Beyond the Grave - Institute for Biblical Research
Beyond the Grave - Institute for Biblical Research
Beyond the Grave - Institute for Biblical Research
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136 Bulletin <strong>for</strong> <strong>Biblical</strong> <strong>Research</strong> 2<br />
with whom he shared a particular worldview, but whose minds he<br />
was seeking to change. Given <strong>the</strong> apostate condition of his country-<br />
men, it is conceivable that many of <strong>the</strong>m had bought into pagan beliefs<br />
concerning <strong>the</strong> ne<strong>the</strong>rworld, and many of <strong>the</strong>m will have interpreted<br />
<strong>the</strong> details of his oracle literally. But this does not preclude <strong>the</strong> nor-<br />
mativeness of <strong>the</strong> underlying <strong>the</strong>ological truths: life continues after<br />
death; Yahweh is <strong>the</strong> supreme ruler of <strong>the</strong> entire universe, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> ne<strong>the</strong>rworld; a person's status in <strong>the</strong> afterlife is affected by con-<br />
duct in <strong>the</strong> realm of <strong>the</strong> living.<br />
But we should not be surprised that <strong>the</strong>re are still many gaps in<br />
Ezekiel's presentation of <strong>the</strong> afterlife. His occasional use of <strong>the</strong> term<br />
‘ôlām creates <strong>the</strong> impression of an enduring stay, but he provides no<br />
clear indication of how permanent <strong>the</strong> assignments in Sheol are. His<br />
Sheol is not to be confused with Gehenna/hell. There are no hints yet<br />
of a final eschatological judgment, or of an eternal fiery punishment<br />
of <strong>the</strong> wicked. All of <strong>the</strong>se developments must await a later day. 122<br />
The second major doctrinal question is raised by chapter 37. It is<br />
clear that <strong>the</strong> primary concern of this vision is <strong>the</strong> revival of <strong>the</strong> na-<br />
tion of Israel, but does <strong>the</strong> prophet hereby imply a belief in individ-<br />
ual resurrection? In addressing <strong>the</strong> issue two types of evidence may<br />
be considered, viz., <strong>the</strong> witness of comparative ancient Near Eastern<br />
religion, and inner biblical data.<br />
Some have found <strong>the</strong> roots of Ezekiel's ideas in Egyptian beliefs<br />
about <strong>the</strong> deceased rising as stars and taking <strong>the</strong>ir place in <strong>the</strong> heav-<br />
ens. 123 O<strong>the</strong>rs have recognized a belief in personal resurrection in<br />
ancient Mesopotamian and Syrian festivals celebrating <strong>the</strong> annual<br />
revivification of <strong>the</strong> storm god, and/or <strong>the</strong> annual New Year's fes-<br />
122. Cf. Dan 12:2. However, <strong>the</strong>re is still no specific mention of torment or <strong>the</strong> fires<br />
of Gehenna. On <strong>the</strong> development of this notion in early Jewish thought see R. Bauck-<br />
ham, "Early Jewish Visions of Hell," JTS, n.s. 41 (1990) 355-85. Cf. also S. J. Fox, Hell in<br />
Jewish Literature (Northbrook: Whitehall, 1972). On <strong>the</strong> growth of <strong>the</strong> Christian doctrine<br />
see G. W. Bromiley, "Hell, History of <strong>the</strong> Doctrine of," ISBE (rev. ed.) 2.677-79.<br />
123. On which see H. Frank<strong>for</strong>t, Ancient Egyptian Religion: An Interpretation (New<br />
York: Cornell University, 1948) 100-23; Cf. Spronk, Beatific Afterlife, 86-95; Morenz,<br />
Egyptian Religion, 204-13. In some Old Kingdom texts hope <strong>for</strong> a beatific afterlife was<br />
held out only <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> king, who in his identification with a star, or later <strong>the</strong> sun-god<br />
Re, crossed <strong>the</strong> heavens each day and entered <strong>the</strong> ne<strong>the</strong>rworld at night. Some texts<br />
identify <strong>the</strong> king with Osiris, <strong>the</strong> ruler of <strong>the</strong> dead, but this role offered him no possi-<br />
bility of leaving that realm. Later <strong>the</strong>se two notions merged, and Osiris took his place<br />
in <strong>the</strong> heavens, being associated with Orion or <strong>the</strong> moon, as a nightly counterpart to<br />
Re. The custom of mummification was designed to enable <strong>the</strong> deceased to live on as a<br />
"living corpse" and to protect him on his nightly journey to <strong>the</strong> world of <strong>the</strong> dead and<br />
<strong>the</strong> daily journey through heaven. With <strong>the</strong> decline of <strong>the</strong> Egyptian kingdom, some<br />
democratization of <strong>the</strong> hope of beatific afterlife made possible by identification with<br />
Osiris after death becomes apparent. On <strong>the</strong> role of Osiris see H. Kees, Totenglauben<br />
and Jenseitsvorstellungen der alten Ägypter (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1980) 132-59.