also remains available for further scientific research. As such, the FAD 

is the first system of its kind and, being easy to use and based on easily 

accessible software, constitutes an important contribution to the forensic 

anthropological investigation of human rights violations and the identification 

of the victims. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Archaeology, Database 

H92 New Tools for the Processing of Human 

Remains From Mass Graves: Spatial 

Analysis and Skeletal Inventory 

Computer Programs Developed for 

an Inter-Disciplinary Approach to the 

Re-association of Commingled, 

Disarticulated and Incomplete 

Human Remains 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, Central 


96853-5530; Cecily Cropper, BSc*, Ute Hofmeister, MA*, Laura 

Yazedjian, MSc, Jon Sterenberg, MSc, and Jon M. Davoren, MA*, 

International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, 


The goal of this presentation is the introduction of two computer programs 

that can potentially assist mortuary personnel in the re-association of 

numerous disarticulated body parts through inter and intra-site analysis for 

purposes of facilitating identification and increasing efficiency of a large 

scale DNA identification process. 


humanity by demonstrating the use of computer database programs by all 

professions involved in the identification of human remains from mass 

graves. 

The means of deposition of human remains within mass graves often 

464

leads to a large amount of disarticulation, commingling and incomplete 

bodies. While ‘routine’ cases are usually processed in stages by separate 

forensic disciplines, often in separate locations, the simultaneous 

processing of hundreds to thousands of human remains from mass graves 

can be overwhelming if a similar system is employed. The complexities of 

recovery, recording, and processing large amounts of disarticulated remains 

require innovative solutions that integrate several disciplines. This panel 

wishes to present to the forensic community a process by which data 

recorded during the recovery and examination of remains from mass graves 

may be used to assist in the re-association of disarticulated human remains. 

The first database application involves spatial analysis of 

commingled, disarticulated and incomplete bodies. Contemporary 

methods of mass grave recovery operations often include the electronic 

three-dimensional recording of bodies, body parts, artifacts, and related 

feature location and position. From these locational points, maps can be 

created to represent the crime scene or to reconstruct the sequence of 

events, including separate depositions of remains from a number of primary 

graves. However, the use of the data points does not have to end with map 

making. These locational points may also be extremely useful in guiding 

re-association efforts of disarticulated remains on the large scale needed at 

mass graves. The electronic survey data can be queried to generate a list of 

a particular body part, in order of distance, which may belong to a specific 

body missing that element. The premise is that the closest disarticulated 

body part to a body missing that particular part has a higher probability of 

being the correct match than all other same body parts at the site that are 

further away. The resulting list has the potential to save hours of work by 

providing mortuary personnel with an inventory of the nearest targeted 

body part to aid in re-association with a body. Instead of having to 

randomly search through all potential body part matches the mortuary 

worker can use the generated list as a starting point in their search for the 

most likely match. 

The second application involves a comprehensive visual skeletal 

inventory that again can be queried for purposes of re-association. During 

initial examination of remains mortuary personnel can record all present 

body elements for each case they work on in the skeletal database. After 

all cases have been recorded the mortuary worker can then query the 

database for all the potential matches to a particular body part or body 

missing that element. Combined, the spatial analysis and the visual skeletal 

database may prove to be important tools in strengthening the efficiency of 

re-association and identification of complex and large scale sets of human 

remains. 

With the success of mass scale DNA testing, DNA analysis of all 

elements recovered is possible. The unfortunate down side of DNA 

analysis is the cost of the process. While recovery and identification 

missions of mass disasters in the United States and other developed nations 

are usually well enough funded to cover the cost of such testing, this is not 

true of most less developed or post-conflict countries. The desired effect of 

such databases is a decrease in unnecessary DNA sampling and analysis, 

and an increase in overall processual efficiency. 

The presenting panel made up of Recovery, Mortuary, DNA, and 

Database personnel will provide examples of the use of spatial analysis and 

skeletal inventory database programs with remains recovered from mass 

graves. Each panelist will describe his or her role in the processing of the 

remains and how the programs integrate into their work. 

Database, Commingled Remains, Re-association 

465 

* Presenting Author

jDALLA 


j2004 

H1 Skeletons in the Medical Examiner’s 

Closet: Realities and Merits of 

Investigating Human Skeletal Remains 

Undergoing Long Term Curation in 

the Medical Examiner’s Office 

Donna C. Boyd, PhD*, Radford University, Box 6948, Department 

of Sociology and Anthropology, Radford, VA 24142; William Massello 

III, MD, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 6600 Northside High 

School Road, Roanoke, VA 24019 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the scientific and educational 

value of studying the “cold” case in forensic anthropology. 


humanity by encouraging qualified forensic anthropologists to inventory 

and study (in some cases, restudy) “cold” cases undergoing long-term 

curation in Medical Examiner’s offices or other such facilities. 

Miscellaneous collections of forensically significant unidentified 

human skeletal remains are commonly curated over a substantial period 

of time in Medical Examiner’s offices and other such facilities across the 

nation. Many of these are considered “cold” cases due to the absence of 

significant leads in these cases in several years. Others may be donated 

or unclaimed remains or those transferred from other facilities (e.g., 

Sheriff’s offices, Police department closets). It is paradoxical that while 

the general public may perceive these cases as intriguing (with considerable 

potential for being “solved”), many professionals may see them 

as scientifically uninformative due to the inherent problems plaguing 

them. These problems often include an absence of contextual information 

concerning the derivation of the remains. It may not be known 

when, where, or even under what circumstances the remains were found, 

for example. In addition, key evidence may have deteriorated or been 

compromised in the intervening years—witnesses, relatives, and perpetrators 

may no longer be available, and linking evidence between each 

of these lost. Finally, the longer the period of curation, the greater the 

effect of physical deterioration on the remains themselves; there is also 

a greater chance of compromising their remaining contextual integrity. 

Given these limitations, it is not surprising that these cases may be 

treated as lower priority. While it is true that the odds of resolving many 

of these older cases are significantly lower than more recent ones, the 

value of these “cold” cases is more subtle and far-reaching. 

The objective of this presentation is the documentation of both 

national and regional difficulties and benefits of inventorying and 

studying these types of cases. The prevalence of these “cold” cases as 

well as their status is assessed nationally through a cross-sectional 

survey of medical examiners and forensic anthropologists across the 

country. On a regional level, the Virginia State Office of the Chief 

Medical Examiner, Western District, in Roanoke, Virginia, serves as a 

model for the kinds of cases which may be present in other such facilities. 

A survey of the collections housed within this office reveals a wide 

range of case types, histories, and degrees of contextual integrity. 

Systematic study of these cases over the past four years has resulted in 

the compilation of data with significant scientific and educational merit 

in at least three ways. First, forensic case reports (detailing basic vital 

statistical information for each case) have been completed and placed on 

file at the Roanoke Medical Examiner’s office for future reference in the 

event that these cases become active again. This can, in fact, stimulate 

renewed interest and investigation of these cases. Second, these cases 

have scientific research value in that they expand the known range of 

human skeletal variation—they represent males and females of diverse 


ages, races, and pathological states and as such may aid the development 

and testing of new methods of forensic skeletal analysis and the validation 

of existing ones. Intensive study of the antemortem and perimortem 

pathologies which are manifested on these cases (including 

trauma and anomalies) give insight into the identification and differentiation 

of these conditions as well as the processes responsible for them. 

Likewise, observation of postdepositional effects on these remains 

enhances our understanding of the taphonomic pathways which they and 

other skeletonized remains endure. Finally, a third benefit derived from 

these cases is in the realm of education. These bones have been used as 

“practice” forensic cases for students enrolled in osteology and forensic 

anthropology courses at Radford University and can be an invaluable 

hands-on teaching tool for the young forensic scientist seeking to gain 

on-the-job experience. In sum, the oft-abandoned “cold” curated 

forensic case has much to offer in terms of its educational and scientific 

value and warrants further investigation. 

Forensic Anthropology, Cold Cases, Education 

H2 Nonmetric Characteristics of the Skull for 


Nicole D. Truesdell, BA*, 1933 South Brightside View Drive, 

Apartment E, Baton Rouge, LA 70820 

This presentation has two objectives: to demonstrate the reliability 

of nonmetric morphological observations of the human skull for race 

attribution; and to illustrate secular trends found in frequency differences 

between the temporally divergent samples. 

The results of this study are useful for forensic anthropology by 

showing the relative reliability of seven nonmetric traits used for attribution 

of race in the skull. A forensic anthropologist often uses nonmetric 

morphological characteristics for race assessment in the field. 

This study confirms that this method is still applicable. The results of 

this study should also be of interest to bioanthropologists by the 

resulting quantification of morphological change in the facial and cranial 

form due to secular trends. 

Physical anthropologists have used morphological traits in the 

cranium, dentition, and mandible as a means of assessing race from the 

skull. Variance in reliability of these nonmetric traits are thought to be 

due to social and genetic group change, making racial identification 

much more difficult in modern cases. But does admixture inhibit nonmetric 

morphological characteristics as a means for identifying race in 

the skeleton? An evaluation of a group of these traits and influences from 

secular change in these traits needs to be determined. 

Three different temporal samples were evaluated from collections 

at the Smithsonian Institution, totaling 324 crania. Morphological criteria 

were assessed from Hooton’s 1949 “Harvard List” and Gill’s 1986 

Craniofacial Criteria in Forensic Race Identification, and seven traits 

were selected. Six assess facial features and one describes braincase 

form. The facial region was emphasized because previous research has 

shown this region to be the most accurate for race attribution. 

The Terry Collection was initially used (100 Blacks and 107 

Whites) to test the nonmetric criteria for accuracy and repeatability. 

Reliability testing of the traits was conducted using two sets of 25 crania 

blindly selected from the Terry Collection evaluated by the author and a 

second test independently evaluated by an intern. Each test obtained 

84% accuracy in correctly attributing race from the cranium. These 

results indicate the reliability of these traits to attribute biological race 

without significant inter-observer error. 

466

Four American Colonial sites were then evaluated: The Armor and 

Drummond Harris Sites, Governor’s Landing, Virginia (nine Whites); Cliffs 

Plantation, Westmoreland County, Virginia (nine Blacks, five Whites); 

Catoctin Furnace, Thurmont, Maryland (nine Blacks) and a Colonial 

Cemetery from Deep River, Maryland (one Black, three Whites). An 

assortment of West African and Caribbean crania from the collections were 

also selected in order to obtain an originating “African” population from 

which to compare and assess admixture to later American Black groups. 

Results from the research found that the Terry Blacks exhibited 

typical Negroid characteristics in orbital shape (oblong), nasal bridge 

(wide 50% of the sample), cranial form (long, 65% of the sample), nasal 

spine (small, 46% of the sample), and nasal sill (dull to no sill for 84% of 

the population). Alveolar prognathism was not a strong characteristic in 

the Black population with only 32.5% having pronounced and 38.6% 

having slight prognathism. Total nasal form was also not as expected, with 

only 44% having a broad nasal form. 

Whites in the Terry Collection, exhibited strong typical Caucasoid 

characteristics for each of the traits. There was no alveolar prognathism, 

the orbits were rhomboid with a narrow nasal bridge large nasal spine and 

sharp nasal sill, the total nasal from being narrow and cranial form is high. 

Terry Whites also tended to exhibit a much more prominent chin than 

Blacks as well as greater brow ridging in the medial orbital region than 

Blacks. This most likely due to the pinched nasal bridge morphology. 

Race attribution accuracy in the Terry Collection overall identified 

Blacks at 90% while Whites were correctly classified at 94.4%. When 

divided sex, Black females yielded 90% correct, White females yielded 

88% accuracy and White males had 100% accuracy while Black males 

were lower at 90% correct. 

The American Colonial Blacks displayed higher frequencies for 

alveolar prognathism, wide nasal bridge, long cranial form, insipient nasal 

spine, lack of nasal sill, and total nasal form. As such, this group presents 

more strongly “typical” Negroid features than the Terry Blacks. Orbital 

shape was exactly 50/50, indicating that this trait is not as useful as a racial 

criterion for this group. The White Colonial population was decidedly 

more difficult to identify. Colonial Whites tend to have elongated crania, 

which make their faces appear more rectangular. This gives the suggestion 

of African origins. Subsequently, accuracy for the Colonial Whites was 

only 50% while for the Colonial Blacks it was 100%. 

The African and Caribbean skeletal material overall gave the 

strongest typical Negroid results, as was expected. Alveolar prognathism 

was clearly present, along with a wide nasal bridge, long cranial form, 

small to absent nasal spine, absent to dull nasal sill, and a broad nasal 

form. As was found before, orbital shape was not a distinctive feature. 

Frequency comparisons of the three sample clearly show differences 

in facial form between these groups, illustrating the secular trends present 

due to significant admixture in the American Black sample, especially 

after the American Civil War. The Terry Blacks displays morphological 

form that is much more intermediate to the frequencies in the Colonial 

Blacks and certainly divergent from the frequencies of the African Blacks. 

Conversely, the American Terry Whites are not as distinctly different from 

their temporally earlier counterparts, other than in facial height, as discussed 

above. 

Nonmetric Traits, Race Attribution, Cranial Morphology 

H3 3-Dimensional Morphometric Analysis 

of the Zygomatic as Used in Ancestral 


Summer J. Decker, BA*, Jennifer L. Thompson, PhD, and Bernardo T. 

Arriaza, PhD, Department of Anthropology & Ethnic Studies, 

University of Nevada at Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 

455003, Las Vegas, NV 89154-5003 

This poster will demonstrate a technique which in capturing the 

form of a craniofacial trait, lends increased accuracy to ancestry 

assessment. 


humanity by serving to increase scientific knowledge of new technologies 

and methods available to the forensic community that augment 

traditional methods and may ultimately increase precision in human 

identification. Ancestral identification, although often shrouded in controversy, 

continues to be an integral component of the biological profile. 

By adopting new technologies and methods, forensic scientists enhance 

their likelihood of successfully identifying unknown individuals. 

The purpose of this poster is to investigate the potential of 3-D geometric 

morphometric landmark data to determine ancestry using the 

zygomatic region of the skull. 

The determination of ancestry is often a critical component in the 

forensic identification of human skeletal remains. Ancestral classification 

is usually measured by examining a suite of metric and nonmetric 

traits whose grouping tendencies have been extensively 

researched. For example, traditional metric morphological measurements 

have shown that ancestry can be determined from the skull 85-90 

percent of the time (Krogman & Iscan 1986:296; Sauer 1992). 

However, an overwhelming number of these traits are non-metric in 

nature and cannot be measured with traditional osteological tools (Rhine 

1990). The ability to predict the ancestral group or groups with which 

an individual is associated is based solely on the observer’s experience. 

While many non-metric traits are recorded as present or absent (e.g., 

inion hook, metopic suture, wormian bones, etc.), others leave a 

tremendous amount of room for interpretation and, consequently, 

observer error. While traditional methods of ancestral analysis have 

proven their usefulness in forensic identification, new technologies are 

providing the opportunity to reevaluate current methods and create new 

techniques for analysis, like geometric morphometrics, which should 

help forensic and physical anthropologists to increase the accuracy of 

their results. 

Over the past 20 years, the frequency of geometric morphometric 

studies has increased in physical anthropology. The applicability of such 

studies is now being explored by individuals in the field of forensics 

(e.g., Ousley 2003). Geometric morphometrics, the study of biological 

size and shape variation, is based on the analysis of 3-D coordinate data 

of anatomical landmarks (Bookstein 1991). These studies have increased 

precision and control error in the interpretation of biological data over 

those using traditional metric measurements. The coordinate data of geometric 

morphometric analyses, in particular, use the relationships 

between the landmarks to give a more comprehensive depiction of an 

object. Landmarks must be clearly defined and be able to be reproduced 

with certain accuracy by different observers. While many of these 

correspond with accepted anatomical landmarks like ectoconchion, 

zygion, and jugale, they often do not give the most complete picture of 

the object being studied. However, additional craniometric landmarks 

can be designed to complete this gap and better represent the form of the 

trait being studied. 

This study examines the geometric morphological form of the 

zygomatic since it is a bone of particular interest to those attempting to 

identify ancestry of an individual. According to Rhine (1990), the angle 

of the zygomatic, in relation to the entire craniofacial region, can vary 

between Caucasoid (retreating), Mongoloid (projecting), and Negroid 

(vertical) skulls. The distinction between these populations is often made 

by placing a pencil across the nasal aperture and by attempting to insert 

a finger between the zygomatic and pencil in order to determine the 

angle (Bass 1995). While “eye balling” methods are beneficial in the 

field or for a quick assessment, there are times when more accurate 

methods are needed, especially in today’s often hostile judicial climate. 

The purpose of this pilot study was to transform a non-metric 

ancestral trait into a metric one by quantifying or ‘metricizing’ it. A 

Microscribe G2X 3-D digitizer was used to collect data from a variety of 

landmarks to help capture the size and shape of the zygomatic. The 

software package Morphologika (O’Higgins) helped with the visualization 

of form and the statistical analyses used to assess the variation of 

form within and between populations to isolate discriminating factors. 


The sample was comprised of individuals of known origin, both male 

and female, representing each traditional ancestral group, Caucasoid, 

Mongoloid, and Negroid. The preliminary results confirm the distinctiveness 

of the zygomatic region yet also reveal interesting patterns of 

variation within each of these traditional ancestral groups. 

This study serves to increase scientific knowledge of new technologies 

and methods available to forensic anthropology that augment 

traditional osteological methods and may ultimately increase precision 

in human identification. Ancestral identification, although often 

shrouded in controversy, continues to be an integral component of the 

biological profile. By adopting new technologies and methods, forensic 

anthropologists enhance their likelihood of successfully identifying 


Bass, WM. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. 4th ed. 

Columbia: Missouri Archaeological Society, Inc. Special Publication 

No. 2, 1995. 

Bookstein, FL. Morphometric Tools for Landmark Data: Geometry and 

Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 

Krogman, WM, Isçan MY. The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. 

2nd ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1986. 

O’Higgins P, Jones N. Morphologika (software). University College of 

London © 1999. 

Ousley, SD. Forensic Anthropology, Repatriation and the “Mongoloid” 

Problem. In: Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic 

Sciences Annual Meeting; 2003 Feb 17-22; Chicago (IL); 245-246. 

Rhine S. Non-metric Skull Racing. In: Gill GW, Rhine, S, editors. 

Skeletal Attribution of Race. Albuquerque, NM: Maxwell Museum of 

Anthropology, Anthropological Papers No. 4, 1990:9-20. 

Sauer N. Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races 

Don’t Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists so Good at Identifying 

Them? Social Science & Medicine. 1992;34(2):107-111. 

Ancestry, 3D Geometric Morphometrics, Human Identification 

H4 Sex Determination of Infants 

and Juveniles From the Clavicle 

Natalie R. Langley, MA* and Richard Jantz, PhD, Department of 



The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic community 

with rates of accuracy obtained by using the clavicle to sex sub-adults 

from a modern sample. 


humanity by directing attention to an underutilized skeletal element that 

may have potential in sexing subadults. 

This poster will give the results of a test of the clavicle’s accuracy 

in determining sex in subadults. This study was conducted because of 

the difficulty of accurately sexing subadult skeletons. Much of the 

research done up to this point focuses on the pelvis and the teeth. 

Unfortunately, the number of studies done on subadult sexing is 

somewhat sparse, largely due to a lack of sizable skeletal samples of 

known sex and age. 

The present study uses a modern autopsy sample of infant and 

juvenile clavicles housed at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville. 

The McCormick clavicles were collected between 1986 and 1997 by Dr. 

William F. McCormick from individuals of known sex, age and ancestry. 

The sample available for this study consists of mainly Caucasian 

children, and, consequently, the results presented here should not be generalized 

to all ethnic backgrounds. Furthermore, there were no children 

between the ages of four and six from which data could be obtained. 

Future research and the inclusion of additional samples will eliminate 

this gap. 


The sample consists of 86 individuals: 36 females and 50 males. 

The left clavicle was absent in seven individuals, but all others had both 

clavicles. For purposes of statistical analysis, the sample was divided 

into infants (0-3 years) and juveniles (7-17 years). Statistical analysis 

was done with SAS version 8.2. Three measurements were taken from 

each clavicle: (1) maximum length, (2) sagittal diameter at midshaft, and 

(3) vertical diameter at midshaft. Separate accuracy rates were obtained 

for each measurement. 

Maximum length of the clavicle yielded accuracy rates of about 

62% for both age groups and sexes: infant females=62%; infant 

males=59%; juvenile females=62%; juvenile males=63%. Vertical 

diameter at midshaft gave slightly better rates overall: infant 

females=60%; infant males=63%; juvenile females=69%; juvenile 

males=73%. The results for sagittal diameter at midshaft differed vastly 

between age groups: infant females=51%; infant males=53%; juvenile 

females=85%; juvenile males=77%. 

The best rate obtained for the infant group was 63%, which suggests 

that, although the clavicle is sexually dimorphic at birth (or even 

before then), it is not a reliable indicator of sex in infants for forensic or 

archaeological purposes. Likewise, maximum length is not a reliable 

indicator of sex in juveniles. However, the measures of diameter proved 

fairly reliable for sex determination in juveniles (69-85%). 

These results suggest that measures of robusticity may be more sexually 

dimorphic in juveniles than measures of length. Indeed, in an 1998 

American Journal of Physical Anthropology article titled Growth 

Patterns in the Modern Human Skeleton (105(1):57-72), Humphrey 

states that sexual dimorphism in long bone length is attained at adolescence, 

whereas sexual dimorphism in long bone diameters develops 

between birth and five years. Specifically, Humphrey maintains that 

sexual differences in all dimensions of the clavicle are already present at 

birth. The present research suggests that sexual dimorphism in long bone 

diameter is greater in the juvenile group than in infants. These results 

warrant further investigation into this area, and the authors are working 

to increase the sample size and eliminate the information gap for 4-6year-old 

children. 

Sexing, Sub-Adults, Clavicle 

H5 Sexual Dimorphism in the Distal Humerus 

Suzanne S. Ii, BA*, 4198 East Manning Avenue, Fowler, CA 93625- 

9631; David R. Hunt, PhD, National Museum of Natural History, 


This presentation provides the results of a metric analysis of six 

measurements on the distal humerus to determine their accuracy in discriminating 

the sex of the individual. The results indicate the most 

accurate measurements to be the articular width and biepicondylar 

width. 


humanity by showing that the distal left humerus can provide an alternative 

to sex identification in a forensic setting when other elements are 

missing. Occupational stress or habitual stress on the elbow may be the 

influential variable affecting the accuracy of some of the measurements 

for sex identification. This can be seen in the disparity of the articular 

width versus the biepicondylar width measurement results. Further 

refinement in measuring techniques of the distal humerus may provide 

better quantification of the sexual dimorphism in this bone. 

Fragmentary remains in a forensic setting often do not include the 

most obvious elements used to measure or make morphological 

assessment of the sex for the individual. With the exclusion of elements 

such as the cranium, pelvis, or femora, sex identification becomes 

increasingly difficult to undertake. This becomes even more difficult 

when only isolated bones or partial remains are found. To assist in the 

determination of sex from fragmentary remains, this study focuses on 

468

measurements of the distal humerus to evaluate the differences present 

in this morphology by statistical means. The object of this study is to 

identify metric differentiation between males and females in a modern 

population for use in determining sex from the distal humerus. 

This study evaluated 268 adult left humerii from 141 males and 127 

females from the Robert J. Terry Anatomical Collection. Humerii 

exhibiting abnormalities, severe arthritic wear, and fragmentation were 

excluded from this study. Elements were randomly chosen to avoid any 

selection biasing. However, equal numbers of Blacks and Whites and 

males and females were obtained from the collection to provide balanced 

sample sets for statistical comparison. Morgue records of the 

individuals in the Terry Collection were utilized to obtain reported cause 

of death, age, sex, and race. 

Discriminant analysis was applied to assess the metric variables’ 

ability to accurately assign sex using SYSTAT 10.2 software. Variables 

were analyzed independently and their accuracy determined. The two 

variables with highest ability to attribute sex were then combined to test 

for their ability as a combined set. All six measurements were also analyzed 

as one combined set with the races pooled, the only discretionary 

variable being between males and females, since race cannot be identified 

in fragmentary remains. 

From the results of the statistical analysis, the combined six 

variable set provided a total correct sex attribution rate of 94%, with a 

97% accuracy rating in the females (120 females correctly classified, 4 

females misclassified) and the male sample producing a 91% accuracy 

rate (128 males accurately classified, 13 males misclassified). The two 

most valuable independent variables for sex attribution were articular 

width, with a total accuracy of 93% (97% correct for females and 89% 

for males) and biepicondylar width, correctly identifying sex at 85% 

correct (86% for females and 85% for males). These two measurements 

combined had a total accuracy rating of 93%, correctly classifying 120 

females and misclassifying 4 females (97%) and 127 males were classified 

correctly with 14 males misclassified (90%). 

Either articular width or biepicondylar width can be used independently 

as a defining measurement to accurately attribute sex to an individual. 

The combination of the two measurements provides a high 

degree of accuracy in determining sex. Articular width is the most 

reliable single measurement to correctly sex individuals. These few measurements 

can prove valuable when uncovering partial remains and can 

consequently give possible evidence to determine the identity of the 

individual. 

The results of this investigation have shown that the distal left 

humerus can provide an alternative to sex identification in a forensic 

setting where other elements, such as the pelvis and cranium, are 

missing. Occupational stress or habitual stress on the elbow may be the 

influential variable affecting the accuracy of some of the measurements 

for sex identification. This can be seen in the disparity of the articular 

width versus the biepicondylar width measurement results. Further 

refinement in measuring techniques of the distal humerus may provide 

better quantification of the sexual dimorphism in this bone. Additional 

studies should also be conducted to substantiate this study’s results. 

Humerus, Forensic Anthropology, Sexual Dimorphism 

H6 Sex vs. Gender: Does it Really Matter? 

Frank P. Saul, PhD* and Julie M. Saul, BA, Consultants, Lucas 

County Coroner’s Office and Wayne County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 3518 East Lincolnshire Boulevard, Toledo, OH 43-1203 

After viewing this presentation, participants should have a better 

understanding of the terms “sex” and “gender” and the practical and 

research implications of their usage. 

In these days of increasing awareness, if not increasing frequency, 

of unintentional as well as intentional cross dressing and similar practices, 

it is increasingly important to maintain the distinction between the 

terms “sex” (biologic identity) and “gender” (social identity). The 

authors believe that it is potentially confusing to refer to “gender identification 

of dried blood stains” as has occurred in the Journal of Forensic 

Sciences. The individual whose biological remains are one sex may 

have been “passing” as the other. 

Walker and Cook (1999), speaking primarily to anthropologists, 

eloquently expressed their concern about the increasing use of the terms 

sex and gender as synonyms. They reviewed the usage and etymology of 

the two terms, but basically, sex refers to an individual’s biologic 

identity and gender refers to an individuals social identity (which may, 

or may not, coincide with that individuals sex or biologic identity). Sex 

is determined by the presence or absence of the Y chromosome but 

gender may be assumed or chosen by the individual. 

One of the most interesting examples of gender assumption may be 

found in the Sioux Indians of the past in the American Great Plains. The 

Sioux epitomized the stereotypical Indian warrior on horseback who 

sought out hand-to-hand combat with the enemy. Less well known is the 

fact that Sioux culture made provision for males who did not wish to 

become warriors to declare instead that they were berdaches and assume 

female gender clothing and roles such as food preparation and camp 

chores. Apparently they did this without stigmatization and homosexual 

orientation was not necessarily involved. 

History also records individual females who donned male clothing 

so that they could assume a male gender role and serve as soldiers during 

the American Civil and other past wars. 

In an otherwise excellent text, Steele and Bramblett (1988) matter 

of factly (and with no explanation) refer to “The Estimation of Gender” 

and continue to do so in contexts where the term sex had previously been 

used in similar publications. 

However, the seemingly academic distinction between sex and 

gender has profound significance for both archaeological and forensic 

applications of osteological analysis. 

The authors were unaware of the extent of the problem until several 

years ago when they were asked to assist a graduate student about to 

undertake archaeologic field research on gender as revealed by cultural 

associations and context in ancient Maya burials (Geller 1998). It was 

at that time that they learned how influential (and obfuscating) Steele 

and Bramblett’s text had been in helping to train a generation or so of 


In addition, a number of presumably well-meaning non-anthropologists 

apparently have come to believe that gender is a more politically 

correct way of referring to sex and this inappropriate term now shows up 

on official forms and in similar contexts. (For a discussion of some of 

the ramifications of this usage, see Jennifer Mather Saul (2003)). 

The authors’ research on the ancient Maya involves assigning male 

or female sex to skeletons using standards based preferably on the proportions 

and contours of the human pelvis, which has been designed by 

natural selection for successful birthing in females. As indicated above, 

some of their archaeologist colleagues are attempting to learn about the 

gender/sociocultural roles played by these individuals in life, using the 

artifacts/grave goods encountered within the burial. Some of the artifacts 

used to denote female gender/roles include the problematic spindle 

whorls that appear to be associated with weaving. Unfortunately, when 

skeletal remains are fragmentary and pelvic sex indicators have not been 

available (and in some instances even when appropriate pelvic remains 

were available) assumptions of biologic sex of burials have been made 

using such artifacts, or, even more misleading - the dictum that only 

males are buried in tombs. The authors have previously demonstrated 

the fallacy of the latter at Altar de Sacrificios (1972) and Rio Azul (2000) 

using pelvic remains that indicated the occupants were females. In fact, 

both females within the Altar tomb also possessed the pre-auricular sulci 

that denote the changes that occur in late pregnancy due to the release of 

the hormone relaxin. 

Fortunately, mistakes have been avoided in their forensic practices 

at the Wayne County Medical Examiners Office (WCMEO) in Detroit, 


Michigan, and the Lucas County Coroners Office (LCCO) in Toledo, 

Ohio, by proceeding cautiously. It is always tempting to use clothing to 

jump to conclusions when confronted with otherwise immediately 

unidentifiable remains, but obviously clothing (and jewelry) are transferable 

and should not be used for sexing or positive identifications. A 

recent WCMEO case involved the mostly skeletonized remains of a 

probable black child. The authors’ biographic profile estimated the age 

at 4-6 years and although they are always hesitant to sex an immature 

individual they noted: Sex Uncertain, but possibly male based on the left 

ilium and mandible. An accompanying T-ball league T-shirt later led to 

a girls T-ball team and a young female whose black father had passed her 

outgrown shirt on to a male relative who passed it on to his 5-year-old 

son, who turned out to be the victim in this case. 

In an LCCO case, as reported in the first news broadcasts, involved 

the discovery of an apparent black female at the foot of the stairs in the 

home of an apparently missing white male golf professional. The 

apparent black female was fully clothed in a dramatic dress, jewelry, 

hose and high heels and wrapped from head to ankles in a plastic bag and 

duct tape. Wisely, the deputy coroner did not jump to conclusions and 

the careful unwrapping of the mummy revealed a sad case of death by 

accidental sexual asphyxiation of a white male. 

Additional examples to be presented include brightly painted toenails 

on a male airplane crash victim who had attended a bachelor party 

the night before and similar cautionary cases of potential sex/gender 

confusion. 

Walker PL, Cook D. Brief communication: gender and sex: vive la difference. 

Amer J Physical Anthrop, 1998;106:255-9. 

[Steele DJ, Bramblett CA. The anatomy and biology of the human 

skeleton. College Station, Texas, Texas A&M University Press 1988. 

Geller PL. Analysis of sex and gender in a Maya mortuary context at 

Preclassic Cuello, Belize. Chicago, IL, University of Chicago, 

Unpublished Masters Thesis 1998. 

Saul JM. Feminism: Issues and arguments. Oxford, UK, Oxford 

University Press 2003. 

Saul FP. The human skeletal remains from Altar de Sacrificios, 

Guatemala: An osteobiographic analysis. Cambridge, MA. Peabody 

Museum of Harvard Press 1972. 

Saul FP, Saul JM. The people of Rio Azul. In: Adams REW, editor. Rio 

Azul reports, number 5, The 1987 season. San Antonio, TX. 

Mesoamerican Archaeological Research Laboratory, University of Texas 

2000. 

Sex vs. Gender, Social Identity, Biologic Identity 

H7 Age at Death Determination Using the 




Adrienne L. Foose, BA*, Robert R. Paine, PhD, and Richard A. 

Nisbett, PhD, Texas Tech University, Department of Sociology, 

Anthropology, and Social Work, PO Box 1012, Lubbock, TX 79409- 

1012; Sridhar Natarajan, MD, Texas Tech University Health Sciences 

Center, Department of Pathology, Division of Forensic Pathology, 

3601 4th Street, Lubbock, TX 79430 


a new method to aid in age at death determination using the 

microanatomy of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones of the 

human skeleton. 


humanity by demonstrating a new method for age approximation using 

bone histology of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones of the 

human skeleton. 


The metatarsal and metacarpal bones have not been examined histologically 

to determine the possible significance between skeletal age 

and actual age at death. Our hypothesis is that human cortical bone of the 

third metacarpal and third metatarsal yields statistically significant 

results that correlate with documented age, based on the cumulative 

microscopic age changes of bone. The aim of this ongoing research is to 

contribute to the growing body of methodologies used for histological 

aging determination and identification of skeletal material in a forensic 

context. 

Autopsy samples were obtained through signed consent release 

from the Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Division of 

Forensic Pathology, Lubbock County Medical Examiner’s Office. Bone 

samples were also acquired from cadavers available from the Texas Tech 

University Health Sciences Center, Department of Anatomy. For each 

sample, information on the individual’s age, sex, height, weight, health 

conditions prior to death, and cause of death were collected. The documented 

ages for our 50 samples range from 19 to 93 years of age at 

death. The histomorphometric analysis involves preparing thin sections 

of the mid-shaft of the left third metacarpal and left third metatarsal as 

complete cross-sections. A number of factors were examined at the 

microscopic level; specifically, we focused on intact and fragmentary 

secondary osteon counts per mm2 for the entire cortical cross-section of 

each bone. The data are then used to produce age-predicting regression 

formulas. This procedure follows closely to suggestions made by Stout 

& Paine (1992). 

With incomplete fragmentary remains, microscopy of these bones 

may be one of the only means of age approximation. Based on the concluding 

statistical significance, age-predicting equations developed for 

the metacarpal, metatarsal, and for a combination of both bones can be 

used in conjunction with, or in lieu of, other age determination methods. 

Stout SD, Paine RR. Breif communication: Histological age estimation 

using rib and clavicle. Amer J Physical Anthrop, 1992:87(1):111-5. 

Bone Histology, Age Determination, Forensic Anthropology 

H8 The Effects of Size in Craniometric 


Franklin Damann, MA* and John E. Byrd, PhD, Joint POW/MIA 

Accounting Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, 



of the effects of size in craniometric discriminant functions designed for 

sex determination. An approach is recommended that mediates size 

effects. 

This presentation should lead to an improved understanding of the 

discriminant function, and its use for sex determination of skeletal 

remains. The presentation offers an alternative approach to sex determination 

when the case involves large females or small males. 

Forensic anthropologists have been employing discriminant functions 

to classify crania for decades. The classic papers by Giles and 

Elliot provided numerous functions that permitted anthropologists to 

address questions of population affinity (i.e., race) and sex using cranial 

measurements. The discriminant function approach was attractive 

because it enjoyed error rates similar to those of experienced anthropologists 

rendering subjective judgements, but was clearly more objective. 

More recent years have seen the development of the software package 

FORDISC (Ousley and Jantz 1996), which uses reference data from 

numerous human populations to calculate custom discriminant functions 

suited to a specific case. This study explores the effects of size on discriminant 

functions designed to determine the sex of a specific cranium. 

When presented with a case specimen from an apparent male who was 

of relatively small size, the authors subjected the 16 cranial measurements 

from the case specimen to a discriminant analysis in FORDISC, 

which indicated that the individual was female. We hypothesized that 

470

this result was due to the small size of the cranium. To address our 

hypothesis, we calculated C-scores (Howells 1995) for the 16 measurements 

using the craniometric data in FORDISC (black and white, males 

and females) and calculated a new discriminant function. The new 

function classified the individual as male, but not convincingly, as the 

discriminant score was close to the sectioning point. Finally, we selected 

a set of 6 measurements that contributed strongly to the first C-score discriminant 

function, and calculated a second function based on these. 

This second function classified the case specimen unequivocally as 

male. This study highlights the fact that discriminant functions derived 

for sex determination and based on raw measurements will key on the 

size differences between males and females. Thus, large females and 

small males will systematically misclassify. For cases where such circumstances 

are suspected, we recommend the calculation of functions 

based on C-scores as an alternative approach. 

Craniometrics, Discriminant Functions, Sex 

H9 A Tale of Two Museums: Available Fetal 


Natural History and the Albert Szent- 

Gyorgi Medical University, Hungary 

Angie K. Huxley, MA, PhD*, PO Box 493812, Redding, CA 96049-3812 

The purpose of this presentation is to inform the forensic science 

community of the two fetal collections worldwide available for research 

– the fetal collections at the NMNH, Washington D.C., U.S.A., and the 

Hungarian collection at the Albert Szent-Gyorgi Medical University, in 

Szeged, Hungary. The biological profiles of the collections will be discussed, 

the nature of the collection process will be compared, and the 

inherent limitations of the reviewed. 


humanity by allowing for a rare opportunity to study fetal materials that 

are not readily available elsewhere. While there are inherent limitations 

involved in using museum collections, as the materials may be pathological, 

anomalous or unwanted, the fact that there are no other collections 

available necessitates their usage. Such data may be useful to 

develop fetal profiles for forensic cases, and thus determine fetal 

viability. 

Forensic fetal remains are occasionally submitted to the Office of 

the Medical Examiner for age determination, as well as possibility of 

fetal viability. There are few references on forensic fetal osteology, and 

there are fewer collections available for research. These fetal collections 

are located the at the National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), in 

Washington D.C.,, U.S.A., and the Albert Szent Gyorgi Medical 

University in Szeged, Hungary, Eastern Europe. The primary objective 

of this presentation is to inform the forensic anthropologists of the two 

fetal collections, the composition of the collections, the nature of the collection 

process, and the inherent limitations of these materials. 

The fetal collections at the NMNH were collected in the early 

1900s by organizations and private physicians. The collection consists of 

271 fetuses, of which 120 are white and 151 and black, mixed or 

“mulatto.” These represent 119 males and 94 females between the ages 

of three lunar months and newborns. The card catalog may provide 

limited information on ancestry, phenotypic sex or even age. The materials 

were obtained from private physicians or during autopsy, then 

donated the NMNH through Dr. Hrdlicka. Since most of the collection 

represents spontaneous abortions, the collection is probably biased 

towards anomalous or pathological materials. 

The Hungarian remains were collected after WWII to present. The 

materials collected immediately after WWII may represent illegally 

aborted fetuses, as abortion was outlawed in the country after the war. 

The fetuses collected thereafter may represent spontaneously aborted 

fetuses, or maternal/fetal demise that were submitted the pathologists in 

the area. These materials were collected, macerated and measured. The 

morphometric data were published in “Forensic Fetal Osteology” (1978) 

by Fazekas and Kosa. The collection is composed of 138 skeletons, composed 

of 71 males and 67 females between the ages of three lunar 

months and full-term newborns. All of the fetuses are of Eastern 

European descent. Autopsy records are available on all fetuses, however 

lunar age may not always be available. Indeed, on would have to pull 

all of the autopsy records to record which of the fetuses are of known 

lunar age, and which fetuses had lunar age calculated through 

Haase’s rule. 

The two collections are different in terms of their biological profiles. 

The NMNH collection was collected approximately 100 years ago, 

and are composed of black, white and mixed fetuses. The ages were 

given my other mother, or were assigned by the pathologist Yet, there are 

no other known black fetal materials available for research. In contrast, 

the Hungarian collection represent a more homogenous population 

although there are be some fetuses of minority descent intermixed in this 

material. 

Anthropology, Museum, Fetus 

H10 Skeletal Markers of Parturition: 

Analysis of a Modern American Sample 

Jonathan D. Bethard, BA*, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 


This presentation examines morphological markers of parturition 

on the bony pelvis. The research presented in this poster tested markers 

of parturition against known obstetric histories. Preliminary results 

indicate that workers should not infer parity status from the bony pelvis. 


humanity by describing preliminary results which indicate that physical 

anthropologists should not attempt to assess parity by scoring morphological 

markers of the bony pelvis. 

The goal of this research was to examine the relationship between 

parturition and morphological changes exhibited in the bony pelvis. 

Physical anthropologists and bioarchaeologists are often charged 

with the task of generating biological profiles from skeletal remains. A 

particular area of interest within skeletal biology has looked at the 

effects of parturition on the skeleton. Angel (1969) reported that the 

degree of pelvic scarring correlates with the number of offspring produced 

during fecund years. According to Krogman and Iscan 

(1986:248), “Angel initiated a new research avenue for skeletal anthropologists 

and indicated that parturition could be determined from 

skeletal remains.” 

A thorough literature review indicates that workers have maintained 

that both positive and negative correlations between parturition 

and morphological markers exist. Houghton (1974) scored the preauricular 

sulci of 119 pelves and was able to distinguish two distinct forms 

of the groove. Differentiated at GL or GP, Houghton remarked that the 

former designation was applied to innominates presenting a “narrow, 

short, straight-edged, and shallow groove at the antero-inferior margin of 

the joint.” The latter description was applied to pelves with a coalescence 

of pits and craters. Houghton reasons that sulci scored GP are 

more likely associated with parturition than those scored GL. Moreover, 

the author contends that skeletal makers of parturition are more evident 

on the sacro-iliac joint than the pubic symphysis. 

In an extensive study, Suchey et al. (1979), analyzed 486 pubic 

bones of modern American females. Suchey and colleagues studied 

dorsal pitting of the pubis in order to associate the number of full term 

pregnancies, interval since last pregnancy, and age of decedent with parturition 

condition. Adhering to methods defined in Stewart (1970), 

Suchey and colleagues were unable to statistically correlate parturition 

with specific skeletal markers. As a result, Suchey et al., assert “a rigid 

system of classification is of dubious value.” 


The William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection curated by the 

Forensic Anthropology Center at the University of Tennessee was utilized 

in this research. Female skeletons of known parity status (n=27) 

were scored for the degree of dorsal pitting of the pubis and morphological 

appearance of the preauricular sulcus. Pits on the dorsal pubis 

were scored as either absent, small to trace or well-marked (after Stewart 

1970). Pubic bones scored as “absent” were unremarkable with regard 

to dorsal pitting while “trace to small” indicated the presence of poorly 

marked or shallow depressions. “Moderate to large” dorsal pits were a 

minimum of 5mm and noticeably deep. Preauricular sulci were scored 

similarly following Houghton (1974). 

Statistical analyses tested the relationship between parity and 

scored morphological markers.Non-parametric chi-square analyses 

assessed the following associations: parity/dorsal pitting, parity/preauricular 

sulcus, age/dorsal pitting, age/preauricular sulcus and age/parity. 

Such analyses resulted in statistically insignificant results. Chi-square 

results were 2.03, 5.03, 39.6, 35.8 and 12.6, respectively. In all cases, 

P>0.05. P values ranged from .143 to .856 and clearly indicate an 

insignificant relationship between any suggested associations. These 

results indicate a poor correlation between parturition and skeletal 

change. Overall, this research further suggests that skeletal markers 

should not be used to assess parturition in paleodemographic or forensic 

contexts. While this notion may be counterintuitive, statistical analyses 

indicate an insignificant relationship. 

Angel JL. The basis of paleodemography. Am J Phys Anthropol 1969; 

(30):425-438. 

Houghton P. The relationship of the pre-auricular groove of the illium to 

pregnancy. Am J Phys Anthropol 1974; (41):381-390. 

Krogman WM, Iscan MY. The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. 

2nd ed. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1986. 

Stewart, TD. Identification of the scars of parturition in skeletal remains 

of females. In: Stewart, TD editor. Personal Identification in Mass 

Disasters. National Museum of Natural History: 127-133. 

Suchey, JM, Wiseley DV, Green RF, Noguchi TT. Analysis of dorsal 

pitting in the os pubis in an extensive sample of modern American 

females. Am J Phys Anthropol 1979; (51): 517-540. 

Parturition, Physical Anthropology, Skeletal Biology 

H11 Variation in Cremains Weight: 

Tennessee vs. Florida 

William M. Bass, PhD*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, University of 



After attending this presentation, attendees will know that the 

weight of cremated human remains (cremains) exhibit considerable variation, 

and that weights derived from one sample cannot be extrapolated 

to other samples. 

The presentation will emphasize to forensic anthropologists that 

cremation weights vary and that much more information is required if 

we are to understand the variation. 

The weight of cremains is of interest in medico-legal situations 

where questions arise about whether commercial crematoria have 

returned appropriate remains to family members. We have only been 

able to identify one published study providing weights of cremated 

human remains on a statistically valid sample (Warren and Maples 

1997), which reports weights from a Florida sample. Since cremains 

weight reflects bone mass, it is not unreasonable to expect that it will 

vary regionally, as other anthropometric features do. 

A study of weights obtained from a commercial crematorium in 

East Tennessee was undertaken in order begin an investigation of variation 

in weight of cremated remains. Cremation was performed 

according to the standard procedure of the crematorium using standard 

equipment. Remains were weighed using an OHAUS digital scale, 


model CS5000, to the nearest gram. Age, sex and race were recorded, 

but body weight or other anthropometric information was unavailable. 

Since races other than white were uncommon, the analysis was limited 

to whites. The sample consists of 151 males and 155 females, ranging in 

age from 18 to 99. 

Summary statistics for cremains weights in grams are: 

Sex Mean S.D. 

Males 3379.77 634.98 

Females 2350.17 536.43 

These weights are about 500 grams greater than those reported by 

Warren and Maples, a highly significant difference. We also found that 

cremains weight decreases with age; the decrease begins earlier and proceeds 

more rapidly in females than in males. Weight loss with age is 

related to bone loss in older individuals. The relationship with age does 

not explain the difference between the Florida and Tennessee samples. 

Tennessee cremains are heavier when age is controlled. 

There are two possible explanations for the difference in cremains 

weights: 1) difference in cremation technique or 2) difference in bone 

mass. Unfortunately, the question cannot be answered definitively with 

evidence available. Cremation techniques are fairly standard so the difference 

is more likely due to bone mass. Since premortem height and 

weight are unavailable on the Tennessee sample, this possibility cannot 

be addressed directly. Regardless of the cause, the results reported here 

make it clear that there is substantial variation, and cremation weights 

from one sample cannot be extrapolated to other areas. Whether variation 

is patterned regionally is not known and the answer to this question 

must await additional information. 

Warren MW, Maples WR. The anthropometry of commercial cremation. 

J Forensic Sciences 1997;42:417-423. 

Cremation Weights, Bone Mass, Forensic Anthropology 

H12 When DNA is Not Available Can 

We Still Identify People? 

Recommendations for Best Practice 

Jose P. Baraybar, BA, MSc*, Office on Missing Persons and Forensics 

(OMPF), United Nations Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), 

AUCON/KFOR, Kosovo A1503, Austria 

The learning objectives of this presentation are as follows. First, to 

understand the role played by traditional identification methods in cases 

of violations against International Humanitarian Law. Second, to show 

how a systematic process involving experts from different fields 

increases the chances of identifying war victims trough traditional 

methods. 

This study makes an impact on the forensic community in general 

and in the forensic anthropology community in particular by providing 

an example on how a systematic approach to individual identification in 

cases of serious human rights violations can provide good results in the 

absence of sophisticated technology. 

The application of DNA profiling to the identification of victims of 

mass disasters is considerably recent, but the use of such techniques to 

victims of war crimes and crimes against humanity is even more recent. 

While DNA technology has become more common and the prices of 

testing have substantially dropped, its use in large-scale projects is primarily 

dependent on the availability of resources and in turn of the will 

of political powers to fund such activities. Paradoxically in countries 

where large number of victims remain unidentified are those in which 

this kind of technology is not available, and if so only in a limited scale 

(i.e., Rwanda, Congo, Guatemala). In those same settings the use of “traditional” 

techniques is generally favored over other more technologically 

costly. Traditional techniques generally consist of combining 

witness testimony, personal effects and clothing, and anthropological 

and dental data in order to corroborate or to exclude the identity of an 

individual. This paper provides recommendation of best practice to 

472

conduct identifications in settings with technological limitations. The 

sample consists of 95 cases from victims of the conflict in Kosovo 

between 1998-1999, in which positive presumptive identifications were 

generated and were later corroborated through DNA testing. 

Generally overlooked in the individual identification of victims of 

any kind of armed conflict is the investigation on the “event of disappearance” 

that defines interactions between victim(s) and perpetrator(s) in 

a place and time. People simply do not “disappear.” Forced disappearance 

is a well-planned practice designed to provoke anguish in the population 

and relatives of the missing person as well as a sense of relentless and of 

an unstoppable process. Understanding how people went missing (who 

took them, how many, in what were they taken, at what time, where were 

they seen going to) may help to establish their whereabouts. The reconstruction 

of the “event of disappearance” is crucial to determining the 

composition of the family target group to participate in the identification 

process. 

Once the family target group is defined, the relatives are selected. A 

priority is given to next of kin relatives to the missing person. Friends and 

more distant relatives would participate at a later stage. An ante-mortem 

form is filled from each relevant relative prior to participating in the 

clothing exhibition. 

The clothes of the victims are carefully washed and dried; preferably 

photographs of any personal effects are displayed separately from the 

clothes to which they were associated. The clothes are arranged on the 

floor, on some kind of tarpaulin or even colored surface, in a roughly 

anatomical position. Each family member or group of family members 

from one single missing person is accompanied to look at the display. One 

or two relatives are given latex gloves and a mask in case they may want 

to touch or feel the clothes or artifacts. No pressure is exerted over the relatives, 

they are allowed to take their time and observe the display. Once a 

recognition is made, the family is encouraged to see the artifacts if any. 

The family is not shown any specific set of artifacts or told which were the 

ones found with the clothing. 

Once the identification of a person has been triggered, both the postmortem 

and ante-mortem files of the person are pulled out and the family 

is taken to an interview area. The following people typically participate 

during the interview: one police officer specialized in identifications, one 

anthropologist, one dentist and one pathologist that remains on call for any 

specific information that may be required as well as to discuss with the 

team once the interview is finished. Each specialist asks questions separately. 

Initial questions concern the clothing and artifacts (make, materials 

used, whether it was purchased or home made, any anecdotal events associated 

to them). Subsequent questions concern the biological profile of the 

victim (age, sex, stature, ante-mortem injuries) and the teeth (the dentist 

expects some basic clues regarding basic features such as tooth rotations, 

extractions, prostheses, bridges or repairs, occlusion, etc.). Each specialist 

scores the responses collected on a scale of 1 to 3 as bad, medium and 

good. 

The main problem with any scoring is however that there are a 

number of elements that do not depend on the accuracy of the family 

members but on that of the specialists. For example, while anthropological 

determinations are a factor of the techniques used (i.e., age, stature), a 

dental comparison is dependent on the availability of an antemortem 

odontogram which can only be compared to another odontogram and not 

to a literary reconstruction of someone else’s dentition. 

Once the interview is finished, the experts that participated in the 

interview separately discuss each case. Generally after such discussion 

cases are classified in a scale of 1-3 as a good, medium or bad match. In 

any case, traits deriving from the body (anthropology, odontology or 

pathology) carry more weight than circumstantial evidence such as 

clothing. 

While DNA testing is a favored technique over ”traditional” 

methods, it is not always available. If it is available it still depends on the 

existence of ante-mortem and post-mortem information to carry out identification. 

Experts participating in traditional identifications must develop 

emic categories to transform objective physical features into recognizable 

categories by the family. They must also do the opposite by developing a 

system by which the dentist, for example, understands that the cue given 

by a family member regarding an impacted anterior tooth could be anything 

from a visible extra tooth to a bump on the gum, or that a prosthesis 

could also be something removed from the mouth at bedtime. 

Identification, DNA, Traditional Methods 

H13 Variation in Size and Dimorphism 

in Eastern European Femora 

Richard L. Jantz, PhD* and Erin H. Kimmerle, MA, University of 



After attending this presentation, attendees will know that there are 

variations in size and dimorphism of the femur among local Eastern 

European populations, and by extension, other postcranial bones, that 

requires population specific skeletal information upon which to base 

identification criteria. 


humanity by encouraging forensic anthropologists working in human 

rights in foreign countries to develop criteria specific to the populations 

on which they work. 

The conflict in the former Yugoslavia has resulted in hundreds of 

mass graves containing thousand of individuals. There are still insufficient 

data from documented skeletons from the region to allow local 

standards to be developed. Furthermore, there is evidence of variability 

among ethnicities in the area. Metric data obtained from the femur of 

Kosovars and Croats provides the first opportunity to examine their relationship 

to Croats and Bosnians. Implications of variation for sexing 

and stature estimation will be examined. 

Only three variables were taken from the Kosovo femora: 

Maximum length, bicondylar length and femur head diameter. Only 

maximum length and head diameter were used. The Kosovo sample 

consists of 449 males and 73 females. Antemortem stature was also 

available for about 90 Kosovars and 86 Croats. Femora from 150 

American white males and 89 white females were available for 

comparison. 

Both femur length and femur head diameter exhibit significant variation 

among samples. Variation among samples remains significant 

when American whites are excluded, so even different ethnicities in the 

same general region differ from one another. Bosnians, among the 

Eastern European groups, have the longest femora with the largest 

heads. Kosovars have short femora with large heads, and Croats are 

intermediate. American whites exceed all groups in femur length, but 

have the smallest head diameter. If American white femur head diameter 

is used as a sexing criterion and applied to Kosovars, over one quarter of 

females are classified as males. 

Stature formulae from Trotter and Gleser (WWII reference sample), 

Ross and Konigisberg (Bosnian/Croatian reference sample), Sarajlic 

(Bosnian reference sample) and the Forensic Data Bank (recent 

American White reference sample) were used to estimate stature of both 

Kosovars and Croats for whom antemortem stature was available. All 

three formulae underestimated the Eastern European sample, Trotter and 

Gleser the most, the Forensic Data Bank the least. The Kosovo and Croat 

antemortem statures are estimates, mainly from family members. Like 

Americans, Eastern Europeans appear to overestimate stature, resulting 

in underestimates when using regression equations derived from measured 

stature. 

These results show the importance of identification criteria from 

the populations to which they are being applied. American identification 

criteria cannot be exported to Eastern Europe, and within Eastern 

Europe, criteria for different ethnicities are desirable. 

Postcranial, Sexing Criteria, Stature Estimation 


H14 Local Standards vs. Informative Priors 

in Applied Forensic Anthropology 

Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 

Stadium Drive, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand statistical 

methods for obtaining age estimates based on reference sample 

skeletal aging data and appropriate prior distributions for age-at-death. 

The results of this research demonstrate the importance of prior 

information as well as the appropriate use of reference sample data when 

determining age-at-death from skeletal material. This research provides 

a statistical method for unbiased estimation of age-at-death in the 

applied forensic anthropology context. 

Considerable debate over the need for “population-specific” 

skeletal estimators continues in forensic anthropology for sex, age-atdeath, 

and stature estimators. This debate acquires practical importance 

when forensic anthropologists are called upon to build descriptive profiles 

of decedents who come from populations that lack reference 

skeletal data. This paper addresses the perceived need for populationspecific 

information on age determination by explicitly considering the 

statistical basis for age-at-death estimation. 

It is quite common in studies of age-at-death estimation to order age 

within each skeletal stage and then to calculate percentiles for ages falling 

within that particular stage. In some cases, percentiles such as the 2.5th 

and 97.5th are provided to give a 95% confidence interval for age-at-death 

conditional on stage. In other cases, the range of ages (from the minimum 

age, or 0th percentile, to the maximum age, or 100th percentile) is given 

for broader coverage. These percentile-based confidence intervals are 

deficient descriptors because of three statistical problems. First, the percentiles 

themselves are estimates that may be misleading when based on a 

stage for which few skeletons were observed. Second, the percentiles give 

a very incomplete description of the age-at-death (conditional on stage) 

data. Finally, the percentile values depend on not only the biological information 

contained in the age “indicator,” but also the a priori age-at-death 

distribution of the reference sample. 

In this paper it is suggested that a better method for presenting ageat-death 

data conditional on skeletal stage for a reference sample is to 

provide the Kaplan-Meier survivorship by skeletal stage. This solves the 

first and second statistical problems, in that confidence intervals are 

available for the survivorships (which are percentiles) and the survivorships 

provide all of the available percentiles. However, the Kaplan- 

Meier method does not solve the third problem, because the method still 

depends on both the biology of aging and the age structure of the reference 

sample. To show that this third problem remains, this paper compares 

the Kaplan-Meier survivorship by pubic symphyseal phase from a 

number of reference samples to the survivorship by phase for 232 known 

age-at-death individuals from the Korean War. The reference data survivorship 

by phase greatly exceeds that for the Korean War dead, 

because the a priori age distribution for the Korean War dead is much 

younger. There may also be population differences in biological aging 

between the reference samples and the Korean War dead sample. 

To address the question of population specificity Kaplan-Meier survivorships 

by phase for the Korean War dead are approximated using 

parametric models that depend on an a priori age distribution and information 

on biological aging from a reference sample. In the case of the 

Korean War, there is a large amount of information available on the ageat-death 

for U.S. soldiers killed in action (see Frank A. Reister’s “Battle 

Casualties and Medical Statistics: U.S. Army Experience in the Korea 

War” available on-line from http://history.amedd.army.mil/), which for 

the purposes of this paper is modeled using a log-normal distribution. 

This informative prior must then be combined with information on pubic 

symphyseal aging taken from a known age-at-death reference sample. 

For known age samples symphyseal data from the Korean War dead, 

males from anatomical and forensic collections, and males and females 

from the Balkans are used. 


The results of the parametric models show that, from a practical 

standpoint, it makes little difference which reference sample is used to 

age the Korean War dead. The choice of an inappropriate prior, however, 

can have drastic effects on the models. It can consequently be suggested 

that forensic anthropology’s concern with obtaining “population specific” 

estimators or “local standards” may be misdirected. Instead, 

greater emphasis should be placed on characterizing appropriate priors 

and on extracting information on biological aging from larger well-documented 

skeletal collections. In a similar vein, it may not be necessary 

to have, for example, stature estimation equations that are based on very 

specific reference collections. Instead, a combination of large generic 

reference samples with appropriate priors can be used to tailor make 

such “population specific” estimators (Ross and Konigsberg 2002). 

Ross AH, Konigsberg LW. New formulae for estimating stature in the 

Balkans. J Forensic Sciences 2002;47:165-167. 

Age-at-Death Estimation, Statistical Methods, Survival Analysis 

H15 A Bayesian Approach to Calculating 

Age Using Pubic Symphyseal Data 

Erin H. Kimmerle, MA*, Lyle Konigsberg, PhD, and Richard Jantz, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium 

Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720; Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc, Office of 

Missing Persons and Forensics, Department of Justice, United Nations 

Mission in Kosovo, Pristina 

The learning objectives of this presentation are as follows. First, to 

understand how the ages of victims are used in the investigative and evidentiary 

processes of criminal proceedings. Second, to determine 

whether population-specific aging criteria are needed for the Balkans. 

Third, to demonstrate how a Bayesian approach to the construction of 

age profiles for unidentified victims produces the most accurate and 

precise age ranges possible, thereby meeting the criteria of Daubert v. 

Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 US 579 (1993) for the presentation 

of scientific evidence in court. 

This study makes an important impact both on the field of forensic 

science and on humanity by providing new aging criteria for the Balkans 

that meets requirements for the presentation of scientific evidence in 

court; by establishing criteria that are the most reliable thereby ensuring 

the best chances for positive identifications to be made for victims; by 

providing insight into long-standing paleodemographic questions about 

population variation in aging; and by contributing to our understanding 

of the effects of individual inter-observer variation in the formulation of 

new methodology and successful identification. 

The ages of victims plays an important role in determining the 

minimum number of individuals recovered from a mass grave, in individual 

identification, and in constructing the demographic profile of 

victims. The demographic profile of victims is one of the central issues 

in the prosecution of individuals indicted by International Criminal 

Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. The case of The Prosecutor of the 

Tribunal against Radislav Krstic (Case No. IT-98-33) was a landmark 

case because it was the first conviction of genocide in Europe and relied 

on forensic evidence. It was also a precedent setting case for forensic 

anthropology in that the methods used to construct demographic profiles 

of victims based on American and Balkan reference samples were questioned 

in court. The defense team questioned the anthropological expert 

witness as to why American (Katz and Suchey 1986) and Balkan 

(Simmons et al., 1999) aging methods differed and which were the most 

reliable for use in the former Yugoslavia. 

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a Bayesian 

analysis using an informative prior for the age-at-death profile derived 

from a large non-Bosnian reference sample could produce the most 

accurate ages for unidentified victims from the Balkans. A reference 

sample of identified genocide victims from Kosovo, Bosnia, and Croatia 

(n=876) was used to determine the age structure of genocide victims. 

474

The pubic symphyses were scored in the manner of Suchey-Brooks for 

a subset of the Balkan sample (n=298), as well as, from various 

American anatomical reference collections (n=1517). The Gompertz- 

Makeham hazard model was used to calculate the informative prior for 

age. The informative prior was combined with the likelihood of being a 

particular age conditional on a given pubic symphyseal phase that then 

was compared to the empirical survivorship model by phase. We found 

that the survivorship model accurately predicts age for each pubic symphyseal 

phase, indicating the problem with the current methodologies is 

based on statistical methodology, not biological variation in the aging 

processes of American and Balkan populations. A revised calibration of 

pubic symphyseal methodology using a Bayesian approach does provide 

the most precise and accurate age ranges possible. Finally, four 

observers scored each pubic symphysis for the Balkan sample independently 

to determine the effect of inter-observer variation. Correlations 

among the four observers varied for both pubic symphysis-scoring 

systems. Correlations for the Todd system ranged from .80-.92 among 

females (n=83) and .24-.66 among males (n=108). Correlations among 

observers for the Suchey-Brooks system ranged from .77-.95 among 

females and .63-.85 among males. 

Katz D, Suchey J. Age determination of the male os pubis. Amer J 

Physical Anthrop 1986;80:167-172. 

Simmons T, Tuco V, Kesetovic R, Cihlarz Z. Evaluating age estimation 

in a Bosnian forensic population: Age-at-Stage vs Probit Analysis. 

Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 1999;38H. 

Bayesian Analysis, Aging Methods, Inter-Observer Variation 

H16 Aging the Elderly: A New Look 

at an Old Method 

Gregory E. Berg, MA*and Erin Kimmerle, MA, University of 

Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Way, Knoxville, TN 37996 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn to present an 

alternate strategy for aging elderly female pubic symphyses. 


humanity by providing the forensic community a better tool to produce 

age estimates for elderly individuals, which is not currently available. 

Physical anthropologists have long been confronted with the 

problem of estimating skeletal age of elderly individuals. Some believe 

that it is impossible to determine advanced age with any level of precision. 

Experts have also questioned the accuracy of ageing skeletal 

remains from pubic bone morphology. As a result, large age categories 

such as 40+, 50+, and 60+ years have been used to minimize the impact 

of these problems. Refinements to the current definitions in the Suchey- 

Brooks unisex ageing method may alleviate some of the problem. 

Specifically, if the late phases are refined and an additional stage added 

(a 7 phase instead of a 6 phase system), the method may be improved. 

Further, since the determination of age ranges should reflect the demographic 

profile of a population they are drawn from, then a different statistical 

approach, transition analysis, should be considered. 

This study consisted of 148 female individuals from the University 

of Tennessee William Bass Donated Collection (Donated, n=63) and a 

known age Balkan forensic sample (Balkan, n=85). Each pubic symphysis 

was scored with the aid of a standard desk magnifying glass. The 

new definitions and decision-making rules for females were as follows: 

Suchey-Brooks Phases 1-4: No modifications were made. 

Phase 5: The rim is complete at this stage, but the symphyseal face 

may show a slight depression as it begins to erode. The pubic tubercle is 

separated from the face. The quality of bone on the articular surface is 

still good and very compact. In a few cases, a slight amount of porosity 

may be present, but it usually affects less than 15% of the symphyseal 

face. Only extremely mild signs of osteoporosity/osteopenia are present 

(if any) and the ventral aspect of the symphysis is typically not porous. 

Decision making traits are: 1) if the articular surface still has 

majority of compact bone with less than 15% porosity anywhere on 

surface, and 2) osteoporosity/osteopenia is absent or extremely mild, 

score as a Phase 5. If either of these two traits is observed greater than 

specified, then score as greater than a Phase 5. 

Phase 6: The symphyseal face is usually depressed and the rim 

begins to erode, beginning with the superior ventral aspect. The quality 

of bone on the articular surface is breaking down, no longer retaining the 

smooth, compact surface. The symphyseal face is eroded, in the form of 

either porosities or small channel-like structures – coalescences of 

smaller porosities into oblong pores/channels. Osteoporosis is mild to 

moderate in this phase. Lipping of the articular surfaces can be present. 

Decision making traits are: 1) if less than 50% of the symphyseal 

surface is porous, and 2) lipping is mild to moderate then it is scored as 

a Phase 6. If the symphyseal face appears to be borderline (40-60% of 

face is porous but still a fair amount of compact bone), then osteoporosity/osteopenia 

should be used as the deciding feature. If this trait is 

moderate to severe, then it is scored as a Phase 7. The weight of bone 

should be the primary indicator, though other indications of osteoporosis 

can be found on the ventral aspect of the pubis where porosity may be 

present and the bone may have a striated quality. 

Phase 7: The symphyseal face is extremely porous and eroded 

(>50% of its surface). Osteoporosity/osteopenia is present and is typically 

moderate to severe in nature (the bone is very light in weight). The 

symphyseal face appears to be relatively flat, since the rim is highly 

eroded and is losing definition. The ventral surface of the symphysis is 

typically scarred or has striated bone with ligamentous outgrowths, 

occurring typically near the obturator foramen. Lipping of the articular 

surfaces is often moderate, but may be mild or severe. This character is 

highly variable. 

Inter- and intra-observer error was tested among four observers and 

was not statistically significant, indicating that each observer was 

scoring in a similar fashion. In order to compare results with the published 

data from the Suchey-Brooks method (males), regression analyses 

were conducted on these populations. For the Donated collection, age 

regressed on phase produced a highly significant model (r=0.8361, 

R2=0.6992, F=144.06, p=

H17 Model of Age Estimation Based 

on Dental Factors of Unknown 

Cadavers Among Iranians 

Babak Faghih Monzavi, DDS*, No 93351 Sanie Zadeh Lane-Chahar 

Bagh Bala Avenue, Esfahan 81638-93351, Iran; Arash Ghodoosi, MD, 

Fayz Square- Forensic Medicine Center of Esfahan Province, Esfahan, 

Iran; Omid Savabi, DDS, MS, Azadi Square- Hezar Jerib Avenue, 

Esfahan University of Medical Science, School of Dentistry, Esfahan, 

Iran; Asghar Karimi, DDS, Fayz Square - Forensic Medicine Center of 

Esfahan Province, Esfahan, Iran; Akbar Hasanzadeh, MS, Azadi 

Square- Hezar Jerib Avenue, Esfahan University of Medical Sciences, 

School of Health Sciences, Esfahan, Iran 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be informed about 

age estimation of unknown human remains of Iranian ancestry based on 

dental techniques, including Gustafson’s method. 


humanity by providing a more thorough understanding of dental aging 

techniques as applied to an Iranian skeletal population. 

Estimation of age in unknown cadavers is an important method for 

their identification. The most common method in adults (older than 25 

years) is the use of dental parameters as described by Gustafson in 1947. 

In 1950, he presented his models based on microscopic and macroscopic 

features of teeth. Pillai and Bhaskar (1974) showed that Gustafson’s 

method is influenced by external factors such as race and culture in an 

Indian sample. Gustafson’s method was used by Rahimian, Sabaghian 

and Savabi in Iran. In these two studies, the correlation coefficients 

between observed and estimated ages were .80 and .95, respectively. 

However, the models were never calculated. In Iran, age is estimated by 

formulae that were designed using a Swedish sample. Therefore, appropriate 

models for application to Iranian samples should be developed. 

This study is a cross sectional study. The samples were selected 

from Iranian cadavers, examined at the Forensic Medicine Organization 

of Isfahan province. Their ages ranged from 25 to 60 years. This range 

was classified into five-year age groups. Thirty cases were selected for 

each group. The inclusion criterion was the presence of at least one 

single-root tooth on the mandible (premolar, canine or incisor). The 

cases were selected over a 9 month period. After tooth selection, the distance 

between sulcus of gingiva and cervix of tooth (CEJ) in the medial 

aspect of buccal surface was measured (in millimeters) with a probe to 

calculate the periodontosis factor. After extraction, the teeth were 

cleaned and put in tubes containing alcohol and glycerin. Alcohol allows 

for better presentation by dehydration of the translucent area of root. 

For each case, variables such as name/surname, age, type of tooth, 

and the periodontosis factor (mm) were gathered. A non-stop Bego device 

was used to make sections ranging from .5 to 1.0 mm. Three teeth were 

deleted from the study due to previous treatment on their roots. 

Microscopic studies were done by stereomicroscope with a precision of 

0.1 mm. The factors and their classifications are defined as the following: 

Periodontosis factor (P): ratio of distance between sulcus of gingiva 

and cervix of tooth (CEJ) to the root. P0: No periodontosis. P1: 

Beginning of periodontosis. P2: Periodontosis evident coronally on 

more than one third of root. 

Attrition factor (A): extent of destruction of crown. A0: No 

attrition. A1: Attrition up to enamel level. A2: Attrition up to dentin 

level. A3: Attrition up to pulp. 

Secondary dentine factor (S): ratio of secondary generated dentin to 

the total volume of pulp cavity. S0: No secondary dentin. S1: Secondary 

dentin up to upper part of pulp cavity. S2: Secondary dentin up to half of 

pulp. S3: Diffuse calcification of the entire pulp. 

Root resorption factor (R): extent of destruction of root due to 

resorption. R0: No resorption. R1: Spotted like resorption. R2: Root 

resorption at the level of cementum. R3: Extensive resorption of 

cementum and dentin. 


Cementum apposition factor (C): extent of increment of cementum. 

C0: Normal thickness (undetectable). C1: Thickness more than normal 

(detectable). C2: Generation of thick cementum. C3: Hypercementosis 

thickness. 

Translucency of the root factor (T): ratio of height of translucency 

area to the length of root. T0: No translucency. T1: Beginning of translucency 

of root. T2: Translucency more than 1/3 of apical root. T3: 

Translucency more than 2/3 of apical root. 

Statistical analysis of this study is based on linear regression 

analysis, using sum of the ranks of the factors (SR) as predictor of age. 

Statistical analyses were done by SPSS. 

A total of 210 cadavers comprising 185 males (88.1%) and 25 

females (11.9%) were selected. Mean and standard deviation of SR is 

6.72 (1.81). Correlation coefficients of age with attrition, periodontosis, 

root resorption, secondary dentine, cementum apposition and translucency 

of the root are .394 (P

H18 New Formulae for Estimating Age 

in the Balkans Utilizing Lamendin’s 

Dental Technique 

Debra A. Prince, BS, MA* and Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD, University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville, 250 South Stadium Hall, Department of 

Anthropology, Knoxville, TN 37996-0760 


estimate age-at-death in the Balkans based on an appropriate reference 

sample and formula 


humanity by providing an appropriate formula based upon a Balkan reference 

sample to estimate age-at death for genocide victims. 

As with all forensic identifications, proper reference samples are 

critical when anthropologists employ methods to identify victims of 

genocide. Several methods to estimate age-at-death are utilized in the 

Balkans, such as osteomorphic changes of the pubic symphysis and 

sternal ends of ribs, histological sections of the clavicle and Lamendin’s 

dental aging method. This presentation will focus on Lamendin’s 

method and the purpose is two fold: 1) to analyze the consistency and 

accuracy of four observers employing Lamendin’s technique and, 2) to 

recalculate the formula specific to the reference sample. 

Lamendin et al.’s (1992) original research analyzed 306 singlerooted 

teeth extracted at the time of autopsy from 208 individuals. All 

individuals were considered to have French ancestry. Three measurements 

were required to estimate age-at-death: root height (the maximum 

distance between the apex of the root and the cemento-enamel junction); 

periodontal regression (maximum distance between the cemento-enamel 

junctions and the line of soft tissue attachment); and translucency of the 

root (measured from the apex of the root towards the cemento-enamel 

junction, using a lightbox to enhance the image). This research produced 

an overall mean error of + 8.4 years on their working sample and + 10 

years on their forensic control sample. Prince and Ubelaker (2002) 

employed Lamendin’s method on an American sample of 400 teeth, 

where absolute mean errors of 8.23 years and 7.7 years were produced 

using Lamendin’s method and recalculated formulas. Sarajlic et al. 

(2003) employed Lamendin’s original formula and Prince and 

Ubelaker’s formula to Balkan males. They reported that Prince and 

Ubelaker’s white male formula lowered mean errors for the male sample 

in the Balkans. 

The current research applies Lamendin’s method to 429 singlerooted 

teeth of known age and sex, which were extracted at the time of 

autopsy from genocide victims in the Balkans. Three measurements 

were taken from each tooth: root height, periodontal regression, and 

translucency of the root. All measurements were taken from the labial 

surface with digital calipers and recorded in millimeters. Four 

observers, three with modest experience of the procedures and one 

observer with considerable experience, took the measurements from 

each tooth. Each observer took blind measurements. Attrition scores 

were also recorded after Smith (1984). 

All data were analyzed using the “R” statistical package. A repeated 

measures ANOVA was utilized to determine any significant difference 

among the four observers and regression analysis was used to produce 

the new formula based on the Balkan reference sample. 

Although previous research has shown that Lamendin’s method is 

reliable in estimating age-at-death, a formula based on an appropriate 

reference sample is necessary for application in the Balkans. The author 

proposes that recalculating the formula based on the sample above will 

reduce mean errors when estimating age-at-death and be more appropriate 

for estimation in the Balkans. 

Lamendin H, Baccino E, Humbert JF, Tavernier JC, Nossintchouk RM, 

Zerilli A. A simple technique for age estimation in adult corpses: the two 

criteria dental method. J Forensic Sciences 1992;37(5):1373-1379. 

Prince DA, Ubelaker DH. Application of Lamendin’s adult dental aging 

technique to a diverse skeletal sample. J Forensic Sciences 

2002;47(1):107-116. 

Sarajlic N, Klonowski E, Drukier P, Harrington R. Lamendin and 

Prince’s dental aging methods applied to a Bosnian population. 

Proceedings of the Fifty-fifth Annual American Academy of Forensic 

Sciences; 2003 Feb 16-21; Chicago (IL): 2003;250. 

Smith BH. Patterns of molar wear in hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. 

Amer J Physical Anthrop 1984;63(1):39-56. 

Balkans, Age-At-Death, Dental 

H19 Sternal Rib Standards for Age Estimation 

in Balkan Populations: An Evaluation of 

U.S. Standards Using Alternative 

Statistical Methods 

Jaime Stuart, MA* and Lyle Konigsberg, PhD, University of Tennessee, 


The goals of this presentation are: 1) to evaluate the accuracy of US 

sternal rib standards of age estimation used in the Balkans, and 2) to 

present cumulative probit regression and Bayes’ methodology as alternative 

statistical methods for the estimation of age at death. 


humanity by evaluating the accuracy of existing US sternal rib standards 

for age estimation used in the Balkans; and presenting to the forensic 

community an alternative statistical approach for the estimation of 

age-at-death using a cumulative probit regression model and Bayes’ 

methodology. 

Presently, US aging standards are used to generate ages at death for 

victims of the Balkan war. However, the accuracy of Balkan estimates 

derived from US standards has not yet been systematically evaluated. 

This presentation addresses this issue. Further, alternative statistical procedures 

are used to estimate the ages at death of the US and Balkan 

samples used in this study. 

The US sample contains 156 sternal ribs of known individuals from 

the William M. Bass Donated (WMB) and Forensic Skeletal Collections 

(FC) at the Department of Anthropology at the University of Tennessee. 

Sternal rib data for an additional 32 individuals of known age, sex, and 

ancestry were obtained from the Forensic Data Bank (FDB) and 

included in the US sample. Both sexes are represented, and ages at death 

range from 18 to 94 for white males (with a mean age of 51.22 yrs.) and 

20 to 89 for white females (with a mean age of 49.35). The presenter (JS) 

classified rib ends from the WMB and FC into one of nine phases (0-8) 

using the rib end phase descriptions developed by Iscan et al. (1984, 

1985) for white males and white females. Data obtained from the FDB 

had been previously collected by various observers from around the 

country. The Balkan sample contains 529 male and 78 female sternal rib 

ends of known individuals from the Baraybar Forensic Skeletal 

Collection. Ages at death range from 17 to 90 years for males (with a 

mean age of 49.17 yrs.) and 17 to 96 for females (with a mean age of 

53.67 yrs.) Four observers (GB, EK, DP, and JS) classified rib ends 

from the Baraybar Collection into one of nine phases (0-8) using the rib 

end phase descriptions developed by Iscan et al. (1984, 1985), for white 

males and white females. Data collected by the observer who produced 

the highest correlation between rib phase and chronological age (EK) 

were used in this study. 

Traditionally, physical and forensic anthropologists estimate age by 

assigning a mean age and age range to an unknown individual based on 

the distribution of the age indicator in a known age reference collection. 

With the cumulative probit and Bayesian approaches, however, probabilities 

are assigned to each possible age in the age at death distribution 

of an unknown individual and the single age assigned the highest probability 

is the most likely age at death for that individual. While these 


approaches involve several computational steps and are mathematically 

more complex they provide certain advantages over traditional methodology, 

including: 1) assignment of probability to age-at-death estimates, 

2) less subjective age estimates, 3) more realistic error estimates, and 4) 

practitioners are not forced to use truncated age ranges when estimating 

the ages-at-death of older adult individuals (i.e., 50+ years). 

The US data were analyzed using cumulative probit and Bayesian 

methods in order to find the highest posterior density of age (i.e. most 

likely age) for each rib phase. Ages at death were then calculated for a 

sub-sample of the Balkan data using the “standards” derived from the 

US sample. If US standards do not provide accurate age at death estimates 

for the Balkan sub-sample, population-specific standards are warranted. 

Iscan, M., Loth, Susan R., and Wright, Ronald K. (1984) Age estimation 

from the rib by phase analysis: 

white males. Journal of Forensic Sciences 29(4):1094-1104. 

Iscan, M., Loth, Susan R., and Wright, Ronald K. (1985) Age estimation 

from the rib by phase analysis: 

White females. Journal of Forensic Sciences 30(3):853-863. 

Estimation of Age-at-Death, Population-Specific Standards, 

Bayesian Approach 

H20 Geometric Morphometric Techniques 

for Ancestry Assessment in Sub-Adults 

Una Strand Vidarsdottir, BSc, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Durham, 43 Old Elvet, Durham, County Durham DH1 

3HN, United Kingdom 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to assess the 

way in which geometric morphometric techniques can be used to 

reliably assess ancestry in skeletal samples of sub-adults. 

It is hoped that the Morphometric Forensic Identification of Subadults 

(MorFIdS) resource will facilitate the identification of sub-adult 

remains in a multi-ethnic context, and that it will eventually be available 

for use in a ‘user-friendly’ format, readily applied by experts and laypeople 

alike. 

This paper presents some of the research and developments carried 

out within the remits of the MorFIdS (Morphometric Forensic 

Identification of Sub-adults) identification resource. The resource is 

based on a large dataset of three-dimensional co-ordinates taken from a 

diverse sample of human skeletal populations. It has been developed 

specifically to aid in the assessment of ancestry in sub-adults of all ages. 

The identification of ancestry in human skeletal remains is an 

important factor in narrowing down the potential identity of individuals 

in a forensic context, as well as for repatriation. Hitherto, this type of 

identification has been based on quantitative or qualitative assessments 

of the morphology of the adult cranio-facial skeleton. 

Similar identification has proven highly difficult in sub-adults, as 

the degree of allometric changes in the cranio-facial skeleton during 

post-natal growth is greater than the extent of the possible ancestry-specific 

morphologies. However, recent advances in analytical techniques 

have allowed the study of inter- and intra-population differences in facial 

form during growth (e.g., Strand Vidarsdottir et al., 2002), and led to the 

examination of the possibility of developing models of population specific 

morphologies at all ages. This work has revealed that using the 

geometric morphometric school of techniques, it is possible to identify 

ancestral morphologies in the cranio-facial skeleton of infants as young 

as 1 year of age. MorFIdS (Morphometric Forensic Identification of 

Sub-adults) is a computer-based resource specifically developed from 

this research for the application of morphometric techniques to the identification 

of sub-adult skeletal remains. It aims to facilitate identification 


of ancestry on the basis of complete and partial cranio-facial skeletons. 

Tests show that given large sample-data sets, in particular where 

ancestral populations can be narrowed down by other means, sub-adults 

can be identified to racial group with up to 95% certainty. This is comparable 

to the success rate of ancestral identification in adults using 

established techniques. 

The presentation will outline the research behind the project, and 

the possibilities it offers with regards to forensic identification in the 

field or laboratory, both in an international and US context. It also outlines 

the future focus of the MorFIdS project, and the ways in which it 

is hoped to make these techniques more readily available to forensic scientists, 

archaeologists, and law enforcement personnel. 

Vidarsdottir US, O’Higgins P, Stringer C. A geometric morphometric 

study of regional differences in the ontogeny of the modern human facial 

skeleton. J Anat 2002;201(3):211-29. 

Geometric Morphometrics, Ancestry Assessment, Sub-Adults 

H21 Population Affinities of “Hispanic” Crania: 


Dennis E. Slice, PhD*, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, 

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical Center Boulevard, 

Winston-Salem, NC 27157-1022; Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina 

State University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Campus 

Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 


extent of the morphological diversity of individuals classified as 

Hispanics and the potential of geometric morphometric methods for 

quantifying that diversity and incorporating it into the assessment of 

unidentified human remains. 


humanity by illustrating the importance of regional diversity in the 

cranial morphology of persons identified as Hispanic in the United 

States using the relatively new methods of geometric morphometrics. 

The term “Hispanic” is used in the U.S. to identify persons of 

Spanish speaking countries and their descendants. Such classification, 

however, fails to recognize the varied genetic background of the subsumed 

populations resulting from the diverse ethnohistories and 

migration patterns of their native regions. In the forensic setting, the use 

of such a broad classification amounts to the disregard for potential 

sources of variation that could otherwise lead to a much more precise 

characterization of unidentified human remains. 

In this report, we present results of research designed to document 

and begin to address this problem. We use geometric morphometric 

methods to assess the craniometric affinities of a sample of modern 

Mexicans using the coordinates of twenty-three standard craniometric 

landmarks. The Mexican sample (n=31) was compared to samples of an 

indigenous pre-contact population (Ayalan) from Ecuador (n=13), 

modern Cubans (n=23), persons of African descent as represented in the 

Terry collection (n=18), modern Spanish (n=30), and pre-contact 

Cubans (n=6). Previous analysis had shown the modern Cubans were 

most similar to the Africans and only slightly less similar to the Spanish, 

but they were quite distinct from the pre-contact Cubans. This suggests 

a nearly complete replacement of the indigenous Cuban populations by 

an admixture of Spanish and Africans with a slightly higher African 

component. We speculated that other Hispanic populations, such as 

Mexicans, would show different results with a greater affinity toward 

indigenous populations and a much reduced similarity to persons of 

African descent. 

A nonparametric multivariate analysis of variance comparing the 

sum-of-squares accounted for by group membership to that of 999 

478

andom permutations of group membership showed differences between 

all pairs of samples to be highly significant, with p values at or near the 

minimum (p=0.001) possible for the test (p

H24 High Velocity Fluvial Transport: 

A Case Study From Tennessee 

Nicholas P. Herrmann, PhD*, Beth Bassett, MA, and Lee M. Jantz, PhD, 

University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Department of 


After attending this presentation, attendees will have a better understand 

variations in skeletal transport in fluvial systems. 


humanity by providing insight into the varied patterns of skeletal 

transport in different fluvial transport systems and will aid crime scene 

investigators and forensic anthropologists in future case work and 

research. 

Fluvial transport of human remains and the osteological evidence 

of such transport has been documented both anecdotally and systematically 

by various researchers during the past several decades. 

Historically, fluvial taphonomic studies have been applied to the interpretation 

of paleoanthropological contexts. The classic study by Boaz 

and Behrensmeyer (1976) documents the transportability of individual 

elements in flumes to simulate fluvial transport systems and provides an 

interpretive base for examining bone deposits recovered from fluvial 

systems. 

Researchers attempting to address current issues of fluvial transport 

in forensic anthropology have provided information on various riverine 

environments. The research by Dilen (1984) examines remains location 

and identification through the use of human-like mannequins. The mannequins 

were used to simulate the riverine transport of a human body 

and predict the behavior of partially decomposed human remains in such 

circumstances. Another study by Bassett and Manhein (2002), involves 

the documentation and evaluation of known Mississippi River cases to 

aid with the prediction of location of remains lost in a river environment. 

Still other studies address skeletal disarticulation sequences (Haglund, 

1993), osteological indications of fluvial transport and taphonomy 

(Nawrocki et al., 1997), and isolated cases of fluvial transport (Brooks 

and Brooks, 1997). While these studies provide valuable information for 

investigations of deaths involving riverine environments, none of them 

specifically address evidence of submersion and transport in more seasonal 

bodies of water. 

In this study the effects of a restricted high velocity periodic 

transport system are examined through a case example from East 

Tennessee. In the spring of 2003, the University of Tennessee Forensic 

Anthropology Center participated in the recovery of human skeletal 

material from a small, unnamed creek in Alcoa, Tennessee. The remains 

were completely skeletonized. Periodic high flow episodes had occurred 

in the creek due to heavy rain in the past 12 months and the skeletal 

material was scattered as a result of fluvial transport. Skeletal elements 

were recovered along a one-kilometer section of the creek bed. 

Topics addressed in this study include a discussion of the pattern of 

elemental transport relative to past research, illustrations of bone surface 

evidence of fluvial transport in the form of scratches and scrapes, and a 

discussion of the depositional context of the elements recovered. Insight 

into the varied patterns of skeletal transport in different fluvial transport 

systems will aid crime scene investigators and forensic anthropologists 

in future case work and research. 

Bassett HE, Manhein MH. Fluvial transport of human remains in the 

lower Mississippi River. J Forensic Sci 2002;47:719-724. 

Boaz NT, Behrensmeyer AK. Hominid taphonomy: transport of human 

skeletal parts in an artificial fluviatile environment. Amer J Phys 

Anthrop 1976;45:53-60. 

Brooks S, Brooks RH. The taphonomic effects of floodwaters on bone. 

In Haglund, WD, Sorg, MH, editors. Forensic taphonomy: the postmortem 

fate of human remains. New York: CRC Press, 1997; 553-558. 

Dilen DR. The motion of floating and submerged objects in the 

Chattahoochee River. Atlanta, GA. J Forensic Sci 1984;29:1027-1037. 


Haglund WD. Disappearance of soft tissue and the disarticulation of 

human remains from aqueous environments. J Forensic Sci 

1993;38:806-815 

Nawrocki SP, Pless JE, Hawley DA, Wagner SA. Fluvial transport of 

human crania. In Haglund, WD, Sorg, MH, editors. Forensic 

taphonomy: the postmortem fate of human remains. New York: CRC 

Press, 1997; 529-552. 

Physical Anthropology, Taphonomy, Fluvial Transport 

H25 Investigation of Nocturnal Oviposition 

by Forensic Flies in Central Texas 

Robert S. Baldridge, PhD, Baylor University, PO Box 97388, Waco, TX 

76798; Susan G. Wallace, PhD*, Baylor University, PO Box 97370, 

Waco, TX 76798; Ryan Kirkpatrick, BS, Texas A&M University, 

Department of Entomology, College Station, TX 77843 

After attending this presentation, the participants will be presented 

with additional data supporting the idea that forensic flies do not oviposit 

under nocturnal conditions. These data and those from previous studies 

support the idea that lack of nocturnal oviposition should be considered 

in estimating the postmortem interval (PMI). 


humanity by providing knowledge regarding the nocturnal oviposition 

behavior of forensic flies is required for estimating postmortem interval. 

The postmortem interval (PMI) establishes a framework within 

which the time of death can be estimated. Laboratory and field investigations, 

using non-human oviposition baits, are important in interpreting 

data associated with human death scene investigations. These investigations 

in different geographic areas identify the species available for 

ovipositing, the time of oviposition, and the effects of environmental 

factors on oviposition behavior. 

There continues to be discussion of the ability of flies to oviposit on 

corpses deposited at night. Several studies have reported nighttime 

oviposition under artificial lights and in darkened conditions. Other 

studies have reported no oviposition during the nighttime. Such contradiction 

continues to promote research to determine the degree to which 

nocturnal oviposition occurs. 

We will report on the effect of artificial light on oviposition by 

forensic flies in the Waco, Texas area. Three baits were used: 1) freshly 

killed white rats (Rattus rattus) (placed three feet off the ground), 2) 

recently thawed subadult pigs (Sus scrofa) (placed on the ground), and 

3) ground beef (fresh, one, two and three day old; placed three feet off 

the ground). The fly species attracted to and ovipositing on the baits and 

environmental parameters at the baits were recorded to determine the 

degree to which these factors might interact to affect fly attraction and 

oviposition. The elevated presentation of the rat and beef baits and the 

short exposure time for the pig baits minimized the effect on oviposition 

usually experienced from foraging workers of Solenopsis invicta (red 

imported fire ant) common in the area. However, during one observation 

period the rat bait was foraged on by vespid wasps and they did seem to 

interfere with oviposition by forensic flies. 

Field studies were conducted during the summer of 1993 (rats, 

seven nights, June-August, 1800-0900 hours CDST, urban site), and the 

summer of 2003 (pigs, three nights, June and July, 2100-2300 hours 

CDST, rural site; ground beef, three nights, 2200-0400 hours CDST, 

rural site). Diurnal oviposition studies determined that flies were present 

in the area and did oviposit on the baits. All baits were removed from 

the field sites and maintained under laboratory rearing conditions to 

determine fly species that oviposited on them. 

Species present on the rat bait included Phaenicia coeruleiviridis 

(green bottle fly), P. cuprinus (bronze bottle fly), Cochliomyia macellaria 

(secondary screwworm fly) and Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis 

(flesh fly). With the exception of P. cuprinus, these species oviposited 

480

on rats (freshly killed, viscera exposed; placed at 1800, 2100, 2400, and 

0600 hours) in lighted and dark situations before 2130 hours and after 

0630 hours. The pig baits attracted Musca domestica (house fly), P. 

coeruleiviridis, C. macellaria, and Chrysomya rufifacies (the hairy 

maggot blow fly). These species arrived at, and oviposited on, pigs in 

lighted and dark areas before 2120 hours but not between 2120 and 2300 

hours. No flies oviposited on the ground beef baits placed in lighted and 

dark sites. These data support studies reporting no nocturnal oviposition 

by forensic flies. 

Forensic Science, Forensic Entomology, Nocturnal Oviposition 

H26 The Ability to Amplify Skeletal DNA 

After Heat Exposure Due to Maceration 


Anthropology, 1115 West Berks Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122; 

Jennifer L. Harms, BS, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, Mary K. Ritke, PhD, 

and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, University of Indianapolis, Department 

of Biology, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 46227 

After attending this presentation, attendees will become aware that 

the heat generated by the boiling of skeletal remains during maceration 

does not adversely affect the ability to amplify and analyze skeletal 

DNA found in the bone samples. 

Forensic anthropologists can take bone samples for future DNA 

amplification (via the polymerase chain reaction) and analysis before or 

after removing soft tissues by the process of maceration. The heat and 

chemicals associated with the maceration process do not hamper the 

ability to successfully extract and amplify skeletal DNA found within 

the bone. 


community the effect of heat exposure, due to the maceration of 

soft tissues, on subsequent polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis of 

skeletal DNA. 

The sampling of skeletal material for genetic analysis is becoming 

increasingly common in the forensic sciences. For forensic anthropologists, 

a genetic profile obtained from skeletal DNA complements the 

biological profile constructed for an individual. In order to conduct a 

thorough skeletal analysis it is often necessary to remove by maceration 

any soft tissues that may conceal signs of trauma or bony landmarks 

used to create the biological profile. The maceration process involves 

immersing the remains in simmering water for an extended period of 

time. Because both heat and water are known to increase the rate of 

DNA degradation, and therefore hamper DNA amplification and 

analysis it is reasonable to think maceration may complicate the ability 

to successfully extract and amplify skeletal DNA found within the bone. 

However, the authors have previously demonstrated that the maceration 

of skeletal remains can improve the amount of extracted skeletal DNA 

detectable by chemiluminescent techniques, although the quantity of 

extracted DNA does not predict the quality or ability to amplify the 

DNA. This poster will present a subsequent study comparing the differences 

in the ability to amplify skeletal DNA before and after the process 

of removing soft tissue by maceration, and show that these differences 

are insignificant via statistical analysis. 

Femora were collected from Sus scrofa (pigs) displaying varying 

stages of natural decomposition, ranging from one month to one year of 

surface exposure in a wooded area, which would be similar to the condition 

of skeletal remains that a forensic anthropologist would receive 

for analysis. Pig remains were chosen because their bone decomposition 

and microstructure are similar to that of humans, and because specimens 

are easily obtained for experimental studies. Fifteen pig femora were 

sampled for genetic analysis before and after six hours of simmering in 

water, 70 ml of Borax and 100 ml of bleach (in a 50cmx31cmx15cm 

pan) at 95º C. An additional thirteen pig femora were sampled for 

genetic analysis before and after ten hours of simmering in water, 70 ml 

of Borax and 100 ml of bleach (in a 50cmx31cmx15cm pan) at 95º C. 

Time intervals of six and ten hours were chosen in order to investigate a 

wider range of heat exposure. Water was periodically added to keep the 

bones submerged and keep the Borax and bleach concentrations constant. 

Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are common target 

sites for PCR based genetic fingerprinting because of their high copy 

number in humans and other higher eukaryotes. A pig specific primer 

was designed to amplify a 374 base-pair region of the Pre-1 porcine 

SINE, which is found on several pig chromosomes. The Pre-1 porcine 

SINE primers were added to the skeletal DNA samples and amplified via 

PCR consisting of 35 consecutive cycles at 95º C for one minute, 62º C 

for one minute, and 72º C for one minute. The amplified samples were 

electrophoresed through an agarose gel and visualized after immersion 

in ethidium bromide and exposure to ultra-violet light. Amplification 

success was determined by the presence or absence of amplified skeletal 

DNA visible on the agarose gel. A total of 15 out of the 28 samples taken 

before maceration contained amplifiable DNA and 18 out of the 28 

samples taken after maceration contained amplifiable DNA. The number 

of samples containing amplifiable DNA before versus after maceration 

was compared using McNemar’s test for significant changes showed no 

significant difference between the two groups of samples at p=0.05. 

High temperatures are known to increase the rate of DNA degradation 

by disrupting the chemical bonds in DNA molecules and accelerating 

fragmentation rates. This investigation into the amplification 

success of skeletal DNA obtained before versus after maceration is of 

value to forensic anthropologists in demonstrating that the heat generated 

by the boiling of skeletal remains does not adversely affect the 

ability to amplify and analyze DNA found in the samples. 

Skeletal DNA, PCR, Maceration 

H27 Home is Where the Bones Are: 

Rat Nesting Behavior as a Tool 

in Forensic Investigations 

Tamara L. Leher, BA* and Turhon A. Murad, PhD, California State 

University, Chico, Department of Anthropology, Chico, CA 95929-400 

After attending this poster presentation, the attendee will gain a 

better understanding of the importance of rat nesting behavior to 

forensic field investigations, as well as the need to provide resources 

for appropriately trained personnel to aid in field survey and excavation. 


humanity by emphasizing the need to be familiar with the nesting 

behavior of local rodent species as their nests may be a valuable source 

of evidence and human remains. This presentation also underscores the 

importance of providing resources for appropriately trained personnel in 

the areas of field survey and excavation techniques. 

The intent of this poster is to demonstrate the importance of 

thorough field investigation, highlighting the need to be familiar with rat 

nesting behavior. A case study will be presented to underscore the importance 

of investigating rat nests for human remains as well as for other 

evidence that may shed light on the nature of the events surrounding the 

death of a particular individual. 

It is not always the case that field investigators are able to discover 

the remains of an individual fully intact. In fact, it is often the case that 

the activities of any variety of animals can perplex field investigations, 

resulting in only the partial recovery of a set of remains. Rodents are 

infamous for their scavenging activity, often leaving their mark in the 

form of gnawing/bite marks. Eat and run is not always the rule of 

thumb; in fact some rodent species like to take their new found treasures 

home. 


Neotoma spp. (species vary region by region), known as the 

woodrat or packrat makes it a habit of collecting various objects, 

including wood, bone, shell, etc. The packrat will typically range within 

100 meters of their dens or nests, often at night and are found at elevations 

ranging from 0-3700m (depending on the species). Many species 

do not hibernate and will keep several food caches. 

Archaeologists, paleontologists, and others have been investigating 

rat nests and middens for over 50 years and in that time, have been able 

to produce not only plants and pollen, but shiny objects and a large 

quantity of bone as well. The packrats are notorious for incorporating 

bone into their nests and being attracted to shiny items. 

California State University, Chico, was contacted by a county in 

northern California to aid in the field recovery of human remains. Over 

a three day period, members of the CSU Chico Physical Anthropology 

and Human Identification Field Recovery Team traveled to the site, 

clearing brush, walking survey transects, and eventually excavating four 

packrat nests. 

While conducting the survey, human remains were encountered on 

the ground surface, protruding from and lying on top of what were identified 

as rat nests. The area was cleared of excess brush, poison oak, and 

a few smaller trees. When the area was clear, four distinct mounds were 

identified as packrat nests. Over the next two days, crews worked to 

carefully excavate and sift material from the nests. On the last day, a 

fifth nest was discovered at the base of a tree, resulting in the recovery 

of additional remains. In total, 85% of the individual was recovered, 

75% of which was located within the packrat nests. 

A complex case such as this illustrates the importance of packrat 

nests to field investigations. Familiarity with the scavenging practices, 

but more specifically the general behavior and habits of the rodent 

species of a particular region may result in the recovery of a more complete 

set of remains, as well as additional evidence. This case also underscores 

the importance of providing the necessary resources for those 

appropriately trained in field survey and excavation techniques so that 

they may collect remains and evidence from burial scenes and surface 

scatters. 

Rodent Behavior, Taphonomy, Forensic Anthropology 

H28 Anthropological Tissue Depth 

Measurement Standards: A Comparison 

For Accurate Facial Reproduction 

Stacie Terstegge, MS*, University of New Haven, Public Safety and 

Professional Studies, California Campus, 6060 Sunrise Vista 

Boulevard, Citrus Heights, CA 95610; Brandi Schmitt, MS, University 

of California, Department of Cell Biology and Human Anatomy, 

School of Medicine, Davis, CA 95616 

After attending this presentation, attendees will obtain comparison 

information regarding data for facial reproductions. 


humanity by contributing additional novel data to a currently accepted 

investigation method. 

A comparison was performed between accepted anthropological 

tissue depth measurements and documented postmortem tissue depth 

measurements for the purpose of evaluating a standard facial reproduction 

(a.k.a. reconstruction) procedure. The intent of such an evaluation 

is to review standard reproduction techniques and measurements 

for their accuracy, and perhaps, identify areas where improvements may 

be necessary. 

The association between soft tissue and its underlying cranial morphology 

has been researched and reported upon in anthropological literature. 

However, there is a lack of research comparing facial reconstructions 

with documented tissue depth measurements taken immediately 


post mortem. Additionally, a comparison of anthropological versus 

medical measurements, such as those utilized in plastic surgery reconstructions 

has not been previously conducted. 

The procedure of facial reproduction is a subjective matter, which 

requires much artistic interpretation. While this artistic interpretation is 

an integral element of facial reproduction, continued data collection may 

result in a more accurate and therefore, realistic interpretation. The 

premise of this study was the completion of a facial reproduction as may 

be executed in the course of an investigation with the artist blinded to all 

known specimen factors. A comparison of the finished reproduction 

product to pre-recorded tissue depth measurements was then performed. 

A whole body donor was identified and tissue depth measurements 

taken at various sites of the facial and cranial bones.The cranial 

specimen was then prepared via an accepted skeletonization procedure 

to remove the soft tissue and clearly expose the boney structures. The 

artist then conducted a preliminary examination of the skull to estimate 

age, sex, and race of the specimen. Both two and three-dimensional 

reproductions were performed. Upon completion of both, the artist was 

supplied with the previously collected data. The two dimensional reproduction 

was visually compared with photographs of the deceased taken 

approximately five days post mortem. Photographs were taken with 

scale. The three dimensional reproduction, and the associated measurements 

collected and utilized with standard methodology, were compared 

with the pre-documented tissue depth measurements of the specimen, in 

an attempt to assess accuracy within the facial reproduction/reconstruction 

process. 

Significant discrepancies were noted between standard anthropological 

tissue depth measurements and those collected post mortem from 

the donor specimen. The average measurement reported from the differences 

of the two measurement sets was 2.875 mm with a range of 0.25 

mm to 11.00 mm. While some of these variations may be attributable to 

normal anatomical variation, morphology, cranial position at death or 

traumatic injury, this does not account for the large range of measurements 

in all areas. These factors hold importance in the facial reproduction 

process as they account for a considerable part of the variation 

in the sketching and modeling processes. Additionally, while few 

medical measurements are reported in the literature, those that are can be 

valuable to the discipline of anthropology and specifically to the reproduction 

procedure(s). Overall results indicate that there is some level of 

inaccuracy that may be overcome with proper data collection and 

comparisons. 

It is envisioned that with additional research and long-term documentation 

of tissue depth measurements from donors of various age, 

gender and racial categories, there is potential for more accurate facial 

reproductions to be achieved. 

Facial Reproduction, Tissue Depth Measurement, Facial 


H29 Silent Slaughter in Guatemala: The 




Jason M. Wiersema, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M 

University, College Station, TX 77840; Mario Vasquez, MA, Oficina de 

Derechos Humanos del Arzobizpado de Guatemala, 115 5th Avenue, 

Guatemala City, 33154, Guatemala; Luis Rios, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Universidad Autonima de Madrid, Madrid, 15404, Spain 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be presented with 

another case in which complications associated with the application of 

inappropriate standards for sex, age, and pathological determination 

complicated a large scale forensic investigation. 

482


humanity by making forensic scientists more aware of the need for the 

establishment of appropriate standards for sex and age determination as 

well as pathological lesion interpretation, and to advocate the establishment 

of population specific standards for populations whose circumstances 

are unique. 

This poster will use a case of large scale intentional starvation in 

Guatemala to demonstrate the importance of, and complications associated 

with the application of methods of aging and sexing, as well as the 

interpretation of pathological lesions on skeletal remains of a population 

with two confounding factors: subadult age, and chronic malnutrition 

prior to the event. 

The value of reliable techniques of age and sex determination is 

well known in the forensic setting. It is also well known that the existing 

techniques for determining age and sex are significantly influenced by 

outside factors such as population specific variation in growth rate and 

the influence of illness and/or malnutrition on skeletal maturation. This 

poster demonstrates a set of circumstances within which sex and age 

determination are of unique relevance, individually buried, uncommingled 

remains in an area for which standards for sex and age determination 

are not established and there is considerable reason to believe 

that the existing ones are not appropriate. 

Additionally, knowledge of the presentation and etiology of pathological 

conditions is known to be of considerable value in the interpretation 

of past lifeways from archaeological skeletal assemblages. This 

paper illustrates an instance in which this knowledge was of considerable 

forensic value, but that may fall prey to the same problems of 

interpretation that befall their interpretation in archaeological analyses 

(the osteological paradox). 

In the 1980s, the Central American country of Guatemala was in the 

midst of a war between the government and the country’s indigenous 

peoples which ultimately resulted in the massacre, forced disappearance, 

and extrajudicial killings of an estimated 100,000 to 140,000 primarily 

indigenous people. The year following the coup which resulted in Efrain 

Rios Montt’s seizure of the country’s presidency was by far the most 

devastating for the indigenous groups, only a small group of whom (in 

the form of leftist guerilla groups) had been fighting to improve their 

impoverished lifestyles and posed a threat to the government which was 

debatable at best. In 1982 the systematic removal of the adults and isolation 

of the children by the army, from the small Maya village of Ilom 

resulted in the deaths of approximately 150 children. It is suspected that 

the encirclement of the village by the military ultimately resulted in the 

deaths of the children by starvation rather than by the violent means used 

elsewhere. The ODHAG (Oficina de Derechos Humanos del 

Arzobizpado de Guatemala), a small forensic team funded by the 

Catholic church aimed, in the summer of 2003 to exhume the remains of 

some of these children in the hope that evidence supporting the starvation 

theory might be collected. 

The particular circumstances of the interment of these children, 

including their hasty burial by families upon their return and the lack of 

grave markers associated with the individual graves, the extent of vegetation 

growth and finally the fact that 21 years had passed since the 

graves were dug compromised the confidence with which the anthropologists 

could follow the information provided by family members 

regarding grave locations. Often, general grave location was known, but 

upon contact with remains during excavation, doubt arose in the minds 

of the anthropologists regarding the reliability of the location of the 

grave. This was exacerbated by the fact that the estimated ratio of 

children to adults in the village, as in much of rural indigenous 

Guatemala is around 10:1, the result being a high number of children in 

the cemetery with which these children might be confused. Additional 

complications arose in the lab. It could not be concluded that the use of 

existing techniques of subadult age determination (based on American 

and German children) was appropriate to these children given their 

chronic malnutrition. Also several of the existing techniques for sexing 

sub adult remains including form of the ilium and mandible were used, 

but their appropriateness to this particular population was difficult to 

determine. 

This poster illustrates these problems with photographs, diagrams, 

and comparisons to other data including the INCAP (Institute of 

Nutrition of Central America and Panama) longitudinal study that chronicled 

growth patterns of Guatemalan children and their response to nutritional 

supplementation. Upcoming research will compare specific portions 

of the INCAP data to the data collected here. 

Sex and Age Determination, Pathology Identification, Guatemala 

H30 Using Real-Time PCR Quantification 

of Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA 

to Develop Degradation Profiles for 

Various Tissues 

Elias J. Kontanis, BS, BA*, Cornell University, Department of Ecology 

& Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 

The goals of this study are to develop nuclear and mitochondrial 

DNA postmortem degradation profiles for various soft and osseous 

tissues using real-time quantitative PCR; to compare the effectiveness of 

several DNA extraction and purification methods; and to mitigate the 

effects of co-extracted PCR inhibitors. 


humanity by allowing investigators to optimize compromised tissue 

sampling, extraction, and purification protocols in order to facilitate the 

decedent identification process. 

DNA based decedent identification methods are dependant on the 

successful extraction, purification and amplification of template molecules. 

Oftentimes, samples encountered in forensic contexts are compromised 

due to postmortem degradation and environmental exposure. 

As a result, investigators must have a clear understanding of DNA 

amplification success potential for various tissues prior to sampling. 

Successful molecular analysis is also dependent on a comparative 

awareness of extraction and purification method effectiveness. This 

study explores DNA degradation as well as the isolation and purification 

capabilities of various extraction methods and inhibitor troubleshooting 

strategies. 

DNA was extracted from lung, liver, spleen, psoas muscle, parietal 

bones, ribs, vertebral bodies, and femoral shafts obtained over a two year 

period from 28 pigs: 14 placed in a pond shore environment and 14 

deposited on land beneath a broadleaf forest canopy. Tissue samples 

were extracted using the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) 

organic extraction protocol along with the Qiagen QIAamp® silica 

adsorption protocol. A 250 bp nuclear locus and a 226 bp region of the 

mtDNA D-loop were then amplified using the ABI® Model 7000 

Sequence Detector. A sequence specific fluorescent probe was used to 

estimate initial template copy number in each sample. During amplification 

the probe hybridizes to the target DNA sequence. TAQ DNA 

Polymerase subsequently cleaves a fluorescent reporter dye from the 

hybridized probe. Upon cleavage the reporter dye fluoresces. As additional 

target amplicons are produced during each PCR cycle, the fluorescent 

signal increases. Samples containing a greater initial template 

copy number will produce a detectable fluorescent signal at an earlier 

amplification cycle (i.e. detection threshold cycle). The relationship 

between initial template copy number and detection threshold cycle is 

used to develop a DNA degradation profile for each tissue sampled over 

the two year postmortem interval. The degradation profiles provide 

insight as to the suitability of each sample for nDNA or mtDNA analysis 

given a particular deposition environment and postmortem interval. The 

amplification efficiency of each successful reaction is also measured to 

assess the need for further template purification. Complete amplification 

failure is further evaluated using quality control PCR (qcPCR) to differ- 


entiate between amplification inhibition and DNA degradation beyond 

the limits of analytical sensitivity. Template samples determined to have 

co-extracted inhibitors are processed further to facilitate amplification. 

The effects of adding bovine serum albumin, sodium hydroxide, and 

larger quantities of Taq Polymerase on amplification efficiency are evaluated. 

Based on the aforementioned information, investigators will be able 

to optimize compromised tissue sampling, extraction, and purification 

protocols in order to facilitate the decedent identification process. 

DNA Degradation, Real-Time PCR, PCR Inhibition 

H31 Preservation in Paradise II: 

A Pre-Columbian Burial in a 

Contemporary Cemetery 

Kathryn M. Jemmott, MA*, CA Pound Human ID Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Building 114 SW Radio Road, Gainesville, FL 

32611; Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Raleigh, NC 27612; 

Loreto S. Silva, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama City, 

Panama; Lazaro M. Cotes, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama 

City, Panama; Carlos Fitzgerald, PhD, Patrimonio Historico, Panama, 

Panama City, Panama 

The goal of this presentation is to document the discovery of a Pre- 

Columbian burial encountered in contemporary cemetery on the island 

of Coiba, Republic of Panamá. 


humanity by enabling us to identify a unique, non-forensic feature in a 

contemporary forensic setting as well as providing insight into possible 

factors involved in the preservation of skeletal remains in a tropical environment. 

Pre-Columbian indigenous populations inhabited the island of 

Coiba, off the Pacific coast of the present-day Republic of Panamá, from 

approximately 500 BCE until the early 16th century with the arrival of 

the Spanish. This paper presents the excavation, recovery and analysis of 

a Pre-Columbian burial encountered in contemporary cemetery (the 

Marañon Cemetery), during the course of human rights work on the 

island of Coiba, Republic of Panamá. The Marañon Cemetery has served 

as a final resting-place for the inmate inhabitants of the Coiba prison 

colony from 1914 until 1992. The Pre-Colombian remains that are the 

focus of this work were encountered in a relatively shallow grave, 

approximately 55-cm in depth, on the west side of the cemetery and 

were arranged in a neat “packet style” burial.The remains were 

extremely fragmentary and fragile. All the bones displayed cortical 

flaking and many elements crumbled upon contact. Roots and dirt were 

present in almost all of the elements. All skeletal elements appeared to 

be represented, although the deteriorating preservation did not permit the 

intact recovery or inventory of all elements. However, even though the 

general state of preservation of this burial was poor, several nearly complete 

bones were recovered. The remains were not in an anatomical or 

articulating position, indicating that they were skeletonized when they 

were placed in the grave. Historical sources document that the Guaimi 

Indians of the Chiriquí region observed similar burial practices, 

exposing the cadaver on a platform for a year and then interring the 

bones in family burial grounds. The skeleton was determined to most 

likely represent a female, based on gross cranial and pelvic morphology, 

in her late teens or early twenties. Age was assessed via the epiphyseal 

closure method. Fragments of iliac crest displayed clear epiphyseal scars 

and the vertebral epiphyses were not fused to the vertebral bodies, suggesting 

an age of less than 25 years. Ancestry was assessed via morphological 

features and pathologic conditions of the remains. Severe wear 

was exhibited on the teeth, especially the molars and incisors, exposing 

the dentin. Some degree of flattening was observed on the occipital. 

Expansion of the diploë was noted, with cranial thickness measured at 


10mm. Porotic hyperostosis was present on the parietals and the 

occipital while significant bilateral cribra orbitalia was noted on the 

orbital plates of the frontal. These latter conditions are indicators of 

anemias that are commonly observed in prehistoric populations, but are 

rarely seen in contemporary populations. Linear enamel hypoplasias 

were noted on a canine and an incisor. This suite of traits indicates that 

these remains are of pre-Columbian indigenous origin and not of 

forensic medico-legal significance. While the state of preservation of 

this burial would by and large be considered poor, the authors were surprised 

to find that it was actually better preserved than many of the contemporary 

burials that were examined. Factors possibly contributing to 

this differential preservation may be the fact that the burial was located 

further away from the destructive palm root systems on the east side of 

the cemetery, and that the remains were skeletonized when they were 

buried, depriving the root systems and insects of soft tissue on which to 

feed. This unique burial enabled us to identify a non-forensic feature in 

a contemporary forensic setting as well as providing insight into possible 

factors involved in the preservation of skeletal remains in a tropical environment. 

Pre-Columbian Burial, Forensic Anthropology, Tropical 

Environment 

H32 The Archaeology of Tyranny 

Lazaro M. Cotes, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama City, 

Panama; Kathryn M. Jemmott, MA, CA Pound Human ID Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Building 114 SW Radio Road, Gainesville, FL 

32611; Loreto S. Silva, Comision de la Verdad, Balboa, Panama City, 

Panama; Ann H. Ross, PhD, North Carolina State University, 

Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Raleigh, NC 27612 

The goal of this presentation is to present the identification of 

human rights victims in the Republic of Panamá. 


humanity by demonstrating anthropological methods that can be successfully 

used for human rights identifications, even in tropical environments, 

that are not conducive to good preservation of remains. 

The Republic of Panamá has experienced a tumultuous first century 

of independence from Colombia, including the military dictatorships of 

Omar Torrijos (1968-1981) and Manuel Noriega (1981-1989), and the 

United States invasion in 1989. During the period of the dictatorships, 

over one hundred individuals were “disappeared” or executed for their 

political views. In 2001, the Panamanian Truth Commission (Comisión 

de la Verdad) was formed in attempts to identify the “disappeared” and 

offer some closure to the families of the victims. Based on informant testimony 

received by the Truth Commission that suggested some of the 

“disappeared” may be on Coiba, the authors, under the auspices of the 

Truth Commission, and with the cooperation of the National Police and 

the assistance of many others, undertook a large scale excavation of the 

Marañon Cemetery on the island of Coiba, Republic of Panamá. A Tprobe 

was used to locate soft areas in the ground, suggesting possible 

graves. Workmen shoveled down through the ground until the outlines 

of a grave or remains were located, or until hard, undisturbed ground 

was reached. Careful excavation of the remains then followed, in hopes 

of retrieving intact elements to aid in the identification process. 

This paper will focus on the analysis of the remains of two individuals, 

one who remains unidentified, the other who now has name, 

Jerónimo Díaz Lopez. The first individual nicknamed El Pectorado, for 

the large wooden cross lying on top of the chest area, was in a relatively 

good state of preservation. The remains were determined to represent an 

adult male of indigenous ancestry (like the general population of 

Panama) most likely in his late thirties or forties. A reactive healing 

fracture was noted at the distal third of the left fibula. In addition, there 

was evidence of a healed fracture to the right nasal and frontal process 

of the maxilla. A perimortem, comminuted fracture with no evidence of 

484

healing was observed approximately one third of the distance from the 

acromial end on the left clavicle. Fractures of the outer third of the 

clavicle are relatively rare, involving only 15 to 30% of clavicular fractures. 

The fracture appears to have resulted from a direct blow to the 

anterior aspect of the one, rather than a fall on a shoulder, which is the 

most common cause of clavicular fractures. This individual may represent 

one of the prison inmates or one of the “disappeared,” and the 

authors continue to hope that his biological profile may match a profile 

as information continues to be revealed. 

The other set of remains, now identified as Jerónimo Díaz Lopez, 

displayed variable states of preservation with the long bones being relatively 

well preserved, while the axial skeleton was very fragmentary and 

poorly preserved. Several religious artifacts, such as rosaries and religious 

icons, were found around the neck area. Sex was assessed via 

gross morphology of the cranium and pelvis and age was assessed via 

the epiphyseal union method. The remains were determined to be those 

of a male in his early twenties, with African admixed ancestry. Seven 

coins were also recovered in the grave with dates ranging from 1965 to 

1983, indicating a date of death no earlier than 1983. All of these factors 

were consistent with the biological profile of Jerónimo, who was said to 

have escaped Coiba on a raft in 1985. The clinching identifying characters 

were two gold upper central incisors, one of which was false, the 

other was a gold cap inscribed with what appeared to be the letter “V.” 

These teeth were consistent with those of Jerónimo, described by his 

sister, and positively identified by his brother. After 18 years of wondering 

where Jerónimo was, if he would ever come home, his family 

now knows where he has been and that, unfortunately, he cannot return 

home. This work demonstrates that anthropological methods can be successfully 

used for human rights identifications, even in tropical environments, 

that are not conducive to good preservation of remains. 

Human Rights, Panama, Forensic Anthropology 

H33 An Historical Perspective on 

Nonmetric Skeletal Variation: 

Hooton and the Harvard List 

Joseph T. Hefner, BS*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, 5007 NW 29th Street, Gainesville, FL 32607; Stephen D. 

Ousley, PhD, Smithsonian, NMNH MRCI 138, Washington, DC 20560; 

Michael W. Warren, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL 32605 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn the historical 

perspective on Earnest Hooton’s research on nonmetric morphological 

variants as indicators of ancestry. 


humanity by demonstrating increased awareness of the development of 

nonmetric trait analysis within forensic anthropology. 

Earnest A. Hooton (1887 – 1954) was perhaps the most influential 

physical anthropologist among early researchers interested in the field of 

race and race studies. Hooton single-handedly trained most of the dominant 

contributors to the study of race. During his tenure at Harvard 

University, beginning in 1913, and ending with his death in 1954, he displayed 

an active interest in all things racial. The focus of this presentation 

is his research detailing the nonmetric morphological variants he 

prescribed as useful indicators of racial affinity. 

Hooton believed it was possible to find non-adaptive morphological 

variants capable of differentiating the various ‘races’ of man and 

that morphological features were of greater anthropological significance 

than diameters and indices. In lecture notes obtained from the Peabody 

Museum, Hooton expresses his views concerning the advantages and 

disadvantages of morphological (as opposed to metric) observations as 

racial criteria. Advantages of anthroposcopy and morphological traits 

according to Hooton are: “1) [They] spring to the eye, [and are] qualitative 

as well as quantitative; 2) [They are] dependent upon form dif- 

ference rather [than] size, [or] proportions; and 3) [Are] more certainly 

heritable.” The only disadvantage of morphological treatment, according 

to Hooton, was that many of the traits are incapable of metric treatment. 

Hooton, whose list of students represents a Who’s Who of later 

race/ancestry researchers, passed on to his students traits he deemed 

diagnostic of race. They are not referenced to a particular study by 

Hooton; rather, they represent his legacy as a teacher. These traits, and 

their perceived value in ancestry determination, have continued to be 

passed on from mentor to student, almost unchanged to the present day. 

Despite their widespread use, actual frequencies in more modern populations 

have only recently been adequately assessed. 

To facilitate data collection, Hooton began to develop the forms and 

standard descriptions known as the Harvard List. The List has changed 

little since the time Hooton was recording data. Although no one knows 

for sure how many anthropologists use similar versions of the List, it is 

reasonable to assume that a majority of Hooton’s students used or borrowed 

from it when establishing their own laboratory protocols for data 

collection. Hooton believed that “methods and methodology [were] the 

very vitals of any study and should be kept up to date and in the forefront 

of ones thinking.” In an unpublished manuscript, Hooton tests the 

Harvard List on five of his former students – Coon, Angel, Birdsell, 

Lasker, and Newman – to assess their ability to score nonmetric variants 

without standard illustrations. This preliminary test failed miserably, 

with the observers in agreement in only 18.7% of the cases. These formative 

tests pointed out a shortcoming of the List – a lack of standardized 

scales for observation. Unfortunately, the Hooton archives do 

not include the second trial of these five participants utilizing standard 

scales, so it will never be known whether the scales would have helped, 

or whether Hooton was satisfied with the use of the Harvard List by subsequent 

researchers. Despite his awareness of this shortcoming and his 

attempts to resolve the issue, the lack of standardized descriptions of 

morphological variants continues to present a serious obstacle to 

accurate and consistent ancestry determination by modern physical 


Ancestry, Nonmetric Variation, E. A. Hooton 

H34 Nonmetric Trait Frequencies 

and the Attribution of Ancestry 

Steven N. Byers, PhD*, University of New Mexico at Valencia, 280 La 

Entrada Road, Los Lunas, NM 87031 


value of nonmetric trait frequencies in attributing ancestral group to 

human skeletal remains. 

Forensic anthropologists and other scientists will realize the complexity 

of using nonmetric traits to attribute ancestry. 

A study was performed to explore the possibility of attributing 

ancestry to human skeletal remains from nonmetric trait frequencies. 

Since the attribution of ancestral group (e.g., race) is one of the four 

major demographic characteristics used by law enforcement agencies to 

begin the process of matching skeletal remains to missing persons files, 

any method that aids in the correct determination of this trait is of no 

small importance to forensic anthropologists. 

Published statistics of ancestral groups in the United States (e.g., 

White, Black, Asian, American Indian, and Hispanic) were gathered 

both from the general population and from population subgroups (e.g., 

state, local statistics) as well as from US crime statistics. Also, the frequency 

of nonmetric traits of the teeth (e.g., shovel-shaped incisors, 

Bushman canine), skull (e.g., os japonium, Inca bones), and postcranium 

in these groups also were gathered. Using simple mathematical (e.g., 

combinatorics) and statistical techniques (e.g., Bayes’ Theorem), these 

data were analyzed several different ways to determine their value in 

attributing ancestry. First, the occurrence of a trait was used to compute 

the probabilities of ancestral grouping using raw frequencies of indi- 


vidual characteristics. Next, these frequencies were combined to 

determine the value of the occurrence of multiple traits to attribute 

ancestral group; at this stage, methods were used to combine these traits 

assuming both independence and dependence of trait occurrence (e.g., 

the probability of shovel-shaped incisors and incisor winging). Finally, 

these data were entered into Bayes’ Theorem to estimate ancestry from 

the occurrence of a trait or suite of traits given the breakdown of 

ancestral groups both in the general population and within smaller 

demographic areas (e.g., state, county) as well as statistics on deaths due 

to murder, suicide, and accident. 

Some surprising, and even unlikely, results were obtained. For 

example, although shovel-shaped incisors are much more common in 

people of Asian ancestry (including Native American) than those 

descended from native people of Europe and Africa, the occurrence of 

this trait in a skeleton gives only a probability of p=.345 that the person 

was of Asian ancestry. This is due to the small portion of people in this 

group (approximately 4.5%) in the general US population. The probability 

of White ancestry with the occurrence of this trait is approximately 

p=.526 while it is p=.129 for Black ancestry. This result is surprising 

considering the weight given by forensic anthropologists to the 

appearance of such features. With this and similar findings in mind, a 

number of questions emerge from this study. First, how accurate are the 

published frequencies of these traits? (Hrdlicka reported a frequency of 

8.8% for U.S. Whites with shovel-shaped incisors.) Second, how representative 

of the general population of the United States are these frequencies? 

Third, should the frequencies in the general population be 

used in these calculations or are local and even death statistics (particularly, 

criminal deaths) more appropriate? Given the complexity of this 

situation, it appears that considerable judgment must be used when 

employing nonmetric traits in the attribution of ancestry. 

Nonmetric Traits, Ancestry, Bayes’ Theorem 

H35 Non-Metric Indicators of Ancestry: 

Making Non-Metric Traits More 

User Friendly in Racial Assessments 

Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Kansas State University, Osteology 

Laboratory, 204 Waters Hall, Manhattan, KS 66506 

Attendees at this presentation will be able to assess the utility of 

racial assessment of skeletal remains primarily between Caucasoid and 

Negroid ancestries. They will learn the accuracy of radiographic technique 

on cranial remains and which infracranial non-metric traits are 

best suited for accurate racial assessment. Finally, they will have an 

appreciation of the most productive infracranial traits used in discriminating 

between Negroid and Caucasoid ancestry in skeletal forensic 

cases or cases involving human rights violations. 

The addition of techniques, procedures and methodology in the 

estimation of racial ancestry in difficult forensic cases-either current 

legal cases or cases of human rights violations. 

During the last 25 years, a number of techniques have been 

employed to use non-metric traits, either singularly or in various sets, as 

an indicator of skeletal ancestry. Works by Finnegan and Schulter-Ellis, 

1978; Cooprider et al., 1980; Finnegan and Rubison 1984; and Finnegan 

1994, have addressed the usefulness of a variety of radiographic and 

observational non-metric trait techniques in assessing the racial affiliation 

of earlier human crania and infracranial skeletons and the more 

applied assessment of single skeletal remains to their parent racial group 

using various non-metric traits. While classification accuracy of 

pairwise comparisons ranges from 85% to 95% in infracranial archaeological 

and cadaver dissection room materials samples and specific 

cranial pairwise comparisons approach 98% accuracy between 

Caucasoid and Negroid cranial samples. However, a number of the necessary 

techniques are either quite time consuming or statistically tedious 

and therefore not in general use. A general, less cumbersome discrim- 


inant analysis is needed if non-metric infracranial traits can be employed 

in current and future case work in forensic anthropology. 

To these ends, the data on thirty infracranial traits were taken on 

356 individuals from three earlier archaeological samples; Aleuts, Coast 

Eskimo and Yukon River Eskimo, and two cadaver dissection room 

samples, Americans with predominately Caucasoid ancestry. and 

Americans with predominately Negroid ancestry. All samples were 

housed at the Department of Anthropology at the Smithsonian 

Institution. The sex of the skeletons was known in the dissection room 

samples. In the archaeological samples, sex was estimated on the basis 

of pelvic morphology. While infracranial non-metric traits are rarely 

significantly different from side to side in population samples, they are 

often asymmetric from side to side within the individual. Therefore, for 

the purpose of racial differences, each side was considered a data set, 

thus allowing 2N for our sample, or 712 items. Since all individuals did 

not have all or complete elements, the number of observations per 

skeleton varied slightly. As well, those elements showing pathology or 

trauma, either antemortem or postmortem, were also excluded. As a 

result, the final sample sizes were slightly reduced. 

The criteria for scoring the non-metric traits was taken from 

Finnegan (1978). To eliminate inter-observer error, all observations and 

data recordings were made by the author. Skeletal elements read early 

in the day were reread late in the day to control any evolution in the 

reading criteria. 

The results of pairwise comparisons and the accuracy of individual 

assignments varied considerably between population groups (68% to 

92%). None of the individual comparisons met the accuracy suggested 

by reported cranial or infracranial non-metric population studies! 

However, some selection of particular infracranial non-metric traits did 

produce more consistent classification assignments (78% to 96%), but 

an a priori selection limiting the number of non-metric traits and population 

samples was necessary. This a priori selection may not distract 

from the usefulness of using infracranial non-metric traits in the 

assessment of ancestry in skeletal forensic cases or cases involving 

human rights violations. 

Cooprider KB, Rubison RM, Finnegan M. Racial classification based 

on non-metric skeletal traits. Homo 1980; 31(1):1-21. 

Finnegan M. Non-metric variation of the infracranial skeleton. J 

Anatomy 1978;125(1):23-37. 

Finnegan M, Rubison RM. Multivariate distances and multivariate classification 

systems using non-metric traits in biological studies. In: Van 

Vark GN, Howells WW, editors. Multivariate Statistical Methods in 

Physical Anthropology. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel Publishing, 

1984;69-80. 

Finnegan M. Schulter-Ellis FP. The tympanic plate in forensic discrimination 

between American Blacks and Whites. J Forensic Sciences, 

1978;23(4):771-777. 

Race, Skeletal Remains, Ancestry 

H36 Playing the “Race” Card Without a 

Complete Deck: The Addition of 

Missing Asian Data to Aid Racial 

Determinations in Forensic Casework 

David R. Rankin, MA*, and C.E. Moore, PhD, U.S. Army Central 

Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 

AFB, HI 96853-5530 

After attending this presentation, the viewer will understand: 1) the 

application of non-metric methods in race determination of human 

skeletal remains in forensic casework, 2) the necessary utility this 

affords the forensic scientist in determining an individual biological 

profile and ultimately, individual identification, and 3) improvements 

needed in the reference population data set. 

486


humanity by improving the accuracy in making racial estimations of 

human remains within the context of forensic identification casework, 

specifically addressing the problem of a lack of a true Asian population 

in the reference data used in the determination of Mongoloid remains. 

The identification of human skeletal remains in forensic casework 

often requires both inductive and deductive observations. The process 

requires first the deductive capability of building a singularly clearer 

picture, or biological profile, of an individual from potentially a whole 

suite of smaller clues – in the case of the forensic anthropologist, specific 

bony landmarks. Inductive processes then take over in the comparison 

of specific characteristics from this unknown individual with 

like characteristics observed in medical and dental records of known 

individuals fitting the same general profile. This is a practical application 

of the science of anthropology to problems in the “real” world. 

The forensic application of anthropology to the problem of racial 

estimation is often misconstrued as inconsistent with theoretical components 

of biological anthropology. However, basic tenets must be emphasized 

in the application of anthropological techniques towards forensic 

ends: (1) Forensic anthropologists do not place value judgments on their 

determinations of race, and unlike pure academic anthropology, which 

focuses on describing population groups and their life-ways, forensic 

applications of the science ultimately seek to identify the individual; 

(2) Race is an important social construct that can often be assessed through 

skeletal observation, and since the public that is served by forensic investigation 

requires descriptive diagnoses which can be applied to narrow the 

search for individual identity, forensic anthropologists would be remiss to 

disregard the ability to identify these skeletal traits. Forensic determinations 

of racial affiliation do not further notions of racism. At the same time 

forensic anthropologists must work within the framework understood by 

the living, applicable to how they perceive themselves. Genetically based, 

phenotypically expressed, or characteristically perceived, race determinations 

are a valid and important tool used in the forensic sciences successfully 

to help achieve positive identifications and bring needed closure to 

both loved-ones and the judicial process. 

It is the nature of comparative methods that a reference sample representing 

a population be a true model of that group. For years, the broad 

reference population designated “Mongoloid” has been defined by 

studies almost entirely derived from “Southwestern Mongoloid” remains 

(Rhine 1990). The model in general has been developed by researchers 

most familiar with American forensic cases, skeletal series such as the 

Terry and Hamann-Todd collections, and a variety of Native American 

archaeological populations. Clearly, data specifically including Asian 

and Southeast Asian populations are under-represented. Our research 

involves an examination of non-metric cranial features in modern 

Southeast Asian skeletal populations. Skeletal collections from the 

Chiang Mai University Medical School, Thailand, the Mahidol School 

of Medicine in Bangkok, Thailand and a collection of remains stored in 

the Memorial Museum at the former Choeung Ek Khmer Rouge prison 

camp near Phnom Penh, Kingdom of Cambodia were subjected to nonmetric 

trait analysis. The results will be evaluated by critical comparison 

to the model for Southwestern Mongoloid as described by Rhine in his 

1990 publication “Non-Metric Skull Racing,” in the edited work 

Skeletal Attribution Of Race (Gill and Rhine 1990). Standard criteria 

were used for assessing racial affinity in forensic contexts. It is hypothesized 

that the Southeast Asian remains will display some trait frequencies 

relatively consistent with the standard repertoire of Mongoloid 

traits, but that they will also display features and trait frequencies that 

contradict the commonly accepted model. The end result of this research 

will be presented here and will contribute to the important ongoing 

critical evaluation of forensic racial assignation, expand the overall 

database of non-metric cranial traits in human populations, and refine 

the criteria for assessing racial affiliation in forensic contexts. 

The opinions and assertions expressed herein are solely those of the 

authors and are not to be construed as official or as the views of the United 

States Department of Defense, the United States Department of the Army, 

or the United States Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii. 

Non-Metric Race Determination, Human Skeletal Remains, 

Forensic Casework 

H37 The Zygomaticomaxillary Suture: 

A Study of Variability Within Homo Sapiens 

Amy A. Holborow, BS, MA*, Department of Anthropology, University 

of Wyoming, PO Box 3431, Laramie, WY 82071 


one can use zygomaticomaxillary suture patterning to aid in the identification 

of an individual’s ancestry. 

This research will have an immediate impact throughout the field of 

forensic anthropology because it illuminates previous studies and gives 

more detailed insight into population biology. 

This research examines the frequency of occurrence of different 

zygomaticomaxillary suture shapes/forms among major populations of 

Homo sapiens. This study tests the hypothesis that zygomaticomaxillary 

suture shapes do not differ in frequencies within various major populations 

of Homo sapiens. This research expanded on a previous study 

(n=133) by examining a sample size of 769 individuals from eleven 

major worldwide populations. Frequencies of these two suture shapes 

were determined for each of the populations and this evidence was used 

to determine the forensic utility of this trait. Populations examined for 

this study include U.S. Whites, American Indians from the Southwest, 

American Indians from the Great Plains of North America, U.S. Blacks, 

Japanese, Northern Chinese, Southeastern Chinese, Mongolians, 

Australian Aborigines, Peruvians, and East Polynesians from Easter 

Island. 

The primary goal of this research is to assess the frequencies of 

suture shapes within a sample that represents many of the world’s major 

populations. A second objective of this study is to determine whether or 

not other suture shapes exist besides the curved and angled forms 

described in previous studies. The third goal has been to determine the 

forensic utility of using suture patterning to aid in the identification of an 

individual’s ancestry. 

Two methods, a visual assessment and a metric assessment, are 

used to classify the angled and the curved suture patterns. For many 

years, the visual method was accepted as the standard way to assess the 

zygomaticomaxillary suture pattern. While testing the visual method, the 

author found that many individuals are hard to assess visually, meaning 

it is difficult to tell whether they have angled or curved patterns. These 

borderline patterns appear to look ‘straight’ until the use of metrics 

allows one to determine reliably whether the pattern is angled or curved. 

Through testing, the author established a more accurate method using 

calipers to take three measurements along the suture. The three measurements 

taken along the suture are: M1= zygoorbital breadth; M2 = 

bimaxillary breadth; and M3 = widest breadth along the sutures at any 

point above the bimaxillary points. These measurements allow for the 

assessment of the overall suture pattern for an individual in a manner 

that is more objective, replicable, and testable. 

After collecting data from 11 different populations (n=769) the null 

hypothesis was rejected. As a result of this study it was discovered that 

many populations do pattern well and have significantly higher frequencies 

of angled or curved forms. The author established that the previously 

documented curved and angled forms are the only two shapes 

that consistently pattern well within populations. Furthermore, the 

author determined that this trait is forensically useful in assessment of 

ancestry, however, it is not as definitive as suspected in previous studies. 

This research also revealed the weakness in using one trait solely for 

race attribution. The zygomaticomaxillary suture is a useful forensic trait 

only when combined with the many others used to assess ancestry. With 

documented suture pattern frequencies for many populations, forensic 


anthropologists will now know what the probability of assessing 

ancestry is using zygomaticomaxillary suture patterns. This research will 

have an immediate impact throughout the field of forensic anthropology 

because it illuminates previous studies and gives more detailed insight 

into population biology. 

Forensic Anthropology, Zygomaticomaxillary Suture, Ancestry 

H38 Racial Variation in Palate Form and the 


Kristen J. Rawlings, MA*, University of Wyoming, Department of 

Criminal Justice, A&S 223, PO Box 3197, Laramie, WY 82071 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have been presented 

for consideration of forensic and physical anthropologists the 

racial differences noted between Black, White, and Native Americans in 

palate shape and transverse palatine suture form. 


humanity by demonstrating that both palate form and transverse palatine 

suture shape differ significantly by major racial population and are, 

therefore, of value in assessing ancestry from skeletal remains. Palate 

form is shown to be of much greater utility in this regard than is palatine 

suture shape and can be seen from this study to be one of the very best 

areas of the skeleton for the attribution of race within Homo sapiens. 

Regardless of the debate over the validity of race, the identification 

of ancestry through the quantification of observable racial characteristics 

has proven essential in forensic casework in order to help establish a 

victim’s identity. This study defines two skeletal traits thought to be 

important to skeletal biologists and forensic anthropologists – the shape 

of the external bony palate and the form of the transverse palatine suture. 

The frequency of occurrence of both traits is determined for three North 

American skeletal population samples, which will be referred to here as 

Black American, Native American, and White American. 

As early as 1916, physical anthropologists noted variations in 

palatal form. Earnest A. Hooton created a checklist for anthropology students 

at Harvard University to insure consistency in the research performed 

on various osteological specimens. On this list, Hooton noted 

shapes of palates. While these data were collected, they do not appear 

to have been compiled in any systematic scientific study. After the creation 

of the Harvard Checklist, palatal forms went virtually unnoticed 

until the latter half of the 20th century. Although researchers mention 

variation in palatal form, a comprehensive study of these forms was not 

performed until the early 1980s. Then, George W. Gill added palatal 

forms to the University of Wyoming’s Osteology Checklist. Samples of 

Plains Indians and Pioneer Whites were examined from the University 

of Wyoming collections, as well as American Blacks from the Terry 

Collection of the Smithsonian Institution. After 15 years of collecting 

data on forensic and archaeological specimens, Gill noticed what he 

thought were clear patterns of palatal form variation. Gill also described 

palatal form trends within major geographic populations. 

Masters student Patrick Chapman was asked, in the early 1990s, to 

begin compiling data on palatal forms. Chapman began to compile data 

for the study from additional records of the osteological repository at the 

University of Wyoming. This survey included specimens returned to law 

enforcement agencies, Native American groups, Peruvians, Polynesians, 

and others. 

From these data, Chapman recorded the palatal forms he looked at 

in three basic categories outlined in the Harvard Checklist – triangular 

(parabolic), elliptic, and hyperbolic. Chapman further illustrated what 

Gill had suggested – that these palatal forms occurred in different frequencies 

within the various major geographic racial groups represented 

in the United States. According to Chapman’s compilation, Black 

Americans frequently exhibit hyperbolic palatal forms, Native 

Americans and East Asians often show elliptic forms, and White 

Americans tend to display parabolic palatal forms. Chapman also 


worked with many specimens from Gill’s research on Easter Island and 

in Peru, finding interesting correlations with these populations as well. 

However, the current study focuses solely on Black, Native, and White 

American groups. 

Chapman also compiled research collected by Gill on transverse 

palatine suture forms. These sutures, Chapman noted, fit into four basic 

categories, which he defined as anterior curved, anterior jagged (jagged), 

posterior curved, and straight. While each of these suture forms exists 

within all North American populations, posterior curved sutures seem to 

rarely occur outside Polynesian peoples. Within the U.S. populations 

reviewed in Chapman’s work, the following correlations between transverse 

palatine suture forms and races were made: Black Americans most 

often displayed anterior curved sutures, Native Americans and East 

Asians frequently exhibited straight sutures, and White Americans 

tended to show jagged sutures. 

The current study began mainly as a way to expand the samples of 

the populations researched by Gill. Because the majority of the research 

on American specimens performed by Gill and compiled by Gill and by 

Chapman centered on the western United States, the present research 

investigates palatal forms and suture types on populations not explored 

in previous studies. This was done to determine whether the correlations 

between palatal forms, transverse palatine sutures, and race exist in populations 

throughout the United States. Of particular interest are Native 

American populations since the Chapman and Gill research centered primarily 

on Plains Indian populations. 

The current study further performs statistical analysis of non-metric 

traits to determine the association, if any, between population and palatal 

form, as well as between population and transverse palatine suture 

shape. These statistical analyses are then compared to those of Chapman 

and Chapman and Gill. It evaluates palatal shapes and transverse 

palatine suture forms based on the visual criteria defined by Gill. The 

study makes three discrete observations, which are palatal form, palatine 

suture form, and a new method of palatine suture form classification. 

Palate, Palatine Suture, Population Variability 

H39 Femoral Variation Between 

Whites and American Indians 

H. Anne Halvorsen, MA* and Rick L. Weathermon, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82072 

This discussion will present to the physical and forensic anthropological 

community a detailed study of three areas of the femur which 

demonstrate significant variation between two populations, U.S. Whites 

and American Indians, and which show promise in distinguishing these 

populations in a forensic context. 

The femur has long been studied in physical anthropology, and 

notable differences have been found between major human populations. 

Studies at the University of Wyoming have focused primarily on morphological 

differences noted between whites and American Indians. 

The current study expands on three such studies, and provides a way to 

quantify these differences. This study compares the means of these populations 

in three areas: femoral torsion, platymeria, and intercondylar 

notch height. Statistical analyses were run to test the hypothesis that in 

each of these areas independently no significant variation exists. 

Torsion height is a single measurement taken with standard sliding 

calipers, where the maximum height of the femur head is measured from 

the surface upon which it is resting, with both condyles lying flat on the 

surface. Differences between American Indian femora and those of 

whites have been noted in the degree of torsion, with American Indians 

evidencing higher torsion. Statistical analyses from the current sample 

have supported this observation, and noted that the difference is quite 

significant. At the extremes of the populations, racial discrimination in 

a forensic context can be obtained with a high degree of certainty from 

this trait alone. 

488

Femoral platymeria has been shown to be another trait useful in distinguishing 

individuals from these populations, with American Indian 

femora exhibiting a much higher degree of platymeria, or flatness, of the 

proximal femur. Platymeria is obtained through two standard measurements 

of the femur, anterior-posterior (A-P) and medial-lateral (M-L) 

subtrochanteric diameter. Together these measurements quantify the 

observed morphology of the proximal end of the femur in cross-section; 

whites tend to be more circular in cross-section, with similar values of 

both A-P and M-L, while American Indian femora exhibit a flatness of 

the femur, with a smaller A-P diameter. Statistical analyses of these populations 

in the current study again show that there is a significant difference 

in this trait, and that it is another trait which can be extremely 

useful in distinguishing femora from these populations. 

Finally, variations in the intercondylar notch height of the distal 

femur were compared between the two populations. Intercondylar notch 

(ICN) height is another single measurement taken of the maximum 

height, wherever found, of the ICN from the surface upon which the 

bone is resting, in the same position as with torsion height. Statistical 

analysis demonstrated that there is a significant difference between the 

means of the two populations, with whites exhibiting a higher ICN 

height. With this trait alone, femora of these populations can be distinguished 

with a high degree of certainty at the extremes of each 

population. 

This study has been conducted in an attempt to explore and quantify 

variations between the femora of whites and American Indians, and has 

its most value, perhaps, in a forensic context to help in the identification 

of individual unknown skeletal remains from these populations. Each 

area of the femur explored here has shown variation between these populations 

which has proven to be statistically significant. This study lends 

credibility to the observed morphological differences which have been 

noted in the past, and quantifies how valuable are these techniques of 

racial differentiation by use of the femur. 

Femoral Variation, American Indians, US Whites 

H40 Population Variability in the Proximal 

Articulation Surfaces of the Human 

Femur and Humerus 

George W. Gill, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071 

This presentation will demonstrate the magnitude of racial difference 

between American Indians and Whites with regard to two 

important long bone articulation surfaces, and then to provide a new, 

adjusted metric scale for accurate sexing of native remains. 

Since Thomas Dwight, the father of American forensic physical 

anthropology, conducted his pioneering work on the human femur at the 

end of the 19th century, the maximum diameter of the head of the femur 

has been known to vary significantly between males and females. Since 

the work of Dwight’s student, George A. Dorsey, on the vertical height 

of the head of the humerus (1897 – only three years after Dwight’s historic 

Shattuck Lecture) the proximal end of that bone has likewise been 

acknowledged as a reliable indicator of sexual dimorphism. Pearson and 

others soon followed these earliest investigations with additional work, 

particularly on the femur. The majority of these metric studies however 

focused on the large-statured Whites of Europe and North America, with 

little attention to the more moderately proportioned populations 

indigenous to Asia and the Americas. 

T. Dale Stewart, a pioneer of these kinds of sexual dimorphism 

studies within the modern era of forensic anthropology, did extend these 

same metrics to significant samples of American Blacks. He found the 

means for the two populations (U.S. Blacks and Whites) regarding 

maximum diameter of the femoral head, at least, to be nearly identical. 

White males average 48 mm in femur head diameter while Black males 

average 47.2. The White female mean of 42 mm is even closer to the 

Black female average of 41.5 mm. Such close patterning between these 

two large populations of North America has, over the years, led forensic 

anthropologists, bioarchaeologists and other human osteologists to tend 

to utilize a single scale for the sexing of the skeletal remains of all populations 

of Homo sapiens. 

In order to test the reliability of the use of this metric scale (published 

first by Stewart and then later by Bass and others in modern 

standard textbooks) beyond the initial population samples of U.S. Blacks 

and Whites, the present study was undertaken. During the author’s excavations 

and analysis of prehistoric skeletal remains from coastal West 

Mexico in the 1960s, data collection for these two measurements of the 

femur and humerus was initiated. The focus at the time was to test these 

dimensions collected on a short-statured population of indigenous 

Mesoamericans against those collected historically from samples of 

American Whites and Blacks. Initial results were suggestive of meaningful 

racial differences, so in order to develop further data from another 

contrasting sample of American Indians, similar measurements were collected 

on Northwestern Plains Indians. Within the past year all metrics 

have been compiled from both American Indian population samples, 

with a total adult skeletal sample of 67 Mesoamerican Indians, and 58 

Northwestern Plains Indians. The means for these two Native American 

populations on both femoral head diameter and the vertical diameter of 

the head of the humerus are nearly identical. On the other hand, they are 

smaller than (and differ significantly from) the means for Blacks and 

Whites. This has led to the development of new metric scales for the 

sexing of American Indian skeletal remains that are specific to Native 

Americans and therefore provide more accurate results in skeletal 

analysis. These results also underscore the importance of testing for 

racial differences in important skeletal traits of Homo sapiens before 

using them beyond the initial population samples upon which they are 

based. 

Population Variability, Femur, Humerus 

H41 Racial Assessment Using 

the Platymeric Index 

Daniel J. Wescott, PhD*, University of Missouri at Columbia, 

Department of Anthropology, 107 Swallow Hall, Columbia, MO 65211; 

Deepa Srikanta, BA, University of Missouri at Columbia, Department 

of Biology, Columbia, MO 65211 

The goal of this presentation is to illustrate the usefulness of the 

platymeric index as an indicator of race. 


humanity by demonstrating that subtrochanteric shape can be successfully 

used to distinguish between Native Americans and American 

Whites and Blacks in skeletal cases. 

Noticeable differences in the shape of the proximal diaphysis of the 

femur have been observed between populations. The two most frequently 

cited causes for these differences are biomechanics and genetics. 

In the anthropological literature, biomechanics have probably received 

the most support, but Gill and his colleagues have argued that marked 

racial, and therefore genetic, differences are present in the shape in the 

proximal femur. In general, Gill and colleagues have found that the subtrochanteric 

anteroposterior diameter in Whites and Blacks is greater 

than that of East Asians and Native Americans. In other words, Whites 

and Blacks tend to have eurymeric (rounder) diaphyses, while Native 

Americans and East Asians have platymeric (flatter) proximal femur 

shafts. 

In this paper, we examine variation and population differences in 

proximal femur shape using the platymeric index (PI) on a sample of 

nearly 3000 individuals. Among populations, the PI typically ranges 

from approximately 70 to 100. Individuals with an index below 85 are 


considered to display platymeria, while those above 85 are eurymeric. 

For the analysis of population differences, we examined five populations: 

American Blacks (N=319), American Whites (N=672), Native 

American (N=1280), Polynesian (N=179), and non-Indian Mexicans 

(N=40). We then, as did Gill and colleagues, grouped Native Americans 

and Polynesians into one group and American Whites and Blacks into a 

second group. The Native American group was then subdivided into six 

geographical regions (Northern Plains, Central Plains, Southern Plains, 

Prairie, Great Basin, and Southwest) and three subsistence strategies 

(Agriculturalists, Hunter and Gatherer, and Village Horticulturalist). No 

significant differences were found between males and females within 

populations, so the sexes were pooled for analysis. 

Our results generally support Gill and colleagues’ assertion that the 

PI can be used successfully by forensic anthropologists to distinguish 

Native Americans and Polynesians (81% correctly classified) from 

American Whites and Blacks (74% correctly classified). Native 

Americans (mean PI=78) and Polynesians (mean PI=71) are on average 

more platymeric than American Whites (mean PI=90) and Blacks (mean 

PI=91). Non-Indian Mexicans (mean PI=89) generally have a subtrochanteric 

femur shape more similar to American Whites and Blacks. 

Our results strongly suggest, however, that some caution should be used 

when using the platymeric index to discriminate between populations. 

The range of variation in all populations is considerable, making discrimination 

between the five populations difficult. Native Americans, 

for example, range from extremely platymeric to eurymeric and frequently 

classify as Polynesian or non-Indian Mexican. 

Within Native Americans there are differences between regions and 

subsistence strategies. The PI is least in populations from the Northern 

Great Plains (mean PI = 75), the Native American population studied by 

Gill and colleagues, and greatest in the Southern Plains (mean PI = 83). 

Populations from the Southwest (mean PI = 78), Northern Prairie (mean 

PI = 79), Great Basin (mean PI = 81), and Central Plains (mean PI = 82) 

are intermediate in their PI. Village Horticulturalists (mean PI = 77) and 

Agriculturalists (mean PI=78) are generally more platymeric than 

Hunter and Gatherers (mean PI = 81). 

We agree with Gill and colleagues that the shape of the proximal 

femur can be used successfully by forensic anthropologists to distinguish 

between Native Americans and American Blacks and Whites. But, 

our results also suggest that there is great variation within groups, and 

differences between populations are probably due to both genetics and 

biomechanics. As a result, we suggest that caution should be taken when 

using only the femur for the estimation of race. 

Forensic Anthropology, Femur, Subtrochanteric Shape 

H42 Race — A New Synthesis for a New Century 

John M. McCullough, PhD*, University of Utah, 270 South 1400 East, 

Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0060 

Before WW II race was a major subject of study in physical anthropology 

and some social sciences. Race was viewed as a logical extension 

of the Linnean binomial system, working from Family, Genus, and 

species to sub-species, or race. The horrible excesses of the National 

Socialist Party in racially “purifying” Germany in the 1930s and 1940s 

lead many anthropologists and others to decry the concept of race as 

dangerous and declare race to no longer exist in living humans. Other 

criticisms include the fact that anthropologists cannot agree upon the 

number of races that exist, the inability to precisely define the geographical 

extent of racial boundaries, and the lability of human variation 

chronologically. There can be no logical answer to the charge that if race 

exists it shouldn’t because of the catastrophic mischief that some have 

wreaked in using the concept; that is an unfortunate fact of history which 

no person of good will wishes to see repeated. Answers or explanations 

can be provided for other criticisms. To the criticism that race does not 

exist because we cannot agree upon the number of races – there is also 


disagreement as to the number of sexes in humans; is it two or three or 

six or thirty-two? If race does not exist because of disagreement as to 

number, neither can sex exist and we are a unisex species. As to the criticism 

that we cannot draw clear geographical boundaries between races, 

the author submits that discrete boundaries are a better definition of 

incipient species or genera than subspecies. We will always expect contiguously 

distributed subspecies to interbreed and create fuzzy boundaries 

that may change through time, even short periods of time. Another 

criticism, that race cannot be ascribed to an individual, the author 

submits that forensic anthropologists can and ought to attempt to do this 

in every case submitted to them. Papers to be presented later in this symposium 

will present means of identifying individuals of different racial 

groups and even racial mixes, and sometimes the statistical probability 

of a correct ethnic or racial identification. We regularly do this with 

anthroposcopic skeletal traits and can now do so with an adequate DNA 

sample. A last criticism of the racial concept is that individuals in the 

same nuclear family may belong to separately defined sub-sub races or 

sub-sub-sub races. Rather than dealing with “race,” perhaps we are 

dealing with major gene complexes which merit further genetic rather 

than taxonomic study. In the past 60 years anthropology matured in 

methods of studying human variation, human genetics and increased 

types of variation have been discovered and described. We have also 

become more sophisticated in theoretical and philosophical issues. 

Following a Wittgensteinian suggestion, a new approach is suggested in 

viewing race as a legitimate taxonomic level by referring to race not as 

a firm, fixed racial “type,” but rather as a floating concept, emphasizing 

trait associations much like the definitions of culture areas in cultural 

anthropology and languages in linguistics. In each, we can define a 

culture area or language, but the exact borders may not be precisely 

definable, and we expect considerable cultural or linguistic (or genetic) 

variation within each. That does not vitiate the validity of the culture 

area concept or the idea of a language – each obviously exists – any 

more than fuzzy and labile borders of genetic groups vitiates the concept 

of race; whatever groupings may arise should be determined empirically, 

not denied emotionally. While still not in favor, the recent interest in 

sexual selection ought to refocus our interest on superficial anthroposcopic 

traits as suggested by Darwin in 1871. Despite the social and biological 

differences which exist today, we must remember that we are all 

united as a single species with a shared history and a shared future. 

Taxonomy, Race Classification, Evolutionary Theory 

H43 Forensic Anthropology and 

the Belief in Human Races 

Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, 

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 

This paper will present the view that races are cultural constructs 

not biological entities; and that migration patterns and historical events 

are largely responsible for the emergence and persistence of current, 

unscientific notions of human race. 


humanity by demonstrating by exploring the notion that races or subspecies 

of humans do not exist; that there is no scietific justification for 

human races; and that current views of race or human subspecies are the 

result of historical events including non-random human migration 

patterns. 

Leonard Lieberman has documented a steady decline in references 

to race in anthropological journals and an increasing rejection of the 

concept of race by physical anthropologists. Despites his findings the 

traditional belief that humanity is divisible into 3 or 4 major groups with 

some kind of biological meaning appears to be alive and well among 

some forensic anthropologists. Certainly, a significant number take the 

view that human variation is gradual over space and that human races 

490

have no foundation in biology. There are probably fewer people that take 

intermediate views than one might imagine. In this paper, two aspects of 

the race debate will be examined: 1) recent thinking about the scientific 

bases for human races, and 2) the seeming reality of race in America. 

It is well known that the current concept of the 4 major races stems 

from the 18th century writings of Linneaus and Blumenbach. Writing a 

century before Darwin and Mendel and 200 years before the development 

of modern genetics, Linneaus knew nothing about evolutionary 

theory or the nature of the human genome and very little about human 

variation. Nonetheless, his ideas persist virtually unchanged. 

The race concept need not be an issue of belief. It should be an 

issue of science. Unlike religious tenets, the existence of human races is 

testable. Formal definitions of race and subspecies have been debated, 

the distribution of genes in human populations is becoming better understood 

and population histories and lineages are being reconstructed. 

Alan Templeton (2002) explicates the problem of human races by 

exploring exactly what races are and how humans fit into the model. 

Templeton points out that there are two definitions of race customarily 

applied to plant and animal species. Races are either “geographically 

circumscribed, genetically differentiated populations,” or “distinct evolutionary 

lineages within species.” Then he systematically applies data 

on human genetic diversity to demonstrate how human populations 

satisfy neither definition. There is no scientific justification for the existence 

of races in our species, in fact to the contrary, modern molecular 

genetic data demonstrate quite clearly that human races do not exist. 

Why then is the concept of race so compelling to a group of modern 

forensic anthropologists? The answer lies in large part to human migrations. 

It is often assumed that if races ever were a reality for human populations, 

the concept has been blurred in recent centuries by human 

migration. Borrowing from the sociocultural concept of the ethnographic 

present, the author of one text has coined the term the heterographic 

present referring to the past when human populations were in areas of 

the world inhabited by their ancestors. It might seem like the massive 

migrations of the past several centuries have mixed up otherwise stable 

populations and races that represent the true nature of human diversity. 

Actually, the opposite is true. Human migrations are a significant contributor 

to the emergence and persistence of the race concept. 

Before people began to move about in large numbers, human variation 

was gradual in space. There is no evidence to the contrary. Of 

course, there were differences between local populations, to a greater or 

lesser degree depending on isolating mechanisms and gene flow. Native 

Australians and Tasmanians were isolated by water, the Amish by religious 

and ethnic views. However, more than anything else, differences 

between groups reflected geographic distance. 

When early European explorers encountered peoples of Africa and 

Asia, often by ship, they saw individuals at the extremes of their distribution 

(West and Southern Africa, East Asia) not the myriad, gradually 

varying populations in between. Likewise, the post Columbian peopling 

of the Americas reflects mainly selective migrations from Western 

Europe, West Africa and the Far East. It is the juxtaposition of people 

from widely separated parts of the world that emphasizes biological differences 

and creates the illusion of discrete groups or races. In different 

parts of the world with different migration histories, races (or something 

like them) are perceived, but they are different. 

There needs to be a clearer understanding of the nature of human 

diversity. An understanding based not on belief, but on scientific evidence. 

The formal application of modern genetic data to taxonomic 

rules governing subspecies illustrates that there is no valid justification 

for a subspecific taxon in the species Homo sapiens. This paper argues 

that the dominant notion of human races in the U.S. is the result of a 

unique population history and a non-critical acceptance of 18th pre- 

Darwinian notions about the nature of human diversity. 

Forensic Anthropology, Race, Scientific Justification 

H44 The Deconstruction of Race: 

Its Origins and Existence 

Emilie L. Smith, BA*, 1910 Runaway Bay Lane, Apartment P, 


This paper describes some aspects of the ‘race debate’ among 

forensic anthropologists and how it applies to their practices. 


humanity by demonstrating an understanding of the historical context of 

race, its progression into popular convention, and its use and practice in 


Perhaps the greatest reigning debate among forensic anthropologists 

is the concept of whether ‘race’ truly exists. This important 

question has spurred many intelligent debates, and provided many noteworthy 

perceptions from each side. However, a common conclusion has 

yet to be reached. 

The term race appeared in the eighteenth centuries, especially in the 

literature by Linnaeus and Blumenbach. However, their distinctions and 

divisions among the human species would undoubtedly be characterized 

as strongly racist in today’s scientific societies as they were based on an 

exaggerated amplification of physical traits, moral characteristics, 

overall temperament, and political behavior. A later theory by Darwin 

was based on the natural selection idea that man had evolved from an 

apelike ancestral form. He believed that since there are no white apes, 

the white race was more civilized than the dark races, which he thought 

to be closer to their nonhuman ancestors. This explanation of human 

associations became widely accepted in both scientific circles and in 

popular convention. 

In 1951, a group of fourteen physical anthropologists and geneticists 

came to a unanimous agreement on a common definition of race. 

However, this definition must not have sufficed for many physical 

anthropologists because the debate of the existence of race caused a significant 

uproar during the 1960s, with the attack on the concept of race 

being led by Montagu, Livingstone, and Brace and its defense by 

Dobzhanzky and Coon and Garn. During the 1970s, those authors of 

physical anthropology textbooks with a strong oppositional opinion of 

the race concept openly expressed their opinions in their text. Based on 

the large number of these authors supporting the notion that race does 

not exist, it seems that there is an indication of a decline in support for 

classifications of race. In 1993, physical anthropologists at the American 

Association of Physical Anthropologists pushed for a modification of the 

UNESCO statement on race. However, since anthropologists do not 

agree on the existence of race, their amendment was defeated. 

It seems that most of the ‘great race debate’ centers on the relevance 

of the actual term ‘race’ and the connotations derived from its use. Thus, 

part of the disagreement on race is attributable to the lack of consensus 

on its definition and use in scientific analyses. Some alternative suggestions 

for the replacement of the word ‘race’ have included terms such 

as genogroup, population, ethnic group, and ancestry. In addition, many 

scientists are unclear on the origins of the term ‘race’ and its progressive 

use among scientific communities. Since the definition of race cannot be 

agreed upon, it seems that the focus has evolved as to whether or not race 

exists as a biological reality among human populations and if it can, 

therefore, be correctly determined by forensic anthropologists. While 

many physical anthropologists and scientists believe that race does not 

exist, how is it that the race myth persists in popular convention? How 

can forensic anthropologists determine race for a biological profile if it 

does not exist? This presentation serves to further examine the historical 

context of race, its progression into popular convention, and its use and 

practice in forensic anthropology. 

Race, Ethnicity, Ancestry 


H45 Race vs. Ancestry: A Necessary Distinction 

Vicki L. Wedel, MS, MA*, University of California, Santa Cruz, 

Department of Anthropology, Social Sciences 1 Faculty Services, 1156 

High Street, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 

This paper presents a historical and archaeological perspective on 

the development of racial classifications as they have been applied to 

forensic anthropological analysis. 


humanity by demonstrating a critical assessment of race, a difficult 

concept that is used in our analyses of skeletal material. 

Development of a biological profile, which includes sex, age, and 

ancestry, is a basic component of the anthropological assessment for 

forensic purposes. The use of racial classifications in issues of personal 

identification is often critical to narrowing the search parameters. While 

the error factors for correct estimation of age and sex determination are 

relatively straight-forward, the quantification of “correct” assessment of 

ancestry is less clear. Although it is possible to scientifically quantify 

and describe human biological variation, linking this variation to 

socially recognized racial categories is problematic. Two primary areas 

of concern can be distinguished. First, the social categories themselves 

have changed and continue to change. Self-identification entails many 

factors other than direct ancestry and often varies by the context in 

which the identification is made. Identification by other parties may be 

based on limited knowledge of ancestry and incorporate assumptions 

about descent that have little foundation in reality. 

The second area from which difficulties arise concerns the basis 

upon which the assessments themselves are based. The skeletal material 

from which we take measurements and test hypotheses regarding 

ancestry was collected during a time when nonscientific definitions of 

biological race were prevalent. The exact ancestry was often not known 

for the individuals in our major collections, and racial classifications 

were assigned based on soft tissue morphology. Some skeletal collections 

were even amassed for racist purposes by anatomists and anthropologists 

trying to correlate anatomical variation with social superiority 

or inferiority. The historical record, however, shows that European, 

African, and Asian ancestral groups mixed rapidly after arriving in 

America. Examination of the archaeological record, as well as recent 

studies of genetic relatedness, show that while people may still have 

been identified as belonging to one “race,” their ancestry often reflected 

many different sources. 

In this presentation, information from a series of historic archaeological 

sites is utilized to show how the issues of identity and ancestry 

became confounded during the historical period. Issues of class, community, 

and access to resources become as important for establishing 

“race” in the social context as the actual ancestry. Biological and nonbiological 

definitions of race and ancestry are considered and a discussion 

of how social conceptions of race have shaped our discussions 

of biological variation is offered. The implications to those who practice 

forensic anthropology are also addressed. When combined with the 

current understanding of the biological definition of “race” and the 

uncertain empirical basis, the confusion between race and ancestry is 

highlighted. 

Biological races of humans do not exist, regardless of the social categories, 

if we stand by the biological definition of race as a subspecies 

or variant. Therefore we may be attempting to scientifically sort phenotypic 

variation by studying groups socially classified within recent 

history. These socially classified groups may have shared equally in 

racial prejudice and socioeconomic discrimination but less substantially 

in ancestry. It is therefore timely to reconsider the nature of the variation 

we are attempting to quantify, both for forensic purposes and for skeletal 

biological studies of health and nutritional status among historic skeletal 

populations. 

Race, Ancestry, Biological Profile 


H46 Race as a Viable Concept 

Thomas A. Furgeson, BA, BS*, University of Wyoming, 2109-C East 

Hancock Street, Laramie, WY 82072 

This presentation presents an argument for retaining racial categorizations 

in physical anthropology within appropriate contexts. 

This presentation aims to add to the discussion of the contentious 

issues of the use of the race concept and race terminology in physical and 


The concept of race is discussed in reference to the American 

Association of Physical Anthropologists’ 1996 “AAPA Statement on 

Biological Aspects of Race,” the intent of which was to formalize the 

Association’s position on this contentious issue. The position of the AAPA 

via the “statement” is that racial divisions are perpetuated by the social convention 

of race, that the concept of race itself is not biologically and scientifically 

sound, and that the discipline of physical anthropology is obligated 

to move away from the race concept. This is to prevent the perpetuation or 

perceived legitimization of racial discrimination based on research within 

physical anthropology. The issues of social race versus biological race and 

historical and contemporary conceptions of the term race are considered in 

order to explore the race concept. It is argued here that race, as currently 

used in physical anthropology, is closely aligned with its social component, 

is neither bound by past misuses nor an idea of rigid and discrete biological 

boundaries, and remains a viable concept. 

Categorization, clinalism, and their relationship with the concept of 

biological race are discussed in the first section. The tendency of humans to 

categorize is considered in terms of historically hierarchical racial divisions 

and other human categorizations in order to illustrate the cogency or lack of 

cogency of such categorizations, and to show that discrete and pure 

examples—the absence of which opponents of the race concept cite as 

reason to do away with it—are not a necessary condition for a categorization 

to be valid and useful. The concept of clinalism and the critique of race 

based on historical racial ideas speak against the continued use of the race 

concept. This would be reasonable if race as currently conceived and 

employed in physical anthropology retained its historical typological character. 

This issue is examined through a comparison of clinal concepts and 

historical racial notions with the usage of racial terminology and the 

meaning of race in contemporary physical anthropology. 

The second section discusses the relationship between social race, 

racism, and the concept of biological race. With social race a reality, what is 

its relationship to concepts of biological race? The problem of racism is discussed 

in reference to this question, and it is argued that racism, while based 

on differences of many kinds, is a phenomenon neither grounded in nor activated 

by scientific realities. Racism is therefore not susceptible to contrary 

scientific proof or argument, and the effectiveness of moving away from the 

biological race concept is questionable in terms of its ability to alleviate the 

problem. This situation is complicated by the undisputed existence of social 

race. It is suggested that a more effective strategy for combating racism than 

race denial is acknowledgment of and dialog about differences, whether 

social or physical, such that these differences can be placed within their 

proper contexts and parameters. The acknowledgement of human biological 

variation is not fated to be bound to hierarchical schema, but is and can be 

presented as a unifying and positive component of the human condition. 

The practicality of the race concept is discussed in the final section. 

Forensic anthropology makes use of racial categories and has highly 

accurate methods for assessing ancestry, one of several critical determinations 

in the important business of identifying unknown dead, whether 

victims of crime, disaster, war or other circumstances. Critiques of forensic 

anthropological methodology are considered, as are alternatives to the use of 

racial terminology and the race concept within the subdiscipline. The use of 

the race concept in forensic anthropology illustrates the reorientation of the 

biological concept of race from the historical, determinist model to its 

current, more limited and accurate model of expressing human adaptive 

variation. 

Race, Ancestry, Racism 

492

H47 Deaths of Undocumented 

Immigrants in Southern Arizona 

Bruce O. Parks, MD*, Eric Peters, MD, Cynthia Porterfield, DO, 

David Winston, MD, and Diane Karluk, MD, Pima County Forensic 

Science Center, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, AZ 85714; Sam 

Keim, MD, University of Arizona Department of Emergency Medicine, 

University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ; Michael 

Kent, MD, Emergency Department, Northwest Hospital, Tucson, AZ 

The attendees for this presentation will better understand the perils 

that face undocumented immigrants and the spectrum of injury and 

disease that cause death. They will also have a better understanding of 

related issues that face local death investigation systems. 

This presentation will give forensic scientists a better understanding 

of how death investigation systems are involved with a unique 

population of individuals. Ultimately, the mortality these people experience 

may be reduced. 

This presentation will detail the pathologic findings of undocumented 

aliens who die in Southern Arizona as they attempt to reach destinations 

throughout the United States, primarily for better employment 

opportunities. 

There has been a dramatic increase in the number of deaths of non- 

United States citizens who illegally enter the Southwest deserts of 

Arizona and California from Mexico. The largest percentage of these 

deaths is due to exposure to the hot environment of the summer and late 

spring. Other causes of death include trauma, natural disease and 

exposure to the cold. In a number of cases, the cause of death remains 

undetermined due to advanced decomposition and the absence of historical 

information. These individuals often remain unidentified. 

Deaths which occurred over a two-year period, 2002 and 2003, are 

presented. The bodies were brought to the Pima County Forensic 

Science Center (Office of the Medical Examiner) for examination. Most 

of the individuals were discovered dead within Pima County and many 

of these individuals were on the Tohono O’odham Indian Reservation to 

the west of Tucson. Occasionally people were found alive but died after 

being transported to local hospitals. A minority of the cases were 

referred to the office from adjacent Southern Arizona counties. The 

study group consisted of a broad age range with men outnumbering 

women. Occasionally children were involved. Complete autopsies were 

performed on this population unless medical diagnoses have been established 

through hospitalization. 

The increase in heat-related deaths is mainly responsible for the 

overall rise in immigrant deaths. In the desert southwest, temperatures 

are often over a hundred degrees Fahrenheit from June to September. It 

is speculated that greater numbers of immigrants are passing through the 

more dangerous, hot, barren, desert because the United States government 

is more closely monitoring the safer, populated regions along 

the border. Pathologic findings are often minimal in those dying from 

exposure to the hot environment. Most of the individuals show features 

of decomposition, which occurs quickly at such high temperatures. 

Even if the body is recovered soon after death prior to the development 

of putrefaction, rarely does one see previously described, heat-related 

pathologic processes such as cerebral edema and petechiae of the skin 

and internal organs. 

Chemical evidence of dehydration was a common finding as manifested 

by elevated sodium and chloride levels often with elevated blood 

urea nitrogen and creatinine. However, dehydration was not always a 

factor for the cause of death. Toxicology testing was routinely performed 

although rarely positive for both legitimate and illicit drugs. Ethanol was 

often discovered and usually attributed to postmortem bacterial 

production. 

The cause of death for heat-related death was certified as hyperthermia 

or probable hyperthermia even though body core temperature 

information was usually lacking. Simply certifying the cause of death as 

heat-related was not considered adequate by the local vital records 

department. When death was delayed and medical attention was provided 

to a small number of these individuals, elevated body temperatures 

were discovered. 

The rather large number of these deaths has strained the resources 

of multiple agencies along the Arizona border including medical 

examiner’s offices. Complete autopsies are generally performed on these 

individuals in order to best understand the cause of death. This information 

may be useful to help reduce this trend. In addition, should there 

be efforts to prosecute any individuals involved with organized efforts to 

smuggle immigrants into the United States, the most accurate cause of 

death will be available. 

Heat-Related Death, Immigrants 

H48 Metric Description of Hispanic 

Skeletons: A Preliminary Analysis 

Richard L. Jantz, PhD*, University of Tennessee, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 37996-0720 


importance of obtaining a better understanding of the skeletal features of 

this rapidly growing component of the American population. 


humanity by demonstrating that it should emphasize the importance of 

understanding the skeletal biology of this important component of the 

American population. 

Mexican Americans have been a large component of the population 

in the Southwest for a long time, but in recent decades they have been 

expanding into areas of the U.S. where their numbers have traditionally 

been small. The 2000 census reveals increases of 150-200 percent in 

some states such as North Carolina and Tennessee. Yet compared to 

Blacks and Whites, the formal knowledge base of Hispanic skeletons is 

low. Since forensic anthropologists in any part of the country are now 

likely to encounter Mexican American skeletons in their caseloads, it is 

obviously important to understand metric variation and to develop identification 

criteria specific to them. 

The Forensic Anthropology Data Base now has information about 

130 remains that may be termed Hispanic. These include various ethnicities, 

e.g., Puerto Rican, Cuban, Guatemalan, but the majority is of 

Mexican origin. This paper will deal with those of Mexican origin. 

Mexican skeletal remains are often found in circumstances that make 

positive identification difficult or impossible. Consequently, about 1/3 

are not positively identified. Cranial remains are more frequent than 

postcranial. Sample sizes are too small to develop a definitive characterization 

of Mexican Americans, but it is useful to present a preliminary 

picture to illustrate the importance of a more complete picture of their 

skeletal variation. 

Compared to American Blacks and Whites, Mexican American 

crania are somewhat smaller overall, with shorter vaults, narrower faces 

and orbits. Cranial morphology places Mexican Americans in an intermediate 

position in relation to Whites, Blacks and Amerindians, 

reflecting their hybrid status. However, crania are sufficiently distinctive 

to distinguish them from other groups. Postcranially, long bones are 

shorter and femur heads are smaller. The femur midshafts are rounder 

and more robust, and the subtrochanteric region is mildly platymeric. 

Sexing criteria derived from American Whites, whether cranial or postcranial, 

over classify Mexican American males as females, because of 

their smaller size. There are only 17 individuals in the database with 

some sort of stature, an inadequate number on which to base stature 

estimation. 

Hispanics, Cranial Variation, Postcranial Variation 


H49 Ours or Theirs? 

Walter H. Birkby, PhD*, Forensic Science Center, Office of the 

Medical Examiner, Pima County, 2825 East District Street, Tucson, 

AZ 85714 

After attending this presentation, the viewer will understand the 

complexity of the Undocumented Alien (UDA) issue and the implications 

this presents to the Medical Examiner’s Office and the identification 

of human remains. 

The case studies presented will help discern some skeletal characteristics 

which will give the forensic investigator insight into the 

problem of trying to determine regional origins. 

Undocumented aliens (UDAs) who enter the U.S. along the 

Arizona border must traverse an extremely hostile environment very 

nearly devoid of water and shade. Daytime temperatures often exceed 

120° F on the desert floor for days on end. Since the region is sparsely 

populated – and the UDAs are generally leery of contacting anyone 

north of the border lest they be Immigration Officials – when their water 

runs out each UDA becomes a probable Medical Examiner case 

sometime within the ensuing year or years. 

From past cases, it is known that all who are retrieved from the 

desert floor are not necessarily Mexican Nationals. South Americans 

and Central Americans are also represented on occasion, as are 

Southwest Native Americans and Hispanic Americans. In a decomposed 

or mummified or skeletonized (complete or incomplete) condition, can 

the Forensic Anthropologist suggest a probable ethnicity for the Medical 

Examiner based on cranial, dental, and/or postcranial morphology? 

This paper seeks to address this issue by presenting a series of case 

studies and their ultimate conclusions. Each year the Forensic Science 

Center, Pima County, Arizona, is faced with an increasing UDA caseload 

and is tasked to work with the Mexican authorities to try to resolve the 

identities and fate of the unidentified remains. Increasingly as well, both 

skeletal and circumstantial evidence are sometimes recovered indicating 

that this is truly an international problem – that not all UDAs crossing 

our borders in the Southwest are Mexican citizens, but hail from other 

Central and South American countries. The case studies presented will 

help discern some skeletal characteristics which will give the forensic 

investigator insight into the problem of trying to determine regional 

origins. 

Undocumented Aliens, Southwestern U.S., Human Skeletal 


H50 Skull-Photo Superimposition and Border 

Deaths: Identification Through Exclusion 

and the Failure to Exclude 

Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Michigan State 

University, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, East 



methodology and application of skull-photo superimposition. 


humanity by demonstrating an improvement on the application of skullphoto 

superimposition as a technique for identification. 

This paper has four objectives: 1) to present a case in which five 

individuals (undocumented aliens) died after crossing over the southern 

Arizona border with Mexico; 2) to discuss the role of video skull-photo 

superimposition in the identification of two individuals in this “closed 

disaster;” 3) to describe the methods employed which resulted in identifications 

through exclusion and the failure to exclude; and 4) to explore 

the application of the logic of science to this cranio-facial technique of 

human identification. 


Many of the individuals who die trying to illegally cross into at the 

United States along the Mexican border do not leave behind existing 

antemortem x-rays or fingerprints on file. As a result, skull-photo superimposition 

presents a very useful technique in the investigation of border 

deaths, particularly in the identification of undocumented aliens. 

Identification in these cases can be the result of either the exclusion of, 

or the failure to exclude, the skull as a match to the photo. 

On February 11, 2003, a hiker discovered human remains in a 

remote desert area of southern Arizona near the town of Ajo. The Pima 

County Sheriff’s Department responded and led a search team which 

also included rangers from the Bureau of Land Management. The scene, 

located on the lower slope of a mountain, was rocky with low, sparse 

desert vegetation consisting mainly of mesquite trees, palo verde trees, 

ocotillo, and various forms of cacti. The search took place over the 

course of two days and resulted in the recovery of five skulls, five backpacks, 

four personal identification cards, clothing, and a large number of 

skeletonized postcranial remains scattered over a 50 to 100 yard radius. 

With this evidence, investigators at the Forensic Science Center in 

Tucson, Arizona and the Pima County Sheriff’s Department began 

working with the Consulate of the Republic of Mexico to identify the 

deceased. Through these cooperative efforts, the names of all five of the 

individuals traveling in this group were presumably known. As a result, 

this case of multiple border deaths is analogous to a “closed disaster” 

(such as a small aircraft crash in which there is a passenger roster). 

The anthropological analyses conducted at the Forensic Science 

Center determined that the disarticulated skeletal remains represented 

two adult Hispanic males and three adult Hispanic females. The two 

males and one of the females could be segregated and tentatively identified 

and assigned names. The other two females reputed to be traveling 

in this group, however, were close in age and height, which made 

skeletal separation extremely difficult. It was at this point that the 

authors were asked to assist the identification efforts by performing 

skull-photo superimpositions at the Michigan State University Forensic 

Anthropology Laboratory. 

The system at Michigan State utilizes two video cameras, a video 

mixer, a monitor, two VCRs, a computer, and image capturing software. 

The superimposition process begins by placing tissue depth markers on 

the skull and then generally sizing and orienting the skull with the photo. 

The “dynamic orientation process” follows, which is the most difficult 

and time-consuming part of the methodology. The goal of this process is 

to arrive at the “best fit” possible in the alignment of the skull with the 

antemortem photo. This is achieved by superimposing specific anthropometric 

landmarks on the facial soft tissues over the corresponding 

landmarks on the bones of the skull. 

In the ideal situation, the first step in the dynamic orientation 

process is to align the skull and photo at porion. In the second step, the 

left and right Whitnall’s tubercle of the skull is aligned with the left and 

right ectocanthion points of the face. These first two steps are critical in 

establishing the correct angle of inclination and declination in the superimposition. 

In the third step, the subnasal point of the skull is adjusted to 

align with the subnasal point of the face. In the fourth step, gnathion on 

the skull should align with gnathion on the face in the photo. 

Allowing for slight variations which may be present due to photographic 

variables (lens, distance, angle, etc.), if all of the landmarks 

align the next step is to systematically evaluate a list of morphological 

points of correlation between the face and skull. This list includes the 

contour of the head and jaw line, the eyebrow and brow ridge area, and 

the eye orbit and cheekbone region. The evaluation of these areas is 

greatly enhanced by the placement of tissue depth markers on the skull. 

The last step in this superimposition methodology is a metric analysis of 

the facial proportionality of both the aligned skull and the photo. 

The approach to image identification utilized at Michigan State is 

an adaptation of Popperian scientific method. Rather than prove 

hypotheses, the proper role of science is to construct hypotheses that are 

capable of falsification. In other words, it is improper to attempt to prove 

494

that two data sets (a skull and a photograph, for example) represent the 

same phenomenon. 

This approach begins with the assumption that the known and 

unknown images represent the same individual. Repeated attempts are 

made to reject (or falsify) the assumption. If there are any inexplicable 

differences between the skull and the photo during the “dynamic orientation 

process,” the evaluation of morphological correlation, or the 

metric analysis, then the individual is excluded from a match. The 

strength of the falsification or identification in a skull-photo case 

depends on the quality of the images, the experience of the experts, the 

thoroughness of the analyses, and the equipment. The process of comparing 

and matching features is essentially the same as traditional 

approaches to identification, however the logic of falsification frees the 

investigator from generating statements about probable or highly 

probably identification. 

In this case of multiple border deaths, two adult female skulls and 

a photograph reported to be one of the missing women were submitted. 

Using video skull-photo superimposition, one skull was excluded and 

the other was not excluded as a match. The ability and the failure to 

exclude were both the result of extensive comparisons and metric evaluation 

of facial proportionality, as well as the comparison of a number 

of morphological features of the face and skull. Due to the presumed 

closed nature of this case, the exclusion of one skull and the failure to 

exclude the other skull represented identifications. 

Finally, it is the opinion of the authors that in the absence of clear 

images of unique dental features, skull-photo superimposition does not 

yield a positive identification. Exclusion or the failure to exclude, on the 

other hand, are more typical outcomes of the method. 

Forensic Anthropology, Identification, Skull-Photo 


H51 Reuniting Families: Using Phenotypic 

and Genotypic Forensic Evidence to 

Identify Unknown Immigrant Remains 

Lori E. Baker, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Baylor University, 

PO Box 97370, Waco, TX 76798; Erich J. Baker, PhD, Department of 

Computer Science, Baylor University, Waco, TX 76798 

The authors will explain the formation of a new database and DNA 

effort to help identify immigrants that perish crossing the US/Mexico 

border. 

As the database grows, additional state offices participate and families 

become aware of the project, it is anticipated and hoped that the 

project can assist in significantly lowering the number of unidentified 

immigrants from the current 44%. 

Every year more than a million individuals pass illegally between 

the United States and Mexico. Along this line of passage spanning 

roughly 2,000 miles between Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and 

California, there remain few migratory routes not well patrolled by the 

Department of Immigration and Naturalization, and these are confined to 

areas of extremely inhospitable terrain. As a result, individuals perish at 

an alarming rate, more than 500 people in 2001 alone, in their attempt at 

illegal immigration. Unfortunately, 167 of the 503 known deaths remain 

unidentified. To date there is no centralized, private, federal or statemandated 

mechanism that attempts the collection, curation or repatriation 

of the unidentified recovered remains. Municipal law enforcement 

agencies are further hampered in their efforts at identification because of 

the traditional lack of proper data sets necessary to make reasonable 

assumptions about the genetic heritage of discovered remains. The 

purpose of this project is to provide a database to aid in the identification 

process, helping to take some of the burden from the overloaded 

agencies that currently handle this work. In addition, the database will 

provide a link for families to a system that can help provide answers. 

This initiative has created a distributed on-line database, accessible 

by public officials and private citizens interested in searching for 

missing individuals based on both phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. 

This broad effort includes the exhumation of individuals from 

geographically disparate pauper graves, the classification of their 

physical characteristics, and the cataloging of observed metric traits, to 

include associated articles of possession, in a local relational database. 

The physical data alone represents a significant increase in our experimental 

data set, and therefore our knowledge, about the quantitative 

characteristics of individuals of both North and Central American 

heritage. 

Concurrent with the documentation of physical forensic evidence is 

the examination of individual DNA signatures. This project will attempt 

to perform genetic analysis of all unidentified immigrant remains and 

store the results for later comparison with candidate family members. 

The molecular analysis includes the sequence examination of the mitochondrial 

DNA (mtDNA) D-Loop region and, as funding permits, Short 

Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis. 

Because the Reuniting Families initiative is created around the paradigm 

of a password-controlled on-line relational data interface, it 

simultaneously achieves two objectives. First, as the curated repository 

grows, it will provide a much-needed set of genetic data that will aid in 

identifications, both in known immigrant cases and in other forensic situations. 

Secondly, relatives or friends of missing immigrants will be able 

to participate in an on-line search of the database using unique physical 

characteristics (height, age, sex, skeletal trauma) and descriptions of 

articles of clothing to help identify missing individuals. If this provides 

a possible match, DNA testing of a maternal relative will be done to 

confirm identification, and steps toward the repatriation of the remains 

will be taken. 

In July 2003, the first DNA identification of the project was performed 

thanks to the individuals at the Pima County Medical Examiners 

office and their extraordinary efforts. As the database grows, additional 

state offices participate and families become aware of the project, it is 

anticipated and hoped that the project can assist in significantly lowering 

the number of unidentified immigrants from the current 44%. 

mtDNA, Immigrant Deaths, Database 

H52 Migrant Deaths Along the California- 

Mexico Border: An Anthropological 

Perspective 

Madeleine J. Hinkes, PhD*, San Diego Mesa College, 7250 Mesa 

College Drive, San Diego, CA 92111 

Through this presentation, the author intends to facilitate multidisciplinary 

information sharing and discussion among border jurisdictions 


humanity by bringing to the forensic community an awareness of some 

medicolegal issues unique to border jurisdictions. 

Any discussion of illegal border crossing between the United States 

and Mexico is fraught with political and cultural issues, such as the need 

to enforce enacted laws, maintain security, and caretake human rights. 

People will continue to cross international borders in search of a better 

life. Some will be caught and repatriated, some will be successful, and 

some will die trying. They are betrayed by guides, beset by gangs, 

beaten, robbed, raped, packed in hot airless vans, hit by cars, drowned, 

and abandoned to the elements. These are the individuals who come to 

the attention of the medical examiner or coroner and forensic anthropologist. 

At this point, medicolegal issues supercede sociopolitical ones. 

The deaths need to be investigated, remains autopsied and identified, 

next of kin notified. 


California shares a 150-mile border with Mexico. Along the 

border, remains are discovered by Border Patrol agents, hikers, offroaders, 

and other migrants. They are predominately male (88%, using 

1997-2003 San Diego data). They range in age from 14 to 75 years, with 

most in their 20s. They come mainly from Mexico, El Salvador, 

Honduras, and Guatemala. Some are found soon after death, others are 

in various stages of decomposition, due in part to the ecological diversity 

of San Diego County. Prior to 1995, the principal cause of death was 

motor vehicle accidents, at the rate of 2 per day. This changed in 1995 

when the California Department of Transportation built a barrier fence 

in the median of Interstate 5 south of the San Clemente checkpoint. 

Recently, the principal cause of death is exposure. Eastern San Diego 

County has a very “long thermometer” with extremes of daytime heat 

and nighttime cold. 

Identification can be difficult. Medical or dental records are rarely 

available. There may be a voter’s card or a bus ticket. Family members, 

often working through the Mexican consulate, identify clothing, new 

shoes, or distinctive belt buckles. Sometimes fellow migrants offer identification. 

Unfortunately, many of these bodies are still John or Jane 

Does. California’s recent so-called “John Doe” law mandates that dental 

samples be retained at the medical examiner’s office for these unidentified 

remains; further, in San Diego these bodies are buried, not 

cremated. 

In the 1990s, the Border Patrol began a concerted effort to establish 

and maintain control of the border, beginning in urban areas. Operation 

Gatekeeper began in October 1994, reaching from the Pacific Ocean to 

halfway across San Diego County. This heightened law enforcement 

presence changed the westernmost segment of the border south of San 

Diego from the most permeable to the least permeable stretch of the 

border. This spatial restructuring pushed migrants into more dangerous 

crossing areas, making their trip longer and more physically challenging 

as they made their way on routes through the mountains and deserts and 

more rural areas. A 2001 study by the University of Houston Center for 

Immigration Research documents how intensified border campaigns are 

affecting migrant death patterns through this redirection of flow. They 

attempted to quantify data from San Diego to McAllen, Texas, the full 

extent of the border with Mexico, using vital registration data supplemented 

by interviews with Border Patrol agents, law enforcement 

officers, and coroner’s personnel. 

Their findings accurately reflect what we see in southern 

California. For example, deaths due to exposure in harsh environmental 

conditions in San Diego County range from a high of 36 in 1988 to a low 

of 5 in 1998. Conversely, Imperial County shows a low of 2 in 1996 and 

a high of 21 in 1998. Imperial County presents its own set of challenges 

to migrants. They have a choice of waterless desert or the swiftly 

flowing All-American Canal. Not surprisingly, drowning deaths have 

increased from a low of 3 in 1996 to a high of 24 in 1998 as migration 

routes shifted eastward. 

The author’s anthropological jurisdiction since fall of 1994 has 

been San Diego and Imperial Counties, and the effects of spatial restructuring 

are being played out in southern California. The case database is 

124 from San Diego County and 71 from Imperial County, although the 

actual number of medical examiner migrant cases is higher. In San 

Diego these cases represent only about 2% of the annual medical 

examiner caseload, and Border Patrol personnel, based on their weekly 

live apprehension reports, estimate that the number of deceased migrants 

represents only about 1% of the total migrants who cross the southern 

California border. This may appear insignificant, but these cases still 

represent a very real forensic and human problem. 

Forensic Anthropology, Border Patrol, Migrant Deaths 


H53 Issues Concerning the Skeletal 

Identification of Deceased Illegal Aliens 

Recovered on the Texas Border 

David M. Glassman, PhD*, Texas State University-San Marcos, 

Department of Anthropology, San Marcos, Texas 78666 


general taphonomic alteration of bones, patterns of death, sex and age 

profiles, and other issues associated with skeletal identification of illegal 

aliens along the South Texas border. 


humanity by demonstrating an appreciation for the difficulties in identifying 

human skeletal remains found along the South Texas border with 

Mexico. 

Each year a number of unknown skeletal remains are recovered 

from the contiguous counties of Texas that border Mexico. Generally, if 

the remains belong to a U.S. citizen of any ancestry, including Mexican- 

American, a positive identification is likely to follow a routine investigation 

of missing person’s reports and media coverage. However, if the 

deceased represents an illegal alien from Mexico, skeletal identification 

becomes hindered due to a number of constraints that affect the forensic 

anthropologist, medical examiner, and responsible law enforcement 

agency to resolve the identity and cause of death objectives mandated by 

the State of Texas. 

Although illegal aliens enter Texas using a variety of means 

including hiding in automobiles, tractor-trailer trucks, and train cars, 

much more commonly they enter on foot, at night, and in groups. 

Getting lost without appropriate provisions such as water may be 

responsible for the death of some illegal aliens. To maximize their 

chance of a successful crossing, a group may hire a coyote, or guide, to 

assist them across the Rio Grande River and into the larger South Texas 

cities of El Paso, Del Rio, Eagle Pass, Laredo, McAllen, Harlingen, and 

Brownsville. The illegal aliens, as well as coyotes, know that crossing 

in the most rural, desolate portions of the Texas border counties 

decreases the likelihood of being caught. However, this means an 

extremely long arduous walk to reach the city destinations. Therefore, a 

compromise appears to be the more common pattern. 

Illegal aliens who choose to cross the border in more rural areas 

place themselves at greater risk of death by natural causes or violence at 

the hands of a companion traveler or by the coyote, if one was used. 

Death in either case would likely not be reported due to fear of exportation 

or retribution. The vastness of the Texas terrain within the border 

counties is responsible for the typical long periods of postmortem 

interval between death and recovery of illegal aliens. Indeed, many of 

the human remains found in the border counties have been bleached 

white, weathered, and have sustained taphonomic destruction and loss of 

bone elements by animal activity prior to discovery. The accidental discovery 

of human remains near the border is primarily attributable to 

ranchers who oversee large South Texas ranches and by members of the 

U.S. Border Patrol while conducting their routine policing activities. 

Sixteen skeletal identification cases involving suspected illegal 

aliens from Mexico were reviewed for identifying patterns of association. 

Variables examined included, sex, age, degree of completeness, 

taphonomic bone alteration, and cause of death. In addition, morphological 

comparisons were made to determine the frequency of certain 

non-metric traits thought to be common among Mexican cranial morphology 

such as shovel-shaped incisors, wormian bones, and 

palatine tori. 

Forensic Anthropology, Skeletal Identification, Taphonomy 

496

H54 Identifying the Dead: Methods Utilized for 


Bruce E. Anderson, PhD*, Pima County Office of the Medical 

Examiner, Forensic Science Center, 2825 East District Street, 


After attending this presentation, the attendee may better appreciate 

the problems associated with effecting identification when sparse antemortem 

records are present. The attendee will also become familiar with 

how the Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner collects and 

archives information for those who are not identified. 


humanity by demonstrating how our office is coping with the identification 

of an increasing number of deaths associated with undocumented 

immigrants. 

The Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner has investigated 

an increasingly growing number of deaths of undocumented immigrants 

over the past three years. This additional number of deaths has greatly 

impacted the office in several ways, to include an increased need for 

accurate antemortem data in order to effect the identification of these 

unfortunate individuals. To this end, our office works closely with the 

local office of the Mexican Consulate to exchange antemortem and postmortem 

information. This exchange of information, in the successful 

case, typically results in a circumstantial identification being effected. 

Defined here, circumstantial identifications strive to attain multiple consistencies 

between antemortem and postmortem records, and to exhibit 

no unexplainable inconsistencies. Positive identifications are defined 

here as relating to a unique correspondence between an antemortem 

record and a similar postmortem record, again while exhibiting no unexplainable 

inconsistencies. Among the latter, those based on fingerprint 

comparisons constitute a decided minority of the total number of identifications, 

while those based upon comparisons of dental or medical radiographs 

are virtually non-existent. Thus, the majority of the identifications 

our office has effected over the past three years have been of the 

circumstantial variety, based in part upon consistencies in “individuating” 

characteristics such as tattoos, dental features, scars, and other 

healed traumata. Mitochondrial DNA sequence comparisons have been 

utilized in selected cases and presently remain a tool within the circumstantial 

realm of identification because of the inherent sharing within a 

maternal lineage. The technique of skull-photo superimposition, another 

utilized tool, is also considered in most cases to be a form of circumstantial 


The Pima County Office of the Medical Examiner investigates 

deaths for three of the four counties that border Mexico, as well as 

another county to the immediate north, making our jurisdiction a formidable 

piece of the southern Arizonan landscape. Thus, a death resulting 

from an unsuccessful desert crossing into Arizona has a good chance of 

being investigated by our office. For the past two years (2002 and 2003) 

these cases have constituted approximately 10% of the yearly caseload. 

While the resources spent on performing the autopsy are commensurate 

with most other cases, and even less so when skeletal remains are 

examined, the resources expended on attempting to effect identification 

is decidedly greater than those cases involving US citizens. The principal 

reasons are two-fold: Firstly, because the vast majority of these 

deaths occur during the hottest months of the year, decomposition can 

render the victim’s face unrecognizable within a few hours. Secondly, 

the scarcity of written antemortem records, due to either their non-existence 

or unavailability, creates a situation in which traditional comparisons 

can not be made. 

Partly because of this, some of these individuals are not able to be 

identified, and eventually are subjected to a standard office protocol 

(developed for use on all unidentified remains) prior to being interred in 

a county cemetery (state law prohibits cremation in these cases). In this 

protocol, an extensive postmortem record is constructed, complete with 

radiographs (both dental and osseous) and tissue samples suitable for a 

possible future DNA comparison. It is hoped that by maintaining these 

postmortem records, each containing a full biological profile and 

recovery information, that potential future identifications could be made 

without the need of disinterment. 

Undocumented Immigrants, Positive Identification, Circumstantial 

Identification, Postmortem Record 

H55 Personal Identification and Death 


Undocumented Migrant Workers in 

Florida: Demographic, Biographic, 

and Pathologic Factors 

Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD* and Heather Walsh-Haney, MA, C.A. Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32601; Martha J. Burt, MD, 

Medical Examiner Department, Miami-Dade County, Number One on 

Bob Hope Road, Miami, FL 33136 

After attending this presentation, participants will develop a better 

understanding of the unique demography, migration patterns and specific 

anatomical characteristics of documented and undocumented 

laborers and farm workers. 


humanity by demonstrating insight in special forensic considerations for 

a specific population. 

Estimates on the number of migrant, documented and undocumented 

combined, workers in the state of Florida are varied, however the 

Atlas of State Profiles, prepared by the US Department of Health and 

Human Services in 1994, reports that there are approximately 185,000 

migrant farm workers and 253,000 seasonal farm workers for a total of 

435,375. Of these, 75% are born outside the United States; two-thirds of 

that percentage were born in Mexico, while another one-sixth are from 

Central America; of those born in the US most (one-third) are from 

Puerto Rico. Eighty-two percent consider themselves to be Hispanic and 

75% report that their native language is Spanish. The mean age of 

Florida farm workers is 32 years and approximately 25 percent are 

female. The numbers of documented versus undocumented workers also 

vary; however the same report notes that at least one-third of the total 

number of migrant workers are illegal. The leading causes of death in 

this population are resultant from traumatic injuries and complications 

related to HIV infection. 

The anthropological literature on occupational markers suggests 

that communities involved in laborious work or repeated positional 

behavior experience over-use injuries of the lower limb that include the 

classic ‘squatting facets’ presenting on the talus and distal tibia, as well 

as evidence of lumbar and thoracic injuries. These anatomical characteristics 

are thus resultant from repeated mechanical loads over a period of 

time and have been used widely by anthropologists to denote specific 

behavioral patterns for populations of individuals as well as the reconstruction 

of life ways. The forensic anthropologist working in coordination 

with the medical examiner may also use such markers, and others 

to individuate an otherwise unknown skeleton or set of decomposed 


Case histories from the C.A. Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory (CAPHIL) and the Medical Examiner Department, Miami- 

Dade County involving individuals who were thought to be or identified 

to be part of the migrant labor community in Florida were examined for 

their demographic profiles, injuries, causes and manners of death. Cases 

from Miami-Dade are limited to that district’s jurisdiction, while those 

from CAPHIL include individuals statewide. In addition to the traditionally 

noted ‘squatting’ and ‘kneeling’ facets of the lower limb and 

foot, marked changes are observed in the lumbar and thoracic vertebrae, 

as evidenced by lipping of the marginal bodies as well as the skeletal 

presentation of Schmorl’s nodes. Upper limb joint surfaces, such as the 


glenoid fossa and humeral head, display arthritic change as well as additional 

non-specific degenerative bony changes to the hand and wrist. 

Further noted is evidence of untreated traumatic injuries that include displaced 

fractures of the upper and lower limbs (including the hand and 

wrist) and the mid-facial skeleton. The biological or demographic profile 

of these individuals follows the primary population description for 

migrants in that they are predominately young males (mid-twenties to 

early thirties) of Hispanic descent. The manners and causes of death are 

similar to the population as a whole. 

For the personal identification of individuals thought to be migrant 

workers whether documented or undocumented, it is recommended that, 

in addition to the presentation of the classic over use injuries, one should 

fully examine the entire skeleton for a suite of characteristics that are 

suggestive of repetitive behaviors. The biological or demographic 

profile of the decedent is also of import. Further, information from the 

scene, including its relative location to fields and crops, time of the year 

and the phase of the growing season, all need to be taken into account 

and recorded. These characteristics, both population-wide and specific, 

should allow investigators to narrow down the numbers of unknown 

decedent records that need to be examined and assist the medical 

examiner in preparing the death certificate for submission for the 

tracking of trauma and disease, and other health-related issues in this 

population. 

Personal Identification, Migrant Farm Workers, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H56 Fatal Footsteps: The Murder of 

Undocumented Border Crossers in 

Maricopa County, Arizona 

Laura C. Fulginiti, PhD*, A.L. Mosley, MD, V. Shvarts, MD, J. Hu, MD, 

K.D. Horn, MD, P.E. Keen, MD, and R.M. Hsu, MD, Forensic Science 

Center, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

After attending this presentation, attendees will learn about a new 

trend of killing undocumented workers in Arizona. The majority of 

deaths among this group are from dehydration and exposure while 

crossing the desert to seek work. However, some of these individuals are 

being held for ransom and then killed when the family is unable to pay. 

The additional burden this places on the medical examiner and law 

enforcement will be discussed. 

The forensic community will be made aware of a disturbing change 

in the manner of death for undocumented workers crossing the border 

from Mexico into Arizona. 

The mortality rate among undocumented workers in Arizona has 

increased seven fold in the past five years (Bureau of Customs and 

Border Protection, as quoted in The Arizona Republic). Border patrol 

agents in California and Texas have tightened control over their borders 

with Mexico thereby increasing the amount of traffic from Mexico into 

Arizona. In 1998-1999, the number of deaths among Arizona border 

crossers was 28. That number increased dramatically in 1999-2000 to 

106. As of July 17, 2003, 104 crossers had died, indicating (albeit anecdotally) 

a further increase in mortality among this group. The number 

of deaths expressed as a percentage of persons apprehended has also 

increased during the same time period. In 1998, 5 individuals died for 

every 100,000 apprehended. Today, that number stands at 33.7 per 

100,000. 

In the past, most immigrant deaths occurred as a result of dehydration 

and exposure. More recently, a new trend has emerged, that is, 

death of border crossers at the hands of the persons hired to lead them 

across the border. These smugglers, known as “coyotes,” charge thousands 

of dollars for their services. In some cases, the smugglers attempt 

to extort additional money from the families of their victims by holding 


them hostage once they have crossed the border. 

Eight deaths in Maricopa County during the months from January 

2002 through March 2003, are reflective of this trend. The individuals 

were recovered from a remote location on the northwestern side of 

Maricopa County. Each was young to middle aged and became the 

victim of homicidal violence. The period since death in the cases ranges 

from very recent to months. Three of the eight remain unidentified. 

There are striking similarities in these deaths, including the location of 

recovery, the condition of the victims and the way in which they were 

killed. The consistencies are suggestive that the same group of suspects 

was involved in the use of this area, or at the least that a network of 

information was available about the remoteness of the site. The location 

was abandoned after the Sheriff of Maricopa County announced 

increased surveillance. No additional bodies have been recovered in the 

area since this announcement. 

Three theories are currently at work in these cases. One suggests 

that the deaths are warnings from vigilante groups opposed to the undocumented 

workers crossing over from Mexico. There is no evidence to 

support this contention, however the investigating agency has not ruled 

it out. Drug trafficking was initially the prevailing theory, however evidence 

came to light that in some of the cases extortion was a more likely 

explanation. 

Some coyotes have turned from drug trafficking to human smuggling 

in part because profits can be made and the penalties are far less 

severe. Rival smugglers hijack one another’s “cargo” and ransom the 

victim’s to their families. Alternatively, the original coyote holds the 

border crosser hostage until the family can provide more money. In 

either case, if the family cannot pay, the individual is killed. 

This disturbing trend, as illustrated by the eight cases in this paper, 

places a different kind of burden on law enforcement and the medical 

examiner. The autopsies are more protracted while the investigation is 

more complicated and often leads back to the undocumented worker’s 

country of origin. Usually, the most complex part of the investigation in 

the more typical undocumented worker’s death is that of identification 

and notification of the next of kin. If those tasks are accomplished, the 

body is returned and the case is closed. In the case of homicide, identification 

of the decedent is only the first step towards resolution of the 

case. This paper will present the details of the eight homicides and 

discuss the change from death by dehydration to murder. 

Undocumented Workers, Mexican Border, Homicide 

H57 Osseous Traumata Caused by a 

Fall From a Height: A Case Study 

Kristen M. Hartnett, MA*, Arizona State University, Department of 

Anthropology, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402; Laura C. 

Fulginiti, PhD, 701 West Jefferson, Phoenix, AZ 85007 

The goal of this presentation is to present a case study concerning 

the effects of a fall from a height on the skeleton. 


humanity by detailing analysis of skeletal remains from an individual 

who fell from a height. 

The remains of an incomplete and fragmentary human skeleton 

were found in the Grand Canyon at the bottom of a four hundred foot 

cliff when authorities went into the canyon to recover an unrelated witnessed 

suicide jumper. At the time, information on sex, age, race, stature, 

pathology, and trauma was requested. The individual was later identified 

as a white male, age forty-five, and of European ancestry. 

The remains were completely skeletonized and had minimal associated 

desiccated soft tissue. The skeletal elements were badly fragmented 

with evidence of carnivore activity and differential exposure to 

the weather and sun. Only seven cranial fragments and four teeth were 

recovered. A rough estimate of one to five years was given for elapsed 

498


The pattern of perimortem trauma in this case, and the location 

where the remains were found suggest that the individual fell approximately 

four hundred feet from the cliff edge above. The manner of death, 

whether accident, suicide, or homicide could not be determined from the 

skeletal remains. Evidence indicating a fall from a height from the 

cranium, humeri, ribs, vertebrae, pelvis, femora, and tibiae is discussed 

in the sections below. 

Both humeri sustained injuries that appear to be perimortem in 

nature. The diaphysis of the left humerus was obliquely fractured in a 

manner consistent with spiral oblique fractures in fresh bone. Also, the 

right humeral head was separated from the shaft at the anatomical neck 

in a clean transverse fracture. Fractures were present at the sternal ends 

of at least two ribs, and perhaps a third. The trauma to the ribs appears 

to have occurred in fresh bone because the bone was depressed in a 

linear fashion, as if it were bent inwards in a “greenstick” type of 

fracture. Not all of the vertebrae of this individual were recovered. A 

careful examination of the vertebrae present led to the discovery of one 

small fracture on the transverse process of the fifth lumbar vertebra. The 

fracture line is visible and a piece is displaced, but it was not broken off, 

suggesting that the bone was fractured perimortem. 

The pelvis displayed several fractures indicative of impact after 

free fall. There is a fracture on the left iliac blade that is depressed, suggesting 

that the fracture was created in green bone. The fracture line 

itself is depressed and a fragment on the edge of the line is pushed 

inwards. A fracture is also noted at the edge of the left acetabulum where 

bone is bent in with a visible fracture line and displaced fragments. The 

ischial fractures present may or may not be postmortem in nature and 

cannot be accurately used to support the idea that this individual fell 

from a height while still alive. 

In the femora, fractures requiring a great deal of force were noted. 

Both the right and left femoral heads were sheared off at the neck. The 

fractures of the femoral necks are not typical of carnivore damage. 

Animal activity does affect the proximal and distal ends of long bones, 

but usually involves chewing, tearing, and gnawing. No tooth marks or 

signs of gnawing were found at the proximal ends of the femora. The 

damage is more consistent with perimortem shearing trauma than postmortem 

damage. 

The right tibia was badly fractured longitudinally into at least five 

pieces. Part of the lateral tibial plateau is cracked longitudinally, which 

may or may not be perimortem damage. The edge of the medial aspect 

of the tibial plateau and the medial malleolus on the left tibia appears to 

be sheared off as well. The right and left fibulae are both fragmentary. 

The osseous traumata visible in this individual found at the bottom 

of the Grand Canyon suggests that he either jumped or fell four hundred 

feet, impacted a slope, and then probably rolled or bounced for an 

unknown distance. Primary impact was likely with the feet, but secondary 

impacts probably occurred as his body continued down slope 

from the primary impact point. The shearing fractures of both femoral 

heads from the necks and the longitudinal fracturing of the tibiae 

strongly support the hypothesis that the individual landed feet first. 

However, in the vertebrae that were present, there were no compression 

fractures, which are common in feet and buttock primary impacts. 

Furthermore, few tarsals and metatarsals were recovered, and those that 

were did not show any signs of impact trauma. The fact that very little 

of the cranium was recovered suggests that it was fractured into many 

pieces either from direct contact with the ground surface in a secondary 

impact, or from the force of the vertebral column bursting through the 

base of the skull upon primary feet impact. Fragments of the occipital 

were not found, making it impossible to determine if a ring fracture was 

present. The remaining fractures of the humeri, ribs, pelvis, and vertebrae 

can be attributed to secondary impacts after the body struck the 

slope initially at a depth of approximately four hundred feet and continued 

to bounce further down slope. 

Forensic Anthropology, Falls, Fracture 

H58 Multidisciplinary Efforts in the 

Identification of Three Unidentified 

Females in the State of New Jersey 

Donna A. Fontana, MS*, New Jersey State Police, River Road, PO Box 

7068, West Trenton, NJ 08628; Raafat Ahmad, MD, Mercer County 

Medical Examiner Office, Mercer County Airport, Building #31, West 

Trenton, NJ 08628; Jay Peacock, MD, Monmouth County Medical 

Examiner Office, Centra State Medical Center, Route 537, Freehold, 

NJ 07728; Ronald Suarez, MD, Morris County Medical Examiner 

Office, PO Box 900, Morristown, NJ 07963-0900 

The goal of this presentation is to present cases to the forensic community 

that utilize various forensic disciplines in the tentative identification 

of unidentified bodies. 


humanity by demonstrating the utility of using different forensic disciplines 

in the identification process of unidentified remains. 

This poster reports on the combined multi-disciplinary efforts of 

forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, radiology, hair analysis and 

composite drawing in the identification process of three unidentified 

females in the State of New Jersey. The results of these efforts will be 

presented for review. 

On July 18, 2001, an unidentified clothed and mummified body 

was found in Trenton, New Jersey, at the bottom of steps leading to a 

basement of a bar that had been closed since June 1996. The forensic 

anthropological examination determined the victim to be a Negroid 

female, between 25-35 years of age at the time of death and between 

4’9”-5’0” in height. The cause of death was listed as “Extensive fractures 

of skull” and the manner of death was determined to be 

“Homicide”. Postmortem x-rays revealed a healed mandibular fracture. 

Unique “jewelry” and a diastema between the upper central incisors 

were also useful identifiers in this case. A forensic composite drawing 

was rendered which was based upon the anthropometric measurements 

provided by the forensic anthropologist and tissue thickness measurements 

for a Negroid female. A newspaper article and composite of the 

victim resulted in a tentative identification. Positive identification was 

subsequently made through fingerprint comparison after successful 

rehydration of the fingertips. 

On March 4, 2002, an unidentified skeletonized/mummified body 

was found in a wooded area in Denville, New Jersey. The autopsy 

revealed the presence of three tattoos on the mummified skin unique 

enough for tentative identification. The forensic anthropological examination 

determined the victim to be a Caucasian female, between 24-34 

years of age at the time of death and between 4’9”-5’0” in height. 

Examination also determined that she had at least one child. The cause 

of death was listed as “Pending further studies” and the manner of death 

was determined to be “Pending.” A forensic composite drawing was rendered 

which was based upon the anthropometric measurements provided 

by the forensic anthropologist and tissue thickness measurements for a 

Caucasian female. A flyer was subsequently made which included the 

composite and the tattoos. Positive identification was made through fingerprint 

comparison after successful rehydration of the fingertips. 

On November 18, 2002, an unidentified and nude female body was 

uncovered by a backhoe in a vacant lot in Tinton Falls, New Jersey. At 

autopsy, the body measured 5’0” and weighed 106 lbs. in the body bag. 

The victim had dark, straight hair. The forensic anthropological and radiological 

examination determined the victim to be of Caucasian/ Hispanic 

ancestry and between 15-17 years of age at the time of death. Hair 

analysis determined the hair to be 5-6 inches in length, dark brown in 

color with 1 - 1 ½ inches of the tips tinted orange. The analysis also 

determined that the hair was recently cut and racial characteristics were 

of Caucasian origin. The cause of death was listed as “Homicidal violence 

of undetermined etiology” and the manner of death was deter- 


mined to be “Homicide.” The only physical identifier found with the 

victim was an initial ring with the cursive letter “F” with white or clear 

stones. A forensic composite drawing was rendered which was based 

upon the anthropometric measurements provided by the forensic anthropologist 

and tissue thickness measurements for a Caucasian female. A 

newspaper article and composite of the victim resulted in a tentative 

identification. Positive identification was subsequently made through 

fingerprint comparison using fingerprints filed with the Immigration and 

Naturalization Service only 3 months prior to discovery of the body. 

Identification, Forensic Anthropology, Composite Drawing 

H59 Bullet Wipe on Bone: 

Production and Detection 

David Z.C. Hines, BA*, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

PO Box 112545, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 


influence, if any, of caliber, range, angle, and bullet design on the 

production of bullet wipe; to determine the effect of maceration on the 

detection bullet wipe; to find whether proton-induced X-ray emission 

(PIXE) analysis may be used to detect non-visible bullet wipe. 


humanity by codifying much that had been believed to be true, but had 

not been examined by any previous study. The issue of cross-contamination 

in maceration is addressed for the first time. 

Most bullets in civilian use are made of lead hardened with tin or 

antimony. Lead is a soft, dense metal with a low melting point 

(Fahrenheit 621). When it passes through bone, it often leaves traces in 

the form of small fragments in the hole or on the surface of the bone 

itself. These radio-opaque traces are called bullet wipe. In the absence 

of a well-defined entrance or exit wound, bullet wipe is a useful indicator 

of gunshot. This study was undertaken to determine what factors 

influence the production and detection of bullet wipe. 

A total of 345 gunshot wounds were produced in 69 pig crania and 

postcrania. Two revolvers were used: a 1909 Model Army Colt in .38 

Special and a North American Arms Black Widow mini-revolver in .22 

Long Rifle and .22 Magnum. The pig bones were shot five times each, 

at ranges of ten feet and hard contact, at angles of ~90 degrees and ~180 

degrees, with a variety of ammunition (full-metal jacket, jacketed soft 

point, hollowpoint, and unjacketed lead). After being shot, the specimens 

were radiographed. They were macerated for a minimum of 24 

hours, cleaned, and radiographed again. The presence of bullet wipe on 

each specimen was scored before and after maceration on a scale from 0 

(no traces present) to 3 (large traces present). Proton-induced X-ray 

emission (PIXE) analysis was used to search for bullet wipe on bones for 

which no wipe was observable. 

Conclusions 

1) The presence of bullet wipe on bone is determined by bullet 

design. Bullet wipe may be separated into two distinct types. Direct 

bullet wipe is produced by physical contact between the primary mass of 

the bullet and bone, and is found on the margin of a gunshot wound. 

Indirect bullet wipe is produced by fragments shed by the bullet. The 

presence and nature of bullet wipe on bone is determined by bullet 

design. The study found range and angle to be irrelevant to the production 

of bullet wipe. 

2) Full-metal-jacket, unjacketed, soft-point, and hollow-point 

bullets cause different patterns of bullet wipe. Bullets with a full metal 

jacket, which have no exposed lead, typically produce no visible wipe at 

all. In the extremely unlikely event that any wipe is present, it is indirect. 

Unjacketed bullets produce both direct and indirect wipe in ample 

amounts. Soft-nosed bullets produce direct and indirect wipe, but much 

less of each than unjacketed bullets, and hollowpoints produce indirect 

wipe and little direct wipe. Because .22 caliber rounds are open at the 


base, these generalizations do not hold for small-caliber ammunition. 

3) Maceration can affect the presence of bullet wipe and result in 

cross-contamination. Direct bullet wipe does not appear to be affected 

by maceration. Indirect bullet wipe, however, can be reduced or eliminated. 

Small particles of indirect wipe may transfer from one specimen 

to another if the specimens are macerated together. Pre-maceration radiography 

is essential to guard against such cross-contamination. 

4) PIXE analysis is a useful tool in analysis of bullet wipe, particularly 

when reconstruction of trauma is difficult. 

Bullet Wipe, Gun Shot, PIXE 

H60 Skeletal Evidence of 

Homicidal Compression 

Alison Galloway, PhD*, University of California, Social Science One 

FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Lauren Zephro, MA, Monterey County 

Sheriff’s Office, 1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, CA 93906-3102 


community with examples of cranial and postcranial fractures 

due to the application of compressive force. This presentation will also 

provide a framework and protocols for the recognition and interpretation 

of compression damage to the skeleton. 


humanity by increasing awareness of compression injuries in the context 

of homicide. 

Compression fractures occur when bone tissue is compacted to the 

point of failure. In forensic cases, such fractures are often seen in falls 

from height but may also be encountered in victims of homicide. Our 

experience with recent cases demonstrates evidence of homicidal cranial 

and postcranial compression skeletal injuries. 

When coroners and medical examiners turn to the anthropologist 

for assistance, the remains are often decomposed to the point that evidence 

of soft tissue injury no longer exists. The remains may be partial 

due to taphonomic processes and postmortem damage may overlap the 

antemortem and perimortem defects. Careful examination and documentation 

is essential. 

Compression injuries in instances of homicide usually involve the 

head or chest. This pattern is in contrast to compressive injuries encountered 

in motor vehicle accidents and falls, which typically involve compression 

of the long bones, spine or pelvic region. Homicidal injuries 

may be more difficult to detect as the fractures are often incomplete due 

to the lower forces imparted. Careful preparation of the skeleton combined 

with macro and microscopic examination of all bone surfaces is 

essential to recognize and interpret trauma. 

In the cases presented in this poster, compression was applied to the 

body of the victim resulting in incomplete fractures. Four cases are 

included in this report: 

Case 1: The remains of an adult female in her mid-fifties were 

found under a house. Minimal damage was evident on the left lateral 

portion of the anterior vault and some in the orbits. However, internal 

examination revealed extensive perimortem fracturing in the sphenoidal 

region suggesting compression of the skull. 

Case 2: The remains of an adult female were found in a remote 

wooded area. The alleged perpetrator gave a detailed confession that 

could be matched to the skeletal defects. Included among the damage 

was an incomplete fracture of the internal surface of the sternum that 

matched his claim that he knelt on her chest in order to twist her neck. 

Case 3: The decomposed remains of an adult male were discovered 

in a wooded area, located along side a road. The remains showed 

extensive perimortem trauma, including at least nine discrete blunt force 

injuries to the skull. The hyoid and thyroid cartilage displayed complete 

fractures. In addition, incomplete fractures were noted on the sternum, 

right rib six, left rib six, cervical vertebrae five and six, and right 

clavicle, suggesting excessive compressive force was applied to the 

500

anterior chest. 

Case 4: Remains found in a dumpsite showed compression fractures 

of the rib cage, but were more consistent with the presence of a carnivore 

and were presumably inflicted after the death of the individual 

from other causes. 

These cases demonstrate that subtle damage can be interpreted. 

Postmortem damage due to carnivores may be a compounding factor in 

skeletal trauma interpretation. 

Trauma Analysis, Compression Injuries, Incomplete Fractures 

H61 Determining Medicolegal 

Significance: Human vs. Selkie 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Lehman College, CUNY, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard West, Bronx, NY 10468 

After attending this presentation, the participant will be aware of 

the morphological similarities and differences between human and seal 

thoracic vertebrae. Detailed morphological comparisons between human 

and seal thoracic vertebrae will provide invaluable knowledge to 

forensic anthropologists and pathologists who may encounter marine 

mammal skeletal remains due to the coastal jurisdictions they cover. 


humanity graphically documenting and illustrating the morphological 

similarities and differences of human and seal thoracic vertebrae. 

Background: In many cases, the first question asked by a forensic 

anthropologist is whether the skeletal remains are human or non-human. 

For the vast majority of those cases, the question is answered relatively 

easily and quickly. Comparisons between human and non-human 

skeletal remains typically rely on macroscopic aspects of skeletal morphology 

(maturity, size, architecture of articular surfaces, areas of 

muscle attachment, fusion of elements, thickness of cortical bone, 

density of cancellous bone, delineation of cortical and cancellous bone, 

etc.), as well as microscopic aspects (osteon organization, plexiform 

bone, Haversian systems, etc.). The human skeletal possesses morphological 

features which reflect our primate ancestry and unique evolutionary 

adaptations (bipedal locomotion, enlarged brain, reduced faces, 

etc.), and it is these features which allows for the determination as to 

whether any given complete/partial skeleton or individual skeletal 

element is human or non-human. However, if the remains are those of a 

pathological human specimen or human fetal specimen with congenital 

birth defects, the determination of human/non-human becomes far more 

difficult. Additionally, several non-human skeletal elements have and 

continue to confuse some law enforcement personnel and forensic scientists 

(bear paws, pig premolars, horse distal caudal vertebrae). This 

poster will present another non-human skeletal element that has and 

could confuse forensic scientists. 

Case History and Pathological/Anthropological Assessment: On 

June 19, 2003, skeletal remains (two thoracic vertebra and rib fragment) 

were found by a 10 year old boy digging in the water behind a relative’s 

home at Oak Beach, New York. The County Police Department was 

notified and collected the remains and turned them over to the County 

Medical Examiner’s Office where a pathological examination was conducted 

on June 24, 2003. The initial assessment of the vertebrae was that 

the remains were potentially from an adult human. On June 27, 2003, the 

anthropological examination of the two thoracic vertebrae and rib 

fragment revealed them to be “non-human,” from an immature animal. 

On a cursory level the vertebrae looked very similar to human thoracic 

vertebrae, but detailed morphological features of the transverse 

processes, vertebral body, and the presence of vertebral body epiphyseal 

disks not rings were not consistent with human morphology. 

Consultation with Darrin Lunde, Collections Manager, Department of 

Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural History on July 21, 2003, 

resulted in the identification of the skeletal elements as belonging to a 

seal (Order: Pinniped; Family: Phocidae; exact genus and species not yet 

determined). 

Conclusions: The determination as to whether any given set of 

skeletal remains is human or non-human, in most circumstances, is a relatively 

easy task to perform. The forensic literature is replete with analytical 

and anecdotal evidence of non-human skeletal remains that have 

and continue to be misidentified as human. A thorough search of the 

forensic literature found no reference to seal skeletal remains potentially 

misidentified as human. Though infrequently encountered, knowledge 

of the similarities and differences between human and seal thoracic vertebral 

morphology will prove invaluable to forensic anthropologists and 

pathologists whose jurisdictions include coastal regions where seal and 

other marine mammal skeletal remains may be recovered by civilians 

and law enforcement personnel. 

Human vs. Non-Human, Seal, Thoracic Vertebrae 

H62 Assessment of Saw-Blade Wear Patterns 

and Wear-Related Features of the Kerf Wall 

Laurel Freas, BA*, Department of Anthropology, C.A. Pound Human 

Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 112545, 


This poster presents the results of a preliminary study investigating 

the effects of progressive saw-blade wear on the appearance of kerf walls. 


humanity by adding to the established methodology for the interpretation 

of saw-marks in human bone in cases of postmortem dismemberment. 

Furthermore, it allows for greater specificity in reconstruction 

of postmortem events by providing the forensic anthropologist with 

additional information about the tool(s) used in dismemberment. 

Post-mortem dismemberment of homicide victims creates a challenge 

for forensic anthropologists charged with identification of the victim 

and reconstruction of the events of the crime, based on evidence contained 

in the victim’s skeletal remains. The pattern and distribution of the cuts 

may provide investigators with clues to the motivation and intent of the 

perpetrator in carrying out the dismemberment. By determining what class 

of tool was used in the dismemberment (i.e. knife, ax, or saw), the forensic 

anthropologist can provide police with an additional avenue by which to 

connect a suspect to the victim. The methodology for distinguishing 

among different types of saws potentially used in the dismemberment, 

based on the appearance of the cut marks (kerfs) they produce is well 

established. By virtue of the cutting action of their numerous identical 

teeth, saws create distinct, repetitive patterns of fine striations on the sides 

(kerf walls) of the cut mark. These patterns yield information on all the 

key characteristics of the saw in question: type and width of tooth set, 

tooth type, number of teeth per inch, and if it is a hand- or power-saw. 

This preliminary study seeks to compliment the established 

methodology of cut mark interpretation by investigating the impact of 

increasing saw-blade wear on the appearance of the kerf wall. Three 

questions were considered: 

1. How can cuts made by a brand-new saw be distinguished from 

those made by a saw that has been subjected to normal usage (and 

now shows a fair degree of wear) based on the appearance of the 

kerf walls? Can corresponding differences be observed in the 

appearance/condition of the saw blade? 

2. Is there an observable difference between saw-blade wear 

generated by use on bone and wear generated by use on the saw’s 

intended substrate (i.e., wood for crosscut and rip saws; metal for 

hacksaws)? Correspondingly, will there be differences between 

the appearance of kerf walls created by saws used only on bone 

and those created by saws which were used first on the intended 

substrate and then on bone, beyond anticipated wear-related 

differences? 

3. How will incidental damage (e.g., broken or bent teeth) to the 

saw-blade, occurring in normal use of the saw, affect the 


appearance of the kerf wall? 

In this study, brand-new blades of three common types of saws 

(cross cut, rip cut and hack saws) were used to make series of 30 cuts in 

white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) tibiae; the kerf walls of each 

cut were then examined under a stereoscopic light microscope. By this 

manner, it was observed that the patterns of coarse and fine striations on 

the kerf walls became progressively more shallow and indistinct with 

increasing saw-blade wear. This pattern correlated well with the accumulation 

of rounded-off teeth and edges and eburnation of teeth along 

the length of the saw. Control groups, made by using three saws which 

were identical to those in the first group to saw through wood and metal, 

showed highly similar wear patterns to the saws used only on bone. No 

differences were observed in the appearance of the kerf walls of cut 

marks in bone made by saws used only on bone versus those made by 

saws used first on wood or metal. Only one broken saw-tooth was 

observed in the course of this study; it produced deep, erratic gouges on 

the kerf walls, which also became progressively more shallow as the cut 

series progressed. 

Tool Mark Analysis, Dismemberment, Forensic Anthropology 

H63 Hereditary Multiple Exostoses: 

An Identifying Pathology 

Melissa L. Gold, BS*, Department of Anthropology, C.A. Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, PO Box 


This poster presents a case of hereditary multiple exostoses, or 

osteochondromatosis, and demonstrates the utility of stable, nonaggressive 

lesions in antemortem/postmortem radiographic identification. 


humanity providing an example of how certain stable, non-aggressive 

pathological lesions can make personal identification relatively straightforward 

if antemortem resources are available. 

Hereditary multiple exostosis, also known as osteochondromatosis 

or diaphyseal aclasis, is a condition where multiple benign, cartilaginous 

tumors (exostoses) develop at the metaphyses of endochondral bone. 

Although exostoses may be pedunculated or sessile in appearance, both 

develop cortex and spongiosa continuous with that of the bone on which 

they appear. Most commonly twenty or more tumors are found distributed 

bilaterally and growing away from the closest joint. Usually 

exostoses are found on one or more of the following: the distal femur, 

proximal/distal tibia, proximal humerus, distal radius or proximal/distal 

fibula. In addition to exostoses, individuals with osteochondromatosis 

also tend to be of a shorter stature and exhibit expanded metaphyseal 

areas of affected long bones. There may be significant growth asymmetry, 

secondary deformation of a nearby unaffected bone or increased 

susceptibility to fracture of an affected bone. The disease is usually manifested 

by age 12. This case history illustrates the utility of these types 

of lesions in personal identification from skeletal remains. 

In spring of 2003, police found a body in an advanced state of 

decomposition suggesting a postmortem interval estimation of over two 

months. Almost all skeletal elements were recovered and taken to the 

laboratory for identification and trauma analysis. 

The decedent was determined to be an adult male, who would 

probably have been classified as “white” based on metric and non-metric 

traits. Antemortem trauma was evident in the form of several healed 

fractures of the face, hand, lower leg and several ribs. The decedent 

exhibited pathological traits consistent with extensive osteochondromatosis 

including: multiple lobulated lesions on the metaphyses of the 

distal femora and the proximal/distal tibiae and fibulae, trumpet-shaped 

metaphyses and internal orthopedic fixation of the distal tibiae and 


fibulae to correct bilateral pathological fractures. 

Postmortem radiographs of the tibiae, fibulae and femora were 

taken in order to confirm the diagnosis of multiple exostoses and to 

image the fractures and surgical appliances.The cranium was radiographed 

as well to illustrate a maxillary fracture and the frontal sinus 

pattern. Antemortem radiographs of the suspected victim, a 48-year-old 

white male, were then obtained and compared to those taken of the 

recovered remains. The antemortem radiographs pre-dated the time of 

death by several years. These films showed an acute fracture of the left 

maxilla within the floor of the orbit, an acute spiral fracture of the 

proximal shaft of the right tibia, multiple bony lesions on the proximal 

and distal metaphyses of the tibiae and fibulae, healed fractures of both 

distal fibulae with internal fixation via an orthopedic plate and an associated 

malleolar fracture of the tibia fixed with two cannulated orthopedic 

lag screws. The investigation revealed that the decedent’s father 

had also suffered from hereditary multiple exostoses. 

Comparison between the antemortem and postmortem radiographs 

showed identical placement of the aforementioned trauma and 

pathology, with the exception of the acute fracture of the tibia which was 

well-healed by the time of the postmortem radiograph. The frontal sinus 

pattern was also identical. 

Based on the attributes of osteochondromatosis, i.e., tumors and 

pathological fractures, a positive identification was easily made. All of 

the imaged lesions displayed remarkable stability, further demonstrating 

that the lesions were benign and non-aggressive. These types of benign 

lesions, including single lesions of osteochondroma, osteomatoid exostoses, 

and myositis ossificans can serve as excellent life history markers 

of personal identity. 

Human Identification, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses, Forensic 

Anthropology 

H64 Empirical Validation and Application 

of the Quality-Control Polymerase 

Chain Reaction (qcPCR) Inhibitor 

Detection System 

Elias J. Kontanis, BS, BA*, Cornell University, Department of Ecology 

& Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853; Krista E. 

Latham, MS, Temple University, Department of Anthropology, 1115 

West Berks Street, Philadelphia, PA 19122; Mary K. Ritke, PhD, 

University of Indianapolis, Department of Biology, 1400 East Hanna 


The primary objective of this study is to optimize the quality 

control Polymerase Chain Reaction (qcPCR) inhibitor detection system 

by empirically determining its breadth of effectiveness and its sensitivity 

range. Effectiveness and sensitivity will be tested by utilizing several 

commonly encountered PCR inhibitors. The qcPCR detection system 

will then be compared to several other methods used to detect the 

presence of inhibitory substances in PCR template solutions. A variety 

of soft tissue and bone samples with prior negative amplification results 

are evaluated using qcPCR. 


humanity by developing a more accurate understanding of the relative 

effects of various PCR inhibitors. Investigators will also be able to differentiate 

between amplification inhibition and DNA degradation 

beyond the current limits of analysis. 

Many current forensic DNA analysis methods are dependent on the 

successful amplification of a template DNA sample using the polymerase 

chain reaction (PCR). However, forensic samples often contain 

co-extracted diffusible compounds that partly or completely inhibit 

amplification of the template DNA molecules producing false-negative 

PCR results. Common diffusible inhibitors encountered in forensic con- 

502

texts include substances produced by the body (e.g., heme-products, bile 

salts, collagen) and compounds introduced from the environment by diagenetic 

processes (e.g., humic and tannic acids). Identifying PCR template 

samples that contain inhibitory substances allows investigators the 

opportunity to utilize inhibitor neutralization strategies, increasing the 

chance of a successful re-amplification attempt. This study will provide 

empirical evidence supporting the development of a PCR-based method 

to identify false-negative amplification results. 

The proposed qcPCR system utilizes a 500 base-pair region of 

lambda phage DNA as the reporter template that is amplified using 

lambda phage specific primers. Test template solutions that have failed 

to amplify during previous attempts are spiked into the reporter amplification 

reaction. The qcPCR solution is then thermocycled using parameters 

optimized for reporter (lambda DNA) template amplification. 

The yield of amplified DNA obtained from the test template-spiked 

qcPCR is compared to that of a positive-control qcPCR lacking the test 

template. If both reactions yield the same amount of reporter amplicon 

(500 bp of lambda DNA), the test template solution does not contain diffusible 

inhibitory compounds capable of blocking or reducing the amplification 

efficiency of the reporter reaction. If however the test templatespiked 

samples yield less reporter amplicon than the control, the test 

template solution is assumed to contain diffusible inhibitors, suggesting 

genetic analysis will be compromised. 

While a theoretically sound method, little empirical work has 

demonstrated its applicability to a range of known PCR inhibitors commonly 

encountered in forensic contexts. A variety of diffusible PCR 

inhibitors (humic acid, tannic acid, heme-products and collagen) are 

used to test the effectiveness and sensitivity range of the qcPCR system. 

Different concentrations of each inhibitor are mixed with varying concentrations 

of inhibitor-free genomic pig DNA. An amplification success 

matrix is constructed to determine the minimum inhibitor concentration 

necessary to reduce amplification efficiency. The inhibitor-genomic template 

mixes are then spiked into a qcPCR to assess the system’s detection 

capabilities for single inhibitors. The aforementioned inhibitor/DNA 

templates are also used to evaluate the following inhibitor detection 

methods: spectrophotometric measurement of template purity, amplification 

efficiency calculation using real-time PCR, and the presence of 

oligonucleotide primer dimers in failed amplification attempts. Results 

are compared to assess the inhibitor detection capabilities of each 

method. The qcPCR inhibitor detection method is then used to evaluate 

lung, liver, spleen, psoas muscle, parietal, rib, vertebral body and 

femoral shaft DNA extractions that have failed to amplify during previous 

attempts. These samples were obtained over the course of two 

years from 28 pigs: 14 placed in a pond-shore environment and 14 

deposited on a forest floor. Additionally, qcPCR analysis is reported for 

femoral DNA extractions from historic human burials. 

This study will demonstrate that the proposed qcPCR inhibitor 

detection method allows investigators to reliably identify specimens that 

require more rigorous DNA extraction and purification procedures, thus 

facilitating the diagnostic amplification process and minimizing the 

potential for false-negative results. 

Quality Control Polymerase Chain Reaction (qcPCR), 

PCR Inhibitors, Inhibitor Detection 

H65 Defining Perimortem: Blunt Force Trauma 

Derinna V. Kopp, MA*, Jacquel Arismendi, MA, and Shannon A. 

Novak, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of Utah, 270 

South 1400 East, Room 102, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 


quantiative and qualitative changes to bone when blunt force trauma is 

induced at 30-day intervals over six months. 


humanity by demonstrating that if the morphological changes in fracture 

characteristics of bone throughout the decomposition process can be 

quantified and statistically validated, such findings would facilitate 

skeletal trauma analysis and subsequently the testimony of forensic 


Determining whether a traumatic lesion occurred perimortem or 

postmortem is one of the most important concerns in the analysis of 

skeletal remains. Distinguishing between perimortem trauma and 

damage that occurs after deposition, however, can be difficult. While the 

different fracture characteristics of fresh and dried bone are known and 

easily identifiable, the varying fracture characteristics of bone 

throughout the decomposition period are unknown. As bone decomposes, 

moisture, grease, collagen fibers, and other organic materials that 

give elasticity to the bone degrade, resulting in bone that is more friable 

and fragile with time. The rate at which these materials are lost is 

dependant on postmortem environmental and climatic factors. In fact, 

the fracture characteristics of fresh bone may remain for several weeks 

after death, making it difficult to determine when a fracture occurred 

during the decomposition process. If these morphological changes could 

be quantified and statistically validated, such findings would facilitate 

skeletal trauma analysis and subsequently, the testimony of the forensic 


To examine the differing fracture characteristics of bone throughout 

the perimortem to postmortem interval, a trauma study using sheep 

humeri was conducted. A constant blunt force was used to induce 

trauma on sheep humeri at 30-day time intervals for six months. The 

study bones were obtained from ewes of the same age, when they were 

sacrificed as part of a biomedical femoral-tibial joint replacement study. 

At the time of sacrifice, the right and left forelimb of twelve animals was 

dissected, the wool and skin removed, and the humeri disarticulated at 

proximal and distal joints. The muscle tissue was kept on the humeri to 

allow for more realistic trauma induction and decomposition of the 

remains. Two hours after sacrifice, trauma was induced on two right 

humeri—these specimens served as time “0” or the perimortem baseline. 

The remaining specimens were placed in a wire mesh cage in the 

western desert of Utah between May and October 2003, allowing the 

humeri to decompose naturally. Temperature and humidity at the 

location was monitored with an Oakton RH/TempLog at fifteen-minute 

intervals for the entire length of the study. Every 30 days, two of the 

humeri were retrieved, measured, photographed, and subjected to blunt 

force trauma. 

Blunt force trauma was induced with a metal femoral head component 

attached to a guillotine apparatus, which allowed for a consistent 

reproduction of known force (designed by Dr. Kent Bachus, director of 

the biomechanics Laboratory at the University of Utah School of 

Medicine). The right humeri were clamped to the base of the apparatus 

at the proximal and distal joint surfaces to allow for trauma induction on 

the anterior-lateral midshaft. The guillotine was dropped from a height 

of 67 cm, resulting in trauma induced at 25.3 joules. 

Following trauma induction, anterior-posterior and medial-lateral 

contact-radiographs and photographs were taken. All adherent soft tissue 

was carefully removed, making sure not to alter the fractured surface. 

The skeletal trauma was photographed, reconstructed, illustrated, and 

described in detail. The following variables were measured for each 

specimen: 

• Thickness of cortical bone at impact site 

• Fracture type 

• Number of fragments 

• Minimum and maximum length of each fragment 

• Angle of fracture margin bevel (internal, external, flush) 

• Number and length of radiating fractures 

• Color of host bone and color of bone at fracture margins 

These variables will be coded for the two specimens in each of the 

six time periods. Multivariate statistical analysis will be conducted to 

assess any temporal trends in the data. At the time of abstract submission, 

our analysis of the first three time periods has identified distinct 


differences in fracture morphology, especially in the size and number of 

fragments. Specifically, there is a 1200% increase in micro-fragments 

(

affecting the spine and joints. 

Anthropological examination of the innominates, mandible, and 

postcranial skeleton suggest the individual is male. The age range based 

on pubic symphysis morphology and sternal rib end analysis is 45-60 

years of age. A comprehensive analysis of ancestry could not be conducted, 

as the cranium was not recovered. The individual’s stature was 

obtained by using the forensic femur formula, yielding an estimated 

stature of 5’4”+/-3.4”. 

The most prominent of the skeleton’s pathological features is the 

thoracic region of the spine where T3 through T7 are completely fused 

and form a 90-degree anterior bend. There is no intervertebral space and 

the discs are compacted and calcified. The inter- and supraspinousligaments 

on the posterior surface of these vertebrae are ossified. The 

anterior and lateral surfaces the vertebral bodies display thick syndesmophytes 

making it difficult to differentiate them. The lower ribs are 

very straight, likely due to the anterior bend of the torso and the pressure 

exerted by the organs. In the thoracic region several ribs are also fused 

at the costovertebral joint. 

The first through the fourth lumbar vertebrae are fused by thin, vertical 

fibrous endesopathic growths appearing at the insertion of the longitudinal 

spinal ligament on the anterior surface and lateral margins of 

the vertebral bodies. These vertebrae are connected by thin bony bridges 

called sydesmophytes. Several of the lumbar vertebrae are also fused at 

superior and inferior zygapophyses. Cervical vertebrae 3 through 5 and 

7 have small fused syndesmophytes on the anterior vertebral bodies and 

the intervertebral space is maintained. The sacroiliac joints are fused and 

entheses of the femur, patellae, scapulae, clavicles, tibiae, fibulae and os 

coxae display ossified tendons and ligaments. 

Tuberculosis of the spine (Pott’s disease) is characterized by the 

collapse of a portion of the spine into an angular kyphosis. Pott’s disease 

begins with an abscess in the vertebral body caused by inhalation of 

Mycobacterium tuberculosis into the lungs, passing through the lymphatic 

system to the spine. This leads to the destruction of the intervertebral 

space and collapse of the spine into an angular deformity. It 

usually affects between two and four vertebrae, often at the lower thoracic 

and upper lumber region. The involvement of at least four thoracic 

vertebrae is necessary for diagnosis. 

Pott’s disease is a lytic process and bone regeneration is 

uncommon. This case has significant bone regeneration, however it is 

likely due to the bone-forming attributes of another origin. Pott’s disease 

rarely affects the posterior neural arch, transverse processes, and 

spinous processes, but this has been observed in untreated adults. 

Ankylosing spondylitis is a degenerative inflammatory disease 

affecting connective tissue at ligament insertions. It often affects males 

between the ages of 15-35. It is of unknown etiology, however individuals 

with the disease often have the antigen HLA-B27 in their blood. 

The disease causes erosion of the bone at entheses and new bone 

replaces it and the connecting ligament ossifies. A new insertion is 

formed above the cortical bone creating an irregular bony process. In 

this case, the os coxae, the lesser trochanter, and both femora and 

patellae all display these enthesopathies. Fusion of the sacroiliac joints, 

which has been called the hallmark of ankylosing spondylitis, is present 

in this case as well as the progressive fusion of the anterior longitudinal 

ligament. Syndesmophytes, bridge the gap between the vertebral bodies 

and consequently fuse several vertebrae together forming a bamboo-like 

appearance. The lumbar and cervical vertebrae are consistent with this 

diagnosis as they display symmetrical syndesmophytes that become 

smaller in the cervical region. Involvement and fusion of the 

zygopophyseal joints and costovertebral joints may be present in cases 

of ankylosing spondylitis and are present in this case. The features of 

the appendicular skeleton, as well as the early stage of bamboo-like 

appearance of the spine are consistent with a diagnosis of ankylosing 

spondylitis. 

In an effort to understand the origins of these pathologies and create 

a more complete biological profile, a DNA test is being conducted to 

determine if the individual did indeed have Pott’s disease. In addition, it 

is believed that this individual also suffered from ankylosing spondylitis. 

In spite of these distinctive skeletal changes, the decedent remains 

unidentified. 

Forensic Anthropology, Ankylosing Spondylitis, Tuberculosis 

H68 Symmetrical Fracturing of the Skull 

From Self-Inflicted Gunshot Wounds: 



Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Jered B. Cornelison, MS, and Leslie A. Wood, BS, 

Michigan State University, Department of Forensic Science, 560 Baker 


The goal of this presentation is to describe a potentially diagnostic 

pattern of fractures associated with submandibular shotgun wounds. 


humanity by making it possible to diagnose submandibular, mid-line 

gunshot injuries from cranial fracture patterns, even in cases where the 

remains are skeletonized and highly fragmented. 

The attendee will become familiar with a potentially diagnostic 

pattern of fractures associated with self-inflicted midline gunshot 

wounds. The three objectives of this poster is to present two cases in 

which skeletonized remains were found in association with a shotgun; to 

describe and display the observed perimortem “suite of fractures” in 

both cases and discuss the observed bilateral symmetry of those fractures; 

and to suggest a possibly diagnostic pattern of fractures consistent 

with self-inflicted midline gunshot wounds. 

In the following two cases, skeletonized humans remains were 

recovered from remote areas and submitted to forensic anthropologists. 

Following identification in each case, the main focus of the anthropological 

analysis was the skeletal trauma. In both cases, the skull was submitted 

in a highly fragmented state. Nevertheless, by focusing on the 

pattern of perimortem cranial fractures, the anthropologists contributed 

key information regarding the circumstances of death in these cases. 

Case 1: In September of 2000, skeletonized human remains were 

recovered from a wooded area in mid-Michigan by a law enforcement 

search team. At the scene, a shotgun was found in association with the 

remains. Anthropological analysis determined that the remains were 

those of an adult male of European ancestry, and a positive identification 

was made through comparative radiography. The skull was recovered in 

a fragmentary state with at least 45 distinguishable fragments present. 

Most of the skull fragments were recovered making it possible for a 

complete reconstruction. During the process of charting and photographically 

documenting the linear fractures displayed by the skull, a 

bilaterally symmetrical perimortem fracture pattern became apparent. 

The “suite of symmetrical fractures” observed in this case are enumerated 

by aspect as follows. The anterior aspect of the skull displays 

transverse fractures of the mandible in the chin region, vertical fractures 

of the mandibular body, Le Fort II fractures of the maxillae, tripod fractures 

of the zygomatics, and a midline frontal fracture. The lateral aspect 

of the skull exhibits fractures running along the temporal lines of the 

frontal, a diastatic fracture of the coronal suture which continues laterally 

along the parietals, horizontally oriented fractures of the parietal, 

and vertical fractures of the parietal. The basilar aspect of the skull displays 

occipital fractures adjacent and posterior to the foramen magnum, 

a midline fracture of the basi-occiput, as well as fractures of the palate 

and pterygoid processes of the sphenoid. 

Based on this symmetrical pattern, as well as the pattern of 

mandibular fracturing, and the orientation of beveling on the palate and 

frontal bones, the trauma was attributed to a submandibular gunshot 

wound. 

Case 2: In January of 2003, hunters discovered skeletonized human 


emains and an associated shotgun in a wooded area of the western lower 

peninsula of Michigan. The remains were those of an adult male of 

European ancestry. A positive identification was made through comparative 

mitochondrial DNA analysis. The cranium and mandible were 

recovered in a fragmentary and incomplete state, with only 26 skull fragments 

present. As a result, it was not possible to reconstruct the cranial 

vault. Even so, the recovered portions of the skull exhibited a bilaterally 

symmetrical fracture pattern very similar to the skull in the above case, 

which lead the authors to believe that this was a case in which either a 

submandibular or intraoral gunshot wound was the cause of the skeletal 

trauma. 

In both of the above cases, the skulls did not exhibit the classic 

gunshot entry or exit injuries. They did, however, exhibit important evidence 

in the form of bilaterally symmetrical fracture patterns. This distinctive 

pattern is believed to be the result of submandibular or intraoral 

shotgun wounds in which there is a centralized explosive dispersion of 

gases. It is known that when these expansive gases enter the restricted 

space of the cranial vault, the increase in intracranial pressure causes 

fragmentation and fracturing of the skull. These two cases may illustrate 

that this type of fracturing does not occur randomly, but rather along predictable 

planes. The lines of fracture most likely occur in areas that are 

structurally weaker which crumple under the force of such explosive 

events. These findings lead the authors to believe that it may be possible 

to diagnose submandibular or intra-oral mid-line gunshot injuries from 

cranial fracture patterns, even in cases where the remains are skeletonized 

and highly fragmented. 

Forensic Anthropology, Shotgun Wounds, Skeletal Trauma 

H69 In the Name of the Dead: The Panamanian 



Loreto Suarez Silva, Director of Anthropology, Comision de la Verdad 

de Panama, Balboa, 27695-8107, Republic of Panama; Kathrynn M. 

Jemmott, MA, University of Florida, C.A. Pound Human ID 

Laboratory, Gainesville, FL 32611; Ann H. Ross, PhD*, Department of 

Sociology and Anthropology, North Carolina State University, Campus 

Box 8107, Raleigh, NC 27695-8107 

The goal of this presentation is to present the results of the skeletal 

analyses of the victims of human rights violations in Panama. 


humanity by exposing the forensic community to human rights investigation 

efforts in Panama. 

Panama’s democratic history came to an abrupt halt in 1968 after a 

coup d’etat toppled President Arnulfo Arias ten days and eleven hours 

after his administration began. This coup set in motion Panama’s twentyone 

years of military dictatorships that began with General Omar 

Torrijos (1968-1981) and continued with General Manuel Noriega 

(1981-1989). Forced disappearances, tortures and arbitrary execution of 

its victims, characterized the military regimes of the 1970s and 1980s. 

In 1999, several clandestine graves were discovered one of which 

later was identified as the remains of Heliodoro Portugal. His remains 

were positively identified via DNA on 21 August of 2000. Heliodoro 

Portugal had been identified as a leftist by the military junta and was last 

seen being forcibly pushed into a car on 14 May 1970. As a result of 

these findings, the Panamanian Truth Commission (La Comisión de la 

Verdad de Panamá) was formed on January 18, 2001 by Executive Order 

issued by the lady President Mireya Moscoso. The objective of the Truth 

Commission as written in the executive decree “is to contribute to the 

clarification of the truth regarding human rights violations fundamental 

to life, including the disappearances committed during the military 

regimes that governed Panama beginning in 1968…” 

As of April 18, 2002, the Truth Commission has amassed enough 


information to recognize 110 persons assassinated and disappeared. 

However, these numbers have already increased considerably as new 

information is gathered, including the positive identification of Jerónimo 

Díaz Lopez in June 2003. Fifty percent of the victims were murdered or 

disappeared between 1968-1972, twenty percent between 1973-1983, 

twenty-eight percent between 1984-1989, and two percent with no 

known information. 

Thirty-four excavation sites have presently been identified in the 

provinces of Panamá, Chiriquí, Veraguas, Coclé, Bocas del Toro and 

Colón. However, much of the resistance against the military regimes was 

felt in the province of Chiriquí. Skeletal identifications are extremely 

difficult because of various taphonomic processes (for example, soil 

acidity, insect activity and bacterial activity, roots, humidity, etc.), conditions 

that are not conducive to good skeletal preservation and therefore 

the remains sustain considerable postmortem damage. Interestingly, 

many of the skeletal elements recovered from the mainland were hand 

and foot bones that generally do not have a high rate of recovery. The 

recovery and identification efforts that have yielded the most positive 

results have been from the island of Coiba. In our efforts to locate the 

remains of Floyd Britton arrested in 1968 and who was sentenced to 

Coiba, others have been inadvertently identified who were not known to 

have perished there. The remains of Sergeant Sánchez Tenas who was 

killed in 1975 at the hands of another member of the military police and 

whose murder was covered-up by the military was identified via mtDNA 

analysis while testing the skeletal samples in hopes of finding Floyd. 

The identification of Jerónimo Díaz Lopez was made via dental comparison 

and traditional forensic anthropological techniques. Floyd 

Britton has yet to be identified. However, recovery and identification 

efforts will continue on Coiba as a result of these other identifications to 

search for others who are believed to be buried there. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights, Panama 

H70 Truth, Justice, and Forensic 

Anthropology in Latin America 

Clyde Snow, PhD*, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, 

NY 11201 

The author will introduce a new forensic organization dedicated to 

the application of forensic anthropology to human rights and judicial 

investigations in Latin America and present the experiences of some of 

the organizations’ members. 

Through introducing the Latin American Forensic Anthropology 

Association (ALAF) to a wider forensic community, we hope to expand 

the network of Latin American forensic specialists and supporters, 

encourage forensic work in judicial investigations and see the organization’s 

objectives adopted more widely in the region. 

This session presents the Latin American experience of applying 

forensic anthropology and archaeology to human rights and other judiciary 

investigations over the past two decades. The presenters will 

describe the origin of the application of forensic anthropology in Latin 

America, overviews of the state of forensic anthropology investigations 

in a number of countries and discuss major trends, challenges, and 

problems in their work. In February 2003, for the first time, forensic 

anthropologists from throughout Latin America, and Dr. Clyde Snow, 

who chaired the meeting, gathered at Austin College in Sherman, Texas 

to discuss national experiences, commonalities and differences in particular 

cases and possibilities for working together to further forensic 

work in judicial investigations. Following this meeting, ALAF, the Latin 

American Forensic Anthropology Association was established. 

ALAF’s founding members largely work for non-governmental 

organizations that were trained by Dr. Clyde Snow, and pioneered the 

application of forensic anthropology to human rights investigations in 

their own countries, including Argentina, Chile, Guatemala, and Peru. 

As a result, ALAF is sponsored by the Guatemalan Forensic 

506

Anthropology Foundation (FAFG), Human Rights Office of the 

Archbishop of Guatemala; Center of Forensic Analysis and Applied 

Sciences (CAFCA), the Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team ( EPAF), 

and the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team ( EAAF). Founding 

members of ALAF from Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela work within 

national medical legal systems and in universities, enriching the background 

and membership of the association. 

ALAF founding members from Argentina, Chile, Colombia, 

Guatemala, Mexico, Peru, and Venezuela have established objectives for 

forensics in Latin America that range from establishing ethical and professional 

criteria for the practice of forensic anthropology to concern 

with the access of families of the deceased to procedures and results of 

forensic investigation. ALAF is concerned with the promotion of professional 

accreditation, improving the training of professionals working 

in this field, promoting the adaptation of international forensic standards 

by national forensic institutes, and mechanisms of protection for ALAF 

members and families. Another ALAF objective is defending the scientific 

and technical autonomy of forensic anthropology investigations in 

Latin America and the Caribbean because these investigations are often 

lodged in state-run medical-legal institutes. Because forensic anthropologists 

and archaeologists in Latin America, whether working as independent 

experts or inside government institutions, often work on cases 

where state institutions are reportedly involved in crimes under investigation, 

this relationship is often a source of tension. Especially under 

these circumstances, in many cases in Latin America, forensic investigations 

are vital to truth and justice. Through the organization of ALAF, 

we hope to contribute to protecting the integrity of these investigations 

as well as enlarging a community for forensic practitioners. 

This session, introduced and moderated by Dr. Clyde Snow, 

includes participants from Argentina, Colombia, Guatemala, Peru, and 

Chile who are ALAF founding members. They will discuss and share 

their national and international experience in forensic investigation both 

in their home countries and internationally. Through the introduction of 

ALAF to a wider forensic community, we hope to expand the network 

of Latin American forensic specialists and supporters, encourage 

forensic work in judicial investigations and see these objectives adopted 

more widely in the region. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights, Latin America 

H71 Perspectives and Recommendations 

From the Field: Forensic Anthropology 

and Human Rights in Argentina 

Mercedes C. Doretti*, Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), 

10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201; Luis Fondebrider, c/o ALAF 

and EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

The author will describe the work and goals of the Argentine 

Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), a non-governmental, non-profit 

organization dedicated to the application of forensic sciences- mainly 

forensic anthropology and archaeology - to the investigation of human 

rights violations. 

The presentation examine the work of the Argentine Forensic 

Anthropology Team to the forensic community, including perspectives 

and recommendations that have emerged from almost two decades of 

field work throughout the world. 

This paper describes the work and goals of the Argentine Forensic 

Anthropology Team (EAAF), a non-governmental, non-profit organization 

dedicated to the application of forensic sciences- mainly forensic 

anthropology and archaeology - to the investigation of human rights 

violations. 

EAAF, founded in 1984 when democracy returned to Argentina, 

was created to recover the remains of people “disappeared” by the state 

during the preceding military regime and to address the failure of state 

institutions to provide knowledge and support to families and others 

searching for their loved ones. This paper briefly describes the legal, historical, 

psychological, and technical contexts the team arose from and 

confronted upon its creation, and how these have contributed to the 

team’s methodology for working on human rights cases in Argentina and 

other parts of the world. 

At the request of local or international tribunals, human rights organizations, 

and truth commissions, the EAAF has worked in most Latin 

American countries, as well as Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe. During 

this work, EAAF has developed a systematic approach for forensic 

investigations, including extensive preliminary work, archeological 

work and laboratory analysis. Because many members of the forensic 

community are familiar with the methodologies used in archaeological 

and laboratory work, this paper focuses on the particular details of 

EAAF’s preliminary investigation, including the collection of background 

information, ante-mortem data, and information about and visits 

to reported killing and burial sites related to the case. EAAF often works 

at the invitation of local non-governmental organizations (NGO). Often 

at great risk to their members, they form an essential bridge between 

investigative bodies and witnesses, survivors and families of the victims. 

The team also advocates the central role of families of victims in the 

investigation process. Normally, after verifying that families are seeking 

a forensic investigation, EAAF involves members in the preliminary 

investigation and provide explanations of and access to forensic procedures 

and laboratory results. 

Based on our experiences working as forensic anthropologists in 

the field and for truth commissions, special commissions of inquiry and 

national and international tribunals, EAAF has observed a variety of perspectives, 

issues and problems and developed a number of suggestions 

in response to investigating violations in the context of institutional 

bodies that are established for fixed periods of time. These include 

mechanisms to continue recovery and identification processes beyond 

the mandates of commissions or tribunals, witness protection programs, 

and counseling and psychological support for persons who testify and 

for families and friends of victims and staff members before, during and 

after exhumations. EAAF also advocates direct contact between forensic 

teams and local NGOs and with relatives of victims of human rights 

violations 

Finally, this paper summarizes the main currents and future challenges 

currently confronting the EAAF. These include improving access 

to DNA analysis for human rights cases, training local teams and experts 

and the application of international forensic protocols into national 

forensic systems. 

Forensic Anthropology, Argentina, Human Rights 

H72 The Development of Forensic 

Anthropology in Chile 

Isabel Reveco*, Association for Latin American Forensic 

Anthropology, c/o EAAF, 10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

From this presentation, attendees will learn about the development 

of forensic anthropology in Chile and how the discipline has contributed 

to ongoing human rights investigations in the country. 


the development of forensic anthropology in Chile, especially in relation 

to human rights cases. 

Forensic anthropology in Chile arose in the context of systematic 

human rights violations carried out by the military dictatorship under 

Augusto Pincohet (1973-1990). The dictatorship killed more than 5000 

political prisoners and “disappeared” another 2000. 

In 1989, the Association of Relatives of Disappeared Political 

Prisoners (AFDD) invited Dr. Clyde Snow and members of the 

Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF) to serve as forensic 

experts in a case of the discovery of remains that were thought to corre- 


spond with disappeared political prisoners. During this visit to Chile, Dr. 

Snow spoke of the necessity of forming a forensic anthropology team 

independent from state organizations in order to guarantee the independence 

of scientific investigation not influenced by political pressures. 

AFDD convened a group of anthropologists and archaeologists who participated 

in the College of Anthropologists, the national association for 

this discipline. In 1990, an interdisciplinary group including anthropologists, 

archaeologists, odontologists and specialists in biochemistry 

formed the Chilean Forensic Anthropology Group (GAF) as a non-profit 

organization. Over the course of five years, this group participated in 

numerous discoveries of remains, mostly in relation to judicial investigations 

focusing on the search for and investigation of the disappeared. 

This work addressed a great void in the country with regard to human 

rights investigations. In 1994, the GAF dissolved and the Identification 

Unit of the Medical Legal System, a governmental organization under 

the Ministry of Justice, was formed. This multidisciplinary unit, staffed 

by medical doctors, odontologists, and anthropologists, is exclusively 

dedicated to the identification of disappeared political prisoners. In 

1998, the Genetic Sample Bank of Families of Disappeared Political 

Prisoners was formed, the first governmental genetic sample bank of its 

type in Latin America. The bank maintains genetic samples from families 

of the victims for safekeeping so that, when necessary, remains may 

be tested against these samples. 

Presently, more than 500 judicial investigations are underway that 

will ideally lead to the discovery of the disappeared, the identification of 

their remains and the determination of responsibility for their disappearance. 

Forensic anthropology is central to these goals. 

Forensic Anthropology, Chile, Human Rights 

H73 Forensic Anthropology in Guatemala 

Fredy Peccerelli *, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay Street, #502, 

Brooklyn, NY 11201; José Samuel Suasnavar Bolaños, Lourdes 

Penados, and Mario Vasquez, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay St #502, 


The author will introduce the forensic community to the work of 

three organizations–the Guatemalan Foundation for Forensic 

Anthropology (FAFG), the Center for Forensic Analysis and Applied 

Sciences (CAFCA), and the Exhumations Team of the Guatemalan 

Archbishop’s Office for Human Rights (ODHAG)– currently carrying 

out forensic investigations in Guatemala. 

This presentation outlines the growth and development of forensic 

anthropology in Guatemala as a response to its contemporary social needs. 

In February 2003, for the first time, forensic anthropologists from 

throughout Latin America responsible for pioneering the application of 

forensic anthropology to human rights and training in their own countries, 

and Dr. Clyde Snow, who trained and continues to support many 

participants, gathered at Austin College in Sherman, Texas. Participants 

discussed national experiences, commonalities and differences in particular 

cases and possibilities for working together to further forensic 

work in judicial investigations in Latin America. Representatives from 

three organizations currently carrying out forensic work in 

Guatemala–the Guatemalan Foundation for Forensic Anthropology 

(FAFG), the Center for Forensic Analysis and Applied Sciences 

(CAFCA), and the Exhumations Team of the Guatemalan Archbishop’s 

Office for Human Rights (ODHAG)–were present. Following this 

meeting, ALAF, the Latin American Forensic Anthropology Association 

was founded. ALAF’s founding members, including representatives of 

the three aforementioned organizations, work for non-governmental 

organizations that were trained by Dr. Clyde Snow. 

This paper presents the Guatemalan context for the emergence of 

forensic investigations of human right cases, examines the current state 

of these investigations and discusses particular perspectives, trends and 

challenges that have emerged from our work over the course of more 


than a decade. 

During the thirty-six years of internal armed conflict that 

Guatemala endured, the population was subject to many human rights 

violations. Most of these atrocities occurred in rural Mayan communities. 

The Historical Clarification Commission (CEH) reported that, as 

a result of the conflict, over 200,000 people perished or disappeared. 

Even before the Peace Accords were signed in 1996, the victims’ 

families began the search for their lost loved ones and began the struggle 

of uncovering the truth. However, Guatemala did not have organizations 

that could attend to these needs. Recognizing this pressing issue, teams 

(FAFG, ODHAG, CAFCA) were gathered and trained to carry out 

forensic anthropological investigations, with a focus on exhuming clandestine 

burials and analyzing the remains found. 

The emergence of forensic anthropological teams in Guatemala 

dedicated to the application of forensic anthropology and archaeology to 

human rights and judicial investigations was stimulated further by the 

Historical Clarification Commission’s recommendation that all cases of 

massacres and extrajudicial executions be investigated, giving back to 

the victims’ relatives the right to know the truth about what happened to 

their family members and consequently strengthening the country’s 

judicial system. 

This presentation outlines the growth and development of forensic 

anthropology in Guatemala as a response to its contemporary social 

needs. 

Guatemala, Human Rights, Forensic Anthropology 

H74 The Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team 

(EPAF) and the Memory of the Missing 

Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc*, Aldo Bolanos, Carmen Rosa Cardoza, 

Mellisa Lund, Giovani Macciotta, and Juan Carlos Tello, Peruvian 

Forensic Anthropology Team (EPAF), c/o ALAF and EAAF, 10 Jay 

Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

The author will discuss the formation and work of the Peruvian 

Forensic Anthropology Team (EPAF) and the large-scale collection of 

antemortem information on missing persons in Peru as part of the 

Memory of the Missing project. 

With this paper, the forensic community will learn about the activities 

of the Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team (EPAF) and their campaign 

for the collection of ante-mortem information of missing persons. 

Created in February 2001, the Peruvian Forensic Anthropology 

Team (EPAF), a non-governmental organization, advocates the search 

for missing persons in Peru through scientific methods of forensic 

anthropology and archaeology. Recent estimates by the Truth and 

Reconciliation Commission in Peru suggest that during the 1980s and 

90s, the worst period of political violence, some 60,000 people were 

killed and of those, some 9,000 went missing. 

It is EPAF’s view that investigations aimed at determining the 

whereabouts of missing persons should be carried out by independent 

teams not involved with the State system. This is particularly true in the 

Peruvian case, where the state institutions were involved directly or indirectly 

in the disappearance of people. 

Between 2001 and 2002, EPAF undertook five workshops at the 

national level to provide prosecutors, lawyers, human rights activists and 

archaeology students with the basic information regarding the use of 

forensic science in investigating human rights violations. In addition, 

EPAF and the Ombudsman’s Office of Peru published a manual on 

effective forensic investigations of graves containing human remains. 

During this period, EPAF was also appointed as an expert group by the 

Public Prosecutor’s Office and human rights organizations. They 

became involved in cases such as the storming in 1997 of the Japanese 

Ambassador’s residence in Lima and other cases against Vladimiro 

Montesinos and the Fujimori regime (1990-2000). While working with 

508

the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (CVR) of the Peruvian 

Government, EPAF conducted the first exhumation of missing persons 

in the Province of Ayacucho dating from 1983. In 2002, after a ninemonth 

collaboration with the Truth and Reconciliation Commission 

(CVR) and following certain conditions that compromised its independence, 

EPAF returned to work as an independent organization. 

The search for missing persons is not a forensic activity limited to 

the recovery and examination of human remains. It is rather a set of 

activities contributing to finding the remains of a missing person and 

restoring his/her identity. Paramount to the latter is the availability of 

antemortem data used to perform an individual identification. 

Considering the number of missing persons in Peru and the lack of antemortem 

records, EPAF has launched the Memory of the Missing, a 

project designed to gather antemortem information for missing persons 

as well as the details their disappearance. The combination these data 

provides information on the biological profile of the victim (age, sex, 

race, stature, handedness, individuating characteristics, dental chart) as 

well as information on the possible place where the body was disposed. 

Additional details include information about perpetrators and their 

modus operandi (Army, paramilitary groups, rebel organizations). All 

information is maintained in a specialized database that allows for 

complex searches to be performed. 

The implementation of the project and the collection of antemortem 

data empower grassroots organizations and family associations. EPAF is 

providing technical support, supervising quality control and providing 

training by means of workshops throughout the provinces worst hit by 

the violence of the 1980s and 90s. EPAF is successfully building a 

network of local and regional family associations that participate in this 

process. The urgency of this project is demonstrated by the fact that a 

large number of relatives of those who went missing in the early 80s are 

dying of old age, disease or sorrow. Therefore, if this crucial information 

is not collected immediately it may be lost forever, further diminishing 

the chances to identify the remains of missing persons. 

With this paper, the forensic community will learn about the activities 

of the Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team (EPAF) and their campaign 

for the collection of antemortem information of missing persons. 

Equipo Peruano de Antropologia Forense (EPAF), Gral. Canterac # 583- 

E, Jesus Maria, Lima-Peru. 

Peru, Forensic Anthropology, Antemortem Data 

H75 Forensic Anthropology in Colombia 

Andres Patiño* and Edixon Quinones Reyes, c/o ALAF and EAAF, 

10 Jay Street #502, Brooklyn, NY 11201 

The authors will introduce the forensic community to the current 

state of forensic anthropology investigation in Colombia. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by demonstrating 

the development of forensic anthropology in Colombia and how 

it differs from other cases in Latin America. 

In Colombia, forensic anthropology has developed as an applied 

science using tools from social anthropology, biological anthropology and 

archaeology to utilize scientific evidence in death and crime investigations. 

For over ten years, a small but growing group of anthropologists 

from different universities and government agencies has demonstrated to 

police authorities and medicolegal institutions that forensic anthropology 

is the backbone in the scientific process of determining not only identities 

from human skeletal or decomposed remains but also to provide important 

information in determining cause and manner of death. From the late 

1980s to the present, many Colombian anthropologists have worked on 

many different kinds of cases, ranging from simple crime scenes to 

complex investigations concerning human rights violations. 

In the 1980s, the sociopolitical situation, the civil conflict 

(including armed confrontation), and the lack of specialized analysis in 

some medicolegal cases contributed to an urgent need for forensic 

anthropologists. The siege of the Palace of Justice in Bogota in 1985 

that resulted in many casualties and total destruction of the building, the 

terrorist bombings in urban areas and the Armero mudslide disaster all 

contributed to this need. In the same year, the participation of physical 

anthropologists in crime investigations grew, particularly in relation to 

specific cases, including the discovery of an apparent mass grave in a 

place named Cueva de la Trementina, located in northern Colombia. 

With the Constitutional modifications in 1991, many official and 

government agencies were improved and others created, including the 

National Institute of Legal Medicine and the Attorney General’s office. 

These agencies created specialized laboratories including forensic 

anthropology facilities and began to recruit and train professional crews 

with experience in the analysis of human remains. This training was 

made possible since 1994 with support from international groups and 

agencies such as the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team (EAAF), 

the International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program of 

the US Department of Justice, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the 

Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur 

Technische Zusammenarbeit (Germany) and Universidad del Pais Vasco 

(Spain) since 1994. 

Forensic anthropology as a formal discipline was introduced in 

Colombia at the National University in 1994. Since then, this university 

has established a postgraduate course and several workshops and 

training courses to reinforce academic training in this area, not only for 

students but also for officials and medical examiners. 

Since the late 1990s, Colombia has established several forensic 

anthropology laboratories to support crime scene investigators and 

medical examiners. While in other parts of Latin America, forensic 

anthropology has grown mostly in relationship to non-governmental 

teams working in human rights. These teams are often constituted as 

nongovernmental organizations. Despite the internal conflict in 

Colombia that has also produced severe human rights violations, 

forensic anthropology has largely developed within government 

agencies. By developing within these agencies, forensic anthropologists 

have had access to a much wider range of forensic cases that included 

not only human rights cases but also mass disaster cases and more 

‘normal’ criminal cases such as individual and serial murder cases. 

Since 1997, Colombian forensic anthropologists have also worked as 

experts and advisors in other countries. 

In the near future, further modifications in the Colombian legal 

system will allow us to expand forensic anthropology’s range and to 

meet new challenges. Lawyers and prosecutors as well as government 

agencies will employ experts such as forensic anthropologists in courts. 

Theoretically, this will improve academic and professional performance, 

provide for proper investigations of deaths and the implementation of 

the rule of law. However, forensic anthropology has many methodological 

and empirical difficulties to overcome. 

Colombia, Identification, Forensic Anthropology 

H76 Postmortem and Perimortem Fracture 

Patterns in the Long Bones of Deer 

Bruce P. Wheatley, PhD*, Department of Anthropology and Social 

Work, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294-3350 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have more information 

on fracture patterns of long bones in deer to help elucidate the 

interval between perimortem and postmortem. 

Forensic anthropologists need to be cautious in their determination 

of perimortem vs. postmortem trauma. This study of deer long bones 

suggests that some of the fracture patterns utilized in making a determination 

of perimortem or postmortem trauma may not be “cut and dry.” 

If perimortem breaks have green bone response due to their greater 

moisture content and if it is possible to preserve this moisture content in 

a postmortem environment, then postmortem bone breaks may mimic 


“perimortem” breaks. 

The perimortem interval is of great interest to forensic anthropologists 

and the line separating it from postmortem trauma can be unclear, 

Maples (1986), for example, called “the perimortem interval an elastic 

interval at best and a vague concept at worst.” The moisture content of 

bone is said to be a major factor determining fracture patterns (Johnson, 

1989). So called green or “wet” bone is more flexible; it contains fresh 

marrow and has a greater energy-absorbing capacity than “dry” bone 

before failure. It has also been stated that the biomechanics of fractures 

on whole bones is rather limited (Lyman, 1994). A bone trauma experiment 

was designed to test these ideas and to provide further information 

on fracture patterns. 

There are three samples of sub-adult and adult white-tailed deer 

that were obtained from local deer processing plants and broken on Feb. 

7, 2003. Group 1: Femora and humeri from 17 animals killed on the 

15th or 16th of December, 2002. These bones were never frozen and 

they were put outside on a wooden platform on Dec. 24th for 44 days 

before they were fractured. The average low for that period was 32.5 

degrees F. and the average high was 51 degrees F. The temperature went 

below freezing on 20 days. The postmortem interval is 52-53 days. 

Group 2: Femora and humeri from 8 animals killed on Jan. 20th were 

frozen and then thawed before they were broken. The postmortem 

interval is 18 days. Group 3: Femora and humeri from 5 animals killed 

on Jan. 31st, and from 2 animals killed on Feb. 7th, and from one animal 

killed on Feb. 3rd. These bones were never frozen and the postmortem 

interval is less than one week. 

Measurements made before breakage include: total length, lateral 

and anterior-posterior width, and weight. Video of the breakage and 

photographs of the bones after breakage were recorded. A Dynatup 8250 

Drop Weight Impact Test Machine applied a compressive force weighing 

11.3 kilograms. The drop height varied and variables, such as 

load/velocity curves to impact, load to failure, time to failure, and energy 

to failure were recorded. The striking surface of the impactor is three 

inches by four inches. The proximal end of the bone was held in a vice 

and the other end was placed on a platform. The bones were cleaned 

and processed with Biz, baking soda and ammonia. 

Fracture patterns of the proximal and distal ends of the long bones 

were examined. Only one bone in the sample broke in half and the features 

of this bone were only scored once. The following features that are 

sometimes said to indicate perimortem trauma were examined (Villa and 

Mahieu, 1991). Some of these are: fracture angle on the z axis, fracture 

surface morphology, fracture outline, sharp edges, and the presence of 

fracture lines. The attribute states recorded for fracture angle are 1) 

oblique (obtuse or acute); 2) right; 3) oblique and right (mixed). 

Fracture surface or edge morphology was classified as smooth or rough. 

Fracture outline was classified as: 1) transverse, fractures are straight 

and transverse to the long axis of the bone; 2) curved, spiral or helical 

fractures, and V-shaped or pointed fractures, and 3) intermediate, fractures 

have a straight or single plane morphology but are diagonal, and 

fractures with a stepped outline. Fractures on or near epiphyses were not 

considered. Fracture edges were classified as sharp or right angle and 

fracture lines were recorded as present or absent. 

The results are as follows. In regards to the first feature, Group 1) 

bones exhibited 2 oblique fracture angles, 24 right angles and 6 mixed. 

Group 2) bones exhibited 3 oblique angles, 7 right angles and 6 mixed 

and Group 3) exhibited 9 oblique angles, 3 right angles, and 4 mixed 

angles. The fracture surface morphology of all three groups was rough. 

While some bones had a fine surface they also had uneven surfaces with 

crests and waves. In regards to fracture outline, Group 1) bones had 9 

transverse, 7 curved, and 16 intermediate outlines. Group 2) bones had 

5 transverse, 5 curved, and 5 intermediate outlines and Group 3) had 1 

transverse, 15 curved, and 0 intermediate outlines. In regards to fracture 

edges, all 17 of the Group 1) bones had some sharp edges while 12 of 

the bones had some right angles. Eight of the Group 2) bones had some 

sharp edges and 6 of them had some right angles. All of the Group 3) 


bones had some sharp edges and 5 of them had some right angles. 

Fracture lines were present on 8 of the Group 1) bones and absent on 9 

of them. Five of the Group 2) bones have fracture lines and 3 do not and 

all of the Group 3) bones have fracture lines. 

The determination of perimortem or postmortem trauma is difficult 

based on the fracture patterns of deer long bones examined in this study. 

Some of the bones fractured almost two months after death exhibit patterns 

that are sometimes said to indicate perimortem trauma. These patterns 

are: oblique angles, curved or helical fracture outlines, sharp edges, 

and fracture lines. Further study of fracture patterns and their depositional 

environment is necessary. 

Johnson E. Human-modified bones from a Paleo Indian site in the 

Aucilla River, North Florida. In: Bonnichsen R, Sorg M, editors. Bone 

modification. Maine: Institute for Quaternary Studies, 1989:431-471. 

Lyman RL. Vertebrate Taphonomy. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge, 1994. 

Maples WR. Trauma analysis by the forensic anthropologist. In: Reichs 

KJ, editor. Forensic Osteology. Springfield: CC Thomas, 1986; 

218-228. 

Villa P, Mahieu E. Breakage patterns of human longbones. Journal of 

Human Evolution 1991; 21:27-48. 

Deer Long Bones, Postmortem Fracture Patterns, Perimortem 


H77 Healing Following Cranial Trauma 

Lenore Barbian, PhD*, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National Museum of 

Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 6825 16th 

Street NW, Washington, DC 20306-6000 


macroscopically observable osseous changes related to cranial healing 

for an historic skeletal sample with known time since injury. 


importance and can contribute significant information on cause and 

timing of death. Perhaps the most difficult task faced by the forensic 

anthropologist is in regard to fracture timing and distinguishing between 

perimortem and antemortem fractures. This study supports that many 

factors, both internal and external, promote or retard the fracture healing 

process. Even with numerous interacting components, some generalizations 

regarding fracture healing can be made. In calculating time elapsed 

since trauma, one can provide a minimal response time only, knowing 

that it takes at least a certain number of days for a response to occur. 

Some individuals will respond more slowly, but due to the physiology 

and pathophysiology of bone remodeling, individuals cannot respond 

more quickly. 


importance and can contribute significant information on cause and 

timing of death. Perhaps the most difficult task faced by the forensic 

anthropologist is in regard to fracture timing and distinguishing between 

perimortem and antemortem fractures. With the right sample, it is possible 

to be more definitive in estimating the time elapsed since injury in 

the cranium. This paper reports on the gross appearance of the initial 

osseous response following perforating and penetrating gunshot wounds 

and the course of this bony response over time. 

The Civil War skeletal collection at the National Museum of Health 

and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, contains nearly 

2,000 skeletal specimens showing disease and trauma. Detailed reports 

by physicians exist with significant case history information regarding 

the nature of the injury, time elapsed from insult to recovery or death, 

and the methods of medical treatment. From this collection, a total of 

134 crania, calvariae, and cranial sections were analyzed for evidence of 

bony response following fracture. Each specimen was examined and 

scored for the presence or absence of four types of bone response: 

510

osteoblastic response, osteoclastic response, line of demarcation, and 

sequestration around the site of fracture. Osteoblastic response was 

defined as the deposition of subperiosteal new bone typically seen in a 

periosteal reaction. Osteoclastic response was defined as areas of pitting 

affecting the existing cortical bone and occasionally exposing the diploë. 

A line of demarcation was seen as an “etched” line running adjacent to 

the fracture margin, appearing as a shallow depression or canal with 

sharp margins. Sequestration was noted when a segment of the bone was 

becoming necrosed and detached. 

The patterns of osteoclastic and osteoblastic response to cranial 

fracture are similar. In general during the first week post-fracture, no 

blastic or clastic response was noted. Following this latent period, there 

is increasing incidence of expression, and by the sixth week postfracture 

both osteoclastic and osteoblastic activity were scored for 100% 

of the sample. While this pattern appears to be straightforward, interpretation 

of the expression of the line of demarcation and sequestration 

are more difficult. The observations suggest that the line of demarcation 

establishes the boundary between the living bone and bone which will 

not survive the fracture due to a disruption in its blood supply. The 

resorption or exfoliation of the sequestrum appears to be a long-term 

event as sequestration is scored as present in the sample well past the 

eighth- week of healing. 

In the specimens used in this study, the role of infection must be 

considered. During the U.S. Civil War nearly 100% of soldiers who survived 

gunshot injuries suffered from infection, and there is evidence that 

two of the osseous responses scored are most likely due to infection. In 

a 1946 study of cranial in adult rats, Pritchard observed that infection 

will cause widespread new bone formation under the periosteum of the 

skull. Similar response was observed in the Civil War sample with the 

formation of subperiosteal new bone formation at distances greater than 

5 cm from the fracture margin. In addition, sequestration is rare when 

pyogenic infection is not present. Yet, sequestration was scored as 

present in over eight percent of all observations and in nearly twenty 

percent of the observations occurring after the third week post-fracture. 

Many factors, both internal and external, promote or retard the 

fracture healing process. Even with numerous interacting components, 

some generalizations regarding fracture healing can be made. In calculating 

time elapsed since trauma, one can provide a minimal response 

time only, knowing that it takes at least a certain number of days for a 

response to occur. Some individuals will respond more slowly, but due 

to the physiology and pathophysiology of bone remodeling, individuals 

cannot respond more quickly. 

Cranial Fracture, Trauma Healing, Time Since Injury 

H78 Burning Observations of Decomposed 

Human Remains: Obscuring the 



Fayetteville, AR 72701; O’Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic 

Center, University of Tennessee, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, 

TN 38104 

After attending this presentation, attendees will be able to: 

1) identify effects of heat to early, middle, and advanced stages of 

decomposing soft tissue; 2) compare and contrast features of the 

pugilistic posture between fresh and decomposed remains; 3) demonstrate 

characteristics used for recognizing burned remains of a decomposed 

body; and 4) define the hallmark decomposition stage when the 

pugilistic posture is compromised by degenerative tissue changes. 

This presentation will define similarities and differences in how 

decomposed remains burn in an attempt to cremate human remains after 

death. Additionally, it will demonstrate how burning obscures the postmortem 

interval and why caution should be used when dealing with 

cases of intentional criminal incineration of human remains. 

Intentional burning of human remains is often a secondary process 

done to obliterate physical evidence, personal identification, or evidence 

of trauma. Prolonged disposal may result from temporarily abandoning 

or purposely storing remains. This belated decision to destroy corporeal 

evidence by fire after days or months may also involve intentional 

removal to a location unassociated with the original crime scene. 

Complicating the investigation is the task of estimating the postmortem 

interval from decomposed and burned remains. Unless remains have 

been frozen or left in a cool environment they will experience some level 

of tissue breakdown from autolysis and decomposition processes. If the 

decision to incinerate remains takes days or weeks, then it is important 

to know if and how burning decomposed tissues produce discernible 

deviations from the expected burn patterns of fresher tissues. Currently 

only speculation exists regarding the effects burning on decomposed 

remains and its impact on the pugilistic posture, burn patterns to soft 

tissue and bone, and the signature differentiating immediate postmortem 

burning from delayed attempts to later destroy the body. 

In an effort to better understand this process, burning simulations 

were conducted using portions of unembalmed human bodies from 

anatomical gift donations which were preserved as frozen specimens 

until removal for designated exposure times. For multiple studies 

cadaver materials were segregated into general anatomical groups 

according to type: heads, arms, and legs. At week long intervals specimens 

from each anatomical group were individually thawed and placed 

in plastic bins. The specimens were then left to decompose during the 

months of June and July with average daily temperatures ranging from 

70-95 degrees F. The redundancy in the protocol created known times 

of postmortem environmental exposure and produced a reasonable range 

of early, middle, and late stages of decomposition. 

After a representative range of decomposed material was generated 

for each anatomical group, each specimen was prepared for the burning 

process. Prior to burning, specimens were seriated according to intervals 

of decomposition (earliest to advanced stages), photographed, and had 

muscle tissue removed for histological analysis. Specimens were then separated 

and placed within the context of a low temperature radiant heat fire 

for photographic documentation of the burning sequence. Limbs of arms 

and legs were laid in fully extended positions to document changes in progressively 

decomposed tissues from the expected pugilistic posture. 

Photographic intervals captured variations in the rate and amount of muscular 

response to the effects of burning for each decompositional stage. 

An independent series of specimens was allowed to progress to an 

advanced stage of decomposition to observe differences from the actions 

of anthrophagic insect activity, mummification, and features of preexisting 

trauma. One set of remains was allowed limited open access to 

insects to simulate exposed outdoor conditions. Another set was completely 

restricted by plastic and placed within a warm indoor environment 

to simulate secondary storage within an attic or shed. A third set 

was partially mummified in a dry indoor setting. Pre-existing ballistic 

trauma was created in a final set prior to decomposition and burning for 

the purpose of pattern analysis of soft tissue and bone. 

This study relates the effects of heat to generalized decomposition 

stages and avoids specific time since death estimates due to regional climatic 

variations. Overall, morphological changes in early decomposing 

specimens were difficult to differentiate from the freshest control 

samples. During advanced stages of burning, middle to late stages of 

decomposition was indistinguishable from early stage specimens in 

terms of their ability to attain the pugilistic posture. 

A photographic essay illustrating progressive stages of burning for 

decomposing tissue stages will be presented. In addition, information 

concerning the influences of alternative taphonomic conditions and the 

effects of preexisting trauma will be presented. This information will 

demonstrate how burning obscures the postmortem interval and interpretations 

of it should be approached with caution when dealing with 

cases of intentional criminal incineration of human remains. 


Fire Investigation, Decomposition, Burned Bone 

H79 Experimental Study of Fracture 

Propagation in the Human Skull: 

A Re-Testing of Popular Theories 

Anne M. Kroman, MA*, University of Tennessee, Department of 


This presentation outlines the results of a study examining fracture 

propagation in the human skull and demonstrates the biomechanical 

forces behind blunt force trauma. 

This research will impact the forensic community by demonstrating 

that highly regarded and cited fracture pattern theories regarding blunt 

force trauma and the human skull are incorrect and unsupported by 

experimental testing. 

Trauma analysis is an ever growing area of forensic anthropology. 

In many cases, accurate interpretation of fractures in bone may be the 

only objective means of determining cause and manner of death 

(Berryman and Symes 1998). Postmortem trauma assessment is an 

essential tool for identifying the location of impact sites, sequencing 

blows, and establishing the characteristics of the object responsible for 

injury (Berryman and Symes 1998). In anthropological trauma analysis, 

one of the most complicated and confusing areas is blunt force trauma. 

One of the key researchers to contribute to area of blunt force 

trauma interpretation was E.S. Gurdjian. Gurdjian and colleagues conducted 

research on cranial fractures, and extensively published on the 

topic. Today his work is still considered a standard reference for the 

fields of forensic anthropology and forensic pathology. However, recent 

evaluation of his predictions of fracture propagation patterns in the skull 

has led to questioning. 

The theories of Gurdjian and colleagues (1945, 1947, 1950a, 

1950b) describe how the cranial vault responds to blunt force impact. 

They state that when the cranium is impacted, an area of inbending is 

created at the point of force application, with an area of outbending 

occurring in other remote areas of the skull. Fracture propagation then 

begins in these areas of outbending (even on the opposite side of the 

cranium), then radiate back towards the point of impact, sometimes 

never reaching it (1947, 1950a, 1950b). This notion that fracture initiation 

begins away from the point of impact is heavily cited in both 

anthropology and pathology (Berryman and Symes 1998, Galloway 

1999, DiMaio and DiMaio 2001, Knight 1996), and has led anthropologist 

to identify points of impact in locations other than the central area 

of fractures. Recent sentiments among practicing forensic anthropologists 

and pathologists working in the area of trauma analysis have 

expressed a strong concern that Gurdjian’s theories are leading anthropologists 

astray (Symes 1989). Observed cases of blunt force trauma 

indicate that fracture initiation begins at the point of impact, not at a 

location remote to it. The conflicting opinions regarding the theories of 

Gurdjian and fracture propagation in the skull, has led to the need for 


Most of the current bone trauma research is taken from forensic 

specimens that are examined in a postmortem setting. While this type of 

research is crucial to the field, it is always after the fact. This study 

attempted to evaluate the theories of Gurdjian in a controlled, experimental 

setting. A study design was developed that would utilize new 

technology in the fields of industrial and biomedical engineering, while 

keeping with the needs of anthropology. Because of the unique biomechanical 

properties of the human skull, it was decided that a non-human 

substitute was not an option. Instead, five fully fleshed, un-embalmed 

cadaver heads were used. An engineering drop tower system was constructed 

to delivered calibrated, fully monitored blows to the left parietal 

region in each specimen. Five data acquisition load cells monitored the 

biomechanical response of the skulls for compressive and shear stress in 

the X, Y, and Z moments in millisecond intervals. With the data from the 

load cells, the forces through out the impact and fracture propagation 


were charted and analyzed. To help solve the question of how and where 

fracture propagation occurs in relation to the point of impact, a high 

speed film system was also designed. By filming at a speed faster than 

the fracture can travel through bone, it allowed the entire fracture event 

to be viewed and analyzed. After testing, each specimen was examined, 

with fractures charted and photographed. The experimental design 

allowed for complete monitoring throughout the impact event, and provided 

extensive data on how the cranium responds to blunt force trauma 

and fracture occur. The high speed filming allowed for the fractures to 

be observed as they traveled. The data from the test specimens was then 

compared to the original results from the Gurdjian studies and to known 

blunt trauma forensic cases. 

The results from data analysis, high speed film, and examination of 

fracture patterns in the test subjects clearly show that fracture propagation 

initiates at the point of impact in the skull, then radiates out. High 

speed film clearly captured the fractures traveling from the point of 

impact in the parietal, posterior to the occipital. No fractures were 

observed to originate in locations other than the point of impact. These 

results are contrary to the theories of Gurdjian and colleagues, and substantiate 

recent claims from practicing forensic anthropologists and 

pathologists. 

Berryman HE, Symes SA. Recognizing gunshot and blunt cranial 

trauma through fracture interpretation. In: Reichs KJ, editor. Forensic 

Osteology: Advances in the identification of human remains. Illinois: 

Charles C. Thomas, 1998 

DiMaio VJ, DiMaio D. Forensic pathology. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, CRC 

Press, 2001 

Galloway A. Fracture patterns and skeletal morphology: introduction 

and the skull. In: Galloway A, editor. Broken Bones. Springfeild, IL: 

Charles C. Thomas, 1998 

Gurdjian ES. Impact head injury, mechanism, clinical and preventive 

correlations. Springfeild, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1975 

Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR. Deformation of the skull in head injury: a 

study with the “stresscoat” technique. Surgery, Gynecology, and 

Obstetrics 1945;81:679-687. 

Gurdjian ES, Lissner HR, Webster JE. The mechanism of production of 

linear skull fractures. Surgery,Gynecology, and Obstetrics 1947; 

85:195-210. 

Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. Studies on skull fracture with 

particular reference to engineering factors. American Journal of Surgery 

1949;78: 736-742. 

Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. The mechanism of skull fracture. 

Journal of Neurosurgery 1950a;106-114. 

Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. The mechanism of skull fracture. 

Radiology 1950b;54:313-338. 

Gurdjian ES, Webster JE, Lissner HR. Observations on prediction of 

fracture site in head injury. Radiology 1953;60:226-235. 

Knight B. Forensic Pathology, 2nd ed. London: Arnold, 1996 

Symes SA, Berrryman HE, Smith OC. The changing role of the forensic 

anthropologist: pattern and mechanism of fracture production. Lecture 

presented at Mountain, Swamp, and Beach meeting of practicing 

forensic anthropologists. Gatlinburg, TN, 1989. 

Blunt Force Trauma, Fracture Patterning, Gurdjian 

H80 The Use of Non-Unique Dental 

Characters and Non-Unique DNA 

Types to Estimate Probability of Identity 

Mark D. Leney, PhD* and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, U.S. Army Central 

Identification Laboratory, HI, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853 

This presentation will address issues regarding human identification. 

In particular, the attendee will learn how to statistically evaluate 

512

non-unique characteristics as part of the identificaiton process. 

Specifically, dental treatment and mitochondrial DNA will be addressed. 

Case examples will be provided. 

Forensic identifications using unique dental characteristics, such as 

those seen in most antemortem dental radiographs, generally allow the 

establishment of the identity of a decedent beyond doubt. Similarly, 

nuclear DNA profiles generated from recent or well-preserved human 

remains can also serve to establish identity without the need for 

extensive supporting evidence; it is generally claimed that the probability 

of a random match to a STR profile using the 13 CODIS loci is less 

than one in a trillion (Holt et al 2000). 

In casework seeking to identify unaccounted for US military personnel, 

the Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) usually 

encounters putative identifications where the biological remains are too 

old or degraded to produce reliable STR profiles under currently validated 

technologies. Also, suitable references for nuclear DNA comparisons 

may not be available. Regarding dental comparison, the antemortem 

treatment records associated with many of the CILHI cases lack 

dental radiographs. For these reasons, the CILHI commonly has to rely 

on other lines of evidence for comparison with an unidentified set of 

remains. One source includes antemortem narrative dental treatment 

records (or odontograms) that are part of an individual’s medical history. 

Another avenue is the comparison of mitochondrial DNA family reference 

sequences for missing servicemen with evidence sequences 

obtained from the unidentified remains. 

A consistent pattern of extraction and restoration between unidentified 

dental remains and an antemortem narrative dental record does not 

establish a positive identity. Similarly, mitochondrial DNA sequence 

matches cannot be used to establish a positive identification as many 

individuals within the population at large can share the same mitochondrial 

DNA type. Nevertheless, the recent publication of population databases 

for these two types of evidence allows the ready estimation of the 

probability of the evidence matching an individual at random (Adams 

2003; Monson et al, 2002). The mitochondrial DNA evidence and the 

dental evidence can be considered as independent of each other and, 

therefore, the respective probability inferences can be combined using 

the product rule. The resulting random match probability provides an 

explicit quantification of the certainty with which an identity can be 

determined on the basis of the combined evidence (i.e., the probability 

of identity). Examples from casework will be presented to illustrate the 

utility of this approach in the identification process. 

Forensic Odontology, Mitochondrial DNA, CILHI 

H81 Reassociating Commingled Remains 

Separated by Distance and Time: 

The Tale of Simon And Steven 

Debra A. Komar, PhD*, Office of the Medical Investigator, University 

of New Mexico, MSC11 6030, Albuquerque, NM 

After attending this presentation, the attendees should understand 

the difficulty of reassociating human remains separated by great distances 

and time and crossing law enforcement jurisdiction boundaries. 

Also, the role seasonally controlled irrigation systems can play in the 

transport of human remains. 

This case involves two men, three counties, five months, seven law 

enforcement jurisdictions and the reassociation of remains separated by 

over 60 miles. 

On July 10, 2002, Steven, a 55-year-old Native American male, was 

released from the Santa Fe County Adult Detention Center in northern 

New Mexico. He is reported to have met with Simon, a 31-year-old 

Native American male. The two men were known associates and longtime 

drinking companions. Both men were residents of the San Felipe 

Pueblo in Sandoval County. Although family and friends reported phone 

calls or sightings of the men shortly thereafter, the whereabouts of the 

two men became unclear and they were subsequently reported missing 

to the Bureau of Indian affairs. Their disappearances were believed 

linked. 

On October 12, 2002, a decomposed human torso was discovered 

in an irrigation ditch in Bernalillo County in the town of Corralles. The 

remains had been reported to law enforcement 10 days prior but had 

been dismissed as animal remains despite the presence of clothing. 

Subsequent searches revealed isolated bones scattered over six miles of 

the irrigation system. Problems in communication among law 

enforcement jurisdictions excluded Steven and Simon from the missing 

persons list. The remains were retained, unidentified, for several months 

by the medical examiner. 

On November 29, 2002, a maintenance man working at the Ranch 

Viejo subdivision sewage treatment plant in Santa Fe County noticed his 

dog playing with a round object and investigated. The object was a 

defleshed human skull. The field deputy medical investigator and law 

enforcement on scene initially determined the skull to be that of a 

female. A thorough anthropologic analysis correctly identified the sex 

and age of the individual and the skull was subsequently identified as 

belonging to Steven. The skull was recovered 25 miles from the 

Detention Center (the last confirmed sighting of Steven) and more than 

47 miles from the San Felipe Pueblo (where the two men were reported 

missing). 

On December 19, 2002, an employee of the Rio Grande 

Conservancy was monitoring the irrigation system in Bernalillo County 

when he discovered a human skull trapped below one of the control 

gates. Searches of the irrigation canals and surrounding area produced 

no additional remains. The skull was identified as belonging to Simon. 

Simon’s skull was recovered 57 miles from Steven’s skull and 12 miles 

from the Pueblo where he was last seen. A medical examiner’s deputy 

investigator recalled the headless torso recovered from the same irrigation 

system two months prior and suggested the postcranial remains 

may also belong to Simon. Comparisons of antemortem x-rays excluded 

Simon but examination of multiple AM radiographs confirmed the 

remains as belonging to Steven. The distance between the recovery sites 

for Steven’s skull and his postcranial remains was more than 66 miles. 

The cause and manner of death for both men remains undetermined. 

This case addresses several important issues: 1) the recognition of 

irrigation systems as significant vectors of transport; 2) the need for an 

anthropological consult at the scene; 3) the value of retaining partial, 

unidentified remains; and 4) problems inherent in cases crossing law 

enforcement jurisdictions. 

Most importantly, this case illustrates the need to reexamine current 

protocols regarding identifications generated by partial remains. Present 

standard operating procedures call for the removal of an identified individual 

from the missing persons list, even in cases where a significant 

portion of the remains are absent. Matching elements discovered prior 

or subsequent to the identification relies solely on the recall of investigators. 

Remains separated by unusual distances, large expanses of time 

or jurisdiction boundaries are unlikely to be reassociated. 

Physical Anthropology, Identification, Taphonomy 

H82 Temporomandibular Joint Morphology 

and the Assessment of Potential 

Commingling 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Lehman College, CUNY, Department of 

Anthropology, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard West, Bronx, NY 10468 

After attending this presentation, the participant will understand the 

morphology of the temporomandibular joint and the correlation of osteometric 

variables of articulating structures of the cranium and mandible. 


The utility of correlated osteometric variables of articulating structures 

of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in the association of disarticulated 

human remains or the identification of commingled remains will be 

demonstrated. 

This paper has two objectives:1) to document the correlation 

between measurements of adjacent articular surfaces and structures, 

specifically of the temporomandibular articulation, and 2) to demonstrate 

the utility of correlated osteometric variables of articulating structures 

of the temporomandibular joint in the identification and association 

of disarticulated human remains, even when portions of the cranium or 

mandible are missing or damaged. 

Background: In many forensic and archaeological contexts, an individual’s 

remains may become scattered or commingled. Often, the 

forensic anthropologist is called upon to address the concerns of 

minimum numbers of individuals and the association of elements of a 

single individual. In those cases of disassociation, the relationship of the 

cranium to the mandible may be uncertain. When attempting to associate 

a cranium and mandible, several features are often observed which 

could indicate that separate elements are from the same individual: 1) 

proper occlusion of the maxillary and mandibular dentition, 2) close 

fitting articulation of both mandibular condyles into the glenoid fossae, 

and 3) overall similar physical appearance due to postmortem taphonomic 

activity. However, these assessments can not be made if the 

cranium and/or mandible have been damaged due to perimortem/postmortem 

trauma and scavenging damage resulting in the loss of dentition 

and/or skeletal structures. Differential weathering of skeletal elements 

can also confound the association efforts. 

These confounding factors were manifested in a recent forensic 

case. Skeletal remains were discovered in the Muttontown Preserve, 

Long Island, New York, on November 10, 2001. The initial anthropological 

examination indicated extensive weathering and rodent gnawing 

on the cranium which resulted in the loss of the majority of the maxilla, 

maxillary dentition, the malars, zygomatic arches, glenoid fossae and 

articular eminences, mastoid processes and other cranial structures. The 

cranium and mandible also displayed differential weathering. The first 

anthropologists to examine the remains stated in their report that, “The 

bicondylar breadth formed by the mandibular condyles does not correspond 

to the breadth of the tempomandibular fossae indicating at least 

the possibility that the basicranium and mandible represent two individuals.” 

They further state, “The best explanation for the poor fit of the 

mandible to the basicranium is that the mandible and skull have 

undergone considerable postmortem distortion caused by weathering 

and other factors.” An anthropological reexamination was conducted on 

the skeletal remains on May 19, 2003. The reexamination revealed that 

the first anthropologists failed to take into account the extent of damage 

to the glenoid fossae produced by the rodent gnawing. If one were to 

extrapolate the original size and breadth of the glenoid fossae, the 

mandibular condyles would articulate quite well with the calvarium. 

The remaining portions of the glenoid fossae articulated well with the 

mandibular condyles. There was no evidence of warping or postmortem 

distortion of the mandible or calvarium due to weathering. These visual 

assessments raised two questions: 1) How much of the glenoid fossae 

and articular eminences had been removed due to rodent gnawing?, and 

2) How consistent were the visual assessments/interpretations with the 

actual TMJ morphology? 

This investigation is designed to determine the degree to which 

metric measurements of articulating TMJ structures of the cranium and 

mandible are correlated, and determine if a cranium and mandible can be 

associated through morphometric analysis. The study sample comprised 

47 individuals form the American Museum of Natural History, New 

York; seven individuals from the documented anatomy collection with 


know age, sex and race, and 40 individuals from the Heidenheim 

Cemetery, Wurtenberg, Germany Collection. Fourteen measurements of 

the cranium and mandible were taken, measurements that were most 

likely to reflect joint congruence of the TMJ. These measurements document 

the morphology of the glenoid fossae, articular eminences, and 

mandibular condyles. All measurements were taken with a sliding and 

spreading caliper to the nearest 0.1 mm. A correlation analysis technique 

was utilized to investigate the relationship between the measurements of 

the bony structures of the TMJ. As expected, strong correlations exist 

between cranial measurements, mandibular measurements, and between 

the cranial and mandibular measurements of the bony structures of the 

TMJ. Of particular interest are the correlations between Biglenoid 

Breadth (BGB) and Biendoglenoid Breadth (BEB) (0.86707), and 

Biarticular Breadth (BAB) and Bicondylar Neck Breadth (BCN) 

(0.81645). These strong correlations indicate that individual cranial and 

mandibular variables could be utilized in regression analyses to predict 

missing or damaged variables. A test of their potential predictive value 

was made utilizing the forensic case discussed above. 

Due to extensive rodent gnawing of the cranium, several measurements 

of the cranium and TMJ could not be taken with the exception of 

Biendoglenoid Breadth (BEB). All measurements of the mandible could 

be made. A regression analysis was conducted to predict Biglenoid 

Breadth (BGB) from Biendoglenoid Breadth (BEB), which resulted in a 

predicted breadth of 113.85mm. A regression analysis was conducted to 

predict Biarticular Breadth (BAB) from Bicondylar Neck Breadth 

(BCN), which resulted in a predicted breadth of 114.14mm. Biglenoid 

Breadth (BGB) and Bicondylar Breadth (BIC) were strongly correlated 

(0.82264), and possessed an average difference (BGB - BIC) of 3.7mm. 

The observed BIC measurement of 110mm and the predicted BGB and 

BAB measurements of 113.85 and 114.14 respectively clearly indicate 

that the mandibular condyles would have articulated completely with the 

original glenoid fossae and articular eminences. 

Conclusions: When presented with disassociated or commingled 

skeletal remains, it is necessary for the forensic anthropologist to accurately 

reallocate those remains to specific individuals. Instigated by a 

recent forensic case involving a possible commingled cranium and 

mandible, this project investigated the congruence of the temporomandibular 

joint articulation and assessed the possibility of predicting 

the morphology of the missing skeletal element from the morphology of 

the adjacent skeletal element present. This research has proven the 

utility of articulation congruence in the prediction of missing element 

morphology and measurements of the TMJ, and illustrated the potential 

for allocation of disassociated skeletal elements. This research has also 

supported the visual assessments and interpretations made on the 

forensic case discussed above; that the cranium and mandible were from 

the same individual and that there was no evidence of warping or postmortem 

distortion of the mandible or calvarium due to weathering. 

Cranial and Mandibular Measurement 

Measurement Definition 

BGB Biglenoid Breadth; Distance across the most lateral 

extension of the glenoid fossae 

BAB Biarticular Breadth; Distance across the most 

lateral extension of the articular eminences 

BEB Biendoglenoid Breadth; Distance between the left 

and right endoglenoid processes 

BIC Bicondylar Breadth 

BCN Bicondylar Neck Breadth 

Temporomandibular Joint, Skeletal Element Association, 


514

H83 Using GIS Technology to Locate 

Clandestine Human Remains 

Ann Marie W. Mires, PhD*, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 720 

Albany Street, Boston, MA 02118; Alberto Giordano, PhD, Department 

of Geography, University of Texas, Austin, TX 77005 

Attendees will learn the application of geographical information 

systems (GIS) technology to locating and predicting the location of clandestine 


This study provides law enforcement and medical examiner personnel 

with a model and predictive tools to reopen “cold” cases where no 

remains were located and allow them the opportunity to re-examine and 

search for these remains. 

GIS technology has contributed spatial analysis to the fields of geography, 

archeology, and epidemiology. Forensic anthropology can benefit 

greatly by the application of GIS to the location of clandestine human 

remains and to the mapping of missing and/or unidentified individuals to 

yield spatial patterns in the data. This paper presents two applications of 

GIS data to the location and mapping of clandestine human remains. 

The first case study involved the use of GIS to locate scattered human 

remains. An article of clothing was discovered in a wooded area. The 

clothing matched an item belonging to a missing person who had been 

missing for three years. A grid matrix was overlain onto a 35 acre plot of 

land in a rugged hillside terrain. Grid lines were laid out and trained State 

Police searchers (Special Emergency Response Teams) were employed to 

cover, in “arm-to-arm” search style, 100% of the wooded terrain. The 

location of each article of evidence and any skeletal elements were added 

to the grid matrix using global positioning system (GPS) instruments. As 

more items were located, the resulting map began to indicate directionally, 

the source of the skeletal remains, which had been scattered over the 

hillside by a scavenging carnivore. After a period of three weeks, over 50 

acres were covered and the site where the body had initially been 

deposited on the surface was located. The location of the original “drop” 

site allowed crime scene specialists to process the site for trace evidence 

allowing for the potential of linking the crime to a potential suspect. 

Approximately 40% of the individual was recovered using this location 

technique and 100% of the grid area was covered. 

The second case study involved applying this location and recovery 

technique to cases of unidentified skeletal remains and missing individuals 

from the last twenty years in Massachusetts. The locations of unidentified 

clandestine remains were mapped using GIS and compared to sites where 

human material was recovered and identified. These data were analyzed 

using demographic and spatial variables including geographical landmarks, 

distance to roads, indoors vs. outdoors, buried vs. surface, etc. 

Interesting patterns in the data emerged that may be useful predictors in 

“cold” cases. Utilizing trends from previous scenes, a predictive model 

was developed that missing and abducted individuals could potentially 

have been deposited within a 5 mile radius of their abduction. Using the 

abduction site as the center, a five-mile radius was circumscribed and the 

following sequence of questions was applied: 1) Did the original search 

cover all of the localities presented in the five mile radius?; 2) What topographic 

landmarks exist within the 5 mile grid area and are these likely to 

have been areas where a body was deposited? and; 3) Reopen the “cold” 

case and implement a 100% grid search of all likely areas within the five 

mile radius, with special attention to surface scatters of skeletal material, 

material evidence, soil and ground disturbances, areas of subsidence, and 

construction that may have occurred in the intervening years. 

This type of modeling has allowed researchers to revisit “cold” cases 

and apply these systematic testing techniques to ascertain if the original 

deposit of human remains was somehow missed or overlooked by 

searchers. 

Geographical Information Systems, Clandestine Human Remains, 

Modelling 

H84 Anthropological Review of Remains 

From Srebrenica as Part of the 

Identification Process 

Piotr Drukier, MSc*, Eva Klonowski, PhD, Laura Yazedjian, Rifat 

Kesetovic, and Edwin F. Huffine, MS, International Commission on 

Missing Persons, Alipashina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

This paper presents the procedures established by the International 

Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) during anthropological review 

of Srebrenica remains as a part of large scale, DNA supported identification 

process. This unique approach to the problem of highly commingled 

remains may also be helpful in establishing standard procedures 

for resolving similar occurrences of mass identification in other post 

conflict areas. 

This paper impacts the forensic community by combining an 

anthropological review and DNA testing results to produce accurate 

identifications and to reassociate skeletal remains. 

During exhumations in the Podrinje area (eastern Bosnia and 

Herzegovina), led by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former 

Yugoslavia (ICTY) from 1996 to 2001 and the Bosniak Commission on 

Tracing Missing Persons from 1996 until the present, more than 6,000 

cases were collected from surface and exhumed from single, multiple 

and mass graves (primary and secondary) that related to fall of UN 

Safety Zone of Srebrenica on July 11th, 1995. Due to number of missing 

persons coupled with the conditions of the recovered bodies, classical 

anthropological methods were not of great use in producing significant 

numbers of identifications. Therefore a DNA supported identification 

program was created in order to help resolution to families of missing 

persons. 

The large-scale, DNA identification process of Srebrenica victims 

operated by the International Commission on Missing Persons at the 

Podrinje Identification Project required establishing and using new and 

specific anthropological procedures. Due to history of Srebrenica 

graves, the majority of cases exhumed in area of Podrinje represent 

highly commingled and very often incomplete remains. The majority of 

exhumed cases had already been examined by anthropologists and an 

autopsy performed by pathologists. However, in order to help ensure that 

not only as complete a set of remains as possible were returned to the 

family, but also that each set of skeletal remains consisted of only one 

individual, additional anthropological review procedures were established. 

The role of the forensic anthropologist in the process of identification 

was not limited to estimating sex, age at death, stature and 

defining antemortem trauma. It also required creating new types of 

“visual” body inventories during examinations and reassociating commingled 

remains. Furthermore, a system of exchanging information 

among DNA laboratories, morgue and forensic examination officials on 

the status of additional DNA samples collected from the remains, and the 

results of anthropological review for antemortem and postmortem comparison 

helped produce a highly efficient system for both reassociation 

and identification. 

Commingling, Reassociation, Forensic Anthropology, Human 



H85 Exhumation... and What After? 

ICMP Model in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Eva Klonowski, PhD*, Piotr Drukier, MSc, and Nermin Sarajlic, MD, MSc, 

International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipashina 45a, 71000 

Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

This paper introduces a model for the entire process of exhumation, 

examination and identification in Bosnia and Herzegovina conducted by 

local authorities in cooperation with the International Commission on 

Missing Persons (ICMP). Since 2001 more than 2500 DNA supported 

identifications have been completed. 

ICMP anthropologists are active participants in the exhumation, 

examination, reassociation, and review of remains for comparison of 

antemortem and postmortem data, as well as assisting families during 

the identification process. 

In the second part of last century, armed conflicts around the world 

have taken the lives of millions of civilians. Among the countries 

impacted by these events are Argentina, Guatemala, Rwanda, the former 

Yugoslavia, and, recently, Afghanistan and Iraq. In some of these 

countries people were killed or “disappeared” because of their political 

views. Others were victims of ethnic cleansing. The problem of 

prosecuting the perpetrators of these crimes on the basis of recovered 

evidence and identified victims attracted many scientists and organizations 

involved in human rights issues. 

The first exhumations for the purpose of collecting evidence for 

genocide took place in late 1990s in Rwanda, Croatia, and in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina by UN Crime Tribunals. The first exhumations for the purposes 

of victim identification began in Argentina and Guatemala in 

1980s. Unfortunately, these exhumations were not done in continuous 

way nor conducted under the auspices of local authorities. 

The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina took the lives of more 250,000 

people. Many were killed during ethnic cleansing actions in the 

beginning of war in 1992, throughout 1993, and after the fall of 

Srebrenica in July 1995. After the war ended in December 1995, about 

30,000 persons were unaccounted for and listed as missing. The first 

exhumation in BiH occurred in October 1995, and was conducted by 

local authorities in a northwestern area of Bosnia called Krajina. In the 

following year all former warring parties were performing exhumations 

for identification purposes. At this time, the ICTY initiated exhumations 

in the Srebrenica area in order to collect evidence for war crimes. Since 

then, the remains of thousands of victims have been exhumed. In eight 

years of exhumation activities by the ICTY and local commissions, 

about half of the exhumed cases (usually representing complete remains) 

were identified using traditional methods. The remainder could not be 

identified due to the lack of sufficient postmortem and antemortem data. 

Since it was established in the summer of 1996, the ICMP has 

helped address the fate of missing persons in the former Yugoslavia 

through exhumations and victim identification. The ICMP became a 

pivotal partner in this process following the introduction of a new 

strategy focusing on victim identification using DNA. 

Exhumation, DNA Identification, Examination 

H86 Air-Drying as a Means of Preservation 

for the Unidentified and Unclaimed 

Remains From the World Trade Center 

Benjamin J. Figura, BA*, PO Box 4423, Chico, CA 95927-4423 


method of air-drying preservation utilized for the unidentified and 

unclaimed remains from the collapse of the World Trade Center, its 

theory, and the rationale for its adoption. 


Participants will come away from the presentation with the 

knowledge and understanding of the air-drying method of preservation 

used for the unidentified and unclaimed remains from the World Trade 

Center (WTC). This method of preservation has not been previously 

attempted. 

This paper presents the air-drying process used for the preservation 

of the unidentified and unclaimed remains from the September 11th, 

2001, collapse of the World Trade Center towers. The human remains 

held in storage at the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner (OCME) in 

Manhattan were preserved using a method of air-drying that has not been 

previously attempted. These remains will be included in the permanent 

memorial to be constructed at the WTC site. Because the status of 

unclaimed remains may change in the future, and of the possibility of 

further identifications, the remains within the memorial must be easily 

accessible. The air-drying process was adopted as the best way to preserve 

the remains for permanent storage while avoiding the problems 

associated with other options for preservation. 

The remains recovered from the site of the WTC were subjected to 

numerous taphonomic processes. The incredible forces involved in the 

initial impacts of the aircraft, the resulting unchecked fires, the eventual 

collapse of the towers themselves, in addition to exposure to water used 

for fire suppression, resulted in remains exhibiting extreme fragmentation, 

commingling, contamination and various states of decomposition. 

The condition of the recovered remains has made the identification 

process both extremely difficult and time- and resource-consuming. 

Many of the remains are unable to provide enough DNA to 

allow for identification. Some remains that yield significant amounts of 

DNA are unable to be identified because of unavailable reference 

samples. In addition, many of the identified remains are intentionally 

left unclaimed by families or because of legal reasons. The result is a 

large number of unidentified and unclaimed remains. 

Three possible options were considered by the OCME for the 

preservation of the remains: freezing, chemical preservation, and drying. 

Freezing the remains was ruled out because it was deemed infeasible to 

maintain for the life of the monument. Formaldehyde, the best choice 

for chemical preservation, was undesirable because it is carcinogenic, 

has a strong odor, and degrades DNA. Drying of the remains was 

deemed the best option for a number of reasons. The removal of water 

reduces the weight of the remains, effectively halts decomposition (and 

its related offensive odors), and preserves DNA. The preservation of the 

DNA is important in the event the OCME has to resample the remains. 

Lastly, the environment needed to store the dried remains is relatively 

simple to maintain. 

The drying process itself involves the placement of the remains in 

a specially designed room at a temperature of 150°F (66°C) and negligible 

humidity until the moisture is removed. 150°F was established as 

a temperature that, coupled with the dry environment, facilitated the 

rapid removal of moisture while minimizing further degradation of the 

specimen DNA. 

The drying process was determined to be complete by using visual 

and physical inspection of the remains. Considerations were given to the 

portion of the body represented, elapsed time, and any taphonomic treatments 

that may have occurred (concrete dust, jet fuel, etc.). Upon completion 

of the drying process, the remains were sealed in airtight 

packages suitable for permanent storage. 

When finished, the OCME will have successfully dried the over 

14,000 unidentified and unclaimed remains from the World Trade 

Center. An assessment of the effect of the drying process on the genetic 

material held within the remains is currently underway, with details and 

results of the research to be published in the future. 

Air-Drying/Dehydration, Decomposition, Preservation 

516

H87 Preliminary Results on the Use of 

Cadaver Dogs to Locate Vietnam 

War-Era Human Remains 

Paul D. Emanovsky, MS*, U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

The paper will examine some preliminary results of the use of cadaver 

dogs to search for missing American service members in Vietnam. Some 

issues associated with cadaver dog use will also be presented. 

The location of clandestine burials is often a difficult task. The use of 

cadaver dogs is thought, by some, to be an effective tool for searching and 

ruling out large areas in the search for burial sites. However, the use of 

cadaver dogs has not been validated for a variety of environments and taphonomic 

scenarios. This paper will explore some of the issues related to 

cadaver dog use, particularly in Southeast Asia. 

Cadaver dogs have, in some cases, proven to be useful for locating 

decomposing human remains. A dog search for buried remains can result in 

several outcomes: 1) the dog alerts and human remains are found, 

2) the dog alerts and nothing is found, 3) the dog does not alert and there are 

no remains present or 4) the dog does not alert and yet remains are present. 

When a dog successfully locates remains the results are relatively easy to 

assess. However, when a dog does not alert in a given area the situation 

becomes more difficult to evaluate. In other words, did the dog miss buried 

bone or are there truly no human remains in the area? Conversely, if the dog 

alerts and nothing is found then it may be the case that external factors 

caused the false positive rather than the presence of actual human remains. 

These conundrums make it extremely difficult for an investigator to evaluate 

the efficacy of cadaver dogs. There have been only limited studies and case 

reports testing the validity of utilizing dogs for the detection of modern clandestine 

burials and surface deposition of decomposing human remains. One 

of the key issues explored in this paper is whether dogs who have been 

trained to find recently decomposed human remains can also detect the 

remains of individuals who have been exposed to the myriad of taphonomic 

processes presented by the Southeast Asian environment for over 30 years. 

The Joint Task Force-Full Accounting (JTF-FA), in an effort to utilize 

new methods for locating the remains of fallen U.S. service members in 

Southeast Asia, chose to experiment with the concept of a Human Remains 

Dog Team (HRDT). To this end, JTF-FA enlisted the assistance of a Rhode 

Island State Trooper and his two cadaver dogs. From February 18 through 

March 20 2003, the HRDT (a team comprised of military and civilian personnel) 

surveyed sites associated with eight Vietnam War-era losses in the 

southern and central Socialist Republic of Vietnam. 

The standard procedure for this investigation was as follows: The 

HRDT would interview witnesses who purported to have knowledge of a 

burial location. The witness subsequently pointed out a general area for the 

dogs to survey. The dogs would then search the area and if they alerted (the 

dogs were trained to sit down when they detected decomposing human 

remains) or showed interest (not a sit alert but expressed interest in an area as 

determined by the handler) the HRDT would conduct limited subsurface 

excavation based on the combined witness statement and dog responses. 

Exceptions to this protocol were two cases previously scheduled by JTF-FA 

to be excavated by full-scale recovery teams. The Investigators in Charge 

(IC) for their respective cases showed the dog handler where to search based 

on witness interviews. The dog handler then made recommendations to the 

ICs based on the dogs’ reactions. Thus, the ICs were able to generate their 

excavation strategies based not only on witness statements and material evidence 

visible on the surface, but also by incorporating the dog handlers’ input. 

Of the eight cases investigated, the dogs alerted or showed interest at 

six of the locations. No human remains were found at any of the sites. 

Details of the investigation and the exploration of the cadaver dog alerts will 

be presented. General problems associated with the use of cadaver dogs will 

also be discussed, particularly in reference to their use in locating Vietnam 

War-era burials. 

Forensic Archaeology, Cadaver Dogs, Taphonomy 

H88 Genes, Nerves, and Bones: Neural 

Networks, Genetic Algorithms, and 


Suzanne Bell, PhD*, West Virginia University, Department of Chemistry, 

PO Box 6045, Morgantown, WV 26506; Richard L. Jantz, PhD, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 

TN 37996-0720 

Attendees will be provided with an overview of neural networks and 

genetic algorithms including a discussion of their strengths and weaknesses 

for forensic applications. Although forensic anthropological 

aspects will be emphasized, all attendees will leave with the basic information 

needed to begin exploration and implementation of neural network 

modeling and analysis of forensic data they encounter. 

The presentation will encourage the forensic community to explore, 

exploit, and adopt neural networks and genetic algorithms in their area of 

interest. These approaches provide a powerful new tool that forensic scientists 

can use to improve modeling and to enhance their understanding of 

the large complex data sets and databases common to forensic science. 

Multivariate statistical techniques are firmly entrenched in forensic 

anthropology, most visibly in the widely used FORDISC program. Neural 

networks, which are flexible, robust, and distribution-independent, can 

significantly enhance and supplement such traditional statistical methods. 

A comprehensive empirical approach to network modeling avoids the 

“black box” stigma often associated with nets, and can lead to valuable 

insights, particularly in revealing and studying complex, multivariate relationships 

among input variables. Additionally, the increasing reliance of 

the business community on data mining has led to the availability of 

affordable, PC-based neural network software which is often integrated 

into larger statistical packages. Numerous network architectures, 

including supervised and unsupervised algorithms, increases their utility 

as modeling and data analysis tools. They complement statistical methods, 

and when used in concert, nets and statistics provide a more complete 

understanding of anthropological data sets, as well as of other databases 

used in forensic science. Finally, the coupling of networks to genetic algorithms 

has dramatically improved network optimization, training, and 

variable selection procedures. As a result, neural networks have become 

a viable tool for forensic anthropology as well as forensic science generally. 

This presentation will focus on the anthropological data the 

Howells database, including crania from all over the world. Incorporated 

in this collection is data from Terry/Todd 19th century anatomical collections, 

recent American Whites, Blacks and Hispanics from the Forensic 

Data Bank (FDB). The FDB is perhaps the most familiar collection to 

forensic practitioners. 

Prior to the mid 1980s, forensic identification criteria were based 

almost exclusively on the large anatomical collections (Terry and 

Hamann-Todd) containing individuals with mainly 19th century birth 

dates. Since modern documented skeletal collections are few in number, 

the FDB was conceived and launched in 1986 with a grant from the 

National Institutes of Justice as a way to obtain data from modern individuals. 

The FDB contains extensive demographic information for many 

cases, including place of birth, medical history, occupation, stature, and 

weight. The skeletal information in the database includes cranial and postcranial 

metrics, suture closure information, various aging criteria scores, 

and other information. Statistical analysis of this database has demonstrated 

that the American population has changed dramatically, presumably 

from the unparalleled environmental changes that have occurred 

over the past 100 years. Therefore, predictive models, both statistical and 

neural network created from the FDB typically aim to determine the ageat-death, 

sex, and status of the remains as historical (ca. 100 years old or 

more) or forensic. Such tasks are addressed by FORDISC; parallel neural 

network/genetic algorithm models were created for comparison here, 

using cranial measurement variables and the larger Howells/FDB collection. 


This presentation will present a non-mathematical overview of neural 

networks and genetic algorithms which will lead into a review of findings 

from on-going work using different neural network topologies. The creation 

and characterization of the network models will be explained, as well 

as methods used to elucidate information and hidden structure from the 

underlying database of cranial measurements. Genetic algorithm 

approaches to determine variable importance and sensitivity will also be 

discussed. Comparison of performance and finding from statistical techniques 

will be shown to illustrate how the two techniques can work in 

concert. A short overview of available and affordably software packages 

will also be provided. It is hoped that this presentation will facilitate wider 

adoption of neural networks in the forensic anthropological community as 

well as the forensic community at large. 

Forensic Anthropolgy, Neural Networks, Forensic Data Bank 

H89 U.S. Army Identification Laboratories 

for WWII and Korea and the History 

of Forensic Anthropology 

Christopher M. McDermott, MA*, U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 45, Hickam AFB, 

HI 96853 

This presentation will provide historical information about the 

development of forensic anthropology in the history of the effort to 

recover and identify our nation’s war dead. Attendees will retain 

valuable examples of the interation between a developing forensic 

science and a bureacratic institutional setting. The pragmatic application 

of this knowledge may help anthropologists and other forensic scientists 

to navigate institutional support for forensic scientific work. 

The history of forensic anthropology contributes much to our sense 

of the obstacles and challenges that the field has overcome over the 

course of the last 60 years. 

This paper highlights the significant contributions of several 

anthropologists to the science of forensic anthropology through work 

identifying war dead. This paper documents the transition from a 

beginning with a few select scientists adapting their broader research 

interests to address problems in identification, to the establishment of a 

vigorous science with its largest institutional support from the US Army. 

As an application of scientific knowledge, forensic anthropology 

depends upon building both a growing base of data and a growing 

awareness of how to resolve particular identification and forensic 

problems. The massive war dead identification program presented challenges 

and opportunities that served to spur professional and scientific 

improvement to methods and research designs in forensic anthropology. 

The effort to meet these challenges and design pragmatic solutions to 

diverse problems is a hallmark of the efforts made by anthropologists 

working for the U.S. Army identifying recovered remains from WWII 

and Korea. The impact of this effort has been demonstrated as central to 

the development of modern forensic anthropology. Anthropologists 

involved in this work faced many similar challenges to basic research 

and overcoming institutional barriers that affect current development of 

the field. A closer examination of these historical efforts offers avenues 

for discussion and guidelines for addressing institutional and scientific 

obstacles. 

The role of anthropologists and anatomists as essentially technical 

advisors in the World War II identification effort opened the eyes of the 

military to the scientific expertise of the day. But more importantly from 

the perspective of the developing science the large scale of the analytical 

and practical problems that faced the scientists spurred multiple lines of 

research. The challenges of pursuing these lines of research within the 

institutional structure and bureaucracy of the military focused the scientists’ 

arguments for changed practices and proposals for research. This 

process is examined in the correspondence and documentary history of 

the WWII identification effort. The expansion of the technical role of the 


anthropologists in the to identify recovered remains from Korea presented 

new challenges and fostered the advance of significant new analytical 

tools. The impact of these experiences on the anthropologists that 

participated in the identification effort would provide significant shaping 

to the professional development of the applied science. In addition, the 

techniques developed in the course of the war dead identification efforts 

paired with continuing expansion of the knowledge base and successes 

of human identification science outside the military domain. The effort 

to identify war dead from Southeast Asia coincided with significant 

changes in the contributions that anthropologists could provide to identifying 

recovered remains. The basic process for identifying remains 

from Southeast Asia built on the technical role and expertise that anthropologists 

had established for WWII and Korea. The processes then in 

place did not take account of all of the recommendation that the scientists 

had proposed or the growth of the field outside of the military. 

Since that time the continuous effort to recover and identify war dead 

from WWII, Korea, and Southeast Asia has profited from increasing the 

roles and expertise of the anthropologist in the process and has faced 

several challenges of overcoming institutional barriers that resist the 

implementation of expert advice. 

History, Forensic Anthropology, War Dead 

H90 The ASCLD-LAB Accreditation of the 

Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command, 

Central Identification Laboratory 

Vincent J. Sava, BS, MA*, Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command 

Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Building 

45, Hickam AFB, HI 96853 

The process leading to the ASCLD-LAB accreditation of the 

Department of Defense Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command Central 

Identification Laboratory, the first forensic skeletal identification laboratory 

so credentialed, and the issues addressed during the accreditation 

process will be discussed. 


the lessons learned during accreditation of a forensic anthropology 

laboratory. 

Accreditation of forensic laboratories by professional organizations 

has been a growing trend over the past decade. In August 2003, the 

Department of Defense Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) 

Central Identification Laboratory (CIL) became the first forensic 

skeletal identification laboratory to achieve American Society of Crime 

Laboratory Directors-Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB) 

accreditation. ASCLD-LAB is a voluntary program in which any crime 

laboratory may participate in order to demonstrate that its procedures, 

casework, facilities, personnel, and equipment meet established 

standards. 

On 5 September 2002, application for accreditation was submitted 

to ASCLD-LAB. During the ensuing compliance period, the Quality 

Manager and Inspection Team Chief solved a variety of problems prior 

to the inspection that threatened accreditation. In some ways, a forensic 

identification laboratory is starkly different than a typical crime laboratory. 

The CIL’s mission, to identify war dead from previous conflicts 

and to lend recovery and identification expertise to military and civilian 

law enforcement agencies, means that the nature of the evidence is different, 

casework is more protracted, and the analyses conducted by individual 

analysts are more diverse. Further, the CIL’s disciplines are nontraditional 

relative to ASCLD-LAB. Accordingly, the CIL’s forensic 

anthropology, odontology and material (artifactual) evidence disciplines 

were treated as sub-disciplines under the trace evidence discipline and 

forensic archaeology was equated with crime scene processing. 

Additionally, the CIL initially sought accreditation for its mtDNA sampling 

procedures under forensic biology, however ASCLD-LAB 

declined this request since the CIL only samples teeth and bones for 

518

mtDNA and conducts no on-site analysis. ASCLD-LAB later suggested 

that should forensic anthropology and odontology ever be incorporated 

as an ASCLD-LAB discipline then criteria could be established for 

mtDNA sampling procedures. 

The inspection took place from 24-27 March 2003. The CIL was 

inspected against 109 pre-established criteria. Each criterion is designated 

by ASCLD-LAB as essential (E), Important (I) or Desirable (D). 

To achieve accreditation, all of the “E” criteria have to be passed, 75% 

of the “I” and 50% of the “D”. The major inspection activities included 

examination of documentation and casework, staff interviews, and evaluation 

of evidence storage and security. 

Examination of documentation was accomplished through criteria 

files supplied by the Quality Manager. Each file acted as an index by 

listing the relevant documentation used to support compliance for a particular 

criterion. Casework, and in particular note taking, came under 

intense scrutiny. Altogether, 200 suitable case files were presented to the 

inspection team. Interviews were conducted with the on-hand staff, 

approximately 25 people. Interviews focused on selected aspects of 

casework, the work environment, and knowledge of Laboratory programs 

and procedures, in particular safety, proficiency testing and other 

aspects of training. Laboratory Management was similarly interviewed. 

The results from both sets of interviews were then compared for consistency 

in order to gauge the communications flow in the Laboratory 

(bottom-up and top-down), overall morale, and the strengths and weaknesses 

in management policies. An examination of evidence storage and 

security, the most stringently enforced criteria, was conducted by one of 

the inspectors. The focus was the sealing, marking and labeling of evidence, 

and the physical security of the building. 

The CIL passed 105 of the 109 criteria. The inspection team indicated 

that the four non-compliant criteria were those most often scored 

as deficient during initial inspections. Of the four criteria designated as 

non-compliant, two were essential and two were important. Our overall 

criteria scores were: Essential (E): 44/46 X 100 = 95.65%; Important 

(I): 41/43 X 100 = 95.35%; Desirable (D): 20/20 X 100 = 100%. 

The two deficient essential criteria resulted in a 90-day remediation 

period. The first criterion, marking all evidence with a case number for 

identification, was deficient since the CIL did not normally mark biological 

evidence. The other deficient criterion, involved the definition 

and marking of analytical notes, too many of which were not up to 

ASCLD-LAB or CIL standards. After the inspection team accepted the 

remediation plan, a 90-day compliance period ensued. On June 30, 2003, 

a remediation report, largely containing copies of analytical notes and 

photographs of marked evidence documenting our compliance of deficient 

essential criteria, was forwarded to the original ASCLD-LAB 

inspection team. The team reviewed and approved the report, and 

recommended accreditation 2003, which was formally granted in 

August 2003. 

Central Identification Laboratory, ASCLD-LAB, Accreditation 

H91 Outside Traditional Skeletal Casework: 

A Forensic Anthropologist in a Medical 


Tom E. Bodkin, MA*, Hamilton County Medical Examiner Office, 

3202 Amnicola Highway, Chattanooga, TN 37409 

After attending this presentation, attendees will have a new understanding 

of the duties and responsibilities of a forensic anthropologist 

employed outside traditional skeletal casework. 

An appreciation for the many ways an anthropologist can function 

in the medical examiner office environment, and a revitalization of the 

importance of case reports in forensic anthropology. 

This presentation will relate the author’s personal experience as a 

forensic anthropologist employed in a county government medical 

examiner office. It is hoped that this presentation will increase 

awareness that non-academic opportunities exist for those with forensic 

anthropology training. The roles and responsibilities of the author in the 

medical examiner office draw on all an anthropologist’s skills, not only 

knowledge of human osteology, but also sociocultural and archaeological 

skills. The author’s responsibilities that will be discussed 

include: 

• Assisting the forensic pathologist at autopsy 

• Managing the morgue and supplies 

• Coordinating histology and toxicology laboratories 

• Taking post-mortem x-rays 

• Scene and morgue photography 

• Computer maintenance and database management 

• Processing of evidence 

• Maintaining the bloodborne pathogen exposure control 

plan (OSHA) 

• Coordinating scientific donations and managing a comparative 

skeletal collection 

• Participating as an on-call death investigator 

• Non-skeletal crime scene processing and investigation 

• Meeting with families, law enforcement officers, and attorneys 

• Delivering lectures to civic organizations, schools and universities, 

and law enforcement training academies 

• Clerical duties (e.g., preparation of death certificates) 

• Providing forensic anthropology consultations and reports. 

These consultations range from skeletal scene recovery with 

full-length reports to one-page diagrams or reports produced 

in the morgue at autopsy. 

The largest contribution of the author is in the morgue, where 

verbal opinions regarding trauma and post-mortem interval can be given 

on-the-spot to the medical examiner. 

The author feels there is a common perception in the discipline that 

“research presentations“ have become more preferred than “case 

reports.” This implies that a distinction exists between research forensic 

anthropology and applied forensic anthropology. When a distinction can 

be drawn between application and research, a feedback loop can be set 

up to compliment both. This loop consists of applied forensic anthropologists 

in medical examiner offices that generate research questions, and 

research forensic anthropologists that provide the tools for applied 

anthropologists to do their work. The future health of forensic anthropology 

will require constant and open lines of communication in this 

loop. This communication is mediated by the “case report” in various 

journals and/or conferences. Our discipline should work to rid itself of 

the idea that little can be learned case studies. 

Most of the author’s daily responsibilities were not part of the “traditional” 

forensic anthropology graduate training, but rather were 

learned on-the-job. Few forensic anthropologists have an opportunity to 

work on a daily basis with forensic pathologists. Although the training 

the author received in graduate school laid a solid foundation for 

working in a medical examiner office, it is proposed that forensic anthropology 

graduate programs expand their curricula to prepare students for 

careers outside traditional academic research. A curriculum designed to 

prepare one for work in a medical examiner office should include 

courses such as: 

• Grief counseling 

• Sociological aspects of crime 

• Epidemiology and public health 

• Evidence handling and curation 

• Computer technology and database management 

• Website authoring 

• Legal processes and post-mortem laws 

• Non-skeletal crime scene processing and medical 

history investigation 

• Bloodborne pathogen/OSHA plan authoring 

• Funeral home industry information 

• Public and professional speaking instruction 


Forensic anthropologists in the new millennium can offer more than 

osteological analysis to medical examiner offices. We are best suited to 

work within this type of system because of our holistic and comparative 

training. 

Forensic Anthropology, Medical Examiner Offices, Forensic 

Training Programs 

H92 Forensics and Television: A Learning 


Ellen R. Salter-Pedersen, BA, BSc*, Department of Geography and 

Anthropology, 227 Howe-Russell, Louisiana State University, Baton 


This paper will examine how the recent influx of television programs 

with forensic science themes is changing the public awareness of 

the field. 

This paper explores the recent increase in the popularity of forensic 

science on television. It will present the issues associated with the presentation 

of the field in the media, as well as a survey of a study group 

and their perceptions of the forensic science television programs. 

On an average day in the Baton Rouge, Louisiana viewing area, 

approximately 45 hours of television programs with crime or law 

enforcement themes are broadcast on 26 channels. Some stations, such 

as Court TV, are almost entirely devoted to the subject. The programs 

range in reality from the fictional Crossing Jordan and CSI to those 

based on real cases such as the New Detectives and Forensic Files. CSI 

is currently one of the most watched drama programs on television with 

more than 8 million viewers per week. The new programs differ from 

the detective programs of the 1970s and 1980s such as Dragnet and Hill 

Street Blues in that forensic science has now become a major component 

of the programs. On programs such as CSI, The New Detectives and the 

Forensic Files, forensic science is the focus and often more details are 

revealed about the victims than the characters or individuals who investigate 

the crimes. 

While the programs incorporate real science, liberties are often 

taken. The most common is a compression of time. Scientific tests and 

results may be simplified for the viewers. On the fictional programs, 

often the detectives may act upon their hunches or visions. Laws may 

be disregarded for the sake of the plot and the cameras. Finally, the 

limited number of characters are put in a variety of settings resulting in 

their being well versed in many different aspects of forensic science. It 

is not uncommon to see the same individual who examines blood spatter 

also examining a body or even interviewing suspects. 

The increased interest in forensic science is in part the result of television. 

Major events in the past decade have focused on forensic science. 

The O.J. Simpson trial, the Bill Clinton and Monica Lewinsky scandal, 

and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, were perhaps the three 

most widely chronicled of these events. In all three of the events, forensic 

techniques, particularly the use of DNA, were reported on regularly. 

The popularity of television programs based on forensic science 

may be met with mixed feelings among those in forensic science fields. 

Questions to be considered include whether or not too many details are 

being revealed and what the effects of programs that take liberties with 

real scientific techniques are. Do these programs have the potential to 

create a new kind of criminal who can anticipate the investigation and 

prevent or contaminate evidence? Will individuals who watch these programs 

feel a greater competence and knowledge than they really possess 

and seek careers in forensic science or even attempt to be involved in a 

crime scene without the proper training? 

A survey of university students enrolled in an introductory level 

anthropology class at Louisiana State University suggests that these programs 

are popular among this group. The students did not believe that 

the programs were completely accurate but a significant portion felt that 

the programs were ‘somewhat realistic.’ The majority of the students 


thought that they had a good understanding of the field of forensic 

science and that watching the programs had changed their perception of 

forensic science. 

The popularity of these programs as evidenced by the survey of university 

students and the Nielsen ratings, suggests that the interest in 

forensic science and crime programs has become a noteworthy and 

influential part of popular culture, at least for the present. The use of 

consultants on many of the programs, both fictional and based on reality, 

gives the viewers the feeling of authenticity. But, as television 

executives bring more forensic science-based programs to the public, 

more liberties with the actual science may be taken to maintain the 

interest of the viewers. The end result may be programs that appear 

authoritative giving viewers a distorted picture of the forensic science 

profession. 

Television, Forensics and the Public, Changing Perceptions 

H93 Estimation of Living Body Weight 

Using Measurements of Anterior 

Iliac Spine Breadth and Stature 

Jaime A. Suskewicz, BA*, Louisiana State University, 2000 Brightside 

Drive, #722, Baton Rouge, LA 70820 

After attending this presentation, participants will understand the 

utility of anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) breadth and stature measurements 

in predicting living body weight from skeletal remains. 

This presentation will offer a technique that may facilitate accurate 

weight prediction in cases of missing or unidentified decedents. Body 

weight information may serve to enhance search criteria and present a 

more accurate biological profile. 

The purpose of this study is to assess the utility of bi-iliac breadth 

and stature measurements in weight estimation. The focus of the project 

is on predicting living body weight of deceased individuals from a 

skeletal sample of modern Americans. 

The primary objective of the forensic anthropologist is to provide 

information useful in obtaining positive identifications of deceased 

persons. Standard identification criteria for creating a decedent’s biological 

profile include ancestry, sex, age, and stature, but not body 

weight. The inclusion of body weight in the biological profile could 

introduce an additional component to the identification criteria and may 

serve to augment a search image. 

Several attributes of body weight, however, may depreciate its use 

as a profile characteristic. For example, body weight information is often 

underreported and may only be reliable from limited records, such as 

medical documents. Body weight is also subject to drastic fluctuation in 

short periods of time. In addition, obesity and malnutrition may be 

factors lending to inconsistent prediction results. 

Despite these apparent shortcomings body weight is nevertheless 

an undeniable aspect of a decedent’s identity. The forensic anthropologist 

must take care to maximize the available information so that the 

chances of identification are increased. Body weight information may 

not only assist in creating a more complete biological profile but may 

also provide insight into other forensic considerations such as body 

transport, body disposal, and other taphonomic processes (Stubblefield, 

2003). What occurs during the postmortem interval may be strictly 

dependent on the body mass of the decedent. 

Few studies pertaining to body weight prediction of modern 

humans have been carried out. In fact, most literature relevant to the prediction 

of body weight from skeletal remains is concerned with reconstructing 

hominid biology. Many paleoanthropological studies involve 

comparative analyses between modern human and primate remains and 

the fossilized bones of early humans. Research on the issue of body 

mass has generated prediction techniques based on both cranial and 

postcranial measurements. The results of paleoanthropological 

endeavors have provided us with a few viable options regarding tech- 

520

niques for estimating body weight in modern humans. 

This study is comparable to earlier methods established by Ruff 

(2000) in the estimation of body weight based on measurements of biiliac 

breadth and stature. Ruff’s goals were to examine the feasibility of 

predicting hominid body mass with the use of multiple regression equations. 

The body mass estimation equations were derived from 56 

sex/population-specific sample means broadly representative of the 

world’s living populations. However, Ruff’s data were collected from 

literature sources dating from 1951 to 1989 and did not include any 

modern American samples. In order to test the accuracy of the equations, 

Ruff applied the technique to two very different modern human samples. 

Included in the sample were New Guinean Karkar Islanders and a group 

of U.S. Marine Recruits, all of which were young adults. Ruff’s results 

indicated that body weight of modern individuals could be estimated 

with reasonable accuracy in cases of known stature and bi-iliac breadth. 

For the purposes of hominid body mass estimation, Ruff also 

applies the equations to a sample of Olympic athletes. Ruff bases this 

rationale on the likelihood that extreme athletes may have a body type 

more representative of the degree of physical conditioning characteristic 

of earlier populations. Results revealed only an average 3% prediction 

error, indicating the body mass equations may be useful in estimating the 

weight of early hominids. 

Although Ruff’s results indicate low prediction error when stature 

is known, the technique may also be useful in situations of estimated 

stature, as is usually the case in forensic situations. The potential of 

Ruff’s equations for great accuracy makes it worthwhile to test a similar 

method to on a modern American population of average fitness and 

various ages. In this study ASIS breadth was substituted for bi-iliac 

breadth because the relationship between the two measurements in proportion 

to overall body breadth is not significantly different, and ASIS 

breadth is easily located and measured in both skeletal remains and 

living humans. The ASIS technique may serve to facilitate weight estimation 

when sacrum, both pelves, and at least one long bone are present 

for an individual. 

All data for this project were collected using the William K. Bass 

Donated Collection at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Various 

measurements were performed on skeletal material from 92 individuals. 

The individuals chosen for measurement were those in the collection 

with weight and stature records. The sample consisted of 2 black 

females, 13 black males, 15 white females, and 62 white males. The age 

range was between 25 and 84, with 60% over the age of 50. Information 

obtained from all subjects included age, weight, height, race, sex, ASIS 

breadth, and maximum lengths of the humerus, tibia, and femur. The 

sacrum and pelves were rearticulated with the use of a large rubber band 

so that ASIS breadth could be assessed. All ASIS measurements were 

taken with spreading calipers to the nearest 0.1 cm. Humeral, tibial, and 

femoral lengths were established with the use of an osteometric board to 

the nearest 0.1 cm. Stature calculations were performed for each individual 

using standard formula based on maximum long bone length 

(Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Although stature was known for all 

cases, the process of height calculation was necessary in order to 

determine the usefulness of body weight equations in forensic circumstances. 

Stature estimations and ASIS breadth were then inserted into 

regression equations for estimation of body weight. 

The preliminary results of this study are not comparable to Ruff’s 

results. Percent prediction error exhibits a value too high to be considered 

useful in forensic investigations. Several explanations for these 

results are possible. The inclusion of estimated stature as opposed to 

actual stature in the equations decreased prediction accuracy. Certain 

attributes of the Bass collection may have contributed a high prediction 

error as well, such as questionable weight records, the ages of the 

deceased, and the under-representation of women and African 

Americans in the collection. Additional data on younger adults and 

equally represented racial typologies are needed in order to more accu- 

rately formulate such equations. 

1Buikstra JE and Ubelaker DH, editors. Standards: For Data Collection 

From Human Skeletal Remains. ayetteville, Arkansas: Arkansas 

Archaeological Survey, 1994. 

2Ruff CB. Body Mass Prediction From Skeletal Frame Size in Elite 

Athletes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 2000 (113):507- 

517. 

3Stubblefield PR. Body Weight Estimation in Forensic Anthropology 

(abstract). American Academy of Forensic Sciences Annual Meeting 

Abstract Handbook. #H2: 262-263. Chicago, Illinois. February, 2003. 

Forensic Anthropology, Weight Estimation, Bi-iliac Breadth 

H94 Preliminary Observations of 

Vertebral Centra Retraction 

and Its Relationship to Age 

A. Midori Albert, BS, MA, PhD*, Anthropology Program, University of 

North Carolina at Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, 

NC 28403-5907 

After attending this presentation, attendees will a understand the 

degenerative process of vertebral centra retraction, first described by 

Drukier et al. (2003), and how it relates to aging as well as its consideration 

for use in age estimation, particularly if key skeletal age markers 

such as pubic symphyses and or sternal ends of right fourth ribs are 

absent or damaged. 

This presentation will impact the forensic community by sharing 

preliminary findings and reporting on the continued development of a 

new age estimation for unknown skeletons 

The goal of this beginning study was to explore the relationship 

between a recently observed degenerative phenomenon of the vertebral 

centra with age at death from a known sample for purposes of assessing 

the efficacy of its future use as an age estimation method for unknown 

skeletons. 

Specifically, the degenerative phenomenon, first described by 

Drukier et al. (2003) as a “sucking in” of the superior and inferior vertebral 

centra, occurs in adults after vertebral centra maturation is complete 

(i.e., after epiphyses of the superior and inferior vertebral centra— 

the “ring” epiphyses—are fully fused to the centra). The “sucking in” 

occurrence takes place when the central portion of the surface of the vertebral 

body begins to pull away or retract from the perimeter, where what 

was once the vertebral ring epiphysis has fused to the centrum, and sinks 

inferiorly, leaving a “sucked in,” concave appearance that we refer to as 

“retraction.” Drukier et al. (2003) have hypothesized a possible link 

between vertebral centra retraction and age at death, based on observations 

and skeletal analyses of decedents from recently exhumed mass 

graves in Europe. 

To test Drukier et al.’s (2003) hypothesis, the retraction phenomenon 

and its relationship to known age at death was studied using a 

sample from the Robert J. Terry Skeletal Collection, housed at the 

Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. Superior and inferior centra 

of the thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12) and the first two lumbar vertebrae 

(L1-L2) of 63 known individuals (16 black females, 9 white females, 19 

black males, 19 white males), ranging in age at death from 23 years to 

78 years, were examined. 

Gross morphological observations of vertebral centra retraction 

were documented using a newly developed numerical scoring system 

based on progressive stages of retraction observed. Stages of retraction 

were coded as 4, 5, 6 or 7 for each centrum, inferior and superior, of each 

vertebra used in the study—T1 through T12, L1 and L2. Stage 4 was the 

least retracted, whereas Stage 7 was the most retracted. Stages of 

retraction were designated as 4 through 7 to represent that this process 

occurs after epiphyseal union of the superior and inferior centra is complete 

(Stages 0-3, according to the Albert and Maples method, 1995). 


Thus, similar numbers for the stages between the two methods (i.e., 0-3 

for both epiphyseal union and retraction) would not be confused 

between the two differing processes—one a maturation process (epiphyseal 

union), the other a degenerative process (retraction). 

Descriptions of vertebral centra retraction in Stages 4 through 7 are 

as follows: Vertebral centra showing no retraction or a slight, beginning 

depression or concavity in the center of the centrum, with no separation 

along the perimeter, were designated as Stage 4. Stage 5 comprised 

either of two scenarios: 1) slight to moderate depression or concavity in 

the center of the centrum, or 2) retraction occurring along the perimeter 

of the centrum, or along the anterior border where what was once the 

epiphyseal ring separated or retreated from the centrum, where the 

centrum was depressed at these loci. In this case, the center of the 

centrum appeared slightly convex relative to the periphery of the 

centrum. Retraction in Stage 6 was moderate to advanced, occurring 

both at the center of the centrum radiating outward, as well as along a 

greater area of the perimeter of the centrum, where what was once the 

epiphysis was further separated (retracted) from the centrum along the 

anterior, lateral, and posteriolateral borders (with the posterior aspect of 

the perimeter of the centrum the last to retract, during Stage 7. 

Separation or retraction during this stage encompassed a greater surface 

area of the centrum, which was sunken in. The perimeter of the area 

retracted sloped inward, declining slightly, forming somewhat of a “V” 

shape. In the last stage, Stage 7, vertebral centra retraction was 

advanced, appearing noticeably more depressed or concave than in previous 

stages. The perimeter of the area retracted no longer sloped inward 

at an angle (“V”shape); rather, there was a vertical drop along the entire 

perimeter of the centrum (i.e., anterior, lateral, posteriolateral, and posterior 

aspects), forming somewhat of a “U” shape. Retraction was 

extensive over the surface of the centrum, where the centrum was clearly 

concave relative to the perimeter, which appeared to “wall in” or “rim” 

the central portion of the centrum. How these stages best relate to 

chronological age will be discussed. 

Gross observation results of vertebral centra retraction revealed a 

distinct and predictable pattern in its progression as related to increasing 

age. Retraction along the perimeter of the centrum begins posteriolaterally 

and progresses anteriorly, with the posterior aspect the last portion 

to retract. Further, the centra of the middle thoracic (T5-T8) and the first 

two lumbar vertebrae (L1-L2) frequently showed more advanced 

retraction than the centra of the superior (T1-T4) and inferior (T9-T12) 

thoracic vertebrae. 

Quantitative analyses involved calculating a mean value for vertebral 

centra retraction for each individual in the sample, which represented 

the overall extent of the retraction phenomena for each person. 

Results of preliminary statistical analyses showed no significant correlation 

between overall mean retraction values and age. There were no 

statistically significant differences between overall mean retraction 

values of the superior vertebral centra when compared to the inferior 

vertebral centra. Mean values for vertebral centra retraction were also 

calculated separately for superior thoracic vertebrae (T1-T4), middle 

thoracic and first two lumbar vertebrae (T5-T8, L1-L2), and inferior thoracic 

vertebrae (T9-T12); these values showed no statistically significant 

correlation with age. When the data were analyzed separately by sex and 

ancestry, however, some interesting findings emerged. F-tests for the 

variance between the superior thoracic, middle thoracic and lumbar, and 

inferior thoracic vertebral centra retraction mean values showed that the 

superior thoracic retraction mean values differed significantly from the 

inferior thoracic retraction mean values (p

denote open (0), beginning (1), active (2), recent (3), and complete union 

(4), following the method described by McKern and Stewart. 

Epiphyseal closures that were difficult to observe after eight years of 

taphonomic changes, such as the medial border and inferior angle of the 

scapula, and the transverse and spinous processes of the vertebrae, were 

not recorded. Age data were obtained once a DNA match was made and 

the identification completed. 

Of 72 cases collected, results suggest that a majority of the epiphysis 

are completely fused two years earlier in the Bosnian population 

than those Americans killed in the Korean War as observed by McKern 

and Stewart. From these results, it would appear that the Srebrenica 

youth are maturing at an accelerated rate as compared to the American 

youth and that the age ranges offered by McKern and Stewart can be narrowed 

to address the growth rates of this population. 

Epiphyseal Closures, Aging, Sub-Adults 

H96 An Evaluation of the Greulich and Pyle 

Skeletal Aging Standards for the Hand 

and Wrist in a Contemporary Multiethnic 

Population 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD, Hamline University, MB 196, 1536 Hewitt 

Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55104; Sarah E. Nathan, BA*, Department of 

Forensic Sciences, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, NE 68503 

The objectives of this pilot study are two-fold: 1) to evaluate the 

accuracy of the Greulich and Pyle (1959) hand and wrist development 

standards when used to estimate the age of subadult individuals of 

diverse ethnic backgrounds and, 2) to measure the direction and magnitude 

of error in in different age and ethnic subgroups. Attendees will 

gain an awareness of the limitations of the Greulich and Pyle standards 

when applied as an age-determination technique and how to best utilize 

the existing standards when estimating the age of individuals from different 

ethnic backgrounds. 

The contribution of this research to the forensic community is the 

awareness of the magnitude and direction of error in applying the 

Greulich and Pyle standards for hand and wrist development when determining 

age-at-death for contemporary subadults of various ethnic and 

socioeconomic backgrounds and the need for further research to develop 

new standards for skeletal age assessment of the hand and wrist. 

Forensic Anthropologists apply age-determination techniques in a 

wide variety of contexts. They are frequently asked to provide age estimates 

for unidentified individuals, applicants seeking asylum in the 

United States, and to reconcile various records that report conflicting 

ages. The reliability of the techniques applied is, of course, of utmost 

importance and unreliable techniques can have significant consequences, 

including delaying identification of an unknown individual, 

denial of asylum, and an erroneous conclusion as to an individual’s 

probable age. The research presented here reports the results of a pilot 

study conducted to assess the accuracy of the Greulich and Pyle (1959) 

standards for the development of the hand and wrist when applied to a 

contemporary multiethnic sample of children from an urban medical 

examiner’s office. 

The impetus for the current research was a case involving legal documents 

that reported two different birth years for in individual accused 

of homicide. The county attorney’s office responsible for prosecuting the 

case requested an age-assessment in order to determine if the accused 

should be tried as an adult or juvenile. The individual was born outside 

of the United States and is of Southeast Asian descent. Given that the 

individual was still living, the age determination techniques applied 

were limited to an evaluation of dental development and eruption and 

epiphyseal union. Skeletal radiographs were taken of numerous sites of 

the skeleton. The skeletal development exhibited by the individual 

necessitated heavy reliance on the stage of development of the 

hand/wrist. 

A literature search conducted during the case indicated that the 

Greulich and Pyle (1959) standards of development were the most 

recently published standards for the hand and wrist. These standards 

were devised from a sample of radiographs from the Brush Foundation 

collection housed at Western Reserve University School of Medicine. 

This collection consists of a longitudinal sample of x-rays taken between 

1931 and 1942 of children from families described as “above average in 

economic and educational status.” The sample utilized by Greulich and 

Pyle is comprised of from two to 21 hand/wrist films of 1000 healthy, 

American-born “White” children, most of Northern European ancestry, 

from the Cleveland area of Ohio. The literature search also identified 

recently published articles that concluded the Greulich and Pyle standards 

of development might not be accurate for healthy individuals of 

non-White ethnic backgrounds. 

In order to assess the accuracy of the Greulich and Pyle hand/wrist 

standards of development in a contemporary multiethnic sample of individuals 

from varied socioeconomic backgrounds, the medical examiner 

case files of all children between the ages of birth and 19 years of age 

autopsied by the Hennepin County Medical Examiner’s Office between 

1974 and 2001 were reviewed. Case files containing recorded demographic 

data, including date of birth, date of death, sex, and ethnicity and 

the existence of x-rays of sufficient quality to reasonably assess 

hand/wrist development and the presence of Harris lines were selected 

for analysis. The research sample consists of 359 individuals, 231 males 

and 128 females. The sample is further subdivided into four ve age-categories 

(Early, Middle, Late Childhood, and Adolescence - per Loder et 

al. 1993) and six ethnic groups (American Indian, “Black,” Asian, 

Hispanic, “White,” and multiethnic). Country of birth and antemortem 

health status were not recorded in the case files. Following definition of 

the sample, each author evaluated the radiographs of each individual and 

assigned a skeletal age using the standards defined by Greulich and Pyle. 

Degree of agreement of the three observers was calculated and indicated 

only a moderate degree of agreement between the three observers 

reflecting, most likely, differences in level of experience. For this 

reason, differences between recorded chronological age and the estimated 

bone age of each observer were calculated. A Paired-Samples Ttest 

was performed to evaluate the null hypothesis that the mean difference 

between the chronological and skeletal ages was zero. Mean differences 

were compared between subgroups defined by sex, age, and 

ethnicity. Statistically significant differences between chronological and 

skeletal age exist for both males and females variously by age category 

and ethnicity. The results of our study support the need for the development 

of new standards for hand/wrist development to accurately 

assess the age of subadult individuals from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. 

Greulich WW, Pyle SI. Radiographic Atlas of Skeletal Development of 

the Hand and Wrist, 2nd ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 

1959. 

Loder RT, Estle DT, Morrison K, Eggleston D, Fish DN, Greenfield ML, 

Guire KE. Applicability of the Greulich and Pyle skeletal age standards 

to black and white children of today. Amer J Diseases Children 

1993;147:1329-1333. 

Age Determination, Hand/Wrist Development, Accuracy 


Assessment 

H97 A Quantitative Study of Morphological 

Variation in the OS Coxa for the 

Purpose of Estimating Sex of 


Peer H. Moore-Jansen, PhD* and Amber Harrison, BA*, Department 

of Anthropology, Wichita State University, 114 Neff Hall, Wichita, 

KS 67260-0052 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand skeletal 

variability and forensic anthropological application. 


the contribution of further data to the understanding of skeletal 

variation. 

The study of sexual dimorphism in the morphology of the os coxa 

has long been core of osteological analysis and essential to forensic 

anthropological investigation. Past research clearly documents the os 

coxa to be one of the most suited elements for the estimation of sex in 

human skeletal remains. Although not exclusively, previous studies have 

focused primarily on qualitative assessments of pelvic shape and few 

have proposed specific quantitative dimensions to substantiate observed 

qualitative patterns of variation. This study addresses past observations 

of size and shape variation in male and female pelvic morphology by 

documenting sexual dimorphism in the os coxa by the application of 

alternative measurements. The study also examines the possibility of 

further characterizing and testing shape variation in the os coxa. 

Twenty-two measurements were recorded on a calibration sample 

of 80 females and 80 males from the Robert J. Terry Osteological 

Collection housed at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. The 

data represent members of varied group affiliations and ranging in age 

from 25 and 50 years. In addition to standard length and breadth dimensions, 

alternative measurements specifically developed to quantify qualitative 

observations include, among others, the sub pubic angle, size of 

the rami, shape of the obturator foramen, and dimensions of the auricular 

surface. Other measurements characterizing the pelvic basin shape and 

size are also recorded. All measurements were taken with standard 

equipment including spreading, coordinate and sliding calipers and an 

osteometric board. 

Summary statistics were generated for the purpose of univariate 

assessments and a stepwise discriminant procedure with a MAXR option 

was applied to the data to generate a multivariate assessment of the sex 

discriminating ability of the proposed recording protocol. 

The results derived from the calibration sample were applied to two 

independent test samples, including a separate sample of 20 males and 

20 females from the Terry collection and 18 males and 15 females from 

the WSU-BAL Cadaver Collection housed at Wichita State University 

Biological Anthropology Laboratory. 

The results of our study provides promising insight to quantifying 

sexual dimorphism in the os coxa and concludes that measurements can 

be applied to better characterize overall shape differences between the 

sexes which have previously been mostly limited qualitative assessments. 

We further conclude that traditional observations of sexual 

dimorphism in the os coxa, especially those commonly used in nonmetric 

assessments, are not be as distinct as sometimes expressed. 

Finally, the results presented here provide an added contribution to the 

estimation of sex in skeletal remains in both forensic and archaeological 

settings. 

Os Coxa, Sex Estimation, Skeletal Variation 


H98 A Review of Age Estimation Using 

Rib Histology: Its Impact on 

Evidentiary Examination 

Christian M. Crowder, MA*, University of Toronto, 100 St. George 

Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3, Canada 

The goal of this research is to show that the forensic specialist must 

perform more rigorous scientific trials on new and existing methods, 

especially if the method is being used: 1) well outside of the reference 

sample, 2) on an element other than the one for which the method was 

developed, or 3) if the method has been altered on the premise of specialized 

knowledge that has not been adequately tested. 

The main impact of this research is to bring attention to assessing 

the precision and accuracy of methods that are being utilized by forensic 

specialists, particularly if those methods have been altered without 

further testing. Often, in the literature, the terms “precision” and 

“accuracy” are confused or entirely ignored. More rigorous testing must 

be performed before publishing new methods or they could run the risk 

of failing the Daubert or Mohan criterion when utilized in forensic 

casework. 

Research has shown that the use of rib histomorphometrics for the 

estimation of adult age at death can provide precise and accurate age 

estimates. Current methods require histological thin sections from the 

middle third of the sixth rib. Human ribs have thin cortices and are less 

resilient to destructive taphonomic processes than other skeletal elements. 

Therefore when human remains are recovered, the ribs are often 

severely damaged or absent. In these circumstances it may be difficult or 

impossible to identify a specific mid-thoracic rib. If the sixth rib is 

unavailable or cannot be positively identified, closely associated midthoracic 

ribs (namely the 5th and 7th) or a suspected sixth rib are often 

deemed adequate for use due to similarities reported in bone remodeling 

kinetics. The affect that slight remodeling deviations have on histologically 

derived age estimates has not been reported. The goal of this 

research is to record the amount of variation in osteon population densities 

of the middle third of the mid-thoracic ribs and determine if age 

prediction equations developed for the sixth rib can be applied to nonsixth 

ribs with similar reliability. The potential rate of error must be 

explored in order to meet the Daubert and Mohan criterion, which established 

general guidelines for admissibility of scientific evidence in U.S. 

and Canadian courts. 

The sample consists of ribs taken from twenty cadavers (eleven 

males and nine females) from two university teaching facilities in 

Ontario. Ages range from 59 to 89 years. Thin sections were removed 

from the middle third of ribs three through eight. A total of 120 thin sections 

were analyzed and osteon population densities (OPD) calculated. 

Results show that osteon population density values for ribs three, four, 

seven, and eight were consistently below the OPD values of the sixth 

ribs indicating that the sixth rib may possess a different remodeling environment. 

Intra and interperson results indicate that the eighth rib is the 

most variable of the non-sixth ribs. The large variance demonstrated in 

some of the intraperson OPDs indicates that remodeling may be 

occurring at different rates between ribs of the same person. The difference 

between values may not appear to be significant until they are 

figured into the age prediction equations. 

Overall, all the non-sixth ribs produced significant correlations with 

the sixth rib OPD values. This was expected considering that previous 

research has demonstrated that rib tissue is less biomechanically active, 

and has minimal variability in bone remodeling. However, regardless of 

524

which non-sixth rib is used intraperson OPD values may vary sufficient 

that age estimates would be significantly different than those from the 

sixth ribs. Factor analysis and regression analysis indicate that ribs five 

and seven are better predictors of the sixth rib OPD values than ribs 

three, four, and eight and therefore should be used if the sixth rib is 

unavailable. Due to differential OPD values within the ribcage, error 

ranges developed from this research for non-sixth rib OPD values should 

be used when the sixth rib is unavailable or unidentifiable. 

Because of the guidelines established from the United States 

Supreme Court in Daubert v. Merill-Dow Pharmaceuticals, 113 S.Ct. 

2786 (1993), and from the Canadian courts in R. v. Mohan, 89 C.C.C. 

(3d) 402 (1994), and in the wake of the United States v. Plaza, Criminal 

NO. 98-362 (2002), methods utilized or altered by forensic anthropologists 

may soon be challenged. The forensic specialist must perform more 

rigorous scientific trials on new and existing methods in order to meet 

the Daubert and Mohan standards. 

Histomorphometry, Osteon, Daubert 

H99 Distinguishing Between Human and 

Non-Human Secondary Osteons in Ribs 

Elizabeth J. Whitman, MA*, 1044 Eugenia Drive, Mason, MI 48854 

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand new criteria 

helpful in distinguishing human from non-human bone. 


new criteria for distinguishing human from non-human bone in cases 

where only minute quantities of bone are available. It also demonstrates 

a need for more research on the histomorphology of non-weight bearing 

bones in a wider range of species. 

This paper will present rib histomorphology research being conducted 

at the Michigan State University Forensic Anthropology 

Laboratory. One of the first questions a forensic anthropologist answers 

is whether a bone is human or non-human. Under normal circumstances, 

this can be done using gross morphological features. However, this task 

becomes more difficult when the bone samples are extremely small or 

fragmentary. In this case, microscopic examination of the histomorphology 

of the bone tissue may be necessary. Most human compact bone 

is characterized by cylindrical structures known as primary and secondary 

osteons. Non-human bone has other distinctive arrangements of 

bone tissue not commonly found in humans. For example, plexiform 

bone has a regular “brick wall” appearance that may be briefly seen in 

human fetal bone tissue, but is commonly found in weight-bearing bones 

of non-humans. Histological arrangement of bone tissue is not consistent. 

It varies within the same bone, between bones of the same individual, 

and between individuals of the same species. In addition, the distinctive 

non-human forms of bone are all primary in nature; as bone 

remodels it can be replaced with secondary osteonal bone. As a result, 

while the presence of plexiform bone, for example, can be used to 

classify a bone as non-human, the presence of only osteonal bone does 

not mean that the bone is human. How do we tell human osteons from 

non-human osteons? Past research has primarily examined this question 

using weight-bearing bones such as femora. However, this study 

examines rib histomorphology since secondary osteons have been documented 

in this non-weight bearing bone in a much wider range of nonhuman 

species than in femora. 

Rib samples of adult humans (n=10), adult dogs (n=10), beef cattle 

(n=10), and bear (n=1) were obtained for this study. These samples were 

cleaned, dried, and then thin-sectioned using a diamond blade saw. Each 

sample was then mounted and examined under a stereomicroscope. The 

images were digitally captured and measured using SigmaScan software. 

Secondary osteons were found in the canine, bovine, and ursine 

samples as well as in the human samples. Measurements of the diameters 

of the osteons found that humans, cows, and bear were not reliably 

distinguishable based on the size of the osteons. However, the sizes of 

the secondary osteons in dogs were significantly smaller compared to 

that of humans. The size of the central, or Haversian, canal proved more 

useful. Both cows and dogs had significantly smaller Haversian canals 

compared to humans. The central canal was also smaller in the bear rib, 

but not significantly. Osteonal banding was also observed in most of the 

bovine samples and a few of the canine samples. These bands were 

found between plexiform bone and less organized arrangements of secondary 

osteons. This suggests that osteonal banding may be a transitional 

developmental feature, with the bands developing as secondary 

osteons replace the organized plexiform tissue. 

Anthropology, Bone Histology, Osteons 

H100 Species Identification of Small 

Skeletal Fragments Using Protein 

Radioimmunoassay (pRIA) 

Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, Department of 

Anthropology, NMNH, MRC 112, Washington, DC 20560; Jerold M. 

Lowenstein, MD, California Pacific Medical Center, 2333 Buchanan 

Street, San Francisco, CA 94115; Darden G. Hood, BS, 

MicroAnalytica, LLC, 4989 SW 74 Court, Miami, FL 33155 

This presentation will demonstrate how protein radioimmunoassay 

can be utilized in the forensic analysis of small skeletal fragments to distinguish 

human from non-human animal and determine non-human 

animal species. 

This presentation will make the forensic community aware how 

protein radioimmunoassay (pRIA) can be used in the analysis of small 

bone fragments to identify human vs. non-human origin and animal 

species. 

With increased awareness of the potential for positive identification 

through molecular analysis of skeletal remains, fragmentary evidence is 

frequently submitted for forensic examination. Prior to DNA analysis it 

is usually desirable to determine if remains are of human origin and if 

not, on occasion, to determine the species represented. When specimens 

are too small or taphonomically compromised for conventional morphological 

diagnosis, investigators can use SEM/EDS to help determine if 

bone and/or tooth is represented. Histological examination may reveal 

a distinct non-human pattern but usually is not diagnostic for human 

since the human histological pattern is shared with some non-human 

animals. In addition, preparation of histological sections may preclude 

DNA analysis in cases involving very small particles. In such cases, 

protein radioimmunoassay can be utilized to distinguish human from 

non-human animal and to identify the species. In addition to identification 

of modern, well-preserved specimens, pRIA has been shown to 

make correct determinations on cremated specimens and on archaeological 

specimens as ancient as 11,000 years. 

Analysis by pRIA consists of three phases: extraction of sample 

bone material from the specimen, isolation of the protein, and pRIA to 

identify species. 

Extraction of the sample material consists first of removing and discarding 

the outer one-two mm of the surfaces to remove any significant 

external protein contamination. 

Protein is isolated by placing 20-200 mg of bone matter into a 10 

ml vaccutainer and capping it. A syringe is then utilized to first add a 

solution of 1M EDTA and then to create a partial vacuum within the vaccutainer. 

Subsequently, the solution is gently shaken and rotated for two 

to five days at room temperature to dissolve the bone. 

The pRIA species identification is obtained using solid phase 

double antibody radioimmunoassay. The EDTA protein extract is placed 

in polystyrene microtiter plates to allow the protein to bind to the plate 

(thus in a “solid phase”). Various samples of antisera (raised in rabbits) 

of albumins or sera of various species are then added to the wells con- 


taining the extracted solid phase protein (antigen), allowing the antibody 

to bind to the antigen. After cleansing, radioactive (iodine-125) antibody 

of rabbit gamma globulin (produced in donkeys) is added and radioactivity 

of the wells is quantified in a scintillation counter. Species is 

determined through evaluation of the measure of radioactivity uptake 

which represents the extent of binding of species specific antisera. 

As a demonstration of the applicability of this technique, six bone 

samples were submitted for blind analysis. Each weighed less than 1.8 

grams and was too small for morphological determination of species. 

Three of these samples had been removed from known human remains 

and three from known non-human animal bones. In addition, one of the 

non-human specimens was known to represented a deer (Odocoileus virginianus). 

pRIA analysis correctly differentiated the human from nonhuman 

samples and correctly identified the known deer sample, given 

the choice of five possible non-human animals (cow, deer, dog, goat and 

pig) using 200 mg or less of each specimen. 

pRIA, Bone Fragments, Species Identification 

H101 Developing the “Isotope Fingerprint” 

in Human Skeletal Remains 

Benjamin Swift, MB, ChB*, and Guy N. Rutty, MD, Division of 

Forensic Pathology, University of Leicester, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical 

Sciences Building, Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester LE2 7LX, 

United Kingdom; Richard Harrington, PhD, International Commission 

on Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 


knowledge of the potential for isotope based analysis of human skeletal 

remains, which will assist in the identification of the post-mortem 

interval, and may further provide information which will suggest 

country, or region, of origin of the deceased, and even age estimations at 

death. 

The authors consider that the analytic method will be of great 

benefit in investigations, providing information that will assist in identifying 

an individual, and provide additional information that, until now, 

had not been available to those examining skeletal remains. 

With increased global transportation and movement of individuals, 

notably those gaining entry illegally into countries, any such method that 

can aid in identifying a deceased based upon isotope concentrations 

would be of great importance. 

Forensic pathologists are often requested to examine remains that 

have been unearthed during excavations and building developments, 

particularly in light of the publicity surrounding recent criminal cases. 

Once it has been established that the remains are indeed human the 

question of period of internment arises. Despite the extensive literature 

published upon this subject it remains notoriously difficult to quantify 

with the majority of cases relying heavily upon the “experience” of the 

investigating pathologist.Whether such experience yields correct 

answers is questionable; corroborating evidence is often absent and 

therefore the pathologist is unable to recognise any errors in judgement. 

It is generally accepted that remains should be no more than 75 

years old to warrant police interest. Therefore any reliable dating method 

should distinguish bones from within this interval accurately from those 

lying outside of it. Previous work has focused upon the physiochemical 

properties of bone or its organic constituents, though the results have 

failed to produce a workable calibration system. Several papers have 

also suggested the measurement of specific radionuclides which, unlike 

methods that depended upon chemical changes, are affected less by 

alterations within the physiochemical environment to which bones have 

lain exposed. 

Radiocarbon (14C) has proved a valuable tool for dating archaeological 

samples for over 50 years now. However, with a half-life of 5730 

years, the accuracy of this technique within a narrower time frame has 


yet to be verified. 

Previously the concentrations of 210Pb and 210Po have been determined 

in human bone mainly to evaluate the contribution to internal 

radiation doses. Little work has been undertaken into the potential for 

using these isotopes as detection tools for dating human skeletal 

remains, despite appropriate radioactive half lives (notably 22.3 years 

and 138.4 days for 210Pb and 210Po, respectively). The research is 

therefore examining the potential for using such isotopes as predictable 

biological clocks; ones that are activated at death and through analysis 

of which can provide the investigators with an accurate and reliable indicator 

of the post-mortem interval. 

Though used in archaeology the use of radionuclide mapping has 

yet to be developed in forensic science. The theory is based upon the 

knowledge that in life an individual incorporates its environment into its 

body over time. The food we eat, the water we drink, the air we breathe 

all contain small quantities of isotopes and trace elements that, once 

ingested, enter our skeletal system to a varying degree. These quantities 

alter between geographical regions and countries, depending upon the 

underlying geology of the areas. It should therefore be possible, through 

the analysis of material, to confirm the region that the individual lived 

within when they died. 

The forensic applications of both such systems would be of great 

benefit to both police forces and international organizations by narrowing 

search parameters down greatly. In cases where no documentation 

has been found to suggest where they lived, such a test would be 

invaluable to investigating officers who possess relatively limited 

resources. 

Our initial results would appear to confirm these hypotheses and 

have proved useful in on-going investigations. 

Isotope, Fingerprint, Postmortem Interval 

H102 Skeletal Manifestations of Non-Hodgkin’s 

Lymphoma and Multiple Myeloma: 

A Differential Diagnosis 

Alaina K. Goff, BA* and Wendy Potter, MS, University of New 

Mexico, Department of Anthropology, Albuquerque, NM 87131; 

Debra Komar, PhD, Office of the Medical Investigator, University of 


After attending this presentation, participants will understand the 

criteria for differentially diagnosing non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) 

from multiple myeloma (MM) when presented with forensic skeletal 

material exhibiting multiple osteolytic lesions. 

The primary purpose of this paper is to determine whether a differential 

diagnosis based solely on skeletal remains is adequate for identifying 

NHL from other disease processes producing multiple osteolytic 

lesions. The impact of this research in forensic anthropology is clear; it 

identifies the potential for and possible limitations of pathological diagnoses 

based on skeletal changes. This information helps in identification 

and may provide the cause of death for unidentified individuals in future 

forensic casework. 

Lymphomas represent any neoplastic growth occurring in lymphoid 

tissue and are categorized into one of two subtypes; Hodgkin’s or non- 

Hodgkin’s. The incidence of NHLs is three times more likely among 

whites than blacks, with a slight predilection for males. Primary lymphoma 

of bone (PLB) represents 7-25% of NHLs and predominantly 

produces “moth-eaten” osteolytic lesions. Diffuse histiocytic lymphoma 

(DHL) accounts for 68% of all PLBs and 1/3 of all childhood NHLs. 

Lesions are characteristically lytic; however, mixed lytic and sclerotic 

reactions are common. Lesions resulting from DHL are primarily distributed 

in the axial skeleton but often appear in long bone diaphyses. 

Multiple myeloma is a disorder of white blood cells causing an over 

stimulation of osteoclasts while simultaneously suppressing osteoblastic 

activity. This aggressive disease is the most common primary malig- 

526

nancy of bone. It is characterized by numerous, completely osteolytic 

lesions that are primarily distributed in the axial skeleton and long bone 

metaphyses. Radiographically, the lesions have a distinctive “punchedout” 

appearance, especially in the cranial vault; these defects may also 

produce a scalloped endosteal margin in long bones. No reactive new 

bone is associated with the lesions. The incidence of MM is two times 

more likely among blacks than whites, slightly favoring males over 

females. Less than 1% of cases occur in individuals less than 40 years 

of age. 

The Maxwell Museum of Anthropology at the University of New 

Mexico houses a large collection of skeletal remains with documented 

age, sex, biological affinity, cause and manner of death, and medical 

history. A DHL patient drawn from this collection was used to illustrate 

typical bony changes resulting from NHL; this individual was directly 

compared to the remains of an unidentified woman exhibiting similar 

skeletal lesions of unknown etiology. 

In 1962, a 36-year-old male was diagnosed with multifocal diffuse 

histiocytic lymphoma. Recurrent lesions developed later that year, and 

his left leg was amputated distal to the femoral midshaft. Twenty years 

later, he developed skull lesions; this recurrence was treated with radiation. 

In 1986, the lymphoma returned, affecting the soft palate and right 

ankle. Full body and local radiation was administered, but three months 

later, he died of sepsis secondary to diffuse histiocytic lymphoma. 

In this case, the individual’s skeleton exhibits pathognomonic 

lesions for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Numerous lytic defects and areas 

of sclerotic deposition are present on the cranium. The left femur has 

osteolytic lesions, which are permeative and have a “moth-eaten” 

appearance. A resorptive lesion is present on the proximal fibula that has 

destroyed the trabeculae and created a granular appearance to the 

medullary cavity. Lesions on the distal half of the right tibial diaphysis 

have a “moth-eaten” appearance. 

The remains of an unidentified woman were brought to the Office 

of the Medical Investigator in Albuquerque for autopsy and identification. 

The individual (Jane Doe) was between 20-25 years of age and 

of Caucasian ancestry; her skeleton exhibited multiple permeative 

lesions. Purely osteolytic lesions were observed on the centrum of the 

third lumbar vertebra and the sternum. Destruction of the sternum was 

marked. Three small discrete lytic lesions perforated the inner table of 

the calvarium affecting the diploë. Sclerotic bone addition was also 

noted on the parietals and occipital. The sternal end of the right first rib 

consisted solely of a lace-like cortical structure; no cancellous bone 

remains in this area. The lesions are characteristic of a rapidly progressing 

pathological condition spread via hematogenous or lymphatic 

dissemination. Diseases presenting similar skeletal changes include lymphoma 

and multiple myeloma. 

Although she has relatively few lesions, Jane Doe’s remains exhibit 

similar skeletal changes to those of the man diagnosed with DHL. 

Mixed sclerotic and lytic reactions observed on her cranium are 

extremely rare for patients with MM and are more diagnostic of NHLs. 

Radiographs also fail to show the distinctive “punched-out” and scalloped 

lesions of MM; instead the lesions are “moth-eaten,” indicative of 

NHLs. The differences observed between Jane Doe and the documented 

individual (specifically the number of lesions) are likely related to survivorship 

and treatment. In addition, Jane Doe is a young Caucasian 

adult; this profile favors a diagnosis of DHL, a subtype of NHL that 

often affects younger individuals. In general, NHLs are three times more 

common among whites. In contrast, MM affects blacks twice as often 

as whites and its occurrence is extremely rare in individuals less than 40 

years of age. 

In conclusion, both lymphoma and multiple myeloma should be 

considered when assessing a skeleton exhibiting multiple lytic lesions. 

However, the skeletal lesion morphology and demographic distribution 

should provide adequate criteria for a differential diagnosis between 

DHL and MM. 

Multiple Myeloma, Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma, Multiple 

Osteolytic Lesions 

H103 Computer Assisted Facial 

Reconstruction Technique 

Yves Schuliar, MD* and Pascal Chaudeyrac, MS, Institut de Recherche 

Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 Boulevard Theophile Sueur, 

Rosny-sous-Bois 93110, France; Richard Aziza, MD, 13 Avenue Eylau, 

Paris 75116, France; Jean-Noel Vignal, PhD, Institut de Recherche 

Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, 1 Boulevard Theophile Sueur, 

Rosny-sous-Bois 93110, France 

The objective of this paper is to present the methodology of twodimensional 

(2D) facial reconstruction used at the Forensic Sciences 

Laboratory of the French Gendarmerie and the subsequent results. 

Secondly, a research project examining computerized three-dimensional 

(3D) reconstruction will be shown. 

Identifying skeletal remains can be difficult. Facial reconstruction 

techniques may be required to provide information regarding the facial 

characteristics of the unknown remains. The process of computerized 

3D reconstruction can offer additional information about the real face of 

the victim and can assist in the identification process. 

Among the activities of the Forensic Medicine Department of the 

Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, facial 

reconstruction often represents the ultimate solution for the identification 

process of a body. This method is employed only when more traditional 

methods of identification do not allow for a positive identification. 

The basic approach of the method is based on the principle of the 

facial sketch, which traditional was applied to cases where a crime 

victim would describe the facial features of a perpetrator. In the case of 

skeletal remains, it is the skull that describes the facial features of person 

and helps ascertain its shape and proportions. The technique used in the 

Laboratory is relies on the method of 2D image warping. Since 1996, it 

has aided in the identification of victims who would otherwise remain 

unknown. At the request of paleoanthropologists, this method has also 

been applied to reconstruct facial features of crania from historic and 

prehistoric sites. 

At the present time, the Laboratory is involved with a research 

project along with a local computer sciences university. This project will 

further our goals of developing an application software for 3D reconstruction. 

Using tridimensional anatomical data, this new approach will 

restore the relief of a face according to the underlying anatomy with a 

numerical data bank of muscles and soft tissue thicknesses of the face. 

As a result, the face can be presented in front, profile, three-quarter view. 

This anatomical and tridimensional approach of facial reconstruction is 

interdisciplinary and involves the specialties of anatomy, anthropology, 

plastic surgery, computer science, forensic pathology, and radiology. 

The results of this project have the potential to draw in other disciplines, 

such as aesthetic and reconstructive plastic surgery and facial and maxillary 

surgery. 

Facial Reconstruction, Computer, Identification 

H104 Testing the Reliability of Frontal 

Sinuses in Positive Identification 

Using Elliptic Fourier Analysis 

Angi M. Christensen, PhD*, 301 Taliwa Drive, Knoxville, TN 37920 

This paper will examine the EFA coefficients of digitized frontal 

sinus outlines to estimate the probability of a correct identification and 

discuss the reliability of the technique. Further, the research will discuss 

when EFA comparison of frontal sinus outlines can provide quantitative 

substantiation for a forensic identification based on these structures. 

This presentation will demonstrate the importance of considering 


Daubert guidelines when conducting research in forensic anthropology, 

as well as provide the community with a new method for frontal sinus 

radiograph comparison. 

The use of frontal sinus radiographs for confirming the identity of 

human remains dates to 1925. Traditionally, such identifications involve 

comparing antemortem and postmortem radiographic records and are 

usually conducted by a forensic anthropologist, pathologist, or radiologist. 

The expert makes a visual assessment as to the agreement between 

the two radiographs (or lack thereof), making a largely subjective 

judgment as to whether the two belong to the same individual. 

Despite the fact that the comparison of frontal sinus radiographs for 

positive identification has become an increasingly applied and accepted 

technique, it is exceedingly rare that an expert’s opinion goes unchallenged 

by other experts and/or opposing council. Moreover, recent 

rulings concerning admissibility of scientific evidence in court require 

more than credibility, persuasion, and manifest experience of the scientific 

expert. The current method of frontal sinus radiograph comparison 

by visual assessment fails to meet evidence admissibility guidelines as 

set forth in the 1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, 

Inc. Specifically, there has been no evaluation of the probability of 

misidentification using the technique, and there are no standards for confirming 

or rejecting a putative identification. Even though identifications 

based upon frontal sinus radiograph comparisons have been routinely 

accepted by scientists, medical examiners and law enforcement officials, 

these shortcomings could pose serious problems if forensic scientists 

were called upon to testify regarding such an identification at trial. 

In response to these shortcomings, a study was conducted to assess 

the reliability of frontal sinuses in forensic comparisons using a geometric 

morphometric approach called Elliptic Fourier Analysis (EFA). 

In this study, the shape of a frontal sinus was represented by digitized 

points along its outline as seen in a standard anterior-posterior radiograph. 

EFA fits a closed curve to the ordered set of data points, generating 

a set of coefficients that can be treated as shape descriptors and can 

be used as variables in discriminatory or other multivariate analyses. 

EFA coefficients were generated from 808 digitized outlines of 

frontal sinuses. Likelihood ratios (the probability of the evidence supposing 

a hypothesis is true, divided by the probability of the evidence 

supposing it is false) and posterior probabilities (the probability that the 

identification is correct assuming that the identification is as likely to be 

correct as incorrect) were calculated based on these coefficients. The 

average likelihood ratio in this study was remarkably high (about 

1.09E+84 to 1), indicating that the odds of a match given the correct 

identification are significantly higher than the odds of a match from the 

population at large. The posterior probability for most cases was 1 or 

very near 1 indicating that the probability of a correct identification 

given a match would be nearly 1 in most cases, and about 96% on 

average. 

Thus, for individuals with sufficiently remarkable frontal sinuses, 

using EFA coefficients of digitized outlines to estimate the probability of 

a correct identification, and thereby confirm or reject a presumptive 

identification, is a reliable technique. The technique has also been effectively 

applied to forensic comparisons. Given these results, EFA comparison 

of frontal sinus outlines is recommended when it may be necessary 

to provide quantitative substantiation for a forensic identification 

based on these structures. 

Forensic Anthropology, Frontal Sinuses, Daubert 

H105 Markers of Mechanical Loading in the 



Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD*, Cornell University, Department of 

Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 

This study offers a new assessment of a methodology for measuring 


degrees of postcranial muscular-skeletal robusticity (MSR) that can 

benefit the forensic anthropologist in personal identification of human 

remains. The “Femoral Robusticity Index,” and some other commonly 

taken postcranial indices, are demonstrated to be less reliable indicators 

of robusticity than examination and recording of multiple markers of 

occupational stress (MOS). 

Preservation of muscular tissue from victims of mass casualties 

resulting from assaults by terrorists, accidents, or acts of nature may 

allow the forensic anthropologist to assess a hitherto commonly overlooked 

observation in cases of personal identification - measurement of 

degrees of postcranial muscular-skeletal robusticity (MSR). This 

variable refers to degrees of skeletal massiveness, strengthening or structural 

buttressing of a skeletal element by addition of bone tissue as a 

response to high mechanical loading, observable girth or “heftiness” of 

a living individual or a well preserved body, general thickness of long 

bones, and bone strength relative to body size. Gracile body forms and 

skeletal elements reflect the reduction of factors contributing to robusticity, 

but absence or reduced expression of MSR is also critical to positive 

identification of human remains. 

When bodies are taphonomically degraded, their skeletal remains 

allow a more accurate estimation of this variable from morphometric 

and radiographic examination of enthesopathic lesions at loci of muscular 

and ligamentous attachments. Under conditions of intensive 

mechanical stress, muscular contraction produces on attachment loci 

rough patches, tuberosites, crests or tubercles with an enlargement or 

hypertrophy of these attachment areas. While these features of bone 

remodeling are recognized today as markers of occupational stress 

(MOS) (the responses of osteological tissue to a range of habitual activities 

in life) the traditional method to assess MSR has been the calculation 

of the ratio of the length of a long bone to its mid-shaft diameter 

or circumference. The “Femoral Robusticity Index” has been regarded 

by many biological anthropologists for over a century as the diagnostic 

measure of total skeletal massiveness or gracility. Both forensic anthropologists 

and palaeoanthropologists have observed that marked cranial 

robusticity and molar crown tooth sizes are not necessarily correlated 

with postcranial robusticity for a given individual or a population. 

Notation of “robusticity” has been included in protocols of sex 

determination of skeletal remains, males usually exhibiting more pronounced 

features and larger body sizes than females in prehistoric and 

modern human populations. Apart from sexual dimorphism, markers of 

postcranial muscular-skeletal robusticity have been attributed by some 

bioarchaeologists to geographical and climatic adaptations to habitats 

(lower degrees of muscular-skeletal robusticity in hot-humid Tropical 

regions; higher in peoples of northern latitudes under conditions of coldstress), 

to athletic activities, socioeconomic patterns, nutrition and 

pathology, inheritance, secular trends, and locomotion over rough 

terrains. 

It is argued here that bone remodeling as a consequence of habitual 

patterns of behavior-markers of occupational stress (MOS) - is the major 

determining factor in the expressions of MSR. This hypothesis was 

tested by comparing values of the “Femoral Robusticity Index” in three 

human skeletal samples: modern European males who had been prisoners 

subjected to hard labor over many years (N = 15), modern males 

from India who had spent their lives in manual labor and in pulling rickshaws 

(N = 16), and prehistoric South Asian males from Middle 

Holocene burial deposits on the Gangetic Plain of India (Sarai Nahar Rai 

and Mahadaha) who were hunter-gatherers (N = 24). 

Multivariate and bivariate analyses indicate that comparative 

values of the Femoral Robusticity Index are insignificant in measuring 

muscular-skeletal robusticity in this male sample from the Temperate 

and Tropical Zones or Europe and Asia respectively. Rather, where 

MSR are pronounced in femora and other postcranial bones, MOS are 

the most obvious aspects of bone remodeling under contrasting conditions 

of habitual stress-related adaptations. 

The protocols of the investigation of human remains by forensic 

528

anthropologists can be supplemented and advanced by an understanding 

of the dynamic relationship of MSR to MOS in cases where personal 

identification is the focus of investigation. Although no single factor can 

account for degrees of muscular-skeletal robusticity in modern and prehistoric 

human populations, the effects of habitual patterns of activity 

imposing stress upon the integrity of the muscular-skeletal system 

provide another and critical component of the forensic anthropologist’s 

protocol in achieving a positive personal identification of human 

remains. 

Muscular-Skeletal Robusticity, Forensic Anthropology 

Methodologies, Femoral Robusticity Index 

H106 Rapid Responses to International 

Incidents: To Go or Not to Go 

(or When to Go and How to Go)? 

Tal Simmons, PhD*, School of Conservation Sciences, Talbot Campus, 

Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB, United Kingdom 

Panelists: Alison Galloway, PhD*, University of California, Social 

Science One FS, Santa Cruz, CA 95064; Jose Pablo Baraybar, BA, MSc*, 

Office on Missing Persons and Forensics (OMPF), United Nations 

Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), AUCON/KFOR, Kosovo A1503, Austria; 

Laura Bowman, BA*, 3856 Porter Street NW, E-371, Washington, 

DC 20016; Melissa Connor, MA, RPA*, 11101 South 98th Street, Lincoln, 

NE 68526; Margaret Cox, PhD*; William D. Haglund, PhD*, 20410 25th 

Avenue, NW, Shoreline, WA 98177; Sara Kahn, MSW, MPH*, 108 West 

76th Street, #2A, New York, NY 10023; Mary Ellen Keough, MPH*, 

Meyers Primary Care Institute, 630 Plantation Street, Worcester, 

MA 01605 

Attendees of this roundtable discussion will gain an understanding 

of the factors involved in both assessing the advisability and evaluating 

the implementation of a forensic response to an international incident 

where the abuse of human rights is suspected. 


differing views on the advisability of launching rapid forensic 

investigatory responses to international incidents of suspected human 

rights abuses. Panelists will debate past responses and explore their 

aftermath in terms of both legal and humanitarian ramifications. 

Over the past 20 years, forensic personnel of various disciplines 

have become involved increasingly in rapid response deployments to 

international incidents where crimes involving breaches of international 

humanitarian law or human rights are suspected of having occurred. The 

nature of the responses and of the responsibilities of the international 

forensic community varies tremendously in organizational structure, 

quantity of personnel involved, and duration of the response. This roundtable 

discussion brings together professionals from several disciplines 

(forensic scientists, psychosocial professionals, and human rights specialists) 

in order to explore the lessons they have learned during participation 

in these incidents, with particular emphasis on the planning and 

implementation of large international forensic investigations of human 

rights abuses and the responsibilities of the international forensic community. 

Each panelist in the roundtable has considerable experience at 

the organizational level in either rapid response, or the aftermath of rapid 

response, deployments in reaction to human rights catastrophes. The 

target audiences for this discussion are students and junior personnel 

who have been, or who may become, members of such teams; experienced 

practitioners are also encouraged to attend and participate. 

Responses to human rights catastrophes are organized and run by 

non-governmental organizations, national governments, and international 

forums (e.g., the United Nations special commissions and truth 

commissions, ad hoc tribunals, etc). The hierarchical organization of 

these bodies has meant that forensic scientists participating in large 

international investigations or humanitarian responses are often 

detached from the responsibility for the consequences of their work. 

From a forensic practitioner’s perspective this has meant that international 

responses to such humanitarian catastrophes are characterized by 

the rapidity of their implementation and consequent ad hoc planning. 

Numerous questions – to which there are no single answers – arise from 

responses of this kind: 

1. Given that the passing of time leads to the deterioration of 

material evidence and witness recollection, when should any 

investigation by the international community be launched? 

What issues and concerns must be addressed prior to this 

response? 

2. Are the methods used in criminal investigations internal to a 

nation-state applicable to international investigations of largescale 

human rights abuses? Is the issue really one of methods, 

or is it rather perceptions of standards? What conflicts of interest 

exist? 

3. Does the apparent urgency of a forensic response by the 

international community warrant the absence of communication 

and liaison with other involved non-forensic organizations? 

In the context of this discussion, a response is defined as the initial 

deployment of civilian experts into a region where human rights violations 

are suspected of having taken place and the actual investigation of 

crimes using the techniques available to forensic scientists. Although 

this definition excludes secondary responses, which may take place and 

continue over subsequent months or years, rapid response teams or organizations 

are frequently responsible for setting the parameters and conditions 

under which subsequent teams and organizations must conduct 

their work. Thus, the legacy of rapid response deployments lingers far 

beyond the initial time spent at the scene/morgue and, to a certain extent 

colors (if not dictates) the mandate of every organization electing to participate 

subsequently in human rights work in the same region. 

The goals and mandates of the primary stages of forensic investigations 

into large-scale human rights abuses appear deceptively simple. 

Usually they are set too narrowly (e.g., documentation of criminal activities 

through witness testimony, grave construction, and cause and 

manner of death) so that primacy is given to the logistics of the immediate 

forensic investigatory and documentary processes (e.g., archaeological, 

crime scene, investigatory, anthropological, pathological). The 

long-term ramifications of these types of activities often seem to be 

ignored so that exhumations and autopsies are provided for, but the positive 

identification of the exhumed and autopsied individuals and the 

issuance of death certificates are not. Witnesses to criminal events are 

interviewed, but family members of the missing are not asked to provide 

antemortem information and DNA samples that may aid in the identification 

process. 

Examples where rapid responses to gross human rights abuses have 

affected subsequent activities by forensic scientists and human rights 

organizations include: 

• The initial work of International Criminal Tribunal for the former 

Yugoslavia (ICTY) teams in Bosnia and Croatia in 1996 and the 

subsequent work of Physicians for Human Rights (PHR) and the 

International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) in the 

former Yugoslavia from 1997 to the present. 

• The deployment of ad hoc forensic teams in Kosova under the 

direction of the ICTY in 1999 and the subsequent work of the 

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and 

ICMP in 2000. 

• The initial work of the International Forensic Center of 

Excellence (INFORCE) in Iraq in May-June 2003 and any 

organization which may subsequently conduct work in Iraq. 

Although the desire to investigate immediately is valid, many 

reasons to hold off are equally valid. Security concerns - both for 

members of response teams and potential witnesses to events - must be 

addressed. The logistical capability of putting a team into the field must 


e evaluated. The not inconsiderable expenses of such a project must be 

funded. Unsurprisingly, these concerns are often addressed preeminently, 

but the issues pertaining to the efficacy and legacy of the initial 

response seldom garner the attention they merit. It will be argued that 

the role of the forensic scientist in large international human rights abuse 

investigations must be expanded to provide for a holistic response, one 

that includes not only technically and legally sound methods of investigation, 

but provides for the humanitarian consideration of the needs of 

surviving families and communities. Only in this way will rapid 

responses become appropriate responses. 

Human Rights Violations, Assessment, Holistic Responses 


530

Physical 

Anthropology 

H1 Expressions of Handedness 

in the Vertebral Column 

Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, MA, Department 


Knoxville, TN 

The observer of this poster will learn the usefulness of a new technique 

to determine handedness from the seventh cervical, thoracic, and 

lumbar vertebrae. 

The goal of this study is to evaluate a new approach to determining 

handedness by looking at laterality of the spinous processes of the vertebral 

column. The spinous process of the vertebra is a potential indicator 

of handedness as it is the attachment site for a number of muscles and ligaments 

associated with support and movement of the upper limb, and 

repetitive and preferential use of one arm over the other may be reflected 

in a deviation of the process to either the left or right of the midline. The 

major muscles of the vertebral column associated with positioning of the 

pectoral girdle and movement of the arm include the trapezius and latissimus 

dorsi. The trapezius muscle attaches to the spinous processes of C7- 

T12 and the latissimus dorsi T7-L5. This research specifically focuses on 

these vertebrae. 

Previous anthropological research on handedness has traditionally 

concentrated on observable bone indicators of musculoskeletal stress such 

as humeral asymmetry (the robusticity of muscle attachment sites and long 

bone length), differences in the length of paired arm elements, clavicular 

length and robusticity, scapular joint surface changes, and metacarpal size 

differences. Additional relationships explored include bone density and 

trabecular patterning, jugular foramen size and humeral expressions of the 

intertubercular sulcus, and nutrient foramen. These relationships have 

been investigated by comparing the degree and/or size of traits as 

expressed in the paired right and left elements. 

General observations on the deviation of the spinous processes from 

the midline have been made in both the chiropractic and clinical literature 

(Oliver and Middleditch, 1991). Chiropractic research by Redmond 

(1996) on unassociated and demographically unknown lumbar vertebra 

found the majority of spinous processes in his sample generally deviated 

to the right of the vertebral midline. He suggests this may be a consequence 

of unequal stress being applied to the processes from muscular 

strength differences associated with arm dominance. Additionally, the role 

handedness plays on the overall shape of the vertebral column has been 

clinically observed by Hollinshead (1982) who notes that some lefthanded 

individuals display lateral curvature with the convexity of the 

curve to the left. 

For the purpose of this research, vertebrae of both males and females 

from the William M. Bass Donated and Forensic Skeletal Collections 

were examined. These skeletons are of individuals with known handedness 

information. In human populations, the majority of individuals are 

right-handed, with preferential left-handedness ranging between 10-13% 

(see Steele 2000 for a review). The distribution of right- and left-handed 

individuals in this dataset is reflective of the distribution in the general 

population. Photographs were taken of the superior view of the vertebrae 

and a deviation of the spinous process from the vertebral midline was measured 

in degrees. 

Preliminary results indicate a majority of individuals show an 

observable deviation from the midline of the spinous process to the right, 

an anticipated finding since the majority of individuals are right-handed. 

Further research may indicate the (f) utility of this technique in the determination 

of handedness for forensic applications. 

Handedness, Spinous Process, Vertebral Column 

H2 Skull vs. Postcranial Elements 

in Sex Determination 

M. Katherine Spradley, MA*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Department of 


Knoxville, TN 

This poster will provide participants with information, derived from 

the Forensic Anthropology Data Bank, enabling them to make informed 

choices about which skeletal elements provide the most reliable indicators 

of sex. 

When performing a forensic anthropological analysis, sex estimation 

is one of the first and most important steps. A visual analysis of the pelvis 

is an excellent indicator of sex. However, not all forensic cases provide 

the luxury of a complete skeleton. If an individual is left exposed in an 

outdoor context, not all elements may be recovered due to various taphonomic 

processes. Some cases may only consist of a cranium, others just a 

few postcranial bones. What to use when only the skull and long bones 

are present, in the absence of the pelvis, is of some debate. Bass (1995) 

and Byers (2001) indicate that the skull is the second best area of sex 

determination, the pelvis being the most reliable. This perception persists 

despite evidence to the contrary (Berrizbeitia 1989, France 1998, Ousley 

2001, Robling and Ubelaker 1997). France (1998), while noting that the 

cranium is still often presented as the second best indicator of sex, reviews 

evidence showing that postcranial estimates are generally superior. 

The purpose of this study is: 1) to test the hypothesis that the skull is 

better than postcranial elements using a recent forensic sample, 2) 

establish a hierarchy of sexing reliability by element, and 3) investigate 

race variation in sexual dimorphism. 

The Forensic Data Bank (FDB) is unique in the fact that it continues 

to store data from individuals derived from the populations for which it is 

used, and provides an opportunity to explore postcranial sex discrimination 

techniques. Samples used in this study are comprised of 360 adult 

individuals, 90 Black and 270 White, with post 1929 birth years. Standard 

measurements were obtained for these individuals, 24 cranial, 10 

mandibular, and 44 post-cranial (Moore-Jansen, Ousley, and Jantz 1994). 

Mahalanobis distance, sectioning points, and expected classifications were 

computed for each individual measurement. A stepwise discriminant 

function analysis was performed on the cranium, mandible and each postcranial 

element in order to find the best subset of variables for a discriminant 

function. A MANOVA test was performed to test race variation in 

sexual dimorphism 

The humerus, clavicle, femur, scapula, tibia, radius, and ulna, respectively 

provided higher classification rates than the cranium in Whites. In 

Blacks, the humerus, clavicle, innominate, femur, and scapula, respectively 

yield higher classification results than the cranium. The fibula, calcaneus, 

mandible, and sacrum all present lower classification results than 

the cranium for both Blacks and Whites. The innominate presents as the 

third best element for sexing in Blacks and ranks below the cranium in 

Whites. In addition, the tibia ranks above the cranium in Whites and 

below in Blacks. The MANOVA test indicates the only elements 

exhibiting race variation in sexual dimorphism are the mandible and 

radius. Discriminant functions provide better classification rates than the 

univariate methods, with the exception of the tibia in Whites and the calcaneus 

in Blacks. Models and classification rates are provided. 

Sex Estimation, Sexual Dimorphism, Discriminant Function 

Analysis 


H3 Race and Ethnicity in Subadult Crania: 

When Does Differentiation Occur? 

Elizabeth A. Murray, PhD*, Hamilton County Coroner’s Office, College 

of Mount St. Joseph, 5701 Delhi Road, Cincinnati, OH 

Poster attendees will learn about survey data solicited from practicing 

forensic anthropologists on the issue of when skeletal attributes develop 

sufficiently to assign “race” to a largely intact human cranium. 

For at least the past few decades, the concept of “race” has been 

debated within the discipline of anthropology and professionals have 

taken various stances on whether or not “human races” exist. Regardless 

of the fact that the biological definition of race does not apply to humans, 

forensic anthropologists are nevertheless often able to classify skeletal 

remains to socially recognized racial or ethnic groups with a measure of 

accuracy. However, owing to the complexities of polygenic inheritance 

and increasing admixture, racial classification is often far more difficult 

than assigning stature, sex, or age, although standard references agree the 

skull is the obvious choice for attempting to make racial distinctions. 

In discussions of methodologies utilized in racial assessments, 

whether anthroposcopic or morphometric, there appears to be an underlying 

assumption, seldom voiced, that these methods are applicable to the 

remains of adults and adults only. Few references even make mention of 

racial assessments in subadults, and those that do generally refer to differences 

in long bone growth, and indicate this inter-group variability as 

being primarily of exogenous rather than endogenous origin. Krogman 

and Iscan (1986) have a section devoted to “Racial Differences” in their 

chapter “Skeletal Age: Early Years,” in which they conclude, “We see no 

valid reason to hold that there are any racial differences (their emphasis), 

in the sense that differences in sequence or time may be genetically 

entrenched and, hence, significant.” However, they do indicate “This 

problem has not been systematically studied save for the possibility of differences 

in the first two decades of life, and even here studies have focused 

mainly on evidence gained from the hand and wrist…” The scant references 

to racial differences among subadults include Choi and Trotter’s 

(1970) study of American fetal skeletons, and research conducted by 

Hauschild (1937) concerning skull differences in the third fetal month. It 

is curious that while differences have been postulated and studied in fetal 

remains, albeit meagerly, there has been no systematic or recent study of 

racial variation in children or adolescents. 

With regard to the development of skeletal traits associated with sex, 

it is widely held that these features do not appear until puberty and are ultimately 

of genetic origins that result in the timed differential production 

and release of hormones. In fact, although they are influenced environmentally, 

all growth processes that eventually culminate in the adult body 

size and morphology are guided by genetic and hormonal influences. 

However, general somatic growth occurs both prior to and after puberty. 

Therefore, it does not necessarily follow that skeletal traits associated with 

racial differences would have any direct relationship with puberty. 

Certainly some discrete traits, including dental traits such as Carabelli’s 

cusp or shoveling of incisors, appear dichotomously or discontinuously 

during the growth of an individual. However, morphometric racial traits, 

such as those in the cranium, are a function of differential growth among 

individuals of varying genetic backgrounds. Undoubtedly, these traits 

could be influenced to some extent by the same exogenous dietary, pathologic 

and socioeconomic factors that act upon long bone growth and 

development. However, because crania develop differently than long 

bones, it is possible they are not as markedly affected, or alternately, 

affected in different ways. 

The first objective of this study was to canvass the forensic anthropologic 

community regarding at what point in skeletal maturation they 

consider documenting morphological differences in the cranium that are 

typically associated with race or ethnicity. In addition, the author began to 

collect skull photographs of subadults of various ages and ethnicities to 

possibly further and more directly address this issue. 


In May of 2002, a total of 245 surveys were sent to the membership 

mailing list of the Physical Anthropology Section of the American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS). As of the writing of this abstract, 

85 of those surveys were returned to the author for a response rate of 

34.7%. Of the 85 respondents, 30 were Fellows in the Academy, 20 were 

Members, 17 held the rank of Provisional Member, 15 were Student status, 

2 were Trainee Affiliates, and 1 was a non-member. The greatest number 

of participants (n=27 or 31.8%) reported their years of experience at 5-15 

years, while 18 (21.2%) reported 15-25 years of experience, and 14 

(16.5%) reported 25 or more years of experience. Of the 85 respondents, 

26 (29.4%) reported either 5 or less years of experience or that they did not 

typically practice on their own. The survey also asked each participant to 

report on their average number of human cases per year and the average 

number of cases involving subadult/immature remains in which they participate 

annually (averaging the past five years). 

The key question in the survey was worded as follows: “What would 

be the lowest age-at-death at which you would typically feel ‘professionally 

comfortable’ assigning ‘race’ or ‘biological affinity’ to a largely 

intact human cranium?” The survey asked participants to choose only one 

of the following responses: 

• “I do not advocate assigning ‘race’ to human remains, regardless 

of age. 

• Only when skeletal maturation is totally complete (i.e., all 

epiphyses are fused). 

• 20-25 years at time of death 





• “I’ve never considered the question, and do not feel comfortable 

answering it.” 

Responses were tallied and then sorted by years of experience, cases 

per year, and other survey parameters. 

Within the 85 responses, all of the above answers were selected by at 

least one survey participant. One individual (1.2%) did not advocate 

assigning race to human remains, regardless of age, and one other individual 

(1.2%) declined to answer the question. Six respondents (7.1%) 

had never considered the question or did not feel comfortable answering 

it. The most frequent response (n=29 or 34.1%) was from those who indicated 

they would “typically feel professionally comfortable assigning 

race” when an individual is in the 15-20 year range; 15 of 85 (17.6%) 

reported they would feel comfortable assigning race only when skeletal 

maturation is totally complete; another 15 of the 85 respondents (17.6%) 

indicated they would assign race in the 20-25 year range; 7 respondents 

(8.2%%) would assign race in the 0-5 year range; 6 (7.1%) answered they 

would assign race in the 5-10 year category; and 5 participants (5.9%) 

would consider 10-15 years at time of death as the lowest age at which 

they would assign race. (It is interesting to note that there was no obvious 

correlation between the answer to the above question and the respondents’ 

membership category or years of experience.) In summary, of the 77 

survey respondents who answered the question and indicated they do 

report race, 59 of those (76.6%) would not feel comfortable doing so until 

after age 15, an age that roughly correlates with the post-pubertal period 

in most subadults. 

As previously suggested, there is no biological reason to assume that 

the continuous types of morphological racial variability seen, in the 

cranium or elsewhere, are related to hormonal changes that occur specifically 

during the mid-to-later teenage years. However, from the survey one 

can conclude that forensic anthropologists are reluctant to assign a race 

below age 15. It is hoped that this paper will be the basis of a research 

agenda that helps illustrate at what point anthropologists can or cannot differentiate 

race or ethnicity from the crania of subadults. 

The presentation will provide a more thorough discussion of survey 

responses, as well as photographic evidence of subadult crania of various 

age and ethnic backgrounds. Future directions of study are to utilize 

532

Fordisc on crania of various ages, particularly older children, to see if any 

ethnic distinctions emerge, since the race differences Fordisc keys in on 

are mostly based upon shape rather than size (R Jantz, personal communication). 

Additionally, radiographs and photographs of living children 

and adolescents will be utilized to examine at what age cranial variations 

begin to emerge among subadults of varying ages. 

References 

Choi, S.C. and M. Trotter (1970) A statistical study of multivariate 

structure and race-sex differences of American white and negro fetal 

skeletons. AJPA 33: 307-313. 

Hauschild, R. (1937) Rassenunterscheide zwischen negriden und 

europiden Primordial-cränien des 3 Fetalmonats. Zeitschrift für Morphol 

und Anthropol, 36: 215-279. 

Krogman, WM and Iscan, MY (1986) The Human Skeleton in Forensic 

Medicine. Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL. 

Race, Subadults, Cranium 

H4 An Examination of the Petrographic 


Increments for the Determination of 

Age and Seasonality in Human Teeth 

Tamara L. Leher, BA*, Department of Anthropology, California State 

University-Chico, P.O. Box 4036, Chico, CA 

The purpose of this presentation is to provide preliminary findings 

regarding the accuracy of cementum increments in determining age and 

seasonality in adult human teeth through the use of the petrographic techniques. 

The 1950s witnessed the development and refinement of microscopic 

techniques specifically focused towards the estimation of age in humans. 

Gustafson (1950) examined multiple points on thin sections of teeth and 

found that, with some degree of accuracy, one could attempt to estimate 

age for an individual through observable changes. Wildlife biologists 

began to use microscopic analysis on non-human teeth to examine the 

cementum. By counting the layers of cementum in a particular tooth, age 

as well as season of death (seasonality) of mammals could be determined. 

It was not until the 1980s that anthropologists would attempt age estimates 

based on examinations of cementum increments in human teeth. It would 

take twenty years before anyone published on the possibility of the determination 

of seasonality in human teeth. 

Why is cementum incrementation important to or even necessary for 

anthropology? To answer this question, one need only look at a fragmentary 

burial to see that teeth are one of the most durable elements of the 

human body. The techniques that anthropologists use in estimating age are 

only as useful as the available remains. Pubic symphysis degeneration, 

auricular surface changes, rib end changes, all of these techniques will 

require elements that often suffer damage, scavenging, or are completely 

missing from a burial or skeletal recovery. It is the intent of this study to 

demonstrate that cementum increment analysis, through the use of hard 

sectioning (petrographic) techniques, can be a valuable tool for providing 

accurate data on age and season of death. 

This study is a preliminary examination of the use of petrographic 

techniques to view cementum increments and via these increments, 

determine age and seasonality. Before any work is conducted, each tooth 

is cleaned and measurements are taken for general documentation 

including, tooth length and width, crown height, and root length. Each 

tooth is coded with a number letter combination (protecting the identity 

and information for each tooth) and embedded in epoxy. Once the epoxy 

hardens, the tooth is cut with a diamond-wafering saw. Longitudinal sections 

are chosen over cross sections so as to allow viewing of the entire 

tooth root. Each half of the tooth is affixed to a slide with epoxy, labeled 

with the code of the tooth, and sent through a diamond-wafering saw, 

further reducing the tooth. Sections not attached to slides are labeled and 

stored for future sectioning. After cutting is complete, each slide section 

is ground down on a glass plate with 600 grit silicon carbide until the 

section is thin enough for the cementum increments to be visible. 

Thickness of each section varies depending on the tooth and when clear 

visibility of the cementum increments is apparent. 

When a section is ground down to an appropriate thickness, it is 

viewed under a microscope using transmitted cross-polarized light. The 

entire length of the tooth root is examined. Increments are counted at the 

location that offers the best visibility (this varies from tooth to tooth). 

Counting the opaque lines and adding that count to the eruption date of the 

tooth being examined establish band count. Seasonality is determined by 

observing the outermost cementum increment. According to available 

research, opaque bands tend to correlate to winter seasons or seasons of 

slow growth while translucent bands tend to correlate to summer seasons 

or seasons of accelerated growth. 

Results of preliminary research demonstrate that cementum increments 

are visible in human teeth using the petrographic technique. 

Sections examined thus far seem to demonstrate a positive correlation 

between cementum increments and age for individuals between 18-60 

years of age (correlation decreases as age increases); however, results for 

correlation with seasonality were not conclusive. More research is necessary. 

Larger samples of teeth from forensic and historic material, as well 

as dental extractions of known age and seasonality will be valuable in 

determining accuracy, correlation, and examining the factors that 

influence variation within cementum increments. 

Age Determination, Cementum Increments, Season of Death 

H5 A Test of the Auricular Surface Ageing 

Method Using a Modern Sample: 

The Effect of Observer Experience 

Debra A. Komar, PhD*, Office of the Medical Investigator, University of 

New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM; Tim Petersen, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM; Suzzette 

Sturtevant, BSc, and Britny Moore, BSc, Office of the Medical 


This poster will present findings of a study to determine whether low 

accuracy rates using the auricular surface morphology ageing method are 

the result of observer error or methodological deficiencies. 

The validity of ordinal estimation methods such as ageing techniques 

rely both on the inherent accuracy of the method as well as the proficiency 

and experience of the observer. When poor accuracy rates are obtained, 

the difficulty lies in differentiating whether the fault lies with the method 

or the observer. This study utilizes a modern forensic collection and 

observers ranging from experienced faculty to novice undergraduates to 

evaluate the accuracy of the auricular surface morphology ageing technique 

developed by Meindl and Lovejoy (1985, 1989). The technique 

requires observers to classify the auricular surface of an individual 

according to eight phases. Written descriptions and photographs provide 

users of the method with criteria for each phase. The research sample used 

in this study consisted of 146 individuals from the documented collection 

at the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology at the University of New 

Mexico. The sample contained only individuals who died recently (1984 

to present) and whose demographic information was thoroughly documented, 

thereby providing accurate age and sex information. Age at death 

ranged from 18 to 101 years and both males and females were represented. 

The observers included a junior faculty member (DK) with over a decade 

of experience using this ageing method in hundred of forensic and archeological 

analyses; a Ph.D. candidate (TP) with four years of training and 

practical experience and two undergraduates (SS, BM) with solid backgrounds 

in anatomy but no prior experience or training in this ageing technique. 

Overall accuracy rates for the auricular surface method ranged 


from 25% correct for the junior observers, to 40% for the graduate student, 

and 84% correct for the faculty member. Intraobserver tests (using the 

Kappa statistic) were conducted to evaluate how consistent each 

researcher was in their observations. Results ranged from 75% (junior 

authors) to 100% (faculty member), indicating a fair to excellent degree of 

consistency based largely on experience. Interobserver tests (again utilizing 

the Kappa statistic) revealed poor agreement among the observers. 

Researchers with less experience noted that, despite the descriptions and 

photographs, the method was difficult to understand and use. Poorly 

defined or overlapping phases and vague descriptions were among the 

chief complaints. For example, the written description differentiating 

phases one and two states “changes from the previous phase are not 

marked and are mostly reflected in slight to moderate loss of billowing.” 

Phase 3 instructs the observer to “note smoothing of surface by 

replacement of billows with fine striae, but distinct retention of slight billowing.” 

Even for observers familiar with the definitions and features of 

the technique, such standards are often confusing and insufficient. 

Overall, the results indicate that the accuracy rates obtained with the 

auricular surface method do rely on the experience and training of the 

observer. However, tests of a similar ageing method (the Suchey-Brooks 

pubic symphysis morphology technique) by the two senior authors 

resulted in accuracy rates of 98% (DK) and 93% (TP) using the same collection. 

The Suchey-Brooks method requires observers to score the pubic 

symphysis of an individual as one of six distinct phases using written 

descriptions, illustrations, and casts. The results using the Suchey-Brooks 

method, combined with the high intraobserver scores of the senior authors, 

suggests that the poor accuracy rates obtained using the auricular surface 

method may not be exclusively the result of observer error. Several factors 

warrant consideration. First, the use of casts, well-defined phases with 

clear written descriptions, and separate standards for males and females 

seen in the Suchey-Brooks method render the method more “user 

friendly.” Second, the auricular surface method was originally created 

using the Hamman-Todd collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural 

History, which contains individuals who died prior to 1940. The Suchey- 

Brooks method was developed on a modern forensic collection. 

Temporal changes as well as the application of standards developed on one 

population to alternate populations may constrain the successful use of the 

auricular surface method. 

Physical Anthropology, Ageing Methods, Osteology 

H6 Sex, Size, and Genetic Mistakes: 

Identifying Disorders of Sexual 

Differentiation in Human Skeletal Remains 

Linda O’Connell, BM, MSc*, Joy Steven, MSc*, and Margaret Cox, PhD*, 

School of Conservation Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, Dorset, 


This presentation will assess whether disorders of sexual differentiation 

can be identified in human skeletal remains and whether such 

changes affect the determination of sex. Results show that a number of 

skeletal manifestations associated with each of the disorders and that these 

may compromise the effectiveness of sex assignation. 

One of the most fundamental demographic parameters to be ascertained 

as part of any forensic or biological anthropological analysis is that 

of sex determination. The term sex can be defined in one of five ways: 

chromosomal sex, gonadal sex, phenotypic sex, gender, and sexual orientation. 

However, when forensic and biological anthropologists refer to this 

term, they are alluding to the biological sex of an individual, which is fixed 

by the X- and Y-chromosomes, and dictated by morphological characteristics. 

The potential effects of disorders of sexual differentiation upon elucidation 

of this demographic parameter, (particularly with respect to the 

effects on the pelvis and skull) has not been considered within this context. 


A desk-based assessment extensively reviewed five selected 

disorders of sexual differentiation - Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s 

syndrome, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, testicular feminization, and true 

hermaphroditism. The pathogenesis, aetiology, epidemiology, clinical 

features, and treatments of these conditions were investigated, together 

with any other mimicking conditions. 

Results showed that there are a number of skeletal manifestations 

associated with each of the disorders. Examination of these traits revealed 

that the normal expression of skeletal sexual dimorphism could be compromised 

as a result, with individuals being incorrectly assigned a sex. 

Furnished with this knowledge, the forensic or biological anthropologist 

will be in a position to not only offer a potential diagnosis, but also 

to fully evaluate any effects that this may have on the features employed 

for sex determination. 

Disorders of Sexual Differentiation, Sex Determination, 

Skeletal Analysis 

H7 The Foot as a Forensic Tool 

John A. DiMaggio, RPh, DPM*, Forensic Podiatry Consulting Services, 

2600 East Southern Avenue, Suite I-3, Tempe, AZ 

The goals of this presentation are to inform the forensic community 

of the importance of foot related evidence and the ability to use such 

evidence effectively in criminal cases. 

This poster will present information on how the forensic podiatrist 

uses his or her expertise in the analysis, comparison, and evaluation of 

barefoot impression and bare footprint evidence. 

The team approach is important to the success of any endeavor, especially 

in law enforcement. The team for footwear/barefoot impressions 

may include the crime scene specialist, investigator, forensic tracker, 

footwear examiner, and forensic podiatrist. The forensic anthropologist, 

who may have some overlapping responsibilities, may also be involved in 

the case. The podiatrist should take all foot casts, weight bearing or nonweight-bearing, 

and fabricate the models in dental stone. Laboratory 

personnel, as needed, can do the photography, inked impressions, etc., but 

with the assistance/recommendations of the podiatrist, because the needs 

may vary from case to case. As part of this process, the podiatrist can 

perform a suspect evaluation to include foot typing, biomechanical evaluation, 

pathology, and gait evaluation with the fabrication of evidentiary 

materials, such as a dynamic gait pattern, depending on case needs. 

The scene of the crime is a very important area that requires thorough 

evaluation. Discovery, documentation, and recovery are paramount and 

although most evidence is properly processed, for some reason, footprint 

evidence, unless it is quite obvious, is usually not. This is by no means is 

a slight on the job of criminal investigation personnel. However, there are 

many reasons for this trend, but due to the increase in the number of individuals 

working specifically in this field and increased education and 

training in the law-enforcement community, this trend is changing. 

The foot is similar in all individuals because of basic physiologic and 

anatomic factors. Due to inherent differences in body proportions, genetic 

predispositions, pathologic states, functional or dynamic variances or 

influences, footwear constraints, environmental factors, occupational 

influences, and injuries, it is unique to that individual. This uniqueness 

allows for the ability to identify individuals to being linked to a crime 

scene or wearing footwear that were either left at that scene or evidence 

of such. 

Foot related evidence includes bare or sock bloody footprints, 

impressions in a substrate such as dirt, sand, dust, or blood on floors. The 

foot image is often present on the sock liner of the shoe in both two and 

three-dimensional forms. The shoe will also show significant traits of the 

foot that it housed. Since a large percentage of the population has some 

type of foot problem, pathology present in the foot from a structural 

standpoint such as a bunion deformity, hammertoe deformity, digital 

534

imbalance, Haglund’s deformity, and many others will lead to a wear 

pattern in the shoe. Functional or biomechanical imbalance will lead to 

other wear patterns that can be observed in the upper shoe or on the 

outsole. The shoe may also leave impressions in dirt, mud, sand, and 

blood. The shoe is sometimes left at the scene or discarded nearby and the 

podiatrist is often asked if the wearer of the shoe can be identified. The 

shoe print is often discovered and not always conclusively identified. 

The poster will show exemplars of the foot that are used for comparisons 

and proper procedure for obtaining them, and for the footwear 

pertinent to the case. The foot zones as well as foot identification contours 

will be presented and their application to the identification process. 

The morphology of the foot and what can be ascertained regarding a 

“profile” of the individual who made the bloody footprint, for example, 

will be shown through various means. 

A case study will be presented to show the attendee the protocol and 

procedures used to come to a valid conclusion utilizing different forms of 

foot related evidence. 

Forensic Podiatry, Barefoot Morphology, Footprint/Impression 

Evidence 

H8 Back to the Basics: Anatomical Siding of 

Fragmentary Skeletal Elements From 

Victims of the World Trade Center Disaster 

Eric J. Bartelink, MA*, Jason M. Wiersema, MA, and Maria Parks, MA, 

Department of Anthropology, Texas A & M University, College Station, 

TX; Gaille MacKinnon, BA, MSc, Department of Conservation Sciences, 

University of Bournemouth, Bournemouth, United Kingdom; and Amy 

Zelson Mundorff, MA, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, New York City, 

520 First Avenue, New York, NY 

After attending this poster presentation, participants will learn: 

(1) methods used for the identification and anatomical siding of human 

remains from victims of the World Trade Center; (2) the practical utility of 

having visual and comparative reference material readily available when 

identifying fragmentary skeletal elements; and (3) the value of physical 

anthropologists in the mass disaster setting for identifying fragmentary, 

burned, and commingled remains. This presentation will further provide 

hands-on opportunity for participants to assess various methods 

(published and unpublished) used for the anatomical siding of fragmentary 

skeletal elements. 

The identification of skeletal elements employs the absolute basics of 

human osteological methods used in the laboratory and field setting, and 

generally precedes assessments of sex, age, ancestry, stature, and identifying 

characteristics. When dealing with a single individual, identification 

of skeletal elements is straightforward, although taphonomic factors may 

complicate analyses. However, for mass disasters the death toll is high 

and may involve a long process of identification for remains that are in a 

heavily fragmented state. 

Human osteological training provides the basic skills needed for the 

identification and anatomical siding of skeletal elements, as well as a comprehensive 

understanding of their orientation within the body. When more 

detailed methods are needed for assessing highly fragmentary and/or 

burned remains, closer attention to skeletal anatomy together with use of 

comparative material is often necessary in order to accurately identify and 

side elements. 

The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, resulted in the deaths of 

2,823 victims at the World Trade Center (WTC) in lower Manhattan, representing 

the worst mass fatality in U.S. history, and producing nearly 

20,000 individual body parts with varying levels of fragmentation and 

decomposition. After the initial search for survivors, the daunting task of 

recovering human remains from the site was undertaken. A multidisciplinary 

team comprising pathologists, anthropologists, odontologists, fingerprint 

and DNA specialists, and identification staff was established to 

facilitate the identification process at the Office of the Chief Medical 

Examiner in Manhattan (OCME). Human remains were recovered from 

September 2001 through July 2002 from the WTC site, with a simultaneous 

secondary recovery effort at the Staten Island Landfill where debris 

was brought from the site to be sifted and screened for further remains. 

The fact that thousands of remains arrived at the OCME over a ten month 

period in a highly fragmented state, and were in many cases, incompletely 

recovered, prevented calculations of the minimum number of individuals 

(MNI) represented. 

The unusual circumstances of two hijacked commercial airliners, 

fully loaded with jet fuel, impacting the 110-story North and South WTC 

towers, followed by their subsequent collapse and the collapse of five 

other adjacent commercial buildings, introduced a multitude of taphonomic 

factors that complicated the positive identification of individuals. 

These included the mutilation, fragmentation, and amputation of body 

parts, extensive decomposition and natural mummification, commingling, 

the effects of fire destruction, and further damage incurred through the use 

of earth-moving machinery during the recovery effort. 

The extent to which remains were fragmented, burned, and/or 

decomposed hindered efforts to identify and anatomically side body parts, 

and further complicated interpretations of commingling. Because of the 

high incidence of commingling resulting from the collapse of the WTC 

complex and from recovery efforts to remove more than 1.6 million tons 

of debris from the site, the accurate siding of fragmentary remains proved 

to be an important component of the identification process. In the process 

of anthropological verification of remains following their original 

assessment, every attempt was made to identify and side fragmentary and 

burned remains through the use of comparative skeletal material, osteology 

textbooks, and methods developed throughout the course of the 


A variety of texts provide excellent detailed information for the 

anatomical siding of fragmentary skeletal remains using a variety of 

methods (e.g., Bass 1995, White 1991; Steele 1989). However, these 

sources may not be practical or readily available in the mass disaster 

setting, where time is often the greatest constraint and accuracy is the most 

important goal. The degree to which remains were fragmented, burned, or 

decomposed, along with the sheer number of individual cases assessed, 

presented practical problems for attempting to side fragmentary remains. 

This was particularly evident when common anatomical features typically 

used in identification were either missing, difficult to assess due to the 

presence of soft tissue, or were heavily charred or calcined. This presentation 

will focus on several methods used for the anatomical siding of 

fragmentary remains as part of the anthropological verification protocol 

for the WTC disaster, and will further discuss practical applications in 


Forensic Anthropology, Human Identification, Mass Disaster 

H9 The William M. Bass Donated Collection 

at the University of Tennessee - Knoxville 

Helen E. Bassett, MA*, M. Katherine Spradley, MA, and Lee Meadows 

Jantz, PhD, Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 


The attendee will be provided with an overview of the demographic 

information as well as some pathological information on the human 

remains available for study in the William M. Bass Donated Collection. 

The William M. Bass Donated Collection is housed at the Forensic 

Anthropology Center, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, and contains 

the remains of over 425 individuals. Since 1981, body donations have 

been accepted for anthropological research. In most cases, the donations 

are received immediately after death and are used in various on-going 

human decomposition studies at the Anthropological Research Facility. 

Medical and other biological information is received through contact 


etween Forensic Anthropology Center faculty and the individual prior to 

death and/or the individual’s family after their death. The purpose of this 

poster is to provide an overview of the demographic information about the 

donated collection and a brief look into some pathological conditions seen 

in the collection. 

The majority of the donated individuals are from Tennessee and the 

surrounding states, although some have come from as far away as Texas 

and Pennsylvania, with dates of birth ranging from the 189’s to 1974. The 

remains represent a 20th Century American sample continuing in time 

where the Terry and Hammann Todd collections end. A small number of 

individuals with early dates of birth result in overlap between these 

collections. Manners of death for the donated individuals include natural, 

accidental, suicide, and homicide, resulting in a wide age range. 

Additionally, the collection contains 27 infants and stillborns. 

Approximately 100 of the individuals have been autopsied prior to 

placement at the Anthropological Research Facility. 

Ancestry and sex are two important demographic variables to consider. 

More males than females are represented in the collection, and the 

majority of the individuals are of European descent. Other racial groups 

represented include African Americans, Hispanic, Mexican, and American 

Indian. 

Traumatic episodes are evident in the skeletal remains of the individuals. 

Many exhibit healed antemortem fractures, and some individuals 

have had limb amputations. Additionally, perimortem trauma (Meadows 

Jantz and Schneider, 1999) is present. 

Finally, many pathological conditions are seen in the individuals such 

as: osteoarthritis, eburnation, amputation, spondylolysis, and diffuse idiopathic 

skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). 

While osteological studies have been conducted using the collection, 

the increasing number of individuals available for study warrants a 

renewed interest and further analysis of the remains. The critical feature 

of the William M. Bass Donated Collection is that it is the largest collection 

of modern individuals available for anthropological study. 

Meadows Jantz, Lee and Kennan L. Schneider 

1999 Trauma Patterns in the William M. Bass Skeletal Collection. 

Proceedings AAFS, Annual Meeting, Orlando, Florida Vol. 5:215. 

Anthropology, William M. Bass Donated Collection, Demographics 

H10 The Hyoid Bone as a Sex Discriminator 

Michael Finnegan, PhD*, Department of Sociology, Anthropology and 

Social Work, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 

The purpose of this study was to assess whether the hyoid bone is a 

practical and reliable indicator of sex dimorphism. 

With an ever-increasing number of archaeological and forensic cases 

involving fewer and fewer recovered remains, the suite of methods to 

ascertain the sex of the remains diminishes. In this eventuality, more and 

varied techniques are requisite for the accurate estimation of skeletal sex. 

Encouraged by positive results of recent radiographic analyses of sex 

dimorphism in the hyoid bone (Reesink et al. 1998), the author started 

collecting metric data on macerate specimens of the hyoid bone. 

The hyoid bone is part of the cranium. It is positioned at the base of 

the tongue, suspended from the styloid processes of the temporal bones. It 

consists of a corpus, two greater cornua which articulate laterally, and two 

lesser cornua which articulate at the superior-lateral margins. 

The choice of dimensional criteria was based on a review of the literature 

and on the measurements taken by Reesink et al. (1998) and 

Papadopoulos et al. (1989). Based on their earlier multivariate analysis of 

13 traits, three traits appeared to be most useful in the radiographic 

analysis of sex dimorphism. The traits of choice are 1) the maximal height 

of the corpus (MMH); 2) the anterior posterior thickness of the corpus 

(ATP); and 3) the maximal transverse diameter of the corpus (MMH). . 

The chosen traits are also those that are most easily taken. 


Data were taken on 52 hyoid bones (38 male and 14 female) from 

past forensic cases, cadaver materials and archaeological remains where 

the sex was either known or was judged from a combination of pelvic 

morphology and discriminant functions. All measurements were taken to 

0.1 mm. Hyoid bones with obvious pathology or trauma were excluded. 

Those hyoid bones that showed cornu-corpus fusion, to the extent of obliterating 

the measuring points, were omitted. Approximately 5% of the 

selected hyoid bones could not be measured, usually due to fusion of one 

or more greater cornu with the corpus. The classification formula is 

0.56(MMH)+1.92(ATP)+2.46(MTD)-73.2, with male assigned to positive 

values and female assigned to negative values. 

In males, 32 of 38, or 84.2%, were correctly classified. In females, 9 

of 14, or 64.3%, were correctly classified. Overall 41 of 52 or 78.9% were 

correctly classified. Both combined and male classifications were a few 

percent better than Reesink et al. (1998) radiographic technique, while 

female classification was not as good. These results may be an artifact due 

to the rather larger male sample and to a lesser extent the racial mixture, 

which has not been considered in this sample. Determination of sex based 

on the individual hyoid measurements is not significant. However, the 

overall correct classification is significantly higher than apriori probability 

and thus may be a useful technique in sex determination. Further verification 

of this technique on larger, racially separate samples is suggested 

before these hyoid measurements are added to the stable of reliable sex 

discriminators. 

Hyoid Bone, Sex Determination, Discriminant Function 

H11 The Estimation of Sex 

From the Proximal Ulna 

William E. Grant, MA*, Holland Community Hospital, 602 Michigan 

Avenue, Holland, MI; and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Department of 


Knoxville, TN 

This paper’s objective is to present the findings of a metric analysis 

quantifying the degree of sexual dimorphism of the proximal ulna and to 

assess its value in estimating sex. 

The estimation of sex based on measurements of long bones has been 

a useful tool to the forensic anthropologist and skeletal biologist for years. 

These techniques are particularly effective when one is confronted with 

analyzing fragmentary remains. Much of the research available has 

focused on analysis of the lower limb bones, with the humerus receiving 

slightly less attention. Fewer studies have been conducted using bones of 

the forearm, with most utilizing non-U.S. collections. 

The present study utilizes a discriminant function analysis of two 

measurements taken from the proximal ulna to estimate sex. The first 

measures the length of the semilunar and radial notches while the second 

measures the width of the proximal rim of the olecranon. 

White and Black male and female samples were taken from the 

William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection (n=113), the Smithsonian’s 

Terry Collection (n=98), and from U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) cases (n=5). The Bass sample consisted of 

78 White males, 15 White females, 17 Black males, and 2 Black females, 

with ages ranging from 18-89 years. From the Terry Collection, measurements 

were taken from 8 White males, 51 White females, 7 Black males, 

and 33 Black females. The ages of this sample ranged from 17-54 years. 

For the CILHI sample, 4 males (2 White and 2 Black) and 1 female 

(White) were utilized, with ages ranging from 19-38 years. 

All of the ulnae were measured using a GPM sliding caliper with 

measurements taken to the nearest 0.5 millimeter. Whenever possible, the 

left ulna was chosen over the right, and only those ulnae free of pathological 

insult were measured. 

Discriminant function analyses were run on the data, with separate 

examinations conducted to control for any possible racial differences. 

536

Results (using both measurements) indicate that White males and females 

were correctly sexed with 93.2% and 95.5% accuracy (respectively), while 

Black males and females were correctly sexed 92.6% and 97.1% of the 

time (respectively). An analysis was also conducted to determine whether 

there was a significant secular trend between the Terry and Bass samples. 

The results of this latter test proved negative. 

The results of this study demonstrate that the proximal ulna is highly 

dimorphic. Sex estimation using two dimensions of the proximal ulna 

yields correct sex classification as high as any other postcranial element, 

and exceeds correct classification rates normally obtained from the skull. 

The proximal ulna has obvious application to sex estimation in mass 

disasters, where remains may be fragmented, but should also be given 

considerable weight in sex estimation of complete remains. 

Ulna, Sex Estimation, Sexual Dimorphism 

H12 The Utility of Nonmetric Cranial Traits 

in Ancestry Determination - Part II 

Joseph T. Hefner, BS*, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

Department of Anthropology, 1898 Seton Court, Clearwater, FL 

The primary goal of the current study is to provide the audience with 

an overview of the state of nonmetric trait analysis in ancestry 

determination, and to test the utility of five traits in the classification of 

unidentified human crania. 

The determination of ancestry is extremely useful for limiting the 

number of antemortem record searches during the forensic investigation of 

unidentified human remains. Most often, this determination – almost 

exclusively using the cranium – relies upon the combination of the 

assessment of a number of unique morphological features (nonmetric 

traits) and metric analysis of the shape of the skull. Evaluations utilizing 

nonmetric traits may be effective for predicting ancestry but relies on the 

observer’s experience. Furthermore, the frequency of many of these traits 

among populations has not been examined in full and the range in variation 

of these traits is often not considered in ancestry prediction studies 

resulting in the loss of existing gradations that are observed (Brues 1991). 

Considering this deficiency in the existing body of data, 

17 n onmetric cranial traits were documented for 762 individuals from 20 

populations throughout the world (European, n = 185; Asian, n = 156; 

American Indian, n = 241; African, n = 180) curated at the National 

Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. Last year (Hefner 

2002) five of these traits were discussed: inferior nasal aperture, nasal 

bone structure, nasal aperture width, interorbital breadth, and post-bregmatic 

depression. These five traits were shown to have only a minimal 

predictive value for ancestry. In this presentation, discussion will focus on 

the morphological variation and frequency distribution of five additional 

cranial traits. The traits include anterior nasal spine prominence, zygomaticomaxillary 

suture shape, transverse palatine suture shape, posterior 

zygomatic tubercle, and malar tubercle. 

First, each trait was examined and character states were defined, or, 

when appropriate, trait values from previous studies were utilized. Next, 

new anatomical terms and definitions were developed for character states 

not previously described. If possible, each trait was scored on a four or 

five-level scale, thus permitting the inclusion of intermediate morphologies. 

In this manner, each trait was scored progressively (i.e., 

Posterior Zygomatic Tubercle: 0 = absent; 1 = weak; 2 = incipient; 3 = 

medium; and 4 = strong). Finally, in an attempt to properly quantify the 

morphological variability, standard frequency distributions for each of the 

character states were calculated. In addition, polychoric correlations were 

computed for all traits to determine inter– and intra-population variability. 

Ancestry determination from nonmetric traits classically relies on 

assessing whether a particular skull exhibits trait values that are believed 

to be representative of a given ancestral population (e.g., ‘angled’ zygomaticomaxillary 

suture in Asian and Native American individuals). In the 

current study, individuals possessing all five expected trait values ranged 

from 10.24% (13/127) for European individuals to 12.21% (21/172) for 

African individuals. Frequency distributions for most traits do not show 

significant differences between ancestral groups, with the possible 

exception of the transverse palatine suture. In this sample, 34.8% (64/184) 

of the Europeans possessed a “bulging” (asymmetrical) transverse palatine 

suture, 54.5% (90/165) of the Asian sample possessed a “straight” transverse 

palatine suture, 64.3% (207/322) of the Native American population 

possessed a “straight” transverse palatine suture, and 46.7% (64/184) of 

the African sample possessed an “anterior bulging” (symmetrical) 

transverse palatine suture. This agrees, to some degree, with the published 

results of Gill (1998). Polychoric correlations were statistically insignificant 

for all five traits in the current study. This lack of strength in 

association tentatively suggests that these traits may not be useful for 

clustering in ancestry prediction studies. 

These data appear to undercut the predictive value of these traits. 

Further research is necessary for the traits currently used by forensic 

anthropologists in making a determination of ancestry. The production of 

detailed, anatomically based descriptions that record the variability in trait 

expression, and recording the frequencies of these traits among populations, 

will greatly enhance the forensic anthropologist’s ability to 

determine ancestry through visual means. 

Ancestry, Nonmetric Traits, Human Identification 

H13 Forensic Anthropology, Repatriation, 

and the “Mongoloid” Problem 

Stephen D. Ousley, PhD*, Smithsonian Institution, Repatriation Office, 

Department of Anthropology, Washington, DC; Jessica L. Seebauer, BS, 

Department of Biology, State University of New York-Geneseo, Geneseo, 

NY; and Erica B. Jones, MA, Smithsonian Institution, Repatriation 

Office, Department of Anthropology, Washington, DC 

After attending this presentation, the participant will understand: 

1) discriminant function analysis (DFA) is a powerful tool for estimating 

ancestry from skeletal remains, 2) DFA using interlandmark distances 

(ILDs) can distinguish between Asian groups and American Indians very 

well, 3) morphometric relationships within and among Asian and Native 

American groups undermines the “Mongoloid” label and grouping, and 

4) an appreciation of population histories is important in analyzing modern 


Establishing the cultural affiliation of human remains is a vital part of 

the Native American Grave Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), 

which mandates the evaluation and repatriation of human remains to the 

appropriate Native American tribes. Often, the decision whether to 

repatriate and to whom is primarily based on biological data. Native 

American remains are a concern for forensic scientists and museum personnel, 

who need to distinguish between Native American remains and 

those from other groups (Pickering and Jantz 1994). The illegal sale of 

human remains is also a NAGPRA violation if the remains are those of an 

American Indian. 

The estimation of ancestry is more complicated if one tries to 

discriminate among closely related groups. Native Americans and Asian 

groups share a more recent common ancestor and have traditionally been 

grouped under the “Mongoloid” label. “Mongoloids” are supposed to 

share a variety of soft tissue and skeletal traits (such as anterior zygomatic 

projection, brachycephaly, and shovel-shaped incisors) though the trait 

frequencies rarely have been tabulated. Hefner (2002) analyzed a large 

sample and found that certain nonmetric traits used to distinguish 

“Mongoloids” were unreliable. Brace (1996), in analyzing craniometrics, 

found that the Mongols were the most divergent of the “Mongoloid” 

groups he examined. The morphometric differences among Asian groups 

and Native Americans are not well established. 


Ousley (2000), Ousley and McKeown (2001), and Mann and Ousley 

(2001) have shown that DFA of ILDs calculated from cranial landmark 

coordinates recorded with a three-dimensional digitizer is a quick and nondestructive 

method of recording overall morphology and determining the 

ancestry of complete or incomplete remains with accuracy and precision. 

The main advantages of using ILDs are that the forensic anthropologist 

only needs sliding and spreading calipers to collect ILDs, DFA can be 

easily used, including stepwise DFA to select the best variables to use, and 

partial remains can be more easily assessed. These advantages are 

naturally contingent on the appropriate populations being sampled. 

Using a three-dimensional digitizer, cranial landmark data from over 

400 Asians and over 500 Native Americans at the National Museum of 

Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, were collected. Seventy-eight 

landmark coordinates were recorded on each cranium, representing over 

3,000 ILDs that could be calculated, but analysis centered on Type 1 landmarks, 

those located at the intersection of sutures. The continental groups 

were comprised of Mongolians (100), East Asians (Japanese, Chinese, 

Korean, Buriat, Chukchi), Alaskan (Aleut, Eskimo, Indian) and Plains, 

Western, and Southern Native Americans. Interestingly enough, one 

museum cranium labeled “Chinese” was an outlier and was determined to 

be of European descent based on DFA of ILDs from Chinese and 19th 

Century American Whites (posterior probability = .99). 

The results show promise for use in forensic (especially Repatriation) 

situations where ancestry may be Asian as opposed to Native American. 

Mongolians were found to be the most divergent Asian group and were 

clearly distinct from East Asians and Native Americans. DFA classifies all 

three groups 94% correctly. One remarkable feature of the Mongolians is 

their extreme hyperbrachycephaly, probably among the highest in the 

world. East Asians showed greater similarity to Native Americans, 

especially Alaskan Native Americans, than to Mongolians, but could be 

separated from Alaskans 93% correctly using 25 variables in DFA. The 

similarity between East Asians and Alaskans is likely due to relatively 

recent gene flow across the Bering Strait. 

Our results remind the forensic anthropologist that ancestry will 

reflect population histories, and that terms such as “Mongoloid” may be 

misleading both biologically, because they tend to mask underlying 

variation, and taxonomically, because in this case Mongolians are quite 

divergent from East Asians and Native Americans. 

The use of ILDs continues to show great promise for use in forensic 

laboratories and museums where human remains are analyzed in terms of 

ancestry. 

Craniometrics, Discriminant Function Analysis, Mongoloids 

H14 A Strategy for Age Determination 

Combining a Dental Method (Lamendin) 

and an Anthropological Method (Iscan) 

Laurnet Martrille*, and Tarek Mbghirbi, Service de médecine légale, 

CHU Lapeyronie, 191 av, Montpellier, France; Alain Zerilli, DDS, 

Faculté d’odontologie, CHU Brest, cedex , France, Brest, France; F. 

Seguret, Département d’information médicale, CHU Montpellier, 

France; and Eric Baccino, MD, Service de médecine légale, CHU 

Lapeyronie, 191 av, Montpellier, France, 

The goals of this presentation are to improve the accuracy of age 

determination by combining the results of two methods, Lamendin and 

Iscan method. 

Estimating the age of non-identified individuals at death is a difficult 

task in forensic practice, because no method has proven to be accurate. 

The ideal method for age determination must be simple, reliable, and 

precise. Most of the authors recommend use of the many age indicators 

available. 


A few years ago, the authors proposed a method, the Two Step 

Strategy (TSS), combining the Schey-Brook system and the Lamendin 

method. The two step strategy consisted of looking first at the pubic bone 

to determine sex and phase and then to determine estimated age from the 

SBS alone when the individual showed phase I, II, or III morphology or 

from the Lamendin method alone if phase IV, V or VI morphology existed. 

The objective of this project was to try to improve the accuracy of age 

determination by combining the results of two methods. 

The Iscan method is widely used and considered simple (especially 

with the help of pubic casts) and reliable. This method is based on the 

interpretation of the sternal articulation aspect of the forth rib. 

Unfortunately, in individuals over 40 (phase VI, VII, VIII) this method is 

not precise enough (SD over 10 years). Interestingly it is only in individuals 

under 40 that the Lamendin method shows SD over 10 years. This 

method is based on the measurement of translucence and periodontosis 

heights of an intact monoradicular tooth (preferably an upper incisor). 

The goal was to assess which was the best way to combine these 

methods in order to improve the age estimation accuracy without 

decreasing reliability. 

Samples of 39 Caucasians males (16 to 64 year of age) for whom the 

forth rib and an upper incisor were both available comprised the study. An 

estimate was considered correct when actual age determination from the 

rib fell within the mean +/- 1 SD of the Iscan phase and from the tooth 

within the estimated age +/- 1 SD of the decade. The «combination» of 

results gave an estimation using the age interval common to the Iscan and 

the Lamendin method (which very often resulted in a more “precise” 

estimation). The results will be developed and discussed. 

Results observed (1): 

Total sample 40 years 

N 39 28 11 

Correct aging % % % 

Iscan 64 57 54,5 

Lamendin 69 68 72 

Combining method 69 68 72 

Results observed two: 

Total sample 40 years 

N 39 28 11 

Correct aging % % % 

Iscan 71 75 63,6 

Lamendin 69 68 72 

Combining method 74,5 75 72 

Physical Anthropology, Forensic Odontology, Age Determination 

H15 Introducing Daubert to the Balkans 

Richard J. Harrington, PhD*, International Commission on Missing 

Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo; Benjamin Swift, MBChB, Division of 

Forensic Pathology, Robert Kilpatrick Clinical Sciences Building, 

Leicester Royal Infirmary, Leicester, United Kingdom; and Edwin F. 

Huffine, MS, International Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 

45a, Sarajevo 

The goal of this presentation is to review the impact of recent 

technological advances¾most notably, DNA analysis and physiochemical 

testing, as integrated with traditional forensic anthropological and 

archaeological approaches¾on legal decisions made by local courts and 

commissions in the former Yugoslavia. 

The conflicts of the 1990s in the former Yugoslavia left perhaps 

30,000-40,000 missing, with most presumed dead. Since 1996, vast 

resources have been committed by international organizations to the 

538

ecovery, examination, and repatriation of mortal remains in this region. 

Much of this effort has been conducted under the auspices of organizations 

such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 

(ICTY), which focuses on exhumations of mass graves for the purpose of 

war crimes investigations. However, two important considerations are 

that (1) ICTY is not responsible for the systematic personal identification 

process of the recovered mortal remains, and (2) ICTY is required by the 

international community to operate in accordance with accepted international 

standards of evidence collection, analysis, and legal presentation. 

By presenting such evidence before an international court, ICTY can 

effectively bypass local laws and customs. 

The International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP), in 

contrast, assists in the systematic personal identification process and 

promotes cooperation and coordination among local commissions, courts, 

and exhumation teams. Although the mandate is different, the overall 

philosophy of the ICMP to promote adherence to the highest possible 

standards is in line with other international organizations. From the 

perspective of cultural relativism, this is equivalent to the promotion of 

“Western” standards. 

“Western” forensic science, as practiced in the U.S., is increasingly 

scrutinized within the context of the 1993 U.S. Supreme Court ruling on 

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Even among laypersons 

(and experts) who have never heard of Daubert, there appears to be an 

ever-increasing recognition that expert opinion presented in courtroom 

testimony should be based on objective science that passes validity and 

reliability tests. 

The introduction of so-called “Western science” into a traditionbound 

Eastern European region has been accelerated by the remarkable 

surge in DNA-led identifications in this region in the year 2002. The 

success of the ICMP DNA Program has led to a complete rethinking of 

how to approach the personal identification process in the former 

Yugoslavia. To the extent that the DNA-led approach to the identification 

process is assimilated culturally and legally in the region, it can be stated 

that Daubert has de facto gained a toehold in the Balkans. 

However, this successful introduction was not accomplished at the 

expense of traditional forensic sciences; rather, it required the integration 

of multiple lines of evidence, to include forensic/archaeological context 

analysis, biological (skeletal) profiling by anthropologists, and evidence 

review by police investigators and forensic pathologists. This has quickly 

led to the refinement of standard operating procedures for “routine” cases, 

and therefore has not (at least at the time of this writing) required the intervention 

of local courts to resolve disputes pitting “old” against “new” 

techniques. 

Several exceptional cases have been presented to ICMP that cannot 

necessarily be resolved by DNA matching or traditional approaches alone. 

During the course of recovery operations, skeletal remains that could 

predate the 1990s conflict are commonly encountered. Occasionally, 

intense public debate is generated over cases where former warring parties 

disagree over whether a set of remains does or does not date to the war 

period. Samples from some of these cases have been submitted for both 

DNA testing at ICMP labs and physiochemical testing for postmortem 

interval, dietary history, and geographic origins testing at the Division of 

Forensic Pathology, University of Leicester. Results of these tests are 

expected during the late summer of 2002, and these results, along with 

results of traditional analysis of evidence, will be presented to the appropriate 

local commissions and courts for review. This paper will provide an 

account of the impact of the Daubert-influenced “integrated approach” 

(i.e., traditional approaches combined with new-but-accepted and experimental-but-verifiable-and-reliable 

approaches) on local commission and 

court rulings. 

Forensic Sciences, Human Identification, Daubert 

H16 Dirty Secrets: Identification of Older 

Crime Scenes in the Former Yugoslavia 

Through Blood Protein and Volatile 

Fatty Acid Soil Analysis 

Hugh H. Tuller, MA*, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, 71000, Sarajevo 

The goals of this presentation are to present to the forensic 

community evidence validating the analysis of soil deposits by CIEP, GC, 

and MS in the identification of older crime scenes. 

Those who commit murder regularly attempt to hide or destroy 

evidence to avoid prosecution. Murder scenes are cleaned up and bodies 

removed and concealed by the guilty party. After hiding the body, the 

murderer, rethinking his disposal plan, may even retrieve the body and 

attempt to hide it in a different, more secretive, location or destroy it in 

some manner, further confounding investigations. Identifying and documenting 

a crime scene, especially an older one, in the absence of a credible 

witness, a body, or other physical evidence is near impossible. However, 

the absence of observable evidence, while an obstacle, is not necessarily 

an end to the investigation. Despite removal, the body may have left 

behind microbiological evidence that can be collected and analyzed. 

Human blood proteins and volatile fatty acids (VFAs) deposited in soil at 

murder scenes and concealment/burial sites may remain stable over long 

periods of time; sophisticated soils analyses may be used to detect them. 

The same detection methods used by archaeologists for ancient 

artifact examination and criminologists in recent murder cases were used 

in this study to examine older soil deposits sampled from three sites 

investigated by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former 

Yugoslavia (ICTY): an execution site, four individual graves in a 

cemetery, and a mass grave. 

An immunological test, crossover immunoelectrophoresis (CIEP), 

was used to identify blood proteins as independent evidence of an execution 

near Stutica, Kosovo. The passage of time between residue deposit 

and testing was an important element in this study. Forensic investigators 

rarely test soils for blood residue if the event in question is more than a few 

months old on the assumption that predatory microorganisms would 

degrade deposited residue beyond the ability to identify them. The Stutica 

blood proteins were deposited in soil approximately a year-and-a-half 

prior to analysis. In spite of the blood protein’s lengthy exposure to the 

soil, from a total of 72 samples, 44 returned positive results for human 

blood proteins. 

Similarly, VFAs in soils collected from cemetery graves in Duz, 

Kosovo and a mass grave in Knin, Croatia, were identified using a 

microFAST GC 2 (a field portable gas chromatograph) and a HP 5890 

Series II GC with a 5971 mass selective detector Mass Spectrometer (MS). 

Six samples were removed from four graves in the Duz cemetery for 

testing. Prior to exhumation and soil sampling, bodies laid in the graves 

approximately one-and-a-half-years. GC results from the cemetery 

revealed the presence of iso-butyric and valeric water soluble VFAs in one 

sample. MS examination of the samples was inconclusive. From a sixyear-old 

mass grave in Knin, three soil samples were analyzed in the same 

manner. GC and MS analysis revealed the presence of iso-butyric and isovaleric 

water soluble VFAs in two of the three remaining samples. In 

addition, MS analysis revealed the following non-water soluble VFAs in 

all three samples: capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic, and oleic. 

Possible causes for inconsistent results between the cemetery graves and 

the mass grave may be attributed to the differences in burial styles, soil 

moisture, and clay content. 

The positive findings of blood proteins and VFAs in the Kosovar and 

Croatian soils validate CIEP, GC, and MS analysis of older site soils. In 

the absence of bodies or other physical evidence, investigators are 

encouraged to use these methods of identifying and documenting sites to 

support their evaluation of suspected crime scenes. Demonstrating that 


murder scenes, execution sites, and individual and mass graves can never 

be completely cleaned—that evidence of past criminal activity can never 

be completely erased—may help to deter murder and human rights abuses 


Soil Analysis, Blood Protein, Volatile Fatty Acids 

H17 Exhumations in Bosnia and Herzegovina: 

Unique Challenges in the Recovery 

From Cavern Sites 

Eva E. Klonowski, PhD*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Piotr Drukier, MS, 



The purpose of this paper is to present an account of the challenges 

faced by forensic experts in recovery operations from deep caverns in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

Three and half years of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s 

left about 250,000 dead and more then 30,000 missing, most of whom are 

presumed dead. The majority of missing persons are Muslims 

(“Bosniaks”) who were killed during so-called “ethnic cleansing” operations 

during the spring and summer of 1992 and in July of 1995 after the 

fall of Srebrenica. Their bodies were buried in a seemingly endless 

number of clandestine mass graves, dumped into rivers, wells, septic 

tanks, and caverns, or simply left unburied in fields, meadows, and forests. 

One of the most difficult kinds of exhumation sites is the underground 

cave (cavern). Bosnia and Herzegovina, with its mountainous 

configuration, has thousands of natural caves, caverns, crevices, and pits. 

During the conflict, many of them became convenient dumping grounds, 

soon filled with bodies from mass executions. 

From the time when the Lanište cavern containing remains of 188 

women, men, and children was discovered and exhumed in October 1996, 

the Bosniak State Commission for Tracing Missing Persons found 18 

natural caverns from which remains of 585 individuals were recovered, 

while dozens of other caverns were carefully inspected for the presence of 

human remains. Eight caverns were discovered in southwest part of the 

country in Herzegovina, seven in the northwestern region of Bosnia 

known as the Krajina, and four in eastern Bosnia. 

Recovery of remains from the caverns can be difficult and dangerous. 

Caverns can be deep (the deepest so far being 80 meters) and entrances 

can be as narrow as one meter. In addition to the dangers posed by natural 

threats (such as falling during ascent and descent), many caverns also 

contain a variety of explosive devices. To date, the remains recovered 

from caverns are generally skeletonized due to the length of time that has 

passed since bodies were dumped into them. However, in the Paklenik 

cavern that was exhumed in the summer of 2000 there were saponified 

remains of Bosniaks who were dropped in after reportedly being executed 

in the summer of 1992. In this case, deep layers of rocks and animal bones 

from a nearby slaughterhouse covering the bodies inhibited the natural 

process of decomposition. 

With or without such concealment or site tampering, such as damage 

by grenade explosions after the bodies are dropped in, there are numerous 

technical and practical problems in the recovery of remains from cavern 

floors. Over time, as bodies decompose and bones disarticulate, skeletal 

elements separate and slide out of the clothing. Often those bones either 

commingle with bones of other individuals or they slide down to the 

bottom of the cavern. After the cavern floor becomes covered with bones, 

virtually no space is left for maneuvering by recovery team members, who 

are forced to work from suspended platforms or by hanging from ladders 

and ropes. Limited space also prevents the full complement of team 

members from effectively working simultaneously. Creative approaches 

are necessary to allow for proper mapping and excavation of the remains 

from cavern floors. 

Forensic Anthropology, Exhumations, Mass Graves 


H18 Resolution of Large-Scale Commingling 

Issues: Lessons From CILHI and ICMP 

John E. Byrd, PhD*, and Bradley J. Adams, PhD, U.S. Central 

Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam AFB, HI; 

and Lisa M. Leppo, PhD, and Richard J. Harrington, PhD, International 

Commission on Missing Persons, Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce a new method of 

osteometric sorting of commingled skeletal remains. 

Commingling of human skeletal remains can obstruct the process 

of forensic identification, especially when dealing with large numbers of 

deceased individuals. As the methods of forensic anthropology routinely 

require the compilation of information gleaned from multiple elements 

of the individual skeleton, commingling complicates the analysis. 

Furthermore, for humanitarian reasons alone it is the role of forensic 

experts to attempt to re-associate the largest amount of remains as 

possible for disposition to the next of kin. 

Anthropologists at the U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) routinely encounter commingled skeletal 

remains, as from aircraft crashes and battleground mass graves. 

Likewise, anthropologists of the International Commission on Missing 

Persons (ICMP) working in the former Yugoslavia are faced with identifying 

several thousand sets of remains, a large portion of which are 

commingled to some degree. Scientists of the two organizations are 

collaborating to develop innovative new approaches to solving this 

recurring problem. Solutions to the commingling problems at CILHI 

and ICMP involve the disciplined application of traditional anthropological 

methods (e.g., pair-matching and articulation), the development 

of new anthropological methods (e.g., osteometric sorting), and the 

judicious use of DNA sampling and profiling interpretation. Aside from 

these purely scientific considerations, solutions to the commingling 

problem at the scale encountered by these organizations must include the 

development of a laboratory operational plan that incorporates the latest 

methods while simultaneously overcoming a number of serious 

constraints (e.g., limited numbers of personnel, high personnel turnover, 

limited space, limited time, etc.). In some situations the large quantity 

of remains precludes the ability of analysts to visually assess all of the 

bones at one time, and a “virtual” analysis is proposed to assist in the 

re-association procedure. 

A key component of the solution to the commingling problem 

advocated here is the method of osteometric sorting, a technique that has 

been developed by Byrd and Adams. Osteometric sorting works by 

testing the null hypothesis that two bones are of the correct size to have 

originated in the same individual. The linear statistical models 

employed are currently derived from a large reference data set developed 

by the CILHI. Since these data were taken from primarily American 

skeletons, existing models were tested against intact skeletal remains 

recovered in the former Yugoslavia. Test results confirm the applicability 

of the method to both populations. As a result, the data collected 

from the former Yugoslavia have been incorporated into the CILHI reference 

data set and new models are being generated for application by 

CILHI and ICMP anthropologists. Details concerning the resolution of 

commingling issues, including the incorporation of osteometric sorting 

into the laboratory operations at CILHI and ICMP, are presented. 

Measurements, Commingling, Human Identification 

540

H19 Reassociation of Skeletal Remains 

Recovered From Graves in Bosnia 


Eva E. Klonowski, PhD*, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Muhamed Mujkic, MS, Federation Commission 

on Tracing Missing Persons, Sarajevo, and Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and 

Piotr Drukier, MS, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

The goal of this presentation is to familiarize the forensic 

community with the application of traditional forensic anthropology to 

the evaluation of commingled skeletal assemblages recovered from mass 

graves dating to the recent conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. DNA 

testing is used to confirm the anthropological assessment of reassociation 

in several cases. 

Three and half years of war in Bosnia and Herzegovina took the 

lives of about quarter of million people. Approximately 30,000 of them 

as still reported as missing. The main purpose of those exhumations 

was—and still is—the identification of the deceased and return of their 

remains to the grieving families for proper burial. Unfortunately, 

exhumed remains are often either incomplete or commingled. Therefore 

all exhumed remains should be first carefully checked, inventoried, refitted 

if broken, and then re-associated (if possible) before the final 

examination and identification process. 

A wide variety of recovery sites are encountered in Bosnia and 

Herzegovina. Mortal remains may be buried in mass graves or 

clandestine isolated graves, dropped into caverns and wells, incinerated 

in houses, hidden in garbage dumps, or scattered through meadows, 

forests, or agricultural fields. Both primary and secondary graves are 

routinely exhumed, and the site formation processes and postdepositional 

disturbances (deliberate and otherwise) at both types of 

sites can lead to commingling or separation. The recovery process itself, 

as well as post-recovery examination, can introduce commingling or 

other disassociation if done hurriedly or by improperly trained workers. 

Unfortunately, there are no widely accepted scientific standards that 

are uniformly applied to the evaluation of commingled and disassociated 

remains. Forensic anthropologists with considerable experience with 

skeletal assemblages rely heavily on visual inspection of morphological 

traits. These experts review general shape and size of bones; shape, size, 

and location of articulating surfaces; discoloration of bones; pattern of 

ligament attachment; size and location of nutrient foramina; pattern of 

osteoarthritic lipping; deformation and remodeling of neighboring 

bones; pattern of changes in vertebral bodies, and age estimation in cases 

of re-associated upper and lower parts of the skeleton or skulls. 

Metric analysis has traditionally been limited to long bone length 

comparisons and comparisons of humeral and femoral head dimensions. 

More comprehensive osteometric analysis is being explored as a means 

of re-association, but this has yet to gain wide acceptance. However, 

rapid advances in DNA technology now make it more feasible and 

cost-effective to make bone-to-bone comparisons in the re-association 

effort. 

In addition to presenting an overview of the usefulness of 

traditional morphological trait analysis in assessing a Bosnian skeletal 

population, this paper will present the results of a limited number of 

bone-to-bone DNA comparisons to independently verify the forensic 

scientists’ expert opinions. 

Forensic Anthropology, Commingling, Human Identification 

H20 The Influence of Large-Scale DNA 

Testing on the Traditional Anthropological 

Approach to Human Identification: 

The Experience in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Ana Boza Arlotti, PhD*, Edwin F. Huffine, MS, and Richard J. 

Harrington, PhD, International Commission on Missing Persons, 

Alipasina 45a, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 

The purpose of this presentation is to review the impact of 

large-scale DNA testing on the practice of forensic anthropology in Bosnia 

and Herzegovina. The attendee will learn about the approaches adapted 

by forensic anthropologists in this region as they gain “instant feedback” 

from the DNA results and use the information to refine their techniques. 

The identification of the mortal remains of thousands of individuals 

who disappeared during the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

(BiH) represents the most ambitious project of its kind. Since its creation 

in 1996, the International Commission on Missing Persons (ICMP) has 

worked in close cooperation with local commissions established in the 

Bosnian Federation and the Serbian Republic of Bosnia to recover and 

identify the missing, and bring closure for the loved ones of the missing. 

A large database for mortal remains recovered from mass graves and 

other sites has been created using traditional approaches in anthropology, 

pathology, and police investigations. However, despite the fact that thousands 

of remains have been recovered since 1996, and intensive efforts to 

identify these persons have been attempted, only a limited number of positive 

(as opposed to circumstantial) identifications had been achieved until 

recently. As ICMP DNA laboratories became fully operational in 2002, 

the sudden increase in DNA matches leading to positive identifications has 

created new roles and opportunities for forensic anthropologists. 

One misconception regarding DNA-led identifications is that once a 

DNA match is made, then a positive identification automatically follows. 

This is far from true: it is imperative that traditional forensic scientists 

review the tentatively identified remains and related evidence to ensure 

that the match is valid. 

With large-scale DNA matching for skeletal remains, the anthropologist 

receives a wealth of feedback on many cases in a short period. In 

reviewing the DNA evidence along with the biological profile (age, sex, 

stature, etc.) generated during the postmortem examination, the 

anthropologist is also receiving feedback on his or her own abilities to 

assess the human skeleton. This allows for improving one’s skills in creating 

biological profiles, but appropriate measures must be in place to 

ensure that circular reasoning and unconscious bias are eliminated. This 

is particularly important for age-at-death assessments, which can be highly 

subjective. By having more than one forensic expert review each case and 

by using multiple lines of evidence, proper safeguards are introduced to 

ensure that the traditional forensic techniques and the DNA results are 

properly integrated to ensure the highest degree of confidence in the identification 

process. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Identification, DNA 

H21 Age-Related Changes in the 

Adult Male Vertebral Column 

Piotr Drukier, MS*, Nermin Sarajlic, PhD, and Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, 



This paper introduces a method for improving age-at-death estimates 

in the adult human male skeleton using progressive morphological 

changes in the vertebral column. Results of a preliminary descriptive 

analysis of 100 adult male skeletons of known ages for changes in three 

vertebral traits will be presented. 


Although there are currently many methods of age assessment 

available to forensic anthropologists, limited research has been conducted 

on the systematic changes in the vertebral column (e.g., Albert and Maples 

1995). To the extent that such studies have been conducted, the focus has 

typically been on stages of vertebral ring epiphyseal union, and is 

therefore restricted to younger individuals. 

During the course of postmortem examinations of victims of recent 

conflicts in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it was noted that (1) pubic symphysis 

metamorphosis was less reliable for age assessment of individuals over 

about age 40, and (2) other age-related changes in the vertebral column 

aside from ring fusion seemed to be sufficiently widespread and 

progressive to warrant further documentation. 

Already well known to forensic anthropologists is that three aspects 

of vertebral morphology undergo noticeable change with age. First, the 

vertebral secondary centers, including the epiphyseal ring, appear during 

puberty and fuse to the centrum between about ages 17-25 (Bass 1972); 

second, the inferior and superior aspects progress from a well-organized, 

ridged configuration in younger individuals to an amorphous, often 

porotic appearance in older individuals; and third, the inferior and superior 

rims transition from “straight” to “wavy” (undulating) to sharply lipped 

with age. 

Also well known to forensic anthropologists is that morphological 

changes in the vertebral column are highly influenced by biomechanical 

stress and pathological conditions, and therefore can be highly individualized 

due to different individual life histories. These factors have limited 

the usefulness of the vertebral column in age assessments of adults in 

genetically and culturally diverse populations. 

However, in Bosnia and Herzegovina lower genetic diversity and 

greater similarity in lifestyles than in, say, the U.S., may contribute to 

more predictable rates of change in the vertebrae that allow for greater 

confidence in its relevance for age assessment. Although even in this 

population the contribution of vertebral morphological analysis to age 

estimation is relatively modest, it appears to be sufficient to warrant 


Aging Technique, Human Identification, Forensic Anthropology 

H22 Lamendin’s and Prince’s Dental Aging 

Methods Applied to a Bosnian Population 

Nermin Sarajlic, MD MSc*, Eva E. Klonowski, PhD, Piotr Drukier, MSc, 

and Richard J. Harrington, PhD, International Commission on Missing 


This presentation will evaluate the application of simple dental aging 

techniques to a Bosnian population. This research project tests the 

accuracy of Lamendin’s aging method and Prince’s modification of the 

Lamendin method as applied to a Bosnian population. The sample 

consists of 400 teeth (incisors and canines) from 100 males of known age. 

Identification of skeletal remains benefits from the use of accurate 

aging techniques. One of the more promising of recently developed 

techniques is the Lamendin method for age determination of adults from 

single-rooted teeth (Lamendin et al 1992), as derived from a French 

population. The primary components of this method are measurements of 

periodontosis and transparency of the root. Lamendin proposed the 

following simple equation for age assessment: A = 0.18 x P + 0.42 x T + 

25.53 (where: A = age in years, P = periodontosis height / root height x 

100 and T = transparency height / root height x 100). 

While other, traditional aging techniques have limited accuracy for 

aging remains of older individuals, several studies have shown that 

Lamendin’s method yields very good results, especially for individuals 

between ages 40 – 70. 

Prince (2002) modified Lamendin’s method by adding root height 

(RH) to the equations for white and black males and females. The 

equation for white males is: A = 0.15 x (RH) + 0.29 x P + 0.39 x T + 23.17. 


Prince clamed that inclusion of root height reduced the mean difference 

and therefore improved accuracy. 

Skeletal remains found in mass graves in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

present additional problems that can be addressed with improved age 

determination techniques. The remains are often commingled or incomplete, 

with skulls often separated from the rest of the skeleton. Therefore 

simple, quick, and accurate dental aging methods may facilitate the reassociation 

of crania and mandibles to postcranial elements. 

This research conducted on Bosnian remains from the recent war 

(1992 – 1995) might be helpful not only in the identification of the missing 

from the war, but for new forensic cases in Bosnia and Herzegovina 

as well. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Identification, Dental Aging 

Technique 

H23 Impact of Heat and Chemical Maceration 

on DNA Recovery and Cut Mark Analysis 

Dawnie W. Steadman, PhD*, Jeremy Wilson, BS, Kevin E. Sheridan, MA, 

and Steven Tammariello, PhD, Department of Biology, Binghamton 

University, P.O. Box 6000, Binghamton, NY 

The goals of this presentation are to educate forensic anthropologists 

and pathologists about the impact of common maceration techniques on 

the interpretation of tool marks and recovery of DNA from human bone. 

Molecular genetics is a powerful tool in the forensic sciences, with 

bones increasingly utilized as sources of both genomic and mitochondrial 

DNA. Thus, anthropologists must be extraordinarily cognizant of how 

skeletal materials are handled and chemically treated while in their 

custody. Few jurisdictions require bone samples to be extracted prior to 

anthropological analysis, and there are instances in which a case review at 

a later point in time may require molecular identification. Although 

chemical preservatives, such as polyvinyl acetate (PVA), are no longer in 

wide usage among forensic anthropologists because of the deleterious 

affects on DNA quality, there are no studies known to the authors that 

examine the impact of an even more widespread anthropological protocol 

– maceration. Anthropologists employ a varying array of chemicals and 

temperatures in maceration protocols but the affects on DNA quality and 

quantity are currently unknown. In addition, the anthropologist must 

always be concerned about the impact of soft tissue maceration on the 

subtle signs of sharp trauma. Since sharp trauma may leave only superficial 

marks in bone, it is possible that chemical stripping of the 

periosteum may compromise the appearance of incisions and/or create 

postmortem damage that may complicate anthropological analysis. 

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the affects of common 

maceration techniques on DNA degradation and cut mark integrity. 

In order to quantify the amount of mitochondrial and genomic DNA 

from both cortical and spongy bone, fresh pig (Sus scrofa) rib cage 

sections and upper forelimbs were utilized. Bone samples were taken for 

DNA analysis before and after maceration. To test cut mark integrity, a 

single researcher stabbed each set of remains twice and marked the end of 

the cut bone with a notch for later reference. The remains were macerated 

using a control of warm water (90°C) and multiple experimental procedures 

found in published and non-published sources, including: bleach 

solution, dish soap, and meat tenderizer, EDTA and papain, hydrogen peroxide 

solution, and alternative heating methods such as an incubator and 

microwave oven. Nonmetal tools and soft toothbrushes were used to 

gently remove loose tissue during the maceration process. Observations 

were taken of the texture of the meat and bones, odor, duration of procedure 

(in hours), and bone condition. The bones were allowed to air dry 

prior to examination. 

A number of variables were scored for each experiment, including 

the time to complete maceration, ease of maceration, overall bone quality, 

and integrity of the cut mark. DNA recovery was quantified by initial 

542

spectrophotometry (A230, A260/280), followed by fluorescence-activated 

quantification based upon the DNA amount per bone sample. Briefly, the 

DNA pools from each bone sample were labeled with the fluorescent 

intercalating agent SYBR gold (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oregon) and 

overall amount of DNA was quantified using a FLA3500 

PhosphorImaging System (Fujifilm, Tokyo, Japan). While the extraction 

of any amount of DNA from bone is quite significant, the isolation of 

intact DNA is the ultimate goal. To address this vital point, two experimental 

methods were utilized to detect the quality of DNA in each bone 

sample, agarose gel electrophoresis and PCR amplification. Following 

extraction, intact genomic DNA will run as a single band on an agarose 

gel. The presence of multiple bands or smears on the gel signifies 

degraded DNA. PCR amplification using primers designed to two gene 

loci, one nuclear and one mitochondrial, were then used to confirm the 

quality of the extracted DNA. 

The results indicate that the type of maceration technique had little 

affect on sharp trauma observations (though bleach was problematic) but 

that the DNA recovery rate was negatively influenced by excessive heat 

and a number of chemical treatments. The most effective maceration 

methods that preserved DNA also proved to be the most economical. It is 

recommended that forensic anthropologists use conservative, nonaggressive 

maceration protocols in the likely event that the bones will be 

utilized as a source of molecular information. 

DNA, Sharp Trauma, Maceration 

H24 Two Miles and Nine Years From Home: 

The Taphonomy of Aqueous Environments 

Casey Shamblin, BA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton 

Rouge, LA 

The goal of this case study is to provide insight into how taphonomic 

factors can produce unusual wear patterns on human remains. 

The recovery of human remains from aqueous environments remains 

a complex topic due to the dynamic nature of the environment. Important 

to the interpretation of the trauma on the bones is having information 

regarding: spatial orientation, water temperatures, pH levels, water 

currents, and abrasiveness of the submerged environment. Various 

taphonomic forces that affect human remains in water are only beginning 

to be understood, especially with regard to the estimation of the postmortem 

interval and bone erosion patterns. 

On January 4, 2002, Louisiana State University Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) lab personnel 

were called to a small pond near a road in East Baton Rouge Parish. 

A concerned citizen observed what appeared to be the tail end of a car in 

the pond and phoned the police. Though various people had noticed the 

metal protruding from the water over the years, until that day, no one had 

informed law enforcement. Upon retrieval of the mud-filled car from the 

pond, human remains were found inside the mangled vehicle. The visible 

remains were taken to the LSU forensic anthropology laboratory for 

analysis. A few days later, LSU FACES lab personnel traveled to a local 

wrecker yard, the location of the retrieved car, in search of any additional 

remains. Due to the distorted nature of the vehicle, a thorough search of 

the car was impossible. Using the “jaws of life,” local firemen removed 

the top of the vehicle. This provided the FACES lab personnel complete 

access to the interior of the car. Additional human remains and personal 

items were recovered. Through analysis and 19-year-old dental 

radiographs, which were provided by a retired orthodontist, the remains 

were positively identified as a man who had disappeared almost nine years 

earlier. 

Other than one right intermediate phalanx of the foot, all bones below 

the waist were recovered. This was due to the spatial orientation of the 

lower legs. Various bones of the upper body were recovered. Since the 

windshield was destroyed, the elements of the body that were not present 

in the vehicle could have been lost through the windshield opening at the 

time of the accident or upon removal of the car from the pond. The 

dynamic environment of the pond also could have displaced some of the 

elements. 

Spatial orientation enhances or impedes taphonomic agents from 

affecting particular bone surfaces. In this case, the lower legs were 

protected from abrasive agents in the water by the leather boots the 

decedent was wearing. The boots were too short to protect the proximal 

tibiae and fibulae. The proximal ends of the fibulae were completely worn 

down symmetrically. Both tibiae also exhibited an interesting wear 

pattern. Each tibial plateau was completely worn away with the exception 

of a small lateral portion of the plateau. Symmetrical erosion was also 

evident on the innominates. The innominates were both worn completely 

away from the iliac crest down to the iliac pillar. Both ischiopubic ramii 

were also missing. Symmetrical erosion of these elements was caused by 

a combination of abrasion and spatial orientation. Abrasive agents in the 

water moving through the vehicle over a period of almost nine years 

attributed to this phenomenon. Another possible factor in the symmetrical 

abrasion of the innominates was the spatial orientation of the bones 

rubbing against the fabric of the car seat. 

All human remains recovered from the vehicle exhibited varying 

degrees of wear and erosion from the aqueous environment. The unique 

erosion that occurred in this case was a result of abrasion, spatial orientation, 

and dissolution. This case study demonstrates how an aqueous 

environment can uniquely alter bone. By understanding the effects that 

aqueous environments can have on human remains, the forensic anthropologist 

is able to more accurately interpret the trauma that is evident on 

bones. This microenvironment provides a distinctive look at the 

taphonomy that can affect remains in a submerged vehicle. 

Taphonomy, Aqueous Environments, Forensic Anthropology 

H25 Dissolving Dentition: The Effects of 

Corrosive and Caustic Agents on Teeth 

Joy E. Lang, BSc, BA*, and Tosha L. Dupras, PhD, Department 

of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Central Florida, 

Orlando, FL 

By attending this poster presentation, the participant will become 

familiar with the chemicals that can be used to erode or dissolve the tissues 

of the dentition. This research provides an explanation of the chemical 

break down of the dentition in relation to masking identity. 

With the evolution of forensic technology, methods for positive identification 

are becoming increasingly accurate. New methods allow for a 

corpse to be identified at almost any point of decomposition. The new 

technology and methodology has led to a more creative and resourceful 

criminal, and as criminals become more forensically aware their methods 

of disposal change. Although few cases have been documented where 

chemicals are the mode of body disposal, this method provides a seemingly 

fool proof and effective approach to disposal. Several household 

chemicals contain harmful agents that when used can result in the masking 

of identity. The purpose of this pilot study is to indicate which chemicals 

can be used in order to erode or dissolve the dentition, and what type of 

damage each chemical causes to dentition. 

A local oral surgeon provided 20 adult human anterior and posterior 

teeth. Quantitative measurements of weight (g), crown width (mm), and 

tooth length (mm) were obtained for each tooth. Qualitative observations 

were recorded using digital imaging as well as photographs under a stereoscopic 

microscope. A small hole was drilled through the root of each tooth 

to allow for a wire to be inserted through the tooth. The five chemicals 

used in this project were muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), sulfuric acid, 

potassium hydroxide, and two concentrations of sodium hydroxide, purchased 

through a local home improvement store and Fisher Scientific. 


The molar concentration of the chemicals purchased through Fisher 

Scientific (potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid) was 

similar to the concentrations found in common household cleaning 

products. Eighty milliliters of each chemical was poured into a 100 ml 

beaker and assigned a letter. Four teeth were submerged into each beaker, 

with the chemical solution only covering the enamel portion of the tooth, 

thereby mimicking the surfaces that would normally be exposed had the 

teeth remained in the alveoli. To quantify and record the corrosive effects 

of the chemicals, measurements and images of the dentition were taken at 

two-hour intervals for a total of 8 hours. During this time the chemical 

solutions were not replenished. 

Although all the chemicals tested demonstrated some level of dental 

destruction, the muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid) proved to be the most 

effective chemical in this experiment. Interestingly, the dentition 

submerged in muriatic acid showed a dramatic decrease in weight during 

the first two measurement periods. The authors hypothesize that this 

decrease in weight slowed as the chemical reaction subsided and the 

chemical degraded due to air contact and evaporation, suggesting that the 

most damage occurs during the first part of contact. After two hours of 

submersion the enamel of the dentition exposed to muriatic acid had dissolved, 

leaving the exposed dentin to slough off in sheets with only the 

organic component remaining. The dentition submerged in sulfuric acid 

showed some etching on the enamel surface, and at the end of the experiment 

the enamel surface had a white, powdery appearance (most likely 

the result of the breakdown of inorganic components of the enamel). The 

dentition exposed to the potassium and sodium hydroxide solutions 

showed minimal to no damage. Of all the chemicals tested in this pilot 

project the dentition exposed to muriatic acid left distinguishing marks and 

unique pattern on the dentition. With further investigation and analysis it 

may be possible to specifically isolate these characteristics as being unique 

to muriatic acid as well as other concentrations of hydrochloric acid. 

Corrosive Substances, Dentition, Masking Identity 

H26 Rituals Among the Santeria: Contextual 


Heather A. Walsh-Haney, MA*, John J. Schultz, MS, and Anthony B. 

Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory/Department 

of Anthropology, University of Florida, P.O. Box 112545, Gainesville, 

FL; and Reinhard W. Motte, MD, Miami-Dade County, District 11 Office 

of the Medical Examiner, Number One on Bob Hope Road, Miami, FL 

The purpose of this paper is to present contextual and taphonomic 

evidence to identify the ritualistic use of human skeletal remains and other 

artifacts found in association with Santeria shrines. In addition, information 

regarding the geographic distribution and historic beginnings of 

the Santeria religion are presented. 

Originating in Cuba, the Santeria religion has been operationally 

defined as a syncretic fusion of Afro-Caribbean religions and Roman 

Catholicism. Development of the Santeria religion began in Cuba during 

the early 16th century when Spanish colonialists forcefully acquired slaves 

from Nigeria, the Congo, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti. In particular, 

slaves originating from the Yoruba region of Nigeria and to a lesser 

extent the Bantu from the Congo are considered to have been the major 

carriers of the African religious beliefs and practices that contributed to the 

Santeria religion. 

Non-practitioners often describe the Santeria religion as a religion 

that is primarily based upon oral traditions, rituals, and animal sacrifices. 

Yet, growing conservatism among the Santeria has shown that many 


regard themselves as Catholic, having a belief system that is in line with 

“the ethical principles of Christianity” (Lefever 1996:2). Nevertheless, 

practitioners still seek Santeria priests (santero) in order to receive relief 

from physical pain, mental anguish, and protection from evil. The type of 

ceremony performed by the santero depends upon the type of problem to 

be solved: minor problems may be handled through the use of ritual 

objects, music, movement, and even esoteric words. Conversely, major 

problems require the invocation of the most important deities, necessitating 

additional propitiation including animals, rum, food, cigars, and 

water (Wetli and Martinez 1981). Paleros or mayomberos who perform 

rituals that stem from the black magic sect of the Santeria (the Palo 

Mayombe) are said to invoke injuries and deaths. Such rituals require the 

use of human skeletal remains. 

According to González-Whippler (1994) skeletal elements from 

different ancestral groups are associated with special abilities. In 

particular, the crania of Whites and Asians are thought to invoke special 

powers. These associations suggest that certain skeletal material may be 

more desirable and should have a different frequency if the practitioners 

are truly able to select skeletal material for its magical powers. 

Since the Mariel boatlift in 1980, the numbers of Santeria 

practitioners in the U.S. has increased. Researchers have estimated that as 

many as 300,000 practitioners live in New York City and nearly 70,000 

practitioners live in Florida (particularly Miami and Tampa) with clusters 

of Santeria practitioners noted in Detroit, Chicago, Atlanta, Gary 

(Indiana), Savannah, and several cities in California (Lefever 1996). As 

such, medical examiners and law enforcement agencies may encounter 

Santeria shrines and their attendant problems regarding the origin and 

identification of the human remains with increasing frequency. Therefore, 

illustrative cases from the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory 

(CAPHIL) and the Florida District 11 Office of the Medical Examiner are 

presented in order to shed light on the associated contextual data that can 

be used to determine whether the human remains used in religious ritual 

settings are of contemporary medico-legal significance. Beginning with 

casework conducted by Drs. Wetli and Martinez (1981), cases presented 

in the seminal article were reexamined, supplemented by at least thirty 

additional cases from the District 11 Office of the Medical Examiner and 

CAPHIL. Specifically, each specimen was examined for taphonomic 

clues of their origin and cataloged associated artifacts when the 

information was made available. 

The skulls, crania, and occasional postcranial bones were recovered 

from a variety of contexts, including cemeteries, wooded areas, and 

homes. In some instances the human bones were found in association with 

black iron caldrons (called nganga) or wrapped in cloth or burlap bags and 

as centerpieces of altars. Artifacts in association with the skeletal material 

included knives, chains, locks, nails, beads, seashells, coins, candle wax, 

and mercury. The most commonly associated nonhuman bones included 

bird (chicken, parrot, and pigeon), bat, lizard, cat, turtle, fish, deer, pig, 

sheep and goat. Chicken feathers and blood were also noted on many of 

the bones and artifacts. No pattern was found in the application of chicken 

blood and feathers to any of these ritual items. Many of the human bones 

were acquired through grave robberies or biological and/or teaching specimens. 

Citations: 

Gonzalez-Whippler, M (1994) Santeria: the Religion, Faith, Rites, 

Magic. St. Llewellyn Publications, St. 

Paul, Minn. 

Lefever, H.G. (1996) When the saints go riding in: Santeria in Cuba and 

the U.S. Journal for the 

Scientific Study of Religion 35: 318-330. 

Wetli, C.V., and R. Martinez (1981) Forensic sciences aspects of Santeria, 

a religious cult of African origin. 

Journal of Forensic Sciences: 26 (3): 506-514. 

Santeria, Skeletal Remains, Artifacts 

544

H27 Frozen Human Bone: 

A Histological Investigation 

Mariateresa A. Tersigni, MA*, Department of Anthropology, University 


The goal of this presentation is to determine the histological effects 

of freezing on human bone. 

A plethora of research has been produced concerning the fate of 

human bone when it has been exposed to various external stressors. These 

include taphonomic processes such as natural weathering, decomposition, 

and burning studies. Each study attempts to aid an investigator by trying 

to determine, for example, what exactly a human skeleton would look like 

after it had been exposed to an accelerated fire for thirty minutes. The 

result of this type of research may afford an investigator the opportunity to 

analyze the evidence at the crime scene and compare it to the research in 

order to draw educated conclusions about the actual evidence. This is not 

to imply that all of the questions of investigators have been answered. 

Rather, each new case brings more questions and more variables that need 

to be taken into consideration. 

One such question asks if there is a way to decipher whether a body 

or body parts have been previously frozen by looking at the skeletal 

elements. The circumstances that surround this question suggest that the 

victim would have been frozen for some time and was taken out of the 

freezing element and was allowed to thaw and decompose to the state of 

skeletonization. Would it be possible at this point to determine whether or 

not this body had indeed been frozen? Or, at a more basic level, does 

freezing damage the histological integrity of bone to prevent osteon aging 

ability. 

Few studies incorporate both the variable of low temperatures and 

human remains. However, two such studies focus on the decomposition 

of the soft tissue after a freeze thaw event, but none have focused on the 

bone itself. While there is no evidence that freezing can change the gross 

morphology, there has been no research concerning whether or not the 

microscopic structure of the bone would be altered as a result of the 

freezing process. This research will attempt to determine whether bone 

that has been previously frozen would be histologically distinguishable by 

looking for a patterned anomaly, such as patterned cracking. 

It is possible that the microscopic structure may indicate some 

changes due to the blood vessels, which run throughout the bone allowing 

for communication and nutrient flow between bone cells, undergoing the 

freezing process. Freezing allows for the expansion of fluids (including 

bodily fluids) and possibly for the forced increase in vessel diameter that 

may be evident, microscopically, in a section of frozen bone as small fractures 

in the bone microstructure. 

In order to determine whether the freezing can be identified within 

the bone microstructure, it is necessary to freeze several human bone sections. 

After the sections have been frozen for twenty-one days, they are 

allowed to thaw in accordance with the circumstances surrounding the 

question. The samples are thin sectioned in order to view their 

microstructure. This analysis affords the opportunity to look for changes 

in the microstructure that may be indicative of the freezing process. 

Statistically, the results of the microscopic analysis did not demonstrate 

significant differences in the histology of frozen and non-frozen 

human bone. The changes that were noted in the test samples (C samples) 

do indicate that some fracturing may occur due to the freezing process, 

although this fracturing may not be patterned nor may it occur systematically 

throughout the frozen bone. While this evidence of physical changes 

caused by liquid expansion is encouraging to note, the cracking was not 

consistently present throughout the sample set, nor, when found in a 

section of bone, was the cracking present around each of the haversian 

canals within the section. 

Even though there is not a consistent pattern to the fractures noted in 

the sample set, this should not rule out some histologically identifiable 

changes associated with freezing. It is clear that it is quite possible that 

bone sections may undergo noticeable changes due to the freezing process, 

although this experiment was unable to ascertain such information using 

light microscopy. The second part of this experiment is to view the 

specimens under a scanning electron microscope to analyze the bone 

surface for evidence of freezing. 

Bone Histology, Freezing Process, Microscopy 

H28 The Effect of Heat Associated With 

Maceration on DNA Preservation in 


Krista E. Latham, BS*, Carlos J. Zambrano, BA, and Mary Ritke, PhD, 

Department of Biology, University of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna 



community the differences in skeletal CNA preservation before 

and after exposure to heat by maceration of soft tissue. 

Genetic analysis is becoming an important aspect of the individual 

identification process in the field of forensic science. The discovery that 

DNA can be extracted from skeletal remains is becoming significant to 

forensic anthropologists because it complements identification by osteological 

analysis. The maceration of soft tissue is an important step in 

skeletal analysis because the removal of soft tissue makes signs of trauma 

and individualizing characteristics easier to see. However, the same 

taphonomic forces that affect bone preservation also affect the preservation 

of the DNA contained within the skeletal material. Heat is a factor 

that is known to increase the degradation process by accelerating the rate 

of the chemical reactions responsible for human decomposition. This 

poster will present the differences in skeletal DNA preservation before and 

after the process of removing soft tissue by boiling, and show whether 

these differences are significant in obtaining the amount of DNA needed 

for genetic analysis. 

For genetic analysis, 15 Sus scrofa (pig) femora were sampled before 

and after 6 hours of simmering in water, 70 ml of Borax and 100 ml of 

bleach at 95°C. An additional 13 pig femora were sampled for genetic 

analysis before and after 10 hours of simmering in water, 70 ml of Borax 

and 100 ml of bleach at 95°C. Water was periodically added to keep the 

bones submerged. Two time spans were chosen in order to investigate a 

wider range of heat exposure. The femora were collected from pigs 

displaying varying stages of natural decomposition, ranging from 1 month 

to 1 year of surface exposure, which would be similar to the condition of 

skeletal remains that a forensic anthropologist would receive for analysis. 

Pig remains were chosen because the decomposition process and bone 

microstructural make-up are similar to that of humans, and because 

specimens are easily obtained for forensic studies. 

A pig specific DNA probe was used to determine DNA quantification 

by luminescent detection using CDP-Star chemiluminescent techniques. 

Chemiluminescent detection relies on probes designed to bind to the DNA 

region of interest. Primers for a pig specific DNA sequence of 374 base 

pairs in length, a portion of the Pre-1 porcine short interspersed nuclear 

element, were designed to allow abundant amplification of the target DNA 

sequence. Short and long interspersed nuclear elements comprise over a 

third of the genome in higher eukaryotes and are common target sites for 

PCR based genetic fingerprinting. The Pre-1 porcine short interspersed 

nuclear element is found on several pig chromosomes at a relatively high 

copy number, and provides a tool for indirectly quantifying DNA 

recovered from pig bones. The Pre-1 DNA probe was produced by PCR 

amplification of DNA isolated from the white blood cells of freshly drawn 

pig blood obtained from a local veterinarian. The PCR product was 

crosslinked to an alkaline phosphatase enzyme that converts a dioxetane 

phosphate substrate to a dioxetane product. This conversion emits photons 

of light, which are captured on X-Ray film and used to determine the 


amount of DNA in the sample. A greater luminescent intensity indicates 

a larger amount of DNA. Known amounts of DNA from the pig white 

blood cells were quantified and used to construct a standard curve by slot 

blot analysis. The skeletal DNA samples were then quantified by slot blot 

analysis and compared to the standard curve for analysis. 

Temperature increases are known to accelerate the degradation rate 

of DNA by destabilizing hydrogen bonds, and increase the probability of 

strand breaks and cross-link formation. Comparing the amount of DNA 

obtained before and after maceration is of value to forensic anthropologists 

in demonstrating if the heat generated by the boiling of skeletal 

remains is great enough to affect the amount of skeletal DNA available for 

future genetic analysis. 

Skeletal DNA, Maceration, Genetic Analysis 

H29 Using Restriction Enzymes to Reduce 

the Inhibitory Properties of Bacterial 

DNA on PCR Amplification of Human 

DNA Sequences 

Janene Curtis, BS*, Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, and Christine 

M. Turk, BS, and Mary K. Ritke, PhD, Biology Department, University 

of Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

This presentation suggests a protocol to successfully amplify a 

human DNA sequence (huTh01) from historic skeletal DNA samples that 

previously produced little or no Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification. 

The results of this study demonstrate the potent inhibitory effects 

of DNA, obtained from a mixed population of soil microorganisms, on 

PCR amplification of huTH 01 (a short tandem repeat or STR) from 

human skeletal DNA. However, the PCR-inhibitory properties of soil 

microbial DNA was reduced by hydrolysis with a restriction enzyme. 

When DNA is recovered from bone samples, PCR amplification of 

specific informative DNA sequences is often inhibited. Difficulties in 

amplification of DNA may be due to diffusible inhibitors from the soil and 

surrounding burial environment (that co-purify with the skeletal DNA) or 

non-diffusible inhibition (due to covalent modification of the template 

DNA). One hypothesized source of diffusible inhibition is non-human 

DNA contamination whose source is predominantly the bacteria that 

colonized the bone during decomposition. The circular bacterial DNA 

chromosome is less prone to degradation than linear human chromosomal 

DNA, and from bone samples is usually purified in great excess compared 

to human DNA. The physical presence of the abundant bacterial DNA 

could conceivably interfere with PCR amplification by 1) reducing the 

ability of a human-specific primer to anneal to its complementary 

sequence (mispriming on the abundant bacterial DNA); and 2) saturating 

the active sites of the Taq DNA polymerase making little or no enzyme 

available for binding to the minute amounts of human DNA present. 

DNA extracted and purified from a mixed population of soil microorganisms 

(predominantly bacteria) was added to contemporary human 

DNA in a series of graduated ratios: 0.76 - 9.5 mg bacterial DNA was 

added to 0.112 mg of human DNA. The combined human and bacterial 

DNA samples were then PCR amplified using a primer pair designed to 

select for amplification of the short tandem repeat, TH 01 (huTH 01). 

PCR products were resolved by electrophoresis through a 10% poly 

acrylamide gel and visualized by ethidium bromide staining. The results 

indicated that DNA from a mixed population of soil bacteria was a potent 

inhibitor of PCR amplification from human DNA templates. All masses of 

bacterial DNA tested resulted in complete inhibition of PCR amplification 

of huTH 01. 

In an attempt to remove the inhibitory effects of the bacterial DNA 

on the PCR amplification of huTH 01, the restriction enzyme Pst 1 was 

used to hydrolyze the bacterial DNA before adding it to human DNA in 

the pre-PCR reaction cocktail. Aliquots of human DNA were combined 

with different amounts of either hydrolyzed bacterial DNA and or intact 


bacterial DNA. At a ratio of 2.7:1 (mg: mg) of hydrolyzed bacterial DNA 

to human DNA, amplification of hu TH 01 was not inhibited. At this same 

ratio, intact bacterial DNA was inhibitory to huTH 01 amplification. 

When bacterial DNA: human DNA ratios fell below 1.3:1 (mg: mg), the 

bacterial DNA did not inhibit PCR amplification of huTH 01 whether 

hydrolyzed or intact. When bacterial DNA to human DNA ratios of 11.4:1 

(mg: mg) were tested, both hydrolyzed and intact bacterial DNA inhibited 

PCR amplification of huTH 01. Thus, there is a window at which 

hydrolysis of the bacterial DNA with Pst 1 will enable PCR amplification 

to occur. 

To test the potential of pretreatment of historic DNA templates with 

restriction enzyme, human DNA from three different historic bone 

samples was hydrolyzed using Pst 1 restriction enzyme. This DNA, along 

with control bone DNA not treated with Pst 1, was subjected to PCR 

amplification of huTH 01. Amplification occurred for all three samples of 

bone DNA samples tested; however, more huTH 01 was amplified after 

pretreatment of the bone DNA with Pst 1. 

These results have a practical application. Often when specific, 

informative DNA sequences cannot be amplified using bone DNA as a 

template, the amount of DNA used in the PCR reaction is decreased, to try 

to reduce or eliminate inhibitory effects of diffusible inhibitors such as 

foreign DNA. However, this method also dilutes the already limited 

amount of human DNA that can be amplified; if the human DNA is highly 

degraded to begin with (as is the case with historic samples) dilution may 

reduce the templates below the lower limit needed for PCR amplification. 

Attempts to separate the abundant bacterial DNA from the pg quantities of 

human DNA introduce the risk of contamination with contemporary DNA 

(from additional handling of samples) or the loss of the historic human 

DNA. However, results suggest that with the use of restriction enzymes, 

the original amount of bone DNA may be maintained or even increased; 

therefore a better chance of amplification and/or a higher yield of PCR 

product may be obtained. 

Historic DNA, DNA Profiling, PCR Inhibitors 

H30 Fire Scene Management Strategies 

for the Recovery of Human Remains 

From Severe Vehicle Fires 

Alan Price, MA*, Associate Director, Southern Institute of Forensic 

Science, Regional Service Office, 7224 West Canberra Street Drive, 

Greeley, CO; and Michael Britt, BS, Supervisor of Investigations, 

District 20, Medical Examiner’s Office, 3838 Domestic Avenue, 

Naples, FL 

This presentation proposes operational guidelines for scene 

management and recovery of victims of fatal vehicle fires. 

Fatal vehicle fires pose unique challenges to fire investigators, 

medical examiners, anthropologists, odontologists, and law enforcement 

personnel. The presenters strongly endorse initiating this investigative 

function as a multidisciplinary team approach. This presentation proposes 

operational guidelines for scene management and recovery of victims of 

fatal vehicle fires. The key to all fire death investigations is the preservation 

of the scene and the documentation of evidence associated with the 

causation of the fire. Prior to conducting the removal process of fire 

victims, it is vitally important to remember that the fire may have been 

ignited to conceal elements of a crime or to make the death appear 

accidental. Suicide by incineration is an uncommon modality of selfdestruction 

but there are documented instances of victims who prepare the 

scene to give the appearance of an accidental death. Death investigators 

are encouraged to approach all fire related deaths as homicides until they 

prove otherwise. These guidelines are presented to minimize postmortem 

trauma that may occur during the removal of a decedent from within the 

confines of a vehicle. Additionally, these steps are outlined to increase the 

accuracy of determining cause and manner of death, the origin of the 

546

vehicle fire and significantly contribute to the identification of the 

vehicle’s occupant(s). The following guidelines are proposed to outline 

procedures for recovering fatally burned victims of vehicle fires. 

1. Quality scene maintenance begins with appropriate fire suppression. 

A fog or mist water application is suggested, rather than a powerful full 

stream of water. This is highly likely to reduce the amount of postmortem 

trauma to victim(s) inside the vehicle. Educate fire departments that if 

there is an obviously deceased individual(s) grossly burned in a vehicle 

fire, use the minimum amount of low-pressure water to extinguish the fire. 

2. Subsequent to fire suppression a vehicle should be allowed to cool, 

and collected moisture should be permitted to drain from the vehicles 

interior. Fumes from burnt plastics, vinyls, paint and other chemicals 

should be given an opportunity to dissipate. This reduces the potential 

hazard of investigatory personnel inhaling toxic fumes. 

3. The presenters have discovered that moving burnt vehicles to a 

secure environment, while the victim(s) remained inside, has produced 

considerable destruction of evidence and postmortem trauma to the 

victim(s). If the vehicle is in a location where it can be left for a brief 

period of time, it is highly recommended that the vehicle not be moved, 

but a large tarp be placed over the vehicle and a guard or police officer 

stationed to maintain scene integrity. 

4. As in most investigations comprehensive quality photography of the 

scene is paramount. Every step of the recovery process should be photographed. 

Photographs taken with a wide-angle lens may yield clear evidence 

of a burn pattern as well as other details as to the fires origin. 

5. Leave victim(s) in place, and have fire personnel cut away the side or 

both sides of the vehicle. This allows safe access for personnel removing 

victims and reduces postmortem destruction to the victim(s) body while 

being removed. 

6. Notify a forensic anthropologist as soon as possible and request that 

they respond to the scene to assist in the recovery and removal of the 

victim(s). This is a crucial step in the recovery process, since severely 

charred human remains may be very difficult to distinguish from the 

various burnt debris from inside a vehicle. 

7. Before anything is actually removed from the vehicle being 

examined, collect carpet and seat material samples from around the body 

of each victim. If any of the victim’s clothing remains, samples should be 

collected and tested for the presence of accelerates. Liquids flow to the 

lowest level and ignitable liquids may “pool” in the clothing or matrix 

directly under the body. All samples from fatal vehicle fires should be 

placed in a glass jar, which is then placed into a clean, airtight metal container. 

A container should never be more than half full as a vapor space is 

vital to analysis. 

8. If victim(s) have been fused, or are adhering to the seat cushions or 

spring structure of the vehicle seats, cut the seats loose with the victim still 

in place. The seat can be removed and transported to the medical 

examiner’s office without disarticulating the victims. 

9. Human remains should not be placed into body bags after removal. 

They can be placed on a sheet of plywood sheet covered with a clean, 

white sheet. Placing victims in conventional body bags after removal is 

likely to produce additional postmortem damage to the skeletal structure 

of the victim. Every effort should be made to transport the victim(s) to the 

medical examiner’s office in the least disturbed condition possible. 

10. Each decedent from a vehicle fire should undergo full-body X-Rays. 

This is necessary to assess whether elements of a crime may exist, such as 

bullets or shotgun pellets for example. Additionally, jewelry or body artifacts 

that might confirm the identity of the individual(s) may remain undetectable 

without the assistance of radiological examination. 

11. Since most victims of extreme vehicle fires are identified solely by 

their dentition, extra caution should be exercised to preserve a victim’s 

dental structure. The integrity of exposed teeth can somewhat be safeguarded 

by applying an aerosol adhesive. 

12. After the fire victims have been removed, the vehicle should then 

continue to be checked by fire investigators to confirm the cause and 

origin of the fire. 

13. Every effort should be made not to process vehicle fires with human 

remains inside at night unless it is absolutely imperative. Fragments of 

bone, jewelry artifacts, as well as other significant evidence is likely to be 

overlooked due to inadequate lighting. 

Both presenters feel strongly that the above-mentioned guidelines 

will facilitate higher quality, more comprehensive fatal fire investigations. 

Fire department education as to fire suppression strategies where there are 

fatalities present is imperative, as well as establishing written procedural 

guidelines outlining the management of vehicle fire fatalities. It is 

suggested that a multi disciplinary approach to the scene management, 

victim recovery and identification of victims be initiated. It is also 

recommended that all entities involved in these types of investigations be 

made aware of the importance of a forensic anthropologist in the recovery 

process of human remains. 

Forensic Anthropology, Fire Suppression, Suicide by Incineration 

H31 Peculiar Marine Taphonomy Findings: 

Preservation of Human Remains as a 

Result of Submersion in Sequestered 

Environments 

Giancarlo Di Vella, MD*, Carlo Pietro Campobasso, MD, PhD, and 

Francesco Introna, MD, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Bari, 

Policlinico, piazza G. Cesare, Bari, Italy 

The purpose of this presentation is to present, by means of text and 

photographs, the taphonomic model of decomposition observed in 52 

human remains after 7 months at 800 meters underwater. 

Due to a growing need for information the taphonomic study of 

human remains recovered from the sea in order to interpret perimortem 

and postmortem modifications and to estimate time since death has 

emerged. Forensic goals that may be advanced by determining individual 

identity, place of death, and cause of death, need a model of decompositional 

changes or of preservation and a theoretical understanding of marine 

ecology specific to the environmental context where the remains were 

found. A search for marine death data including human remains and their 

recovery yielded very few studies or case reports in literature. This 

presentation reports the findings of medical examinations of 52 human 

bodies recovered in October 1997, after seven months spent 800 meters 

underwater in the Adriatic Sea. Victims of the Kater I. Radez, the boatpeople 

sank following a collision with an Italian Navy warship that was 

patrolling the Italian sea-frontiers (March 1997). In 1999, during the 

AAFS annual meeting (abstract G78), the authors discussed the model for 

the organization and operations that were used by the medical examiner’s 

team to recover the bodies and establish personal ID of all the victims. 

The environmental conditions were: temperature 4°C, a sandy and muddy 

seabed, high pressure (81 ata), salinity 35%, oxygen 0.5 ml/l, darkness, 

current running from north-east to south-west (velocity: 10-15 

cm/second). The bodies were found in each of four holds of the wreck: 8 

in the steering-compartment, 24 in the bow, 9 in the stern, 10 in the middle 

hold, 1 in the engine room. In addition, 1 completely skeletonized cadaver 

was recovered outside the wreck, on the sea-bottom. All the victims were 

wearing winter clothing when the ship was engulfed but their heads and 

hands were uncovered. The human remains were scored for regional 

presence of soft tissue, exposure of bone, and disarticulation to determine 

the general decomposition pattern. The regions scored were the head, 

neck, hands, forearms, upper arms, feet, legs, pelvic girdle, and trunk. 

Initial adipocere formation (soft with a greasy consistency) appeared on 

covered areas of all the bodies. The head and hands were skeletonized in 

57% of the cases, the hand-bones being disarticulated in 30% of these. 

The internal organs were in place and showed nearly normal coloration but 

demonstrated extensive softening and autolysis. The mechanism of soft 

tissue destruction in the skeletonized areas was the result of the feeding 


activity of marine scavengers such as small size fish and molluscs: 

clusters of Xylophaga dorsalis and Adula Simpsoni used the clothing and 

wooden supports of the wreck as a substrate for attachment. Some very 

unusual findings featured square or snowflake shaped crystals attached on 

the skin surface in covered areas. In conclusion, the pattern and sequence 

of decomposition observed have to be considered unusual for human 

remains lying in a marine context for several months: they appear to be 

related to submersion of the bodies inside a sequestered environments like 

the holds of a wreck. 

Marine Taphonomy, Human Remains, Decomposition 

H32 The Landscape’s Role in Dumped 

and Scattered Remains 

Mary H. Manhein, MA*, Ginesse Listi, MA, and Michael Leitner, PhD, 


227 Howe-Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 

The goals of this presentation are to assess and understand the 

relationship between the landscape and dumped bodies. 

In February, 1987, at the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 

Annual Meeting in San Diego, Dr. Milton Newton, a geographer in the 

Department of Geography and Anthropology at Louisiana State University 

(LSU), co-authored and presented a paper in the Criminalistics Section 

entitled “Geoforensic Analysis of Localized Serial Murder: The Hillside 

Stranglers Located.” In that groundbreaking paper, Newton used spatial 

analysis without computer technology to demonstrate that geography can 

be a valuable forensic tool to aid in capturing serial killers. In his words, 

“The classification of serial murderers as to ‘type’ becomes important 

when we consider the geographical need to map phenomena according to 

kind.” Newton’s work is just one example of the ways in which he and 

others have applied such mapping techniques to a wide variety of different 

spatial activities. Since the 80s, advances in modern computer technology 

have allowed various researchers to more quickly, efficiently and easily 

manipulate geographical data to demonstrate the impact of the landscape 

and environment on human activities. Additionally, forensic scientists 

have taken advantage of such powerful techniques. Computerized 

mapping assists law enforcement agencies in strategic planning, crime 

analysis, and other operations. In the past, the applications have ranged 

from simple pin maps, or other mapping analyses, to the organization of 

information in usable databases. 

In this research project, the authors have combined the modern technology 

of the Global Positioning System (GPS), Geographic Information 

Systems (GIS), and Spatial Analysis (SA) with remotely sensed data, 

including Digital Orthophoto Quarter Quadrangle (DOQQ) images, to 

evaluate and analyze deposition sites of human remains from across 

Louisiana. The LSU Forensic Anthropology and Computer Enhancement 

Services Laboratory (FACES Lab) analyzed 100 for commonalities using 

GIS, GPS, DOQQ’s, and SA. These cases included those delivered to the 

FACES Laboratory and a subset of 32 cases retrieved in the field by 

FACES Lab personnel. 

In analyses of the larger data set, the landscape played a vital role in 

the ultimate location of the body. Also, the local taphonomic processes 

impacted the body’s discovery and recovery. Variables considered in these 

analyses included season of the year, setting (urban, rural, or suburban), 

vegetation cover, easiest access to site, natural or manmade barriers, and 

the effect of scavenging animals. 

The results of various statistical tests and spatial analysis on the 

subset of 32 cases demonstrate no statistically significant relationship 

between time since death and dispersal distance. Also, analysis shows that 

the circular variance, i.e., the direction of dispersal around the original 

dumpsite, appears to be random with respect to postmortem interval. On 

the other hand, a significant negative relationship exists between circular 


variance and distance, but, due to a small sample size, this result needs to 

be interpreted with caution. 

To summarize, the results of this research clearly show that modern 

technology can provide forensic scientists with the tools needed to more 

accurately and efficiently interpret the landscape’s role in the investigation 

of dumpsites. 

Dumped Bodies, Geographic Analysis, Anthropology 

H33 The Role of Textiles in Determination 

of Postmortem Interval 

Kellie M. Gordon, BA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Department of 

Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, 227 Howe 

Russell Geoscience Complex, Baton Rouge, LA 

The goal of this presentation is to assess the deterioration of a 

decedent’s clothing to assist in determining postmortem interval (PMI) of 

a forensic case. Preliminary results have provided 88% accuracy in PMI 

estimation. 

One of the most critical problems to be solved in the medicolegal 

field of forensic science is time since death, or postmortem interval (PMI). 

Determination of PMI typically falls upon the forensic pathologist, but in 

advanced cases of decomposition, a forensic anthropologist is often consulted. 

Accurate assessment of PMI is important because investigators can 

narrow the time frame of events for a case, a crucial step for law 

enforcement in forensic analysis. However, as PMI increases, the 

accuracy of determination of PMI often decreases. Rarely in a forensic 

case can PMI be determined based on one taphonomic variable. Yet, an 

investigator can aspire to having a basic understanding of the various 

effects that each variable may bring to the deterioration rate of a body to 

form a more comprehensive evaluation of PMI. This study offers forensic 

investigators another reliable method of determining PMI by analyzing the 

deterioration rates of various fabric types associated with actual forensic 

cases. 

An analysis was completed based on a comparative evaluation of 

clothing curated by the Louisiana State University Forensic Anthropology 

and Computer Enhancement Services (FACES) Lab. A total of 17 forensic 

cases were examined. The clothing from each case is stored separately 

from the associated skeletal remains; therefore, assessments of PMI were 

based solely on a visual evaluation of the fabric and not on skeletal 

evidence. Also, the estimations were made without any previous 

knowledge of the history of the case, including the environment in which 

the decedent was found. 

Only items of cotton, polyester/cotton blend, or polyester were 

examined. Shoes, belts, and leather goods were not considered. On some 

items, the tag on the clothing could still be read and the exact fabric 

composition was recorded. In cases where no tag was present, estimation 

was made as to the composition of the clothing based on its appearance, 

weave pattern, and texture. As the items were examined, a number of 

recurring characteristics presented themselves. Items with extensive 

insect activity, series of small (1-2) mm holes as well as the presence of 

larva cases, were generally assessed to be associated with a longer PMI 

than items with little or no evidence of insect activity. Overall insect 

activity was judged on the percentage of the item’s surface area that 

featured evidence of such activity. Fading of the materials, as well as relative 

stiffness or fragility, was attributed to cases with longer perceived 

exposure to the elements. Polyester/cotton blends exhibited vertically 

aligned runs in the fabric and transparency, both becoming more prevalent 

with increased deterioration. The presence of adipocere was also 

considered in forming an estimation of PMI. 

Once all of the clothing was evaluated in this blind test and a PMI 

estimation was made for each case, the official case files were then 

examined to determine the accuracy of the estimations. In 15 of the 17 

548

cases considered, the PMI estimation either fell into the range previously 

assessed by the forensic anthropologist or hit exactly on the actual PMI of 

the case, providing 88% accuracy. Overall, an accuracy of 88% shows 

promise in the evaluation of the deterioration of clothing in relation to 

determining PMI of a forensic case. In addition, coupled with the analysis 

of the human remains, a more accurate assessment of PMI will be made. 

Postmortem Interval, Fabrics, Forensic Anthropology 

H34 It Came Out of the Sky: 

Cremains as an Aerial Hazard 

John A. Williams, PhD*, University of North Dakota, Box 8374, 

Grand Forks, ND 

The goals of this presentation are to present to forensic anthropologists 

and others a unique situation involving human cremains as a 

destructive force. 

Shortly before the end of 2001 a homeowner in the city of Grand 

Forks, North Dakota discovered a large hole in his backyard deck. 

Inside the hole were a ruptured paper bag and a whitish granular 

material. The material was subsequently identified as human cremains. 

The origin of the cremains remained a mystery for several months. An 

attorney eventually contacted the parties involved and related that family 

members had arranged to have the cremains of a relative spread over the 

city. The family of the deceased refused to provide any information 

regarding the deceased or the events surrounding the “dumping” of the 

cremains. 

A shop vacuum was used to recover the cremains from under the 

deck surface. In doing so a large quantity of “pea gravel” was recovered 

as well. This gravel was manually sorted from the cremains. The cremains 

were then sorted by size into three categories: large 2-17 mm, 

small ca 1-2 mm, and dust. Respectively these weighed 1029 grams, 

332.6 grams, and 1090.8 grams, for a total weight of 2452.4 grams (5.4 

lbs). Not all the cremains could be economically or practically 

recovered (some cremains were scattered under the deck beyond reach). 

A rough estimate of 10% loss places the actual weight at around 2700 

grams (5.9 lbs). 

Many of the larger pieces had a visible red stain. Under microscopic 

examination this stain had a glass-like appearance and was fused 

to the bone surface, an artifact of the cremation process. The larger 

pieces also retained an intact periosteal surface. No fragments were 

large enough to identify. Otherwise the cremains are unremarkable. 

Various non-organic items were sorted out from the cremains. These are 

primarily metallic and represent clothing items or fasteners associated 

with the box within which the body was contained during the cremation 

(grommets, staples, twisted wire). 

The deck that was struck by the bag of cremains was of standard 

construction using green treated lumber, 1 x 6 decking on two foot joist 

centers. The deck is approximately square measuring 5.5 m (18 feet) by 

6.2 m (20 feet). The opening is ovoid 30.5 cm by 60.9 cm with the long 

axis running parallel to decking centered between two joists. 

The terminal velocity of the bag of cremains was calculated to be 

between 31and 49 m/s (102 - 160 f/s) which would have been attained 

within 3 to 5 seconds after release at a minimum distance of between 49 

and 122 m (160 - 400 feet). This yielded a kinetic energy at terminal 

velocity of between 1297 J and 3241 J (949 - 2371lbf). 

Cremains, Kinetic Energy, Forensic Anthropology 

H35 The Effect of Human Body Mass 

on the Rate of Decomposition 

Jaime Stuart, MA*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

The attendee can expect to come away from this presentation understanding: 

1) differences in soft tissue removal rates for varying body compositions, 

2) during which stage of decomposition there is a significant 

reduction in body mass, and 3) the relationship between internal body temperature 

and ambient air temperature relative to body mass. 

All vertebrate organisms, given equal opportunity at death, will 

proceed through the same stages of decomposition. However, the rate at 

which individual organisms move through the stages of soft tissue and 

osseous destruction is dependent on a myriad of variables, including body 

mass. Previous studies examining the relationship between body mass and 

rate of decomposition are few. Hewadikaram and Goff (1991), using two 

domestic pig carcasses (Sus scrofa L.), provide the only systematic 

analysis of the effect of body mass, as well as the patterns of insect succession 

on the rate of decomposition. The authors found that there was a 

difference in the rate of decomposition, but not in insect succession, relative 

to the size of the carcasses. Their study showed that a greater number 

of adult flies were attracted to the larger carcass (15.1 kg. Vs. 8.4kg) 

resulting in larger maggot masses and more rapid removal of soft tissue. 

Ongoing experiments in body mass and rate of decomposition are 

being conducted at the Anthropological Research Facility (ARF) located 

at the University of Tennessee using donated human bodies. To estimate 

relative body fat, skinfold measurements are recorded for each donated 

specimen upon arrival at ARF. Body mass, gross morphological changes, 

internal body temperature, external ambient temperature, and humidity are 

recorded daily for 30 days, followed by every third day for two weeks. 

Linear regression analysis is employed to measure the association between 

body mass, time, and temperature. Preliminary observations show that in 

the warmer months the most significant reductions in body mass occur 

during the bloat stage, and that a specimen can lose up to one quarter of its 

mass within a 24-hour period. Additionally, while specimens of various 

body compositions may lose up to a quarter of their mass in one day, those 

with greater relative body fat measures (i.e., greater fat mass) tend to lose 

mass more rapidly. However, further research is needed to confirm and 

expand initial results. 

Previous studies documenting rates of decomposition in relation to 

body mass are few. This presentation will provide baseline regional information 

on rates of human soft tissue removal relative to body mass. 

Additionally, data derived from this project may aid the forensic anthropologist 

and forensic pathologist in estimates of time since death in the 

early stages of the postmortem interval. 

Hewadikaram, Kamani A., and M. Lee Goff (1991) Effect of Carcass Size 

on the Rate of Decomposition and Anthropod Succession Patterns. The 

American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 12(3):235-240. 

Body Mass, Decomposition, Forensic Anthropology 

H36 Understanding Rib Fracture Patterns 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, and Steven A. Symes, PhD, University of 

Tennessee, Memphis, Regional Forensic Center, Memphis, Memphis, TN; 

and Chantal Ferraro, PhD, Long Island University, Long Island 

University, Brookville, NY 

During this presentation the dynamics of rib fractures will be 

discussed while introducing a new method for accurately describing the 

location of rib fractures. The ultimate goal is to test the predictive value 

of blunt force rib fractures. 

Anthropologists face three challenges when analyzing blunt force rib 

fractures: first, understanding the mechanics of rib fractures; second, 


describing the location of the fracture; and third, estimating the direction 

of the impact force. Galloway [1] states that rib fractures rarely occur at the 

point of compression. This behavior is seen because the rib is a single 

component in a closed system, which includes the paired ribs, vertebra, 

sternum, and costal cartilage. Force applied at any position or direction to 

the system is transmitted throughout the system. As the stresses are 

distributed through the system the weakest point fractures, which is not 

necessarily the point of impact. 

Structural variation found within the rib further complicates rib 

fracture mechanics. The head of the rib is formed by relatively thick 

cortical bone. By comparison the sternal end is primarily composed of 

trabecular bone bound by a very thin shell of cortical bone. As a result the 

head of the rib fractures in both oblique and butterfly patterns, failing in 

tension before compression, while the sternal end of the rib often buckles, 

failing in compression before tension. Furthermore, the medial portion of 

the shaft often fractures in a transverse pattern that fails to indicate the 

direction of tension and compression forces. The first goal of this study is 

to understand the vast variation of rib fracture morphology and organize 

this variation into standardized categories. 

White [2] identifies eight landmarks on the rib: head, neck, tubercle, 

angle, shaft, sternal end, costal groove, and cranial edge. Most of these 

landmarks are located in the posterior region of the rib enabling precise 

description of fracture location. However, the majority of the rib is identified 

as the shaft, creating a large wasteland of nondescript area. This lack 

of features makes communicating the location of a fracture difficult. In 

light of this, the second goal is to develop a method to accurately locate 

fracture lines throughout the rib. Conceptualizing the rib as one segment 

of a circle lends to viewing the system as a clock face. This enables 

breaking the cross sectioned thorax into twelve segments. Several 

numbers of the clock are assigned to landmarks and the nondescript areas 

between are divided in to segments by the numbers between those 

assigned. The method can be used to quickly and relatively accurately 

describe the fracture location. 

The ultimate goal of the study is to determine the predictability of rib 

fracture patterns. This is accomplished through a database using the 

fracture patterns of victims when the direction of the traumatic force was 

known. The fracture patterns are coded and statistically compared for 

regularity. The final step of the study is a blind comparison of rib fracture 

patterns to the database in order to estimate the direction of force. 

The extensive bone trauma evidence archived at the Regional 

Forensic Center, Memphis is used in this study. The bone is harvested 

during autopsy and retained for medico-legal purposes. The evidence 

includes males and females of all ages. 

1. Galloway, A fracture pattern and skeletal morphology: the axial 

skeleton. In: Alison Galloway editor Broken Bones: Anthropological 

Analysis of Blunt Force Trauma. Illinois. Charles C Thomas 2000, 81-112. 

2. White TD. Human Osteology. New York. Academic Press. 2000. 

Forensic Anthropology, Rib Fractures, Blunt Force Trauma 

H37 Features of Preexisting Trauma 

and Burned Cranial Bone 


Fayetteville, AR; and O’ Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic Center 

of the University of Tennessee, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

After this presentation, the attendee will be able to: 1) recognize 

problems associated with analyzing burned human cranial remains, 

2) establish expectations of normal artifacts from fire trauma, and 3) identification 

of aberrant features that may indicate preexisting trauma. 

The majority of accidental fire deaths occur in homes or vehicles, but 

some are set to intentionally obliterate homicidal acts, personal identity, or 

incriminating evidence. Recognizing these is compounded when burning 


destroys the soft and hard tissues of the human body. With respect to the 

head, identity and injuries are readily obscured because of its structural 

vulnerability as protective layers of skin and muscle are quickly burned 

away, exposing bone to rapid organic degradation from heat. Absence of 

organic components leaves thin cranial bone fragile and susceptible to 

additional heat fracturing, mechanical fractures, deformation, and delamination 

(separation of tables). Within limits, these are expected to occur in 

thermally stressed cranial bone, but the danger lies when they either mimic 

or obscure antecedent traumatic features. 

This problem is explored using a sample of 15 unembalmed human 

heads from anatomical gift donations, fully fleshed and preserved by 

freezing. Prior to and following placement of known trauma, each head 

was documented with lateral and anterior-posterior radiographs. Once 

fracture patterns and sites of impact were visualized on X-ray, each head 

was burned under controlled conditions while photographically recording 

soft tissue reactions of traumatized areas, followed by burn patterns in 

cranial bone. Experiments varied from partial to full cremation in order to 

appreciate the range of thermal degradation of traumatic stigmata and 

identifying characteristics. The fragmentary cranial remains were 

recovered, processed, and reconstructed to differentiate between trauma 

and the expected alterations of thermal destruction. In addition, known 

cases of homicide-related fires with trauma to the head were included in 

the study. All specimens were examined grossly and microscopically for 

patterns associated with trauma. 

It is important to recognize the expected heat-related fractures in 

cranial bone prior to discussion of traumatic characteristics. Fleshed 

human crania burn according to the anatomically distributed insulative 

covering of soft tissue. Usually the superficial bony areas under the thin 

uniform scalp and forehead burn first followed by the thick muscular areas 

of the lower face. Heat dehydrates, shrinks and splits the to expose underlying 

muscle and bone. Heat destroys the organic composition, expressed 

through a progressive color range of buff (initial organic degradation), 

black (carbonized organic destruction), and white/gray (calcined inorganic 

structure). Aggressive interactions among rapid heating, vigorous 

shrinking of soft tissue including periosteum, and organic loss from the 

bone are responsible for initial creation of heat fractures in all stages of 

color, especially calcination. 

A multitude of these may be present in the external table as small 

surface tensile cracks or superficial sites of delamination where the outer 

layer shrinks, separates and exposes the diploe. In several experimental 

crania, this produces a beveled appearance mimicking ballistic and blunt 

trauma. Advanced incineration or impacts while burning may produce 

fractures extending into the inner table. In calcined bone, sites such as 

these or open sutures may have a deep black outline around the breach 

from pressurized venting of organic materials within the vault. 

Examination of this feature is important since it was present in both known 

traumatized and non-traumatized (sutures and full thickness heat 

fractures) sites of the skull. 

Linear fractures seen in a burned skull initially fall into a gray area 

since they have features of either heat or pre-existent trauma. These can 

occur during the earliest stage of burning as organic material undergoes 

destruction causing shrinking and splitting of bone. In areas of prolonged 

heat exposure, they may also radiate out from charred black areas into 

buff-colored bone freshly undergoing initial thermal alteration. However, 

they should not extend into green (unburned bone), as this is a feature of 

a preexisting fracture. Deep linear fractures sectioning all tables of cranial 

bone should be examined for morphologies along corresponding margins. 

Well-defined sharp margins are incurred in advanced calcined bone from 

thermal or mechanical fractures, possibly accompanied with deformation 

and shrinkage. Traumatic fractures have blunted deformed or even 

warped margins from thermal alteration. The difference becomes obvious 

following reconstruction, since heat fractures communicate more perfectly 

than traumatic fractures distorted by heat. 

Features of traumatic injuries were easily evaluated during early 

stages of burning. Any compromise in skin integrity over the cranium 

550

prematurely exposed bone to thermal destruction. Sites of cut marks or 

lacerations opened quickly and accelerated damage much like the effects 

of advanced decomposition around an open perimortem injury. Partial 

incineration provided an opportunity to observe the progressive effects of 

heat on the blunt, sharp, and ballistic trauma in cranial bone. Pre-existent 

linear fractures undergo little change through the ranges of unburned, 

initial buff, charred; calcined fractures become difficult to assess as 

margins gradually become beveled, ragged, blunted, or deformed. 

Suspected features should be closely examined and visually compared 

with a multiplicity of known dry postmortem heat or mechanical fractures 

surrounding the area. 

Several distinct characteristics of blunt, ballistic, and sharp trauma do 

survive varying degrees of thermal destruction. With careful recovery and 

reconstruction techniques areas of inwardly crushed bone, ballistic and 

blunt beveling, features of impact sites, and sharp margins from edged 

weapons are preserved. Unfortunately dynamics of the burning 

environment, extinguishment methods, collapse of debris, and improper or 

incomplete recovery techniques can destroy these features. Therefore the 

likelihood of finding obvious signatures diminishes and less discernible 

than in unburned bone. Exercise extreme caution when looking for preexisting 

trauma and strive to use multiple indicators as supportive evidence. 

A variety of traumatic and non-traumatic features in burned cranial bone 

will be illustrated along with their forensic applications for evaluating 

burned bodies and bones. 

Skeletal Trauma, Burned Bone, Fire investigation 

H38 Burning Extremities: Patterns of 

Arms, Legs, and Preexisting Trauma 

O’ Brian C. Smith, MD, Regional Forensic Center of the University of 

Tennessee, 1060 Madison Ave, Memphis, TN; and Elayne J. Pope, MA*, 

University of Arkansas, 330 Old Main, Fayetteville, AR 

After viewing this presentation, the attendee will be able to: 1) recognize 

soft tissue changes of fleshed arms and legs, 2) understand of the 

dynamics of pugilistic posture, 3) observe the progression of burning 

evidenced by color and heat-induced fractures in bone, and 4) identify 

effects of preexisting trauma. 

Analysis of burned victims begins long after dramatic events of 

burning occur to soft and hard tissues of the body. What is seen at the 

medical examiner’s office is an arrested phase of extremely dynamic 

processes involving heat, combustion, organic degradation and alteration 

of the body position. Little attention has been given to understanding 

processes creating burned trauma simply because it has not been directly 

observed. There are many clinically based theories about what happens to 

a burning body, and these misconceptions even make their way into well 

accepted forensic texts until disproved experimentally 

A sample of 16 fully fleshed unembalmed human arms, legs, and 

torsos from anatomical gift donations were used in order to document 

changes during burning events. Several limbs were completely disarticulated 

at the humeral and femoral mid shafts while others remained anatomically 

intact. Conditions and activities of each experiment were 

documented with written notes, digital pyrometer, 35mm slide film, and 

digital camera based on timed intervals. These methods identified predictable 

sequences of burning for unobstructed extremities of the body, 

delineated phases of the pugilistic posture and established burning patterns 

for soft and skeletal tissue through all stages of burning events illustrated 

below. 

Once placed in the context of heat, skin becomes waxy, glossy, 

tightens, blackens from charring, and begins to split into transverse, 

longitudinal, and stellate patterns. These windows expose underlying 

musculature, tendons, and finally bone. Shortening of tissues causes 

curling and abduction of fingers and toes, sequentially followed by 

gradual flexion of the wrist and ankles, contraction of elbow and knee, and 

finally localized tightening of the hip and shoulder. Bones become 

predictably exposed on the distal phalanxes, metacarpals, ulna, and radius 

as skin splits and burns away. Muscles and tendons from the proximal 

wrist quickly burn, disarticulate, mushroom at the margin, and recede distally 

to join the collective mass of tissue around the anterior surface of the 

elbow, while posterior effects expose the ulna, radius, and humerus. This 

is followed by gradual antero-medial rotation of the shoulder positioning 

the arm over the chest. Toes mimic fingers, splay and curl around the ball 

of the foot, while the ankle rotates medially, followed by a slow contraction 

of the knee and finally hip into the pugilistic posture. Superficial 

soft tissue protection around the knee and shin quickly expose bone followed 

by gradual destruction of musculature along the shaft. Unconfined 

arms and legs react in a sequential fashion as heat increases the severity of 

damage in direct proportion to time and temperature. 

Prior to burning, several of the long bones were subjects of surgical 

practices and exhibited a variety of artifacts such as screws, plates, steel 

rod implants, and surgical cuts to skin and bone. All were easily identifiable 

during the post burn analysis, but observation revealed their 

influence in soft tissue and bone during the burning process. Superficial 

incisions in the skin were instantly affected by heat, tightening skin, with 

additional tensile forces from contracting muscle. Cut or traumatized soft 

tissues bulge and mushroom initially through surgical openings, resulting 

in premature exposure of underlying bone as soft tissue contracts and 

burns away. In a forensic setting, these results may indicate perimortem 

trauma to soft tissue or bone. 

After bone is exposed, direct application of heat destroys the organic 

composition, expressed through progressive color changes of buff 

(exposure margin of initial organic degradation), black (charred bone 

undergoing organic destruction), and white/gray (calcined inorganic 

structure). Interpretation of these colors accurately reconstructs location, 

direction and extent of burning activity. Absence of color in advanced 

stages of incineration indicates complete loss of organic material, leaving 

stress signatures of longitudinal, transverse, curved transverse, and crazing 

heat-induced fractures in calcined bone. A variety of these may be present 

and by aiding interpretation of how and where soft tissue reduction 

occurred, help reconstruct events. One unique heat fracture identifies 

tissue regression as muscle tightens and pulls away, leaving a curving 

transverse defect as a watermark of gradual burning. Correlation of soft 

tissue burning and post fire fracture analysis further illustrates how tissue 

regression fractures are indicative of orientation and progression of 

burning in fleshed remains. The same is true for articular surfaces protected 

by soft tissue and cartilage, where stacked arcs of curved transverse 

fractures permanently illustrate the progression in burning and soft tissue 

reduction. 

Fractured, cut, or compromised bone exhibits interesting patterns 

during the burning phases of soft and hard tissues. For example, one of 

the fleshed lower legs had been transected across the proximal mid shaft 

of the tibia and fibula with minimal surgical invasion in the overlying soft 

tissue on the posterior surface. Early in the firing, the powerful 

contraction of the leg muscles shortened and pulled the bone wide apart 

like a hinge; splitting skin, exposing muscle, and finally bone along the 

anterior surface, long before the knee drew up into the pugilistic posture. 

Post burn analysis of this specimen demonstrated the prolonged thermal 

effects due to the early exposure and even the calcined bone retained tool 

marks at sectioned surfaces and drill holes. These characteristics should 

be considered indicative of preexisting trauma since the mid shaft is an 

abnormal site for early burning to occur in most long bones. All features 

described above will be illustrated during this presentation. 

Skeletal Trauma, Burned Bone, Fire Investigation 


H39 The Influence of Behavior on Free Fall 

Injury Patterns: Possible Implications 

for Forensic Anthropological Investigations 

Angi M. Christensen, MA*, Department of Anthropology, The University 


The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic community the 

results of an investigation into the influence of behavioral response 

(or lack thereof) on skeletal injury patterns in cases of falls from heights. 

Victims of falls from heights tend to sustain a pattern of injury that is 

predictably different from injuries associated with other types of blunt 

trauma. Many studies have examined resulting injury patterns (particularly 

skeletal fractures) in attempts to reveal relationships between these 

patterns and various other factors such as body position, height of the fall, 

age, pre-existing medical conditions, etc. However, few have pondered 

the possibility of an association between skeletal injury pattern and cause 

or motivation of the fall. 

Motivation or circumstances of a fall from a height can be a key piece 

of information in forensic contexts where it may be useful in assessing 

whether a victim’s death resulted from a suicide, an accidental fall, a 

homicidal push, or whether death occurred prior to the fall. The patterns 

of skeletal injury may be of particular importance in cases where bodies 

are not discovered until some later time and soft tissue injuries are no 

longer observable, leaving a skeletal trauma analysis the only means of 

arriving at clues regarding the manner of death. 

A key difference in these cases is the mental state of the deceased 

before and during the fall and their resulting behavioral response (or lack 

thereof). Victims of accidental falls and homicidal pushes do not 

consciously want the falling action to occur and will spontaneously, as a 

defense mechanism, attempt to interfere with and manipulate the physical 

forces acting upon them. They will attempt to protect their heads from 

impact with the ground, and/or extend appendages to brace themselves for 

impact. Suicidal persons, on the other hand, initiate purposeful action and 

may actually enjoy and welcome the fall, resulting in less preparation for 

impact. Studies indicate, in fact, that suicidal, psychotic, and inebriated 

individuals (who have been termed “abnormally relaxed”) have a disproportionate 

survival rate among free falls of extreme distances as a result of 

their relaxed state. Similarly, severely incapacitated individuals or dead 

bodies (the extreme cases of “abnormally relaxed”) would have no 

defensive response to the fall and impending impact. They are thus 

subject exclusively to the physical forces acting upon them. 

This study examines the effect of these mechanical forces on the 

human body form in free fall in the absence of interference by human 

behavioral response. The hypothesis is that “abnormally relaxed” individuals 

will fall in a predictably different fashion than alert individuals due 

to the absence of a behavioral defense response, and that this will result in 

a distinct pattern of orientation at impact. Indeed, a review of case studies 

of free fall injuries indicated that most falls from heights result in lower 

extremity, pelvic and vertebral fractures, due largely to the fact victims of 

accidental falls tend to land in a feet-first orientation, a pattern that is 

notably different from studies of suicidal jumpers in which horizontal 

impacts and associated thoracic injuries and rib fractures are predominant. 

The investigation was undertaken by observing experimental free fall 

drops of an anthropomorphic dummy (representing the “abnormally 

relaxed” state) from a height of about 75 feet. Nine total drops were performed, 

using three different starting orientations; three falls began in a 

feet-first orientation, three began in a horizontal orientation, and three 

began in a headfirst orientation. All nine drops resulted in impact orientations 

that were roughly horizontal. Even over this relatively short fall, 

there was a distinct tendency for the dummy to rotate toward (or maintain) 

a horizontal orientation. 

These results suggest that in the absence of a behavioral response, 

physical laws naturally orient the human form horizontally, probably 

because this is more stable position, maximizing drag forces. In light of 


these results, a review of a case study of a possible suicidal jump from 100 

feet investigated by the University of Tennessee Forensic Anthropology 

Center was reanalyzed in an attempt to elucidate the possible circumstances 

of the fall. The pattern of skeletal injuries, which were primarily 

thoracic and axial, suggests a victim in a relaxed state at the time of the 

fall, lending support to suspicions that the victim was suicidal. The pattern 

of feet first injuries so pronounced in case studies could therefore be a 

result of the instinctive reaction of conscious humans to attempt to prepare 

for or resist impact. This information could be applied in forensic contexts 

by providing potential insight into the circumstances of a fall, particularly 

where skeletal fracture patterns are among the only clues. 

Forensic Science, Forensic Anthropology, Falls From Heights 

H40 Numerical Simulation of Fracture 

Propagation in a Test of 

Cantilevered Tubular Bone 

John F. Berryman*, University of Tennessee, Lebanon, TN; Hugh E. 

Berryman, PhD, Metropolitan and Davidson County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, Lebanon, TN; Robert A. LeMaster, PhD, PE, Department of 

Engineering, College of Engineering and Natural Science, Martin, TN; 

and Carrie Anne Berryman, MA, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 

The objective of this paper is to present a new method for computing 

the geometry of fracture surfaces of bone. 

Anthropologists recognize and use the fact that tubular bone fractures 

in a predictable way when cantilevered. Fracture orientation and surface 

morphology provides a means of establishing the mechanics involved in 

its production. The fracture typically propagates toward the cantilevered 

end, and a breakaway spur forms on the compression side of the 

cantilevered end. Although this pattern is recognized, the physics responsible 

for its production has never been demonstrated. A clear understanding 

of the physics involved in simple fracture production, as 

presented here, is an essential first-step toward the understanding of the 

factors affecting the formation of more complex fractures in tubular as 

well as flat bone. 

This paper discusses the application of engineering fracture 

mechanics to the analysis of fracture formation in tubular bone specimens. 

The immediate objective is to present a new approach for the study of 

bone fracture—the Element-Free-Galerkin method coupled with a 

J-integral based crack propagation criteria. The Element-Free-Galerkin 

method was first introduced ca. 1994 by Belytschko, et al. The method is 

based on a generalization of the finite element method commonly used to 

compute the stress and deformation states in mechanical and human 

skeletal systems. The numerical method is general in scope and can be 

applied in principle to other bone morphologies. 

In 1995, Belytschko applied the Element-Free-Galerkin method to 

the analysis of two-dimensional static and dynamic fracture problems. All 

of the problems considered by Belytschko used linear elastic fracture 

mechanics theory and concerned crack propagation in flat plates. It was 

shown that the Element-Free-Galerkin method was uniquely suited to 

crack propagation calculations because it is not necessary to regenerate the 

computational mesh as the crack propagates. Methods that require the 

regeneration of the computational meshes are computationally intensive, 

inherently slow, and often require user interaction. This first application 

of the Element-Free-Galerkin method to crack propagation was limited to 

linear materials that are brittle in nature and experience only small 

amounts of “blunting” (i.e., permanent deformation) at the crack tip. Cast 

iron is an example of an engineering material that demonstrates these 

properties. 

In this study, the Element-Free-Galerkin method is extended to the 

fracture of tubular bone. A non-linear fracture mechanics approach, based 

on the J-integral fracture parameter, is used to control the crack growth 

rate and propagation direction. The J-integral was initially developed for 

552

elastic-plastic materials, but has been shown to work well with other nonlinear 

materials. The ultimate goal of this research is to develop a 

computer program that can compute fracture surface geometry based on 

bone morphology and loading data. For this study, the fracture 

morphology commonly seen in the fracture of cantilevered tubular bone 

(i.e., an angled fracture with a breakaway spur) is compared to simulation 

results. Areas in which the simulation results agree/disagree with the 

experimental data are discussed. The results of this study contribute 

significantly to the understanding of how engineering fracture mechanics 

theories and computational methods can be used to explain specific 

fractures. Eventually, virtual models of various bones in three-dimension 

may be used to facilitate an understanding of the mechanics involved in 

the production of butterfly, spiral and other fractures commonly seen in 

tubular bone. In addition, the affects of the cross-sectional shape of bone 

(e.g., femur versus tibia) and bone buttressing on fracture morphology 

may be examined with this approach. This approach will also allow the 

investigation of varying intrinsic qualities (e.g., bone brittleness and 

elasticity), as well as extrinsic factors (e.g., rate of loading, area of application, 

and impulse). 

Although the methods used in this study are highly mathematical and 

use advanced simulation methods, the purpose of this paper is to provide 

the forensic community with an overview of a new simulation method and 

the results of a research study without dwelling on the mathematical detail. 

Computer generated images and graphs will enable the results to be 

understood. 

Bone Trauma, Finite Elements, Fracture Mechanics 

H41 An Evaluation of the Relationship Between 


Distribution, Type, and Severity of 

Vertebral Degenerative Disease in 

Archaeological Material 

Linda O’Connell, BM, MSc*, School of Conservation Sciences, 


The goal of this presentation is to determine if there is association 

between pelvic size and shape and the distribution, type and severity of 

vertebral degenerative disease. The latter included osteophytosis, 

osteoarthritis, and intervertebral disc degeneration. Initial analysis of the 

data has confirmed current concepts regarding differences in size and 

shape of the female and male pelvic girdles. Evaluation of the effects of 

the pelvis on the site, severity, and distribution of vertebral degenerative 

disease are currently being undertaken and it is hoped that the results of 

this analysis will be presented. 

In order to adopt an efficient bipedal posture and method of locomotion, 

the human skeleton has evolved a curved vertebral column and a 

stable, compact male pelvic girdle. The adaptive vertebral curves are most 

marked in the areas of C4-C6, T8-T10, and L3-L5 and the habitual force 

of gravity upon this configuration renders it susceptible to injury and 

degenerative disorders, such as osteophytosis, osteoarthritis, and intervertebral 

disc degeneration. 

This research aimed to determine if there is any association between 

pelvic size and shape and the distribution, type, and severity of vertebral 

degenerative disease. As a compromise has been reached between efficient 

upright posture/bipedal locomotion and the size and shape of the 

female pelvis in relation to its role in parturition, a difference between the 

rates of degenerative disease was expected between the two sexes. Very 

little research to date has been conducted on the pelvic girdle and its relationship 

with other anthropological and palaeopathological parameters, so 

it is hoped that this study will help establish whether the actual size and 

shape of the pelvis alone bears any relation to the distribution of degenerative 

disease in the vertebral column. 

A total of 103 documented individuals were examined form four 

British archaeological sites, spanning the 17th to the 19th century. The 

sites comprised, Christ Church, Spitalfields, London; St. Brides, Fleet 

Street, London; Kingston Quaker Burial Ground, Kingston Upon Thames, 

London; and St. Nicholas, Sevenoaks, Kent. The sex and age of these 

individuals is known from associated documented biographical data, and 

the sample represented a northwest European, middle class, population. 

The sample consisted of 62 females (aged 17-87 years, mean = 52.08, SD 

= 18.24) and 41 males (25-75 years, mean = 52.66, SD = 14.77). 

Collected were 62 measurements from the pelvic girdle and its 

separate components were collected, together with an assessment of pelvic 

shape. A working system for recording the distribution and degree of 

severity of degenerative change in the vertebral column was established 

for 24 vertebrae (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar) in addition to the 

first sacral vertebra and occipital condyles. Recognized recording 

standards were adopted, and in the case of osteophytosis and osteoarthritis, 

included detailed assessment of osteophytes, extent of circumference 

affected by lipping, degree of surface porosity, extent of surface affected 

by porosity, degree of eburnation, and extent of surface affected by eburnation. 

These attributes were also ascribed, when present, to the costal 

facets in the case of the thoracic vertebrae. 

Schmorl’s nodes were described according to four parameters: their 

status, position, greatest depth, and shape. Aside from noting the presence 

or absence of a node, there exists no standardized method for recording 

these entities. A scheme for indicating the position of a node on the 

vertebral surface has been published in the literature and this approach was 

adopted for documentation of this parameter. Measurement of the greatest 

depth was achieved by employment of the depth measurer on the digital 

sliding calipers. New strategies were developed to allow status and shape 

of the node to be recorded. 

Initial analysis of the data has confirmed current concepts regarding 

differences in size and shape of the female and male pelvic girdles. Age 

was found to have no significant effect upon the measurements recorded. 

Strong correlations have also been identified between certain individual 

measurements and reasons for this have been suggested. Evaluation of the 

effects of the pelvis on the site, severity and distribution of vertebral 

degenerative disease are currently being undertaken and it is hoped that 

the results of this analysis will be presented. Final results should enhance 

understanding of this particular pathological process and the factors 

responsible for its development, thus determining whether pelvic shape 

and size does play a role in its occurrence. 

Bipedal Adaptation, Pelvic Shape, Pelvic Dimensions 

H42 Assessment of Muscular-Skeletal 

Robusticity in Personal Identification 

of Human Remains 

Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, PhD*, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary 

Biology, Corson Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 


a critique of various morphometric procedures used by forensic anthropologists 

in measuring degrees of muscular-skeletal development in 


This study adds to the standard protocol used by forensic anthropologists 

in determining personal identification of human remains: the 

assessment of degrees of muscular-skeletal robusticity. In cases where 

anatomical soft tissue structures are taphonomically degraded, as at scenes 

of mass disasters or under certain conditions of interment, the investigator 

may be able to reconstruct the massiveness of the skeleton which is a 

measure of the degree of strengthening or structural buttressing of bones 

by augmentation of osseous tissue ¾ a response to high mechanical 

loading. This condition, called “robusticity,” has the potential to 

supplement other morphometric data by providing a profile of general 


ody form in life and specific characteristics of bones for reconstruction 

of those agents conducive to varying intensities of muscular-skeletal 

development. Gracile body forms and skeletal elements reflect reduction 

of factors contributing to robusticity, but are equally relevant to positive 

identifications of individuals. 

Two questions are addressed: (1) how has muscular-skeletai robusticity 

been accounted for by anthropologists and anatomists? and, (2) how 

can this variable be measured? 

Answers to the first issue invoke agents played by genetic inheritance, 

climatic conditions, and changes, geography with an emphasis upon 

latitudes, lifeways and individual behavior patterns. The latter category 

would involve skeletal changes related to markers of occupational stress 

(MOS), athletic activities, demands of different socioeconomic patterns, 

and stresses imposed upon locomotion by the terrain. Geographical and 

climatic explanations favor hypotheses that in hot tropical regions 

muscular-skeletal robusticity is low or absent in the postcranial skeleton 

(but not necessarily in cranial structures) and body builds are linear; in 

regions of cold stress conditions, more massive body forms are 

accompanied by high muscular-skeletal robusticity. 

The present investigator proposes that no single cause accounts for 

degrees of muscular-skeletal robusticity found in ancient and modern 

populations or individuals. This was tested by comparing values of the 

“Robusticity Index” (ratios of femoral lengths of mid-diaphyseal diameters 

or circumferences) in three human skeletal samples (modem South 

Asians, Mesolithic South Asians, a modem series from France). Bivariate 

and multivariate statistical analyses indicate that comparative values of the 

Robusticity Index are insignificant given the slight differences between 

them. The high degree of robusticity represented in the prehistoric Indian 

series was exhibited in their femora, as well as in their other postcranial 

bones, by pronounced markers of occupational stress. Parallel markers of 

occupational stress were present in the French sample where individuals 

gave evidence of labor-intensive lifeways. 

It is concluded that hypertrophy of MOS, rather than the Index 

of Robusticity, is a superior measure for reconstructing degrees of muscular-skeletal 

robusticity in the postcranial skeleton. Thus forensic anthropologists 

stand to gain a new approach to their practice of personal identification 

of human skeletal remains. 

Definitions of Muscular-Skeletal Robusticity, Personal Identification 

of Human Remains, Methodologies in Forensic Anthropology 

H43 Body Weight Estimation 


Phoebe R. Stubblefield, MA*, CA Pound Human Identification 

Laboratory, P.O. Box 112545, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 

The goals of this presentation are to explore the role of body weight 

prediction in the biological profile and to examine techniques of body 

weight prediction from skeletal remains. 

Although estimates of stature, age, ancestry, and sex are assumed 

components of the biological profile, estimation of body weight is not. 

Investigators at a crime scene will ask for body weight but this author has 

never formally addressed the request within the report of the osteological 

examination. Searches of the forensic literature reveal very few references 

to body weight estimation. The purpose of this presentation is to explore 

the role body weight estimation has in the biological profile, if any, and to 

examine techniques for estimating body weight. 

Body weight has several features that make it an undesirable 

component for a biological profile. The purpose of the biological profile 

is to recover details from the skeletonized decedent that can be compared 

to a persistent record, such as photographs, identification cards, and 

medical records and films. In American society body weight is recorded 

in medical records and more infrequently for identification cards, so the 

possibility of identification is dependent on limited records. Weight is 


such a sensitive issue that, like stature, it is broadly subject to inaccuracy 

when self-reported. Weight differs from stature in that a witness might 

easily reconstruct the latter by comparing an individual to his or her 

height, but be reluctant to perform the same analysis for weight with any 

precision. The most detracting feature is that weight defies record keeping 

by being capable of dramatic change over relatively short periods. 

Despite that body weight is a component of the identity of the 

deceased, the handicaps make it seem inappropriate for analysis. Yet at the 

very least the anthropologist would be providing information that helps the 

investigator refine a search image. Also, while the relationship between 

body weight and biological parameters such as life span or feeding 

behavior is understood on the species level for many animals, its effect on 

individual humans in a forensic context is not well explored. Knowledge 

of individual body weight could inform patterns of degenerative joint 

disease and cardiovascular disease, body transport and disposal and other 

taphonomic processes. The objection that weight is too nebulous to define 

is countered with the fact that given sufficient skeletal material (a 

restriction that applies to all components of the biological profile) a 

minimum range of weights would be obtainable simply from standards of 

weight for height. Then additional observations may be applied, such as 

clothing size if available, the trend to gain weight with age, or the circumstances 

of body disposal, to suggest an upper limit. 

If body weight is included in the biological profile, how can it be 

reconstructed from human skeletal remains? Several options, most 

derived from palaeoanthropology, seem available. Palaeoanthropology 

and forensic anthropology both cope with the winnowing effect time and 

nature have on skeletal material, but the former subfield’s focus on reconstructing 

the biology of extinct species has generated a larger toolkit for 

estimating body weight. However only a few of the techniques are 

applicable to modern humans. An early study by Baker and Newman 

(1957) 1 suggested dried bone weight be used to estimate body weight, but 

arriving at a standardized level of bone dryness made this technique difficult 

to apply. For measurements of several long bones and vertebrae 

McHenry (1992) 2 and Hartwig-Scherer (1994) 3 showed strong relationships 

(suggesting good predictive power) to body weight for modern 

humans. Aiello and Wood (1994) 4 and Gauld (1996) 5 have shown similarly 

strong relationships between measurements of the cranium and body 

weight. This study will focus on the cranial studies in order to illustrate 

the considerations involved in estimating body weight from skeletal measurements. 

Aiello and Wood and Gauld both demonstrated high (r > .90) correlations 

between some cranial measurements and body weight in mixed 

primate (human and nonhuman) samples. Aiello and Wood focused on 

external measurements of the face and vault, while Gauld used vault 

thickness measurements. In addition to having a mixed primate sample 

these authors also relied on predictions for specimens not having recorded 

weights. Results were not reported for the strictly human parts of their 

samples, so this author designed a study with applicability to modern 

humans. One hundred forty-seven adults of recorded body weight (100 

drawn from the Terry collection at the Smithsonian National Museum of 

Natural History and 47 from recent autopsies) were sampled for nine 

ectocranial and seven cranial vault thickness measurements. No prior 

effort was made to exclude emaciated individuals from the Terry collection; 

rather individuals were sorted during the analysis. Effort was 

made to adjust for fatness in the autopsy sample using triceps and subscapular 

skinfold measurement to estimate lean body weight. The correlation 

coefficient (Pearson’s r) was calculated for each measurement and 

body weight. 

The results of this study did not resemble those from Aiello and 

Wood or Gauld. Whether considered as separate samples (autopsy or 

skeletal) or one combined sample, none of the cranial measurements produced 

correlation coefficients higher than .6. The results did not improve 

when individuals below 100 pounds were removed from the Terry sample. 

The cranial thickness measurements were particularly poorly correlated to 

body weight, such that only one of the seven measurements (at lambda) 

554

produced a significant correlation. These contrasting results are likely the 

product of 1) having a strictly human reference sample, 2) incomplete 

replication of the cranial measurements between this and the previous 

studies, and/or 3) using only measured not predicted body weights. This 

current study indicates that while resources are available for estimating 

body weight from postcranial material, more research is needed into the 

feasibility of using cranial measurements. 

1 Baker, PT and Newman, RW (1957) The use of bone weight for human 

identification. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 15:601-618 

2 McHenry HM (1992) Body size and proportions in early hominids. Am. 

J. Phys. Anthropol. 87: 407-431. 

3 Hartwig-Schere S and Martin RD (1992) Allometry and prediction in 

hominoids: a solution to the problem of intervening variables. Am. J. 

Phys. Anthropol. 88:37-57. 

4 Aiello LC and BA Wood (1994) Cranial variables as predictors of 

hominine body mass. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 95:409-426. 

5 Gauld SC (1996) Allometric Patterns of Cranial Bone Thickness in 

Fossil Hominids. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 100: 411-426 

Body Weight, Biological Profile, Craniometrics 

H44 Radiographic Human Identification Using 


Michael G. Koot, BA*, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State 

University, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, 

East Lansing, MI 

Attendees will discover how to utilize posterior-anterior radiographs 

of the hand to make a positive identification of unknown human remains 

and learn the results of a validation study testing this method. 

This paper has 3 objectives: (1) to demonstrate how forensic scientists 

can utilize posterior-anterior hand radiographs for positive human 

identification, (2) to disseminate the results of a validation study testing 

this method, and (3) to explain which anatomical criteria proved to be the 

most useful and least beneficial to the examiners in the identification 

process. 

Positive identification of unknown human remains is a critical part of the 

medic-legal investigation. Common methods of obtaining a positive identification 

include DNA, fingerprints, dental radiographs, and other radiographic 

comparisons such as frontal sinus pattern. A recent Supreme 

Court ruling from 1993, Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 

requires that the standard for scientific evidence in a federal court is the 

reasoning or methodology underlying the expert's testimony must be scientifically 

valid. The Daubert test of scientific evidence relies on a preliminary 

ruling by the judge on whether the scientific theory or technique 

is scientifically valid based on "widespread acceptance", peer review, publication, 

testing, rates of error, and the existence of standards. Validation 

studies, as noted by previous publications and papers at American 

Academy of Forensic Sciences meetings, therefore, are important for each 

discipline in the American Academy of Forensic Sciences because scientists 

need to be able to prove that their scientific testimony is supported by 

the Daubert test. It should be noted that Daubert is a federal court 

requirement for evidence, but many states have accepted it for their evidence 

standards. 

In order to investigate the validity of posterior-anterior radiographs of 

the hand for human identification purposes, a series of radiographs was 

taken on human cadavers that are part of the Willed Body Program 

directed by Michigan State University, Department of Radiology, Division 

of Anatomy. In an effort to approximate antemortem x-rays, radiographs 

of 50 left hands were taken in the Michigan State University Gross 

Anatomy Lab using a General Electric Amx2 portable x-ray unit. The 

radiographs were taken in a manner to replicate the standards employed by 

radiographic technicians for posterior-anterior hand radiographs of living 

patients in clinical situations. The distance between the x-ray source and 

the film cassette was maintained at 40 inches, while the central ray was 

directed perpendicular to the film at the third metacarpophalangeal joint. 

The settings on the x-ray machine were set at 50 kVp, while mAs varied 

from 8-10 mAs for the antemortem radiographs, and 50 kVp and 3 mAs 

for the skeletal postmortem radiographs. A large, square piece of plexiglass 

was used to force the hands of the cadavers to remain flat on the radiographic 

film. 

Taking radiographs of 10 of the hands from 40 of the above individuals 

generated the "postmortem" sample. These hands were removed 

from the body and processed at the Michigan State University Forensic 

Anthropology Lab into bony specimens by removing all the soft tissue. 

The specimens were then re-articulated using a low temperature hot glue 

gun. Care was taken to orient the bones in an orientation that was similar 

to the antemortem radiograph. A radiograph was then taken of these 

reconstructed hands, in essence mimicking a skeletal postmortem radiograph. 

The validation component of this study examined the accuracy of 

making positive identifications between antemortem and postmortem 

radiographs of the hand. Participant examiners, one forensic anthropologist, 

four forensic anthropology graduate students, and two forensic 

pathologists received 50 radiographs from 40 different individuals. They 

compared 40 antemortem radiographs of fleshed hands from known 

individuals to 10 postmortem radiographs of bony hands from unknown 

individuals. No more than one individual represented each one of these 10 

postmortem radiographs from the group of the original 40. The participants 

worked independently, without assistance from others, to match the 

correct postmortem radiograph to its appropriate antemortem match. The 

participants were also asked to note on a data sheet which specific 

anatomical and morphological features were used for identification 

purposes. 

Nine participant examiners were involved in the validation study, 

with eight completing the study. One individual did not complete the 

study due to a lack of radiological identification training, thus the individual 

was not comfortable assigning any positive identifications. Of 

those who completed the study, results varied. In general, profession, 

experience level and specific training in radiological identification had a 

drastic effect on not only the ability to complete, but also perform well in 

the study. Three forensic anthropologists and three experienced forensic 

anthropology graduate students had a perfect score in positively identifying 

the 10 postmortem hand radiographs, which included one radiograph 

that did not have a corresponding antemortem match. The participants 

with the most experience and training in radiological identifications 

had higher accuracies when compared to those with less experience and 

specific training. Participant examiners noted trabecular patterns of the 

proximal and middle phalanges, distinguishing radiopaque and radiolucent 

features, and degenerative changes as the anatomical features that 

aided their identification. Distal phalanges and carpals were most frequently 

noted as the skeletal features that were least helpful in the identification 

process. 

This study demonstrates that the comparative analysis of hand radiographs 

is an appropriate method for positive identification. When experienced 

forensic anthropologists completed the exercise, their accuracy 

was 100%. The study also illustrates that examiners with less experience 

and training may not be qualified to perform comparative radiographic 

analyses. Further research is intended to expand the pool of expert examiners 

in order to provide a sufficient sample for statistical validation. 

Human Identification, Hand Radiographs, Validation Study 


H45 Using Amplification of Bacteriophage 

Lambda DNA to Detect PCR Inhibitors 

in Skeletal DNA 

Krista E. Latham, BS*, Department of Biology, University of 

Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Ave, Indianapolis, IN 

The goals of this presentation are to present to the forensic anthropological 

community a technique to detect the presence of PCR inhibitors in 

skeletal DNA. Using a mixture of a small amount of concentrated skeletal 

DNA and dilution of bacteriophage lambda DNA, the analyst can 

successfully detect PCR inhibitors early in the process and add additional 

purification steps to remove them from the skeletal DNA. 

The analysis of DNA from skeletal remains is becoming a useful tool 

for forensic anthropologists. Genetic analysis complements the osteological 

examination and aids in the identification process. However, 

analysis of DNA samples obtained from bone may be challenging due to 

the presence of contaminating molecules that can later interfere with the 

process of DNA fingerprinting. These inhibitory substances may not be 

removed with conventional methods used to extract purified skeletal 

DNA. The cause of PCR inhibition may vary among samples because the 

different taphonomic forces that effect bone degradation also have an 

affect on skeletal DNA. Soil components, such as iron or tannins, may 

leach into the bone tissue during diagenesis and co-purify with the DNA 

contained within the skeletal remains. PCR inhibitors may also be the 

maillard products of sugar reduction or humic acids, which are a mixture 

of substances produced by the decay process. In the case of PCR analysis, 

the presence of these inhibitory molecules may result in a failure to 

amplify a decedent’s DNA sequence needed for identification. Genetic 

analysis is expensive, time consuming, and destructive to the skeletal 

remains. If PCR inhibitors can be detected early in the process of genetic 

analysis, it can reduce the amount of skeletal remains lost to unsuccessful 

amplification. This paper will present a simple technique that can be used 

to detect PCR inhibitors in skeletal DNA. 

A series of dilutions were performed using lambda DNA in order to 

find a concentration that would be both sensitive and not saturating to the 

inhibitors. A preliminary amplification of lambda DNA was then used as 

a quality control indicator for the skeletal DNA. The lambda DNA was 

mixed with a small amount of concentrated bone DNA and lambda 

specific primers. The mixture was then subject to 35 rounds of PCR at 

95°C for one minute, 62°C for one minute, and 72°C for one minute. 

Inhibitors carried through the DNA purification process may block the 

amplification of the lambda DNA, and a failure to amplify the lambda 

DNA from the mixture indicates the presence of inhibitors in the skeletal 

DNA samples. Bacteriophage lambda DNA was chosen for this study 

because it is inexpensive and abundant in molecular laboratory facilities. 

The DNA tested for the inhibitors was extracted from the femora of 6 different 

historic human skeletal specimens. These DNA samples previously 

failed as templates for PCR using human specific primers. As a control, 

DNA from a human skeletal specimen that previously was successfully 

subjected to PCR analysis for human specific DNA fragments was also 

analyzed. 

Sampling of bone tissue for genetic analysis is becoming an 

important aspect of the identification process in forensic anthropology. 

The skeletal material is valuable to the anthropologist and a minimal 

amount should be destroyed in the DNA extraction process. 

Contaminating molecules introduced into the skeletal remains during 

decomposition may complicate genetic analysis. With the early detection 

of inhibitors, additional purification steps may be added to remove them 

from the sample and save valuable amounts of skeletal DNA from loss due 

to fruitless PCR amplification. The results of this experiment show a concentration 

that is effective in detecting the PCR inhibitors found in some 

skeletal DNA samples. 

Skeletal DNA, PCR Inhibitors, Lambda DNA 


H46 Nuclear DNA Preservation in 

Soft and Osseous Tissues 

Elias J. Kontanis, BS, BA*, Department of Ecology & Evolutionary 

Biology, Cornell University, Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 

The goals of this presentation are to further elucidate the relationship 

between gross tissue condition and nuclear DNA preservation. 

Participants will learn about the utility of organic vs. inorganic DNA 

extraction techniques as well as troubleshooting failed PCR amplification 

attempts when dealing with degraded DNA. Furthermore, environmental 

and laboratory contamination prevention and detection will be addressed. 

During the previous decade, forensic investigators have witnessed a 

paradigm shift to an increased reliance on DNA based decedent identification 

techniques. The benefits of DNA evidence include relatively high 

discriminatory powers as well as the capability of providing a match probability 

and likelihood estimate for each comparison. However, DNA identification 

has several limitations. Of primary concern is the ability to 

obtain authentic DNA from the decedent remains. This limitation has 

prompted research on biotic and abiotic variables affecting postmortem 

DNA degradation. In the laboratory, investigators have subjected isolated 

teeth, ribs, and bloodstains to a range of temperatures, pH, UV irradiation, 

soil types, and humidity levels for varying amounts of time (1,2,3,4) . 

Relatively few investigators have explored the possible correlation 

between tissue preservation and DNA survival under actual rather than 

laboratory conditions (5,6,7) . This study will refine the current understanding 

of postmortem nuclear DNA degradation by sampling a range of 

tissues under natural conditions from individuals with documented 

taphonornic histories. The following questions will be addressed: 

(a) Which DNA extraction method (phenol chloroform vs. silica) appears 

to be most effective for each tissue and postmortem sampling interval? 

(b) Is there a positive correlation between locus size and postmortem 

interval as measured by total body score and accumulated degree-days? 

(c) Are there variations in DNA quantity and quality when comparing a 

range of soft and osseous tissues? What are some potential reasons for 

these variations in DNA preservation? (d) Can DNA degradation and PCR 

inhibition be distinguished when presented with a failed amplification? 

Which PCR inhibitor prevention strategies work best given the 

taphonornic history of the samples? 

Weighing between 45 and 60 pounds, 28 pigs (Sus scrofa) were 

stunned using a captive-bolt gun and exsanguinated on June 8, 2001. The 

pigs were then deposited, 14 in each of two environments: tree cover 

surface and pond shore. These environments were located adjacent to 

each other within the Cornell University Experimental Ponds facility in 

Ithaca, New York. Tissues were collected on a scheduled basis beginning 

several hours postmortem, continuing on a biweekly, monthly, and 

bimonthly basis for 20 months. During this time, tissues were harvested 

from each pig twice, once in the first 10 months and once in the second 

half of the experiment. This schedule minimized anomalous tissue 

exposure in the early postmortem period, which would compromise the 

“natural” degradation process. When present, lung, liver, spleen, psoas 

muscle, adipocere, skin, and hair samples were collected. Additionally, 

ribs, lumbar vertebrae, femoral shafts, and parietal bones were collected at 

each sampling period. All samples were placed in a -20°C freezer upon 

procurement to minimize further DNA degradation. At each sampling 

event, gross decomposition was quantified and accumulated degree days 

were calculated as described by Megyesi (8) . This method results in a representation 

of decomposition state that will potentially reduce the subjective 

nature of qualitative descriptions, allowing a proper assessment of 

the relationship between gross preservation of sampled tissues and DNA 

preservation. 

For comparative purposes, each tissue sample was extracted using an 

organic (phenol-chloroform) and inorganic (silica) protocol. Following 

extraction, the DNA was quantified using slot-blot hybridization with a 

porcine specific radioactive probe. PCR amplification of four short 

556

tandem repeat (STR) loci varying in size was then utilized to assess DNA 

degradation by measuring allele dropout. Five percent of the samples 

were then sequenced to assure amplification of the target loci. In situations 

where repeated amplification attempts failed, several methods were 

employed to overcome PCR inhibition. These include the addition of 

more DNA polymerase to the amplification reaction, which might 

overcome a potential inhibitor, the addition of bovine serum albumin 

(BSA), and the addition of sodium hydroxide. Each of these methods is 

compared for their effectiveness in resolving PCR inhibition. 

Contamination issues, which are of primary concern when dealing with 

degraded samples, are also addressed through the use of positive and negative 

controls throughout the study. 

The ability to use a rapid, non-invasive screening process to assess 

potential DNA yield from various tissues allows for the optimization of 

sampling protocols in cases where limited sample is available. Optimizing 

tissue sampling for DNA analysis is also of keen interest to the mass 

fatality incident investigator who is charged with the identification of 

numerous decedents whose remains are often highly fragmented and 

degraded due to thermal and/or decomposition processes. 

References: 

1. Frank WE, Llewellyn BE. 1999. A time course study on STR profiles 

derived from human remains. Paper presented at the 51st annual 

meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Orlando. 

2. McNally L, Shaler RC, Baird M, Balazs 1, De Forest P, Kobilinsky 

L. 1989. Evaluation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) isolated from 

human bloodstains exposed to ultraviolet light, heat, humidity, and soil 

contamination. Journal of Forensic Sciences 34(5):1059 1069. 

3. Schwartz TR, Schwartz EA, Mieszerski L, McNally L, Koblinsky L. 

1991. Characterization of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) obtained from 

teeth subjected to various environmental conditions. Journal of Forensic 

Sciences 36(4):979-990. 

4. Smuts A, Pogue P, Gill-King H, Ingraham MR, Peacock EA, Planz 

JV. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA recovery and sequence analysis from 

human bone exposed to controlled thermal loading. Paper presented at 

the 51st annual meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 

Orlando. 

5. Damann FE, Leney M, Bunch AW. 2002. Predicting mitochondrial 

DNA (mtDNA) recovery by skeletal preservation. Paper presented at the 

54th annual meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 

Atlanta. 

6. Haynes S, Searle JB, Bretman A, Dobney KM. 2002. Bone preservation 

and ancient DNA: the application of screening methods for predicting 

DNA survival. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:585-592. 

7. Leney M. 2002. Factors that affect mtDNA recoverability from 

osseous remains. Paper presented at the 54th annual meeting of the 

American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Atlanta. 

8. Megyesi MS. 2002. The effects of temperature on the decomposition 

rate of human remains. Paper presented at the 54th annual 

meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Atlanta. 

Nuclear DNA Preservation, Taphonomy, Decomposition 

H47 The University of Tennessee/ 

FBI Human Remains Recovery School 

Murray K. Marks, PhD*, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

The goals of this presentation are to inform the audience of class 

objectives and what agents learn about recovery of human remains. 

Since 2000, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has sponsored the 

Human Remains Recovery School designed by the Forensic Anthropology 

Center at the University of Tennessee. During a week each spring, 40 

Evidence Response Team agents attend this course to gain training in 

clandestine-grave discovery and excavation. The Forensic Anthropology 

Research Facility provides the unique opportunity for this training with 

decomposing/skeletal remains in a variety of mortuary settings. This is a 

modified sister version of a course long offered by W.C. Rodriguez and 

W.D. Lord at the FBI Training Facility at Quantico, VA. 

The course involves lecture for 2.5 days on introductory anthropology 

(including bone trauma), pathology, odontology, entomology, and 

botany with detailed presentations on clandestine grave discovery, 

mapping, excavation, and recovery. This is followed by 2.5 days in the 

field recognizing surface anomalies and excavating decomposing/skeletal 

remains. 

Annually, the Bureau performs recovery operations without the services 

of a board-certified forensic anthropologist experienced in forensic 

mortuary site archaeology. The purpose of the class is not to transform 

Bureau agents into anthropologists, pathologists, or dentists, but to make 

them cognizant of clandestine grave evidence. In the class, agents become 

familiar with the complexities of discovery and recovery. The training 

makes them aware that the quality of their field abilities affects the quality 

of the remains and the information that can be discerned from the remains. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Mortuary Site Archaeology, 

Continuing Education 

H48 Presenting Forensic Anthropology Training 

Seminars and Workshops to Forensic 

Science, Medico-Legal, and Law 

Enforcement Professionals: Consequences 

for Death Investigations Involving 

Decomposed, Skeletal, and Burned 

Human Remains 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Hamline 

University, St. Paul, MN 

The goals of this presentation are to encourage and engage those 

attending to consider and discuss the benefits and consequences of providing 

training seminars and workshops in Forensic Anthropology to 

medico-legal, forensic science, law enforcement, and legal professionals. 

This presentation will discuss the content and target participants of 

Forensic Anthropology workshops presented to various medico-legal, 

forensic science, and law-enforcement agencies. These lectures and 

training workshops have had both positive and negative effects on the 

investigation and litigation of cases involving skeletal, burned, and 

decomposed human remains. 

Training seminars and workshops in Forensic Anthropology are a relatively 

recent occurrence in Minnesota. This is largely due to the infrequent 

and informal nature of local forensic anthropological consultation 

on cases involving skeletal, burned, and decomposed remains before 

1991, as well as a lack of awareness by local medico-legal, law 

enforcement, and legal professionals of exactly what a forensic anthropologist 

could contribute to a death investigation. Prior to 1991, the few cases 

that were perceived to warrant the expertise of a forensic anthropologist 

were sent to the Smithsonian Institution or to other anthropologists outside 

of the state. Since 1991, the author has been invited to participate in an 

ever-increasing number of seminars centering on death investigation and 

the different areas of expertise relevant to such investigations. These presentations 

have resulted in an increased and more widespread awareness 

by state, city, and county law enforcement, forensic science, and medicolegal 

agencies of the significant contributions by anthropologists to death 

investigations. Since 2000, the author has been providing one- to threeday 

workshops to a small number of city and county agencies, as well as 

opening up a limited number of spaces in a semester-long, undergraduate 

course in forensic anthropology. The focus of each workshop varies 

according to the agency requesting the training. The workshop presented 


to the Hennepin County Medical Examiner’s Office, for example, emphasized 

the information possible to determine from the analysis of skeletal 

remains and another, presented to the Hennepin County Sheriff’s Office, 

on the location, documentation, and collection of surface-deposited 

remains. Each workshop provides the participants with hands-on opportunities 

to apply the methods/protocols they are introduced to. 

Additionally, a two-day workshop on the investigation of clandestine 

graves, jointly organized by the author and the Minnesota Bureau of 

Criminal Apprehension, the state crime laboratory, is scheduled for the 

summer of 2003. 

It is the opinion of the author that the presentation of the lectures and 

training workshops on various aspects of Forensic Anthropology has had, 

overall, a positive effect on death investigation in Minnesota. It is 

apparent that the cornerstones of the U.S. criminal justice system are law 

enforcement, the legal system, and forensic science. Each of these is inextricably 

linked to the other two and justice requires communication and 

interaction between them. The workshops and presentations have worked 

to establish such communication and interaction and have resulted in an 

increased understanding by the law enforcement, legal, and larger forensic 

science communities of the contribution of forensic anthropologists to 

death investigation. A greater understanding and appreciation by the 

anthropologist of the roles, responsibilities, and procedures employed by 

different agencies in these situations has also occurred. Specific benefits 

from these training opportunities include establishing a relationship for 

future cooperation in relevant cases, clarifying the role of the forensic 

anthropologist in such cases, and informing crime scene personnel of 

established protocol for location, documentation, collection, and 

packaging of human remains resulting in more thorough scene processing. 

However, there are opportunities for the information and experiences 

presented in training workshops to be misused. A little knowledge can be 

dangerous and there have been instances where, after a short workshop or 

semester-course, a participant decides they are qualified to analyze human 

skeletal remains. This is, of course, potentially harmful for the case, as 

well as for the reputation of Forensic Anthropology as a legitimate and 

respected forensic science. Such misuse of the information presented in 

a training workshop may be avoided by clearly stating the objectives of the 

workshop, defining the educational and experiential qualifications 

necessary to be a practicing forensic anthropologist, and discussing the 

consequences of going beyond one’s area of expertise. 

It is likely that the short seminars and training workshops in Forensic 

Anthropology will continue and, in fact, occur more regularly in 

Minnesota. The effect of such educational opportunities on death investigation 

is still being assessed; however, it is the author’s opinion that the 

effect has been primarily positive, resulting in a better understanding by 

the legal, law enforcement, medico-legal and forensic science communities 

of what forensic anthropology is, when the involvement of a 

forensic anthropologist is warranted, and what the contributions of 

forensic anthropology are in investigations involving skeletal, decomposed, 

or burned human remains. 

Forensic Anthropology, Education, Short-Courses 

H49 Fifteen Years of Forensic Anthropology 

Short Courses at the National Museum 

of Health and Medicine/AFIP 

Lenore T. Barbian, PhD*, and Paul S. Sledzik, MS, National Museum 

of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 


The goal of this presentation is to describe the development of the 

curriculum of a forensic anthropology course and present a demographic 

profile of the course participants. 

The National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology (NMHM/AFIP) has offered a short course in 


forensic anthropology for the past 15 years. As the only forensic anthropology 

course offered in the U.S. to carry CME credit hours, it must meet 

the Essential Areas and Policies of the Accreditation Council for 

Continuing Medical Education (ACCME). From the beginning, the 

course was designed to present the basic tenets of forensic anthropology 

to military and civilian medical examiners, coroners, law enforcement 

personnel, forensic odontologists and other medico-legal investigators. 

In February 1988, the first annual forensic anthropology course was 

offered by the NMHM/AFIP. Since then, nineteen courses have been 

successfully conducted including courses held in Albuquerque, New 

Mexico; Mexico City, Mexico; and Bradford, England. Currently, the 

annual course is held each spring in Bethesda, Maryland at the Uniformed 

Services University of the Health Sciences (USUHS) and is accredited for 

a maximum of 30 hours in Category 1 credit towards the AMA Physician’s 

Recognition Award. 

The format of the course has essentially remained the same over the 

years with morning lectures by the faculty and afternoon hands-on lab 

stations. The lectures provide the methological basis of the osteological 

techniques that will be covered in the afternoon lab session. Lectures also 

introduce additional applications of the field that vary each year dependent 

upon the expertise of the visiting faculty. Core topics covered include age, 

sex, stature, and ancestry assessment of skeletal remains; distinguishing 

forensic from non-forensic remains; body search and recovery techniques; 

forensic taphonomy; forensic odontology; and trauma analysis. From the 

beginning, the course has covered the special application of forensic 

anthropology in mass disasters. This continues today with the inclusion of 

topics such as media relations during mass fatality incidents, deployments 

of the Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Teams, and the role of the 

National Transportation Safety Board. 

The afternoon lab sessions are a hallmark of the course and provide 

an opportunity for the participants to interact one-on-one with the faculty. 

The lab session give the participants an opportunity to practice the 

osteological techniques discussed in the lectures and to view actual 

examples of skeletal pathology and trauma. Over 100 museum skeletal 

specimens are used in the lab stations, and often faculty will bring 

examples from actual forensic cases. The USUHS Anatomy Teaching Lab 

provides additional support by allowing access to their articulated and 

disarticulated study skeletons and anatomical models. In recent years, the 

final lab session has consisted of six simulated forensic cases that the 

course participants must analyze and identify from a list of missing 

persons. 

The course has been marketed through a variety of avenues including 

the AFIP newsletter, a course brochure, and advertising in medical 

journals. Since the late 1990s, the AFIP has maintained a web site through 

which potential participants can not only access the course syllabus but 

also register directly on line. The web site has become an increasingly 

important marketing venue, accounting for over 20% of the registered participants 

in the most recent course. The board based marketing approach 

has resulted in a diverse participant profile. Civilian, military, and other 

federal employees attend the course. Scientific disciplines are well represented 

with pathologists, dentists, archaeologists, and physical anthropologists 

representing the bulk of the participants over the years. Other, less 

traditional, professions have also been served by course including writers 

and high school science teachers. 

From the beginning, the NMHM/AFIP forensic anthropology course 

has been well received. Course evaluations indicate high level of satisfaction 

with the course content and the quality and professionalism of the 

faculty. The evaluations have played an important role in the development 

of the course curriculum. Comments from the course participants have 

directly impacted the structure and content of the course. The 1993 course 

held in Albuquerque, New Mexico included in a mock field recovery 

exercise as a result of comments from the 1991 and 1992 students. 

Similarly, lectures on DNA forensic identification have become a core 

topic since 1992. Student evaluation has also influenced the inclusion of 

occasional lectures in radiographic identification, forensic anthropology in 

558

the courtroom, and human rights cases, among other topics. In addition, 

the organization of the course manual has been modified and improved 

due to the input of the participants. 

Education, Participant Demographics, Forensic Anthropology 

H50 Forensic Anthropology for Sale: 

A Perspective From Law Enforcement 

Lauren Rockhold Zephro, MA*, Monterey County Sheriff’s Department, 

1414 Natividad Road, Salinas, CA 


community with issues concerning specialized training in forensic 

anthropology for law enforcement personnel and forensic anthropological 

consultants. 

With the introduction short courses, forensic anthropology has 

entered into the training arsenal of law enforcement. This paper outlines 

the role of short courses in law enforcement, the types of personnel 

trained, and current issues in forensic training. In addition, this paper will 

specifically address what short courses in forensic anthropology should 

cover. 

Civilian or sworn personnel with specialized crime scene training 

typically process major crime scenes, including homicides. Depending on 

the department size, resources, and frequency of major crimes, crime 

scene personnel may be available in-house or through an agreement with 

another agency or state crime laboratory. Less frequently, crime scene 

assistance will be requested of experts outside the criminal justice system, 

in areas such as forensic anthropology, odontology, and entomology. Law 

enforcement personnel with crime scene training largely originate from 

two pools: 1) individuals hired and trained as sworn peace officers that 

rotate into a crime scene investigation unit and 2) individuals hired as 

civilian support personnel who have education in the sciences, forensic 

sciences, or evidence technology. In many police departments and crime 

laboratories, forensic training is provided solely through on-the-job 

training and specialized training available through short courses. 

For law enforcement personnel, short courses provide a valuable 

educational resource. These courses prepare employees for specific 

situations, court presentation, and expert testimony. In addition, specific 

training is often mentioned during qualification as an expert witness in 

court to establish expertise. Short courses may also help fulfill 

certification requirements in a specific area, such as the certification tracks 

provided through the International Association for Identification. There is 

a legitimate expectation on behalf of the funding agency that the information 

provided in short courses will be relevant to an individual’s daily 

work assignment and in specific crisis situations. In most law 

enforcement departments, money is tight and training expenses are 

considered carefully with regard to cost versus benefit. 

Short courses in forensic science are often geared towards different 

tracks. For example, classes may be geared towards the recognition, 

documentation and collection of particular types of evidence (for crime 

scene technicians) and / or positive identification, analysis and interpretation 

(for specialized experts). 

For non-anthropologists, including crime scene technicians and 

criminalists, forensic anthropological training should be geared towards 

how to document a crime scene for future analysis by a trained forensic 

anthropologist. Training for non-anthropologists could include 

recognition of bone (not the distinction of human versus animal but rather 

bone from non-bone), photography, videography, exhumation and surface 

recovery strategies, sketching, evidence collection, storage and 

preservation of anthropological evidence, court presentation of crime 

scene recovery, ethics, and how and when you need to find an expert in 


For graduate level anthropologists with advanced training in 

osteology and human variation, forensic anthropology short courses 

potentially offer an excellent opportunity to supplement academic 

education and could provide training on how to successfully interface with 

the criminal justice system. Short courses for physical anthropologists 

should include training on recovery of human remains from a forensic 

context combined with general techniques of crime scene investigation, 

forensic photography, videography, trauma analysis, positive identification, 

determination of interval since death, recognition of non-biological 

evidence, collection and preservation of evidence, report preparation, and 

chain-of-custody. Training for consultants should also include discussion 

on ethics, professional conduct, and court testimony / presentation. 

In addition to concerns over appropriate training topics in forensic 

anthropology, the lack of standards in the field is highly problematic, 

especially as training becomes more accessible. In many specialized areas 

of forensic science, scientific working groups have been formed and these 

groups are producing documents that specifically address definitions, 

standards, proficiency testing and guidelines for training and practice. 

These documents are largely in response to growing court challenges that 

have attacked the validity of forensic science and it’s practitioners. 

The current position of forensic anthropology contrasts with trends in 

the forensic community. In forensic anthropology, there is no scientific 

working group or document, no certification program or proficiency 

testing for crime scene investigation at any level, and no certification 

program for graduate level trained forensic anthropologists under the PhD 

level. Of special concern is that many forensic anthropology short course 

instructors and practicing forensic anthropologists are not eligible for 

certification or any other type of periodic proficiency testing. In addition, 

there are no guidelines in forensic anthropology for validation of results 

while in other forensic sciences; peer review and independent verification 

are an integral part of a final report. As forensic anthropology expands out 

of academia, stringent and concise guidelines for the practice and training 

of forensic anthropology must be established to place it in line with other 

forensic sciences. 

Forensic Anthropology, Law Enforcement Training, Certification 

H51 Supply and Demand: Trends and 

Training in Forensic Anthropology 

Joanne L. Devlin, PhD*, and Michelle D. Hamilton, MA, Department 


Knoxville, TN 

This presentation will address patterns in forensic anthropology 

casework over the last decade and reflect on training programs. 

The year 2001 marked the thirtieth anniversary of the Physical 

Anthropology section of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, and 

the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding of the American Board of 

Forensic Anthropology. A review of the past three decades since Forensic 

Anthropology was accepted within the Academy shows the evolution of 

the discipline, with key advancements in analytical techniques, and a new 

and increasing popularity of the field in both academic and popular arenas. 

The 1970s were characterized by the development and refinement of 

approaches to determine the age, sex and ancestry of decedents. The 

following decade saw an increase in the application of these techniques, as 

forensic anthropologists became integral players in the medico-legal field. 

During this time several universities created and supported centers that 

specialized in the training of future section members. The 1990’s reflected 

an ever-increasing commercial popularity of the field, coupled with a 

reduction in the influence of major research universities. 

A presentation in 1994 at the Academy meetings in San Antonio 

recorded the patterns in casework during the 1980s at The University of 

Tennessee Knoxville. During that decade, the number of cases steadily 

increased with a large percentage involving field recovery by forensic 

anthropologists. A review of cases in the 1990s demonstrates a reversal in 

this trend, with fewer requests for field assistance in the latter half of the 


1990s. The majority of cases during that period were conducted at the 

request of the medical examiner within the morgue setting, reflecting a 

change in the focus of cases from field recovery to morgue-based analyses. 

To investigate whether this trend is a Knoxville phenomenon or a 

pattern noted by other anthropologists as well, a questionnaire was 

distributed to members and diplomates. The focus of the questionnaire 

was twofold: to ascertain patterns in casework and to address the issue of 

training. Specifically, respondents were asked about the nature of their 

casework, including whether the majority of cases were field recoveries by 

anthropologists, cases transported to the anthropologist by law 

enforcement personnel, or medical examiner requests. An additional line 

of inquiry addressed what training these members and diplomates provide 

to students, law enforcement agents, and the general public in the form of 

classes, short courses, seminars, or field schools. 

This presentation will discuss the results of these questionnaires, and 

trends and patterns in case work during the three decades of the Physical 

Anthropology section will be reviewed. The information provided will 

illuminate the new and changing role of the forensic anthropologist in the 

medico-legal setting, and may help to better train members of the agencies 

forensic anthropologists interact with. 

Forensic Anthropology, Case Reviews, Training Programs 

H52 Teaching Forensic Archaeology to the 



Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Departments of Anthropology and Applied 

Forensic Science, Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA; and Michael Hochrein, 

BS, Federal Bureau of Investigation, St. Louis, MO 

Attendees can expect to learn more about courses offered in the field 

of forensic archaeology. Curricula offered, justification and objectives of 

these courses, faculty, and primary audiences will be detailed. 

For the past 11 years, on an annual basis, the Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute (MAI), Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA, has 

presented an annual 6 day short course in forensic archaeology entitled 

“Death Scene Archaeology: Field Methods in the Location, Recovery and 

Interpretation of Human Remains from Outdoor Contexts.“ As currently 

configured, the short course represents the only international multi-day 

seminar devoted exclusively to the presentation of current methods in the 

field of forensic archaeology. In this presentation, an overview of the short 

course will be given along with a discussion of original goals and objectives, 

prospective audience, faculty, curriculum, and offspring courses. 

Goals and Objectives of the Course: The primary objective of this 

introductory course is to expose participants to the field of forensic archaeology 

by describing the range of activities typically involved in the 

discipline, explain the basic principles and methods of the field, and 

present—through case studies—the benefits derived from employing 

these techniques in terms of maximizing physical evidence location, 

documentation and collection. This is accomplished through lecturebased 

presentations that are strongly supplemented with hands-on 

opportunities to experience some of the techniques discussed. It should be 

noted that a small percentage of the participants, especially active law 

enforcement investigators, can immediately incorporate some of these 

methods into their everyday work (or at least know where to find 

expertise); however, most participants require much more education and 

training in archaeology, forensic anthropology, and forensic science and/or 

law enforcement. At the beginning of each short course it is strongly 

emphasized that these and other short courses and seminars provide one of 

a multitude of contributions to the entire educational package of the 


Audience: The participants typically include advanced undergraduate 

and graduate students in anthropology departments throughout 

North America and Canada, law enforcement officials at the local, state, 


and federal agencies, coroners, medical examiners and their deputies, 

forensic pathologists, and administrators from public and non-profit 

research foundations. To date individuals from 39 states, Puerto Rico, 

Spain, the Netherlands, South Africa, and Columbia, have participated. 

There are currently only a very limited number of forensic anthropology 

courses available to undergraduates beyond an introductory course, and 

even fewer, programs of study in the field. For the advanced undergraduate 

student, this course offers a rare opportunity to gain insight into 

an area of anthropology that has recently generated much interest. At the 

graduate student level, few graduate programs provide courses or a portion 

of the curriculum to forensic archaeology. Individuals in law enforcement 

are particularly interested in courses that will improve their data collection 

methods at outdoor scenes, areas of investigation that are typically not 

addressed adequately during basic training regimes. 

Curriculum and Faculty: The curriculum focuses on the location and 

processing of a variety of outdoor scenes including surface scatters of 

human remains, buried body features, fatal fire scenes and mass fatality 

localities. The faculty includes board-certified forensic anthropologists, 

an FBI agent who also heads an evidence response team, professional 

archaeologists, a board-certified forensic entomologist, and crime scene 

specialists. Following an introduction to the subject of forensic anthropology, 

more detailed lectures regarding archaeological principles as they 

apply to the crime scene are presented. This is followed by lectures and 

demonstrations relevant to the search for unlocated crime scenes, 

addressing topics such as the role of the cadaver dog, probing techniques, 

and pedestrian searches. Next, techniques used to create precise 

topographic, plan-view and profile maps are discussed followed by 

practical exercises that require the mapping of the surface distribution of 

physical evidence. Forensic entomological lectures and demonstrations of 

proper insect collection methods using white-tailed deer carcasses are also 

emphasized at this time. 

The remaining three days of the course are devoted to the proper 

excavation of the buried body feature, which in this case, involves mock 

burials containing plastic human skeletal elements and other physical 

evidence arranged in a particular burial context scenario. More sophisticated 

methods of burial location involving geophysical instrumentation 

such as the EM-31 and ground-penetrating radar have recently been added 

to the curriculum. Following brief experimentation a few years ago with 

human cadavers and animal carcasses, it was determined that attention had 

shifted to the repulsive factor of the physical evidence, and away from the 

intended primary focus; the employment of exacting excavation methods 

that maximize evidence documentation and collection procedures. The 

use of decomposing biological specimens in the grave feature was 

abandoned. 

Offspring Courses: Recently, two programs were added to the 

Mercyhurst training repertoire that represent direct descendants of the 

Death Scene course; a week-long short course in Death Scene 

Investigation presented in the town of Taramundi, Asturias, northern 

Spain, covering the basics of forensic anthropology, and a two-week 

intensive field school in forensic archaeology which expands the 

complexity of recovery scenarios as compared to the week-long course 

and also requires a written report of activities. 

In 1998, the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s St. Louis Division 

Evidence Response Team first sponsored a five-day short course modeled 

after that developed by MAI. “Crime Scene Archaeology: A Field 

Training Program in Forensic Archaeology and the Recovery of Human 

Remains,” was offered exclusively to medico-legal death investigators as 

advanced training. Recently, the course was accredited by the Missouri 

Police Officers Standards and Training (POST) board and the American 

Board of Medicolegal Death Investigators for continuing education 

certification. Attendees for the tuition-free course are selected, in part, on 

the basis of years experience in crime scene investigation. 

Like the Mercyhurst course, the St. Louis seminar serves to 

introduce investigators to the wide array of disciplines required for a 

thorough examination and reconstruction of outdoor crime scenes. 

Divided into two days of lectures, one day of round-robin format mapping 

560

exercises, and two days of recovery practicals, the course was designed to 

mimic as closely as possible true crime scene investigations. Federal, 

state, and local public safety and private resources such as helicopters, fire 

department aerial platforms, cadaver dog teams, total station mapping 

teams, and geophysical engineers were incorporated into a multiple 

homicide/buried body scenario addressed by half the class and a small airplane 

crash scenario addressed by the other half. The course intentionally 

includes long hours, night sessions, and mandatory team assignments 

which mixed investigators from different departments, in order to create 

an atmosphere much like that encountered during a true major case-task 

force type investigation. One noted benefit of the course has been the tendency 

for attending departments to call on outside expert assistance in real 

cases while conducting appropriate site preparations prior to the arrival of 

that assistance. 

Another offspring course closely modeled after the Mercyhurst 

Death Scene course is presented by the York Regional Police Department 

in York, Ontario. Like the FBI course described above, the primary 

intended audience is local and regional law enforcement investigators and 

serves to introduce the discipline and raise the level of expertise brought 

to bear on outdoor crime scenes in the region. 

All of these courses have had a significant impact relative to 

exposing this under appreciated discipline to a wide audience both within 

anthropology/forensic anthropology and within the law enforcement community 

at the local, state and federal levels. 

Forensic Archaeology, Training Opportunities, Teaching 

H53 The National Forensic Academy 

Arpad A. Vass, PhD*, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, P.O. Box 2008, 

Oak Ridge, TN 

The goal of this presentation is to educate the general public of the 

courses available in the forensic arena. 

The National Forensic Academy is an intensive 10-week training 

program designed to meet the needs of law enforcement agencies in the 

areas of evidence identification, collection, and preservation. The goal of 

the academy is to prepare the forensic practitioner to recognize key elements 

at a crime scene and to improve the process of evidence recovery. 

Participants are challenged in over 25 disciplines through classroom 

instruction, lab activities, and field practicums. Investigative scenarios 

include, but are not limited to, burned houses and buildings, exploded 

vehicles, and an in-depth study of forensic anthropological techniques in 

conjunction with the University of Tennessee’s Forensic Anthropological 

Research Facility. Access to this unique facility allows students to study 

human decomposition, utilize anthropological and archaeological skills to 

excavate clandestine graves, recover surface scattered human remains, and 

perform TSD techniques used at crime scenes. Classroom activities in this 

discipline will instruct students in basic skills necessary to identify skeletal 

elements and evaluate bone trauma. The entire academy consists of over 

400 hours of training, 170 hours of in-class work, and over 220 hours of 

field practicum. 

National Forensic Academy, Forensic Courses, Training Programs 

H54 Advances in Surveying and Presenting 



Ian Hanson, MSc*, School of Conservation Sciences, Bournemouth 

University, United Kingdom 

This presentation will describe methods of surveying complex graves 

and associated environments and demonstrate advances in the visual 

display of this surveyed data developed during field operations for UN 

ICTY 1997-2000. 

Mass graves, clandestine graves, and surface scatters consist of 

numerous, complex, and layered pieces of evidence which are often 

distributed in their environment in a way that limits conventional photography 

and planning of all associated relationships. Use of electronic 

surveying equipment and computer software allows a variety of 

explanatory images to be produced from one data set for report, 

courtroom, and non-expert use showing evidence association in two and 

three dimensions. 

Use of electronic surveying equipment, such as EDM’s (electronic 

distance meters) for surveying and mapping archaeological excavations 

has increased greatly in the last ten years. Their application to police work 

developed in many agencies worldwide through automobile accident 

survey. Their use in war crimes and human rights work developed in 

Rwanda and the Former Yugoslavia with PHR. The use of EDM’s and 

computer software to map graves and crime scenes for ICTY field 

investigations continued from 1997. Accuracy, speed, large area coverage, 

non-interference with other site activity, and flexibility of data use are 

main factors that make such survey suitable for these types of excavations. 

Excavation of mass graves in Bosnia revealed the need to plan 

evidence and map locations from several different perspectives: 

1. Two-dimensional area plans to allow site location of a grave or 

crime scene on published maps, aerial photographs, and within a 

given physical locality. 

2. Two-dimensional contour plans to show the topographical features 

of a site area and topographical properties of graves. 

3. Two-dimensional plans to show distribution of different evidence 

types across a grave/crime scene. 

4. Three-dimensional contour plans showing the topographical 

properties of graves and crime scenes. 

Images showing the distribution and association of evidence in three 

dimensions. 

A single set of survey points taken on topographical features such as 

houses and roads, on ground surfaces, and on evidence locations can be 

used to produce different plans which can be viewed from any direction. 

Many gravesites in Bosnia were also execution sites. Hundreds of 

pieces of surface evidence such as fragmentary bone and tissue can rapidly 

be mapped using an EDM in a single day. This is particularly useful when 

the evidence may be layered or cannot be located and collected at one time 

such as densely distributed shell casings in grass and topsoil. 

Excavation of complex mass graves has often necessitated the 

removal of grave walls to allow access to bodies. Survey of visible grave 

dimensions before destruction allows plan reconstruction of the grave 

topography in three dimensions including areas ‘lost’ to removal. 

Mass graves excavated in Bosnia and elsewhere often contain 

multiple intertwined bodies. Photography cannot show the relationship 

and position of these bodies because complete exposure of all remains at 

one time is usually impossible. Conventional planning from a base line or 

fixed grid is slow and interferes with other site operations such as 

movement of heavy machinery. Use of EDM survey allows recording of 

a body position even when all of a body is not visibly exposed at one time. 

The surveyed points of a single body taken at different times can be 

reunited on computer. 

For ICTY exhumations bodies were mapped by recording points on 

the head and joint locations to produce a simple ‘stick man’ image. The 

data collected was processed through a series of software programs called 

Bodrot developed by Professor Richard Wright. This allowed the position 

of all bodies in a grave to be displayed as a rotatable three-dimensional 

image in a software program called Rotate developed by Marijke van 

Gans. Viewing grave contents in this simple form helps to understand its 

complexity in a variety of ways: 

1. Revealing the method of disposal of bodies. 

2. Demonstrating separate episodic disposal events, resulting in 

spatial separation between layers of bodies. 

3. Revealing the pattern of arrangement of bodies that may indicate 

disposal methods such as bulldozing a mass of bodies to the end 

of a trench or dumping batches of bodies from trucks. 


4. Demonstrating that shell cases, and other objects, are uniformly or 

non-uniformly distributed among the bodies in a grave or on sur 

faces. 

5. Supporting evidence that there has been tampering with a grave, 

with partial removal of bodies, demonstrating the association of 

incomplete bodies and body parts with disturbed areas that intrude 

into the original grave. 

Rotate images are small, computer files that are simple to operate and 

can be attached to documents on floppy disks or CDs for distribution. The 

various types of plans and images described have been used in reports and 

as courtroom evidence of exhumations and surface scenes in successful 

prosecution cases for ICTY. The use of EDM survey and threedimensional 

images may have wider applications for evidential viewing in 

police work, mass disaster or terrorist events such as air crashes and 

explosions. 

Survey, Mass Graves, Visual Imagery 

H55 Cervical Smears as an Alternate Source 

of DNA in the Identification of Human 


Carla R. Torwalt, BSc*, Thambirajah Balachandra, MBBS, and Janice 

Epp, RN, HBScN, Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, 210-1 Wesley 

Avenue, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada 

The goal of this presentation is to increase the forensic 

community’s awareness of alternate sources of DNA in the process of 

identifying human skeletal remains. 

In May 1978 a 35-year-old female and her male companion went 

missing while boating on Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba, Canada. 

Although the man’s body was recovered during the ensuing search, the 

woman’s body was never found. In April 1999 a property owner, who 

was clearing a swampy area of land that bordered Lake Winnipeg, 

recovered a skull. Anthropological examination established that the 

skull belonged to a Caucasian female between the age of 34 and 50 

years. When a check of police Missing Persons files revealed similarities 

in criteria (age, sex, locale, etc.) between the skull and the woman 

who had disappeared 21 years earlier, attempts to confirm the skull’s 

identity continued. Dental analysis failed to positively include or 

exclude the skull as belonging to the missing woman. However the 

medical examiner’s office was able to locate and review her old hospital 

records. The medical chart, which contained results of both cervical 

smears and biopsies, revealed she had dysplasia. As the hospital’s policy 

was to retain slides of cervical smears and paraffin blocks for at least 25 

years in all patients with dysplasia and cancer, slides from her cervical 

smears, including one taken in March 1978, were obtained. In 

September 2000 the medical examiner’s office submitted these slides, 

together with teeth and a temporal bone cross-section from the skull, for 

DNA testing to the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology (AFIP) in 

Rockville, MD. Following comparison of the DNA material, the AFIP 

confirmed the skull belonged to the 35-year-old woman in question. The 

probability of observing another individual in the general population 

with an identical profile was estimated at 1 in 12.4 trillion. This case is 

unique, as the DNA from the 22-year-old cervical smear slide was the 

oldest DNA sample successfully retrieved and used from slides of this 

type by the AFIP. 

Cervical Smear, Human Skeletal Remains, DNA 


H56 Unusual Sharp Force/Penetrating 

Trauma Pattern on a Cranium; 

Cooperative Examination and 

Evaluation by the Forensic Pathologist 

and Forensic Anthropologist 

Vincent H. Stefan, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Lehman College - 

CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard, West, Bronx, NY; and Patricia J. 

McFeeley, MD, Office of the Medical Investigator, University of New 

Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 

After attending this presentation, the participant will become familiar 

with a case with unusual sharp force/penetrating trauma patterns seen on a 

cranium and should have renewed respect for the value of combined 

pathology and anthropology examination of decomposed remains. 

Background: The assessment of sharp force and penetrating trauma 

can at times be quite difficult. Yet, through the combined efforts of the 

forensic pathologist and anthropologist, sharp force and penetrating traumas 

can be located and correctly identified, and in many cases the type of 

weapon or tool utilized to inflict the trauma can be ascertained. 

Case History: The severely decomposed partially clad body of a young 

adult female was discovered in a desert area of New Mexico approx. 2 ½ 

months after having disappeared. The cause of death was determined to be 

multiple stab/cutting wounds of the head, neck, chest and back. There were 

cutting injuries of the neck with probable transection of a carotid and other 

vessels, perforating stab wounds of the chest, abdomen, and back, some of 

which left clear impressions of a knife in cartilage, and cutting/stabbing 

wounds of the cranium some of which were sharp and others of which had 

characteristics of more blunt impacts. 

Pathological/Anthropological Assessment: A total of 14 defects were 

present and noted on the cranium, located on the left temporal and left 

greater wing of the sphenoid. Combined evaluation of the skin and soft 

tissue defects along with the bone impacts and penetrations revealed at least 

two different instruments. Three of the defects were complete perforations 

of the cranium: measuring - 10mm x 5mm, 7mm x 3mm, and 6mm x 4mm. 

Radiating fractures connected two of the perforation defects. Ten defects 

had the appearance of “divots,” running from posterior to anterior, indicating 

that the tip of the weapon was held at an angle or the trajectory of the blow 

was tangential to the surface the cranium. Of those “divots,” four were 

partial penetrations of the crania with resultant displacement and hinged 

fracturing of the inner table. All of the “divots” had a characteristic width 

of 1.5mm. Several of the defects appeared to be perpendicular blows to the 

cranium, producing patterned marks reflecting the physical appearance of 

the tip of the weapon or tool. These defects had an oval outline, measuring 

1.5mm x. 3mm. One small projection was observed on each side of the 

oval, but on opposite ends, projecting laterally, producing a pattern similar 

to a “hurricane” symbol. Though the exact type of weapon or tool utilized 

to make these defects is not known, it is hypothesized that these defects were 

produced with the tip of a pair of very small needle-nose pliers. 

A more traditional sharp force trauma defect was observed with a 5mm 

cut of the superior margin of the left zygomatic arch, through the root of the 

zygomatic arch into the squamous of the temporal. A 3mm x 2mm triangular 

piece of metal was found lodged in the temporal squamous, possibly 

a knife tip. The cut sliver of zygomatic arch was still attached posteriorly to 

the arch at the time of examination. A smooth, single edged knife was the 

most likely weapon utilized to produce this defect. 

Conclusions: Photographs of the wounds and suggested tool(s) were 

presented in court by both the pathologist and anthropologist and were 

instrumental in the jury’s understanding of the wounds and how they were 

inflicted. Although the defendants who were convicted at trial did not 

confirm the specific instruments, circumstantial and associated evidence 

suggested that the interpretations of the wounding instruments were 

substantially correct. 

Sharp Force Trauma, Penetrating Trauma, Unusual Patterned 

Trauma 

562

H57 Gunshot Wounds and Other Perimortem 


Ambika Flavel, MSc*, 52 Ninth Avenue, Maylands, WA 

The goal of this presentation is to expose the forensic community to 

several specific examples of gunshot and blunt force trauma to sub-adult 

skeletons recovered from mass burials. 

The information in this poster has been collected from investigations 

of killings from Guatemala, Central America, dating to the early 1980s. 

The seven case studies provide examples of the effects of gunshot wounds 

and blunt force trauma to the skeletal remains of individuals aged between 

two months and 16 years. One case in particular shows the erosion 

damage resulting from over 20 years of burial and the difficulty in determining 

the cause and manner of the trauma. In other cases preservation is 

much more complete and erosion plays a less drastic role in the analysis 

process. 

All seven of the following cases provide the age and sex (if known) 

and details of the perimortem trauma observed. The samples were taken 

from skeletonised remains exhumed by the Foundacion de Antropologia 

Forense de Guatemala (FAFG) from 20 year old mass graves during 2001 

and 2002. The individuals were all buried a short time after a violent death 

resulting from the conflicts in Guatemala between 1981-1982. In several 

cases relatives have identified the remains based on clothing and grave 

goods, these identifications are often confirmed with results of laboratory 

analysis where biological sex and age are determined through osteological 

analysis. 

Case 1: a gunshot wound was identified in the cranium of a probable 

female aged 2-6 months. The entry appears as a circular orifice 6mm in 

diameter with internal beveling located in the left parietal. Radiating 

fractures affect the frontal, parietals, right temporal and sphenoid. The exit 

hole is not observable due to loss of bone tissue. Radiographs show no 

evidence of radiopaques, no ballistics were recovered either in the field or 

in the laboratory. 

Case 2: the vertebrae and ribs of a probable female aged 7-9 years 

display trauma compatible with a gunshot wound to the abdominal region. 

Two right ribs (#9 and #11) exhibit complete fractures and plastic deformation; 

and six vertebrae (D11-L4) have comminute fractures, plastic 

deformation and loss of bone tissue. The left ulna has multiple fractures. 

The radiographs of vertebrae show evidence of radiopaques and fragments 

of projectile were recovered during excavation associated with lumbar 

vertebrae. A projectile was recovered in the laboratory from the clothing 

and a metal fragment with green oxidation was recovered in the area of the 

right scapula. 

Case 3: the mandible of this probable male aged 8-12 years has 

undergone blunt force trauma (probably secondary to a gunshot wound to 

the cranium). The cranium (not displayed) also had multiple fracturing; 

however, erosion and loss of bone tissue prevents identification of the 

cause of trauma. The radiographs of thorax en bloque shows evidence of 

radiopaques. Metal fragments and a projectile were recovered from the 

thorax region during excavation. A projectile was recovered from the 

thorax in the laboratory. 

Case 4: the cranium of this female aged 14-16 years, shows trauma 

to the cranium affecting the parietals and occipital. It is probable that blunt 

force trauma caused these fractures. Radiographs show no evidence of 

radiopaques, no ballistics were recovered either in the field or in the laboratory. 

Case 5: the cause of the trauma as well as the sex of this individual 

aged 5-7 years is not determined. The cranium has simple fractures in the 

right parietal and occipital. Plastic deformation and loss of bone tissue as 

well as erosion prevents more accurate descriptions. Radiographs show 

no evidence of radiopaques, no ballistics were recovered either in the field 

or in the laboratory. 

Case 6: this male aged 12-13 years suffered three gunshot wounds. 

The first in the proximal third of the right femur has an entrance wound 

6x7.3mm on the anterior-lateral surface, and an exit hole measuring 

6x8mm with beveling 34x17mm on the posterior and medial surface. The 

left femur has two gunshot wounds in the distal third of the diaphysis. The 

entrance, on the posterior and medial surface, measures 12x12mm, five 

fractures radiate from this, there is no evident exit hole. The second 

entrance hole is on the anterior and medial surface, below the first, and 

measures 9x9mm, two fractures radiate from this and are interrupted by 

fractures radiating from the first entrance hole, the is no evident exit hole. 

The radiographs of the femurs show evidence of radiopaques, ballistics 

were recovered during excavation from the femora, and in the laboratory 

ballistics were recovered from the trousers. 

Case 7: the cranium and thorax of this probable female aged between 

13-16 years suffered gunshot wounds and fractures secondary to these. In 

the skull there is extensive loss of bone tissue in the right frontal, parietal, 

and sphenoid, and polifragmentation of the left temporal and parietal 

featuring multiple radiating and concentric fractures as well as several 

diastastic fractures (parieto-frontal, parieto-termporal, tempero-occipital, 

and tempero-zygomatic). Thoracic vertebrae #3, 4 and 7 have complete 

and infraccion fractures in the arc and body compatible with firearm 

damage which also caused the damage to the right 4th rib and the left 6th 

and 7th ribs. Lumbar vertebrae #2-3 suffered blunt force trauma. The 

radiographs show evidence of radiopaques and ballistics were recovered 

during the excavation phase. 

These seven cases are a preliminary demonstration of the damage 

caused by firearms and other weapons to the sub-adult skeleton. This 

sample is by no means representative of all the cases seen by anthropologists 

at the FAFG, instead, these cases were chosen to provide a variety 

examples with differing variables such as trauma location, trauma type, 

taphonomic effects and age that effect the analysis of trauma to the 

skeleton. 

Gunshot And Blunt Force Trauma, Sub-Adult Skeletons, Burials 

H58 The “Next Utility” in Field Recovery 

of Scattered Human Remains 

Ginesse A. Listi, MA*, Mary H. Manhein, MA, and Michael Leitner, PhD, 


227 Howe-Russell, Baton Rouge, LA 

The goals of this presentation are to discuss and illustrate the 

technology and applicability of GPS and GIS in forensic anthropology for 

research and field recovery of scattered human remains. 

Field recovery of human remains is an essential role of the 

anthropologist in forensic investigation. Sites are often mapped and 

photographed to create a scaled depiction of the remains for study or 

medico-legal purposes. In situations where remains are widely scattered 

through animal activity or other processes, or where the landscape is topographically 

varied, hand drawn maps, even with the help of total stations, 

can be difficult to complete. In such instances, the Global Positioning 

System (GPS) can be a useful tool. 

In the U.S., the GPS was first developed by the Department of 

Defense (DoD) to enable accurate navigation and positioning across the 

globe. Though available to the general public in 1983, GPS was declared 

fully operational by the DoD in 1995. Since then, its applications have 

proven useful in a wide variety of professions, including anthropology, for 

locating and mapping archaeological sites. Recently, anthropologists at 

the Louisiana State University Forensic Anthropology and Computer 

Enhancement Services (FACES) Laboratory have begun to use GPS and 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for research and to assist with 

mapping forensic cases recovered in the field. 

As a powerful data collection tool, GPS in combination with GIS, 

offers benefits to field recovery, such as creating accurate site maps, 

particularly in cases where remains are widely distributed. Also, each site 

can be provided with a unique global address, enabling law enforcement 


to navigate back to the scene should further search be necessary. 

Additionally, GPS data collected in the field can be used for research 

purposes. Using GIS techniques and software, analyses of data may 

elucidate patterns of distribution when variables such as time since death, 

topography, environment, and seasonality are considered. 

Despite the benefits of GPS for data collection, inherent within the 

system are certain limitations to its practicality for field recovery that 

should be considered. Such drawbacks include the inability to receive 

data from the satellites in certain environments (e.g., inside 

structures/buildings or beneath heavy tree cover), and the “peak time” to 

use the system (i.e., when satellite positioning is ideal) may not coincide 

with the time of retrieval. 

Advances in GPS technology allow the collection of both code- and 

carrier-phase data with relatively inexpensive hand-held units. Such data 

can further be differentially corrected either in real-time (using a beacon) 

and/or through post-processing in order to increase the positional accuracy 

of the data. The most accurate positions can be recorded, if carrier-phase 

data are corrected in both real-time and through post-processing. But, 

such accuracy may not be sufficiently high for cases where remains do not 

move far from the site of original deposition. In such circumstances, the 

exact position of some individual skeletal elements may not be 

distinguishable. 

A clear trade off exists between accuracy and the price of GPS 

receivers. Because law enforcement agencies and anthropologists 

involved in the field recovery of human remains have limited financial 

resources, they cannot purchase and use highly accurate, surveying-grade 

GPS receivers with a price tag of tens of thousands of dollars. For this 

reason, the discussion presented in this poster focuses on GPS technology 

that is reasonably priced and can be acquired and used by any law 

enforcement agency or anthropologist involved in the field recovery of 


In conclusion, the use of GPS does not preclude the necessity for 

hand drawn site maps, especially in cases where remains have not been 

widely scattered. However, GPS is a valuable tool in providing a fast and 

effective means of pinpointing site locations, and in combination with 

GIS, creating accurate and reliable maps where remains are widely 

distributed. 

Field Recovery, GPS, Anthropology 

H59 Age Progression: How Accurate Is It? 

Joanne L. Devlin, PhD, and Murray K. Marks, PhD*, Department of 


Knoxville, TN 

This presentation will examine the accuracy of age progressed 

photographs. 

The creation of the National Center for Missing and Exploited 

Children (NCMEC) in 1984, coupled with the National Child Search 

Assistance Act of 1990, greatly improved the recovery rate of abducted 

children throughout the last decade. In the U.S., approximately 725,000 

missing children reports were filed with the National Crime Information 

Center (NCIC) during 2001, averaging more than two thousand reports 

per day. The great majority of these cases were resolved with the child 

returned unharmed. The NCMEC reports that currently over 90% of 

missing and endangered children are recovered, an increase of nearly 30% 

over the last decade. One in six of these successful recoveries is credited 

to the practice of immediately distributing photographs of the missing 

child to law enforcement officials, the media, and the public; demonstrating 

the importance of visual photographic images in the discovery of 

missing children. 

As a recovery tool the use of photographs is undeniably successful. 

In situations where the child has been missing for at least two years, 

NCMEC oversees computer manipulation of a photograph as a means to 


demonstrate the present age-progressed appearance of the missing child. 

The standard technique of age progression/enhancement involves 

computer-graphically stretching a photograph to reflect the increase in 

overall size of the face. This image is then enhanced with facial features 

drawn from siblings and parents at the corresponding age. Although the 

NCMEC reports that such computer images have resolved approximately 

275 abduction cases, this approach and specific techniques remain 

untested with reference to actual craniofacial growth patterns in children. 

The purpose of this presentation is to assess the accuracy of standard 

age progression techniques, and to identify new methods that may further 

improve this approach and aid in the resolution of more cases. To test the 

accuracy of age progression images, three adult females were assessed, 

using a chronological series of school photographs (kindergarten through 

twelfth grade). For each subject, the school photographs were 

standardized for size, and measurements incorporating standard anthropometric 

landmarks were taken on each photo. These were then analyzed to 

assess the craniofacial development of each subject with respect to age. 

Additionally, for each participant a photograph was randomly selected and 

subjected to an age progression. The age enhanced images were then 

compared to the photograph of the subject at that age. Without a doubt, 

the practice of age progressing photographs of missing children has 

proven successful. However, this present examination indicates that this 

technique can be enhanced, potentially serving to further improve the 

recognition and recovery rate of missing children. 

Age Progression, Craniofacial Growth, Computer Imaging 

H60 Three-Dimensional Digital Data 

Acquisition: A Test of Measurement Error 

Denise To, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Arizona State University, 

Box 87-2402, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 

The goal of this research project is to present to the forensic 

community the results of a study that compared linear measurements taken 

with 3D digital techniques with those taken on dry bone by hand. 

The use of 3-dimensional (3D) digital technology is a growing 

method for acquiring and processing scientific data among the many 

subfields of forensics, including physical anthropology. This poster 

presents the results of a study that questioned the comparability of 

measurements taken of skeletal material through the traditional method of 

inspecting bones by hand with calipers with a new method of analyzing 

bones virtually on a computer. Three-dimensional digital data acquisition 

of human skeletal material, captured either by computed tomography, 

magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound, or laser assisted stereo modeling 

creates a quasi-permanent virtual record of the bone for which many types 

of analyses can be performed. This includes measurements of simple variables 

such as length, width, and circumference, but also permits 

researchers to study those that have been nearly impossible to obtain in the 

past (or at least not without great difficulty), such as surface area, volume, 

degree of angle, and curvature. One question that arose with the increased 

practice of taking digital measurements was whether those taken through 

the digital medium were comparable to those taken manually on dry bone. 

The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in measurement 

is a crucial assumption for many 3D data research designs. 

Twenty femora were used from Arizona State University’s (ASU) 

archaeological collection of Nubian skeletons. Each skeleton was selected 

randomly (though bones with poor preservation were omitted). For each 

femur, three linear measurements were taken macroscopically by the 

author with digital calipers and an osteometric board. They were the 

maximum head diameter (mhd), the maximum mid-shaft circumference 

(msc), and the maximum length (ml). After macroscopic evaluation, each 

femur was then digitally analyzed at ASU’s Partnership for Research in 

Stereo Modeling (PRISM) laboratory. This was done by first scanning the 

bone with a Cyberware Model 15 high-resolution laser scanner that 

564

captured cortex data with a high-density “wire” mesh of triangles. Each 

triangle was generated at 300 microns enabling extreme detail of the bone 

surface to be digitally rendered. The wire mesh is then modeled by adding 

topography to create a 3D virtual replica. This digital model was saved in 

an .xml format, creating a permanent duplicate of the bone (barring loss of 

the digital file). Using research software developed at the PRISM 

laboratory, the same three measurements were once again taken on each 

bone by selecting beginning and end points on its virtual replica. To 

further test error, both measurement trials were repeated one month later 

by author, making a total of four trials. This study was conducted “blind” 

with each femur labeled with different catalogue numbers so no bias of 

memory could influence measurement. 

All measurements were entered and statistically processed with the 

Statistica software program. Each femur had three independent observations 

taken during four separate trials. If the 3D imaging created an exact 

virtual replica, then the specific observation for each measurement should 

be identical for all four trials. To test the null hypothesis that there is no 

statistical difference in both measurement techniques (H0 : µ 1 = µ 2 ), the 

mean score of the manual trials was compared with the mean score of the 

computed trials using a paired t-test (at an alpha level of 0.05). Separate 

tests were conducted for each of the three measurements. In addition to 

the t-test, a one – way ANOVA was conducted using the scores of all four 

trials, with a subsequent Scheffe’s test to identify the significantly different 

trial. Again, separate tests were conducted for each of the three 

measurements. 

The results of this study are important, as 3D knowledge becomes 

more valuable and accessible to researchers. A similar focus was generated 

decades ago with the increasing use of radiographic technology. In 

physical anthropology, studies of skeletal maturation, morphological 

change, and sex determination have been conducted using measurements 

of bones from radiographs with the goal of creating aging and sexing standards 

to be used with dry bones. With the knowledge that radiographs 

increase the magnitude of a subject by approximately 5%, studies 

employing radiographs allowed researchers access to a revolutionary way 

to study human biology. Three-dimensional knowledge may follow radiographic 

technology in a similar manner, and perhaps with even greater 

applications. While this study focused only on quantitative data from 

skeletal material, researchers at PRISM are currently using 3D stereo 

modeling of quantitative and qualitative data on a wide array of materials 

such as archaeological artifacts, intra-cellular organisms, diatoms, and 

fossils. In forensics, 3D knowledge may have many applications not just 

in physical anthropology, but also in criminalistics, engineering science, 

and pathology / biology. Testing the comparability of measurements taken 

through the computer with those taken the old fashion way is crucial in 

fostering a new generation of research. 

3-Dimensional Digital Data Analysis, PRISM, Physical Anthropology 

H61 In Search of Floyd Britton: Investigations 

of Human Rights Issues on the Island of 

Coiba, Republic of Panama 

Ann H. Ross, PhD*, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

P.O. Box 112545, Gainesville, FL; and Bruce Broce, MA*, Comision de 

la Verdad de Panama, Edificio No. 37, Panama, 

The purpose of this paper is to discuss how physical anthropologists 

apply their skills in working with Truth Commissions and taphonomic 

variables affecting recovery of skeletal remains in a tropical environment. 

The task of investigating human rights issues is sometimes 

complicated by ill perceived and misguided “territorial” claims by some 

colleagues. Unfortunately, this is not an atypical phenomenon in the 

forensic realm, in particular among forensic anthropologists working in 

human rights (e.g., Bosnia, Kosovo, Panama, etc.). The role of forensic 

practitioners is to investigate, provide the most accurate and parsimonious 

interpretation of the evidence, provide unbiased testimony, and ultimately 

closure to the victims families. 

The island of Coiba (positioned between 7° 10’N and 81°32’ - 81° 

56’ W) is Panama’s largest island in the Pacific, which is administered by 

the Veraguas province. Coiba is located 24 km offshore and is separated 

from the mainland on the east by the Gulf of Montijo and on the northwest 

by the Gulf of Chiriquí. It has an area of 494 sq km and a maximum 

elevation of 425 m. The island has served as a penitentiary since 1919 and 

was declared a national park on 17 December 1991. 

Floyd Britton was a leftist university student leader who was arrested 

on October 12, 1968 and sentenced by the military government of Omar 

Torrijos (1968-1981) to the Penal colony on the island of Coiba on 

November 3 of the same year. He died in November of 1969, allegedly 

beaten to death by prison guards under direct orders of General Omar 

Torrijos. His body was flown to Panama City for an autopsy and his death 

was determined to be of natural causes. Purportedly, his body was then 

sent back to Coiba and interred at the “Marañon” Cemetery. Was the 

autopsy report legitimate? Why return the body of Floyd Britton to Coiba 

and not release it to family members or bury him in Panama City? 

Previous attempts to locate Floyd Britton occurred in May of 1991 

and then again in 2001. The first excavation was concentrated in the 

northeast sector of the cemetery. New eyewitness testimonies led to 

another exhumation on August 2 and 3, 2001, by the Comisión de la 

Verdad de Panamá (Panamaian Truth Commission) and another team of 

U.S. forensic anthropologists. Skeletal remains were recovered from four 

burials on the northwest sector of the cemetery. During this phase, two of 

the burials were only partially excavated. 

Continued efforts to locate Floyd Britton during a third excavation 

and exhumation phase took place between February 26 and March 6, 

2002, by field crew members from both the University of Florida and 

Panamanian Truth Commission. Three burials were identified for excavation 

from information derived by la Comisión de la Verdad de Panamá 

from several eyewitness accounts and the remains of the three burials were 

transported to the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory for 

analysis. Because of various taphonomic processes, for example, soil 

acidity, insect activity, and bacterial activity, roots, humidity, etc., the conditions 

are not conducive to good skeletal preservation and therefore the 

remains sustained considerable postmortem damage. However, the biological 

profile determined from the remains of burial 3 were consistent 

with biological information made available for Floyd Britton, two molars 

were sent out for mtDNA testing. The mtDNA results will be presented to 

confirm identity. In addition, excavation protocols and taphonomic 

processes in a tropical environment are discussed. 

Physical Anthropology, Taphonomy, Central America 

H62 Reconstructing Facial Freeform 

Images Using FREEFORM Software 

Ann Marie W. Mires, PhD*, Chief Medical Examiner, 720 Albany Street, 

Boston, MA; Mary H. Manhein, MA, Louisiana State University, FACES 

Laboratory, Baton Rouge, LA; Greg Mahoney, Boston Crime 

Laboratory, 720 Albany Street, Boston, MA; and Eileen Barrows, 

Louisiana State University, Faces Laboratory, Baton Rouge, LA 

This presentation introduces the participant to a software package 

that has applications to facial imaging, useful to law enforcement or 

medical examiner personnel. 

Reconstruction of facial images can be facilitated through a number 

of different techniques. This poster will present the adaptation of a 

sculpting software program entitled FREEFORM, to the task of facial 

reconstruction, superimposition and image progression. Designed for the 

character animation industry, this package offers technology that allows 

the “reconstructionist” to fully interact with the image via the sense of 

touch through a stylus. 


In a cooperative research venture between SensAble Technologies, 

the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner, Boston Crime Lab, and the 

Louisiana State University FACES Laboratory, this product has be applied 

to the task of facial imaging and reconstruction. Libraries of populationspecific 

average tissue depths and anatomical facial features and landmarks, 

have been developed to provide the artist with a series of options 

to select from in the reconstruction process. 

Skeletal and live facial images were captured utilizing a Polhemus, 

Fastscan 3-D imaging wand. These images were downloaded directly as 

3-D “clay” images, fully interactive in a digital format. Through the use 

of a stylus, the artist can manipulate the raw image manually or refer to 

libraries of marker templates that can be applied directly to the skull 

image. Again through manual manipulation, the artist can add tissue 

depth, dimension and form to the image, thus modeling a facial likeness. 

Through the use of the libraries, the artist may select several different eye 

shapes for instance, to render multiple likenesses from the same skull 

template. 

The application of sculpting software to the techniques of facial 

reconstruction can expedite the accuracy, variety, and distribution of facial 

images for both law enforcement and medical examiner systems. Having 

these types of technologies available can facilitate the identification 

process and be applied to other forensic tasks. 

Facial Reconstruction, Digital Modeling, Virtual Clay 

H63 Operacion Eagle: Clandestine Graves 

and a Taphonomy of Tyrants — Part 1: 

The Truth Commission of Panama, 

Witness Testimony, and Searches in 

Western Panama 

Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington 

Avenue, Toledo, OH; Sandra Anderson, Canine Investigation Consultant, 

913 East Price Road, Midland, MI; and Julie M. Saul, BA, Lucas County 


After attending this presentation, participants should be better able to 

use death investigation dogs and forensic anthropologists to search for 

clandestine graves. 

While passing through the Miami airport, a U.S. lawyer working in 

Panama purchased the September/October 1999 issue of Archaeology 

Magazine featuring a story on the role of a dog named Eagle in locating a 

“lost” historic cemetery in Monroe, MI. Eagle is a Doberman 

Pinscher/German Shorthair Pointer mix that was trained by Sandra 

Anderson to find only human remains ranging from intact bodies on 

through skeletal fragments and human trace evidence (blood, etc). This 

includes fresh, decomposed, burned, as well as recent and ancient remains 

(Saul, JM, Anderson, S, and Saul, FP, Proceedings of the AAFS 2001:247) 

Brought to the attention of the Panamanian Truth Commission, 

members quickly recognized the potential value of such an “investigator” 

in their search for the remains of political opponents and others who were 

secretly “disappeared’ during the military regimes of Generals Torrijos and 

Noriega (1968-1989). The Commission had accumulated a great quantity 

of witness and other testimony concerning potential gravesites that needed 

to be explored quickly, as the Commission’s mandate was scheduled to 

expire soon. 

The Commission’s invitation was accepted on a volunteer basis by 

Anderson and her anthropologist associates, Julie and Frank Saul, who 

formed the U.S. nucleus of a joint Panamanian-U.S. team that was coordinated 

and overseen by Bruce Broce, an anthropologist who holds both 

Panamanian and U.S. citizenship. They were accompanied in the field by 

additional personnel from the U.S. and Panama. These included 

anthropologists and archaeologists, lawyers, law enforcement/crime scene 

specialists (Policía Tecnica Judicial de Panama, or PTJ) and members of 

the Panamanian Presidential Guard. The latter provided security with the 


help of the PTJ. The PTJ and lawyers witnessed and maintained the chain 

of evidence for each find. The President of the Truth Commission, 

Licenciado Alberto S. Almanza, constantly supported efforts by his 

presence and actions while also maintaining continuity with both the 

President of the Republic of Panama, Mireya Moscoso, and the families of 

the “Disappeared Ones.” 

In preparation for work in this new environment, Eagle was introduced 

to non-human primate remains and trained to ignore them. The 

Sauls’ years of experience living and working in Central American jungles 

excavating ancient Maya remains also proved to be helpful - sometimes in 

unexpected ways, such as understanding the root and vine systems of 

tropical vegetation and their potential role in transporting the scent of 


Due to time constraints, the Truth Commission charged the team to 

quickly check as many potential disposal sites as possible (as indicated by 

witness testimony), and where indications by Eagle were positive for 

human remains, to attempt to recover at least one portion of human 

remains as proof and for future DNA analysis. Complete recovery was not 

possible nor was it desired at this time. Others carried out subsequent 

excavations in several locations after Eagle and preliminary recovery of 

remains confirmed the presence and location of human remains. 

Eagle’s special abilities, and the results achieved as a consequence, 

proved to be an inspiration to the people of Panama. For reasons of 

security the authors had hoped to come and go quietly in Panama, but the 

President of Panama decided to surround the team with media as a means 

of protecting them (in addition to providing them with members of the 

Presidential Guard and the PTJ). This seems to have worked well and as 

a byproduct of this constant media attention, new witnesses, who had 

previously considered the situation hopeless, were encouraged to come 

forward. Eagle became a national hero with full-page photographs as well 

as editorial cartoons in the newspapers. The extent of this public approval 

is suggested by an incident while searching for remains on the grounds of 

a maximum-security prison. As the heavily guarded group (including 

three women) passed a few hundred feet from a razor wire fence 

surrounding a prison yard filled with male prisoners, shouting was heard 

that was at first assumed to be obscenities but turned out to be cries of 

“Eagle! Find our dead!” 

The Province of Chiriqui and city of David, Noriega’s home province 

and initial power base, provided the team with a number of very different 

settings for disposal of single and multiple victims. In addition, as in other 

areas, witness testimony needed to be related to changes to the crime scene 

brought about by human and/or natural agencies over time. For instance, 

stories of “animal” remains encountered during relocation of a rural road 

brought the team to a hillside near the road that produced human remains 

from both the steep cliff over which the “animal remains” had been tossed 

and the bottom of the rapidly flowing river below. This difficult recovery 

took place during a cold rain, making the cliff face treacherous and 

causing the water to rise during the search. Nevertheless, several bones 

and bone fragments were recovered, with an MNI of two individuals indicated 

by the recovery of duplicating portions of two right tibiae. One of 

these individuals would probably have walked with a limp, as the right 

patella recovered bore signs of severe osteoarthritis. 

Eagle investigated another cliff below a mountain roadside winery 

after witnesses told the team that bodies were disposed of by throwing 

them over the cliff. Eagle indicated that human remains were indeed 

present in several locations on the cliff face and its drainages, and the team 

was able to recover the distal half of a human tibia showing signs of 

burning. This again was a fairly difficult recovery - the drainage was steep 

and full of slippery rocks, vegetation and trash. There was insufficient 

time to recover more. 

Rumors of an individual tortured and buried to his waist, presumably 

while still alive, produced one metacarpal buried in the rumored gravesite 

with a sacrum and several rib fragments found scattered in the dense vegetation 

of surrounding jungle. Subject to confirmation by DNA these finds 

are consistent with partial burial followed by scavenger scattering (surface 

bones show evidence of animal activity). Or, in this case as in many 

566

others, possibly some remains such as the skull and the perpetrators 

surreptitiously removed recognizable long bones in order to prevent 

recovery and identification. Although the sacrum and rib fragments 

appear to be consistent with being from one individual, the metacarpal 

may be from a different individual. 

A search of an isolated area indicated by witnesses failed to yield 

anticipated burials. However, Eagle was attracted to a large tree with 

embedded barbed wire that was located some distance away, at the edge 

of the forest. His indications on the trunk of this tree produced several 

small bone fragments imbedded in the bark at about 34 inches above 

ground level, including a circular 9 mm diameter human bone fragment. 

This is consistent with the possibility that this may have been a “killing 

tree” to which victims were bound and then executed. 

Several other potential sites within this province were investigated 

with both negative and positive results. These included the Cuartel, the 

regional police station/jail where a witness said that he had dug (with a 

bulldozer) a large excavation for a “swimming pool” into which many 

bodies were later thrown. Eagle’s indication began inside one end of the 

current office building and lead the team through the building to the floor 

at the other end, resulting in an excavation under that floor that produced 

a mix of human and animal bone fragments but no mass burial as yet 

(excavations are continuing). Eagle confirmed a now unused well in the 

town of Volcan, rumored to be a body disposal site. Excavations by 

Panamanian archaeologists and local firemen yielded large quantities of 

non-human bone plus small fragments of probable human bone, but were 

halted due to concerns for the health of excavators, who were working 

deep in the well with hazardous breathing conditions. 

As the authors continue to review some of the findings from the three 

search missions of Operación Eagle to date (August 2001, October- 

November 2001 and January-February 2002) it must be emphasized that 

the search and recovery procedures utilized and the resultant finds were 

directly related to Eagle’s abilities as he enabled the team to rapidly check 

witness testimony in a large number of unusual and frequently difficult 

settings. It must also be noted that the starting points for Eagle’s investigations 

were based on the witness testimony gathered with great skill and 

effort by the various investigators employed by the Truth Commission of 

Panama. 

Skeletal Identification, Death Investigation Dogs, Taphonomy of 

Clandestine Graves 

H64 Operacion Eagle: Clandestine Graves 

and a Taphonomy of Tyrants — Part 2: 

Searches on Coiba Island, Panama City, 

and Vicinity 

Julie M. Saul, BA*, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington 

Avenue, Toledo, OH; Sandra Anderson, Canine Investigation Consultant, 

913 East Price Road, Midland, MI; and Frank P. Saul, PhD, Lucas 

County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, 

Toledo, OH 

After attending this presentation participants should be better able to 

use death investigation dogs and forensic anthropologists to search for 

clandestine graves. 

The cemetery of the penal colony located on the island of Coiba 

presented an unusual problem. Witness testimony indicated that selected 

political prisoners were brought to the island for “special treatment” 

followed by burial in unmarked graves within or near the prison cemetery 

that had been in use since the 1920s. One individual in particular was said 

to have been tortured, killed, and disposed of at this site, and his brother, 

also an activist, accompanied the authors to Coiba. Witnesses provided 

possible locations within the cemetery and Eagle indicated that human 

remains were present in several unmarked places within those general 

locations. As time allocated by the Truth Commission for this site was 

short (one day only) a small group of prisoners were paid to assist by 

removing earth until the level approaching remains or coffins was reached. 

Dr Murray Marks excavated and recovered two sets of well-preserved 

remains found in coffins (one without a lid), while the Sauls concentrated 

on fragmentary remains in two other graves. One of these yielded badly 

deteriorated cranial and upper body remains. The remainder of that burial 

had to be left in situ for future excavation, as were the poorly preserved 

and even more fragmentary remains found in an adjacent grave, due to the 

Truth Commission’s desire for the team to explore several other sites 

before the scheduled time in Panama ran out. 

The two individuals in the coffins were later determined to be victims 

of blunt force trauma. Remarkably, a cut posterior arch of the first cervical 

vertebra was found associated with the fragmentary cranial remains 

recovered from one of the other two graves. This grave also contained an 

apparently clandestine marker consisting of two large nails fused in the 

form of a cross and placed upright beside the head. These nails may have 

been originally tied together but were now held together by rust. Rotted, 

blackened wood fragments were located under the cranial fragments and 

later excavation by Dr Ann Ross found that, based on the presence and 

arrangement of other nails, a coffin (or partial coffin) had once been there. 

While the above excavations were underway, Anderson used Eagle to 

check on the possibility of additional unmarked graves. Eagle methodically 

indicated in less than an hour that although there were 29 crosses 

present he believed that there were actually 129 graves within the 

cemetery confines. 

A series of possible gravesites located in or around Panama City, 

including Tocumen SAN, the major airport for Panama City, and Panama 

Viejo were investigated following witness information. Tocumen SAN 

includes a large (football field size) pit created by extensive searches with 

bulldozers after four fairly intact sets of remains were found in 1999 and 

2000, a runway, a firing range and the former “House of Pilots.” Each 

locale presented its own challenges, but the Tocumen pit is perhaps the 

most disconcerting inasmuch as it is suspected that the buried isolated 

bones and fragments found by Eagle might have originally been part of 

intact burials that were scattered by the intensive bulldozing that took 

place during earlier excavations. Recovery efforts were complicated by 

the adherent nature of the red clay itself, heavy rains and the huge area 

involved. Nevertheless the numerous scattered and fragmented bones and 

teeth recovered yielded an MNI of two individuals represented by bone 

and an MNI of three individuals represented by dentition. 

Other witness testimony suggested that remains were located under a 

peripheral runway area. Small holes were drilled to provide olfactory 

access. When Eagle returned the next day he indicated between two of the 

holes that had been drilled. Water was used in the process of drilling a new 

hole, and the team soon realized that Eagle was indicating on small bone 

fragments brought to the surface by the water. An excavation unit in this 

location yielded several burned bone and tooth fragments from the gravel 

just beneath the pavement. Burning may have been due to the heat of the 

macadam during construction. 

Checks of witness testimony regarding the area in front of the “House 

of Pilots” yielded surface finds of three tooth fragments plus a portion of 

fibula that appeared to have had its distal portion severed perimortem (the 

cut was old with possible blood staining and no signs of healing) through 

a collar of reactive bone that might have been the result of trauma produced 

by shackles (there are reports of people tortured by being suspended 

by bound wrists or ankles for long periods of time). The other end of this 

fragment had been recently broken. Two tibia fragments were found at an 

animal burrow entrance behind the firing range targets. 

Reports that skeletal remains were encountered during construction 

of a building at historic Old Panama and then “put into the wall” brought 

the authors to a one-story office building. Holes were drilled in the 

sidewalk and juncture of sidewalk and wall to facilitate scent access. 

Eagle indicated scent at the bottom of the wall and then stood up to tap on 

the outer wall surface. When allowed to enter the building he led the team 


immediately to the other side of the wall, again standing up to touch the 

wall. Excavations by Panamanian archaeologists resulted in the finding of 

human teeth, small bones and bone fragments both within the wall and 

under the sidewalk at the wall’s base. 

Altos de Miraflores sits on the highest hill in Panama City. The splitlevel 

house there had become known as the “House of Torture.” During 

the time when it was leased to the military, it was rumored that political 

prisoners were brought to the house, tortured, and then “disposed of.” The 

house has since been unoccupied, except for a caretaker in the lower level. 

During his first visit Eagle indicated the presence of blood spatter in the 

house (later confirmed by the Technical Police [PTJ]) and the presence of 

surface remains in the adjacent yard. A cranial fragment was recovered 

just beneath the soil surface beside the house. Metatarsals and phalanges 

were found scattered in the grass a short distance away. During subsequent 

visits, Eagle indicated the presence of additional human remains in 

several locations on the hillside below the house as well as more buried 

remains near the house. These locations were scheduled for future 

attention. Upon return, the team discovered that some of these “positive” 

locations were now “negative” locations and new areas were “positive.” 

Bones seemed to be moving around. It became apparent that the team’s 

recoveries were followed by clandestine attempts to move and destroy 

remaining skeletal evidence. A field that was scheduled to be examined 

was burned and traces of accelerant were found after the local fire 

department hosed it down. Fortunately, Eagle finds burned human bone, 

especially when wet, and Eagle located several bone fragments, some of 

which had been cut or fractured both in the past and recently. The property 

owner initially gave permission for searches but became increasingly 

hostile as human bone was found. However, these finds provided the PTJ 

with a basis for continued access to the property. 

Perhaps the most meaningful information comes from a foul smelling 

culvert down the hill that became known to the team as “Lower Purgatory” 

in relation to the house at the top of the hill (“Upper Purgatory”). 

Indications by Eagle and subsequent excavations in the culvert yielded 

two separated but articulating maxillary fragments with teeth and an 

unusual dental restoration. Also recovered in this evil smelling place were 

two projectiles and rotting fabric with remnants of elastic similar to that of 

men’s under shorts. In addition, a portion of femur shaft found lying 

within the drainage pipe was later joined to a smaller fragment that was 

excavated from the yard adjacent to the house at the top of the hill, thus 

physically linking “Upper” and “Lower Purgatory.” 

Adding to the taphonomy of the “migrating” remains is a virtually 

intact and unburned fibula that Eagle found standing on end in the tall 

grass above and adjacent to the culvert as if it had been tossed there from 

the culvert below, perhaps during a hasty attempt to remove remains. This 

location had been searched a few days before. 

In conclusion, Eagle’s ability to find very small units of remains 

(surface, buried and under water) both complicated and enhanced the 

investigation. Shallow burials or surface deposition allow access for carnivores 

and other scavengers, and the tropical climate not only quickly 

reduces the human body to skeletal remains but torrential tropical rains 

and rapidly growing vegetation combine to scatter remains. The initially 

disturbing fact that mainly bone fragments, teeth and small bones were 

being found, with few larger bones, skulls or mandibles, also suggests that 

remains may have been systematically removed to new and possibly multiple 

locations after skeletonization in order to “disappear” the victims. 

During such a procedure, more easily located and recognized bones are 

collected, while less easily located and recognized small bones, fragments 

and individual teeth are left behind. In some cases, this may be followed 

by dispersal of the collected remains in several different (and possibly 

widely separated) locations. 

Eagle’s special talents have provided insights into an unfortunate 

taphonomy of clandestine body disposal patterns – a “taphonomy of 

tyrants.” 

Skeletal Identification, Death Investigation Dogs, Taphonomy of 

Clandestine Graves 


H65 Utilizing Ground Penetrating Radar 

and Three-Dimensional Imagery to 

Enhance Search Strategies of Buried 

Human Remains 

Michelle L. Miller, BS, MA*, The University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

The purpose of this paper is to present to the forensic community the 

advantages of a collaborative approach when searching for buried human 

remains. 

Locating the clandestine burial of human remains has long perplexed 

law enforcement officials involved in crime scene investigations, and continues 

to bewilder all the scientific disciplines that have been incorporated 

into their search and recovery. Many notable forensic specialists and law 

enforcement agencies, in an effort to alleviate some of the bewilderment 

that commonly accompanies the search for a buried body, suggest that 

multidisciplinary search efforts are becoming more of a necessity, and less 

of an option. 

Research at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropological Research 

Facility (ARF) in Knoxville supports this theory through a collaborative 

research effort directed toward the development of more efficient and 

effective methods in the search for, and detection of, buried human 

remains. The Department of Anthropology, in conjunction with the 

University’s Department of Biosystems Engineering and Environmental 

Science, has coupled the use of ground penetrating radar (GPR) with 

3-dimensional imagery programs to better detect buried human targets. 

Two different ground penetrating radar systems, the SIR-20 and the 

GPR-X, were employed to obtain 27 designated scans over six constructed 

grave plots. This procedure was replicated every 4-6 weeks, over an eightmonth 

period. Two and three dimensional imagery programs were then 

applied to the acquired images, which in turn were compared by GPR 

system used, and overall changes that occurred within the graves over 

time. 

The results of this research support and acknowledge that GPR is 

capable of enhancing field methods in the search for clandestine burials, 

and when coupled with target-specific geophysical imagery software, contributes 

valuable working knowledge in regards to the contents of the 

burial itself. Hence, such resources can only be seen as beneficial to a 

search team’s endeavors. 

Buried Human Remains, Ground Penetrating Radar, 3-Dimensional 

Imagery 

H66 Location, Identification, and Repatriation 

of Remains of Victims of Conflict: 

Implications for Forensic Anthropology 

Shuala M. Drawdy, MA*, Department of Anthropology, University of 


The objective of this presentation is to inform the forensic 

community of the current standing of positive identification of victims of 

conflict and the role of forensic anthropology in humanitarian efforts of 

victim identification. 

The Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Enforced 

Disappearances calls for protection from acts committed by, or with the 

acquiescence of, national governments depriving individuals of the basic 

human rights of life, liberty, and security of person. The Working Group 

on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, established in 1980 by the 

Commission on Human Rights, provides assistance to family members 

seeking information on the fate and whereabouts of missing relatives 

when disappearances are the result of domestic affairs. In international 

armed conflict, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) 

568

serves to aid in the location of missing family members. The work of the 

two preceding groups ends when living relatives are located or the missing 

family member is presumed dead. The International Criminal Tribunals 

for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR) provide for 

judicial action against those guilty of international crimes such as 

disappearances and extra-judicial executions in an effort to promote the 

restoration of peace and security. The International Criminal Court (ICC) 

will serve similar purposes in years to come, both for international and 

internal armed conflicts. Therefore, it is clear that persons are protected 

from disappearances by international law, and guilty parties are not free 

from prosecution. However, positive identification of victims of conflict 

remains a secondary emphasis. 

This paper explores the current lack of emphasis on positive identification 

of victims of conflict. Recognized international human rights such 

as the right to family, the right to information and the right to be free from 

torture, as established by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and 

the international covenants (ICCPR and ICESCR), are reviewed as bases 

for the establishment of stricter mandates securing rights and privileges for 

surviving relatives in the positive identification of family members. The 

disparity in emphasis and allocation of funding between missions aimed at 

the prosecution of perpetrators of extra-judicial executions and those 

established for the identification of victims is highlighted, as well as the 

role of forensic science in the exhumation and analysis of remains. 

Current efforts towards identification of missing persons in Kosovo are 

discussed as mandated by the FRY Agreement and administrated by the 

Office of Missing Persons, established by the United Nations Mission in 

Kosovo (UNMIK). Finally, current difficulties in establishing anthropological 

standards and identifying individuals from non-Western populations 

are addressed, as well as the future role of forensic anthropology in 

humanitarian efforts of positive identification. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Rights, International Law 

H67 This Grave Speaks: Forensic 

Anthropology in Guatemala 

Adriana Gabriela Santos Bremme, BS*, Fundación de Antropología 

Forense de Guatemala-Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, 

Apartado Postal 01901 1830 correo central Guatemala C.A. 

The goal of this presentation is to present the forensic community the 

results of the work done by forensic teams for a decade in the fields in 

Guatemala. These results seen in photographs and in several graphics 

show and demonstrate individual and mass graves with different patterns 

of inhumations. Inhumations performed by relatives, soldiers and 

paramilitaries in the decade of the 80s. 

Forensic investigations provide key points of substantiation of 

physical and testimonial evidence in the reconstruction of the scene, it is a 

job for the multidisciplinary team who focuses in the exhumations in 

Guatemala. 

Exhumations performed due the violent acts occurred in the 80s, 

during a period of several military governments; in which more of the civil 

population was affected. Over 80% of the victims were Maya indigenous 

people. 

Some of these cases are now following a national and international 

legal process. These processes came about as a desire to denounce these 

acts for human rights violations by the families of these victims; who want 

to know where relatives are. 

This investigation compiles the mechanisms of inhumation from 

clandestine graves. Individual and mass graves were found in which from 

one to twenty, thirty, sixty, or more skeletonized individuals could be seen. 

The way to order the bodies, the different positions in which they are 

found, one behind the other, one thrown above others, gives clues to find 

which group performed the inhumation process. 

In these regions (different counties, mountainous areas) the skeletons 

of individuals from different ages, sexes and conditions, articulated and 

disarticulated bodies, have been found. 

In fact, because of the acts that occurred, relatives bury these dead 

persons and several bodies where also buried by military and paramilitary 

elements. In the first case it becomes easy to find these places because the 

relatives are witnesses. In some occasions a wood box was improvised 

and introduce personal things in a way as to offer them the other life; the 

things the people most commonly used daily. 

In the cases where the army forces buried them, bodies can be found 

disposed in dramatic patterns, showing some ways of torture and the 

strategies of murder. 

These places show diversity in the execution strategies: to behead, 

decapitate, hang, patterns of gunshot. In some places there are houses that 

have been burned with children and women inside; caves where the men 

were first stabbed and then throw. 

In other cases like the ones where military detachments operated near 

the communities during these violent years, it has been necessary to use 

geophysical methods in the search for graves. The recovered evidence 

shows lassos round the neck, hands, and the faces covered. 

In other cases bones, rope, and lassos are still found on the surface, 

near the roads, after 20 years these items stand as silent witnesses. 

Graves, Patterns of Inhumation, Strategies of Murder 

H68 The Role of Anthropology During the 

Identification of Victims From the 

World Trade Center Disaster 

Amy Zelson Mundorff, MA*, Office of Chief Medical Examiner, New 

York City, New York, NY 

After attending this presentation, the participant will become familiar 

with all of the different roles and contributions made by forensic anthropologists 

during the recovery and identification process of the World 

Trade Center Disaster. 

This presentation has three objectives: (1) to illustrate where anthropological 

assistance was called upon and why, including how many 

anthropologists participated in NYC, their roles at Ground Zero, The 

Staten Island Landfill and at the Medical Examiner’s Office, (2) a general 

overview of how the remains were processed from recovery to identification, 

including which traditional anthropological techniques were 

employed and which ones were obsolete due to the population size and the 

physical characteristics of the specimen received, and (3) to highlight 

some lessons learned during such an evolving and fluid situation. 

Protocols were modified and changed based on 10 months of feedback and 

simultaneous processing. 

On the morning of September 11th, two fully fueled airliners were 

flown into the World Trade Center buildings in downtown Manhattan. 

Hundreds were killed instantly upon impact and thousands more perished 

when the two towers and five other commercial buildings collapsed. 

Subsequent to the collapses, fires continued to burn at over 1500 degrees 

for more than twelve weeks within the destruction site. The area of 

destruction covered over 16 acres and was piled over 70 feet tall, later to 

be excavated over 70 feet deep. The uncertainty in the initial number of 

reported missing and presumed dead prompted the Office of Chief 

Medical Examiner, New York City, to call upon the assistance of DMORT, 

the National Disaster Mortuary Operation Response Team, to provide 

ancillary staff of all types to assist with the disaster. In addition, assistance 

in the identification process was also provided by the New York City 

Police Department, the New York Port Authority, the New York Fire 

Department, the Department of Corrections, and the FBI. Specific to this 

presentation will be the role of the 30+ forensic anthropologists that came 

to assist in the recovery and identification process. 

The recovery operation was very slow and difficult, and often very 


dangerous. Along with the danger of the fires and the constant watering, 

there were large pockets and void areas always threatening to collapse. 

The searches and excavations were done by hand and bucket brigades, as 

well as by huge grapplers, cranes, and other types of heavy machinery. 

Steel beams weighing many tons criss-crossed the entire site. The amount 

of destruction and pulverization was so extensive, that no piece of recognizable 

office furniture was found. 

Anthropologists were assigned to work at the temporary morgue set 

up next to the recovery operation, the medical examiners office where all 

of the identifications were done, and at the Staten Island landfill where 

over 1.6 million of tons of debris from Ground Zero were transported and 

sifted manually and mechanically for human remains. The actual role of 

the anthropologists varied greatly from site to site. At the temporary 

morgue, the anthropologist helped sort out civilian and Member of Service 

remains, and later were called upon to assist in difficult recoveries of 

burned and commingled remains. At the landfill, the primary role of the 

anthropologist was to sort out human from non-human remains. The role 

of the anthropologist at the medical examiners office ranged from triage to 

bone identification. The anthropologist was the beginning of the assembly 

line, processing each case, sorting out commingled remains, labeling bone 

identifications and adding anthropological analysis when pertinent. In 

addition, anthropologists were later added at the end of the assembly line, 

rechecking links made by DNA to verify that the pieces can and did belong 

together. These roles also evolved over time as the operation changed. 

After recovery at Ground Zero was complete, the role of the forensic 

anthropologist changed yet again, due to retrospective evaluations and the 

fact that the unidentified and unclaimed remains were to be dried and 

sealed in bags that were non-transparent. An anthropological verification 

protocol was established to recheck and provide more detail of the cases, 

once the sense of urgency settled. In addition, this verification program 

allowed reevaluation of cases that might have been commingled, needed 

resampling or where details were overlooked during the initial processing. 

The lessons which initiated the verification protocol are most valuable for 

the documentation and instructions needed in the future should another 

disaster of this magnitude or larger occur. 

Mass Fatality, Forensic Anthropology, Identification 

H69 Anthropology at Fresh Kills: 

Recovery and Identification 

of the World Trade Center Victims 

Michael W. Warren, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL; Leslie E. Eisenberg, PhD, Wisconsin Historical 

Society, 816 State Street, Madison, WI; Heather Walsh-Haney, MA, 

University of Florida, C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory, 

University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; and, Julie Mather Saul, BA, 

Lucas County Medical Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue, 

Toledo, OH 

The purpose of this paper is to review the role that anthropologists 

played in the recovery and identification of the victims of the September 

11th attack and discuss flexibility in the application of methodologies in 

dynamic field conditions. 

The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, initiated an unprecedented 

challenge for forensic scientists. The massive scale and scope of 

the recovery and identification effort, the force and uniqueness of both the 

traumatic and taphonomic mechanisms, and the psychological stress of 

working in such an emotional environment, combined to make the events 

of September 11th a powerful and lasting experience for all involved. 

Forensic anthropologists deployed to New York’s World Trade Center by 

the U.S. Public Health Services’ Disaster Mortuary Operational Response 

Team (DMORT), working at the behest of the Office of Chief Medical 

Examiner, were integrated into the operation at three primary arenas of 


action: the New York City Medical Examiner’s Office, the on-site staging 

areas on Trinity and Vesey Streets, and the Fresh Kills landfill on Staten 

Island. This paper will discuss the anthropologist’s role at the Fresh Kills 

site and describe the conditions and challenges that confronted the team. 

The Fresh Kills (Fresh stream; Dutch) landfill on Staten Island 

opened in 1948 and was, at one time, the largest human-made object on 

earth. Fresh Kills received its last barge of New York City garbage in 

March of 2001, after which the mountain of refuse was capped. 

Immediately after the events of September 11th, the landfill was re-opened 

to serve as a repository for the massive amounts of debris transported from 

the World Trade Center complex. Additionally, the Fresh Kills site was the 

final stage of recovery for the World Trade Center victims. After the initial 

on-site search and recovery failed to discover human remains, the structural 

debris was removed by heavy equipment to barges and ferried across 

the bay to Staten Island. During the early weeks of the operation the debris 

was sifted, sorted and recovered by law enforcement officers and additional 

personnel. Material suspected to represent human remains, as well 

as additional material thought to have evidentiary value, was brought to 

on-site staging areas operated by the New York Police Department 

(NYPD) Crime Scene Unit and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The 

anthropologists were stationed with the NYPD crime scene unit, where 

possible human remains were examined and, if found to be human, were 

given identification numbers, photographed, and stored for transport to the 

Office of Chief Medical Examiner in Manhattan. As time passed, the 

operation became more mechanized, with the use of large sifters and conveyor 

belts that provided searchers examining passing material some protection 

from the inclement winter weather. 

The decision by the Medical Examiner’s Office to depend heavily on 

genetic testing of specimens to establish positive identification meant that 

many of the usual techniques employed by DMORT anthropologists, such 

as determining group and individual skeletal characteristics, would not be 

utilized. As a consequence, the primary role of the anthropologists stationed 

at the Fresh Kills site was to differentiate organic material from 

various types of debris, and then identify human from non-human 

remains. The contribution of the Fresh Kills teams was ultimately to 

increase the efficiency, and decrease the expense, of genetic testing by 

excluding non-human specimens from entering into the chain of evidence. 

On a more immediate basis, the examination and triage of potential human 

remains by the Fresh Kills teams greatly reduced the numbers of items 

requiring photographic and written documentation by overworked NYPD 

crime scene personnel. 

The anthropologists encountered a singular taphonomic phenomenon 

in terms of the magnitude of forces resulting from the aircraft impact, 

burning, and collapse of the World Trade Center’s twin towers. These 

same taphonomic forces (extreme heat, compression, torsion, commingling, 

etc.) created unique “pseudo human remains” from construction and 

other material that often confounded the law enforcement personnel collecting 

the evidence – almost all of whom were untrained in the recognition 

of fragmented human remains. Additional circumstances that complicated 

the recovery process were the incredible amount of organic 

material already within the landfill, including an unexpected amount of 

non-human organic material from the large number of restaurants in the 

World Trade Center complex and surrounding streets. The debris, massive 

amounts of organic material and associated methane gas produced a hazardous 

and confusing condition for the cadaver dogs, many of whom had 

not been trained to avoid indicating (or alerting) on food or dead animal 

remains. 

The identification effort at the Fresh Kills site can be considered a 

model that demonstrates the essence of the DMORT mission statement. 

Each deployment is unique in that each scenario may require that the 

DMORT experts demonstrate flexibility in the application of their methodologies 

contingent upon the needs and desires of the requesting Medical 

Examiner’s Office or other agencies. 

Forensic Anthropology, Human Identification, Terrorism 

570

H70 Scene Recovery Efforts in Shanksville, 


Office in the Processing of the Crash Site 

of United Airlines Flight 93 

Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Departments of Anthropology and Applied 

Forensic Science, Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA; and Wallace Miller, BS, 

Somerset County Coroner, Somerset, PA 

Attendees can expect to learn about new techniques, based upon 

contemporary archaeological methods, employed during the recovery of 

large aircraft mass fatality sites in general, and specifically, with regards to 

the recovery of the United Flight 93 crash. The role played by the coroner 

of a rural county is also explored at length. 

On September 11, 2001, at 10:10 AM, a Boeing 757 (United Airlines 

Flight 93) crashed in an open field near the small town of Shanksville in 

Somerset County, PA. All 44 individuals aboard were killed. It was clear 

from the start that terrorists who intended to use the plane as an instrument 

of suicide and mass homicide had hijacked the plane. In this presentation, 

issues related to the role of the coroner’s office during the forensic 

processing and subsequent mitigation of the scene will be discussed. 

Following the initial response by local fire and law enforcement 

agencies to put out the fires and search for survivors, the Somerset County 

Coroner (WM) was summoned to assess the crash scene and determine 

how best to recover and identify the human remains. Part of the coroner’s 

response was to assemble a team of advisors (including other coroners, 

funeral directors, and forensic anthropologists) and support personnel. 

The crash site included two forensic features: a vehicle impact crater and 

a large fan-shaped debris-splash area emanating from the crater. The plane 

impacted the ground at a steep angle near the edge of a reclaimed strip 

mine. Since the ground was rather soft, much of the plane imbedded into 

the ground, creating a pit about 10 feet deep and 15-20 feet wide with an 

associated mounded pile of dirt opposite the initial impact point. A portion 

of the plane sheared off upon impact and fell into the adjacent forested 

area, scattering in an approximately 70-acre fan-shaped debris field. A 

concentration of debris and jet fuel landed in the forest near the crater and 

significantly charred the trees in this area. 

Phase 1 Recovery. The first step in the recovery process required the 

formulation of a successful strategy for locating, documenting, and 

removing the associated physical evidence. This process involved 

consideration of jurisdictional matters, personnel, equipment, and a 

myriad of other issues. It was decided at the outset that the recovery 

strategy should provide a balance between the rapid recovery and documentation 

of potentially forensically significant physical evidence (e.g., 

voice and flight data recorders, important mechanical parts of the vehicle, 

items related to the cause of the crash such as explosive devices and 

residue, weapons, and personal effects of terrorists) with maximal 

recovery of the biological and personal effects of the victims. The coroner 

suggested using a new search, documentation, and recovery protocol, 

recently developed by the first author, which included sequential and concurrent 

stages involving thorough and meticulous searches, sectioning of 

the scene into manageable grid sections, and the use of an electronic total 

station to precisely document significant physical evidence location. The 

protocol had been tested at a mock crash scene during an FBI training 

short course in St. Louis and successfully implemented during the 

recovery efforts of the plane crash involving Melvin Carnahan, Governor 

of Missouri. 

Given the context of the crash relative to other national events of 

September 11, and since it was immediately clear that the crash involved 

criminal activity, the FBI assumed responsibility for recovery of the forensically 

significant physical evidence (and larger fragments of human 

remains) from both the impact crater and the forested area impacted by the 

crash debris. FBI and Pennsylvania State Police personnel completed 

these efforts. Approximately 500 pounds of human tissue was recovered. 

During this time, civilian efforts were focused on the documentation and 

identification of the human remains at the temporary morgue as part of the 

DMORT operation. 

Phase 2 Recovery Efforts. Federal authorities released the scene two 

weeks later. Due to the tremendous forces imparted upon the aircraft and 

associated materials during a crash of this nature, a nearly overwhelming 

volume of debris was created and deposited on the scene. Much of this 

material—deemed non-forensically significant and including, primarily, 

plane debris and small fragments of human remains—remained on the 

scene. The decision was made by the coroner to comprehensively (i.e., as 

close to 100 percent as possible) recover and remove this material from the 

scene prior to the final release of the scene to the public. The coroner’s 

office, Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute personnel, and Pennsylvania 

Emergency Management Agency officials organized recovery efforts utilizing 

forensic archaeological methods during two subsequent weekends 

involving approximately 200 volunteers (firemen, funeral directors). The 

entire 70 acres of crash debris field was searched using pedestrian in-line 

shoulder-to-shoulder visual scanning methods. Teams of 10-12 individuals 

were assembled and coordinated by a team leader who set the 

direction and pace of the search. In the areas most distant from the impact 

crater, pedestrian search sufficed because debris was widely scattered and 

not abundant. In areas closer to the impact crater, the searchers performed 

the recovery efforts on hands and knees since much of the remaining 

debris was hidden under leaf litter and natural forest debris. 

Approximately 100 pounds of highly fragmented human tissue was 

recovered. 

In the following three months, additional site mitigation efforts by an 

independent company hired by the airline resulted in the location of 

additional human remains, personal effects, and plane debris, especially 

during removal of charred trees in the burn zone. In May of 2002, another 

100 volunteers resulting in nearly complete recovery of site crash debris 

conducted a final search of the crash site. 

Mass Fatality Recovery, Forensic Archaeology, United Flight 93 

H71 Roles of the Biological Anthropologist 

in the Response to the Crash of United 

Airlines Flight 93 

Marilyn R. London, MA, and Dawn M. Mulhern, PhD, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC; Lenore T. Barbian, PhD, and Paul S. 

Sledzik, MS, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Armed Forced 

Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC; Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, 

Mercyhurst College, Erie, PA; Laura Fulginiti, PhD, Medical 

Examiner’s Office, Phoenix, AZ; Joseph T. Hefner, BS, University of 

Florida, Gainesville, FL; and Norman J. Sauer, PhD, Michigan State 

University, East Lansing, MI 

The goal of this presentation is to examine the multiple roles filled by 

anthropologists during the recovery and identification of the victims 

following the crash of United Airlines Flight 93 and to explore the training 

and skills that allowed the anthropologists to play such diverse roles. 

Traditionally, medical examiners and law enforcement agencies have 

consulted biological anthropologists in the investigation of crimes, 

accidents, and mass disasters. Conventional training in biological 

anthropology provides the professional with a background in human 

anatomy and physiology, growth and development, epidemiology, 

genetics, and the scientific method. Biological anthropologists who 

specialize in skeletal biology have a unique suite of skills that is applicable 

to certain types of forensic investigations. An extensive knowledge of 

human and nonhuman bones is utilized to recognize and identify skeletal 

fragments and human remains and to collect biological information from 

those remains and fragments. In addition, anthropologists have the skills 

to collect biological and other evidence at scenes, using field and 


archaeological methods. On September 11, 2001, terrorists took control of 

United Airlines Flight 93, a Boeing 757 flying from Newark to San 

Francisco. Passengers and crew on the flight learned through telephone 

calls that other flights had been used to attack the World Trade Center and 

the Pentagon earlier that morning, and were able to thwart the terrorists’ 

plans. However, the plane crashed into an open field in Somerset County, 

PA, and all those aboard (40 passengers and crew and 4 terrorists) were 

killed. 

On September 13, the U.S. Department of Health and Human 

Services DMORT Region III team was activated to respond to the crash 

site. This team deployed six anthropologists, including the team 

commander, and other Regions loaned two additional anthropologists. 

Several of the team’s anthropologists had responded to other air crashes 

and terrorist attacks (e.g., EgyptAir Flight 990, Executive Air, Korean Air 

Flight 801, Oklahoma City Murrah Building) and were thus experienced 

in working on mass fatality incidents with the National Transportation 

Safety Board and other disaster response agencies. However, due to 

several unusual circumstances, the anthropologists found themselves 

filling new roles in this response. 

First, the Flight 93 crash site was considered to be a crime scene and 

was under the control of the Federal Bureau of Investigation; a situation 

the team had not dealt with previously. Prior to deployment, several of the 

team’s anthropologists were involved in the initial recovery at the crash 

site. This cooperation facilitated later morgue operations by providing 

information about recovery strategies and the organization of remains. 

Collaboration between FBI and DMORT personnel in the morgue was 

necessary to maintain continuity throughout the processing of remains and 

evidence. An anthropologist assumed the role of morgue manager to 

assure smooth operation in the facility and to supervise protocol 

development for each area of activity within the morgue. These activities 

included triage, admitting, radiography, photography, anthropology, 

pathology, odontology, and DNA sampling. Protocols were written based 

on previous experiences and modified during the September 11 incident to 

reflect the medico-legal aspects of the situation. With written instructions, 

team members were able to work confidently in their areas, and turnovers 

in staffing were smooth. These standardized protocols will be made 

available to other disaster response teams through the DMORT website. 

They can be modified to reflect the circumstances of future responses. 

Second, anthropologists were involved in aspects of the recovery 

operation and were fully integrated into the morgue operation. In addition 

to the initial recovery at the crash site, anthropologists visited the site to 

monitor the recovery of human remains. In the months following the 

crash, anthropologists volunteered to return to Pennsylvania several times 

to help recover more remains and clear the site. Anthropologists analyzed 

these newly recovered remains and assured that the analysis of these 

remains proceeded according to the protocols developed during the 

DMORT deployment, including triage of the remains and DNA sampling. 

Anthropologists further assisted the local coroner in the final reassociation 

of the positively identified remains. The anthropologists were able to 

combine electronic data from several different data sources, manipulate 

the data to a consistent format, and generate a final data table to facilitate 

the reassociations. 

Third, anthropologists were assigned to staff the triage station and 

played a key role in the triage selection strategy. The training of the 

physical anthropologists in both skeletal biology and human anatomy 

enabled them to readily identify the fragmentary remains and make appropriate 

decisions regarding the processing of remains through the morgue 

stations. Given the high fragmentation level associated with the UA 93 

crash, the majority of remains processed through the triage station were 

composed of fragmentary bone with some associated soft and connective 

tissue. The ability of the anthropologists to correctly identify these 

remains and assess their identification potential helped ensure that the 

morgue processed the human remains in a timely and efficient manner. 

The positions and responsibilities of DMORT anthropologists for the 

Flight 93 response included team commander, morgue management, 


triage, anthropological analysis, DNA sampling, protocol development, 

site recovery, database management, and data verification. In addition, the 

anthropologists were able to communicate effectively with pathologists, 

dentists, radiological technicians, coroner’s staff, law enforcement agents, 

DNA specialists, and other team members. The anthropologists’ training 

and experience made them valuable and flexible members of the disaster 

response team. 

United Airlines Flight 93, Forensic Anthropology, Victim 


H72 Attack on the Pentagon: The Role of 

Forensic Anthropology in the Examination 

and Identification of Victims and Remains 

of the ‘9/11’ Terrorist Attack 


Examiner, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC 

The learning objective of this presentation is to present the forensic 

science community with an overview of the role of the crucial role 

forensic anthropology played in the processing of remains recovered form 

the 9-11 terrorist attack on the Pentagon. 

On September 11, 2001, at approximately 9:43 am, just 26 minutes 

after a second hijacked plane struck the South Tower of the World Trade 

Center in New York, American Flight 77 out of Washington – Dulles 

crashed into the Pentagon. American Fight 77, whose destination was Los 

Angles, was hijacked by five Islamic terrorists who took control of the 

cockpit and crashed the airliner into the Pentagon. The crash resulted in 

the death of 189 people, which included all 64 individuals on Flight 77 and 

125 individuals on the ground in the Pentagon. A second terrorist attack 

on Washington, DC, was thwarted by passengers aboard United Flight 93, 

resulting in the airliner crashing just 125 miles outside Washington, in 

Somerset County, PA. Shortly after the Pentagon attack all federal 

buildings in the capitol were evacuated, and the various local state and 

federal entities went into action. 

Being that the jurisdiction for the Pentagon is federal, the FBI and 

military were tasked with the lead role investigation and recovery efforts. 

A temporary morgue was established on the Pentagon grounds which 

served as an initial collection and processing site for the bodies and 

remains of the victims. Each body or portion of human remains recovered 

at the crash site was assigned an evidence number that correlated to their 

respective recoveries. The bodies and remains were then photographed at 

the temporary morgue and then transported directly by helicopter to the 

Dover Air Force Base Port Mortuary in Dover, Delaware. Processing of 

the bodies and remains was conducted by the Office of the Armed Forces 

Medical Examiner. The Dover port mortuary was staffed around the clock 

by multiple military and federal personnel. Personnel assisting in the 

processing of victims included the forensic pathologists, anthropologists, 

odontologists, radiologists, federal and military investigators, and an 

enormous staff of medical support personnel. 

Processing the bodies and remains involved passing them through a 

complete network of stations in were they were radiographically screened 

for evidence and hazardous materials, photographed, entered into a 

computer data base, fitted with a secure numerical and bar-coded identification 

tag, fingerprinted, received full body x-rays, postmortem odontological 

exam, postmortem autopsy and anthropological exam, DNA 

collection, then embalmed and casketed awaiting confirmation of positive 

identification. The explosive forces of the crash and ensuing fire resulted 

in the burning, fragmentation and commingling of a number of the 

victims. Forensic anthropological examination was utilized extensively to 

deal with the burnt and fragmented remains as well as intact remains in 

which there was a question of approximate age, skeletal injury or reassociation. 

572

In order to deal with anthropological requirements the assistance of 

eight forensic anthropologists were employed. The forensic anthropologists 

who volunteered to assist included those from the Armed Forces 

Institute of Pathology, the U.S. Army Central Identification Lab in Hawaii, 

and the Department of Anthropology - Smithsonian Institution, 

Washington, DC. Forensic anthropological examination of the remains 

were divided into two areas, one being examination at the initial triage of 

remains as they arrived and at autopsy in conjunction with the forensic 

pathologists examinations. During triage the incoming specimen was 

examined to determine if the remains were human, non-human, or crash 

debris. Those specimens determined to be human tissue were examined 

to ascertain their anatomical origin, then were re-packaged with a 

specimen tag and brief description of the specimen. During triage 

specimens were also evaluated as to suitable for identification by DNA 

analysis. In the autopsy area forensic anthropologists provided assistance 

to the forensic pathologists by identifying skeletal elements, providing 

biological profiles based on skeletal morphology, reconstructing skeletal 

anatomy, conducting radiographic comparisons in reference to positive 

identification, conduct separation and re-association of commingled 

remains, and provide consultation on skeletal injuries. 

The role of forensic anthropologists in the Pentagon mass disaster 

was extremely important, as were the roles of the other forensic scientist 

and investigators who were involved. The teamwork of the forensic 

anthropologists and their scientific colleges lead to an extremely high level 

of identification of the victims and remains recovered from the Pentagon. 

The tremendous loss of lives will not be forgotten, but through the 

dedication of the forensic sciences families of the victims can find comfort 

and closure to the families of the victims. 

Forensic Anthropology, Identification, Mass Disasters 

573 

* Presenting Author

H1 Falls From Cliffs: Reconstructing 

Individual Death Histories From a 

Perimortem Fracture Pattern 

Todd W. Fenton, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, 354 Baker Hall, 

Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI; Walter H. Birkby, PhD, 

and Bruce E. Anderson, PhD, Forensic Science Center, Pima County, 

Tucson, AZ; and David R. Rankin, MA, U.S. Army Central Identification 


The attendee will become familiar with a diagnostic pattern of fractures 

associated with feet-first falls from heights. This poster has four 

objectives: (1) to present three unusual cases in which skeletonized 

human remains were found at the bases of cliffs; (2) to display the 

observed perimortem fractures in these cases and discuss the reconstruction 

of impact sequence from these fractures; (3) to suggest a diagnostic 

“suite of fractures” consistent with these vertical impacts; and (4) to 

approximate the impact velocities experienced by the victims in these 

cases. 

In the following cases, skeletonized human remains were recovered 

from remote areas and submitted to the anthropologists. A primary goal 

of the skeletal analyses was to assess the perimortem fractures in order to 

reconstruct the individual death histories. The observed patterns of blunt 

trauma were consistent with known vertical deceleration injuries. 

Therefore, the likely etiology of the traumata in each of these cases was an 

impact following a fall from a cliff. 

Case 1: In July of 1993, the skeletonized remains of an adult male 

were recovered by the FBI from the base of a bluff in the village of San 

Carlos, AZ. This bluff was estimated to be approximately 60 feet high. 

Extensive perimortem fractures were observed in the areas of the ankle, 

knee, pelvis, chest, elbow, and shoulder. The death was believed to be 

accidental. 

Case 2: In November of 1993, while in the Superstition Mountains 

just north of Phoenix, AZ, hikers discovered the skeletonized remains of 

an adult female lying face down beside the trail at the base of an 

escarpment that was estimated to be 100 feet high. Because of the 

remoteness of the area, the Pinal County Sheriff’s Office employed the 

police helicopter in the recovery. The most striking aspect of these incomplete 

remains was the presence of numerous perimortem fractures in the 

areas of the foot, ankle, knee, pelvis, chest, and shoulder. The death was 

considered an accident. 

Case 3: In October of 1993, the partial skeleton of an adult male was 

recovered from the ledge of a cliff in a remote part of the Waihee Valley 

on the island of Maui. The skeletal remains were submitted to the Army 

Central Identification Laboratory. The cliff was 2,300 feet high and the 

ledge where the remains were discovered was approximately 1,700 feet 

high. The total distance of the fall was estimated to be 600 feet. 

Perimortem fractures were displayed in the regions of the knee, pelvis, 

thorax, and head. The death was ruled a suicide. 

By analyzing the perimortem fractures in each of these cases, it was 

possible to reconstruct the impact sequence including how the victim 

landed and which leg took most of the impact. The pattern of fracturing 

suggested that all three individuals impacted feet first, as evidenced by the 

numerous compression fractures displayed in the ankle, knee and hip. The 

leg that received the most vertical force exhibited a greater amount of fracturing 

in these areas. This distinctive pattern of fracturing was predictably 

different than the pattern displayed by the other leg. 

Furthermore, a primary “suite of fractures” consistent with feet-first 

falls from heights was identified from these cases. This suite included the 

following: a fracture of the talus referred to as “aviator’s astragalus,” a 

“pilon fracture” of the distal tibia, a “plateau fracture” of the proximal tibia 



and fibula, subtrochanteric spiral fracture of the femoral shaft and a complete 

fracture of the femoral neck, a T-fracture of the acetabulum coined 

the “exploding acetabulum,” a transverse compression fracture of the 

sacrum, and a compression fracture of a vertebral body. 

A secondary suite of fractures observed in these cases provided evidence 

of the side of the body to which the victim fell after initially 

impacting feet-first. This suite included transverse fractures of the ulna, 

an oblique fracture of the medial humeral condyle, a Hill-Sachs fracture of 

the proximal humerus, numerous rib fractures, and fractures in the 

cranium and mandible. 

Finally, the severity of fracturing displayed by these skeletal remains 

can be attributed to the heights of the cliffs, which were estimated to be 

60, 100, and 600 feet high. The maximum velocities of the victims at 

impact were approximately 42, 55, and 134 miles per hour, respectively. 

Biomechanically, these are considered high-speed accident scenarios. 

Falls From Heights, Fracture Patterns, Impact Sequence 

H2 A Semi-Circular Argument: Patterned 



Christopher M. Casserino, MA*, University of Oregon Deptartment of 

Anthropology, 1650 Arthur Street, Eugene, OR 

The goal of this research project is to present a homicide case where 

patterned injuries were produced by a very large weapon that was used in 

an atypical manner. 

While patterned injuries and homicidal deaths due to blunt-force 

trauma are neither rare nor unusual, a case is presented where the murder 

weapon left patterned injuries that would later be explained by its seemingly 

unwieldy size and the unusual manner in which it was utilized. This 

poster chronicles a case from March 2001 where the victim suffered bluntforce 

trauma to the head and face from an assailant who utilized an 

unusually long piece of metal pipe as a murder weapon. The man who was 

a known transient in the Spokane, WA area, was found lying under a 

freeway overpass where acquaintances of the victim said he usually slept. 

The victim was discovered severely beaten but still alive in the early 

morning hours by some passers-by only moments after the attack. He died 

minutes before paramedics arrived at the scene. He had been struck in the 

head and face multiple times with a blunt object. It appeared that the 

victim had been attacked while he lay sleeping, as he was found lying on 

a makeshift bed of flattened cardboard boxes, and his body and face were 

covered with blankets. One of the blankets recovered at the scene, which 

was covering the decedent’s face, displayed semi-circular cut patterns, 

suggesting to police that a piece of pipe had been used in the attack, 

though none was found at the scene. 

At autopsy, arced and semi-circular patterned injuries sustained by 

the victim further substantiated the suspicion that the weapon might have 

been a piece of pipe. These injuries were similar in appearance to the 

defects noted on the blanket recovered at the scene. One well-defined, 

semi-circular injury was apparent on the left cheek. If this semi-circular 

injury were completed into a circle, it would have formed a circle with a 

diameter of two inches. 

Several days later, police discovered an approximately seven-foot 

long, two-inch diameter piece of pipe commonly used in the construction 

of cyclone or chain-link fencing. This was found approximately one city 

block east of the murder scene. Apparently, prior to the commission of the 

crime, the pipe had been removed from a temporary fencing barricade surrounding 

a construction site that was located a short distance away from 

574

the murder scene. This pipe contained traces of blood and tissue, both of 

which matched that of the decedent. Thus, this was determined to be the 

murder weapon. 

In light of the fact that the pipe was too long and awkward to be 

swung back-and-forth, effectively clubbing the victim to death, it was surmised 

that it had to have been held with both hands by the assailant in front 

of his body in a vertical orientation, and used in an up-and-down plunging 

motion. This helped to explain the patterned injuries observed on the 

decedent and the defects to the blanket. As the end of the pipe was coming 

into contact with the victim, the curved and semi-circular patterning 

resulted rather than flat defects that would have resulted from impacts 

from the side of the pipe. 

Homicide Investigation, Patterned Injuries, Blunt-Force Trauma 

H3 Hyperextension Trauma of 

Upper Cervical Vertebrae 

Amy Zelson Mundorff, MA*, and Corinne Ambrosi, MD, Office of 

Chief Medical Examiner, 520 1st Avenue, New York, NY; and Jason 

Wiersema, MA, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, 

1602 Rock Cliff Road, Austin, TX 

The participant will become familiar with an unusual upper cervical 

fracture and the possible circumstances that could have caused the damage 

observed. 

This poster has three objectives: (1) to present a case involving upper 

cervical fractures in an individual who was found dead in a park with no 

ready mechanism to explain the trauma, (2) to provide a scenario that 

could explain the mechanism causing the fractures observed, and (3) to 

illustrate the importance of an interdisciplinary approach to autopsies, 

including the forensic pathologist, neuropathologist, and anthropologist 

and a scene visit, to accurately interpret the trauma. 

Case History: On the morning of March 25, 2001, a yet to be identified 

white man was found face down and unconscious in a park on 108th 

Street and 51st Avenue in Queens, NY by a passerby who called EMS. 

EMS responded to find the man in cardiac arrest. Advanced Cardiac Life 

Support was initiated and he was transported to a nearby hospital where he 

was subsequently pronounced dead. The scene detectives or emergency 

department staff noted no visible injury or trauma. The decedent was 

identified as a 58-year-old man who was known to drink approximately 5 

to 6 ‘large’ beers a day. According to his roommates, the decedent usually 

returned home every evening; however, on the morning before the above 

stated date, the decedent left his residence but did not return. 

Autopsy and Neuropathology Examination: There was a 1” abrasion 

above the lateral aspect of the left knee and two small superficial abrasions 

below the left knee. A 1 1/3” laceration without surrounding contusion 

was located over the right posterior parietal scalp. There was a ½” x 3/16” 

superficial abrasion at the vertex, with a small underlying patch of 

subscalpular hemorrhage. A 1 ½” x 1 1/4” circular patch of scalpular and 

subscalpular hemorrhage was in the left occipital region. There was slight 

to moderate hemorrhage of the anterior paraspinal muscles in the region of 

the high cervical vertebrae. There were no hemorrhages in the muscles of 

the posterior neck. Four fractures were noted in the first cervical vertebra 

(atlas), and the odontoid process was detached from the second cervical 

vertebra. There was moderate posterior paraspinal soft tissue hemorrhage 

(right greater than left). There were no skull fractures, and there was no 

intracranial, subdural or epidural hemorrhage. The remainder of the 

autopsy described no injury of the trunk or thoracic and abdominal 

viscera. The subclavian blood alcohol concentration was 0.29 g%. 

The cervical and upper thoracic spinal cord as well as the brain were 

fixed in formalin for further examination. The brain had no recent trauma. 

The spinal cord, from the upper cervical to thoracic levels, had focal 

epidural hemorrhage of the dorsal rostral one third of the cervical cord. 

Anthropology Examination: The first cervical vertebra as well as the 

odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra were removed during 

autopsy and submitted to anthropology for fracture analysis. The specimens 

were cleaned of soft tissue. The first cervical vertebra was fractured 

in five locations: (A) There was a fracture to the posterior edge of the left 

superior articular facet for the occipital condyle. This fracture is consistent 

with being crushed from the occipital condyle rocking forcefully back 

onto the facet during hyperextension. (B) There was a wedge fracture at 

the midline of the anterior arch, with the wedge being displaced superiorly. 

Anterior arch fractures can be produced by hyperextension when the arch 

of C1 abuts the dens of C2, because the atlantoaxial joint is fixed. (C) The 

posterior arch was fractured in three places, at midline and on the right and 

left sides of the arch where it joins the lateral masses. These fractures are 

consistent with injuries usually seen with hyperextension of the head and 

neck. The posterior portion of C1 is compressed between the occipital and 

the arch/spinous process of C2. The dens, or odontoid process of C2 was 

fractured at the isthmus, or waist, posteriorly. Posterior displacement of 

the dens is consistent with hyperextension and displacement of C1 

posteriorly. 

The fractures of C1 and C2 are consistent with hyperextension of the 

head and neck, forcing the occipital condyle down onto the superior facet 

of C1, lifting the anterior arch of C1 up against the dens and fracturing the 

arch and the dens posteriorly, while forcing the posterior arch of C1 down 

onto C2 and fracturing the posterior arch of C1. These findings also are 

consistent with the anterior cervical hemorrhage found during autopsy 

Scene Investigation: For a more accurate interpretation of the positioning 

of the victim, the Medical Examiner was escorted back to the 

location where the decedent was found. The small neighborhood park is 

well maintained with many park benches and small sections with 

vegetation. The areas of vegetation are sectioned off with wooden beams; 

perpendicular to the wooden beams are multiple curved segments of metal 

bars to create a fence-type border/barrier. The metal bars vary in height, 

with the highest approximately 12-14” off the ground. The decedent was 

found face down with his head near a tree and the lower part of his lower 

extremities draped over the fence. The fence was lightly painted white and 

has a chalky, white-washed appearance. There was faint, chalky white 

material found on the lower part of the back of the hood, above where the 

hood meets the neck of the jacket. There were also smudges of black 

material on the back left side of the jacket. White chalky material was also 

noted on the right upper back. From the description of the scene, the 

decedent’s high blood alcohol concentration, the patterns found on the 

jacket and the extent of the hyperextension injuries, the most likely reconstruction 

of events is that the man fell backwards and hit the back of his 

neck along the fence causing the extreme hyperextension trauma and 

scalpular abrasion and contusions. 

Hyperextension, Cervical Vertebrae, Neuropathology 

H4 Can Sharp Force Trauma to Bone Be 

Recognized After Fire Modification? 

An Experiment Using Odocoileus 

virginianus (White-Tailed Deer) Ribs 

Paul D. Emanovsky, BS*, University of Indianapolis Archeology and 

Forensics Laboratory, 1400 East Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN; 

Joseph T. Hefner, BS, and Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD, Mercyhurst 

Archaeological Institute, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 58th Street, 

Erie, PA 

The goals of this research project are to: 1) define and illustrate 

morphological characteristics associated with sharp force trauma on 

White-Tailed Deer ribs, and examine the preservation of such features following 

exposure to intense heat; 2) offer criteria for differentiating 

between postmortem heat alterations and perimortem trauma on bone; and 


3) reaffirm the benefits of proper recovery and curation protocols 

concerning fire-modified bone. 

During the course of their analyses, forensic anthropologists 

routinely face the task of identifying and interpreting taphonomic events 

surrounding the death of an individual. At times they are called upon to 

analyze remains that have been modified by fire. Fire modification of 

bone can obviously hinder the analysis of the remains. Trauma analysis in 

particular is often rendered more difficult. Diagnostic characteristics of 

perimortem trauma can become obscured or even destroyed by fire-related 

changes in bone morphology. These changes also make it difficult to distinguish 

perimortem from postmortem trauma. Although this is a common 

conundrum faced by forensic anthropologists, research on the topic is 

limited and has only recently been investigated. 

All categories of trauma to bone have the potential to become 

obscured by fire modification; however, this poster will focus primarily on 

sharp force trauma (SFT). Sharp force trauma is often characterized by 

subtle marks left on the bone that even experienced analysts may have difficulty 

identifying. If postmortem destruction of the bone occurs, then 

those subtleties are even more likely to remain undiscovered. 

Using both experimental data as well as case studies, the characteristics 

of sharp force wounds such as up-curling, notching, shaving, 

puncture marks, cutmarks, and linear incisions that sever the bone, are 

defined and illustrated. An experimental model for testing the preservation 

of these perimortem sharp force wound characteristics after 

exposure to fire was designed and implemented using Odocoileus virginianus 

(White-Tailed Deer) ribs. Grossly, Odocoileus virginianus ribs 

are similar in size and morphology to human ribs, and therefore represent 

a valid model for anthropological research. In an effort to inflict a variety 

of SFT types, the torso of a recently deceased (PMI of 1 to 2 days) adult 

deer was stabbed multiple times at a variety of angles with a large, sharp, 

non-serrated kitchen knife. Each of the affected ribs exhibiting SFT 

defects was then dissected out of the torso, and adhering soft tissue was 

removed manually. The traumatic lesions were comprehensively 

described and thoroughly documented using digital photography. Next, 

the ribs were burned in semi-controlled, outdoor wood fires. The fire was 

ignited in a shallow pit, the floor of which was comprised of a sandy soil. 

Small dry sticks fueled the fires; the ribs were laid on top of a small bed 

of sticks and additional sticks were occasionally added on top of the bone 

as the fuel was consumed. Firewood was added until the bone was partially 

calcined, a process which typically required approximately 30 

minutes. The remains were then carefully removed from the fire pit, and 

observations made concerning the survival and possible modified SFT 

wound characteristics. Taphonomic observations concerning the overall 

condition of the bone after burning (i.e., warpage, fracturing, discoloration, 

etc.) will be presented. 

Diagnostic perimortem SFT characteristics were found to remain 

visible after being subjected to an intense fire. Relatively shallow cutmarks, 

for example, persist even on the calcined cortical surfaces and can 

be differentiated (both macroscopically and under low-power magnification) 

from transverse and longitudinal fractures created during the 

burning process. Cutmarks are characterized by V-shaped cross sections 

with the occasional uplifting of a thin layer of cortical bone adjacent to the 

groove. Whereas fractures created by heat alteration are characterized by 

jagged, more irregular defect walls. 

In some instances the trauma was completely destroyed, while in 

other cases it was obscured and only became visible following careful laboratory 

reconstruction of the bone remains. For example, wounds that 

completely transect the bone or result in the significant removal of bone 

(such as shaving or notching type events), are often subject to further separation 

and fragmentation during the course of the burning process. This 

may be due to the fact that the biomechanical integrity of the bone has 

been compromised and fractures are more easily propagated at those 

locations. 

In order to preserve the potential evidence of this nature, it is 

necessary that careful recovery, documentation and curation techniques be 


employed. When remains are extremely fragmentary, the bone (and any 

additional evidence) should be collected from smaller subunits within 

each unit. For example, a traditional 1 by 1 meter unit can be demarcated 

into 10cm by 10cm units. This enables more exact provenience data to be 

collected for each fragment and thus facilitates subsequent conjoining 

efforts. 

It is imperative that proper handling protocols are followed to ensure 

that further damage does not occur. In some cases it may be appropriate 

to apply a consolidation agent (i.e., water diluted polyvinyl acetate) before 

attempting to move the remains. Additionally, remains must be properly 

packaged for transportation. This may involve wrapping individual bones 

in paper or foam and placing them in boxes or rigid containers. While this 

will take additional time in the field, it will greatly reduce the chance of 

losing or destroying small fragments that may contain evidence of trauma. 

This study suggests that evidence of sharp force trauma 

experimentally created on deer ribs can be preserved after exposure to fire. 

However, evidence of these wounds are extremely transient and are easily 

destroyed or overlooked if proper documentation, recovery and curation 

efforts are not undertaken. 

Taphonomy, Sharp-Force Trauma, Forensic Archaeology 

H5 A Comparison of the Cranial Wounding 


Maureen Schaefer, MA*, 8549 Wuest Road, Cincinnati, OH 

The goals of this research project are to recognize variation in the 

cranial wounding effects of .22 and .38 bullets from contact and/or close 

contact shots. 

This presentation compares the cranial wounds created by .22 and .38 

caliber bullets by examining the size of the entrance defect and the fracture 

types located on the cranium of suicide victims. Thirty calottes exhibiting 

gunshot trauma were obtained for analysis from the William F. 

McCormick skeletal collection located at the University of Tennessee. 

The sample consisted of eleven .22s and sixteen .38s. In order to be considered 

for this study, the entrance wound along with an overall image of 

the fracture pattern must have been observable from the calotte alone. In 

addition, because distance of shot and location of the entry are factors 

known to affect wound formation, only subjects who committed suicide 

with the bullet entering along or near the squamosal suture (that is, on the 

temporal bone above the zygomatic process, on the parietal bone inferior 

to the temporal line, or on the sphenoid) were used in this study. 

An ANOVA procedure found a strong correlation between caliber 

and minimum diameter of the entrance defect (F=37.96; p

caliber bullets. The results show that given a cranium shot at contact/close 

contact range that exhibits a primary fracture on or near the squamosal 

suture, the maximum probability that a .22 could create the wound is 0.14, 

while the maximum probability that a .38 could create the wound is 0.10. 

Given a cranium that exhibits secondary fractures, the maximum probability 

that a .22 created the wound is 0.99, and 0.95 for .38 calibers. A 

major difference between the wounding effects of .22 and .38 caliber 

bullets is observed when considering the presence of tertiary fractures. If 

tertiary fractures are present on a skull, the maximum probability that a .22 

created the wound is 0.23 while the maximum probability that a .38 

created the wound is 0.87. 

This study reinforces past research on the correlation between caliber 

and size of entrance wound and also examines the effects of caliber on 

fracture type to aid the forensic anthropologist with the interpretation of 

cranial gunshot trauma. 

Forensic Anthropology, Terminal Ballistics, Cranial Gunshot Trauma 

H6 Forensic Anthropology and Fire 

Investigation: Learning About 

Burning Using Non-Human Models 

Eric J. Bartelink, MA*, 611 Domink, College Station, TX; Turhon A. 

Murad, PhD, Department of Anthropology, California State 

University, Chico, CA; and Sarah Collins, MSc, 401 San Diego 

Avenue, Daly City, CA 

By attending this poster presentation, the participant should expect to 

learn: 1) the value of collaborative research with investigators; 2) about 

the challenges involved in identifying trauma on burned remains; and 

3) the importance of reconstructing burned bone for interpretation of 

perimortem versus fire-related trauma. 

Training courses involving forensic anthropologists and investigators 

provide an opportunity for exploring issues regarding fire-related death 

scenes. As it is not uncommon for arson to be used to conceal evidence of 

a homicide, the close examination of the death scene becomes increasingly 

important. Fire and death scene investigators are often responsible for the 

recovery and collection of evidence, although many are not trained in 

recognizing calcined and highly fragmented remains. Contextual 

information is lost when burned elements are disturbed at the scene, 

information which often cannot be later recovered. Poor recovery methods 

and documentation also hinder attempts at personal identification. For 

example, fragmentary elements missed during recovery may prevent the 

accurate determination of sex, age, ancestry, stature, and trauma. 

While the forensic anthropologist can offer assistance at the fire 

scene, many only become involved after the skeletal elements and/or calcined 

bones are collected by investigators. Limited financial resources, 

personnel availability, and a lack of experience with forensic 

anthropologists have been cited as reasons for the non-involvement of 

anthropologists at the initial stages of the investigation. Fire training exercises 

can provide an opportunity for investigators to observe the effects of 

fire to non-human carcasses, and to aid investigators in the recognition of 

highly fragmented and calcined skeletal elements. Additionally, 

anthropologists can use these exercises as an opportunity to perform 

experimental research to aid in understanding the effects of fire to human 

remains. 

This study reports on two pigs (Sus scrofa) that were burned in a 

single-story structure fire as part of a fire-fighting training exercise in 

Northern California. A forensic anthropologist and graduate students from 

CSU Chico provided the pig carcasses to simulate intact human bodies. 

Fire-fighters, fire scene investigators, and law enforcement personnel participated 

in various aspects of the training exercise. Because experimental 

research on burned bodies is logistically difficult, this exercise served as a 

means to study whether evidence of perimortem trauma would survive a 

thermal event. 

Pig #1 was placed on a couch in a room toward the back of the 

structure. Similarly, Pig #2 was placed on a bed in a front room of the 

structure. Both pigs were struck several times (prior to the fire) using an 

ax, a machete, and a knife. The structure was then set afire with the aid of 

accelerants and was allowed to burn for approximately 25 minutes before 

being put out by firefighters. The pigs were externally examined for fire 

damage by participants, and then were recovered from the burned 

structure using standard archaeological techniques. 

The burned carcasses were bagged separately and delivered to the 

CSU Chico Physical Anthropology Human Identification Laboratory 

(PAHIL) for analysis. Each carcass was defleshed of soft tissue and all 

skeletal elements were examined for signs of trauma. Mikrosil forensic 

casting material was used to make impressions of potential trauma sites. 

Gross morphology and microscopic analyses were used to categorize 

trauma as being perimortem or from fire-induced checking. 

Pig #1 exhibited signs of sharp-force trauma at the left occipital 

condyle, the inferior portion of both left and right mandibular bodies, the 

costal groove of a left rib, on four unsided rib fragments, and on an unidentified 

bone fragment. Suspicious sharp-force trauma sites on pig #2 were 

observed on the right femoral midshaft, right innominate, and on the 

inferior body of the right mandible. Additionally, an unsided rib exhibited 

a typical butterfly fracture, while the right petrosal portion of the temporal 

bone showed signs of fracture. The majority of these injuries occurred to 

unburned bone or portions of bone that were protected by adjacent soft 

tissue. Some abnormal burn patterns were observed in areas affected by 

trauma, most likely due to direct exposure of bone to the fire. This preliminary 

study shows that in instances where remains are incompletely 

burned, trauma can often be easily identified on non-burned portions of 

bone. Although many fires are unsuccessful in destroying evidence of a 

homicide, injuries to heavily charred and calcined portions are generally 

the most difficult to identify and reconstruct. 

Since 1997, TAM (author #2) has accepted seven cases involving 

burned human remains at the PAHIL. Vehicular fires accounted for four 

of these cases, with only one representing a house fire. Additional cases 

involved an individual found in an unusual burned out residence 

(a redwood tree stump), and one cremains case involving several commingled 

individuals. With the exception of the cremains case, all involved 

suspicious circumstances surrounding the death scene. In only three 

instances did forensic anthropologists participate in the recovery, and only 

after investigators processed the initial scene. 

These case studies will be used to address the limitations of 

osteological analyses in instances where remains were disturbed or incompletely 

recovered from the scene. The challenges of reconstructing 

evidence of trauma in calcined remains is further addressed using these 

examples. 

Fire training exercises are one method in which anthropologists and 

investigators can work together to understand the effects of fire to human 

remains. These exercises open further opportunities for experimental 

taphonomic research involving the alteration and destruction of bone in a 

fire. Preliminary research from this study and from the presented case 

studies indicates that trauma can often be identified and reconstructed in 

charred and calcined bone. 

Anthropology, Fire Deaths, Sharp-Force Trauma 

H7 The Effects of Temperature on the 


Mary S. Megyesi, BA*, University of Indianapolis, East Lansing, MI 

The goals of this research project are to test the success of a new 

method of estimating the postmortem interval from decomposing human 

remains using accumulated degree-days and a quantified, point system 

approach of scoring decomposition. 


Forensic anthropologists are frequently called upon to assist in the 

recovery and analysis of recently dead individuals. Estimating the postmortem 

interval, or PMI, is an important part of a forensic anthropologist’s 

job. The PMI is important for a number of reasons. Estimating the PMI 

can narrow down the potential pool of missing persons and ultimately help 

identify the remains. The PMI can help with interpreting the scene. 

Knowing approximately how long remains have been in situ can help 

establish a timeline of other events that may have affected the remains. 

There are many methods from the disciplines of botany, entomology, 

and biochemistry to estimate the PMI, but the decay and decomposition of 

soft tissues is perhaps the most used body of data by forensic anthropologists 

for estimating the PMI. Forensic anthropologists rely on a general 

knowledge of the decompositional process as well as experience with 

decomposing human remains in their specific geographic region to 

estimate the PMI. Qualitative “stages” of decomposition generally correspond 

to the PMI and have served as a guide for most PMI estimates made 

by forensic anthropologists. Forensic anthropology could benefit from 

applying quantitative methods to the study of decomposition to understand 

the relationship between decomposition, temperature, and the PMI. 

Forensic entomologists use insects attracted to decomposing remains 

to determine the time since death. Fly larvae (maggots) associated with 

decomposing remains grow and develop in increments or “instars.” 

Maggot development is almost entirely dependent on ambient air temperature. 

Accumulated degree-days (ADD) and accumulated degree-hours 

(ADH) are heat unit values calculated from ambient air temperatures. 

Forensic entomologists use ADD and ADH to measure the energy requirements 

of developing maggots. Could forensic anthropologists use ADD to 

measure the energy requirements needed to propel decomposition? Do 

quantified stages of decomposition correlate with ADD? Is this method a 

reliable alternative to qualitative assessments of decomposition? 

Alternatively, is it possible to quantify soft tissue decomposition in a 

fashion that would allow for better estimates of PMI without going 

through the process of calculating ADD? The results of this research will 

enable forensic anthropologists to supplement current strategies of estimating 

the PMI with a new method utilizing a quantitative approach to 

soft tissue decomposition. 

From March until June of 2001, the author selected human remains 

cases to be used in this study from the case files of Dr. Stephen Nawrocki, 

a forensic anthropologist at the University of Indianapolis, and from the 

case files of Dr. Neal Haskell, a forensic entomologist at St. Joseph’s 

College in Rensselaer, IN. Seventy-two human remains cases were 

selected for this study. Cases were selected based on number of criteria 

such as no burned, buried, or submerged remains were used and all 

remains were complete with no missing body parts. All cases had a known 

PMI. Other variables analyzed in this study included month of death, 

average temperature throughout the entire postmortem period, latitude in 

which the remains were recovered, and details of the recovery site such as 

sun exposure. 

All cases used in this study had adequate photographs of the remains 

in situ. Decomposition was scored from photographs using a point-based 

scoring method. Stages of decomposition were developed to reflect the 

sequential process of decomposition. Each stage of decomposition was 

given a point value so that decomposition could be expressed numerically. 

Decomposition was scored independently for three areas of the body: the 

head and neck, the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, and the limbs including 

hands and feet. The decompositional scores of the three anatomical 

regions were combined to produce a total body score (TBS). 

Accumulated degree-days were calculated from average daily 

temperatures recorded by the National Weather Service Station nearest to 

where the remains were recovered. When D = average daily temperature 

C°, the equation used to calculate ADD is (D-0°) + (D-0°) + (D-0°) for all 

days from death until discovery. Zero degrees Celsius (0°) is the base 

temperature or temperature at which decomposition essentially stops. 

Although subtracting 0°C from the average daily temperature did not 

substantially affect the calculation, a base temperature is essential for 


calculating ADD. Accumulated degree-days are a measure of heat units 

necessary to propel decomposition and only temperatures above 0°C were 

used to calculate ADD. Temperatures below 0°C did not affect ADD (i.e., 

negative temperatures are not subtracted from the ADD calculation). 

Forensic entomologists also subtract a base temperature from ADD 

calculations depending on the temperature below which maggots cease to 

develop. 

The TBS was analyzed for its ability to predict the PMI. In addition, 

ADD were analyzed for their ability to predict the TBS. Statistical procedures 

performed included correlation, regression, ANOVA, and 

ANCOVA. Preliminary results indicate a strong positive correlation 

between ADD and TBS (r-value = 0.72) and a strong positive correlation 

between PMI and TBS (r-value = 0.67) significant at the p = 0.05 level. 

Regression analysis indicates that TBS is good predictor of PMI. 

Regression analysis also indicates that ADD is a good predictor of TBS, 

and further tests will conclude if using ADD to estimate PMI based on the 

TBS would be better than estimating PMI based on the TBS alone. The 

TBS appears to be good indicator of the PMI, and this method of quantifying 

soft tissue decomposition is a reliable alternative to qualitative 

methods of assessing decomposition and estimating the time since death. 

Decomposition, Postmortem Interval, Accumulated Degree-Days 

H8 Forensic Applications of Ground 

Penetrating Radar in Florida 

John J. Schultz, MS*, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, University of 

Florida, PO Box 112545, Gainesville, FL 

The goals of this research project are to familiarize the audience 

with the utility of using ground-penetrating radar for forensic 

applications. Participants will gain an understanding of the general 

characteristics of ground penetrating radar anomalies and how grave 

anomalies change over time. 

The application of geophysical methods in the search for clandestine 

graves has become a valuable tool for forensic investigators. This has led 

to actualistic research that tests the efficacy and applicability of different 

geophysical technologies under controlled conditions in the detection of 

buried bodies and crime paraphernalia. Overall, it has been concluded that 

ground penetrating radar (GPR) was the most important geophysical 

method used to delineate graves under controlled conditions (France et al., 

1997). This study tests the applicability of using GPR in Florida to detect 

buried bodies and crime scene paraphernalia. The following four questions 

were addressed: (1) How does the GPR anomaly of a pig burial 

change over time due to decomposition of the body and compaction of the 

backfill? (2) Is soil type a factor in the efficacy of producing a distinctive 

grave anomaly? (3) How does pig cadaver size affect the grave anomaly? 

(4) Are relatively high-resolution antennae, such as 900-MHz, useful for 

locating forensic burials and other crime scene paraphernalia? 

A total of twenty-four pig cadavers were monitored on a monthly 

basis. Pigs of two average weights (65 and 140 lbs.) were buried at one of 

two depths (50-60cm or 100-110cm) for up to 21 months. Twelve control 

burials were also constructed. The majority of these pits consisted of 

backfill in order to determine the contribution of the disturbed soil to the 

grave anomaly. Two different soil types were utilized in this study: one 

soil type was comprised solely of stratigraphic horizons made up of sand, 

and the other was comprised of clay horizons that began at a depth of 

approximately 94cm. Furthermore, additional forensic targets that are 

representative of typical crime scene paraphernalia (e.g., knives and 

clothing) were also buried and monitored with the GPR to determine if 

they could be detected. 

GPR surveys were performed on a monthly basis by profiling the 

length and width of the graves with both the 900- and 500-MHz antennae 

using the Subsurface Interface Radar (SIR) 2000 that is manufactured by 

Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. This unit is powered by a 12-volt 

578

attery and consists of a digital control unit and keypad, a VGA color 

monitor, and an internal hard drive. The hard drive stores the data (realtime) 

for either immediate playback in the field or further computer 

processing in the lab using RADAN. 

Preliminary results indicate that the anomaly produced by only a 

buried body in a grave may be initially comprised of three components: 

the decomposing body or skeletal remains, the disturbed backfill, and the 

distinctive outline of the grave feature. For the duration of this study, the 

grave anomaly became less distinctive over time due to decomposition of 

the body and compaction of the backfill. Soil type and antenna were both 

major factors in this study. As the anomaly became less distinctive over 

time, it became more difficult to recognize the deep burials that were 

within clay using a 500-MHz antenna. Conversely, due to the greater 

detail produced by a 900-MHz antenna, graves were periodically more 

discernable in clay using this antenna. Although there were also changes 

to the burials that were in sandy soil, they were recognizable during the 

duration of the study using both antennae. Pig size was not a factor in this 

study. The anomaly that was produced from a child- size pig cadaver had 

the same general characteristics and was detected for the same duration of 

time as a larger pig cadaver. In addition, it was possible to detect buried 

crime scene paraphernalia such as knives and clothing with both antennae. 

Unfortunately, due to the small size of the knives, these items easily can 

be missed during a GPR survey if a tight grid is not utilized. 

Geophysical Methods, Ground Penetrating Radar, Anomaly 

H9 Predicting Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) 


Franklin E. Damann, MA*, Mark Leney, PhD, and Ann W. Bunch, PhD, 

U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii, 310 Worchester 

Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, HI 

Those attending this presentation can expect to learn about the 

relation between gross skeletal preservation and mtDNA recovery. In 

addition, the prediction of mtDNA recovery based on macroscopic observation 

of human skeletal remains is discussed. 

Development of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) has influenced 

many scientific disciplines because of its ability to amplify trace 

amounts of biomolecules. Of particular interest to the U.S. Central 

Identification Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) is the application of PCR-based 

mitochondrial DNA analysis from skeletal remains recovered throughout 

the world. Over the last decade the CILHI has used mtDNA analysis performed 

by the Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory (AFDIL) to 

complement odontological and anthropological identifications of unidentified 

U.S. service members. Last year alone 58% of all CILHI individual 

identifications were assisted by mtDNA sequence data. 

MtDNA extraction from osseous material is not entirely new and has 

been applied previously to many archaeological, museum, and forensic 

specimens. Some researchers suggest that osseous material is an important 

source of DNA due to the physical durability of bone and the ability of 

hydroxyapatite to bind DNA, thus protecting DNA from degradation. 

Despite advances in forensic research by interfacing anthropology and 

molecular biology, the extraction of endogenous human mtDNA from 

bone is far from routine given myriad factors that influence both gross 

osseous preservation and mtDNA recoverability. Few studies have begun 

to explore mtDNA recovery from varied states of preserved skeletal 

material. In these, however, the equable and small sample sizes restrict 

conclusions about the relation between bone and mtDNA preservation and 

thus warrant continued research. 

Current practice at the CILHI dictates a visual inspection of all 

skeletal remains turned over to the laboratory. It is recommended that 

preliminary analysts indicate potential for mtDNA recovery. To an anthropologist, 

gross preservation of bone depends on its completeness and 

overall weathered characteristics. The qualitative measure of how bones 

look to determine mtDNA recovery potential is not well defined. At the 

CILHI, skeletal samples subject to varying depositional environments in 

various preserved states have been sampled for mtDNA analysis. Given 

the data shared between the AFDIL and the CILHI, there is a unique 

opportunity to provide significant information to ancient DNA studies. 

This paper presents findings on the relation between gross skeletal 

preservation and mtDNA recovery as well as the ability to predict mtDNA 

recovery potential by macroscopic observation. The percentage of 

mtDNA base pairs obtained per sample is regressed against gross skeletal 

preservation as indicated on an ordinal scale. 

Skeletal Preservation, mtDNA, CILHI 

H10 Masking Identity: The Effects of 

Corrosive Household Agents on Soft 

Tissue, Bone, and Dentition 

Tosha L. Dupras, PhD*, Joy E. Lang, and Heather L. Reay, Department 

of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 

FL; John J. Schultz, MS, and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound 

Human Identification Laboratory, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL; 

and Noel A. Palma, BS, MD, Medical Examiner’s Office, Pinellas-Pasco 

County, West Palm Beach, FL 


the affects of common household corrosive substances (Both acids and 

bases) on soft tissues, bones and dentition. Participants will gain insight 

into the criminal use of corrosive substances utilized with the intention of 

masking identity or destroying evidence. 

Short of making a body disappear with its DNA, disintegrating a 

corpse or portions of one in acid can be one of the most thorough and 

seemingly foolproof methods of body disposal. A recent forensic case 

from Florida exhibited what appeared to be evidence of corrosive postmortem 

modification. Dark discoloration was noted on the right frontal 

and zygomatic bones. Also noted was substantial erosion of the maxilla 

and mandible, resulting in the exposure of tooth roots. Both maxillary and 

mandibular dentition exhibited varied degrees of staining, in conjunction 

with significant erosion and pitting of the enamel on the anterior dentition. 

A literature search yielded only three published cases with information 

regarding the use of corrosive substances on human bone as a potential 

masking tool. One of the sources does not specify the corrosive substance 

used while the remaining two publications present the use of sulfuric acid 

as the corrosive agent used to destroy the remains. However, sulfuric acid 

is not readily available to the common consumer. The purpose of this pilot 

study is to determine which of the readily available household corrosive 

agents are capable of destroying skeletal and dental features. 

Four complete adult pig heads (including all soft tissue) obtained 

from the local butcher were used for this project because of the similarity 

between human and pig tissue structure. All four pig heads weighed 

between 25 and 35 pounds. Each pig head was assigned to a ten-gallon 

bucket. Four household products were purchased from the local home 

improvement store. These included two acidic products (muriatic acid and 

an industrial strength toilet bowl cleaner, both popular hydrochloric acids) 

and two alkaline products (oven cleaner and plumbing clog remover). The 

molar concentrations of the acidic products were different, and the 

chemical compositions of the alkaline solutions were also different (both 

chosen for their different effect on proteins). Each product was poured 

into a bucket to a level that covered the anterior portion of the pig’s head. 

In order to quantify corrosion over time, four initial craniometric 

measurements were taken with sliding calipers, and tissue depths were 

documented using a 22-gauge needle. Additional measurements were 

taken five times over a period of seven hours to assess the amount of 

corrosive activity. Qualitative data was also obtained through photographs 

and written observations at every measurement interval. 


Although all the chemicals tested demonstrated some level of tissue 

corrosion, the muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid, commonly used for 

cleaning pools) was clearly the most effective and efficient in soft and hard 

tissue destruction. After the first hour of submersion the pig head in the 

muriatic acid showed significant tissue destruction, exposing bone and 

dentition. By the end of the experiment the dentition exhibited substantial 

enamel and dentin erosion, with only small sharp protrusions of dentin 

remaining. Based on metric analysis and visual observation the oven 

cleaner (an alkaline solution) displayed the least amount of tissue damage. 

The alkaline solutions tested in this experiment had mostly soft tissue 

effects whereas the acids (even in small concentrations) contributed to 

both soft and hard tissue erosion. Based on this pilot study the corrosive 

lesions occurring on bone and destruction of the dentition resultant from 

exposure to muriatic acid most closely resembled the postmortem modifications 

noted on the aforementioned forensic case. 

Corrosive Substance, Taphonomic Modification, Masking Identity 

H11 Excavation and Analysis of Four 

Homicide Victims From Shallow 

Graves in Bartholomew County, IN 

Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD*, Matthew A. Williamson, PhD, Christopher 

W. Schmidt, PhD, Heather A. Thew, MS, and Gregory A. Reinhardt, PhD, 

University of Indianapolis Archeology and Forensics Laboratory, 

1400 East, Hanna Avenue, Indianapolis, IN 

This poster underscores the importance of controlled archeological 

excavation methods at the crime scene. 

In mid-September of 1998, local authorities discovered the shallow 

graves of four individuals buried along the East Fork of the White River 

in Waynesville, Bartholomew County, in central Indiana. The victims had 

last been seen a month previously and were thought to have been planning 

a camping trip to the approximate area where their remains were eventually 

located. The four individuals included a young adult female, her 

two children aged 8 months and 2 years, and a family friend, a female aged 

12 years. Personnel at the University of Indianapolis Archeology & 

Forensics Laboratory were contacted to conduct the recovery effort, which 

took the better part of three days. 

The remains were located at the intersection of a fallow field and a 

wooded strip that borders the river. While camping was common in the 

area, the scene is fairly remote and was shielded from view by passersby, 

being separated from the main road by cornfields. Three of the victims, 

the mother and her two children, were buried in three separate graves that 

lay within a few meters of each other, just outside the tree line. The grave 

of the adolescent lay about 25 meters west of the others, within the woods. 

Miscellaneous evidence, including personal effects and portions of 

remains scavenged by carnivores, were found strewn in the fields and 

woods surrounding the burials. 

A standard baseline and two primary excavation grids were established 

to ensure proper archeological control. A transit was erected over 

the datum point to allow for detailed mapping of dispersed evidence. 

Excavation proceeded first by cleaning the area of vegetation and plant 

debris. From there, excavators began to map and then remove the “halo” 

of disturbed subsoil matrix that was scattered on the ground surface surrounding 

each grave. Soil within the graves was then removed to uncover 

the remains, leaving the boundaries of the original grave shafts intact. The 

maximum depth of any of the graves was 34 cm to the bottom (the adolescent), 

and that of the adult was so shallow at the foot end that the toes 

of her boots protruded. Mounds of soil were clearly evident over the 

graves of the adult and the adolescent. 


From an archeological standpoint, this case presents a number of 

“classic” or textbook examples of how careful recovery methods can maximize 

evidence and information retrieval at the scene. For example, items 

found within the halos included pocket change presumably dropped by the 

assailant while digging the graves. Numerous toolmarks were noted in 

each grave, allowing identification of the class of instrument used and its 

tentative association with a shovel found in the defendant’s possession. 

The direction that the assailant was facing when digging could be reconstructed 

for each toolmark in each grave. A number of “false-starts” were 

identified where the assailant began digging a grave but then changed his 

mind and relocated to a different spot. A “borrow pit” was identified 

immediately adjacent to the adult’s grave, where the assailant removed 

soil to cover the victim after it became obvious that the original hole was 

not deep enough to conceal the body. A cloth impression was discovered 

at the side of the adolescent’s grave, probably where the assailant kneeled 

at its side. An intact shell of soil was found surrounding the outline of the 

adolescent’s limbs even though the soft tissues had decomposed and 

pulled away from the soil. Preservation of these types of ephemeral evidence 

was facilitated by the fact that the clay soil was slightly wet when 

the burials were constructed and it had not rained in the ensuing month 

before recovery. Soil samples taken from the defendant’s shovel matched 

soil collected at the scene but not soil from the defendant’s yard. Finally, 

a fiber found on an infant blanket recovered from the scene matched fibers 

from the defendant’s vehicle. 

All of the graves had been disturbed by carnivores to varying 

degrees, and at least some of the remains had been pulled from the ground 

in each. Those of the young children were affected the most, and no bones 

were still in situ for the youngest individual. The two-year-old was buried 

face-down and was undisturbed above the waist. The adult was intact 

below the waist but the torso, arms, and head had been pulled up out of the 

grave, and most bones of the arms and hands were scattered or missing. 

The adolescent was disturbed the least, with only her right leg having been 

pulled up from the grave. According to the police, buzzards had been 

chased from the scene upon discovery. All individuals displayed an 

advanced state of decomposition, although preservation was better for the 

adolescent because her grave was deeper and was better shaded than the 

others. Mummified skin and muscle was present on each, although no 

internal organ tissues remained. Both live and preserved insect evidence 

was collected, although no active maggot masses were present. 

Biological profiles generated during the laboratory analysis of the 

remains assisted in the identification of the victims. At least some 

carnivore damage was noted on bones from each individual and had to be 

distinguished from perimortem blunt force trauma, which was present on 

the two youngest individuals. Sharp force trauma was identified on all but 

the youngest of the victims. The adult displayed at least three knife stab 

wounds to the back of the thorax. The adolescent had a single plunging 

knife wound to the neck that split the first two cervical vertebrae. The 

older child had a single knife wound that completely separated the left 

temporal bone from the cranium, bisecting the external auditory meatus 

and severing the left sigmoid sinus. Unfortunately, the weapon that 

created these wounds was not recovered. 

Complex cases such as this underscore the degree to which forensic 

anthropologists can assist the medicolegal system in both field and laboratory 

situations. Clearly, thorough training in archeological techniques is 

critical for the collection of evidence from burial scenes and to the reconstruction 

of assailant activities in the immediate postmortem interval. 

Documentation of the original positions of the body and of all postmortem 

disturbances to the grave can significantly aid in the interpretation of 

skeletal trauma later in the lab. Knowledge of farming practices, botany, 

soil science, erosion, site formation processes, and carnivore behavior all 

contributed significantly to the successful mitigation of this scene and to 

the presentation of the resulting evidence in court. 

Forensic Archeology, Taphonomy, Sharp-Force Trauma 

580

H12 Homicide for the Holidays: Linkage 

Through Multidisciplinary Teamwork 

Frank P. Saul, PhD*, Regional Commander, USPHS DMORT 5, and 

Julie Mather Saul, BA, Lucas County Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington 

Avenue Toledo, OH; Sandra Anderson, Canine Solutions International, 

PO Box 50, Sanford, MI; Steven A. Symes, PhD, Forensic 

Anthropologist, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue 

Memphis, TN; Cheryl L. Loewe, MD, Wayne County Medical Examiner’s 

Office, 1300 Warren, Detroit, MI; James R. Patrick, MD, Lucas County 

Coroner’s Office, 2595 Arlington Avenue Toledo, OH; and Steven K. 

Lorch, PhD, Michigan State Police Laboratory, 42145 West Seven Mile 

Road, Northville, MI 

After viewing this presentation participant should be better able to 

team specialist such as forensic anthropologists and dog handlers with 

traditional forensic investigators in order to link multiple complicated 

crime scenes. 

Just before Christmas 1999, an A&W employee discovered plastic 

bags that did not belong in his “grease only” dumpster in Dearborn, MI. 

The bags contained right and left upper and lower extremities that were 

then brought to the Wayne County Medical Examiner’s Office in Detroit, 

MI, where Dr. Cheryl Loewe determined that the remains were human. 

Dr. Loewe further stated “In consideration of the autopsy findings and 

circumstances surrounding death, the manner of death is a homicide.” 

Around New Year’s Day 2000, a headless, limbless torso was found 

in a field in Ottawa County, OH, and was brought to the Lucas County 

Coroner’s Office in Toledo, OH (60 miles south of Detroit) where Dr. 

James Patrick determined that the remains were that of a human female 

and the manner of death was “homicide - by undetermined violent means.” 

Inasmuch as these finds might be related, and Frank and Julie Saul 

are forensic anthropology consultants for both offices, the extremities 

were brought to Lucas County so that they could be directly compared. 

The Sauls created separate biographic profiles for the Michigan 

extremities and for the Ohio torso that were essentially the same 

(a “white” female in her mid to late 30s, somewhat overweight). A direct 

comparison of the “cut” surfaces of the humerii and femora of the 

extremities with the “stumps” of the equivalent bones of the torso revealed 

equivalent cortical bone thickness and shape, cross-sections, saw striae 

and hesitation kerfs. 

The Sauls prepared the cut surface specimens for submission to 

Dr. Steven Symes, a specialist in tool marks on bone (especially saw and 

other sharp force), to see if he could provide more information on the tool 

used for dismemberment as well as the dismemberment process itself. 

The Sauls also suggested that since Lt. Wayne Carroll (Plymouth) 

and D/Sgt. Paul Keiper (Dearborn) thought that the unknown victim 

seemed to fit the description of a missing Plymouth, MI, woman, they 

might consider using Sandra Anderson and her death investigation dog, 

Eagle, to find the primary crime scene (in the home from which she had 

gone missing). 

The authorities had no basis for a search warrant, as the remains were 

not yet positively identified, but were given permission by Dr. Azizul Islam, 

a chemist, to enter his (and the missing estranged wife’s) home. Dr. Islam 

also gave permission for Eagle and Sandra to enter providing the dog did 

no damage to the premises. Immediately upon entering, Eagle ran downstairs 

to the basement which was filled with strong bleach and paint fumes 

associated with patches of recently painted floor. Eagle methodically indicated 

that he had human death scent on a paint roller and tray as well as 

other locations now covered with paint. Eagle’s indication is a “down” 

followed by a “woof” with no disturbance of the “remains.” While Eagle 

was indicating the presence of human remains in the basement, Lt. Carroll 

was having an initially calm conversation with Dr. Islam upstairs. Lt. 

Carroll told us that Dr. Islam was very startled (“he jumped out of his 

chair”) by Eagle’s first indication and was increasingly disconcerted and 

sweating (in January) by subsequent indications from below. 

Eagle’s indications enabled the investigators to obtain a full search 

warrant, and technicians from Dr. Steven Lorch’s Michigan State Police 

Laboratory collected specimens (blood) that verified Eagle’s indications. 

Although the Sauls attempted to positively identify the victim using 

antemortem chest films, the films proved to be inadequate and supported 

only a strong presumptive identification. Positive DNA identification was 

made using blood samples from the victim’s children. The blood samples 

from the basement were also determined to be those of the victim. 

Dr. Islam was arrested and subsequently brought to trial in Wayne 

County Michigan in October 2000. The blood evidence together with 

strong circumstantial evidence resulted in his conviction. 

It is interesting to note that Dr. Islam’s defense attorneys kept police 

investigators on the stand for exceedingly long periods by questioning 

every bit of documentation of the chain of evidence. However, testimony 

concerning the linkage of the sets of remains by Dr. Frank Saul and the 

identification of the cutting tool as a small dovetail hand saw by Dr. Steven 

Symes caused the defense attorneys to attempt to rapidly stipulate findings 

that they had refused to stipulate for several months. The judge allowed 

the prosecutors to proceed as planned, and the Saul and Symes testimony 

demonstrated for the jury how “up close and personal” the dismemberment 

procedure must have been. 

It is said that other prisoners “woof” at Dr. Islam in prison as if to 

remind him of how he got there. 

Dismemberment, Death Investigation Dogs, Primary Crime Scene 

Detection 

H13 The Impact of Daubert on Testimony 

and Research in Forensic Anthropology 

Angi M. Christensen, MA*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, University of 

Tennessee Department of Anthropology, 250 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN 

The goals of this research project are to present the forensic anthropological 

community with a summary of important rulings regarding the 

admissibility of scientific testimony (particularly Daubert V. Merrell Dow 

Pharmaceuticals, Inc. 125 L. Ed. 2d 469 1993) and the impact of these 

rulings on anthropological testimony and research. 

The pursuits of forensic scientists differ from those of academic 

physical anthropologists in that, in addition to performing scientific 

research and acquiring knowledge as an end unto itself, the application of 

our science to legal matters must be considered. One important way that 

physical anthropological knowledge enters the legal system is through 

expert witness testimony. Although forensic anthropology is a relatively 

young discipline, testifying as an expert witness has become an important 

and increasingly accepted role. One must remain acutely aware of how 

methods and techniques are viewed by the legal system in order to ensure 

that they are admissible in a court of law. 

In 1923, the first ruling of admissibility was granted to an expert 

witness. The case was Frye v. United States, and the court rendered a 

2-pronged ruling stating that the information in the testimony must be 

(1) beyond the general knowledge of the jurors, and (2) based on scientific 

techniques that are generally accepted as reliable within the relevant 

scientific community. The “Frye Rule,” as this general acceptance test 

came to be known, became the dominant standard for determining admissibility 

of evidence in the majority of courts. However, over time and with 

the advancement of science, many courts began to modify or ignore the 

standard. Furthermore, new scientific evidence, though sound, often 

failed to survive the Frye standard. 

In 1975, Congress enacted the Federal Rules of Evidence, which was 

the first modern and uniform set of evidentiary rules for the trial of civil 

and criminal cases in federal courts. Rule 702 specifically addressed 

expert witness testimony, stating that “If scientific, technical or other 

specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the 


evidence or to determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by 

knowledge, skill, experience, training or education may testify thereto in 

the form of an opinion or otherwise.” This rule addresses two important 

issues: relevance (the information must facilitate an understanding of the 

facts) and reliability (the testimony must be based on a reliable foundation 

of knowledge). However, rather than clarifying the issue of admissibility, 

the Rules appeared to only raise more questions including: To what 

degree must the testimony assist the jury? Who is considered qualified as 

an expert? And, perhaps most important, what is considered scientific 

knowledge? Furthermore, the Rules did not address the Frye standard, 

leading to a mixed use of Frye, the Rules or some hybrid. 

In the case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., the 

Court was called upon to determine the standard for admitting expert 

scientific testimony in a federal trial. The Court ruled that what was 

needed was an assessment of reliability rather than general acceptance, 

and thus the Federal Rules of Evidence supplant Frye and provide the 

standard. They went further, providing an interpretation of Rule 702 in the 

form of four guidelines for judging the validity of scientific testimony 

placing a “gatekeeping” role on the Court who must assess whether the 

guidelines are met. These guidelines state that the content of the testimony 

must: (1) involve testing via the scientific method, (2) be subject to peer 

review, preferably in the form of publication in peer-reviewed literature, 

(3) provide known or potential error rates, and (4) be generally accepted 

within the relevant scientific community (essentially the Frye Rule). The 

Court indicated that the “rigid and absolute general acceptance” test 

should not be the standard in order that a reasonable minority opinion may 

be admitted into evidence, usually in the form of new and emerging 

research based on reliable, well-designed studies. 

Many state courts have adopted the Daubert standard, though some 

have rejected it, continuing to stick to the Frye Rule, or other state test. 

However, given that this is the current standard for federal courts, it 

provides the most appropriate guideline for research. Given the relative 

nascency of the field coupled with the rate of scientific progress in general, 

many techniques testified to by anthropologists may, indeed, fall under the 

category of “new and emerging information.” One must therefore be particularly 

cautious that studies are well-designed and adhere stringently to 

the scientific method. This is not to say that anthropological research has 

been or is lacking in scientific rigor, but forensic anthropology has 

frequently not met the Daubert test. Daubert standards should thus be 

consciously considered when designing and conducting research when the 

potential exists for the resulting technique to reach the ears of the federal 

court. 

Expert Witness Testimony, Daubert, Forensic Anthropology 

H14 Challenges of the Haitian Courtroom 

Karen Ramey Burns, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Georgia, 105 Tamarack Drive, Athens, GA 

The goal of this presentation is to offer a view of unique solutions 

designed for presenting evidence in an unusual Haitian courtroom. 

Flexibility is requires on an expert witness. 

The Raboteau trial was the largest and most complicated in Haitian 

history. It was the first time military leadership had been tried for human 

rights violations and the first time that physical evidence was brought into 

serious consideration. The slide presentation gives an overview of the 

investigation leading to the trial and a closer look at the trial itself. The 

work was begun with the Haitian Truth Commission and completed with 

the aid of the United Nations. 

The trial was the culmination of events beginning on September 30, 

1991, when the Haitian army ousted Jean-Bertrand Aristide, Haiti’s first 

democratically-elected president. Tens of thousands of Haitians demonstrated 

for democracy and demanded the return of Aristide, but the 

military maintained a reign of terror. They quelled demonstrations and 


kept the people suppressed by shooting into unarmed crowds and killing 

hundreds of people at a time. Families were not permitted to collect the 

dead, and most were discarded by truck loads in city dumps where they 

were scavenged by dogs, pigs, and other animals. 

The fishing village of Raboteau was undeterred. They were known 

for their resistance even during the Duvalier dictatorship. The military 

planned and carried out a major massacre on 22 April 1994. People fled 

to the sea to escape by boat, but the soldiers blocked the escape route and 

shot the people in the water. As before, the military prevented relatives 

from claiming the bodies; however, several were buried by paramilitaries 

in shallow graves on the beach. These bodies made the difference in the 

trial that followed six and a half years later. 

The individuals buried at the water’s edge were exhumed and 

described in 1995 by an international team of investigators documenting 

war crimes. Two more trips and several years were required to obtain 

sufficient evidence from informants. Two individuals were positively 

identified by means of mt-DNA. Location of wounds, description of 

clothing, and ropes used to bring the floating bodies to shore were 

consistent with verbal testimony. A key was found in the pocket of one 

victim. Metal oxide from the key stained both the clothing and the femur 

beneath. One of the disappeared was known to be using a seaside house 

for hiding, and the key fit the lock. 

The official proceedings took place in French, but the anthropological 

testimony was given in English so that it could be translated into 

Creole for the jury. It was impossible to display slides, so the bones of the 

deceased were brought into the courtroom. Gunshot wounds and other 

evidence were shown directly to the judge and jury. The door of the house 

was also displayed in the courtroom so that the key could be taken from 

the stained femur and clothing to the lock where it functioned normally. 

Of the twenty-two former soldiers and paramilitaries in custody, 

sixteen were convicted. Thirty-seven were convicted in absentia, 

including the leaders of Haiti’s 1991-94, military dictatorship and the 

heads of the paramilitary. The Haitian justice system is continuing to 

pursue those convicted in absentia. 

The Raboteau case demonstrates that justice can be accomplished in 

spite of enormous obstacles, and the techniques of the forensic sciences 

can be used to facilitate democratic transition. 

Skeletal Identification, Human Rights, Expert Witness 

H15 The Effective Forensic Investigation 

of Human Rights Violations: A Model 

for Training 

Jose Pablo Baraybar, MSc*, Carlos Bacigalupo, BA, Aldo F. Bolanos, 

Carmen C. Cardoza, BA, and Juan C. Tello, BA, Equipo Peruano de 

Antropologia Forense (EPAF), Calle 2, #369, Monterrico Norte, Lima, 

Peru, South America 

By attending this presentation, forensic scientists will understand 

how to proceed in the forensic investigation of violations against 

International Humanitarian Law and how to present the evidence to Court. 

This example also serves as a model for institutions engaged in training for 

the forensic science community. 

After the collapse of the last civilian dictatorship of the South 

American continent, Peru faces the investigation of human rights abuses 

committed over the last twenty years. Current calculations estimate that 

the number of dead after twenty years of counter-subversive activities may 

be close to 30,000 while the number of “missing” people is between 4,000 

– 6,000. Most of the remains of the “missing” are thought to have been 

disposed of into mass graves. 

The newly created Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team (Equipo 

Peruano de Antropologia Forense-EPAF) organized a workshop for Public 

Prosecutors, the Office of the Ombudsman, and human rights activists 

(Lima, Peru, 18-21 February 2001). This paper discusses the 

582

achievements of such a unique activity as well as its potential in creating 

awareness of the importance of forensic archaeology and anthropology in 

the investigation of human rights violations. The objective of the 

workshop was to introduce to those who would be involved in the investigation 

of human rights violations the do’s and don’ts of forensic recovery 

of human remains (i.e., mass graves) and the interpretation of the evidence 

to be presented to Court as part of a case. The workshop consisted of three 

parts, namely the introduction to forensic sciences and its applications to 

human rights investigations, crime scene recovery and reconstruction, and 

the presentation of evidence to Court. 

To that purpose, five identical “mass graves” were prepared. Each 

contained two layers of “bodies” (life-size dummies) representing two 

interment events. The bottom layer had been “finished off” in the grave 

with a 9mm pistol while the second layer had been shot outside the grave 

with an AKM assault rifle. At the end of the theoretical and practical 

modules, all five groups were merged and divided into Defense and 

Prosecution teams. A mock-trial with three judges was prepared and each 

group accredited six delegates to the Prosecution and Defense 

respectively. 

The “defendant,” a former police lieutenant, was charged with the 

forceful abduction of 50 people from a party and the execution in the field 

where the bodies were found. The charges were listed as kidnapping, 

torture, extra-judicial executions, and illegal burial of human remains. 

Both Prosecution and Defense had each between 20 and 30 minutes to 

present their arguments. 

In forensic terms the Prosecution demonstrated that people disposed 

of into the grave were killed with two different kinds of weapons (pistol 

and rifle). The Prosecution also demonstrated that the graves were dug by 

hand, and that a ticket from the party found in one of the graves established 

the link between the place from where the victims were kidnapped 

and where they were killed. Interestingly, the finding of the ticket was 

completely fortuitous but helped to expand and reinforce the narrative of 

the case. 

The Prosecution failed on two points that were swiftly picked up by 

the Defense. First, the defendant was referred to as Captain instead of 

Lieutenant, and second, the element of time was an issue. This was due to 

the fact that two layers of people were disposed in the grave. Considering 

that the first layer of victims was “finished off” with pistol rounds implied 

that they were brought alive to the site and then killed in situ. However, 

the total number of people killed in this fashion was 25 and not 50 as 

claimed by the Prosecution. While both Prosecution and the Defense 

reconstructed the narrative of the events as accurate as the perpetrators 

(i.e., organizers of the workshop), the “defendant” was not charged with 

all counts of murder (i.e., 50 people), but only for 25 cases. 

The goals of the workshop were met, namely, the understanding of 

recovery and analysis of a crime scene which involves multiple human 

remains, it is a complex process that takes time, and a number of inferences 

can be drawn from the proper recording and recovery of those 

contexts. 

Human Rights, Mass Graves, Training 

H16 Confronting the Past in Guatemala: 

A Challenge for Forensic Science 

Adriana Gabriela Santos Bremme, BS*, Apartado postal 01901-1830 

Correo Central, Guatemala, Central America 

The goals of this research project are 1) to teach the forensic community 

how society must accept the responsibility for the victims of a civil 

war, by devolving to its governmental agencies appropriate means in the 

recovery of human remains, from individual and mass graves in the 

aftermath of war in the 80s in Guatemala; and 2) to emphasize the cultural 

characteristics that are involved in such a recovery. 

In 36 years of civil war in Guatemala more than 200,000 persons 

disappeared due to actions of both the Guatemalan Army and the 

Guatemalan “guerrillas.” After a Peace Treaty was signed in December 

1996, a period of solidarity was established and the search for historical 

truth began. It is also at this point where the forensic community was 

called upon to play an important role. 

This presentation will focus on the multidisciplinary work in 

Guatemala since 1996 performed by social anthropologists, forensic 

anthropologists, and forensic archaeologists in the recovery of evidence; it 

also will reference one of the most important key factors of success in 

accessing this underground world. 

Finding the hidden cemeteries was an arduous task. Once found, the 

forensic experts attempted to recover the skeletal remains (articulated, 

disarticulated, cremated). Their work involved the archaeological 

methodologies of excavation (with the appropriate photographic 

documentation); the handling of the evidence; the collecting of human 

bones, personal artifacts, bullets, lassos (one of the methods of torture); the 

identification of sex, age, stature, physical and pathological characteristics 

of the remains; the causes and manner of death; and, a reconstruction of 

perimortem and postmortem events. 

Acts of violence, whether directed at entire communities because of 

religious or ethnic implications, or toward women, children, and old 

persons, resulted in extra-judicial executions, death as results of persecution, 

massacres, sexual assaults, tortures, and so forth. 

In the process of anthropological forensic investigations in the early 

years of the 90s, fear decreased and, after 18-20 years living in a state of 

terror, survivors felt secure enough to begin to do the following: to 

recover their children, fathers, and mothers; to learn what happened to 

their loved ones; to ascertain that these family members did indeed die; to 

place blame on the culpable; and, to establish a precedent that this kind of 

horror never happen again. 

Moreover, it is to the forensic team where praise is given; their 

challenge was considerable as they set about in identifying human remains 

and giving to each a name. 

This investigation will present the process of excavation, recovery of 

physical evidence from graves, and the ritual that is involved in the final 

inhumation of the victims. 

Forensic Anthropology, Ritual, Social Anthropology 

H17 Human Remains Sold to the Highest 

Bidder! A Snapshot of the Buying and 

Selling of Human Skeletal Remains 

on eBay®, an Internet Auction Site 

Angie Kay Huxley, PhD*, Pima Community College West Campus, 

Division of Science and Technology, Department of Biology, PO Box 

1136, Pomona, CA 

The primary purposes of this paper is to inform the forensic 

community of the selling of human skeletal remains - old and new - on the 

eBay internet auction site, as well as to advise forensic scientists that this 

site does not, to the best of the author’s knowledge, utilize a forensic 

anthropology advisor to assess the pictures of skeletal materials posted for 

subsequent sale to the general public. 

This paper addresses several different types of skeletal materials— 

older recovered prehistoric, historic, commercial and perhaps even 

modern forensic materials—skeletal materials sold on eBay. The purpose 

of this paper is to inform forensic anthropologists and other forensic specialists 

about the buying and selling of human cranial and postcranial 

skeletal materials every day on eBay. While these materials may be old 

from prehistoric and historic contexts, it is also possible that some may be 

new, and of forensic significance. Moreover, it is important to state that it 

is unknown if eBay employs a forensic anthropology advisor, or if the sale 


of human skeletal materials is considered to be an issue. In all cases, if 

one desired to evaluate skeletal materials, one would have to do so from 

the pictures posted to the site. Direct examination would require purchase 

of the human skeletal materials, or their seizure by law enforcement 

personnel acting under warrants. 

As there are no rules on eBay governing the sale of human skeletal 

remains for instructional purposes, all materials are posted for instructional 

use only. According to eBay rule #42020018 regarding prohibited 

items, including human parts and remains, “Items that contain human hair 

(e.g., lockets) as well as skulls and skeletons that are used for educational 

purposes may be listed on eBay.” Moreover, the only rules or laws that 

eBay enforces are the following: “eBay does not permit the sale of Native 

American skulls, bones, or other Native American grave related items, as 

the sale of such items may violate federal law. For more information on 

eBay’s rules regarding the sale of such items and the Native American 

Grave Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA)....” [1] 

As human skeletal materials of any kind—old or new—can sell at 

auction for 500 - 2000 U.S. Dollars or more, an enterprising person could 

advertise these remains as modern whether they were or not. For example, 

one particular skull was advertised with a bullet hole through the zygomatic 

bone (i.e., “> REAL Bone Human Skull w/ Bullet Hole

three centimeter defect over the temporal portion of the brain. The cause 

of death was certified as being due to craniocerebral injuries and the 

manner of death as homicide. 

Anthropology: Evidence of healed antemortem trauma was observed 

on the right side of the cranium, where a surgically repaired, roughly 

circular plaque of bone involved portions of the right temporal and parietal 

bones. This plaque measured approximately 55 mm anterio-posterior and 

53 mm superior-inferior, and exhibited healed margins around its circumference. 

Perimortem trauma was observed within this plaque of bone. At least 

one blunt force impact site resulted in three linear fractures. The margins 

of these fractures displayed no evidence for osteogenesis or healing. 

Cranial evidence of recent neurosurgical intervention included the 

following: four titanium Synthes plates and screws that attached the 

plaque of bone to the surrounding bone; newly drilled holes adjacent to the 

margins of the temporoparietal plaque for surgical sutures to tack down the 

dura; an arching, semi-circular craniotomy connecting two burr holes 

which were 96 mm apart; and two more Synthes plates that stabilized one 

of the fractures. 

Biomechanical Analysis: The etiology of the perimortem blunt force 

traumata was a key element during the trial of the assailant. The victim had 

been witnessed getting punched with a fist. Therefore, a primary question 

in the case was whether the temporoparietal fractures could have been produced 

by a punch to the victim’s head as he lay against the asphalt surface. 

To test the hypothesis that the assailant could have produced the injury 

with his fist, biomechanical data were gathered from a number of sources 

and various assumptions were made concerning the potential blows to the 

victim’s right temporoparietal region. Data on the force required to 

fracture the skull via blunt impact was the starting point. It has been 

experimentally shown that a linear skull fracture in the temporoparietal 

region will occur at forces ranging from 2,110 - 5,200 N (mean = 3,630 

N). To determine the potential for fracture of the temporoparietal region 

from a single blow, experimental data were gathered on the range of velocities 

of various punches thrown by amateur boxers. Another important 

piece of data was an estimation of the mass of the arm and hand. 

In order to estimate the range of forces that could have been produced 

in a punch to the head, rigid-body mechanics were employed. During the 

impact event, the momentum (mass times velocity) of the upper extremity 

changes from a maximum at the peak velocity (near contact with the head) 

to zero at the end of the event. Using the concept of impulse-momentum, 

and assuming the force-time pulse from other experimental data, the peak 

contact force was estimated to be approximately 3,160 N for a “jab”, and 

4,930 N for a “hook.” These peak forces fell within the range required to 

fracture the temporoparietal region of a normal skull under blunt impact 

conditions. 

Individual Life History: Approximately 10 years before his death, the 

decedent had been in a motor vehicle collision resulting in the need for a 

craniotomy. As a result, the thickness of the right temporoparietal region 

was half that of the non-injured left temporoparietal. Biomechanical 

studies report that a thinner than normal skull increases the potential for 

fracture. Therefore, it is believed that the decedent’s medical history 

further predisposed him to sustaining the fatal, depressed fracture. 

Conclusion: Severe blows to the head with blunt instruments are 

known to cause depressed skull fractures with associated fracture lacerations 

of the brain, cerebral contusions typically most severe beneath the 

location of the blow, and occasionally intracerebral hemorrhage, as seen in 

this case. Typically, blows resulting in these injuries are delivered with an 

object other than a fist. Although a depressed skull fracture is not “diagnostic 

of” a punch from a fist, it was determined in this case that the 

trauma was “consistent with” a punch from a fist. The biomechanical 

data, in combination with the individual’s life history, suggested that a 

single punch to the rigidly supported head of the victim could have 

generated the fractures observed in the right temporoparietal. 

Punch, Skull Fracture, Biomechanics 

H20 Fracture Pattern Interpretation 

in the Skull: Differentiating Blunt 

Force From Ballistics Trauma 

Gina O. Hart, BA*, 933 Anchor Lake Road, Carriere, MS 

The goal of this research project is to illustrate an alternative 

technique of determining the mechanism of trauma to the skull by fracture 

patterning. The research discussed verifies that blunt force and ballistics 

trauma can be significantly differentiated by the beveling direction of 

concentric fractures. 

This presentation will demonstrate that the mechanism of trauma to 

the skull can be diagnosed by fracture patterns. Specifically, this study will 

examine the direction of beveling in concentric fractures to the skull in 

order to differentiate blunt force from ballistics trauma. An in depth 

analysis of tertiary (concentric) fractures will allow for an easier determination 

of the mechanism of trauma when the impact site is missing due to 

taphonomic or other processes. This research is important to osteological 

studies, because fracture patterns in blunt force and ballistics trauma have 

similar appearances. This presentation will provide essential information 

to the genre of fracture interpretation, in turn enabling researchers to 

differentiate between these two mechanisms of trauma with comfort. 

Concentric fractures to the skull form if the linear fractures do not 

provide enough relief from the kinetic energy produced by the striking 

object. These fractures are semicircular and form perpendicular to the 

radiating fractures, which gives the injury a spider web-like appearance. 

In some cases, concentric fractures may form in the absence of radiating 

fractures. These fractures are created before a projectile has an opportunity 

to exit, as in the case of gunshot wounds. 

Blunt force and ballistics trauma produce concentric fractures in 

dissimilar ways causing the bone to break or bevel in variant directions. In 

concentric fractures produced by blunt force trauma, tensile forces 

increase on the outer table while compressive forces increase on the inner 

table. Since bone is weaker in tension than compression, the bone will 

fracture on the outer table first and travel to the inner table, creating an 

internally beveled appearance. 

In concentric fractures produced by gunshot wounds, intercranial 

pressure is greatly increased. The increased pressure causes the inner 

surface of the skull to be under increased tension while the outer surface 

is under increased compression. The plates of bone formed by the radiating 

fractures are then elevated, causing the fractures to begin on the inner 

surface and travel outward, thus producing externally beveled concentric 

fractures in both entrance and exit wounds. 

For this presentation, skulls exhibiting blunt force and ballistics 

trauma were examined for concentric fracture patterns. The concentric 

fractures were morphologically analyzed to determine the direction of 

beveling. In total, 211 injuries were inspected. External beveling included 

any cases where more of the outer table than the inner of the fracture 

surface was present, while internal beveling was judged as the opposite of 

this. Undetermined beveling included cases that were ambiguous or did 

not exhibit any trace of beveling. Fractures exhibiting internal beveling 

were classified as blunt force trauma and those which were externally 

beveled were classified as ballistics trauma. Furthermore, measurements 

to both the inner and outer fracture surfaces were made in order to 

determine if direction of beveling may be metrically determined. 

The data set used included specimens from the following institutions: 

(1) the Regional Forensics Center in Memphis, Tennessee; (2) the 

National Museum of Health and Medicine (NMHM), which is affiliated 

with the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in Washington, DC; and 

(3) the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in 

Washington, DC. The collection housed at the Regional Forensic Center 

consists of evidence retained from autopsies in the Memphis area and 

surrounding counties. The three collections used from the NMHM consist 

of the Milton Helpern, MD, New York City Medical Examiner Collection 

(1940-1970), the Indian Wars collection which includes the U.S. Army 


soldiers at U.S. forts during the Indian Wars (1866-1900), and the Civil 

War collection (1862-1865). Additionally, several collections from the 

Smithsonian were used, including the Terry, Peruvian and Native 

American collections. 

Chi-square tests were run on SPSS 9.0 to determine if there was a 

relationship between the direction of beveling and the mechanism of 

trauma. Then, contingency coefficient tests were run on the same statistical 

package to determine the strengths of this relationship. All tests indicated 

a highly significant relationship between the two factors. 

Discriminant analysis was performed on the measurements, which also 

displayed a statistical significance. 

The research conducted in this study illustrates that mechanism of 

trauma may be determined in the absence of impact site. Further research 

is needed to fully explore the complete importance of fracture interpretation. 

The complete relevance and details of these findings will be 

discussed in depth in the presentation. 

Ballistics Trauma, Blunt Force Trauma, Concentric Fractures 

H21 Determining Direction of Fire: 

An Anthropological Analysis of 

Gunshot Wounds to the Chest 

Natalie R. Langley, MA*, 357 South Curson Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 

The goal of this research project is to present the forensic community 

with information that can be obtain by an anthropological evaluation of 

gunshot wounds to the chest. Specifically, this presentation will show that 

gunshot wounds to the chest frequently leave distinctive marker on the 

bones that indicate the direction of fire. 

Traditionally, the primary task of forensic anthropologists has been to 

establish a biological profile of a decedent. However, increasingly they 

are being called upon to provide expert opinions about skeletal trauma. If 

remains are severely decomposed or skeletonized, soft tissue analysis is 

difficult, if not impossible. In such cases the forensic anthropologist’s 

expertise in human osteology is a valuable investigative tool. 

Nonetheless, even in cases where soft tissue is available for diagnosis, the 

anthropologist’s evaluation of skeletal trauma can provide additional, 

useful information to the medical examiner’s report. Consequently, 

forensic anthropologists should possess a thorough understanding of 

trauma in all areas of the skeleton. 

The primary objectives of this study were to: (1) determine if there 

are distinct and/or patterned fractures associated with gunshot wounds to 

the thoracic region, and (2) ascertain whether or not the direction of fire 

can be established from skeletal evidence alone. In order to answer these 

questions, the researcher used only those cases that were clearly documented 

by the medical examiner. Fifty-three cases with gunshot wounds 

to the thorax were selected for analysis from the evidentiary archives at the 

Regional Forensic Center in Memphis, TN. Additionally, one case from 

the Louisiana State University forensic anthropology laboratory was 

examined, thus making a total of 54 cases. Some of these individuals had 

received only a single gunshot wound to the chest, whereas others had 

multiple gunshot wounds. In all, 85 gunshot wounds were analyzed in this 

study, and 130 bones had bullet injuries: five scapulae, six clavicles, 11 

sterna, 10 thoracic vertebrae, one lumbar vertebra and 97 ribs. Because 

the ribs were the most frequently injured bones, this analysis concentrates 

on the characteristics of gunshot wounds in the ribs. 

Of the 85 gunshot wounds in this study, 38 involved only one bone, 

29 involved two bones, five involved three bones, one injured six bones, 

one injured 13 bones, and 11 did not strike any bone. A .308 caliber rifle 

inflicted the injury involving 13 bones. The weapon that injured six bones 

was not reported in the autopsy protocol. The bilateral distribution of the 

gunshot wounds was almost even, with 52 on the right side of the body 

(54%) and 45 on the left side (46%). The sixth rib and the eighth rib were 


hit more frequently than any other ribs. The twelfth rib, on the other hand, 

was not injured in any of the cases in this study, and the eleventh rib was 

hit only three times. The researcher also documented the vertical distribution 

of the gunshot wounds. In order to do so, the thoracic cage was 

divided into three equal sections as follows: the upper section consisted of 

ribs 1-4, the middle section included ribs 5-8, and the lower section was 

comprised of ribs 9-12. The middle section received the most damage 

(42% of all injuries), followed by the upper section (36%). Finally, the 

lower section suffered the least damage (22%). 

Microscopic examination of the entrance and exit defects on each rib 

revealed several reoccurring features that indicate the direction of fire. 

The entrance defect exhibited one or more of the following characteristics: 

a typically round defect with a sharply defined rim, radiating fracture 

lines, depressed fractures of the bone surrounding the defect, and/or bone 

splinters displaced in the direction of fire. The exit defect was usually 

larger than the corresponding entrance defect. Other exit-associated characteristics 

included radiating fracture lines, trabecular bone exposed 

around the defect (i.e., beveling), and out-bent bone fragments. Note that 

these characteristics are similar in many respects to those associated with 

the flat bones of the cranial vault. The best way to determine which of 

these characteristics is present at the site of trauma is to examine the defect 

closely under an operating scope. In some cases, reconstruction of the rib 

with Superglue® or Duco® cement facilitates more complete inspection. 

In summary, this study has shown that gunshot wounds to the chest 

can leave evidence on the bones that indicate the direction of fire. The 

bones that are hit most frequently in gunshot wounds to the thoracic region 

are the ribs. Accordingly, this analysis focused on the characteristics associated 

with entrance and exit defects on ribs. This researcher observed 

several characteristics that could aid the forensic anthropologist in evaluating 

gunshot trauma in ribs, including depressed fractures, displacement 

of bone fragments in the direction of the bullet’s path, and beveling. 

Although the forensic anthropologist can ascertain the direction that a 

bullet traveled through a given rib, (s) he should use caution and should 

not extend her interpretations past their limit of validity. A number of 

factors can affect a projectile’s behavior in the body (e.g., velocity of the 

bullet at the point of entrance, the distance between muzzle and target, the 

position of the body at the time of impact, bullet tumbling, etc.). These 

variables plus, in some cases, the absence of soft tissue evidence, make 

gunshot wound evaluation especially challenging for forensic anthropologists. 

Even when soft tissue is present, the forensic anthropologist should 

be called in to inspect bone trauma carefully. By combining their 

expertise, forensic anthropologists and forensic pathologists can provide a 

more complete picture of the events surrounding a victim’s death. 

Forensic Anthropology, Gunshot Wounds, Thorax 

H22 Burning Observations of the Head: 

An Experimental Model 

Elayne J. Pope, MA*, University of Tennessee, 252 South Stadium Hall, 

Knoxville, TN; Steven A. Symes, PhD, and O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

After attending this presentation participant will understand: 

1) normal destruction to the fleshed cranial vault in a fire, and 

2) progressive stages of thermal destruction to both the soft and hard 

tissues of the head. 

Traditionally, the concept that an intact skull ‘explodes’ into 

miniature-sized bone pieces when subjected to heated gases has served as 

a standard anthropological theorem. Compromise of the structure by 

either ballistic or blunt force trauma is believed to react differently than an 

intact vault. Fractures or openings provide areas of stress relief for the 

venting of moisture, gases, and internal pressures of the brain. However, 

it is claimed to explode and project into numerous fragmentary pieces due 

to the release of these pressures if the vault remains a closed system (no 

586

trauma). This assumption may discourage further investigation of trauma 

if one assumes that the skull fragments indicate the absence of preexisting 

trauma. 

In an effort to observe normal stages of skull destruction from fire, 

different theories were tested through a series of actualistic studies that 

used combinations of human and non-human crania in controlled fire 

environments. Special measures were taken to accurately simulate and 

document some of the variables typically encountered in structural or 

vehicular fires. Controlled simulations of fires made it possible to observe 

and document progression of thermal destruction to soft and hard tissues 

of the head to understand the thermal processes that create fragmentation 

and eventual destruction of the skull. 

In order to accurately reproduce fire victim situations, researchers 

utilized fully fleshed, unembalmed human cadaver heads formerly preserved 

at –10 degrees Fahrenheit. Soft tissues were thoroughly thawed 

and placed in a variety of thermal events controlling for time, temperature, 

intensity, duration, materials, and other variables encountered in fires 

(accelerants, wood, fibers, water, natural gas). Progressive stages of 

thermal destruction to soft and hard tissues were documented with 35mm 

slides, digital, video, and written observations at timed intervals. 

Variations of temperature and materials influenced the time and rate 

of burning for each experiment. Independent of rate and intensity of each 

fire, thermal destruction followed a consistent pattern based on protective 

and insulating properties of soft tissue (skin, fat and muscle) on the face 

and head. Duration of experiments ranged from 10 minutes to 60 minutes 

in order to express the full range of thermal destruction that could be 

expected in a burn victim. 

A continuum of change occurs as follows: 

• Skin becomes glossy with moisture, skin and facial features 

become tight, skin begins to darken, lips retract, tongue forms a plug 

in the lips. 

• Exposed anterior teeth begin to darken, skin quickly becomes 

blackened, skin splits in multiple areas, face begins to bloat and 

bubble grease, skin of the forehead splits and retracts, exposed bone 

darkens, and then begins to blacken from charring. 

• Charring of bone progresses over exposed areas, heat fractures 

become visible in charred bone, skin continues to burn away on the 

face, charred areas become calcined (white, gray), outer table begins 

to fragment and burn away to expose diploe, inner table and brain in 

some cases. 

• The brain experiences a variety of reactions from heat that included 

shrinking, expansion and fungates, or oozes from preexisting 

openings. 

Firings ranged from incomplete to complete incineration, with an 

emphasis on the window of time between early charring (black) and 

calcination (white). Organic degradation from heat makes bone brittle and 

eventually shrinks, typically producing heat-induced fractures and 

deformation. Of particular interest were heat-induced fractures and 

delamination. This widespread application of heat over a large area of 

exposed bone creates separation and destruction of the outer table, 

exposing diploe, inner table, and brain. 

In all of the firings, areas of the vault simply fragmented and delaminated 

from gradual destruction of heat with pieces dropping directly 

below their point of origin or pulled away by muscle. Introduction of 

water, handling, and removal of burned bone increased fragmentation of 

this brittle structure and may account for some of the shattered appearance 

when removed from the fire scene context. However, abundant heat 

fractures should not dissuade the investigator from making assumptions 

about the presence or absence of trauma. 

The goal of this research is to signal caution to those who investigate 

fire-related deaths and create an awareness of normal burning patterns in 

order to recognize deviations in these patterns as may be caused by malicious 

intentions to destroy a body or by preexisting trauma. Belief in the 

exploding skull concept is an invitation to error. If fragments of the skull 

are distant from the head, then another process must explain the finding. 

Either trauma or some other event within or following the fire caused 

fragments to be displaced. Observation and documentation of these 

studies will be presented to illustrate progressive stages and variations of 

thermal destruction to the head. 

Fire Investigation, Burned Bone, Cremation 

H23 Age Estimation of the Immature 

Individuals Starting From the Ratio 

Epiphysis Width/Diaphysis Width of 

the Bones of the Hand and the Wrist 

Norbert Telmon, MD*, Service de Medecine Legale, CHU Toulouse, 

1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, France; Loic Lalys, Pascal 

Adalian,and Marie D. Piercecchi, Universite de la Mediterranee, 

Faculte de Medecine, Unite d’ Anthropologie, UMR 6578, 27 Bd J. 

Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, France; Olivier Dutour, Universite 

de la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite d’ Anthropologie, 

CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Marseille Cedex 05, France; Daniel 

Rouge, MD, Service de Medecine Legale, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. 

Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, France; and Georges Leonetti, MD, PhD, 

Universite de la Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Unite d’ 

Anthropologie, UMR 6578, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, 

France 

The goal of this presentation is to introduce a new method for age 

estimation. 

The authors introduce a method of age estimation of immature 

individuals starting from the measurement of the ratio: epiphysis width/ 

shaft width of metacarpals, ulna and radius. This approach was developed 

on a study of x-rays of the hand of individuals of known sex and age 

between 1 and 18 years. The widths of the epiphyses and the diaphyses 

were measured for each osseous element. These measurements are 

possible from the appearance of the cores of ossification of the epiphyses 

of the metacarpals and of the radius towards 1-2 years up to complete 

fusion epiphysis-diaphysis of radius around 18 years. 

The results highlight a correlation between the ratio epiphysis width 

/ shaft width and age. This ratio increases with age. The r2 of each 

measurement are between 0.65 and 0.85. The correlations with age are 

more significant of men. The use of all measurements makes it possible to 

obtain a coefficient of correlation with a r2 = 0.89 in male sampling. This 

method appears interesting notably in forensic medicine for age estimation 

of the young individuals whose date of birth is dubious. 

Estimation, Metacarpals, Radius 

H24 Contribution of Numeric Measurements 

to Fetal Sex Determination 

Pascal Adalian*, and Marie D. Piercecchi, Universite de la 

Mediterranee, Faculte de Medecine, Service de Medecine Legale, 27 Bd 

J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 05, France; Norbert Telmon, MD, Service de 

Medecine Legale, CHU Toulouse, 1 av J. Poulhes, Toulouse Cedex, 

France; and Loic Lalys, Yann Ardagna, Michael Signoli, Olivier Dutour, 

and Georges Leonetti, MD, PhD, Universite de la Mediterranee, Faculte 

de Medecine, Unite d’ Anthropologie, 27 Bd J. Moulin, Marseille Cedex 

05, France 

Sex estimation is one of the most frequently encountered issues in 

forensic medicine. While in the case of adults, this determination is 

essentially based on iliac bones and provides a rather reliable classification. 

There are fewer studies conducted on fetuses and the results are 

often contradictory. 


Therefore, the authors examined 83 pairs of fetal iliac bones in the 

Hungarian collection of Fazekas and Kosa and searched for metric criteria 

that can best be applied for determining sexual dimorphism. During this 

research, methods were tested for fetal iliac bones and others used particularly 

in the case of adults. 

For this reason, the authors set up and validated a protocol of taking 

photographs, as well as a measurement technique developed for numeric 

pictures with the help of two software programs: Adobe Photoshop 6® 

and SigmaScan Pro 5® (SPSS). 

The results showed an excellent reliability and an excellent correlation 

between real size and numeric measurement. Therefore, more than 

providing very reliable measurements that can be applied on previously 

published sex determination formulae, this methodology will allow the 

investigation of new measurements, such as area and perimeter. 

Fetus, Sex, Ilium 

H25 Modern Oral Piercings: The Application 

of Their Dental Wear Patterns for 


Kristen M. Hartnett, BA*, and Denise To, MA, Department of 

Anthropology, Arizona State University, PO Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 

The goals of this research project are: 1) identify the variety of oral 

piercing among modern pop sub-culture, 2) illustrate patterns of dental 

wear and/or chipping associated with these oral piercings, and 3) provide 

a starting point for future research to develop standards to be used in 

forensic identification. 

The growing trend of body ornamentation in modern-day pop culture 

calls for research on the effects of these decorations on the hard tissues of 

the human body. In this study, the effects of modern oral piercings on the 

dentition are evaluated in a context that could be utilized in the future to 

assist in identification. 

In forensic anthropology, the teeth are of great importance in identification 

for several reasons. First, the enamel that forms the outermost 

layer of the tooth crown is the hardest substance in the body. The durability 

of the dentition owes to the microscopic structure of enamel. The 

heavily mineralized, non-cellular enamel is deposited in layers of prisms 

by cells called ameloblasts in a process known as amelogenesis. Thus, the 

combination of the structure of enamel and its mineral components often 

makes teeth the best preserved part of a decomposed or destroyed body. 

Another important characteristic of enamel tissue is that it does not regenerate 

like other tissues in the body. Enamel is laid down when the crowns 

of the teeth are formed and will not be replaced once worn off or broken 

off. Thus, any wear patterns left from idiosyncratic behaviors are 

permanent. 

In addition, the dentition is important in positive identification of 

individuals because antemortem dental records are more common than 

skeletal radiographic records. Thus, a great deal of attention is given to 

the dentition in forensic cases. Peculiar wear patterns from bruxism, occupational 

activity, overbites, underbites, or even wear from oral ornamentation 

may be noted in these records and could be useful in leading to a 

positive identification. 

The authors using interviews and visual examinations of living 

subjects conducted research focusing on modification of the oral cavity 

through piercings. Morphological modifications of teeth, (e.g., inlays, 

sharpening, cross-hatching, grooving, ablation, etc.), and surgical modification 

of soft tissue (e.g., bifurcation and lengthening of the tongue, etc.) 

were not included. 

The variety of modern oral piercings can be grouped into two types: 

fixed and non-fixed. Fixed oral piercings have a position in the oral cavity 


where its relation to the dentition is fairly constant. More common fixed 

piercings include scrumpers and lowbrets. The teeth affected by fixed 

piercings are usually limited to those in immediate contact with the 

piercing. A scrumper, also known as a smiley, is a piercing that passes 

through the central webbing between the upper lip and the alveolar soft 

tissue just above the upper incisors. A scrumper through the lower lip 

webbing is called a frowny. Jewelry commonly used for scrumpers are 

rings with a small ball centered between the incisors. Dental wear associated 

with scrumpers is grooving of the labial surface of the upper central 

incisors caused by the ball. The grooving is circular, and in cross-section, 

is U-shaped. Another common fixed piercing is the lowbret, a studded 

jewel or barbell placed from the internal aspect of the oral cavity through 

the exterior soft tissue above the mental eminence. Its low position makes 

this piercing relatively immobile and usually results in abrasion of the 

lower incisors. 

More common than fixed piercings are non-fixed piercings; these 

have a position in the oral cavity where the relation to the dentition is 

movable as a result of the flexibility of the soft tissue in which the piercing 

is located. The teeth affected by non-fixed piercings are not limited to 

those immediately in contact with the piercing and are affected by the individual’s 

penchant for moving the piercing around the mouth. The most 

common non-fixed piercing is a barbell stud through the center of the 

tongue. Less common tongue piercings are located anteriorly/superiorly 

and horizontally. Ring piercings through the tongue are usually placed at 

the anterior tip. Given the wide range of motion of the tongue within the 

mouth, dental abrasion and chipping caused by these piercings can effect 

almost every tooth in the arcade, including the molars. The lingual and 

occlusal surfaces, however, tend to be the most commonly affected. The 

second most popular non-fixed piercing is a lip ring, a single-hole piercing 

through the upper and lower lip. Though the dentition immediately 

internal to the piercing is most susceptible to abrasion and chipping, the 

flexibility of the lip results in wear to both upper and lower teeth, as well 

as to those within a two or three tooth-distance from the piercing. Finally, 

a well-known prehistoric piercing popular today is the labret. Similar to 

the lowbret, a labret is placed just below the lower lip, although it is higher 

and therefore more movable than the lowbret. Variations to its vertical 

and/or horizontal position are common. Given that ornamentation of the 

labret is external, the internal aspect is usually a simple stud or fishtail 

hook. This piercing results in general abrasion of the labial surface of the 

lower anterior teeth. 

Types and severity of dental wear are described in greater detail in the 

poster presentation, as well as other types of oral piercings. The following 

are the more influential variables that can affect the type and severity of 

dental wear: 1) the length of time since the initial piercing, 2) the type of 

jewelry (e.g., barbells, barbell studs, safety pins, paper clips, etc.), 3) the 

complexity of the piercing (e.g., a single piece of jewelry connecting two 

or more piercings, or a single piercing with several exit holes), 4) the size 

of the piercing and jewelry, 5) the degree to which the individual moves 

the jewelry within his/her mouth, 6) the material of the jewelry (organic 

vs. forged metal), 7) sudden physical pressure that may lead to extreme 

dental trauma such as a blow to the chin, and 8) rejection of the piercing, 

which may lead to shifting or even expulsion of the jewelry. 

Directions for further research on this subject include a longitudinal 

study that would follow individuals through time just prior to the piercing 

event. This would provide a timeline for the development and degree of 

wear observed on the dentition over time with different types of piercings 

as well as further understanding of the variables that effect severity and 

types of wear. 

In modern popular culture, body decorations such as oral piercings 

have broken out from an underground sub-cultural practice to become a 

more commonplace fad resulting in a greater number of people with possible 

physical alteration to their teeth. In turn, this creates an increased 

potential for the use of dental modification produced by oral piercings in 


Forensic Anthropology, Dental Wear, Oral Piercing 

588

H26 Robber’s Personal Identification by 

Morphometric Analysis of Recorded Images 

Francesco Introna, MD, University of Bari, Italy, Istituto di Medicina 

legale, Policlinico., Bari, Italy 

The goal of this research project is to have participant follow a 

guideline for a correct personal identification of living person by the 

analysis of recorded images. 

The author describes an objective technique for personal identification 

of living persons using morphometric analysis of images recorded 

both on files and on videotape of bank or store robbers. 

The complete technique involves three steps: The PREPARATORY 

PHASE is necessary to study and to improve the robbery recorded images. 

The images showing a sharp location of the thief in the robbery place are 

selected and objectively improved. Then images showing a close up of the 

face of the robber are researched and, if available, are objectively treated 

and enlarged. 

The SUPERIMPOSITION PHASE is the second step. It must be 

performed in the place where the robbery took place. The suspect must be 

cooperative. In this phase the suspect must be located exactly in the same 

place and with the same posture of the robber in the compared image. To 

carry out this second phase it is necessary to have complete access of the 

location where the robbery occurred and to use the same TV cameras that 

filmed the robbery. The TV camera must be placed exactly in the same 

position present as at the time of the robbery. Then the suspect can be 

filmed in the same location, position, and attitude of the robber in the frame 

analyzed. Thanks to a continuous mixing video, the image of the robber 

and the on time image of the suspect can be mixed, superimposed, and 

recorded. The suspect must be moved as a dummy to let him assume the 

same spatial attitude of the robber in comparison. The goal is to prove at 

first the somatic correspondence between the robber and the suspect. Then, 

if positive, the superimposition between the robber and the suspect facial 

images (if available) can be performed. Only in this way will it be possible 

to document an objective correspondence or a definite discrepancy. Limits 

and peculiarities of this phase are then described in detail. 

The METRIC IMAGE ANALYSIS is the third step. It can be performed 

on the best output of the superimposition phase. Quantitative 

comparison can be done between the image of the robber’s face and the 

image of the suspect’s face. To perform this step it is necessary to clearly 

recognize at least five reference points on the robber’s face using a suitable 

calculation program. The same points are marked on the image of the 

suspect’s face obtained at the end of the best superimposition. The 

absolute and relative distances between the marked points, the perimeters 

and the areas of the triangles obtained by connecting the points and the 

compactness indices are automatically calculated on both images in 

analyses. So two series of five sets of numerical parameters can be 

obtained (absolute distance, relative distance, areas and perimeters of 

triangles, indices of compactness from both the faces of the robber and the 

suspect). The five sets are then compared to calculate the correlation 

coefficients. If the values of all the four correlation coefficients is > 0.99 

a personal identification can be formulated on a mathematical basis 

between the suspect and the robber. When the numerical comparison 

phase cannot be carried out (i.e. when the robber’s face is not so sharp to 

allow to mark the reference points), no sure and objective personal identification 

results can be lay out. A superimposition correctly conducted is 

essential for the following metric analyses of compared images. 

The technique described is objective, repeatable, and not destructive. 

It is a necessary technical skill; no improvisation can be allowed. 

The results obtained by the straight application of the described 

technique are considered as a proof by Italian Courts. 

The author will report the results of 140 investigations on bank 

robberies carried out between 1991 and 2001. 

Bank or Store Robbers Recorded Images, Forensic Image Analysis, 

Personal Identification 

H27 Comparison of CT and MR 

Imaging Techniques to Traditional 

Radiographs in Human Identification 

S. Taylor Slemmer, MA*, and Murray K. Marks, PhD, Department of 


Knoxville, TN 

The participant will have a better understanding the protocol and 

utility of three non-invasive imaging techniques: traditional radiography 

(x-ray), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging 

(MR). The goal is to demonstrate that the application of these techniques 

in establishing positive identification may vary when the investigator is 

presented with isolated bony elements compared to a situation in which 

the remains are fully fleshed or even partially decomposed. 

Over time, there has been an increased likelihood that forensic investigators 

will encounter traditional radiographic images (x-ray) as well as 

images from more advanced imaging techniques, i.e., CT and MR, in the 

antemortem record. Therefore, it is imperative that the forensic investigator 

has an understanding of these image types, is able to recognize their 

antemortem and postmortem signatures, and can incorporate these images 

in their investigation. In a previous work by Slemmer and Marks (2000), 

a three-way comparison of imaging techniques was performed on isolated 

skeletal elements to identify inter-imaging techniques for estimating positive 

identification. A comparison of the antemortem and postmortem 

record generated from each imaging technique (x-ray, CT, and MR) 

revealed that of the three methods, x-ray provided the most accurate and 

simple means of estimating positive identification. Thus, postmortem 

imaging should not be more advanced than antemortem imaging when 

determining identification from isolated bony cranial and postcranial 

elements. 

However, the forensic anthropologist is oftentimes presented with a 

fully fleshed or partially decomposed individual for identification. This 

situation may permit the investigator to utilize imaging techniques that 

better reveal soft tissue landmarks rather than bony or dental landmarks. 

In conjunction with the efforts of the medical examiner and law 

enforcement, the forensic anthropologist may find that in such cases, CT 

or MR operates with greater efficacy than traditional radiographs. 

This study examines five fully fleshed and five partially decomposed 

individuals donated to the Forensic Anthropology Center at the 

Department of Anthropology of the University of Tennessee. An antemortem 

record for each individual was created at the University of 

Tennessee Medical Center in Knoxville using MR, CT, and x-ray images 

of the frontal sinus, dentition (root development and restorations), the knee 

(trabecular bone patterning), and at the location of any orthopedic therapies. 

A comparative framework of both soft tissue and bony structures 

was generated to correlate signatures across techniques. Next, the donated 

individuals were transported to the Anthropological Research Facility of 

the Department of Anthropology at the University of Tennessee for 

decomposition. Following this, a postmortem record was created for each 

individual by taking x-ray, CT, and MR images in the anatomical regions 

previously selected. An effort was then made to correlate bony structures 

across image types. Finally, imaging signatures in the antemortem and the 

postmortem records were compared. 

Despite the limitations of traditional radiography, this image type 

again proved most useful in establishing identification from dental 

material and trabecular bone patterning when comparing the antemortem 

and postmortem records. This observation corroborates findings discussed 

in the clinical and academic literature. As a series of x-rays at specific 

intervals, computed tomographic images may be easily interchanged 

with traditional radiographic images in some cases. However, artefact 

glare from dental restorations and other therapies in CT images can significantly 

compromise image quality. Due to its very nature, MR may 

have the most limitations in a forensic setting. Magnetic resonance 


imaging provides excellent detail in the areas where bone and soft tissue 

interface, but it is not well suited for use with skeletonized remains. With 

the increased commonality of non-invasive imaging techniques in the 

antemortem record, and their proven utility in a forensic investigation, a 

familiarity with both simple and more advanced imaging methods is 

essential for the forensic investigator. 

Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Human 


H28 A Comparison of Facial Approximation 


Norman J. Sauer, PhD*, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State 

University, 354 Baker Hall, East Lansing, MI 

This study is an attempt to compare the different techniques for 

approximations, including drawings and computer-generated faces in two 

dimensions and models in three dimensions. These approximations 

include various techniques of artists from countries other than the United 

States. 

After most methods for attributing personal identity to a set of 

remains have been exhausted, the most common final attempt is to manufacture 

an approximation of the face either in two- or in three dimensions. 

These approximations are then broadcast to the public over television and 

newspapers in an attempt to trigger recognition and clues to identity. 

Identical plastic skull replicas of an identified individual were sent to 

volunteer artists, or were handed to them at the 2001 Academy meetings. 

The standard forensic anthropological parameters of the individual represented 

by the replica (age range, sex, ancestry) have been supplied to the 

artists, though the antemortem photographs will be withheld until the 

Academy meetings. The artist has been asked to use the technique most 

familiar to him or her. The approximations will be displayed at this year’s 

meetings, and general attendees will be asked to complete a short 

questionnaire concerning the techniques used. 

Facial Approximation, Human Identification, Facial Reconstruction 

H29 A Comparative Study of 

Mammalian Cortical Bone 

Harald Horni, BA*, and Robert R. Paine, PhD, 112436, Texas Tech 

University Department of Sociology, and Social Work, Box 41012, 

Lubbock, TX 

The objective of this research is to present any potential statistical 

differences in the histological features of mammalian cortical bone. 

The poster presentation will document the research done by Harald 

Horni for his Master’s Thesis in Anthropology. This ongoing yearly, 

research is an attempt to increase the available methods that can be used 

in identifying human remains. This study pertains to the forensic cases in 

which there is so little skeletal evidence (i.e., potential human remains) 

that identification of the remains cannot readily be done in the field. 

Mammals found in the surrounding area of Lubbock, Texas were 

used in this study and include armadillos, cats (domesticated), coyotes, 

deer, goats, and pigs. In addition, human samples were also collected. 

Samples from all the major long bones, the humerus, the ulna, the radius, 

the femur, and the tibia, were used. These bones were used as they have 

a substantial amount of cortical bone cross-sectionally. The fibula was 

excluded. Teeth were also excluded, as their gross and microscopic morphologies 

are quite distinct from that of all other skeletal material. Though 

teeth last longer when exposed to the elements, the cortical bone was 

utilized as the research material as both human and non-human cortical 

bone is very similar at the gross morphological level. Thus, the distinction 

between human and non-human bone can be made. 


These bones were cut into thin sections, using a standard bone cutting 

saw, and ground on a rotating polishing/grinding table. When the desired 

thickness of the thin-slides was achieved the samples were mounted onto 

microscopic slides for microscopic viewing. Under the microscope, 

histological features of the bone were studied. These features include the 

Haversian canals, osteons (primary and secondary), and the osteocytes. In 

an attempt to create a life-like scenario, as remains found in the field will 

be of unknown origin, sample areas were collected randomly from crosssectional 

areas from all the long bones. These randomly selected areas, 

such as osteon densities, Haversian canal densities, and the osteocyte 

densities in all the respective mammalian samples were used in the data 

collection. Additionally, in cases where plexiform bone (which appears 

like stacked layers) was found, it was noted in which species it appeared, 

and a new random location was selected. This was done in order to assure 

human-like conditions throughout the samples, as plexiform bone does not 

appear in human bone. 

The data collected from each species were then calculated, averaged, 

and standardized. The results of the non-human animal species were 

comprised into one average (± the standard deviation), as it was not the 

purpose of this study to calculate species-specific values from the nonhuman 

samples. Once this average was calculated, the non-human 

mammalian species were compared to the averages from the human data. 

The method of statistical differentiation can then be applied to the identification 

process using only limited amounts of bone. Hence, when in 

doubt about whether or not bones that are found are human, and, in 

association with a forensic/homicide case (as well as in archaeological 

scenarios), the bones can potentially be told apart using histological 

features. The histomorphological technique mentioned can be used to 

determine the difference between a potential legal investigation and that of 

a natural deposition of animal bone. 

Bone Histomorphology, Human/Non-Human Identification, 

Human Remains 

H30 Ankylosing Spondylitis in 

Three Forensic Cases 

John J. Schultz, MS, Heather Walsh-Haney, MA*, Suzanne Coyle, MA, 

and Anthony B. Falsetti, PhD, C.A. Pound Human ID Laboratory, 


The goals of this research project are to present the osteological 

marker of ankylosing spondylitis and the degree of variability noted in 

three forensic cases from the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory. 

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is the most clinically studied disease of 

all spondyloarthropathies (Ascari et al., 2001; Yacyshyn & Cohen 1999). 

Genetic studies have revealed that nearly 300,000 Americans exhibit AS 

with the HLA-B27 antigen being present in approximately 10% of healthy 

white Americans and nearly 3% of healthy black Americans (Laval et al., 

2001; Ascari et al., 2001). Clinical studies have shown that males develop 

the disease two to three times more often than females and that males typically 

exhibit the most severe forms of the disease (Ascari et al., 2001; 

Yacyshyn & Cohen 1999). Ankylosing spondylitis usually begins during 

adolescence or young adulthood and rarely begins after 40 years of age 

(Yacyshyn & Cohen 1999). 

Ankylosing spondylitis is characterized by inflammation and calcification 

of the axial skeleton and sacroiliac (SI) joints (Yacyshyn & Cohen 

1999; Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin 1998). Hallmarks of this disease 

are unilateral or bilateral fusion of the SI joint (Ascari et al., 2001; 

Yacyshyn & Cohen 1999), calcification of the longitudinal ligaments, and 

bridging vertebral syndesmophytes (Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin 

1998; Ortner & Putschar 1985). The latter two characteristics produce 

“squaring off” or “flaring” of the vertebral bodies, which give the spine the 

appearance of bamboo (Ortner & Putschar 1985). Spinal mobility 

becomes severely limited, being most evident as a decrease in extension 

and lateral flexion, loss of lumbar lordosis, thoracic kyphosis, and atlanto- 

590

axial subluxation (Yacyshyn & Cohen 1999). Secondary manifestations 

of AS include diarthrodial fusion of rib heads to their adjacent vertebra, 

calcification of the costosternal junctions and roughening of the iliac 

crests, ischial tuberosities, and spinous processes (Yacyshyn & Cohen 

1999). 

From July 2000 through May 2001, three of ninety-six skeletal cases 

examined at the C.A. Pound Human Identification Laboratory exhibited 

either calcification of the axial skeleton, fusion of the SI joint(s), and/ or 

diarthrodial fusion of the ribs. All three cases were of elderly males, two 

being of European ancestry and the other being of African ancestry. The 

skeletal pathologies noted on these three individuals are characteristics 

consistent with the clinical and paleopathological markers of AS. 

The first case was of an elderly black male who exhibited bilateral 

sacroiliac fusion and yet presented the least severe form of ligament 

calcification. Although no vertebral or rib ankylosing was noted, 

extensive calcification of the apophyseal joints of the lumbar vertebra and 

many of the other vertebral bodies was present. There was an absence of 

rib head to vertebra fusion. Secondary AS characteristics included marked 

roughening of the iliac crests and ischial tuberosities. 

The second case was of an elderly white male who displayed the 

prototypical “bamboo-like” spine as a result of the nearly complete fusion 

of his spinal column. Extreme vertebral kyphosis was also present as was 

unilateral fusion of the SI joint, pronounced calcification of the thoracic 

supraspinous ligament and diarthrodial fusion of the left 12th rib. 

Interestingly, complete calcification of the transverse ligament for C1 led 

to ankylosing of this vertebra to the axis. Additional AS characteristics 

included associated changes to the ischial tuberosities and iliac crests. 

Proliferative calcification of the costal cartilage with fusion of two true 

ribs was also observed. Pronounced arthritic lipping, macroporosity, and 

deep grooves were present on the zygapophyses of L5 and S1. Such 

arthritic changes were possibly due to the AS induced spinal fusion. 

The third case was also of an elderly white male. In this instance, 

however, the spine exhibited profuse vertebral fusion and “bamboo-like” 

spine. Marked kyphosis, scoliosis, and calcification of the thoracic 

segment’s supraspinous ligament were also observed. Extensive rib head 

to vertebra fusion (right ribs 6-10 and left ribs 8-10) and calcification of 

the costosternal cartilage were present. Of note was the absence of ankylosing 

spondylitis’ hallmark characteristic of sacroiliac joint fusion. 

Secondary AS characteristics included roughened ischial tuberosities and 

iliac crests. In addition, the odontoid process was fractured and did not 

unite to C2. The trauma to this bone may have been due to AS. 

These three cases have presented a unique opportunity to observe the 

various skeletal manifestations of AS in a modern forensic sample. 

Ankylosing Spondylitis, Bamboo Spine, Sacroiliac Fusion 

H31 Forensic Anthropology in Portugal: 

The State of Knowledge 

Eugénia Cunha, PhD*,Universidade de Coimbra, Departmento de 

Anthopologia, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal and Maria Cristina 

de Mendonça, PhD, Departmento de Anthropologia, Universidade de 

Coimbra/Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, Coimbra, Portugal 

The goals of this research project are to present to the forensic 

community the state of knowledge of forensic anthropology in Portugal. 

With the recently creation of the National Institute of Legal Medicine 

in Portugal, forensic anthropology is witnessing an important new development. 

In the present paper we present how their service is organized, 

highlighting the most relevant cases analyzed. We are creating a forensic 

laboratory, and adopting standard protocols for the analysis of every set of 

non-identified human remains. The examples provided, namely three 

cases of positive identification, show the importance of the interdisciplinary 

work is in the field of forensic anthropology. 

Forensic Anthropology, Positive Identification, Portugal 

H32 Thousands Dead: The Use of Stature 

in Individual Identification 

Jose Pablo Baraybar*, MSc, ICTY, Churchillplein 1, Den Haag 

Netherlands, and Erin H. Kimmerle, MA, University of Tennessee, 

Knoxville, TN 

Upon completion of this presentation, the participant will understand 

the problems underlying the usefulness of stature in human identification 

in mass fatalities, such as those originated in cases of violations to 

International Humanitarian Law. 

The role of forensic anthropology in the investigation of violations 

against International Humanitarian Law has become increasingly 

prevalent and important since the International Criminal Tribunals were 

established. Since 1996 the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 

and that for the former Yugoslavia have examined thousands of cases representing 

approximately 5000 people from Rwanda, Bosnia and 

Herzegovina, Croatia and Kosovo. The role of anthropologists in these 

missions have ranged from the recovery to the analysis of human remains, 

and, in some cases, to the collection of antemortem (AM) information to 

be compared with AM and postmortem (PM) records. Some of the parameters 

usually compared include basic elements of the biological profile 

of the victim, such as age, sex and stature. The value of stature as a cornerstone 

of the biological profile of an individual rests on the assumption 

that there is a record against which an estimation of that stature can be 

compared. It has been shown, however, that the records generally do not 

accurately reflect the real stature of an individual (Snow and Williams 

1971, Willey and Falsetti 1991). Moreover, if the self-perception of 

stature is potentially biased, how unbiased is the perception of an individual’s 

stature by others? In contexts outside the US, in the so-called 

Third World, for example, where all violations against International 

Humanitarian Law take place, the existence of documents of the deceased 

is more than often scarce and if present, serious doubts regarding the 

recorded stature should be cast. In these situations, the AM information is 

collected from survivors or relatives of the victims. For example, the 

relative being interviewed may say, “My father was as tall as you are.” In 

that case, the interviewer will make an estimate of the stature being 

referred to and write it down as such. The remains of the victims that we 

examine may carry ID papers; however, it is not certain whether those 

papers belong to that individual, the information in those papers varies and 

may or may not include stature, and most often victims of Human Rights 

violations have their identity papers taken from them. 

The sample consists of cases from throughout Kosovo who were 

killed during the conflict between 1998-1999 (n= 83). Data was collected 

by international organizations from relatives or friends of the victims. The 

stature of each individual was calculated from the length of the femur and 

using three different stature formulae, including two that have been 

derived from population samples in the Balkans and one from an 

American Caucasoid sample. The mean stature derived from each 

formula was compared against the reported stature using one-sample 

t-tests. All three anthropological stature estimates differ significantly from 

the reported antemortem stature (p =

outlined first (i.e., discriminating the very tall from the very short) and 

from where individual identification can start using other parameters that 

relate more directly to witness statements (i.e., old trauma, clothing, etc.). 

This would mean first creating group identification (i.e., younger aged 

males, between such-and-such age and height) and later individual identification. 

The views expressed herein are those of the authors above and 

do not necessarily reflect the views of the ICTY or the UN in general. 

Stature, Mass Graves, Identification 

H33 The Analysis of Ancestry From Skeletal 



Robert F. Pastor, PhD*, The Calvin Wells Laboratory, and Jacinta N. 

Daines, BSc, Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of 

Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, Bradford, United Kingdom 

This presentation reviews the treatment of the concept of human 

races, the analysis of morphological variation, and the use of principle 

division of racial variation and ancestral affiliation among British forensic 

scientists. Data concerning these issues were obtained from responses to 

questions on a questionnaire survey administered during early 2001. The 

discussion will also provide insight on the evolving role of forensic 

anthropology in medical-legal casework in the United Kingdom. 

The concept of race as a taxonomic reflection of human biological 

variation has been abandoned by many anthropologists, including but not 

exclusively by anthropologists involved in teaching or research in human 

identification of forensic remains. Critical discussion of the validity of the 

race concept has been focal to American forensic anthropology, while it 

has been relatively ignored by British and Continental forensic scientists. 

This undoubtedly stems at least in part from the Eugenics movement in 

Europe in the early twentieth century, and as a result of the holocaust and 

other atrocities committed during the Second World War. However, since 

the 1950s the United Kingdom has experienced an influx of immigrants 

from former colonies of the British Empire, especially from the Indian 

subcontinent and Africa, and more recent immigration from the Caribbean 

and the former Yugoslavia. This has lead to an increased use of racial and 

ethnic identifiers by the British Foreign and Home Office, Police and the 

public in general. As Kennedy (1995) and Sauer (1992) have pointed out, 

scientists involved in forensic identification are required to use biological 

characteristics of unidentified skeletal remains to derive a race term or designation 

that was culturally applied by friends, relatives and others to a 

missing person in life. 

The current study consisted of a questionnaire survey completed by 

the University of Bradford Department of Archaeological Sciences in early 

2001. The study consisted of a series of 16 direct and interpretative questions 

in a yes/no and multiple-choice format. The questionnaire was sent 

via e-mail and mailed to 50 University lecturers and professors in the 

United Kingdom (England, Scotland and Wales) and to a small number of 

privately employed osteologists and biological anthropologists. University 

lecturers were targeted primarily in departments offering biological anthropology 

or osteology courses. A small number of forensic pathologists and 

odontologists were also included in the survey. Responses were received 

from 20 of the 50 scientists surveyed, yielding a 40% return rate. While 

this is not ideal, it is an acceptable rate of response for mail questionnaires 

among specialist populations (Moser and Kalton 1997). 

Results of the study were mixed since not all respondents chose to 

answer every question on the questionnaire. For example, the third 

question “Do races exist (e.g., as a reflection of the biological variation in 

human populations)?” was answered by less than half (45%) of respondents. 

To this question, approximately 77.8% of the scientists said yes, 

while 22.2% said no. On the other hand, 85% of respondents chose to 

answer question 8a “Do you think racial/ancestral assessment of uniden- 


tified skeletal remains is a scientifically useful concept?” To this question, 

approximately 53% of scientists said yes, approximately 29% said no, 

while 18% of the scientists remained neutral. The second part of this 

question “Do you feel it (race/ancestry assessment) is necessary as part of 

your analysis of unidentified skeletal remains?” was answered affirmatively 

by approximately 57% of the scientists, negatively by 11%, while 

32% answered neutral. A majority (58%) of the scientists stated that they 

had undertaken forensic casework for the police or other medical-legal 

agencies, while 42% had no experience. Of the 45% of scientists who 

answered question 5a, approximately 55.6% stated that they relied principally 

on the cranial skeleton for racial assessment in forensic casework, 

while approximately 44.4% of scientists relied on both the cranial and 

postcranial skeleton. However, only 25% of the scientists chose to answer 

question 5b on the specific features or traits of cranial remains most relied 

upon. For question 5c “In your analysis of racial variation and/or ancestral 

affiliation, do you emphasize three or more principle divisions?” approximately 

44.4% of scientists use the three principle divisions Mongoloid 

(southeast Asian), Caucasoid (White), Negroid (African/Black) in forensic 

casework, while 55.6% used more than three racial subdivisions. 

In answer to Question 6a “In your teaching do you emphasize the 

concept of biological variation by race and/or ancestry?” approximately 

65% of scientists answered yes, while approximately 35.3% answered no. 

Of those scientists who teach the race concept, approximately 28.6% 

emphasize the three principle racial divisions while 71.4% emphasize a 

greater number of subdivisions. However, only a minority of respondents 

(35%) chose to answer this question. Finally, question 7 “Do you think 

the use of principle racial and/or ancestral divisions is beneficial to the 

analysis of skeletal remains (e.g., for the determination of a biological 

profile)?” was answered affirmatively by approximately 58.8% of 

scientists, while approximately 11.8% answered no and 29.4% answered 

neutral. 

These results are preliminary because of the relatively small sample 

of scientists who participated in the survey. However, the results suggest 

that, of the respondents to the questionnaire, the majority of British 

scientists teach some form of the race concept within the field of human 

biological variation. A smaller majority of these scientists assess the race 

or ancestry of unidentified skeletal remains in their forensic casework, 

although even fewer of these scientists consider the concept of human 

races to be scientifically valid. This study may prove useful as a baseline 

for a more detailed future questionnaire survey, with increased sample size 

and response rate, and for comparison with the larger American forensic 

anthropology community. 

Forensic Anthropology, Race Concept, Questionnaire Survey 

H34 Differences in the Os Coxa 

Between Blacks and Whites 

Jennifer A. Synstelien, MA*, Department of Anthropology, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 

Attending this presentation the participant will: 1) achieve a greater 

appreciation for racial variation in the size and shape of the os coxae 

between blacks and whites through the use of measurements previously 

applied in studies of sexual dimorphism, and 2) explore logistic regression 

modeling as an alternative approach to traditional discriminant function 

analysis in predicting group membership. 

Literature review of the anatomical and sports and exercise science 

journals presented evidence of musculature size and/or distribution differences 

between blacks and whites. Based on a specific research finding of 

increased cross-sectional area of the psoas major muscle in blacks when 

compared to whites and an understanding of the relationship between the 

pelvic musculature and the os coxa, a hypothesis was presented that the os 

coxae of black individuals will display greater depth and/or distance 

592

measurements along select points of the anterior border and iliac fossa 

while taking into account racial size differences in the os coxa. 

The psoas major muscle originates from the transverse processes, 

bodies, and intervertebral discs of the twelfth thoracic through the fifth 

lumbar vertebra. The iliacus muscle originates from the iliac fossa and is 

closely related functionally to the psoas major muscle. The fibers of the 

iliacus and psoas major muscles join together to pass under the inguinal 

ligament and over the anterior border of the os coxa to become the 

iliopsoas muscle, and inserting by way of a common tendon onto the lesser 

trochanter of the femur. 

To test the hypothesis, the os coxae of 41 modern American black 

males and 61 white males from five separate donated and forensic collections—the 

William M. Bass Donated and Forensic Skeletal Collections at 

the University of Tennessee, Knoxville; and the skeletal collections 

housed at the Hamilton County Office of the Medical Examiner in 

Chattanooga, Tennessee, the FACES Laboratory at Louisiana State 

University, Baton Rouge, and the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner in 

Chapel Hill, North Carolina—were analyzed for racial differences. 

Nineteen length and depth measurements were taken with a coordinate 

caliper or osteometric board and eight indices computed. The nineteen 

measurements were subjected to discriminant function analysis and the 

total canonical function evaluated for overall os coxa shape differences. 

The twenty-seven variables were then subjected to t-tests on the means 

and variable selection techniques to obtain an optimal model for group 

separation. Two separate methods of functional modeling were employed 

for classification—discriminant function analysis and logistic 

regression—and the cross-validation classification of the two functions 

were compared to see which form of modeling produced the greatest 

accuracy. 

The statistical results of this study reflect both size and shape differences 

in the os coxa between blacks and whites. Overall increases of size 

and robusticity of the white pelvis, compared to the black, have been 

reported by several researchers. This was verified by the statistically 

significant size increases in white males for fourteen of the nineteen 

variables. Variables that showed nonsignificant increases were the 

distance from, and the depth of the notch between, the anterior inferior 

iliac spine to the iliopectineal eminence (p=0.7085 and p=0.9119, respectively), 

and the depth of the notch between the anterior superior iliac spine 

and the iliopectineal eminence (p=0.4673). A nonsignificant decrease was 

found in the distance between the anterior inferior iliac spine and the 

iliopubic eminence (p=0.9383) and a small, however nonsignificant, 

decrease was found in the depth of the notch between the anterior superior 

and inferior iliac spines (p=0.0803). With the exception of the depth of the 

notch between the anterior superior and inferior iliac spines, these 

measurements all lie in the central portion of the os coxa where the 

iliopsoas muscle passes over the anterior pelvic brim. 

Both stepwise discriminant analysis and logistic regression using 

stepwise selection selected the same four variables for the construction of 

an optimal model for group prediction. These variables emphasized the 

greater distances in whites between the anterior superior and inferior iliac 

spines and between the anterior superior iliac spine and point ilioauricular—a 

point on the ilium where the iliac tuberosity, fossa and auricular 

surface meet—the greater depth of the iliac fossa as projected between the 

anterior superior iliac spine and ilioauricular points, and the lesser depth 

of the notch between the anterior superior and inferior iliac spines when 

compared to blacks. 

Evaluation of the four-variable model for prediction accuracy using 

the discriminant function resulted in correct classification of 75.6% of 

black males and 90.2% of white. In comparison, a logistic regression 

model resulted in correct classification of 73.2% of black males and 93.4% 

of white. 

Conclusions: 1) Although the os coxa of white males was significantly 

greater in almost all dimensions measured, an increase in overall 

size did not result in a corresponding size increase in the central portion of 

the os coxa. 2) Based on only four measurements on the os coxa and using 

cross-validation, discriminant function analysis classified 82.9% of males 

correctly and logistic regression 83.3%. These accuracy rates have only 

been equaled by measurements of the cranium or femur, or surpassed by 

using a combination of postcranial elements. 

Discriminant Analysis, Logistic Regression, Os Coxa 

H35 An Assessment of Craniofacial Nonmetric 



Joseph T. Hefner, BS*, Mercyhurst College, Forensic Anthropology 

Laboratory, 202 Parade Street, Erie, PA 

The primary goal of the current study is to provide more precise 

anatomical description and distribution of five craniofacial nommetric 

traits commonly used in ancestry determination. 

The determination of ancestry in the human skeleton – almost exclusively, 

the cranium – relies upon the combination of the assessment of the 

configuration of a number of unique morphological features (nonmetric 

traits) and the metric analysis (especially multivariate analyses) of the 

shape of the skull. Although nonmetric traits have proven rather effective 

in predicting the ancestry of an individual skull, success often relies almost 

exclusively on the experience of the observer rather than on objective 

comparisons to rigorous, well-conceived descriptions. Considering these 

deficiencies in the existing body of data, 17 cranial nonmetric traits were 

carefully documented for 762 individuals from 25 populations throughout 

the world (Caucasoid, n = 185; Mongoloid, n = 397; Negroid, n = 180) 

curated at the Smithsonian Institution and the Mercyhurst Archaeological 

Institute of Forensic Anthropology/Osteology Laboratory. In this 

presentation, discussion will focus on the morphological variations and 

distributions of five of the better known cranial traits. The traits include 

the inferior nasal aperture morphology, nasal bone external surface 

contour, nasal aperture width, interorbital breadth, and post-bregmatic 

depression. Each of these traits has been used extensively in ancestry 

determination, however, there has been only minimal effort to: 1) describe 

the morphological variants (i.e., character states) of each of these characters; 

2) analyze the distribution of these character states within each 

defined population: and; 3) provide correlation quotients for multiple 

traits. The range in variation of these characters is often not considered in 

the analysis of ancestry. This is inappropriate due to the fact that nonmetric 

traits are the result of polygenic control, and, therefore, consist of 

high inter– and intra– population variability. 

The analysis consisted of a number of stages. First, each major trait 

was examined and common variants (character states) were determined. 

Next, new anatomical terms were developed, where necessary, for 

character states not previously described. Each major trait was scored on 

a 5-level scale which allowed for the scoring of a range of intermediate 

morphologies. In this manner, each trait was scored progressively (i.e., 

inferior nasal aperture morphology was scored: gutter = 0; incipient gutter 

= 1; straight edged, or blurred = 2; partial sill = 3; and sill = 4). Finally, in 

an attempt to quantify this morphological variability, standard distribution 

frequencies for each of the character states were calculated for the populations. 

In addition, tetrachoric correlation computations for all traits were 

used to determine population inter– and intra–variability. 

Results indicate that the more common nonmetric cranial traits 

historically used in the determination of ancestry do correlate well with the 

three main ancestral groups. The nasal bone external surface contour of 

the Mongoloid sample (n = 397), for example, revealed somewhat 

expected results. Generally thought to possess nonmetric traits intermediate 

to Caucasoid and Negroid, nasals of the Mongoloid sample scored 

highest in the following variants: intermediate quonset [1] (27.4%), tented 

[2] (23.3%), or vaulted [3] (34.1%), where vaulted refers to a steep sided, 

flat nasal bone structure intermediate to tenting and steepled. Initial 


esults also indicate high correlations for most traits between ancestry 

groups. For example, the tetrachoric correlation of inferior nasal aperture 

configuration and nasal bone external surface contour in Caucasoids and 

Negroids is statistically significant (r = 0.727; p

Conclusions: A correlation between endocranial sutures closure and 

age was found for some age ranges. Nevertheless, this study has shown 

that age estimation by cranial sutures closure is not always reliable and 

that it must be combined to other methods for a better approach of this 

evaluation. 

Forensic Anthropology, Age Estimation, Endocranial Suture Closure 

H38 Accuracy of Age at Death Estimates Derived 

From Human Cementum Increments 

Carrie Anne Berryman, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt 

University, Nashville, TN; and Jerome C. Rose, PhD, University of 

Arkansas, Department of Anthropology, Fayetteville, AR 

Upon completion of this presentation, attendees will understand how 

to present the results of research into the use of human cementum increments 

for age at death estimates and offer direction for future research. 

Physical Anthropologists have greatly improved the accuracy of age 

at death estimates throughout the last century; however, adult age estimation 

remains to be one of the most problematic aspects of skeletal 

analysis. In the search for improved techniques, many researchers within 

the past 20 years have obtained promising results counting the incremental 

lines found in human dental cementum, a method borrowed from wildlife 

biology. The application of this technique to human remains is controversial 

due to conflicting results by various researchers, as well as the 

unknown etiology of cementum increments. Unfortunately, studies have 

utilized very different methodologies limited by the cost and availability 

of equipment, making comparison of results difficult. In addition to the 

technical difficulties, no study, to date, has tested the technique on a large 

well-controlled sample of forensic origin (the target population). Past 

samples have generally been clinical in nature. 

In order to assess the accuracy and feasibility of using cementum 

annulations in the routine forensic setting, a forensic sample of 52 first 

mandibular premolars, from known white males ranging in age from 18- 

62 years (mean age 36 years), was tested using what were purported to be 

the most reliable methods available. Demineralized, 5µm longitudinal 

sections, stained with cresyl fast violet were analyzed with a Zeiss 

standard trinocular light microscope at x400 magnification. Specimens 

were analyzed in four different groups, progressively weeding out those 

with conditions that have previously been shown to affect the growth of 

cementum (such as periodontal disease and caries) as well as those 

exposed to heat or chemicals which might affect their affinity for the stain. 

Results were poor relative to many previous studies. Correlation coefficients 

ranged from only r=0.45 to r=0.72 for the groups analyzed, 

progressively improving as those with previously mentioned conditions 

were removed from the sample. Although p-values significant at the 

P>0.05 level for three of the four groups analyzed support the presence of 

a relationship between number of incremental cementum lines and age at 

death, the relationship is not strong enough to be of value to forensic 

anthropologists. Intraobserver error for the number of incremental lines 

counted was also problematic. The correlation coefficient between counts 

was only r=0.72. This is due to the poor affinity for the stain in many 

specimens. 

It is the opinion of the authors that the poor results obtained in the 

present study reflect the importance of testing methodologies on the target 

population. The methodology utilized by this study, as well as many other 

investigations of cementum increments, is reliant on the integrity of the 

soft tissue component of the tooth, collagen. Although most of the collagen 

is most certainly present, the slightest chemical alteration may affect 

the ability of a stain to clearly differentiate the histologic structure in 

question, especially when such a high degree of resolution is necessary. 

Innumerable variables may affect the physical and chemical properties of 

skeletal material during the postmortem interval. With the exception of 

Condon and colleagues (1986), samples for previous studies, obtaining 

much better results, were composed almost entirely of clinical extractions 

which had been immediately fixed in formalin. The postmortem interval, 

prior to fixation, for the specimens tested in this study was well over a 

decade for 46 of the 52 specimens. It is felt that future research utilizing 

hard tissue techniques (i.e., acid-etched thick sections) and a large sample 

of forensic origin would provide the most insight into the utility of this 

technique. 

Age Determination, Cementum, Cementum Annulations 

H39 Age Estimation From Long Bone Lengths 

in Forensic Data Bank Subadults: Evidence 

of Growth Retardation and Implications 

of Under Aging 

Martha Katherine Spradley, MA*, Knoxville, TN 

This presentation examine the aging of subadults utilizing long bone 

diaphyseal lengths in the Forensic Data Bank (FDB) and comparing them 

with previously published longitudinal and cross-sectional data. This 

study finds that the FDB subadults exhibit growth retardation which may 

lead to under aging. 

In the identification of subadults, lack of secondary sexual characteristics 

can make sex estimation difficult, even impossible leaving age 

estimations critical in order to search through missing children reports. 

Measurements of the long bones may accurately be used to assess the age 

of subadults when the dentition or epiphyses are not present (Hoffman 

1979, Pfau and Sciulli 1994, Ubelaker 1974). The samples from which 

these standards are derived are often population specific with regards to 

ethnic affiliation and socioeconomic class. Hoffman found diaphyseal 

long bone length to be a good age estimator for individuals between the 

ages of two months to twelve years, a technique that correlates well with 

dental development. However, Hoffman uses long bone lengths from 

white middle class subadults attained from the Denver Human Growth and 

Development Longitudinal Study (McCammon 1970) to assess the age of 

subadult forensic skeletons. This is a technique which only ages children 

2 through 12 years and may not correctly age subadults from differing 

socioeconomic classes. 

The initial phase of this research compared the FDB subadult long 

bone lengths to long bone lengths obtained from the Denver Human 

Growth and Development Longitudinal Study (McCammon 1970). The 

FDB sample consists of cross-sectional data with 46 positively identified 

white children, 17 males and 29 females with known ages at death ranging 

from 0.3 to 18 years of age, the majority being homicide victims. The long 

bone lengths for the FDB come from maximum lengths taken directly 

from the humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia and fibula. These measurements 

were taken by various researchers from around the country and sent 

to the FDB. The Denver Growth Study sample consists of longitudinal 

data for 334 individuals comprised of healthy white males and females 

from 0.2 to 18 years of age. Long bone lengths of the humerus, radius, 

ulna, femur, tibia and fibula for the Denver sample were obtained from 

radiographic measurements taken “parallel to the long axis of the bone 

from the most proximal edge to the most distal edge of the diaphysis 

(McCammon 1970:161).” Corrections were made for radiographic 

enlargement. Up to the age of 12 years, bones were measured with 

epiphyses, and, at 12.6 years, without epiphyses. 

The Denver study contains only means, standard deviations and 

percentiles. Therefore, the Forensic Data Bank long bone lengths were 

plotted against the Denver data. Plotting the known ages at death of the 

FDB sample against the Denver sample indicates the FDB sample is not 

normal regarding long bone length, with the exception of the radius and 

ulna. FDB male long bone lengths tend to fall within the normal range 

before the age of 12. begin to fall below the mean. After the age of 12 the 

females tend to fall within normal range before the age of 9, and to fall 

below the mean after age 9 begin. 


Since the Denver data stemsfrom a healthy middle class sample, a 

more socio-economically diverse sample was obtained from the Franklin 

County Coroner in Ohio (Pfau and Sciulli 1994). The Ohio sample 

consists of radius, ulna, tibia and fibula long bone lengths taken from 

radiographic measurements of children who died from all manners of 

death during the months of July 1, 1990 through June 30, 1991 (Pfau and 

Sciulli 1994). Only the accident victims, 30 white males and 7 white 

females, were used in this sample with the reasoning that they are less 

likely to suffer nutritional or physical stress, which could possibly cause 

growth retardation (Floud, 1992, Wales 1992). 

The comparison of the FDB subadult sample to the Denver and Ohio 

samples demonstrates that the FDB is not a normal sample. Female FDB 

long bone length observations start out in the Ohio range and begin to fall 

below the Ohio observations around the age of 9. Male FDB long bone 

lengths start out below and stay below the Ohio observations. 

Analyses of FDB, Denver, and Ohio subadults conclude that the FDB 

subadults exhibit growth retardation in long bones, and aging them with 

non-diverse samples with regards to socioeconomic class and manner of 

death could lead to under aging. 

Subadult, Growth Retardation, Age Estimation 

H40 Quantitative Analyses of Human 

Pubic Symphyseal Morphology Using 

Three-Dimensional Data: The Potential 

Utility for Aging Adult Human Skeletons 

Matthew W. Tocheri, BA*, and Anshuman Razdan, PhD, PRISM, 

Arizona State University, Box 87-5106, Tempe, AZ 

The goals of this presentation are to present results of on-going 

research attempts to quantify the age-related skeletal changes that occur to 

human pubic symphyses. 

Forensic anthropology traditionally relies on 2-dimensional (2D) 

techniques to analyze the complex 3-dimensional (3D) shape of human 

bones. Standard osteometric equipment includes sliding calipers, 

spreading calipers, osteometric boards, coordinate calipers, and the head 

spanner. This equipment is insufficient for adequately measuring, 

recording, classifying, and representing complex 3D data. 

The Partnership for Research In Stereo Modeling (PRISM) at 

Arizona State University is currently undertaking the 3-Dimensional 

Knowledge (3DK) and Distributed Intelligence project. The focus of this 

project is on researching and developing the technology required to aid in 

the acquisition, representation, query, and analysis of 3D information. The 

Kernel represents a software library being created by PRISM to facilitate 

analysis of 3D data sets. Automation of tedious data processing tasks and 

the ability to support new techniques for the visualization, modeling, and 

quantification of 3D data are provided by the computational and analytical 

power of the Kernel. One aspect of on-going research at PRISM applies 

to forensic anthropology. Specifically, morphological bone features currently 

best described as qualitative data are targeted and methods are 

developed to enable successful extraction of quantitative data. 

Establishing the age-at-death of an individual from skeletal remains 

is a critical component of forensic anthropology. One of the most reliable 

methods for estimating age-at-death of adults is based on the morphological 

changes of the pubic symphyseal face. Several aging methods 

based on pubic symphysis morphology have been presented over the past 

eighty years, however, the majority of these represent refinements of the 

original method described by Todd (1920). Today, especially in North 

America, the Suchey-Brooks method of aging the os pubis is the most 

widely accepted and utilized. Their method involves the use of special 

casts that illustrate the bony changes through different age categories for 

males and females respectively. There are twelve casts for each sex and 

these are subsequently divided into six age stages with an early and late 

stage of development represented. 


This paper presents the results of analyses attempting to quantify the 

age-related changes that occur to the human pubic symphysis as displayed 

by the Suchey-Brooks casts. The age changes examined in this study 

include the following qualitative features: ridge-and-furrow system, dorsal 

margin, dorsal platform, ventral rampart, ossific nodules, rim, and 

delimited extremities. 

The analyses were conducted in the following manner: first, all 

twenty-four male and female pubic symphysis casts developed and 

described by Brooks and Suchey (1990) and Suchey and Katz (1986) were 

scanned using a 3D laser scanner to accurately acquire the 3D data; 

second, each pubic symphysis was geometrically modeled from the 

scanned images enabling essential shape characteristics, including curvatures, 

of the scanned cast to be extracted and quantified; finally, the 

resulting virtual 3D symphyseal faces were analyzed using various geometric 

analytical techniques in an attempt to extract quantitative data best 

representing the qualitative features of interest. Using a common set of 

algorithms, complex 3D features can be consistently extracted in the form 

of workable quantitative data. The paper will present preliminary results 

from the quantification of these 3D bone features. The utility of a quantitative 

approach and how 3D analyses can simulate the accuracy levels of 

experienced forensic anthropologists qualitatively aging human skeletal 

remains will also be discussed. 

The ability to quantitatively describe the age-related changes to the 

pubic symphysis may provide the potential for future refinement of the 

method. Other subjective aging methods (e.g., use of the auricular 

surface) may also be better understood through 3D analyses. In its continuing 

research, PRISM plans to develop a computerized database of 3D 

pubic symphyseal faces from individuals of known age-at-death, sex, and 

biological affinity. It is hoped that this work will lead to further 

efinements of the pubic symphysis aging method, especially in regard to 

differences between populations, as well as serving as an education and 

research tool. 

Skeletal Aging, Pubic Symphysis, Adult Age-at-Death 

H41 A Refinement of the Todd Method 

on a Sample of Modern Humans 

Steven N. Byers, PhD*, and Jennifer L. Brady, BA, University of New 

Mexico, Department of Anthropology, Albuquerque, NM 

The goals of this research project are to determine if numerical 

scoring of traits used in the Todd method for estimating age at death from 

the pubic face could increase the accuracy of estimates of this 

demographic parameter. 

Research was undertaken to provide more verification of the 

reliability of the Todd method for estimating age from changes in the 

symphysis of the pubic bone. Data were gathered on 124 pelvises from 

persons of known age at death from the Maxwell Museum of 

Anthropology’s osteological collection housed at the University of New 

Mexico. Approximately two-thirds of the samples were male, with the 

remaining one-third female; in addition, roughly three-quarters were of 

White ancestry, one-quarter Asian, and less than one percent Black. The 

features of the os pubis (e.g., symphyseal face, upper extremity) were 

broken down into component parts (e.g., dorsal aspect: outline, plateau, 

ridge) and were then assigned a number corresponding to their degree of 

development. These numerical scores were compared with both Todd 

phases and age-at-death to determine if this method could improve age 

assessment. On average, estimates of Todd phases derived from analysis 

of pubic faces coincided well with given age. Also, there was good 

agreement between phases derived from the left bone when compared 

with that estimated from the right bone. Other findings, as well as 

problems encountered, are described. 

Todd Method, Pubic Face, Age-at-Death 

596

H42 Age Estimation From Pubic Symphysis 

Alpana Sinha, MBBS, MD*, Assistant Professor, Department of Forensic 

Medicine & Toxicology, Lady Hardinge Medical College, New Delhi, India 

The goals of this research project are to present to the forensic community 

the usefulness of the pubic symhyseal surface as a reliable criteria 

of age estimation and to present the variations observed when the western 

standards are applied to Indian bones. 

Establishment of the identity of an individual is of utmost medico-legal 

significance. Age is an important criterion for identification. The present 

study was carried out to study age-related metamorphic changes at the symphyseal 

surface of pubic bones in Indians and to see whether they show a 

similar variation when compared to western standards. These changes have 

been compared with that of Todd’s phase system for white males, McKern and 

Stewart’s three component system with five active developmental stages for 

males, and the method of Hanihara and Suzuki who studied Japanese pubic 

bones using multiple regression analysis and quantification theory model. 

Eighty-two pairs of male pubic bones were collected from autopsy 

cases at Lady Hardinge Medical College and Associated Hospitals. The 

age was precisely recorded from the police records and further verified 

from municipal corporation records. The following features were recorded 

on the symphyseal surface: (1) Ridges and furrows, (2) Dorsal margin, 

(3) Ventral beveling, (4) Lower extremity, (5) Ossific nodule, (6) Upper 

extremity, (7) Ventral rampart, (8) Dorsal plateau, and (9) Symphyseal 

rim. Varying combinations of these features were used as criteria for age 

estimation of the subjects. 

The sample spans a range of 12-75 years with the highest concentration 

in the twenties (38%). It was found that the symphyseal surface 

remains convex up to 19 years and becomes flat after 27 years. The ridges 

and furrows are distinct till 17 years of age in males. The furrows become 

shallow between 18 to 26 years and disappear after 27 years. The dorsal 

margin appears by 12 years in males and is complete after 18 years of age. 

The dorsal plateau starts forming from 18 years in males and is complete 

after 35 years of age. The ventral bevelling starts forming after 20 years 

in males. The ventral rampart appears after 20 years in males and is well 

developed after 35 years of age. The inferior extremity shows its definition 

after 18 years in males and is well defined after 30 years. The 

superior extremity starts its definition after 22 years in males and is well 

defined after 35 years. The symphyseal rim starts its formation by 12 

years in males from the lower part of the dorsal border. It starts on the 

ventral half after 20 years in males and is complete by 39 years. The rim 

starts to break down after 30 years, with 65.5 % of males over 39 years 

showing this feature. The ossific nodules are observed from 18 to 50 years 

in males. Lipping on dorsal is observed above 30 years in males with 72.7 

% of case above the age of 45 years showing this feature. The disfigurement 

appears in 3.5 % of males above the age of 40 years. Variations 

on the two sides right and left, are noted in 34.1 % of males. The variations 

observed in the progression of metamorphic features can be 

attributed to environmental and dietetic factors. 

By comparing the progression of various metamorphic changes, it 

was found that Todd’s criteria tended to over age the Indian bones. When 

compared to McKern and Stewart’s Component stages, the development 

of dorsal margin is earlier in Indian bones. However, the completion of 

the dorsal plateau is delayed. The completion of ventral bevelling and 

rampart is delayed against the formation of symphyseal rim, which starts 

earlier, but completes later in Indian bones. According to McKern and 

Stewart’s Symphyseal Score method the metamorphosis in our series sets 

in earlier by 1-3 years, but the various bony features like dorsal plateau are 

found at a later age. When compared to the method of Hanihara and 

Suzuki using MRA, there is an over estimation until 30 years of age and 

under estimation between 31 to 39 years, The estimation becomes unreliable 

after 39 years of age. By using QM 1 method of Hanihara and 

Suzuki, the ages are overestimated until 30 years of age, while they are 

underestimated between 31 to 39 years of age. 

Age, Pubic Symphysis, Parameters 

H43 Aquatic Decomposition Rates 

in South Central Louisiana 

Sherice L. Hurst, MA*, and Mary H. Manhein, MA, Louisiana State 

University, Department of Geography & Anthropology, 227 Howe- 

Russell Geoscience Complex, Baton Rouge, LA 

The goals of this research project are to track aquatic decomposition 

rates in the southeast. 

Currently, little existing data provide insight into the postmortem 

interval (time since death) of human remains found in an aquatic environment 

in the southeastern United States. Though limited research on 

aquatic decomposition has been conducted in South Carolina and 

Tennessee, neither of these studies addressed such decay in a natural, 

freshwater setting, a lake. Therefore, this project focused on freshwater 

decomposition rates in subtropical Louisiana and also evaluated the effect 

of geographic location and temperature on such decomposition. 

Decomposition studies using pig carcasses began in early February 

2000. The site chosen for the project was the Louisiana State University 

Aquaculture Research Facility. The lake at the facility is a seventeen-acre, 

man-made lake stocked with perch, bass, catfish and various other animal 

life associated with a lake environment. The second area where research 

was conducted is a pecan grove located one half mile from the 

Aquaculture Center. This site is a sparsely wooded farming area with a 

creek bed located along the edge of the property. Both sites have cow 

pastures situated approximately 800 feet from the study area. 

One month prior to the beginning of the project, a 40-foot dock was 

constructed on the northeast side of the 400-foot-wide X 2000-foot-long 

lake. Two male and two female domestic pigs, Sus scrofa, were used in 

this project. The four 40-pound (18.14 kilograms) pigs were injected with 

4cc of Benthanasia-D®. A cage mechanism, attached to a winch on the 

end of the dock, housed one of the four pigs. The second and third pigs 

were placed in the lake without a cage and were rowed to their respective 

locations. The manner in which the second and third pigs were placed 

symbolized a homicide situation. Nylon rope was tied around their midsection 

and two front legs. One pig had a cinder block tied to the opposite 

end of the rope to simulate a victim being weighted down before being 

dumped. The other pig had a buoy tied to the end of a rope. The buoy was 

lightweight and helped to track the pig. This third pig represented a victim 

who might be thrown into the water and left to the natural elements. The 

fourth pig was placed in a cage located in the pecan grove. Daily observations 

were recorded for the first two weeks, followed by observations 

every other day for two weeks, and finally, once a week for the last eleven 

weeks of the experiment. Visual observations were recorded for all four 

specimens; however, the only carcass that was physically touched was the 

land pig in order to record various species of arthropods beneath the 

remains. The water pigs were photographed but not disturbed because 

additional movement might have produced trauma to the water specimens 

that could accelerate their decay process. Ambient temperature was 

collected from the Louisiana State University Climate Center, which 

accessed a weather station located on the Ben Hur Research Facility. 

Additionally, a Hobo® logger calculated water temperature. 

Results of this study showed that, as expected, the land specimen 

decayed faster than the three water specimens. Arthropod activity for the 

land pig included Musca domestica, Phormia regina, Dermestes 

maculatus, and Solenopsis invicta. Also, decomposition of the land pig 

followed stages similar to those of other researchers: fresh, bloat, dried 

remains, and skeletonized remains. For the land pig, the time elapsed from 

fresh to skeletonized remains with only desiccated skin left was 21 days. 

Ambient temperature for these days ranged from 62.9°F to 88.8°F. 

The decay rate for the pigs in the water was slower than that of the 

land pig. Though some flies hovered over the water pigs once they surfaced, 

no continuous, long-term arthropod activity was noted; nor were 

larvae found associated with the segments of these pigs that showed above 

the water line. Three main stages were recognized for the water pigs: 


fresh, bloat, and reduction. A fourth and final stage for the water pigs 

varied for each water specimen: sunken remains (cinder block/weighted 

pig), desiccated skin (pig at the dock), and relocated remains (buoyed pig, 

which washed to shore). Fresh stage to the final stage of decay in the 

water varied by specimen from 37 days to 72 days. Temperature and 

climate did affect the rate of decay and adipocere formation with 

adipocere forming after approximately two months for the water pigs and 

not at all in the land pig. 

This study provides new data on decomposition to assist with the 

determination of postmortem interval for those remains found in a freshwater 

aquatic environment in the southeast region of the United States. 

Freshwater Decomposition, Entomology, Louisiana 

H44 The Role of Clothing in 

Estimating Time Since Death 

Robyn A. Miller, BA*, University of Tennessee Department of 


The goals of this research project are to present to the Academy 

research results which show how clothing affects the process of human 

decomposition and how it also influences the process of estimating time 

since death. 

This presentation will familiarize the forensic community with 

current research on the effects of clothing on human decomposition and 

time-since-death estimation. Time-since-death estimation is an enigma 

that has plagued law enforcement, medical examiners, and the forensic 

community for years. An accurate estimate is critical for medicolegal 

purposes as it is often used in defense of an alibi. It may serve as a preliminary 

screening tool to eliminate putative killers who may or may not 

have had access to the body. More than half of the cases performed by The 

Forensic Anthropology Center at The University of Tennessee Knoxville 

require time-since-death estimates. Additionally, the success or failure of 

a criminal investigation may hinge directly upon accurate estimation. 

Several studies have been conducted at the Anthropology Research 

Facility located at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, which longitudinally 

examine the process of human decomposition. However, to date, 

no study has focused exclusively on clothing as a variable in this process 

using human subjects. Furthermore, few studies have been performed 

using animal models. Recent research demonstrates conflicting results 

regarding the effect of clothing on decomposition. Some authors conclude 

that clothing accelerates decomposition, while others maintain that it 

retards the process. The goal of this study is twofold: first, the process of 

decomposition of clothed human subjects will be documented; second, it 

will be determined whether clothing accelerates or retards the process of 

decomposition. This will be accomplished by comparing accumulated 

degree-days for clothed cadavers with those of nude cadavers. 

This research is the culmination of a year-long project using six 

unembalmed, clothed cadavers placed at the Anthropology Research 

Facility located at The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, at various 

times throughout the year. Consecutive observations were made on each 

cadaver and photographs were taken to record the progression of decomposition. 

Each body was assigned a number to mark the progression into 

each of the four stages of decomposition: (1) fresh, (2) bloat, (3) advanced 

decomposition, (4) skeletonization. The fresh stage is marked by the 

absence of discoloration, except for lividity, and the absence of maggot 

activity. Early decomposition consists of discoloration, bloating, marbling, 

skin slippage and extensive maggot activity. Advanced decomposition is 

marked by the release of gases and the ensuing abdominal sagging, as well 

as extensive maggot activity. This period begins after maximum body 

bloating has been attained. The skeletonization stage is marked by the 

absence of any wet tissue and includes mummified or dry tissue. It is 

important to mention that patterns of decomposition are more marked in 

warmer months and may be ambiguous in cooler months. Extensive 


freezing and lack of decay organisms in winter prevent observations of 

definitive decay patterns. Carnivores are also more aggressive in winter 

months, altering definitive stages of decomposition. 

It is well known that temperature is the primary variable affecting the 

rate of decomposition. After Vass and coworkers (1992), accumulated 

degree-days were calculated for each subject in this study after the final 

stage had been reached. This is performed by adding the average temperature 

for each day to the previous day. Vass and colleagues found that it 

takes approximately 1285 +/- 150 accumulated degree-days (ADD) for a 

body to decompose. In order to make an assessment as to the effects of 

clothing, ADD’s from this study were compared with ADD’s from previous 

studies using nude cadavers. It was determined that clothing retards 

the process of decomposition. Therefore, the presence or absence of 

clothing must be noted and compensated for when making an estimate of 


Time-Since-Death, Decomposition, Clothing 

H45 The Effects of Lime on the Decomposition 


Heather A. Thew, MS*, and Stephen P. Nawrocki, PhD, University of 

Indianapolis, 1400 East Hanna Avenue Indianapolis, IN 

The goals of this research project are to present the results of an 

experimental study on the effects of lime on the decomposition rate of 

buried pig remains. This may aid investigators in more accurately 

determining a post mortem interval (PMI) in limed burials base on the 

preservation of the remains. 

Of the many factors that affect buried remains, one that is particularly 

pertinent to forensic studies is the inclusion of lime in a burial. It would 

seem that assailants believe that lime accelerates the decomposition of soft 

tissues in buried remains. However, observations by forensic investigators 

suggest that lime actually tends to slow the decomposition of buried 

remains. Despite anecdotal information, the effect of lime on the decomposition 

of remains is not clearly understood. A systematic study of the 

role of lime in soft tissue preservation and how it interacts with other environmental 

variables is needed. The aim of this study was to determine the 

effects and interaction of three variables influential to the decomposition 

of buried remains: duration of burial, depth of remains below the surface, 

and the presence of lime. 

Over the course of four years, six separate groups of pigs ranging 

from 50-70 pounds each were buried in six rectangular pits on a farm in 

northwestern Indiana. Pits 1 and 2 each contained five pigs, which were 

interred for approximately thirty months (Nov 1995 to June 1998) at a 

depth of 50-60cm. Pits 3 and 4 each contained three pigs interred for 

approximately six months (Oct 1998 – May 1999) at a depth of 10-20cm. 

Pits 5 and 6 each contained three pigs interred for approximately six 

months (Oct 1998 – May 1999) at a depth of 50-60 cm. Pits 1, 3 and 5 

served as control groups. In Pits 2, 4 and 6 approximately 25 pounds of 

commercial lime covered each pig. 

In order to run a statistical analysis of the rate and degree of decomposition, 

a visual assessment of the condition of the pigs was translated 

into a numerical score. A continuum of decomposition stages was constructed 

and a number of points were assigned to each decomposition 

stage. Upon excavation, each pig was given a score based on the degree 

of decomposition it exhibited. These scores served as the dependent 

variable in an analysis of variance (ANOVA), with the independent 

categorical variables being time elapsed, depth, and lime inclusion. The 

theoretical model that best explains the relationships between the variables 

in standard ANOVA format is: Decomposition = Depth + Time Interval + 

Presence of Lime + Error. The various interactions between the main 

effects (such as Depth Lime*Time Interval, etc.) were also examined. 

Extensive qualitative descriptions also proved essential to understanding 

the results. 

598

The results show that lime does significantly slow the rate of decomposition 

of buried remains. The greatest difference in preservation 

between the limed and non-limed (control) burials occurred in the shallow, 

six-month pits (Pits 3 and 4). Although significant, the differences 

between the deep, six-month pits (Pits 5 and 6) and deep, thirty-month pits 

(Pits 1 and 2) were less impressive. Pits 3 and 4, being located near the 

surface, were potentially exposed to many more influential decompositional 

factors. The addition of lime to Pit 4 probably protected those 

remains from many of those same factors, while the unlimed Pit 3 remains 

quickly decomposed due to the near-surface exposure. The deeper burials 

in Pits 1, 2, 5, and 6 were better protected from temperature differences, 

insects, carnivores, moisture, and other factors by a thick layer of soil. The 

lime had little more protection to offer these deeply buried remains. 

Therefore, the decomposition scores between the paired pits (1 and 2, 5 

and 6) were more alike, albeit still significantly lower for the limed 

remains. 

In addition, due to the significance of the Lime*Time interaction, it 

appears that lime’s preservation qualities may decrease with time. This is 

likely due to the burial’s tendency to move towards equilibrium with the 

surrounding environment over time. It also appears that the preserving 

qualities of lime are not as influential at greater depths. This may occur 

because a thick layer of soil functions much like a layer of lime does in 

protecting against influential decompositional factors (such as insects). 

With this data, forensic investigators may be able to assess more accurately 

the postmortem interval for a limed burial. 

Soft-Tissue Decomposition, Lime, Burial 

H46 Evaluation of Odor as a 

Time-Since-Death Indicator 

Jennifer C. Love, PhD*, Regional Forensic Center, 1060 Madison 

Avenue, Memphis, TN 

The goals of this research project are to present a systematically 

method to collect and analyze decay odor and demonstrate its value as a 

time-since-death indicator. 

Until recently decay odor has not been used as a forensic investigative 

tool beyond body discovery by cadaver dogs. The object of this 

study is to evaluate decay odor as a time since death indicator. 

Decomposition results from two internal processes, autolysis, the 

breakdown of the cells following circulatory stasis, and putrefaction, 

endogenous bacterial proliferation, as well as many external factors; i.e., 

bacteria, carnivores, insects. The byproducts of putrefaction contribute to 

the odor of decay and include cadaverine, putrescine, volatile fatty acids 

(VFAs), methane and hydrogen sulfide. As a corpse progresses through 

the stages of decay the composition and concentration of the decay odor is 

expected to change. This odor pattern variation is hypothesized to be consistent 

from individual to individual and correlated to temperature. To test 

this hypothesis, the odors of decaying corpses were collected and analyzed 

using electronic nose technology. 

The greatest obstacle to successfully studying decay odor was the 

collection of a representative and replicable sample. A portable sampling 

device was designed to collect an appropriate sample. The device 

consisted of three glass pipettes filled with molecular sieve, connected to 

the inflow nozzle of an air pump. Molecular sieve, a universal dryant, 

captured the odor-causing agents under field conditions and released them 

under the analytical conditions of the electronic nose. The simultaneous 

collection of repeat samples, via the three pipettes, minimized the 

intersample error and reduced the sampling time. 

Aroma samples were collected from eleven decaying individuals at 

regular intervals. The human remains were donated for scientific study 

with known time of death and cause of death. Each corpse was received 

during the fresh stage of decomposition and was unautopsied. Included in 

the study were eight males and three females; all individuals were white. 

Age range was from 25 to 98 years. Cause of death was natural in all but 

three cases, two-suspected drug overdose and one suicide by hanging. Ten 

corpses were enclosed in a body bag during the decomposition process to 

concentrate and isolate the odor. One corpse was not placed in a body bag. 

A small hole was cut in each body bag through which the sample was 

taken. At each sampling event the temperature and humidity, as well as 

the intersample high and low temperature and humidity and rainfall, were 

recorded. The fluctuation and accumulated effects of temperature were 

summarized as accumulated degree days (ADD). Control samples were 

collected by sampling air contained within empty body bags. Four of the 

ten body bags were disturbed by carnivore activity during the decay 

process. The duration of the study was one year and at least one corpse 

was analyzed in every season. 

The results of the study show that the aroma pattern as detected by 

the electronic nose did not change over time; however, the concentration 

of the odor did change. The intensity of the odor positively correlated to 

ADD when the body was isolated in an undisturbed body bag (r=0.8). 

Intensity of the odor did not correlate to ADD when the body bag was disturbed 

or the body was not placed in a body bag (r = 0.3). At this time, 

odor as a time-since-death indicator is only applicable to samples collected 

from bodies isolated in body bags. In order to expand the application of 

this method, the sensitivity of the sampling method must be improved. 

Furthermore, important odor pattern variation may become detectable 

with increased sensor sensitivity of the electronic nose. In sum, the concentration 

of odor positively correlated to ADD when specific conditions 

are met. However, aroma pattern change is undetectable. 

Time Since Death, Decay Odor, Electronic Nose 

H47 Determining Postmortem Interval: 

A Preliminary Examination of 

Postmortem Thorium, Actinium, 

and Radium Isotopes in Bone 

Christine N. Rea, MA*, Department of Anthropology, Kent State 

University, 228 Lowry Hall, Kent, OH; and H.O. Back, Department of 

Physics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Robeson 

Hall, Blacksburg, VA 

The goals of this research project are to present a potential new 

method for determining postmortem interval by examining Ra-228, 

Th-228, and Ra-228. 

Determining postmortem interval (PMI) can aid in solving many 

police cases involving deaths. Authorities often look to the forensic 

anthropologist to determine PMI in skeletal material. Therefore, a method 

to determine PMI would be extremely beneficial to the anthropologist. 

The methods that are currently used in determining PMI include entomology, 

botany, pathology, and decomposition. Because the environment 

can affect these methods drastically, they can be inaccurate or not used at 

all. By determining a method based on the decay of radioactive isotopes, 

the environmental factor is eradicated. Environmental factors do not 

affect decay rates. Thus this method would have the benefit of being the 

only method not affected by any environmental factors or conditions. This 

research focuses on deriving a dating method similar to current radiometric 

methods such as C-14 and K/Ar. However, this study focuses on 

isotopes with a shorter decay rate: Ra-228, Ac-228, and Th-228. 

Research has shown that the preceding isotopes have consistently 

been shown to be present in bone. These isotopes are part of the thorium 

series with Ra-228 decaying into Ac-228 and Ac-228 decaying into 

Th-228. The half-life of these isotopes ranges from 6.13 hours to 6.7 

years, which will allow for a method that dates from the present to approximately 

20 years ago. Research shows that during the lifecycle of a human 

the Ra-228 isotopes and its daughters exist in equilibrium. Once a person 

dies, bone no longer accumulates isotopes. The only activity seen is the 


decay of the isotopes present in the bone at death. Looking at the ratio of 

remaining isotopes, a method to determine PMI can be derived. 

The sternal end of a rib from 5 individuals was tested. The Montana 

State Medical Examiner harvested the samples and gathered age, sex, and 

time/date of death for each specimen. The samples were tested at the 

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in Washington State on an ICP-MS 

and a coincidence system. The coincidence system has a high efficiency 

for capturing coincident gamma ray emissions. The decay rates of the 

isotopes were used to determine the integration constant, C. This research 

rested on the premise that C was constant for all samples. When C is 

constant, the only unknown in the following equation is the time since 

death. 

The preceding equation only takes into account the decay rates of 

Ra-228 and Th-228. Because this research was a preliminary study, 

Ac-228 was excluded from the equation. Ac-228 did not need to be 

included in this equation to determine whether or not this method would 

work. In further research, Ac-228 will be included for an accurate 

determination of the integration constant. If Ac-228 were to be included 

in this preliminary study, the equations would have become extremely 

cumbersome. By looking at Th-228 and Ra-228, determining whether or 

not this new method was viable became easier. The premise of this study 

was to decide whether or not this new method was viable and worth future 

research. 

Postmortem Interval, Radioisotopes, Bones 

H48 Differentiation of Bone and Tooth From 


Douglas H. Ubelaker, PhD*, Department, Anthropology, Smithsonian 

Institution, Washington, DC; Dennis C. Ward, BS, FBI Laboratory, 

Washington, DC; Valeria S. Braz, MSc, Federal University of Rio de 

Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; and John Stewart, PhD, FBI, 


Upon completion of this presentation, the attendee will understand 

how the identification of small particles as representing bone or tooth can 

be facilitated through scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive 

X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) analysis. 

With increasing frequency, materials thought to be of human origin 

submitted to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Laboratory for 

identification are extremely fragmentary, incomplete, and often altered 

through taphonomic factors. Frequently such evidence is submitted with 

the intention that DNA analysis will clarify issues of identification. Prior 

to such analysis, it is desirable to determine if such evidence may be of 

bone of tooth origin or if it represents other materials commonly found in 

crime scenes which can be morphologically similar to bone or tooth. 

Determining if such evidence represents bone or tooth using standard 

morphological approaches can be problematic if such evidence is 

extremely small and/or has been altered taphonomically. 

In such cases, interpretation can be enhanced by comparison of the 

results of SEM/EDS analysis to reference material data archived in an 

x-ray spectral database. This contribution reports on such an approach and 

the continuing project to build an appropriate database. 

Analysis using SEM/EDS represents a well-known, commonly 

utilized tool to provide quantitative, qualitative, structural and/or comparative 

information to assist in the interpretation of materials of potential 

forensic significance. In 1994, the FBI initiated an effort to construct a 

database of x-ray spectra in support of laboratory analysis of forensic 

evidence (1). More recently, the concept of this database has been 

modified as a Windows-based application on a PC that functions with a 


contemporary EDS system (1). The current system allows storage of 

standard spectra with display of qualitative composition, images and information 

about the sample. The system also permits comparison of spectral 

data from an individual sample against the database with expression of the 

appropriate probabilities of association. 

To address the bone/tooth identification problem discussed above, 

the authors have augmented the pre-existing database with many known 

bone and tooth samples from a variety of contexts, as well as materials that 

are easily confused with bone and tooth. The bone and tooth samples 

consist of pristine examples as well as those representing the full range of 

altered conditions. Human as well as other vertebrates are presented. 

Examination of this expanded database reveals the composition of 

bones and teeth, especially their proportions of calcium and phosphorus. 

These data will allow them to be successfully separated from most other 

materials in the database. Exceptions in the existing database that show 

potential for confusion with bone and tooth are ivory, mineral apatite, and 

perhaps samples from a group of corals. Research continues on new 

methods to differentiate fragments of these materials from bone and tooth. 

References: 

1. Ward, D.C., Use of an x-ray spectral database in forensic science. Forensic 

Science Communications, July, Vol. 2, No. 3, available on-line at www.fbi.gov. 

Bone Identification, Elemental Analysis, Data Bases 

H49 Factors That Affect mtDNA 

Recoverability From Osseous Remains 

Mark Leney, PhD*, U.S. Army CILHI, 310 Worchester Avenue Hickam 


Due to the unprecedented scale of efforts to identify unknown 

osseous remains by the U.S. Army Central Identification Laboratory and 

through extensive access to the resources of the Armed Forces DNA 

Identification Laboratory, over 2500 osseous samples have been submitted 

for mtDNA analysis. While previous reports of ancient DNA analysis 

success rates have been anecdotal, concerned sample sizes and explored a 

relatively narrow range of environmental variables, this paper reviews sufficient 

samples to statistically characterize relatively subtle effects that 

may throw light on the odds and even the mechanism of DNA recovery. 

Improvements in technology, element sampled, sample mass, and timesince-death 

are all reviewed. In addition, the huge range of preservational 

environments represented allows a more systematic investigation of the 

effects of climate on the recoverability of DNA from bone. We contend 

that placing this data in the public domain will assist in the planning and 

optimization of the use of ancient DNA analyses and that systematic study 

of our successes and failures will better inform the debate over the actual 

mechanisms of DNA preservation and recoverability. 

CILHI, mtDNA, Preservation 

H50 How Not to Stage a Burial: 

Lessons From North Korea 

James T. Pokines, PhD*, Greg E. Berg, MA, Bradley J. Adams, MA, Ann 

W. Bunch, PhD, John E. Byrd, PhD, and Thomas D. Holland, PhD, U.S. 

Army Central Identification Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam 


This presentation conveys a range of factors that may be used to 

determine if a burial has been moved to its location recently with the 

design of deceiving investigators as to true burial age. This type of fakery 

can be detected most effectively at the time of excavation, since, in most 

cases, these remains have already undergone significant periods of burial 

600

or intermediate storage in another location. Detection must therefore 

focus upon forensic archaeological techniques, with laboratory analysis as 

an additional important contributor. The discrepancies noted in the presented 

cases may also pertain to forensic investigations in other settings, 

where loss of primary burial context is suspected. 

Through their recovery operations for the remains of soldiers missing 

in action from the Korean War (1950-53), the staff of the U.S. Army 

Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii (USA-CILHI) has detected 

rampant staging of burial contexts in North Korea. This staging normally 

consists of the removal of skeletal remains and associated artifacts from a 

primary wartime burial or intermediate storage context and “planting” 

these items for recovery during joint operations with the Korean People’s 

Army (KPA). Identification of these remains is therefore hindered through 

the loss of primary context, mixing of remains from multiple burials, the 

loss of elements, and the misassociation of U.S. military identifying 

artifacts (identification tags and cards, unit and rank insignia, specific 

issue uniform items, and labeled equipment) and personal effects with 

unrelated human remains. The reburial of these remains therefore is a 

major hindrance to their eventual identification and return to next of kin. 

Multiple lines of field evidence have been used in the detection of 

staged burial contexts. Most obvious among these is the anatomical 

misalignment of skeletal remains laid out in approximate anatomical 

order. In some cases elements have been found reversed (right for left) 

in a burial otherwise appearing to have undergone no major disturbance. 

Other instances include vertebral columns with one reversed vertebra, 

single skeletal elements found at a significantly different depth than the 

remainder of a skeleton, thoracic elements found inside crania, or 

outright missing elements despite the excellent preservation of the 

surrounding bone. 

Non-anatomical field evidence has also proven key in the detection 

of burial staging. In some cases, staged burial contexts have been reconstructed 

to appear as former entrenched positions with hasty wartime 

burials placed inside. These contexts often lacked any sort of battlefield 

trash in the form of expended ammunition or other items that are ubiquitous 

in these settings. The lack of any corrosive staining of sediments 

surrounding highly corroded metal artifacts also indicates the short 

interval in their discovered location. The taphonomic state of skeletal elements 

has indicated their recent reburial, such as undamaged but fragile 

crania in a shallow grave less than 25 cm beneath the surface of a plowed 

field, or recent breakage upon elements reported to have been buried for 

an extended period. Variable plant root invasion and damage to skeletal 

elements has also indicated their differential burial history from associated 

artifacts. Loose burial fill and loose sediments within crania also have 

indicated recent depositional status. Degradable objects, such as fresh 

plant stalks and leaves, have also been recovered deep within burial 

deposits. Geomorphology and soil analysis have also proven useful in the 

detection of recent reburials, as in the cases of still-visible low mounds 

over burials in areas of high erosion or soil in burial areas that do not 

correspond to nearby conditions. 

Laboratory analysis has also aided in staged burial detection. 

Preliminary research in human taphonomy relative to soil pH has exposed 

multiple cases where the overall condition of the remains does not correspond 

to the relatively harsh or benign soil conditions where they had 

reportedly spent approximately 50 years. Gluing of elements and tool 

marks from previous excavation have also been found. Remains have also 

been identified as non-U.S. in origin, despite their association with U.S. 

artifacts. Laboratory analysis has also disclosed the modification of 

remains received through unilateral turnover from the North Korean government, 

including multiple mitochondrial DNA sequences from single 

sets of remains and other evidence of previous tampering during long term 

storage (gluing, drilling, and labeling). 

The combination of the laboratory analyses and the field evidence 

described above provides a comprehensive list of factors which may be 

used to detect staged burial contexts in forensic investigations. 

Staged Burial, North Korea, Forensic Archaeology 

H51 The Pits: Recovery and Examination 

of Skeletonized Remains From a 

Concrete Filled-Fire Pit 


Examiner, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 1413 Research 

Boulevard. Building 102, Rockville, MD 

The goals of this research project are to demonstrate the problems 

encountered when removing human remains which have been covered in 

concrete, and the use of forensic anthropological techniques to determine 

probable cause of death and to establish positive identification. 

Recovery of human remains is a scientific discipline within itself, 

requiring extensive study and implementation of specific methods and 

techniques. A multitude of recovery scenarios have been documented in 

the forensic literature for which the majority involve recovery of scattered 

surface remains. Aquatic recoveries such as from a pond, river or ocean 

also present many challenges. Similar challenges are encountered when 

attempting to recover remains from clandestine sites such as landfills, 

sewage tanks, and canals. 

Some of the more complexing types of recoveries encountered by 

death investigators are those from beneath or within concrete. Locating 

remains hidden in concrete itself can be difficult, requiring the use of geophysical 

technology such as ground penetrating radar, gas probe detectors, 

and remote miniature video cameras. Fortunately, in many such cases, the 

postmortem decompositional process results in improper curing of the 

concrete. Postmortem gas production and release of decompositional 

fluids in many cases, infiltrates the concrete producing cracks and fissures. 

Breakdown of the epidermal tissues often acts to form a barrier to the 

adhesive properties of the concrete. Cracks or other rupturing of the concrete 

can allow access to the remains by carrion insects, and alert 

investigators to the presence of a decomposing body. 

A case in point to be presented, involves the death of a twenty-nine 

year old Asian/American male whose decomposed and skeletonized 

remains were recovered from a concrete matrix. In October of 1999, a 

military platoon training in a partially-wooded area of US Army Post, Ft. 

Sill, Oklahoma, noted a strong odor emanating from an outdoor fire pit. 

The fire pit, which was rectangular in shape and constructed of large field 

stones and mortar, was utilized routinely by troops to cook meals while 

conducting field exercises. Upon inspection of the fire pit the soldiers 

noted the bottom to have been be filled with concrete. A sizable young 

tree sapling along with a long aluminum pole was also noted strangely 

protruding from the concrete. Removal of the small fractured section of 

concrete, by one of the soldiers, revealed the presence of a large mass of 

maggots, and what appeared to be human bones. 

Discovery of the remains was followed by recovery efforts 

conducted by representatives of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner’s 

Office, US Army Criminal Investigation Command, and the Federal 

Bureau of Investigation. Examination of the fire pit revealed that the 

components of the concrete had been transported to the remote location, 

and mixed directly within the pit over and around the body of the 

deceased. The long aluminum pole, noted extruding from the fire pit, was 

determined to be the tool utilized to mix the concrete. Removal of the 

remains was conducted by carefully chipping away sections of the 

concrete with a masonry hammer and chisel. A small tarp was used to 

cover skeletal elements after they were exposed in order to protect them 

from flying debris. As a result of postmortem decomposition, the concrete 

had formed a type of hollow casing over the remains. The casing provided 

for easy separation with the exception of the right lower leg, which had 

been fully encased in the concrete. 

Anthropological examination of the remains at the site revealed them 

to be consistent with an adult Mongoloid male between twenty-five and 

thirty-five years of age at death. Tactile examination of the cervical spine, 

which was covered in significant amounts of purified soft tissues, found 

extensive fragmentation of several of the vertebrae which was consistent 


with a gunshot wound. Radiological examination of the skeletal remains 

and associated soft tissues led to the discovery of multiple lead shotgun 

pellets in the area of the neck. The death was ruled as a homicide resulting 

from a single shotgun wound to the neck. Positive identification of the 

homicide victim was not established until approximately three months 

later, when a missing persons lead provided for the recovery of antemortem 

dental radiographs of the deceased. 

Decomposition, Physical Anthropology, Skeletal Recovery 

H52 Of Posteriors, Typicality, and 

Individuality in Forensic Anthropology 

Lyle W. Konigsberg, PhD*, and Richard L. Jantz, PhD, Department of 

Anthropology, University of Tennessee, 250 South Stadium Drive, 

Knoxville, TN 

The goals of this research project are to present to the forensic 

anthropology community the basis for calculating probabilities and likelihood 

ratios for identification purposes. 

With the increasing visibility of DNA evidence in the courts and the 

public press, forensic anthropologists are being called upon to present 

osteological information and/or evidence in probabilistic terms. This is an 

endeavor for which many forensic anthropologists are generally illprepared, 

as their training is likely to have included only a course or two 

in basic inferential statistics that rarely included more than a passing 

reference to probability theory in general, and Bayesian inference in 

particular. This paper gives a “gentle introduction” to probabilistic 

thinking in forensic anthropology, using examples drawn from the 

Forensic Anthropology Database maintained in the Department of 

Anthropology at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. 

The paper begins with a presentation of the ideas underlying “posterior 

probability” and “typicality,” two key concepts with which many 

forensic anthropologists are already familiar from their exposure to discriminant 

function analysis and/or FORDISC. In the discriminant setting, 

we want to find the posterior probability that a particular case “c” belongs 

to a particular group gi of G groups. By Bayes’ Theorem, this conditional 

probability (i.e., posterior to the osteological information “x”) is: 

While the posterior probability of membership in a particular group 

may be high, the likelihood of getting the observed osteological information 

(which is proportional to ) may be quite low. “Typicality” is 

designed to answer this particular concern, by finding the probability that 

the observed distance of the case to the particular group centroid, or any 

greater distance, could arise by chance. This paper uses a computer simulation 

approach to demonstrate the less intuitive concept of “typicality.” 

Both “posterior probability” and “typicality” may be fairly 

comfortable concepts for forensic anthropologists, but the notion of 

“individuality” is a less familiar area. Forensic anthropologists are used to 

thinking in terms of “positive identifications,” and generally have less 

experience in calculating and presenting statistical evidence in an 

“identification case.” Neither “posterior probability” nor “typicality” are 

particularly relevant concepts in identification cases, because if the 

identification is correct there is no interest in a posterior probability calculation, 

and there is certainly no interest in the probability of finding any 

“more extreme” case (as in “typicality”). Instead, following Evett and 

Weir’s (1998) logic from their book Interpreting DNA Evidence: 

Statistical Genetics for Forensic Scientists, what is needed is a likelihood 

ratio that compares the probability of obtaining the observed osteological 

evidence if the putative identification is correct, versus the probability of 

obtaining the observed osteological evidence from the “population at 


large.” The specificity of this likelihood ratio depends on the antemortem 

information that is available about the individual who is putatively identified. 

If the individual is only identified as to “being in group gi ,” then 

the likelihood ratio is: 

Although this likelihood may be too diffuse to “make the positive 

I.D,” when combined with other evidence it may provide a strong enough 

posterior odds ratio to satisfy the courts. 

Osteology, Statistics, Evidence 

H53 The Validity of Using Unique Biological 

Features as a Method of Identifying Victims 

of War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia 

Debra Komar, PhD*, Director, Laboratory of Human Osteology, 

Maxwell Museum, Department of Anthropology, University of New 

Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 

The goals of this research project are to present findings of a research 

study regarding the frequency of fractures, pathologies, surgery, and dental 

reconstruction in modern populations and the reliability of using these 

features as a means of personal identification. 

The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in physical and forensic 

anthropologists participating in genocide and war crimes investigations in 

regions such as Rwanda, Argentina, and the Former Yugoslavia. Inherent 

in such rapid expansion is both the opportunity for research in previously 

unexplored areas and, unfortunately, the ad hoc use of untested methodologies. 

Traditional methods of identifying individuals include visual 

recognition, fingerprinting, DNA, dental records and the comparison of 

antemortem and postmortem x-rays. However, in the Balkans the decayed 

state of the remains precludes visual assessment and fingerprinting; 

limited access to healthcare and inadequate documentation prohibit dental 

and x-ray comparisons and DNA testing on such a massive scale is too 

costly and requires laboratory resources not presently available. Yet the 

need to identify victims for prosecution and humanitarian purposes 

persists and demands innovative methods. 

Current identification protocols in the Former Yugoslavia rely 

heavily on witness statements identification documents recovered family 

recognition of clothing and personal effects and the presence of unique 

biological identifiers such as artificial limbs, evidence of previous fractures 

or trauma, and extensive dental reconstructions. However, personal 

observation and experience in Bosnia in 1999 and Kosovo in 2000 indicated 

that it was not uncommon for a single mass grave to produce two or 

more individuals of similar age and sex who possessed identical fractures, 

surgical scars or dental work. Yet, identifications continue to be made on 

the basis of these features, under the assumption of their “uniqueness.” 

This study seeks to identify those features which are sufficiently rare 

as to be deemed unique biological identifiers. While previous studies have 

examined the incidence of trauma and pathology in archaeological 

contexts or the frequency of specific fracture types within populations, no 

literature exists on the overall frequency in modern populations of dental 

modifications, fractures, surgical interventions and other biological 

characteristics that endure and are recognisable post-mortem. Nor is it 

currently known how such features vary among cohorts of different age, 

sex, socio-economic status or geographic location. 

Data was collected on two modern skeletal populations which serve 

as control and comparative samples. The first population is housed at the 

Maxwell Museum of Anthropology at the University of New Mexico. 

This collection represents 463 individuals from documented donors as 

602

well as recent medico-legal cases. This collection encompasses a wide 

demographic population ranging in age from new born to 101 years and 

with a representative distribution of males and females, ethnic affinities, 

and socio-economic classes. A second collection, housed at the University 

of Tennessee Forensic Anthropology Research Center, was also analysed. 

A total of 137 adult individuals were included from this collection, creating 

a total sample size of 600 individuals who died between 1984 and 

2001. The need for such research to be conducted on very recent populations 

made the study of these collections preferable to the more traditional 

forensic research collections (such as the Terry collection at the 

Smithsonian), which were created pre-1950. 

Features such as antemortem fractures, pathologies, dental repairs, 

and surgical interventions were recorded for each individual. Statistical 

analyses will provide the overall frequency of each feature within the 

population, as well as by sex and age cohorts, and will determine which 

features represent unique biological identifiers. Future publications will 

compare these findings to data collected in Bosnia. 

The results of this research may be used to modify current identification 

methods and will provide the necessary scientific documentation to 

support or discredit the presumptive identifications of war crime victims 

should they be questioned in international and regional legal proceedings. 

Forensic Anthropology, Identification, War Crimes 

H54 Testing the Average Methodological 


Carl N. Stephan, BHSc, Department of Anatomical Sciences, The 

University of Adelaide, Australia; Ian S. Penton-Voak, PhD, Department 

of Psychology, The University of Stirling, Scotland; David Perrett, PhD, 

and Bernard Tiddeman, PhD, School of Psychology, The University of St. 

Andrews, Scotland; John G. Clement, PhD*, School of Dental Science, 

The University of Melbourne, Australia; and Maciej Henneberg, DSc, 

Department of Anatomical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, 

Australia 

The goal of this presentation is to present research to forensic anthropologists, 

which, in the best-case scenario, indicates that standard facial 

approximation techniques will only permit about a 45% true positive 

recognition rate. 

Facial approximation is the process of building faces on dry skulls for 

identification purposes. Currently the technique relies upon the prediction 

of facial feature dimensions and shapes from the skull. However, attempts 

are less than optimal since most predictions are based on general trends, 

or averages, that are not representative of all individuals. One example of 

this is the use of average soft tissue depths. Since at present, face surface 

color tones and texture cannot be predicted from the skull, they are usually 

left to the subjective interpretation of the practitioner. A more objective 

way to represent the surface color and texture of facial approximations is 

to use the same approach as that used for feature dimension and shape 

determination, i.e., averages. The ability of the “average” facial approximation 

approach to generate personal recognition is unknown. Given that 

facial surface textures and color tones are unlikely ever to be easily 

determined from skulls, this study examines the ability for personal recognition 

to be generated from faces displaying average color and texture 

information, but displaying exact individual face shapes. Since facial 

approximation techniques cannot yet reproduce exact face shapes, this 

experiment is expected to be a “best-case scenario” test of facial approximation 

methods. The faces used for recognition testing were constructed 

in two-dimensional frontal views, on computers, using average human 

faces, warped to the exact face shape/proportions of target individuals. 

From a face pool of six individuals, unfamiliar assessors were asked to 

attempt to identify the person to whom the warped average face 

represented. Assessors had the option of not making identification if they 

thought the target person was not present in the face pool. Familiar 

assessors were also asked to examine the computer generated faces and 

indicate if they recognized any. Results indicate that average human faces, 

adjusted precisely to individual face shapes, allow identification in the 

majority of scenarios, however recognition rates are low (

H56 Comparative Radiography of the 

Lateral Hyoid: A New Method for 


Jered B. Cornelison, MS*, Todd W. Fenton, PhD, and Norman J. 

Sauer, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Michigan State University, 

446 East Fee Hall, East Lansing, MI; Joyce L. de Jong, DO; and 

Brian C. Hunter, MD, Sparrow Hospital, Forensic Pathology Services, 

1215 East Michigan Avenue, Lansing, MI 

Attendees will learn that radiographic images of the human hyoid can 

be utilized for purposes of positive human identification. 

This paper has three objectives: First, the gross radiographic shape 

of the hyoid, in which differences in the radiographic pattern of the body 

and horns and cross-sectional architecture of the body are demonstrated to 

be variable and individualizing. Second, an easy, replicable method for the 

approximation of postmortem to antemortem lateral cervical radiographs 

will be described. Finally, the results of a validation study that tested identification 

by comparative radiography of the hyoid will be discussed. 

In human remains cases where identity is unknown or needs to be 

verified, antemortem/postmortem x-ray comparison is often the most 

effective and powerful means of positive identification. It is imperative in 

such cases that practitioners understand medical radiographic techniques 

and standards and know which dental and skeletal elements have been 

shown to be useful and acceptable in our legal system. Unfortunately, few 

validation studies have been published that contribute to our understanding 

of the uniqueness and the power of discrimination of various 

skeletal elements. In this study, a noninvasive protocol for approximating 

medical lateral cervical radiographs in the lab will be described, as well as 

the results of a validation procedure. 

From a sample of 200 medical examiner cases, ranging in age from 

birth to 92 years, 86 of the specimens exhibited unilateral or complete 

fusion. After eliminating specimens that had fused lesser horns and 

greater horns that could not be easily re-articulated, the sample consisted 

of 50 hyoids. The greater horns of unilaterally-fused hyoids were glued to 

the body and no attempt was made to re-articulate the lesser horns on any 

hyoid. 

Each of the 50 hyoids was individually x-rayed in a left lateral 

position using a General Electric Amx2 portable x-ray unit. The left horn 

of the hyoid was inserted into a floral foam block with the middle of the 

body oriented 7 inches from the cassette. Lateral approximation was 

accomplished by using a metal ruler to control for lateral and anterior/ - 

posterior tilt. The distance from the x-ray beam source and cassette was set 

at 40 inches. A review of several medical antemortem lateral cervical xrays 

required that the x-ray unit settings for this study were maintained at 

70 kVp and 8 mAs. Ten hyoids were then randomly selected from the 50 

hyoids and x-rayed again using the same positioning technique and x-ray 

unit settings. Finally, the tenhyoids that were x-rayed twice were 

compared to insure that there were no serious deviations from the first set 

of x-rays. Three of the hyoids were x-rayed again due to differences in orientation 

and exposure problems between the first and second x-ray series. 

The data were submitted to two forensic pathologists, two forensic 

anthropologists, and two forensic anthropology graduate students for comparison 

and matching of the 10 simulated unknown individuals. Each of 

the participants performed their analysis independently at different times 

and places. Participants were asked to compare each of the 10 lateral radiographs 

to the entire population of 50 hyoids to examine the possibility 

that more than one hyoid could match one from the test group. Part of the 

analysis involved asking the participant to report the specific anatomical 

criteria for justifying the identification. 

Based on this sample, the variability of the hyoid bone allows 

individuals to be discriminated radiographically. None of the participants 

mismatched or included any other hyoids as a possible match. The most 

useful attributes for identification were reported by the participants to be 

the shape and cross-sectional architecture of the hyoid body, and the shape 


of the greater horns. Other important distinguishing characteristics 

included trabecular patterns of the hyoid body and greater horns, the shape 

of the terminal greater horns, the angle of the body to the greater horns, 

and radiopacity or radiolucency of the greater horn/body junction. 

The results of this study demonstrate that the radiographic configuration 

of the hyoid represents an individualizing skeletal element that can 

be used for purposes of human identification. Forensic anthropologists 

and forensic pathologists will benefit from the replicable technique 

employed in this study. The positioning and x-ray unit settings were 

selected based on a review of antemortem lateral cervical radiographs. 

The application of this technique does not require the removal of the hyoid 

for approximation and interpretation. 

Human Identification, Hyoid, Comparative Radiography 

H57 Musculoskeletal Stress Markers: 

An Exploration of Forensic Applicability 

Brian F. Spatola, MA*, Department of Geography and Anthropology, 

Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 

The goal of this research project is to report a method of evaluating 

musculoskeletal stress markers for use in human identification. 

Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) are sometimes used by 

physical anthropologists to evaluate activity patterns in skeletons from historic 

and prehistoric populations. Forensic anthropologists, as well, have 

long been interested in the potential to use MSM when reporting on 

unidentified human skeletons, but are often hindered in their efforts by the 

paucity of modern references and the lack of standards for MSM 

evaluation. 

MSM consist of remodeled regions of muscle attachment (i.e., the 

enthesis) which are attributable to musculoskeletal stress along with 

potential genetic, hormonal and dietary components. Examples of MSM 

include robust or enlarged markers of the adductor magnus insertion 

which can be the sign of a horseback rider and stress lesions or a 

depression of the costoclavicular ligament which can be found on males 

of populations known to paddle kayaks. 

The normal variation of MSM in modern populations is virtually 

unknown. MSM evidence from past populations is documented in the 

literature often used by forensic anthropologists, but modern examples 

remain largely anecdotal. Modern individuals are not generally engaged 

in the specialized forms of labor as members of past populations often 

were. Thus, modern MSM must be evaluated statistically and not in 

pursuit of occupational titles which may confound investigations. 

Some physical anthropologists believe that attempts to deduce 

specific activities from skeletal material lead to speculative conclusions. 

One alternative to this practice is to examine the organization of activity 

suggested by MSM throughout the entire skeleton. In this study, MSM 

research on a modern population (n=30) focused on the interpretation of 

data with respect to sex, weight, bilateral distribution of MSM scores and 

age. The range and variability of MSM expression in this population 

provide a generalized profile for evaluating individual skeletal remains. 

In order to evaluate a contemporary population, a descriptive, ranked 

method was used to determine the distribution of MSM in 39 post-cranial 

attachment areas, or entheses, using a post-1970s sample. Thirty skeletons 

from the Maxwell Museum of Anthropology and the Forensic 

Anthropology and Computer Enhancement Services Laboratory (FACES) 

were used. All skeletons were visually screened for bone modifying 

processes associated with known rheumatic and metabolic disorders. 

Twelve of the 30 skeletons had some documentation as to the individual’s 

occupation at time of death. Magnitudes of both robust markers and stress 

lesions were evaluated. MSM attributed to injury (myositis ossificans) 

were disregarded since they often relate to isolated traumatic events and 

not prolonged periods of stress. 

604

Wilcoxon signed ranks tests revealed significant bilateral distribution 

differences in MSM scores peculiar to both males and females. 

Additionally, scores in males show greater correlation with age using 

Spearman’s coefficients than females. Overall, age appears to have a 

limited effect on MSM scores for individuals between the ages of 20-59 

using chi-square. Males show greater correlation of upper body muscle 

pairs. In both sexes, the lower body shows increased correlation of pairs 

when compared to the upper body. Weight was shown to correlate with a 

variety of MSM sites in both sexes. 

Individual skeletons with anomalies can be easily visualized using 

boxplot graphs. Comparisons of individuals against the population can 

reveal regional differences involving musculature which often work 

together in groups. Anomalies in individuals may be compared with distribution 

statistics for the appropriate sex to ascertain regional differences 

that are inconsistent with the population as a whole. 

The elucidation of musculoskeletal anomalies may be useful in 

human identification since individuals with extraordinary MSM may 

reveal patterns of biased recruitment of muscle groups used in habitual 

activities or in tandem with variations in morphological characteristics of 

individual skeletons. MSM are not only important markers of osteoindividuality, 

but are potentially useful when comparing medical records, 

radiographs or biographical profiles of unidentified persons. 

Musculoskeletal Stress Markers, Osteoindividuality, Human 


H58 Be Tenacious in Your Searches 

for Clandestine Burials: A Lesson 

From the Field 

Ann W. Bunch, PhD*, and Calvin Y. Shiroma, DMD, U.S. CILHI, 

310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu, HI 

The attendee can expect to learn how to use all possible information 

and methods available to him/her in order to discover clandestine 

burials/remains. 

In August 1971, a U.S.-manned armored patrol car (APC) moving to 

a night defensive position near Hoi An City, South Vietnam, was hit by 

enemy rocket-propelled grenade fire. This offensive action resulted in the 

deaths of all six soldiers aboard the vehicle. One of their bodies was not 

recovered. After-action reports from American eyewitnesses stated that 

the APC had exploded violently, as it was carrying various types of ammunition. 

These U.S. witnesses suggested that the lost soldier’s remains 

would likely never be found, as they were completely disintegrated in the 

explosions. 

Joint investigative teams followed up on this incident in the 1990s, 

interviewing Vietnamese witnesses who claimed to have buried the 

remains of an American in a nearby rice field after the U.S. troops had 

evacuated the area after the incident. One witness claimed to have 

disturbed the buried remains in the 1980s, however, with additional investigation, 

analysts deemed this individual “unreliable.” 

In May 2000, a joint recovery team from the U.S. Army Central 

Identification Laboratory, Hawaii (CILHI) and the Joint Task Force-Full 

Accounting (JTF-FA) was sent to this incident location, admittedly with 

low expectations of success. Five witnesses were initially interviewed and 

excavation began in earnest. A combination of excavation techniques 

(e.g., trenching, shovel-skimming, test pits), screening (dry and wet), and 

witness interviews were utilized in order to recover any remains. A key 

sixth witness eventually “cracked the case” for the team. The result was 

the recovery of dental remains, a dental prosthesis, and supporting 

material evidence. The seventeen teeth and partial denture were positively 

identified as the missing soldier from the August 1971 incident. 

Forensic Recovery, Clandestine Burial, Witness Interviews 

H59 The Importance of Recovered Life-Support 


Chester E. Moore, II, PhD*, U.S. Army Central Identification 

Laboratory, 310 Worchester Avenue, Hickam Air Force Base, 

Honolulu, HI 

The attendee will learn that search and recovery of life-support 

equipment from military aircraft crashes can provide circumstantial 

information that can lead to resolution of MIA cases. 

The United States Army Central Identification Laboratory, Hawaii 

(CILHI) is responsible for the recovery and identification of U.S. service 

members killed and missing during World War II the Korean War, and the 

Cold War era. For the past five years, the CILHI mission has emphasized 

the search and recovery and identification of the U.S. service members 

killed and missing during the Vietnam War. The CILHI deploys search 

and recovery teams to Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia to conduct archaeological 

excavations of aircraft crash sites and isolated burials. The greatest 

percentage of cases involving unaccounted-for U.S. service members 

involves aircraft crash sites of jets, helicopters, and propeller-driven 

airplanes. Inside these aircraft are life-support systems and life-support 

equipment that enable the aircrew to survive the stresses of flight while in 

the aircraft and in the event of an impending crash, to survive in a 

hostile/enemy environment should they survive the crash or successfully 

egress from the aircraft before crashing. 

When a search and recovery team excavates an aircraft crash site, the 

team may recover human remains, personal effects, life-support 

equipment (flight suit, anti-gravity suit [G-suit], helmet, oxygen mask, 

parachute, survival vest, and survival kit) and aircraft wreckage that may 

identify the type of aircraft (data plates and part identification numbers). 

The human remains and personal effects are repatriated to the CILHI 

where forensic anthropologists and odontologists attempt to establish 

positive biological identification, either through the traditional use of 

forensic anthropology and odontology or through the use of mitochondrial 

DNA analysis. Additionally, if the team recovers life-support equipment 

and significant pieces of aircraft wreckage such as data plates and aircraft 

identification numbers, this evidence is sent to the Headquarters of the 

Joint Task Force-Full Accounting (JTF-FA) where it is analyzed by lifesupport 

technicians (LST). In cases where further and extensive analysis 

is needed the evidence may be sent to the Life Sciences Equipment 

Laboratory (LSEL) at Kelly Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas, where a 

team of scientists skilled in aeronautical engineering analyzes it, aircraft 

crash analysis, and life-support equipment analysis. The information 

provided by the LST and the LSEL is critical in instances when the human 

remains recovered at the crash site cannot be biologically associated to the 

unaccounted-for individual or when human remains are not recovered. 

This information may provide compelling and circumstantial evidence on 

the fate of the unaccounted-for individual, i.e., the individual(s) who 

perished in the aircraft crash or successfully ejected. 

This paper will provide two recovery scenarios: 1) an excavated 

aircraft crash site where the recovery of human remains and life-support 

equipment provided information to make an identification and provide 

information on the fate of the crewmember, and 2) an excavated aircraft 

crash site where the recovery of possible human remains (it is yet to be 

determined whether the remains are human or not human) and life-support 

equipment, circumstantially indicate that the unaccounted-for individual 

was in the aircraft at the time of impact. 

The recovery of life-support equipment, in addition to human 

remains (if they are recoverable and whether they may be biologically 

associable or not), personal effects, and significant aircraft wreckage, may 

provide significant information to answer the proverbial questions of who, 

what, when, where, why, and how and to provide information that can 

assist in determining the fate of the unaccounted-for individual. 

In summation, the two cases presented here illustrate the importance 

of the recovery of life-support equipment, what one can determine from it, 


and how the use of this information can provide circumstantial evidence 

in the resolution of MIA cases. 

Human Remains, Life-Support Equipment, Search and Recovery 

H60 Recovery and Identification Challenges 

in a Case of Suicidal Self-Cremation 

Emily A. Craig, PhD*, Medical Examiner's Office, 100 Sower Boulevard, 

Suite 202, Frankfort, KY; and Corky Deaton, DMD, Consulting Forensic 

Odontologist, 359-C South Fourth Street, Danville, KY 

This research project will present to the forensic community a case 

report that demonstrates improvised scene recovery techniques which led 

to positive identification in a unique case of suicidal self-cremation. 

This presentation outlines how a multidisciplinary group of investigators 

recovered and identified an individual who had burned for four days 

inside a huge truck tire. Rescue and recovery personnel were faced with a 

unique crime scene that was complicated by extreme climatic conditions. 

On November 28, 2000, in Adair County Kentucky, a man left a 

suicide note on his kitchen table. His wife was out of town and did not read 

the note until three days later. Upon her return, she contacted an emergency 

911 center in Adair County, and a search team responded. On the 

night of December 1, a huge smoldering TS?24 vehicle tire (88.6 inches 

in diameter) was discovered in a remote section of the decedent's property. 

Although the tire was still burning, first responders could see what 

appeared to be calcined bone fragments, remnants of a homemade 

shotgun, and a propane tank within the circumference of the tire. The tire 

had apparently been rolled to this remote site, laid on its side, and bolstered 

with firewood. The position of the skeletal remains indicated that 

the victim had been siting in the tire with his head and shoulders against 

one side, and his buttocks on the bare ground. The presence of the propane 

tank and the shotgun near the feet of the victim corroborated evidence of 

suicide. Also the victim had apparently previously plowed three 

tractor?width furrows around the tire to create a buffer which prevented 

any spread of the fire. At the coroner's direction, the scene was secured and 

left undisturbed until daylight the following day. This action was a critical 

component in the successful outcome of the investigation. 

On December 2, the scene was processed. By improvising and elaborating 

upon usual and customary methods of fire suppression, the fire 

fighters were able to insure the safety of the recovery team while preserving 

the physical integrity of the evidence. Severe winter weather, 

which included heavy sleet and freezing rain, complicated the recovery of 

the remains. As this precipitation fell onto the remaining fragments of 

teeth and bone, these materials would shatter. Any cover placed over the 

still?smoldering tire would have presented a safety hazard and a predicted 

heavy snowfall prevented a simple wait?and see protocol. A delicate 

balance between fire suppression and skeletal material recovery ensued 

and this took approximately three hours to complete. 

Once skull fragments were located this area was carefully processed. 

As visible skeletal and dental materials were recovered they were 

immediately transferred to the heated cab of a truck where they were laid 

on sheets of aluminum foil and allowed to cool slowly. The remaining ash 

and debris from this area were swept into a dustpan and transferred in 

small amounts to individual paper sacks lined with aluminum foil. 

Remnants of teeth, bones and numerous shotgun pellets were thus 

recovered from the same immediate area as the skull fragments. The postcranial 

elements were recovered and placed in a number of small plastic 

boxes, each labeled according to the corresponding anatomical area. The 

recovered bone was extremely fragile and approximated that seen in 

commercial cremations at the end of the firing stage, with a total residual 

weight of 2.17 kg. 

The coroner was able to retrieve several antemortem cranial and 

postcranial radiographs, but almost total thermal destruction of bones - 

precluded positive identification from skeletal radiographic comparison. 


Nevertheless, the careful and thorough recovery of ash and debris at the 

scene produced dental materials that could be used for antemortem/ postmortem 

comparison. As each bag of ash was x?rayed, the radiographs 

revealed the presence of shotgun pellets as well as other radiopaque 

objects. This ash was then screened and washed to reveal 

porcelain?fused?to?metal crowns, which had remained remarkably intact 

even after prolonged exposure to extreme heat and the subsequent 

exposure to freezing rain. These were sufficient for positive identification. 

Forensic Anthropology, Forensic Odontology, Crime Scene 

H61 Accident, Suicide, or Homicide: A Case 




Examiner, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, 1413 Research 

Boulevard. Building 102, Rockville, MD 

The presentation will demonstrate the perplexity of investigations 

involving human remains which have been scavenged by animals. A 

selected case study will present evidence of postmortem bear scavenging 

in which the interpretation of gnawing patterns along with scene evidence 

provided crucial answers to a perplexing death. 

Human remains scavenged by animals can present a number of difficulties 

to investigators. Damage to soft tissues and/or skeletal elements 

may be misinterpreted as an antemortem injury resulting from human 

interaction. Recognition of animal gnawing, specifically identifying tooth 

marks and scavenging patterns are essential in providing important evidence 

in many cases of questionable death. Over the years, bears in 

wilderness areas of the U.S. have attacked a number of humans. Many of 

these bear attacks have resulted in serious injuries, some of which have 

resulted in death. Investigation of a death involving human remains 

recovered from a wilderness area that is populated by bears can be especially 

problematic. In such cases, questions arise as to whether death 

resulted from a bear attack, or by other means. 

One such case involved the death of a nineteen-year-old soldier 

whose badly decomposed remains were discovered in a remote wilderness 

area near Mt. Home Air Force Base, Idaho. Two hunters discovered the 

remains of the young soldier in late October of 1999. According to investigative 

reports, the deceased was reported to have been last seen on 

September 5, 1999 when he left his residence during the early morning 

hours in order to go scouting for wild game. The remains of the young 

soldier were initially transported to Mt. Home Air Force Base, ID, where 

dental comparisons were conducted, to establish positive identification. 

Later the remains were transported to the morgue and laboratory facilities 

of the Armed Forces Medical Examiner in Washington, DC. Detailed fluoroscopic 

examination of the remains including the clothing that remained 

on the body revealed no foreign objects or metallic fragments. 

Gross examination of the body revealed it to be in a highly decomposed 

state with partial mummification and skeletonization. No internal 

organs were present with the exception of a small amount of decomposed 

brain matter located within the skull. The body was noted to be in a 

contorted position as the result of postmortem animal movement and 

mummification. Most of the tissues of the head and face were present and 

in a mummified state with the exception of the right side of the head where 

the skull was exposed as the result of a large open defect over the right 

frontal, sphenoid, parietal and temporal bone area. Multiple sites of 

animal gnawing were noted on the remains as well as the clothing. The 

most prominent area of animal gnawing was an area along the upper left 

chest where the clothing was torn through and through, with significant 

damage to the underlying musculature of the chest. 

Three personal items of particular note which were examined 

included a gold wedding band, a camouflaged baseball style cap, a nylon 

back pack, a 35 mm camera, and a .30-06 caliber rifle. The back pack 

606

which was still attached to the deceased did not exhibit evidence of tearing 

or tooth marks, the ring was noted as being somewhat deformed, and the 

right half of the brim of the baseball cap was found to be missing with 

ragged borders. Examination of the animal tooth marks and gnawing 

patterns on the remains found them consistent with a large carnivore, 

specifically a bear. All of the tooth marks were determined most likely to 

have occurred postmortem as scavenging activity. Examination of the 

skull, including additional fragments and dentition, which were located 

during a secondary recovery effort, were negative for animal tooth marks 

or gnawing patterns. The extensive fracturing of the skull was found to be 

most consistent with that of a grazing gunshot wound to the right side of 

the head. 

Film developed from the recovered camera included photographs 

depicting the deceased smiling while posing with a recently killed coyote. 

Also noted in the photographs was the location of the deceased standing 

just a short distance below the rocky ridge where his remains were 

recovered. Examination of the recovered rifle revealed that a single round 

had been fired and that the spent cartridge remained within the rifle 

chamber. Testing of the rifle by ballistic experts noted that the rifle’s sear 

had been modified to produce a “hair trigger.” The hair trigger, which was 

gauged at one pound and six ounces, resulted in the rifle being extremely 

unsafe, discharging if dropped from a height of two inches, or by tapping 

on the rifle’s stock. Death of the subject which was initially thought possibly 

to be the result of a bear attack was ruled as resulting from a single 

gunshot wound to the head. It is believed that the subject slipped during 

his assent of the rocky ridge, thus accidentally, discharging his rifle. 

Postmortem Changes, Tooth Marks, Skeleton 

H62 From Caffey (1946) to Kempe (1962): 

Historical Perspectives of the Recognition 

of Child Abuse 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Department of Forensic Pathology, University 

of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; 

C. Ferraro, PhD, Long Island University, Long Island University, 

Brookville, NY, Susan B. Patton, MNSc, and O’Brian C. Smith, MD, 

Department of Forensic Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 

1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; and A.M. Kroman, BA, 

Department of Anthropology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 252 


This paper attempts to critically examine physicians’ treatment of 

trauma in children in the earlier part of the last century. 

This historical review of the medical literature examines the recognition 

of child abuse from the perspective of the physicians in the first half 

of the 20th century. The literature reveals an interesting mix of obsessions 

with accurate diagnosis of bone fracture and hesitance to associate severe 

trauma in children with caretaker abuse. As Silverman so aptly states: 

Perhaps no body system of infants has been studied more intensively by the 

roentgen technique than the skeletal system. It is surprising, therefore, 

that physical trauma, probably the most common bone “disease” of 

infancy, should have certain roentgen manifestations which perplex physicians 

when discovered accidentally (Silverman 1953). 

When Kempe introduced his brazen phrase “Battered Child 

Syndrome” in 1962, he accomplished his intended purpose: to inflame the 

public into an awareness of child abuse. Although seldom used today, 

Kempe’s terminology also struck a cord in the medical community, producing 

a heightened awareness of abuses to children that still exists today. 

Kempe was not the first to discover child abuse. Beginning in the 

1940s, Caffey encouraged the medical profession to be suspicious of 

trauma in children. The culmination of his 20 years of experience and 

research prompted him to suggest that a correlation may exist between 

subdural hematoma, bone fractures, and caregiver abuse (Caffey 1946). 

So how does the early 20th century fare in the recognition of child 

abuse? One typical published case is illustrated below in table 1: 

Table 1. Case Study: This is a child born prematurely into a healthy 

family of 2 children. Clinical findings and comments are given below (all 

from Astley 1953). 

Age of Complaint History Radiographic 

Victim of Injury Healing Trauma 

or Other Injury 

6 months Lt Arm and Shoulder None Andy Proximal Lt 

Comments—“bones normal in all other respects . . .” Humerus, 15 

“…no osteoporosis” Posterior Healing 

Ribs, Distal Rt 

radius, Distal Lt 

Ulna, Distal Rt 

& Lt Femur, 

Proximal Lt Tibia, 

Distal Rt and Lt 

Tibia, Distal Rt 

Fibula 

12 months Rt Elbow None Distal Rt and Lt 

Humerus, Distal Lt 

Tibia Proximal Rt 

& Lt Tibia, Distal 

Rt & Lt Femora 

17 months Rt Leg Fell out of Acute Rt Femur 

Comments—“united normally . . . 

appeared firm 2 months later” 

a pram Shaft Fx 

23 months Rt Leg Relearning to Acute Rt Femur 

Comments—“united in a month” walk Shaft Fx 

32 months None Rib Fx and Acute 

Comments—“still very well” e: Lumbar 2 Body Fx 

Curvature or 

irregular outline of 

the Proximal Lt 

Humerus, Rt and Lt 

Elbows, Lt Tibia 

39 Months None Lt Retinal 

Comments—“…healthy looking girl” Detachment Lt 

Humerus, Deformity 

of Lt Tibia 

Final Comments— . . most of these [fractures] produced little disturbance and 

many were chance findings on X-ray exam.It is difficult to believe that a normal 

child could have such extensive lesions without a very definite story of trauma 

and without considerable pain. Thus whiled trauma is probably a factor in this 

condition, it seems likely that there is some additional underlying structural 

abnormality . . . the title of Metaphyseal Fragility of Bone is suggested as a 

provisional label for the syndrome (Astley 1953). 

In this blatant child abuse case, you can see physician attempts to 

explain these pathologies medically while ignoring indicators of abuse, 

thus the diagnosis of “Metaphyseal Fragility of Bone.” This represents 

just one of many child diagnoses seen in the literature that appears glaringly 

obvious today, but at the time were either misunderstood or mischaracterized. 

Physician denial of child abuse was commonplace in this 

time period, especially considering that physicians often knew their 

patients and were unaccustomed to the role of the accuser. Physicians 

solve medical, not social problems. Before public and legal consciousness 

was stimulated in the 1960s, children were often left to their own destiny. 

This historical review allows medical professionals a critical inspection of 

the past, while demonstrating that patterns of abuse remain the same; only 

the recognition has changed. 

References: 

1. Astley, R., 1953, Multiple metaphyseal fractures in small children (metaphyseal 

fragility of bone). British Journal Radiology, 26:577-583. 

2. Caffey, J., 1946, Multiple fractures in the long bones of infants suffering from 

chronic subdural hematoma. American Journal of Roentgenology. 56:163-173. 


3. Kempe, C.H., Silverman, F. N., Steele, B. F., Droegemueller, W, and Silver, H.K. 

1962 The battered child syndrome Journal of the American Medical Association. 

181:17-24 

4. Silverman, F.N., 1953, The Roentgen manifestations of unrecognized skeletal 

trauma infants. Am. J. Roentgenol. 69:413 

5. Lynch, M.A., 1985, Childe abuse before Kempe: an historical literature review. 

Child Abuse & Neglect. 9:7-15 

Child Abuse, Bone Fracture, Battered Child Syndrome 

H63 Fracture Patterns in Abused Children: 

A Study of Skeletal Trauma Among 

Battered Children in a Clinical Cohort 

From the Leeds (UK) Metropolitan Area 

Saskia M. de Jager Burford, BA, MSc*, Department of Archaeological 

Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom; Robert F. 

Pastor, PhD, The Calvin Wells Laboratory, Department of 

Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, United 

Kingdom; and Christopher J. Hobbs, BSc, MB, BS, MRCP, Department 

of Community Pediatrics, Saint James University Hospital, Leeds, 


This presentation concerns the physical abuse of children, specifically 

the characteristics and patterns of non-accidental skeletal fractures 

for patients admitted to two hospitals in the area of Leeds, United 

Kingdom. The analysis of patterns of non-accidental fractures sustained 

by maltreated children can be used as a guide by the medical-legal 

community to determine if antemortem, perimortem, and/or postmortem 

fractures in children are the result of abuse. 

In this study, data concerning non-accidental fractures has been 

obtained from a study of the medical records of abused children with fractures. 

This data will create an added reference for fractures in abused 

children, specifically for the Leeds area. The discussion will place the new 

data in perspective with previous fracture pattern studies and accepted 

knowledge in order to establish validity and highlight the characteristics of 

abusive injury to children residing in inner urban areas of northern 

England. 

The occurrence of child maltreatment or abuse is more common than 

society may realize. In the broader definition of child abuse (including 

neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse) at least one 

million children are abused each year in the United Kingdom. Medical 

professionals, including those from the forensic community, often have 

primary responsibility for diagnosing and acknowledging child abuse. 

The recognition of non-accidental injury is one of the most important 

diagnoses a medical professional can make. An accurate diagnosis can 

save a child’s life or result in important information for the medical-legal 

authorities if the recognition is postmortem (Meadow 1997). According 

to Hobbs (1992) it is by physical abuse, or non-accidental injury, that the 

medical community often has its first concerns about a child suffering 

abuse. During the 1980s, approximately 1.5-2% of all children in Britain 

had been physically abused by the age of 17 years, and of the more severe 

cases of non-accidental injury between 200 and 230 deaths occurred 

annually. Hobbs et al. (1993) classifies non-accidental injury into superficial 

or dermatological injuries; deeper lesions; fractures, dislocations, 

wrenched limbs, and periosteal injury; thoraco-lumbar internal injury; 

intracranial and spinal injury; asphyxia, drowning, and poisoning; and 

fabricated disorders (Munchausen by proxy). 

The association of long bone fractures and subdural haematoma by 

Caffey (1946) began the recognition of child abuse as a medical condition. 

Since then, physicians have used skeletal fractures as a central 

part of the understanding and documentation of child maltreatment. 

Skeletal fractures have a high specificity for abuse and warrant extensive 

investigation in children who sustain them (Kleinman 1998). Analyses 

of child maltreatment cases have revealed a number of informative 

characteristics of fractures in abused children such as average age, sex, 


socio-economic status, most commonly fractured bone, and the most 

common fracture type. 

In the current study medical records were examined from 180 

children under the age of three years, admitted for non-accidental skeletal 

fractures to St James’ University Hospital and Leeds General Infirmary in 

Leeds, West Yorkshire, U.K., during the period of 1990 to 1999. Results 

from the study revealed a skeletal fracture pattern for non-accidental 

abuse. The average age of the 180 children in the study was one year, 

more boys (58%) than girls were injured, and the majority of the children 

came from socially deprived areas (established from home postal codes). 

The bone most often fractured was the parietal bone (25%), and the most 

common fracture types were the single linear and rib fracture. 

Significance tests (chi-squared) revealed that abused children one-year of 

age and younger are at a significantly greater risk of skull fractures than 

older children in the group (χ² = 4.803; p< 0.05). Children of this same 

age were also found to be more at risk of sustaining multiple fractures than 

older children (χ² = 4.540; p

While some 2000 children die each year as a result of abuse or 

neglect by parents or caregivers, it is estimated that 10 times as many 

children survive abuse as die from it (Report of the U.S. Advisory Board 

on Child Abuse and Neglect, A Nation’s Shame 1995). Diagnostic 

imaging studies are often critical in assessment of infants and young 

children with evidence of physical injury, and the recognition of child 

abuse (AAP Section on Radiology, 2000). The Regional Forensic Center 

in Memphis, TN conducted research on the effectiveness of different radiographic 

views used to detect rib fractures in children. Skeletal injuries 

such as rib fractures, rarely pose a threat to the life of an abused child, yet, 

certain patterns of injury suggest the possible diagnosis of inflicted injury 

(Bulloch, et al, 2000; Shouldice & Huyer, 2000). 

Historically, rib fractures have been difficult to detect radiographically. 

To produce the highest diagnostic yield, imaging surveys must be 

performed at a high level of technical excellence but still remain at an 

acceptable cost. Based in part on the Kleinman (1996) study of 31 infants, 

the American Academy of Pediatrics Radiology Section (2000) has suggested 

that oblique views of the thorax may produce a higher yield than 

the recommended anterior/posterior (AP) and lateral views. However, few 

researchers have addressed or tested the predictive value of the oblique 

view in detection of rib fracture of an abused child. 

In the study presented, children from birth to eighteen years of age 

were examined externally, radiographically, during autopsy, and histologically 

to identify thoracic fractures. The attending pathologist, forensic 

anthropologist, and nurse researcher reviewed all radiographs. AP and 

lateral radiographs of the thorax were inspected, and a determination was 

made concerning the presence or absence of rib fractures. Oblique films 

were then examined, to test for improved visibility of fractures noted in the 

right and left posterior, and right and left anterior oblique views. Any 

radiograph accompanying a referred child was included in the study and 

viewed in the same manner. Ribs were also inspected at autopsy and 

palpated for abnormalities. For further examination, the attending pathologist 

or anthropologist excised ribs either suspected of fracture or lying 

adjacent existing fractures; the excised ribs were processed, photographed, 

and sectioned for histology. Histologic slides were reviewed by the 

attending pathologist both to confirm rib fracture and assist in determining 

the age of the fracture. 

Findings, gathered in the first twelve months of the study, indicate 

that for rib fractures not seen in the AP and lateral views, no significant 

positive predictive value was found by oblique view of the thorax. Initial 

findings suggest that the addition of oblique radiographs have yielded no 

significant additional diagnostic results, but limitations of the study may 

be contributory. While small sample size may likely be a valid limitation 

to the study, radiographic technique, angle, and lack of a radiologist 

assessment may be additional inhibiting variables. However, it must be 

emphasized that the purpose of this study was to facilitate medical examiners 

and other clinicians commonly lacking radiographic technologists, 

much less radiologists. In this regard, adopting guidelines promoted by the 

American Academy of Pediatric Radiologic Section can benefit forensic 

pathologists. 

References: 

1. American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Radiology (2000). Diagnostic 

imaging of child abuse. Pediatrics, 105(6), 1345-1348. 

2. Brogdon, B.G. (1998). Forensic Radiology. Boston: CRC Press. 

3. Bulloch, B., Schubert, C.J., Brophy, P.D., Johnson, N., Reed, M.H., & Shapiro, 

R.A. (2000). Cause and clinical characteristics of rib fractures in infants. Pediatrics, 

105(4). 

4. , P.K., Marks, S.C., Nimkin, K., Rayder, S.M., & Kesler, S.C. (1996). Rib fractures 

in 31 abused infants: postmortem radiologic-histopathologic study. Radiology, 

200(3), 807-810. 

5. Report of the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect, A Nation’s 

Shame: Fatal Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States. U.S. Department of 

Health and Human Services, Washington, D.C., 1995. 

6. Shouldice, M. & Hyer, D. (2000). Non-accidental rib fractures. In T. J. David 

(Ed.), Recent Advances in Pediatrics. (pp. 63-76). Edinburgh: Churchill 

Livingstone, Inc. 

Child Abuse, Rib Fracture, Radiography 

H65 Recognizing Child Abuse in the 

Thoracic Region Through a 


Dennis C. Dirkmaat, PhD*, Mercyhurst College, 501 East 38th Street, 

Erie, PA; Steven A. Symes, PhD, University of Tennessee Regional 

Forensic Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; Erik Vey, MD, 

Erie County Coroner’s Office, Erie County Courthouse, Erie, PA; and 

O’Brian C. Smith, MD, University of Tennessee Regional Forensic 

Center, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 

The goal of this presentation is to describe child abuse trauma to the 

thoracic region, which may be difficult to recognize or incompletely 

understood without a forensic osteological analysis. 

The recognition and subsequent presentation of persuasive evidence 

of child abuse is a difficult task often requiring evidence of: 

1) specific definitive trauma patterns, and 2) evidence of multiple or 

repetitive traumatic episodes (temporally distinct). The forensic 

pathology literature on soft tissue characteristics of child abuse is 

abundant, however, descriptions of osteological markers and patterns of 

chronic trauma in many areas of the skeleton are limited. 

Skeletal trauma in child abuse can be found in many regions of the 

body. Cranial trauma is highly visible and represents the most commonlydetected 

fatal traumatic site. Fractures of metaphyseal/epiphyseal junctions 

of the appendicular skeleton are rare in non-abuse cases and are 

radiographically distinct and easily found. Even though trauma in the thoracic 

region has a strong correlation to child abuse, this area remains one 

of the more difficult to detect fractures during external examinations and 

even following radiographic surveys of the body and may thus be underrepresented. 

Gross osteological analyses are often required to more 

definitively characterize traumatic defects associated with child abuse. 

It will be argued here that the unequivocal documentation of trauma 

in terms of specific defect location, morphology, severity and degree of 

healing requires a multidisciplinary effort of law enforcement and 

forensic specialists that necessarily includes a comprehensive osteological 

analysis of the remains completed by a accredited forensic 

anthropologist. The benefits of this approach to the identification and 

prosecution of child abuse cases will be illustrated through three cases. 

Focus is upon the thoracic region. 

Case 1: The first case involves a 3 ½ month-old white male who 

was transported to a hospital emergency room in full cardiac arrest. The 

mother reported that another young child allegedly fell and landed on the 

infant’s head. Early the next morning the child was found to be unresponsive. 

Multiple traumatic injuries were identified on the head back, 

legs and genitals. Radiologic studies revealed a posterior right parietal 

skull fracture and probable healing fractures to the sternal 1/3rd of left 

ribs 2-7 and left posterior 8th rib. Criteria for brain death were subsequently 

fulfilled, and life support measures were withdrawn. At the 

autopsy, the calvarium showed a simple non-displaced skull fracture to 

the posterior right parietal bone with multifocal overlying subgaleal 

hemorrhage. The cause of death was determined to be due to blunt force 

trauma to the head. In keeping with a previously established practice of 

multidisciplinary forensic cooperation, anthropologic consultation was 

undertaken in an effort to further evaluate and characterize the traumatic 

skeletal injuries. 

Following removal of all overlying soft tissue, the skull exhibited 

an incomplete linear fracture in the right parietal bone resulting from 

lateral bending forces on the bone and not direct blunt force trauma. 

Each of the six damaged left ribs exhibited a similarly-sized bony callus 

arranged in the linear “string of beads” pattern suggesting one specific 

episode of trauma. In addition, bony calluses were noted at the vertebral 

ends of left ribs 5 and 8. The size and configuration of the calluses 

(grossly and radiographically) indicated different degrees of healing 

relative to one another and relative to the sternal fractures. The 

comprehensive osteologic evaluation was vital in this instance in that 


three separate incidents of non-accidental trauma were identified which 

allowed the prosecution to establish of a “course of conduct” on the part 

of the defendant and resulted in a conviction. 

Case 2: Emergency medical personnel responded to a residence 

where a five month-old white male was in cardiac arrest. According to the 

primary care givers efforts to revive the child included CPR. A brief evaluation 

of the infant showed fixed and dilated pupils, no audible heart tones 

and slightly increased heart size. The initial diagnostic impression was 

severe hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy secondary to cardiopulmonary 

arrest, possibly due to sudden infant death syndrome or non-accidental 

trauma. A CT scan of the head did not reveal any hemorrhage or signs of 

trauma. A radiograph of the chest and subsequent bone scan revealed a 

possible healing fracture of the left 6th rib. The child’s neurologic condition 

continued to deteriorate and a decision was made to withdraw supportive 

ventilation. 

An autopsy revealed a cardiac laceration to the base of the right atrial 

appendage and a gastric contusion affecting the cardia of the stomach. In 

addition, an incomplete sternal fracture affecting the manubrial-sternal 

joint was identified. Potential fractures of a number of ribs were also noted 

though specific diagnosis of morphology, biomechanical etiology, and 

state of healing was not possible. The cause of death was determined to be 

hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy which developed as a consequence of 

blunt force trauma to the trunk. 

A subsequent forensic osteological analysis of the ribs indicated antemortem 

damage to the sternal portions of left ribs 2-7 and right ribs 2-6. 

The evidence consisted of previous linear fractures with minimal and large 

callus formation, and remodeled costochondral rib ends. The perimortem 

evidence included new fracture lines through healing defect sites on the 

ribs and a linear fracture through the mesosternal cartilage. Two and likely 

three separate and distinct trauma episodes were indicated and the caregiver 

arrested, thus negating the suggestion that CPR efforts alone led to 

the broken ribs. 

Case 3: The third case involves a 3-year-old boy rushed to a hospital 

in 1994 following a seizure, collapse and death. Although caretakers 

reported that the child had a history of seizures and was on medication for 

the condition, emergency room personnel contacted law enforcement 

authorities to report discrepancies between the reported history and the 

apparent traumatic condition of the child. 

External examinations at autosy revealed minimal findings with the 

exception of numerous linear marks associated with bruising evidence on 

the back of the child. When the case occurred, it was still customary for 

the autopsy to proceed before full body radiographs were taken, thus 

allowing the medical findings to dictate whether radiographs were 

necessary. Soft tissue damage included lacerations of the heart, liver and 

lungs. Numerous rib fractures were also identified and radiographs 

requested. 

Even though radiographs revealed little skeletal abnormality, the 

detailed osteological analysis revealed that all right ribs except 2 were 

fractured acutely. Of these, five were in the process of healing. Three of 

the seven fractured ribs were in repair. All healing appeared to be in the 

reparative stage suggesting similarly-aged previous trauma. The healing 

and re-fracturing of half of the broken ribs strongly indicates a repetitive 

pattern of abuse. While radiology was confusing in this case, invasive 

techniques by pathologists and anthropologists provide clear evidence for 

a court of law. 

Summary: Detailed evidentiary documentation of fracture locations, 

number of elements involved, and temporal variation of traumatic events 

all play a key role in the identification of child abuse and eventual 

successful prosecution. In all three cases described above, osteologic 

analysis was critical in establishing the repetitive nature of the non-accidental 

abuse and trauma and in a number of cases can successfully refute 

a potential “CPR defense” as an explanation for the injuries sustained 

during this child’s terminal event. 

Child Abuse, Thoracic Region Trauma, Forensic Osteological 

Analysis 


H66 A Multidisciplinary Approach to Evaluate 

Chronic Malnutrition During Childhood in 

a Case of Suspected Fatal Child Abuse 

Susan M.T. Myster, PhD*, Hamline University, Department of 

Anthropology, Saint Paul, MN; Susan J. Roe, MD, Ramsey County 

Medical Examiner’s Office, 300 East University Avenue, Saint Paul, MN; 

Barbara H. O’Connell, PhD, Department of Anthropology, Hamline 

University, Saint Paul, MN; Janice J. Ophoven, MD, The Children’s 

Hospital, 345 North Smith Avenue, Saint Paul, MN; and Ann L. 

Norrlander, DDS, 1553 Medical Arts Building, 825 Nicollet Mall, 

Minneapolis, MN 

The goals of this presentation is to detail and promote a multidisciplinary 

approach to the identification and documentation of severe chronic 

malnutrition in children during autopsy. 

It has long been recognized that deaths due to child abuse and neglect 

are often misidentified as accidental or missed entirely and classified as 

natural. With this in mind, there has been a call for more aggressive 

autopsy techniques, utilizing a multidisciplinary team approach and 

focusing on a broader range of evidence, i.e., radiological, skeletal, dental, 

pathological, toxicological. Application of such an autopsy strategy has 

resulted in the identification of cases of abuse and neglect that may not 

have been identified previously. Conversely, such an aggressive autopsy 

approach may prevent an erroneous identification of manner of death as 

homicide and thereby reduce the risk of wrongful conviction. 

At 5:00 pm on June 8, 1992, a seven-year-old girl was pronounced 

dead in the Emergency Department of University Medical Center, 

Lubbock, Texas. At 7:30 pm that same evening an autopsy was 

performed; cause and mechanism of death were listed as “... a severe and 

chronic malnutrition which led to extensive emaciation resulting in metabolic 

acidosis and subsequent cardiac damage with cardiac arrhythmia and 

myocardial arrest.” Following an investigation, both parents were arrested 

and tried for the death of their daughter. Each was convicted of contributing 

to their daughter’s death. The father received a 10-year prison 

sentence, the mother, as primary care-giver, received a more severe 

sentence of 50 years. 

Following the mother’s conviction, Dr. Susan Roe was contacted by 

a colleague regarding the case and agreed to review relevant court, law 

enforcement, and medical records. After examining the autopsy report, 

autopsy photographs, medical records, microscopic slides, court documents 

and related reports, as well as consulting a second pathologist, a 

pediatric pathologist, and a forensic and cardiac pathologist, Dr. Roe concluded 

that the original autopsy findings were in error. Specifically, the 

materials reviewed could not support diagnoses of chronic malnutrition 

and cardiac damage from malnutrition. Following her review, Dr. Roe 

stated that the exhumation of the child’s body would aid in resolving the 

issues about this case and agreed to conduct a second autopsy. In 1996, as 

part of the mother’s application for writ of Habeas Corpus, the child’s 

body was exhumed and transported to St. Paul, Minnesota for the second 

autopsy. The condition of the remains warranted consultation of 

additional experts including forensic anthropologists, a forensic odontologist, 

and a pediatric pathologist to fully assess the original cause and 


The anthropological and odontological examination centered on 

skeletal indicators of nutritional deficiency. Dietary sufficiency may be 

evaluated by measuring the concurrence of skeletal and dental development 

with known chronological age of the decedent. Additionally, 

skeletal and dental evidence of growth interruption and recovery may be 

observed on both skeletal and dental tissues. Dental development, long 

bone length, enamel hypoplasias, and Harris lines were evaluated. The 

stage of dental development observed is consistent with a 6.5 - 8.0 year old 

child. The maximum lengths of the femora, tibiae, and fibuale are consistent 

with a 6.0 - 9.0 year old child. No enamel hypoplasias were 

observed on the deciduous and permanent teeth present. Incomplete and 

610

faint Harris lines were observed on the distal end of the femora. Previous 

research has identified a relationship between Harris lines and enamel 

hypoplasias and various nutritional inadequacies. Enamel hypoplasias, 

however, are generally accepted as the more reliable and sensitive indicator 

of nutritional deficiency. 

The pathology examination and a review of the records contradicts 

the original autopsy findings. The original pathologist opined that the 

heart showed changes from malnutrition. The heart, however, is within 

normal limits for a 7-8 year old child. The organ weights are also within 

normal limits for the child’s age and the body fat visible in the autopsy 

photographs is within normal limits for this age child. Another factor used 

to support the original diagnosis of malnutrition was a fatty liver, the 

review of the records indicates that in fact the liver section was within 

normal limits for a child this age. Additionally, numerous vital studies, 

including postmortem vitreous electrolytes, postmortem culture results, 

and a bone marrow sample were not performed. In summary, the decedent 

was a 7-year-10-month-old female with normal body fat, normal organ 

weights, normal bone growth, and normal dental growth. Because many 

vital studies were not performed at autopsy, it is not possible to determine 

the manner or specific cause of death in this child. It is, however, clear 

that there is no evidence to support a diagnosis of chronic or acute malnutrition 

and, consequently, the reported manner of death as homicide. 

The multidisciplinary approach applied in this case highlights the contributions 

of a wide array of experts and the broad range of evidence that 

may be evaluated when investigating cases of suspected fatal child abuse. 

Although, the multidisciplinary team was originally assembled due to the 

advanced state of decomposition of the body, we advocate such a protocol 

for any case of suspected fatal child abuse to determine more accurately 

and to document more thoroughly the cause and manner of death 

Child Abuse, Multidisciplinary, Malnutrition 

H67 The Hidden Truth: Mandibular 

Condyle Fractures in Child Abuse 

A.M. Kroman, BA*, Department of Anthropology, University of 

Tennessee, Knoxville, 252 South Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN; Steven A. 

Symes, PhD, O’Brian C. Smith, MD, and Jennifer C. Love, PhD, 

Department of Forensic Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 

1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN; Harry H. Mincer, DDS, PhD, 

Division of Oral Pathology, Dunn Dental Building, Memphis, TN; and 

J.W. Lemmon, BS, Department of Forensic Pathology, University of 


Attendees will learn that mandibular fractures in infants may be more 

common as an indicator of child abuse than what the literature indicates. 

A high percentage of trauma in abused children occurs in the facial 

region. It has been stated that abusers often attack the face of a child 

because it “represents” the individual child (O’Neill et al. 1973). The most 

common areas of skull fractures in children, resulting from both accidents 

and abuse, are the parietals and post-parietal regions. Fractures that occur 

in other locations (such as the mandible) are also highly indicative of 

abuse (Hobbs 1984) but not as commonly identified. Identification of 

acute and healing fractures in the cranium and splanchnocranium are 

crucial to trauma analysis and establishing patterns of abuse. 

Mandible fractures are common in adults but have seldom been referenced 

in association with children, especially in cases of suspected 

abuse. This is a glaring contradiction to the reported high frequency of 

facial trauma in child abuse. This research suggests that facial fractures 

may be more common in child abuse, but often remain undetected. 

In a review of the 1998 child abuse cases from the Regional Forensic 

Center in Memphis, TN, two abuse cases illustrated mandibular condyle 

fractures. In the first case, a 10-month-old male was taken to the day care 

at 7:30 AM. That afternoon, the day care center alerted the parents that the 

child had a seizure, fell, and required emergency medical service. The 

child was admitted to the local children’s hospital in full arrest. CT scans 

revealed skull fractures. Local law enforcement and the medical examiners 

office were contacted because the history did not correspond to the 

severity of the injuries. The child was transported to the medical examiners 

office for examination. 

External exam illustrated that all of the injuries impacted the face and 

head. These included numerous acute contusions and abrasions. The 

forensic pathologist noted massive injuries to the posterior head including 

subgaleal hemorrhage, brain swelling, and fractures to the occipital, 

parietal, and internal border of the left eye orbit. After autopsy, several 

cranial bones were retained by the medical examiner for skeletal analysis 

by a forensic anthropologist. Skeletal analysis revealed radiating fractures 

from the basilar skull to the anterior frontal bone, and a fracture in the neck 

of the left mandibular condyle. 

The second case involved an 18-month-old female who was admitted 

to the local children’s hospital in full arrest. The child’s mother claimed 

that the child fell in the bath while being cared for by her current 

boyfriend. Local law enforcement and the medical examiners office were 

notified because the history did not correspond to the severity of the injury, 

which included an occipital bone fracture. The child was eventually transported 

to the medical examiners office for examination. 

The external exam revealed numerous acute contusions, abrasions, 

and lacerations, particularly to the face and head. The autopsy revealed 

subgaleal contusions on the occipital, bilateral occipital subdural hemorrhage, 

and occipital bone fracture. Several skeletal elements were retained 

for skeletal analysis, which revealed a healed mandibular condyle fracture, 

in addition to the occipital fracture. The healed condylar fracture is 

indicative of a pattern of abuse. 

Two questions arose from these cases. Do infant mandibles fracture 

differently from those of adults, and why are so few reported in cases of 

abuse? The infant mandible undergoes many rapid biomechanical changes 

during the first few years of life. Tremendous growth occurs in each 

mandibular ramus. Furthermore, the introduction of new foods changes the 

biomechanical demands placed on the condyles, generating a period of rapid 

bone reorganization. During this period, it is probable that an immature vs. 

mature mandible responds to external forces differently. Different biomechanical 

responses may be a contributing factor to the difficult identification 

on radiographic films, in external exams, and in autopsy. To correct this 

problem and visually identify fractures of the mandibular condyle, 

aggressive autopsy techniques are required by the forensic pathologist, with 

a complete anthropological examination to follow. 

References: 

Hobbs, C.J. 

1984 Skull fractures and the diagnosis of abuse, Archives of Disease in Childhood 

54: 246-252 

O’Neill, J.A., W.F. Meacham, P.P. Griffin, and J.L. Sawyers. 

1973 Patterns of injury in the battered child syndrome, The Journal of Trauma 13: 

332-339 

Child Abuse, Fracture, Mandible 

H68 Child Abuse Case: Multiple Forensic Issues 

Murray K. Marks, PhD*, and Kathryn H. Haden, MD, Department of 

Pathology, The University of Tennessee Medical Center, 250 South 

Stadium Hall, Knoxville, TN 

The goal of this presentation is to expose forensic investigators to 

many facets and intricacies associated with cases of child abuse. 

Introduction: On the evening of 16 October, 2000, the medical 

examiner’s office was notified of a four-month-old white male who had 

presented to a local emergency department in cardiac arrest. The baby’s 

past medical history was notable for a premature birth at 24 weeks 

gestation, followed by a lengthy (approximately 3 months) hospitalization 

in the neonatal intensive care unit. The baby survived many of the 

expected sequelae associated with prematurity, including respiratory 

distress syndrome and infections, only to be discharged home where he 


ultimately succumbed approximately one month later, to the violent and 

inexplicable act of child abuse. 

Clinical History: Premature male infant, born 11 June, 2000, by 

spontaneous vaginal delivery at 24 weeks gestation to a 17-year-old 

female. After spending approximately three months in the neonatal 

intensive care unit (NICU) before being discharged home with his parents 

on 2 September, 2000. While in the NICU, his parents would frequently 

disappear for several days at a time, despite agreeing to regularly 

scheduled visitations to become more proactive in his care. Hospital social 

workers became concerned over the repeated abandonment and two 

attempts to get DCS involved were unsuccessful. At the time of his discharge, 

arrangements were made such that the baby and his parents would 

be living with one of the baby’s grandparents in order to have greater 

access to medical care. On 6 October, 2000, he presented to the local 

children’s hospital for a respiratory illness, for which he was treated with 

nebulizers. At that time, he was noted to have unusual bruises over parts 

of his body and a forensic consult was sought. Skeletal radiographs 

showed buckle fractures involving the proximal left tibia and distal left 

radius. DCS was again contacted to investigate. However, it was felt that 

the fractures could be secondary to his prematurity and he was discharged 

home with his parents on 10 October, 2000. Per his parents and his 

paternal grandmother, on 13 October, 2000, he developed congestion 

requiring “breathing treatments.” Two days later, he had an apneic spell, 

“turned blue,” and required suctioning. He did better initially, but later that 

evening, he was noted to be lethargic and another “breathing treatment” 

was administered. In the early hours of 16 October, 2000, he was noted to 

be apneic, his father began administering CPR and called 911. He was 

essentially comatose at presentation to the Children’s Emergency Room 

and died several hours later. Child abuse was suspected after ophthalmologic 

examination revealed bilateral retinal hemorrhages and a chest x-ray 

revealed several rib fractures. Postmortem examination was ordered by 

law enforcement agents at the request of the medical examiner. 

Autopsy findings revealed multiple blunt force injuries caused by 

blows to the abdomen and chest causing multiple bilateral rib fractures, 

acute and remote, lung contusions, extensive liver and spleen lacerations 

and internal bleeding. Additionally, findings attributable to shaken infant 

Syndrome were also present, including but not limited to, bilateral retinal 

hemorrhages, acute subdural hematoma and cerebral edema. Abrasions 

and contusions were present around the anal canal, with mucosal hemorrhage 

of the distal rectum. Contusions were also noted on both lower 

extremities. Cause of death was attributed to multiple blunt force injuries 

and shaken infant syndrome. 

Anthropological analysis was performed on the entire rib cage to 

further understand the extensive fractures present. Not just acute bilateral 

fractures but healed rib fractures indicative of trauma two to three weeks 

prior were revealed. Histological analyses demonstrated a moderate 

degree of osteoblastic activity within the callus formation in the two to 

three week window when the antemortem fractures were sustained. 

A heated and emotional trial ensued against the father, resulting in a 

guilty verdict and sentencing to life in prison without the possibility of 

parole. No charges were ever filed against the mother. Testimonies by both 

the forensic pathologist and forensic anthropologist involved in the case 

were heard. However, part of the anthropological evidence was deemed 

inadmissible, adding a whole new dimension to the case. 

Most cases of child abuse are not isolated events. Not uncommonly, 

there are episodic bouts of trauma, that cultimate in a final, fatal event. 

Unfortunately, it is the opinion of our justice system that evidence of prior 

trauma is inadmissible in these instances, taking away proof of prior 

suffering the infant experienced during life, thereby possibly reducing the 

level of punishment imposed. Finally, the greater crime may be imposed 

by an inept child and family services programs who on numerous 

occasions dropped the ball on not only recovering the child from the home 

during his brief life, but for placing the infant in that environment in the 

first place. 

Child Abuse, Rib Fracture, Recognition 


H69 Child Abuse: It’s All in the Recognition 

Steven A. Symes, PhD*, Susan B. Patton, MNSc*, T.D. Campbell, MD, 

Cynthia D. Gardner, MD, O’Brian C. Smith, MD, T. Paulette 

Sutton, MS, MT, and Craig T. Mallak, JD, MD, Department of 

Forensic Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison 

Avenue, Memphis, TN; and A.M. Kroman, BA, Department of 



The goals of this research project are to demonstrate how using a 

multidisciplinary approach for cases of sudden infant death lends the 

added expertise to allow the most accurate determinations of cause and 


Historically, the ruling of manner and cause of sudden infant deaths 

has been challenging. This is due to a lack of eyewitness accounts and 

accurate historical records, not to mention the emotional involvement of 

the caregiver, law enforcement, and medical professionals. This problem 

has prompted the professionals at the Regional Forensic Center in 

Memphis to combine fields of expertise in the examination of sudden 

infant deaths. This multidisciplinary approach allows a more accurate and 

complete assessment of child mortality. While the forensic pathologist 

makes the final ruling, the enlistment of anthropology, nursing, bloodstain 

pattern analysis, and radiology can all contribute to a more complete 

investigation of children’s untimely death. 

Three case studies will demonstrate this multidisciplinary approach. 

Case 1: This 22-month-old male was found at home in full arrest by 

the mother’s boyfriend. Paramedics were called, but extensive resuscitation 

at the scene and in the emergency room could not save the child. 

When law enforcement interviewed the mother about her son’s death, she 

stated that he had been fine when she had left him in the custody of her 

boyfriend. The mother stated that her boyfriend had been rough to the 

child in the past. 

After pronouncement of death, the incident was reported to law 

enforcement and the body was transported to the medical examiner’s 

office. An examination into the child’s past medical history by the forensic 

nurse raised suspicion of past abuse. Seven months prior to the child’s 

death, caretakers claimed the child burned himself when a hot iron fell on 

him. There was also a report of a left humeral injury 6 weeks prior to 

death where victim “fell off a bed.” DHS was not notified in either case. 

External examination of the child revealed the burn scar on the calf of the 

right leg and multiple contusions and scars over the trunk and extremities. 

Radiographic findings included the healed periosteal elevation on the 

distal left humerus and a single acute fracture of right rib 7 that was suggested 

to be resuscitation related. 

Autopsy findings were unmistakable. Most noticeable were contusions 

of the intestine and a lacerated liver, suggestive of severe blows to 

the abdomen. The cause of death was ruled blunt force injuries to the 

chest and abdomen producing injury to vital organs, bleeding, and death. 

The anthropologist confirmed the existing fractures and examined each rib 

for acute or healing trauma. Even though nothing definitive was detected 

by examination of radiographic film or by palpation, ribs 6 through 8 were 

removed along with fractured rib 9, as well as the healing humerus. 

Examination of the ribs in a dry state produced more unexpected 

results. Each rib exhibited a healing fracture on the internal surface. 

While these rib defects were not visible radiographically, to the naked eye, 

or by palpation, their subtle presence provided unmistakable evidence for 

a pattern of abuse that existed long before the day the child died. 

Case 2: This case begins in the back of a garbage truck. As the 

attendant was compacting garbage into the truck, he noticed what 

appeared to be a human baby protruding out of a trash bag. Law 

enforcement officers and the medical examiner’s office were notified. The 

newborn was recovered from the truck, and found to be in the beginning 

stages of decomposition. The medical examiner decided to delay the 

autopsy until more information about the circumstances surrounding the 

discovery were obtained. The following day the medical examiner’s 

612

office was notified of a crime scene less than a block from where the 

newborn was discovered. At the crime scene, a female was found hanging 

in a closet by a ligature around her neck. Law enforcement suspected that 

the victim was the mother of the deceased infant. 

The crime scene was thoroughly examined, with the assistance of law 

enforcement, a bloodstain expert, pathologists, anthropologists, and a 

nursing practitioner. It was determined that the victim was the mother of 

the new born. There was evidence for a home birth that resulted in the 

natural death of the new born. Possibly distressed by the death, the mother 

resorted to suicide by cutting her wrist and neck before eventually hanging 

herself. Her death was ruled a suicide. The autopsy of the child produced 

suspicious results. There appeared to be subgaleal hemorrhage to the back 

of the head, and directly under the hemorrhage, were fissures in the 

occipital and parietal that appeared to be fractures. Was this child beaten? 

Anthropology was called in to confirm fractures, and within 

minutes, the lightly processed bones examined under magnification 

revealed that these were expected lateral fissures related to normal 

growing fetal skull bone. 

Case 3: An 18-month-old male was found choking in the home. The 

father started CPR and the mother called paramedics from a neighbor’s 

phone. Following extensive resuscitation attempts at the scene, the child 

was hospitalized for 48 hours and was pronounced dead in the intensive 

care unit. Interviews with the mother indicated that the child was in good 

health with the recent exception of vomiting and diarrhea associated with 

a common cold. 

Law enforcement was contacted immediately due to the unruly and 

uncooperative nature of the mother in the emergency room. At this time 

it was noted that the parents reported three different accounts of incidents 

leading up to the discovery of the choking child. The “best” story 

appeared to be that the child was being fed his bottle by an older sibling 

when he choked. The medical examiner’s office was contacted and the 

baby was transported to the Regional Forensic Center for examination. 

The forensic nurse examined the family and medical history of the 

infant, finding that an older daughter of the family had been placed into 

foster care for complicated medical problems since her parent’s home was 

identified as “unsuitable” to her care. Also, an older sibling of the 

deceased died at the age of four months, diagnosed with SIDS. The 

deceased appeared to have no prior medical history. 

This case obviously has numerous historical indicators of child 

abuse, including a suspect family history, injuries inconsistent with the 

child’s developmental age, history of injury changes, and caregivers 

unwilling to cooperate with authorities. There was no history or external 

evidence of previous injury and the child was well developed for his age. 

Autopsy findings produced no indicators of trauma. Besides the 

stigmata of medical intervention, there were no signs of abuse or neglect. 

However, dissection of the lung did reveal a foreign object. Imbedded 

deeply in the bronchus was a bead from a necklace. Upon reinterview 

with the parents, they confirmed that the child had been playing with a 

necklace shortly before eating. Cause of death was ruled aspiration of 

foreign body with occlusion of right bronchus. 

These cases illustrate how immature investigations or immediate 

medical findings can be deceptive and even misleading, especially in child 

abuse cases. But as medical examiners begin to depend more on a multidisciplinary 

team investigation, more information is utilized to influence 

decisions of cause and manner of death. 

Child Abuse, Bone Fracture, Trauma

FORENSIC PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY - Bio Medical Forensics

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