Vermiculture in Egypt: - FAO - Regional Office for the Near East and
Vermiculture in Egypt: - FAO - Regional Office for the Near East and
Vermiculture in Egypt: - FAO - Regional Office for the Near East and
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<strong>Vermiculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>:<br />
Current Development<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
Future Potential<br />
i
<strong>Vermiculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>:<br />
Current Development<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
Future Potential<br />
Written by:<br />
Mahmoud Medany, Ph.D.<br />
Environment Consultant<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Edited by:<br />
Elhadi Yahia, Ph.D.<br />
Agro <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure <strong>Office</strong>r<br />
Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organizatioon<br />
(<strong>FAO</strong>/UN)<br />
<strong>Regional</strong> <strong>Office</strong> <strong>for</strong> North Africa<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Near</strong> <strong>East</strong>, Cairo, <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization of <strong>the</strong> United Nations<br />
<strong>Regional</strong> <strong>Office</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Near</strong> <strong>East</strong><br />
Cairo, <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
April, 2011<br />
ii
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© <strong>FAO</strong> 2011
Table of contents<br />
Table of contents ...................................................................................................................... iv<br />
List of Photos ............................................................................................................................ vi<br />
List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... vi<br />
List of tables ............................................................................................................................ vii<br />
Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... viii<br />
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1<br />
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................. 2<br />
1. Introduction to <strong>the</strong> use of compost worms <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> .............................................................. 3<br />
1.1. Historical background ...................................................................................... 3<br />
1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms ........................................................ 4<br />
1.3. Types of earthworms ........................................................................................ 6<br />
1.4. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g species ................................................................................. 6<br />
1.5. Native earthworm species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> ................................................................. 7<br />
1.6. <strong>Vermiculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g ............................................................... 8<br />
2. Trial of vermiculture <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g implementation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> ............................... 10<br />
2.1. Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of vermiculture <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g ......................................... 10<br />
2.1.1. Bedd<strong>in</strong>g ..................................................................................................... 10<br />
2.1.2. Worm Food ............................................................................................... 11<br />
2.1.3. Moisture .................................................................................................... 14<br />
2.1.4. Aeration .................................................................................................... 14<br />
2.1.5. Temperature control ................................................................................ 15<br />
2.2. Methods of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g ......................................................................... 16<br />
2.2.1. Pits below <strong>the</strong> ground .............................................................................. 16<br />
2.2.2. Heap<strong>in</strong>g above <strong>the</strong> ground ...................................................................... 17<br />
2.2.3. Tanks above <strong>the</strong> ground .......................................................................... 17<br />
2.2.4. Cement r<strong>in</strong>gs............................................................................................. 18<br />
2.2.5. Commercial model ................................................................................... 18<br />
2.3. The trial experience <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> ......................................................................... 20<br />
2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:........................................................................... 20<br />
2.3.2. Bedd<strong>in</strong>g ..................................................................................................... 20<br />
2.3.3. Food ........................................................................................................... 21<br />
2.3.4. Moisture .................................................................................................... 22<br />
2.3.5. Aeration .................................................................................................... 22<br />
2.3.6. Temperature ............................................................................................. 23<br />
2.3.7 Harvest<strong>in</strong>g .................................................................................................. 23<br />
3. Use of compost worms globally <strong>in</strong> countries of similar climate ......................................... 26<br />
3.1 Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Philipp<strong>in</strong>es ....................................................................................... 26<br />
3.2 Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Cuba .............................................................................. 28<br />
3.3. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> India .............................................................................. 29<br />
3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ <strong>in</strong> Ohio, USA ............................................................... 32<br />
3.5. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> United K<strong>in</strong>gdom .......................................................... 33<br />
4. Current on-farm <strong>and</strong> urban organic waste management practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>: gap analysis. . 34<br />
4.1. On-farm organic waste ................................................................................... 34<br />
4.1.1. Weak po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> rice straw system <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> ................................................ 35<br />
4.2. Urban wastes ................................................................................................... 35<br />
4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> .......................... 35<br />
4.2.2. Ma<strong>in</strong> factors contribut<strong>in</strong>g to soil waste management problem .................. 36<br />
4.2.3. Waste generation rates ............................................................................... 37<br />
4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are .............................................. 39<br />
iv
4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options ................................................ 40<br />
4.3.1. Feed<strong>in</strong>g animals ........................................................................................ 40<br />
4.3.2. Compost .................................................................................................... 40<br />
4.3.3 L<strong>and</strong>fill disposal or <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>eration ................................................................. 40<br />
5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>. ................................. 45<br />
5.1. Fertilizer use <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> .................................................................................... 45<br />
5.2. Fertilizer statistics ............................................................................................. 46<br />
5.3. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g as fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>....................................................... 48<br />
5.3.1. Urban waste vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g .................................................................. 49<br />
5.3.2. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g of agricultural wastes ................................................... 50<br />
5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth ...................................................... 50<br />
5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> .................. 51<br />
6. Current animal feed prote<strong>in</strong> supplements production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> potential to substitute<br />
desiccated compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use of live worms <strong>in</strong><br />
aquaculture <strong>in</strong>dustries. ...................................................................................................... 53<br />
6.1. Animal <strong>and</strong> aquaculture feed ......................................................................... 53<br />
6.2. Worm meal ...................................................................................................... 54<br />
6.3. Earthworms, <strong>the</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able aquaculture feed of <strong>the</strong> future ..................... 56<br />
7. Current on-farm <strong>and</strong> urban organic waste management practices <strong>and</strong> environmental effects<br />
of those practices, e.g. carbon <strong>and</strong> methane emissions. .................................................... 62<br />
7.1. Emissions from vermicompost ....................................................................... 62<br />
7.2 Total emissions from waste sector <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> .................................................. 64<br />
7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes .............................................................. 66<br />
7.4. Vermifilters <strong>in</strong> domestic wastewater treatment ........................................... 69<br />
8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on greenhouse gas<br />
emission reductions ........................................................................................................... 71<br />
8.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 71<br />
8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> ................ 73<br />
8.3. <strong>Egypt</strong> National Strategy on <strong>the</strong> CDM ........................................................... 74<br />
8.4. The national regulatory framework .............................................................. 75<br />
9. Analysis of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian context <strong>and</strong> applicability of vermiculture as a means of<br />
greenhouse gas emission reduction. .................................................................................. 76<br />
9.1. Profile of wastes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> ............................................................................... 76<br />
9.1.1. Municipal solid waste ................................................................................ 76<br />
9.1.2. Agricultural wastes .................................................................................. 77<br />
9.2. Mitigat<strong>in</strong>g greenhouse gas from <strong>the</strong> solid wastes ......................................... 77<br />
9.3. Mitigat<strong>in</strong>g greenhouse gas from <strong>the</strong> agriculture wastes .............................. 79<br />
References ............................................................................................................................... 80<br />
Annex 1 ................................................................................................................................... 85<br />
General <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation <strong>and</strong> FAQ ................................................................................................. 85<br />
v
List of Photos<br />
Photo 1.1 Rich fertile soil of <strong>the</strong> Nile Delta enables wide variety of crops<br />
to be grown.<br />
4<br />
Photo 2.1 Open pit vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g - Kirungakottai. 16<br />
Photo 2.2 Open heap vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g. 17<br />
Photo 2.3 Commercial vermicompost operation at KCDC Bangalore, India 18<br />
Photo 2.4 Cement r<strong>in</strong>g vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g 18<br />
Photo 2.5 Commercial vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g unit 19<br />
Photo 2.6 Earthworms used <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> 20<br />
Photo 2.7 Trial vermicompost set up at Dokki. 21<br />
Photo 2.8 Mixture of food wastes <strong>and</strong> shredded plant material ready to be<br />
mixed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rotat<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
21<br />
Photo 2.9 The locally manufactured shredd<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e. 22<br />
Photo 2.10 The shaded grow<strong>in</strong>g beds. 23<br />
Photo 2.11 Harvest<strong>in</strong>g of cast<strong>in</strong>gs. 24<br />
Photo 2.12 Harvested adult worms from <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g beds. 24<br />
Photo 2.13 Couple of adult worms, with clear clitellum <strong>in</strong> both of <strong>the</strong>m. 25<br />
Photo 2.14 Worm eggs. 25<br />
Photo 3.1 Earthworm plots show<strong>in</strong>g plastic covers <strong>and</strong> support frame. 27<br />
Photo 3.2 W<strong>in</strong>drows vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g method: <strong>in</strong> Havana, Cuba . 29<br />
Photo 3.3 Women self-help group <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, to<br />
promote micro-enterprises <strong>and</strong> generate <strong>in</strong>come.<br />
List of Figures<br />
Figure 2.1 Commercial model of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g developed by ICRISAT 19<br />
Figure 5.1 Trends of production, imports <strong>and</strong> exports (1000 tonnes of<br />
nutrients) of fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
47<br />
Figure 5.2 Consumption of nitrogen, phosphate, potassium <strong>and</strong> total<br />
fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
48<br />
Figure 7.1 <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s GHG emissions by gas type <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000 <strong>in</strong> mega<br />
tones of carbon dioxide equivalent.<br />
68<br />
Figure 7.2 <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s GHG emissions by sector <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000, <strong>in</strong> mega<br />
tones of carbon dioxide equivalent.<br />
69<br />
Figure 7.3 Layout of <strong>the</strong> vermifilter. 70<br />
vi<br />
30
List of tables<br />
Table 1.1 Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
regions of orig<strong>in</strong>.<br />
5<br />
Table 2.1 Common bedd<strong>in</strong>g materials. 11<br />
Table 2.2 Advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages of different types of feed. 12<br />
Table 3.1 Summary <strong>for</strong> production of vermicompost at farm scale <strong>in</strong><br />
Andaman <strong>and</strong> Nicobar (A&N) Isl<strong>and</strong>s, India.<br />
31<br />
Table 4.1 Municipal solid waste contents 2000-2005. 36<br />
Table 4.2 Distribution of waste accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> sources. 37<br />
Table 4.3 Distribution of wastes accord<strong>in</strong>g to its sources <strong>and</strong> Governorates 38<br />
2007/2008 <strong>in</strong> tons.<br />
Table 4.4 <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> period<br />
2007-2012.<br />
42<br />
Table 4.5 Solid waste accumulation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Governorates. 43<br />
Table 4.6 Solid waste amount produced by governorates <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> organic<br />
materials percentages For <strong>the</strong> year 2008.<br />
44<br />
Table 5.1 Physical <strong>and</strong> chemical analysis of various soil types. 46<br />
Table 5.2 The ma<strong>in</strong> types of fertilizers used <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>. 47<br />
Table 5.3 Potential nutrients that could be obta<strong>in</strong>ed from urban <strong>and</strong><br />
agriculture wastes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
52<br />
Table 6.1 Chemical composition % of various worm meal (<strong>in</strong> dry matter). 55<br />
Table 6.2 Essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN). 55<br />
Table 6.3 Macro <strong>and</strong> trace m<strong>in</strong>eral contents of freeze dried vermi meal<br />
(Eudrilus eugeniae).<br />
55<br />
Table 6.4 Different nutrient concentration <strong>in</strong> manure <strong>and</strong> fertilizer applied<br />
(average value of triplicate sample analyzed).<br />
58<br />
Table 6.5 Average values (±SD) of physico-chemical parameters of water,<br />
primary productivity of phytoplankton <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al body weights <strong>and</strong><br />
fish production of Cypr<strong>in</strong>us carpio (Ham.) <strong>in</strong> various treatments.<br />
59<br />
Table 6.6 Composition (% dry matter) of tested prote<strong>in</strong>s sources or<br />
supplements <strong>for</strong> fish feeds.<br />
60<br />
Table 6.7 Am<strong>in</strong>o acid (g/100g prote<strong>in</strong>) profiles of tested prote<strong>in</strong> sources or<br />
supplement as compared to fish meal (FM).<br />
61<br />
Table 7.1 Summary of greenhouse gas emissions <strong>for</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, 2000. 65<br />
Table 7.2 <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000. 67<br />
Table 7.3 <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s greenhouse gas emissions by sector <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000. 68<br />
Table 9.1 Summary of identified mitigation measures <strong>for</strong> solid wastes. 78<br />
vii
Abbreviations<br />
AF Africa<br />
ARC Agricultural Research Center of <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
ARE Arab Republic of <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
AS Asia<br />
CA Central America<br />
CDM Clean Development Mechanism<br />
CER Certified Emissions Reductions<br />
CH4<br />
Methane<br />
CO Carbon monoxide<br />
CO2<br />
Carbon dioxide<br />
CO2e Equivalent carbon dioxide<br />
COPx Conference of parties number x<br />
DAP Diammonium phosphate<br />
EEAA <strong>Egypt</strong> Environmental Affairs Agency<br />
EU Europe<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization<br />
GHG Greenhouse gas<br />
GIS Geographic In<strong>for</strong>mation System<br />
GTZ German Technical Cooperation Agency<br />
GWP Global Warm<strong>in</strong>g Potential<br />
ha Hectare, 10 thous<strong>and</strong> square meters<br />
HFC Hydrofluorocarbon<br />
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> Semi-Arid Tropics<br />
IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change<br />
JA Japan<br />
MA Madagascar<br />
ME Mediteranean<br />
MSW Municipal Solid Waste<br />
MSW Municipal Solid Waste<br />
Mt Million tons<br />
N2O Nitrous oxide<br />
NA North America<br />
NH3<br />
Ammonia<br />
NOx Nitrogen oxides<br />
NSS National Strategy Studies<br />
OC Oceania<br />
PFC's Perfluorocarbons<br />
SA South America<br />
viii
SF6<br />
Sulphur hexafluoride<br />
SWM Solid Waste Management<br />
Tg Teragrams<br />
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment <strong>and</strong> Development<br />
UNDP United Nations Development Program<br />
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change<br />
USA The United States of America<br />
USA Unites States of America<br />
VF Vermifiltration: filtration utiliz<strong>in</strong>g earth worms<br />
VOC Volatile Organic Compound<br />
VSS Volatile suspendedsolids<br />
WWTP Wastewater treatment plant<br />
ix
Introduction<br />
The total amount of solid waste generated yearly <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> is about 17 million tons<br />
from municipal sources, 6 million tons from <strong>in</strong>dustrial sources <strong>and</strong> 30 million tons<br />
from agricultural sources. Approximately 8% of municipal solid waste is composted,<br />
2% recycled, 2% l<strong>and</strong>-filled <strong>and</strong> 88% disposed of <strong>in</strong> uncontrolled dumpsites.<br />
Agricultural wastes ei<strong>the</strong>r burned <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fields or used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of organic<br />
fertilizers, animal fodder <strong>and</strong> food or energy production. National ef<strong>for</strong>ts are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
exerted to m<strong>in</strong>imize burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> agricultural wastes. There is a great opportunity <strong>for</strong><br />
maximiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> economical benefits of organic wastes by utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> earth worms as<br />
"biological mach<strong>in</strong>es" utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> waste <strong>for</strong> valuable commodities.<br />
Assessment of greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions <strong>for</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> revealed that <strong>the</strong> total<br />
emissions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000 were about 193 MtCO2e, compared to about 117 MtCO2e<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1990, represent<strong>in</strong>g an average <strong>in</strong>crease of 5.1% annually. Estimated total<br />
greenhouse gas emissions <strong>in</strong> 2008 are about 288 MtCO2e. Although waste sector<br />
produces <strong>the</strong> least quantity of greenhouse gases <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, without <strong>the</strong> organic residues<br />
burned from <strong>the</strong> agriculture sector, which when added toge<strong>the</strong>r can be <strong>in</strong> a higher<br />
rank. Convert<strong>in</strong>g organic wastes, whe<strong>the</strong>r municipal or agricultural, <strong>in</strong>to<br />
vermicompost can substantially reduce <strong>the</strong> greenhouse gas emission that could be paid<br />
back through <strong>the</strong> clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto Protocol.<br />
From ano<strong>the</strong>r perspective, proper h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g of wastes, especially organic, <strong>in</strong> mega<br />
cities such as Cairo, will reduce <strong>the</strong> environmental impact on both public <strong>and</strong><br />
government. Any ef<strong>for</strong>t lead to cleaner streets is highly appreciated. The availability<br />
of organic compost from various sources will have a direct positive impact on<br />
agriculture <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, as most soils of modern agriculture have poor organic matter<br />
contents. The benefits of convert<strong>in</strong>g organic wastes <strong>in</strong>to compost to be added to <strong>the</strong><br />
soil apply also to similar countries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle <strong>East</strong> <strong>and</strong> North Africa.<br />
As general <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> utilization of earthworm <strong>in</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
- One thous<strong>and</strong> adult worms weigh approximately one kilogram.<br />
- One kilogram of adults can convert up to 5 kilograms of waste per day.<br />
- Approximately ten kilograms of adults can convert one ton waste per month.<br />
- Two thous<strong>and</strong> adults can be accommodated <strong>in</strong> one square meter.<br />
- One thous<strong>and</strong> earthworms <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir descendants, under ideal conditions, could<br />
convert approximately one ton of organic waste <strong>in</strong>to high yield fertilizer <strong>in</strong> one<br />
year.<br />
The purpose of this work is to <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g current development of vermiculture<br />
under <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian conditions, <strong>and</strong> to discuss its potential as an effective means of<br />
convert<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> carbon <strong>and</strong> nitrogen <strong>in</strong> domestic <strong>and</strong> agricultural organic wastes <strong>in</strong>to<br />
bio-available nutrients <strong>for</strong> food production, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> potential of vermiculture as means<br />
of reduction <strong>the</strong> greenhouse gas emissions that have negative impacts on <strong>the</strong><br />
environment.<br />
1
Executive Summary<br />
<strong>Vermiculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> dates s<strong>in</strong>ce Cleopatra. However, <strong>the</strong> Green Revolution, with its<br />
dependence on fossil fuelled large scale mach<strong>in</strong>ery <strong>and</strong> operations, toge<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong><br />
damm<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> Nile, has <strong>in</strong> recent times all but removed <strong>the</strong> environment <strong>in</strong> which<br />
compost worms, most commonly Eisenia Foetida, can thrive.<br />
The total quantity of solid wastes generated <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> is 118.6 million tons/year <strong>in</strong><br />
2007/2008, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g municipal solid waste (garbage) <strong>and</strong> agricultural wastes.<br />
Household waste constitutes about 60% of <strong>the</strong> total municipal waste quantities, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 40% be<strong>in</strong>g generated by commercial establishments, service<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions, streets <strong>and</strong> gardens, hotels <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r enterta<strong>in</strong>ment sector entities. Per<br />
capita generation rates <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian cities, villages <strong>and</strong> towns vary from lower than 0.3<br />
kg <strong>for</strong> low socio-economic groups <strong>and</strong> rural areas, to more than 1 kg <strong>for</strong> higher liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>in</strong> urban centers. On a nationwide average, <strong>the</strong> composition is about 50-60%<br />
food wastes, 10-20% paper, <strong>and</strong> 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, <strong>and</strong> plastics, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>der is basically <strong>in</strong>organic matter <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
Currently, solid waste quantities h<strong>and</strong>led by waste management systems are estimated<br />
at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day be<strong>in</strong>g produced <strong>in</strong> cities, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> rest generated from <strong>the</strong> pre-urban <strong>and</strong> rural areas. F<strong>in</strong>al dest<strong>in</strong>ations of municipal<br />
solid waste entail about 8% of <strong>the</strong> waste be<strong>in</strong>g composted, 2% recycled, 2%<br />
l<strong>and</strong>filled, <strong>and</strong> 88% dumped <strong>in</strong> uncontrolled open dumps.<br />
The organic wastes <strong>in</strong> cities can be as large as 10-15 thous<strong>and</strong> tons per day. After <strong>the</strong><br />
sw<strong>in</strong>e flu <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> government decision to get rid of all sw<strong>in</strong>e used to live on <strong>the</strong><br />
organic wastes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> garbage collection sites near <strong>the</strong> cities, earth worms could be <strong>the</strong><br />
alternate biological mach<strong>in</strong>es that could h<strong>and</strong>le <strong>the</strong> wastes with greater revenues <strong>and</strong><br />
cleaner production. There is a great opportunity <strong>for</strong> all municipal waste systems to<br />
adapt <strong>the</strong> vermicompost <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir operation.<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons<br />
per day). Some of this waste is used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of organic fertilizers, animal<br />
fodder, food production, energy production, or o<strong>the</strong>r useful purposes. <strong>Vermiculture</strong> is<br />
also a valuable system <strong>for</strong> convert<strong>in</strong>g most of <strong>the</strong> organic waste <strong>in</strong>to vermicompost.<br />
With rural awareness <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, vermicompost could be produced <strong>in</strong> all villages.<br />
The target groups of this book are all growers, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g organic agriculture growers,<br />
as well as all organic waste producers from as small scale as households to <strong>the</strong> large<br />
scale urban solid waste operations. The very rich <strong>and</strong> valuable organic vermicompost<br />
produce will assist <strong>in</strong> enrich<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> soil, especially s<strong>and</strong>y <strong>and</strong> newly reclaimed soil,<br />
with organic matter <strong>and</strong> fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of prote<strong>in</strong>s, enzymes, hormones, humus<br />
substances, vitam<strong>in</strong>s, sugars, <strong>and</strong> synergistic compounds, which makes it as<br />
productive as good soil.<br />
2
1. Introduction to <strong>the</strong> use of compost worms <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
1.1. Historical background<br />
The importance of earthworms is not a very modern phenomenon. Earthworms have<br />
been on <strong>the</strong> Earth <strong>for</strong> over 20 million years. In this time <strong>the</strong>y have faithfully done <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
part to keep <strong>the</strong> cycle of life cont<strong>in</strong>uously mov<strong>in</strong>g. Their purpose is simple but very<br />
important. They are nature‟s way of recycl<strong>in</strong>g organic nutrients from dead tissues<br />
back to liv<strong>in</strong>g organisms. Many have recognized <strong>the</strong> value of <strong>the</strong>se worms. Ancient<br />
civilizations, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Greece <strong>and</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> valued <strong>the</strong> role earthworms played <strong>in</strong> soil.<br />
The ancient <strong>Egypt</strong>ians were <strong>the</strong> first to recognize <strong>the</strong> beneficial status of <strong>the</strong><br />
earthworm. The <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Pharaoh, Cleopatra (69 – 30 B.C.) said, “Earthworms are<br />
sacred.” She recognized <strong>the</strong> important role <strong>the</strong> worms played <strong>in</strong> fertiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Nile<br />
Valley cropl<strong>and</strong>s after annual floods. Removal of earthworms from <strong>Egypt</strong> was<br />
punishable by death. <strong>Egypt</strong>ian farmers were not allowed to even touch an earthworm<br />
<strong>for</strong> fear of offend<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> God of fertility. The Ancient Greeks considered <strong>the</strong><br />
earthworm to have an important role <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> quality of <strong>the</strong> soil. The Greek<br />
philosopher Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C.) referred to worms as “<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>es of <strong>the</strong><br />
earth”.<br />
Jerry M<strong>in</strong>nich, <strong>in</strong> The Earthworm Book (Rodale, 1977), provides a historical<br />
overview which <strong>in</strong>dicates that at <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> last Ice Age, some 10,000 years ago,<br />
earthworm populations had been decimated <strong>in</strong> many regions by glaciers <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
adverse climatic conditions. Many surviv<strong>in</strong>g species were nei<strong>the</strong>r productive nor<br />
prolific. In places where active species <strong>and</strong> suitable environments were found, such as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nile River Valley, earthworms played a significant role <strong>in</strong> agricultural<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability. While <strong>the</strong> Nile‟s long-term fertility is well known <strong>and</strong> attributed to rich<br />
alluvial deposits brought by annual floods, <strong>the</strong>se materials were mixed <strong>and</strong> stabilized<br />
by valley-dwell<strong>in</strong>g earthworms. In 1949, <strong>the</strong> USDA estimated that earthworms<br />
contributed approximately 120 tons of <strong>the</strong>ir cast<strong>in</strong>gs per year to each acre of <strong>the</strong> Nile<br />
floodpla<strong>in</strong> (Tilth, 1982).<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> has historically had some of <strong>the</strong> most productive <strong>and</strong> fertile l<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world.<br />
The Nile River not only provides water critical <strong>for</strong> agriculture, but <strong>in</strong> times past, <strong>the</strong><br />
annual flood<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> Nile deposited nutrient-rich soil onto <strong>the</strong> l<strong>and</strong>. In recent years,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Aswan High Dam has virtually elim<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>the</strong> annual flood which has resulted <strong>in</strong> a<br />
loss of <strong>the</strong> beneficial soil deposits lead<strong>in</strong>g to a need <strong>for</strong> organic material on l<strong>and</strong>s used<br />
<strong>for</strong> agricultural production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
Charles Darw<strong>in</strong> (1809 –1882) studied earthworms <strong>for</strong> more than <strong>for</strong>ty years <strong>and</strong><br />
devoted an entire book (The Formation of Vegetable Mould through <strong>the</strong> Action of<br />
Worms) to <strong>the</strong> earthworm. Darw<strong>in</strong> said, “it may be doubted that <strong>the</strong>re are many o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
animals which have played so important a part <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> history of <strong>the</strong> world as have<br />
<strong>the</strong>se lowly organized creatures”.<br />
3
For three millennia (3,000 years), <strong>the</strong> thriv<strong>in</strong>g civilization of ancient <strong>Egypt</strong> was<br />
strik<strong>in</strong>gly successful <strong>for</strong> two reasons: 1) The Nile River, which brought abundant<br />
water to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwise parched l<strong>and</strong>s of <strong>the</strong> region; <strong>and</strong> 2) <strong>the</strong> billions of earthworms<br />
that converted <strong>the</strong> annual deposit of silt <strong>and</strong> organic matter, brought down by <strong>the</strong><br />
annual floods <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> richest food-produc<strong>in</strong>g soil anywhere. Those <strong>Egypt</strong>ian worms<br />
are thought to be <strong>the</strong> found<strong>in</strong>g stock of <strong>the</strong> night crawlers that slowly spread<br />
throughout Europe <strong>and</strong> eventually came to <strong>the</strong> Western Hemisphere with <strong>the</strong> early<br />
settlers (Burton <strong>and</strong> Burton, 2002).<br />
1.2. Geographic distribution of earth worms<br />
4<br />
Photo 1.1.<br />
Rich fertile soil of<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nile Delta<br />
enables wide variety<br />
of crops to be<br />
grown.<br />
Source: Author<br />
The diversity of earthworm community is <strong>in</strong>fluenced by <strong>the</strong> characteristics of soil,<br />
climate <strong>and</strong> organic resources of <strong>the</strong> locality as well as history of l<strong>and</strong> use. The<br />
species poor communities are characterized by extreme soil conditions such as low<br />
pH, poor fertility, low fertility litter or a high degree of soil disturbance. The most<br />
significant soil factors affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> distribution of different species of earthworm are<br />
<strong>the</strong> C/N ratio, pH <strong>and</strong> contents of Al, Ca, Mg, organic matter, silt <strong>and</strong> coarse s<strong>and</strong><br />
(Ghafoor et al., 2008).<br />
Europe is <strong>the</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al home of some of most common <strong>and</strong> productive earthworm<br />
species: Lumbricus rubellus (<strong>the</strong> red worm or red wiggler); Eisenia foetida (<strong>the</strong><br />
br<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g, manure worm or tiger worm); Lumbricus terrestris (<strong>the</strong> common night<br />
crawler); <strong>and</strong> Allolobophora ealignosa (<strong>the</strong> field worm). The first two species are <strong>the</strong><br />
major „„earthworms of commerce, whose ideal liv<strong>in</strong>g environments are manure or<br />
compost heaps. The night crawler <strong>and</strong> field worms, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, both prefer<br />
grassl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> woodl<strong>and</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>s. The ma<strong>in</strong> types <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> are Alma nilotico <strong>and</strong> A.<br />
stuhlmannt. Details of distribution of types will be discussed later <strong>in</strong> this chapter.<br />
Over 3500 earthworm species have been described worldwide, <strong>and</strong> it is estimated that<br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r surveys will reveal this number to be much larger. Dist<strong>in</strong>ct taxonomic groups<br />
of earthworms have arisen on every cont<strong>in</strong>ent except Antarctica, <strong>and</strong>, through human<br />
transport, some groups have been distributed worldwide (Hendrix <strong>and</strong> Bohlen, 2002).<br />
Earthworms are classified with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> phylum Annelida, class Clitellata, subclass<br />
Oligochaeta, order Opisthophora. There are 16 families worldwide (Table 1.1). Six of
<strong>the</strong>se families (cohort Aquamegadrili plus suborder Alluroid<strong>in</strong>a) comprise aquatic or<br />
semiaquatic worms, whereas <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r 10 (cohort Terrimegadrili) consist of <strong>the</strong><br />
terrestrial <strong>for</strong>ms commonly known as earthworms. Two families (Lutodrilidae <strong>and</strong><br />
Komarekionidae, both monospecific) <strong>and</strong> genera from three or four o<strong>the</strong>rs<br />
(Sparganophilidae, Lumbricidae, Megascolecidae, <strong>and</strong> possibly Ocnerodrilidae) are<br />
<strong>Near</strong>ctic.<br />
No native earthworms have been reported from Canada east of <strong>the</strong> Pacific Northwest<br />
or from Alaska or Hawaii, although exotic species now occur <strong>in</strong> all of <strong>the</strong>se regions.<br />
Native earthworms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> families Ocnerodrilidae, Glossoscolecidae, <strong>and</strong><br />
Megascolecidae occur <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Caribbean isl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Table 1.1. Major families of Oligochaeta (order Opisthophora) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir regions of<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Family Region of orig<strong>in</strong><br />
Limicolous or aquatic<br />
Alluroididae<br />
Syngenodrilidae<br />
Sparganophilidae<br />
Biwadrilidae<br />
Almidae<br />
Lutodrilidae<br />
Terrestrial<br />
Ocnerodrilidae<br />
Eudrilidae<br />
Kynotidae<br />
Komarekionidae<br />
Ailoscolecidae<br />
Microchaetidae<br />
Hormogastridae<br />
Glossoscolecidae<br />
Lumbricidae<br />
Megascolecidae<br />
AF, SA<br />
AF<br />
NA, EU<br />
JA<br />
EU, AF, SA, AS<br />
NA<br />
SA, CA, AF, AS, MA<br />
AF<br />
MA<br />
NA<br />
EU<br />
AF<br />
ME<br />
SA, CA<br />
NA, EU<br />
NA, CA, SA, OC, AS, AF, MA<br />
Note: AF = Africa, AS = Asia, CA = Central America,<br />
EU = Europe, JA = Japan, MA = Madagascar, ME = Mediteranean,<br />
NA = North America, OC = Oceania, SA = South America<br />
Source: Hendrix <strong>and</strong> Bohlen (2002)<br />
5
1.3. Types of earthworms<br />
Earthworm is a common polyphagous annelid <strong>and</strong> plays an important role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil<br />
ecosystem.<br />
Although all species of earthworms contribute to <strong>the</strong> breakdown of plant-derived<br />
organic matter, <strong>the</strong>y differ <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ways by which <strong>the</strong>y degrade organic matter.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir habitat types <strong>and</strong> ecological functions, earthworms can be divided<br />
<strong>in</strong>to three types: <strong>the</strong> anecic, <strong>the</strong> endogeic, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> epigeic.<br />
Anecic (Greek <strong>for</strong> “out of <strong>the</strong> earth”) – <strong>the</strong>se are burrow<strong>in</strong>g worms that come to <strong>the</strong><br />
surface at night to drag food down <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong>ir permanent burrows deep with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
m<strong>in</strong>eral layers of <strong>the</strong> soil. Example: <strong>the</strong> Canadian Night crawler (Munroe , 2007).<br />
These species are of primary importance <strong>in</strong> pedogenesis.<br />
Endogeic (Greek <strong>for</strong> “with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth”) – <strong>the</strong>se are also burrow<strong>in</strong>g worms but <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
burrows are typically more shallow. Such species are limited ma<strong>in</strong>ly to <strong>the</strong> plant<br />
litter layer on <strong>the</strong> soil surface, composed of decay<strong>in</strong>g organic matter or wood, <strong>and</strong><br />
seldom penetrate soil more than superficially. The ma<strong>in</strong> role of <strong>the</strong>se species<br />
seems to be shredd<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> organic matter <strong>in</strong>to f<strong>in</strong>e particles, which facilitates<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased microbial activity.<br />
Epigeic (Greek <strong>for</strong> “upon <strong>the</strong> earth”), <strong>the</strong>y are limited to liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> organic materials<br />
<strong>and</strong> cannot survive long <strong>in</strong> soil; <strong>the</strong>se species are commonly used <strong>in</strong> vermiculture<br />
<strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g. All earthworm species depend on consum<strong>in</strong>g organic<br />
matter <strong>in</strong> some <strong>for</strong>m, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y play an important role, ma<strong>in</strong>ly by promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
microbial activity <strong>in</strong> various stages of organic matter decomposition, which<br />
eventually <strong>in</strong>cludes humification <strong>in</strong>to complex <strong>and</strong> stable amorphous colloids<br />
conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g phenolic materials. An example is Eisenia fetida, commonly known as<br />
(partial list only): <strong>the</strong> “compost worm”, “manure worm”, “redworm”, <strong>and</strong> “red<br />
wiggler”. This extremely tough <strong>and</strong> adaptable worm is <strong>in</strong>digenous to most parts of<br />
<strong>the</strong> world.<br />
1.4. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g species<br />
To consider a species to be suitable <strong>for</strong> use <strong>in</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, it should possess<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> specific biological <strong>and</strong> ecological characteristics, i.e., an ability <strong>for</strong> coloniz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
organic wastes naturally; high rates of organic matter consumption, digestion <strong>and</strong><br />
assimilation of organic matter, able to tolerate a wide range of environmental factors;<br />
have high reproduction rate, produc<strong>in</strong>g large numbers of cocoons that should not have<br />
a long hatch<strong>in</strong>g time, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir growth <strong>and</strong> maturation rates from hatchl<strong>in</strong>g to adult<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual should be rapid. It should be strong, resistant <strong>and</strong> survive h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g. Not too<br />
many species of earth worm have all <strong>the</strong>se characteristics.<br />
Those species used <strong>in</strong> vermiculture around <strong>the</strong> world are ma<strong>in</strong>ly “litter” species that<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude, but are not limited to: Eisenia fetida “Tiger Worm”, as mentioned earlier, <strong>and</strong><br />
its sibl<strong>in</strong>g species E. <strong>and</strong>rei “Red Tiger Worm”; Perionyx excavatus “Indian Blue”;<br />
Eudrilus eugeniae “African Nightcrawler”; Amynthas corticis) <strong>and</strong> A. gracilis<br />
“Pheretimas” (<strong>for</strong>merly known a P. hawayana); Eisenia hortensis <strong>and</strong> Eisenia veneta<br />
“European Nightcrawlers”; Lampito mauritii “Mauritius Worm”.<br />
6
Additional species used <strong>in</strong> Australia are Anisochaeta buckerfieldi, Anisochaeta spp.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Dichogaster spp.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r worm species <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g are of Family Enchytraeidae<br />
(enchytraeid or pot worms), microdriles (small „aquatic‟ worms), free-liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nematodes (roundworms) (Blakemore , 2000).<br />
In recent years, <strong>in</strong>teractions of earthworms with microorganisms <strong>in</strong> degrad<strong>in</strong>g organic<br />
matter have been used commercially <strong>in</strong> systems designed to dispose agricultural <strong>and</strong><br />
urban organic wastes <strong>and</strong> convert <strong>the</strong>se materials <strong>in</strong>to valuable soil amendments <strong>for</strong><br />
crop production. Commercial enterprises process<strong>in</strong>g wastes <strong>in</strong> this way are exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
worldwide <strong>and</strong> divert<strong>in</strong>g organic wastes from more expensive <strong>and</strong> environmentally<br />
harmful ways of disposal, such as <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>erators <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fills (Padmavathiamma et al.,<br />
2008).<br />
1.5. Native earthworm species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
The Nile bas<strong>in</strong> is subdivided <strong>in</strong>to three Obligataete subregions: <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> (Lower)<br />
Nile, from <strong>the</strong> Delta to Kartoum (Characterized by Alma nilotico <strong>and</strong> A. stuhlmannt),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Upper Nile from Kartoum to Centeral <strong>and</strong> <strong>East</strong> Africa (Characterized by A. em<strong>in</strong>i),<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ethiopian subregion (Characterized by Eudrilus).<br />
In <strong>Egypt</strong> Species <strong>and</strong> locations newly <strong>in</strong>vestigated <strong>in</strong>clude Allolboplora<br />
(Aporrectodea) calig<strong>in</strong>osa, associated with <strong>the</strong> aquatic Eiseniella tetraedra <strong>in</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
near <strong>the</strong> St. Ca<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>e monastery <strong>in</strong> South S<strong>in</strong>ai, <strong>and</strong> Allolboplora (Aporrectodea)<br />
rosea (Eisenia rosea) on <strong>the</strong> slops of <strong>the</strong> Mounta<strong>in</strong> of Moses, <strong>and</strong> near Monastery.<br />
Allolobophoru jassyensis is found <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Delta <strong>and</strong> Eiseniella tetraedra <strong>in</strong> S<strong>in</strong>ai<br />
(Ghabbour, 2009).<br />
The scarcity of earthworm <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian soils is mostly attributable to <strong>the</strong> aridity of <strong>the</strong><br />
climate <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> majority of cultivated l<strong>and</strong> is under <strong>the</strong> plough (arable).<br />
In an arid, almost ra<strong>in</strong>less country like <strong>Egypt</strong>, earth worm, which are highly sensitive<br />
to water loss, cannot move easily from a less to a more favorable place <strong>in</strong> or on dry<br />
ground. Earthworms are scarce <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> because of acreage of favorable soils (e.g.<br />
orchards <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>est) is very small. Moreover, <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r places (e.g. arable l<strong>and</strong> soils)<br />
<strong>the</strong> favorable conditions are transient. These favorable conditions are:<br />
1. An undisturbed soil.<br />
2. A regular <strong>and</strong> adequate water supply.<br />
3. A f<strong>in</strong>e soil texture (to raise <strong>the</strong> availability of water).<br />
4. A regular <strong>and</strong> adequate supply of organic matter.<br />
There are several well known species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, such as Aporrectodea calig<strong>in</strong>oosa that<br />
can survive <strong>in</strong> s<strong>and</strong> dunes soils but numbers decreased with <strong>in</strong>creased proportions of<br />
gravel <strong>and</strong> s<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Quantitative sampl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> earthworms by h<strong>and</strong>-sort<strong>in</strong>g was carried out <strong>in</strong> fourteen<br />
localities <strong>in</strong> Beheira Governorate <strong>and</strong> adjacent areas by El-Duwe<strong>in</strong>i <strong>and</strong> Ghabbour<br />
(1965). They collected five different species: 1- Gordiodrilus sp., 2- Pheretima<br />
califonica ; 3-Pheretima Elongate; 4- Allolbophora calig<strong>in</strong>oosa f. trapezoids <strong>and</strong> 5-<br />
Eisenia rosea f. Biomastoides. A number of juvenile lumbrivids found <strong>in</strong> cattle<br />
7
enclosure could not be ascribed with certa<strong>in</strong>ty to ei<strong>the</strong>r of <strong>the</strong> latter two species <strong>and</strong><br />
are <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e recorded separately.<br />
1.6. <strong>Vermiculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>Vermiculture</strong> is <strong>the</strong> process of breed<strong>in</strong>g worms. Growers usually pay <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
feedstock, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> worm cast<strong>in</strong>gs are often considered a waste product. <strong>Vermiculture</strong><br />
is <strong>the</strong> culture of earthworms. The goal is to cont<strong>in</strong>ually <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> number of worms<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to obta<strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able harvest. The worms are ei<strong>the</strong>r used to exp<strong>and</strong> a<br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g operation or sold to customers who use <strong>the</strong>m <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> same or o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
purposes.<br />
Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, is a simple biotechnological process of compost<strong>in</strong>g, "Vermi" is a<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> word mean<strong>in</strong>g "worm" <strong>and</strong> thus, vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g is compost<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>the</strong> aid of<br />
worms, <strong>in</strong> which certa<strong>in</strong> species of earthworms are used to enhance <strong>the</strong> process of<br />
waste conversion <strong>and</strong> produce a better end product. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g differs from<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> several ways. It is a mesophilic process, utiliz<strong>in</strong>g microorganisms <strong>and</strong><br />
earthworms that are active at 10–32°C (not ambient temperature but temperature<br />
with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pile of moist organic material). The process is faster than compost<strong>in</strong>g;<br />
because <strong>the</strong> material passes through <strong>the</strong> earthworm gut, a significant but not yet fully<br />
understood trans<strong>for</strong>mation takes place, whereby <strong>the</strong> result<strong>in</strong>g earthworm cast<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
(worm manure) are rich <strong>in</strong> microbial activity <strong>and</strong> plant growth regulators, <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>tified<br />
with pest repellence attributes as well (Munroe, 2007). In short, earthworms, through<br />
a type of biological alchemy, are capable of trans<strong>for</strong>m<strong>in</strong>g garbage <strong>in</strong>to valuable<br />
material (Nagavallemma et al., 2004). The ultimate goal of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g is to<br />
produce vermicompost as quickly <strong>and</strong> efficiently as possible. If <strong>the</strong> goal is to produce<br />
vermicompost, maximum worm population density needs to be ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed all of <strong>the</strong><br />
time. If <strong>the</strong> goal is to produce worms, population density needs to be kept low enough<br />
that reproductive rates are optimized.<br />
It is known that many extracellular enzymes can become bound to humic matter<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g a compost<strong>in</strong>g or a vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g process, regardless of <strong>the</strong> type of organic<br />
matter used, but knowledge of <strong>the</strong> chemical <strong>and</strong> biochemical properties of such<br />
extracellular enzymes is very scanty (Benítez et al., 2000).<br />
Vermitechnology has been promoted as an eco-biotechnological tool to manage<br />
organic wastes generated from different sources (Suthar, 2010).<br />
Vermicast, similarly known as worm cast<strong>in</strong>gs, worm humus or worm manure, is<br />
<strong>the</strong> end-product of <strong>the</strong> breakdown of organic matter by a species of earthworm.<br />
Vermicast is very important to <strong>the</strong> fertility of <strong>the</strong> soil. The cast<strong>in</strong>gs conta<strong>in</strong> high<br />
amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, <strong>and</strong> magnesium. Cast<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>: 5 times <strong>the</strong> available nitrogen, 7 times <strong>the</strong> available potash, <strong>and</strong> 1½ times<br />
more calcium than found <strong>in</strong> good topsoil. It has excellent aeration, porosity, structure,<br />
dra<strong>in</strong>age, <strong>and</strong> moisture-hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity. Vermicast can hold close to n<strong>in</strong>e times <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
weight <strong>in</strong> water. It is a very good fertilizer, growth promoter <strong>and</strong> helps <strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
flower<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> fruit-bear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> higher plants. This can even help plants to get rid of<br />
pests <strong>and</strong> diseases (Venkatesh <strong>and</strong> Eevera, 2008 ).<br />
8
1.7. Compost vs. vermicompost<br />
Compost<strong>in</strong>g, generally def<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>the</strong> biological aerobic trans<strong>for</strong>mation of an organic<br />
byproduct <strong>in</strong>to a different organic product that can be added to <strong>the</strong> soil without<br />
detrimental effects on crop growth, has been <strong>in</strong>dicated as <strong>the</strong> most adequate method<br />
<strong>for</strong> pre-treat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g organic wastes. In <strong>the</strong> process of compost<strong>in</strong>g, organic<br />
wastes are recycled <strong>in</strong>to stabilized products that can be applied to <strong>the</strong> soil as an<br />
odorless <strong>and</strong> relatively dry source of organic matter, which would respond more<br />
efficiently <strong>and</strong> safely than <strong>the</strong> fresh material to soil organic fertility requirements. The<br />
conventional <strong>and</strong> most traditional method of compost<strong>in</strong>g consists of an accelerated<br />
biooxydation of <strong>the</strong> organic matter as it passes through a <strong>the</strong>rmophilic stage (45° to<br />
65°C) where microorganisms liberate heat, carbon dioxide <strong>and</strong> water.<br />
Vermicomposts conta<strong>in</strong> nutrients <strong>in</strong> <strong>for</strong>ms that are readily taken up by <strong>the</strong> plants such<br />
as nitrates, exchangeable phosphorus, <strong>and</strong> soluble potassium, calcium, <strong>and</strong><br />
magnesium. Vermicomposts should have a great potential <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> horticultural <strong>and</strong><br />
agricultural <strong>in</strong>dustries as media <strong>for</strong> plant growth. Vermicomposts, whe<strong>the</strong>r used as<br />
soil additives or as components of horticultural media, improved seed germ<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>and</strong> enhanced rates of seedl<strong>in</strong>g growth <strong>and</strong> development.<br />
However, compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g are quite dist<strong>in</strong>ct processes, particularly<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> optimum temperatures <strong>for</strong> each process <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> types of microbial<br />
communities that predom<strong>in</strong>ate dur<strong>in</strong>g active process<strong>in</strong>g (i.e. <strong>the</strong>rmophilic bacteria <strong>in</strong><br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g, mesophilic bacteria <strong>and</strong> fungi <strong>in</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g). The wastes<br />
processed by <strong>the</strong> two systems are also quite different. Vermicomposts have a much<br />
f<strong>in</strong>er structure than composts <strong>and</strong> conta<strong>in</strong> nutrients <strong>in</strong> <strong>for</strong>ms that are readily available<br />
<strong>for</strong> plant uptake. There have also been reports of production of plant growth<br />
regulators <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vermicomposts. There<strong>for</strong>e, it was hypo<strong>the</strong>sized that <strong>the</strong>re should be<br />
considerable differences <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> per<strong>for</strong>mances <strong>and</strong> effects of composts <strong>and</strong><br />
vermicomposts on plant growth when used as soil amendments or as components of<br />
horticultural plant growth media (Atiyeh et al., 2000).<br />
9
2. Trial of vermiculture <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
implementation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
The historical background, geographic distribution of earth worms, types of<br />
earthworms, native earthworm species, <strong>for</strong>mal def<strong>in</strong>itions of vermiculture <strong>and</strong><br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> a comparison between compost <strong>and</strong> vermicompost were<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous chapter. This chapter deals with <strong>the</strong> physical requirements<br />
of vermiculture <strong>and</strong> vermicompost, <strong>and</strong> ends by <strong>the</strong> implementation trial of both<br />
vermiculture <strong>and</strong> vermicompost <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g all details of this trial.<br />
2.1. Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of vermiculture <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Compost worms need five basic pr<strong>in</strong>ciples: a hospitable liv<strong>in</strong>g environment, usually<br />
called “bedd<strong>in</strong>g”, a food source, adequate moisture (greater than 50% water content<br />
by weight), adequate aeration, <strong>and</strong> protection from temperature extremes. These five<br />
essentials are discussed below <strong>in</strong> more details accord<strong>in</strong>g to Munroe (2007).<br />
2.1.1. Bedd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Bedd<strong>in</strong>g is any material that provides <strong>the</strong> worms with a relatively stable habitat. This<br />
habitat must have <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g characteristics:<br />
- High absorbency. Worms brea<strong>the</strong> through <strong>the</strong>ir sk<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e must have a<br />
moist environment <strong>in</strong> which to live. If a worm‟s sk<strong>in</strong> dries out, it dies. The bedd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
must be able to absorb <strong>and</strong> reta<strong>in</strong> water fairly well if <strong>the</strong> worms are to thrive.<br />
- Good bulk<strong>in</strong>g potential. If <strong>the</strong> material is too dense to beg<strong>in</strong> with, or packs too<br />
tightly, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> flow of air is reduced or elim<strong>in</strong>ated. Worms require oxygen to live,<br />
just as we do. Different materials affect <strong>the</strong> overall porosity of <strong>the</strong> bedd<strong>in</strong>g through<br />
a variety of factors, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> range of particle size <strong>and</strong> shape, <strong>the</strong> texture, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> strength <strong>and</strong> rigidity of its structure.<br />
- Low prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong>/or nitrogen content (high carbon: nitrogen ratio). Although <strong>the</strong><br />
worms do consume <strong>the</strong>ir bedd<strong>in</strong>g as it breaks down, it is very important that this be<br />
a slow process. High prote<strong>in</strong>/nitrogen levels can result <strong>in</strong> rapid degradation <strong>and</strong> its<br />
associated heat<strong>in</strong>g, creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>hospitable, often fatal, conditions. Heat<strong>in</strong>g can occur<br />
safely <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> food layers of <strong>the</strong> vermiculture or vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g system, but not <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> bedd<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Some materials make good bedd<strong>in</strong>gs all by <strong>the</strong>mselves, while o<strong>the</strong>rs lack one or more<br />
of <strong>the</strong> above characteristics <strong>and</strong> need to be used <strong>in</strong> various comb<strong>in</strong>ations. Table 2.1<br />
provides a list of some of <strong>the</strong> most commonly used bedd<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> provides some <strong>in</strong>put<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g each material‟s absorbency, bulk<strong>in</strong>g potential, <strong>and</strong> carbon to nitrogen (C:N)<br />
ratios.<br />
10
Table 2.1. Common Bedd<strong>in</strong>g Materials:<br />
Bedd<strong>in</strong>g Material Absorbency Bulk<strong>in</strong>g Pot. C:N Ratio<br />
Horse Manure Medium-Good Good 22 - 56<br />
Peat Moss Good Medium 58<br />
Corn Silage Medium-Good Medium 38 - 43<br />
Hay – general Poor Medium 15 - 32<br />
Straw – general Poor Medium-Good 48 - 150<br />
Straw – oat Poor Medium 48 - 98<br />
Straw – wheat Poor Medium-Good 100 - 150<br />
Paper from municipal waste stream Medium-Good Medium 127 - 178<br />
Newspaper Good Medium 170<br />
Bark – hardwoods Poor Good 116 - 436<br />
Bark -- softwoods Poor Good 131 - 1285<br />
Corrugated cardboard Good Medium 563<br />
Lumber mill waste -- chipped Poor Good 170<br />
Paper fiber sludge Medium-Good Medium 250<br />
Paper mill sludge Good Medium 54<br />
Sawdust Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 142 - 750<br />
Shrub trimm<strong>in</strong>gs Poor Good 53<br />
Hardwood chips, shav<strong>in</strong>gs Poor Good 451 - 819<br />
Softwood chips, shav<strong>in</strong>gs Poor Good 212 - 1313<br />
Leaves (dry, loose) Poor-Medium Poor-Medium 40 - 80<br />
Corn stalks Poor Good 60 - 73<br />
Corn cobs Poor-Medium Good 56 - 123<br />
Source: Munroe (2007).<br />
Researchers <strong>in</strong> Canada made an experiment to determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> feasibility of mix<strong>in</strong>g<br />
municipally generated fiber wastes (e.g., non-recyclable paper, corrugated cardboard,<br />
<strong>and</strong> boxboard) with farm wastes (animal manures) <strong>and</strong> process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> mixture with<br />
worms (large-scale vermiculture) to produce a commercially viable compost product<br />
<strong>for</strong> farms. The results show that <strong>the</strong> greatest worm population <strong>in</strong>creases were <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
pure shredded cardboard or <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> high-fiber-content cow-manure mixes, but that<br />
biomass changes were more positive <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> chicken-manure series (GEORG, 2004).<br />
2.1.2. Worm Food<br />
Compost worms are big eaters. Under ideal conditions, <strong>the</strong>y are able to consume more<br />
than <strong>the</strong>ir body weight each day, although <strong>the</strong> general rule-of-thumb is ½ of <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
body weight per day. Table 2.2 summarizes <strong>the</strong> most important attributes of some<br />
worm food that could be used <strong>in</strong> an on-farm vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g or vermiculture<br />
operation.<br />
11
Table 2.2. Advantages <strong>and</strong> disadvantages of different types of feed.<br />
Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes<br />
Good nutrition; natural Weed seeds make All manures are partially<br />
Cattle manure food, <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e little pre-compost<strong>in</strong>g decomposed <strong>and</strong> thus ready<br />
adaptation required. necessary.<br />
<strong>for</strong> consumption by worms.<br />
Poultry High N content results High prote<strong>in</strong> levels<br />
manure <strong>in</strong> good nutrition <strong>and</strong> a can be dangerous to Some books suggest that<br />
high value product. worms, so must be poultry manure is not<br />
used <strong>in</strong> small suitable <strong>for</strong> worms because<br />
quantities; major it is so “hot”; however,<br />
adaptation required research <strong>in</strong> has shown that<br />
<strong>for</strong> worms not used to worms can adapt if <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
this feedstock. May proportion of PM to<br />
be precomposted but bedd<strong>in</strong>g is 10% by volume<br />
not necessary if used<br />
cautiously.<br />
or less.<br />
Sheep/Goat Good nutrition. Require<br />
manure<br />
precompost<strong>in</strong>g (weed<br />
seeds); small particle<br />
size can lead to<br />
pack<strong>in</strong>g, necessitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
extra bulk<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material.<br />
With right additives to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease C:N ratio, <strong>the</strong>se<br />
manures are also good<br />
bedd<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
Rabbit manure N content second only<br />
to poultry manure,<br />
<strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e good<br />
nutrition; conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
very good mix of<br />
vitam<strong>in</strong>s & m<strong>in</strong>erals;<br />
ideal earthworm feed.<br />
Must be leached prior<br />
to use because of high<br />
ur<strong>in</strong>e content; can<br />
overheat if quantities<br />
too large; availability<br />
usually not good<br />
Many U.S. rabbit growers<br />
place earthworm beds<br />
under <strong>the</strong>ir rabbit hutches<br />
to catch <strong>the</strong> pellets as <strong>the</strong>y<br />
drop through <strong>the</strong> wire mesh<br />
cage floors.<br />
Fresh food Excellent nutrition, Extremely variable Some food wastes are<br />
scraps (e.g., good moisture content, (depend<strong>in</strong>g on much better than o<strong>the</strong>rs:<br />
peels, o<strong>the</strong>r possibility of revenues source); high N can coffee grounds are<br />
food prep from waste tipp<strong>in</strong>g result <strong>in</strong> heat<strong>in</strong>g; meat excellent, as <strong>the</strong>y are high<br />
waste, fees.<br />
& high-fat wastes can <strong>in</strong> N, not greasy or smelly,<br />
leftovers,<br />
create anaerobic <strong>and</strong> are attractive to<br />
commercial<br />
conditions <strong>and</strong> odors, worms; alternatively, root<br />
food<br />
attract pests, so vegetables (e.g., potato<br />
process<strong>in</strong>g<br />
should not be culls) resist degradation<br />
wastes)<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded without <strong>and</strong> require a long time to<br />
precompost<strong>in</strong>g. be consumed.<br />
Precomposted<br />
food wastes<br />
Good nutrition; partial<br />
decomposition makes<br />
digestion by worms<br />
easier <strong>and</strong> faster; can<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude meat <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
greasy wastes; less<br />
tendency to overheat.<br />
Nutrition less than<br />
with fresh food<br />
wastes.<br />
Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g can<br />
speed <strong>the</strong> cur<strong>in</strong>g process<br />
<strong>for</strong> conventional<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g operations<br />
while <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g value of<br />
end product.<br />
12
Food Advantages Disadvantages Notes<br />
Bio-solids<br />
(human<br />
waste)<br />
Excellent nutrition<br />
<strong>and</strong> excellent product;<br />
can be activated or<br />
non-activated sludge,<br />
septic sludge;<br />
possibility of waste<br />
management revenues<br />
Seaweed Good nutrition; results<br />
<strong>in</strong> excellent product,<br />
high <strong>in</strong> micronutrients<br />
<strong>and</strong> beneficial<br />
microbes<br />
Legume hays Higher N content<br />
makes <strong>the</strong>se good feed<br />
as well as reasonable<br />
Gra<strong>in</strong>s (e.g.,<br />
feed mixtures<br />
<strong>for</strong><br />
animals, such<br />
as chicken<br />
mash)<br />
Corrugated<br />
cardboard<br />
(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Waxed)<br />
Fish, poultry<br />
offal; blood<br />
wastes; animal<br />
mortalities<br />
bedd<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Excellent, balanced<br />
nutrition, easy to<br />
h<strong>and</strong>le, no odor, can<br />
use organic gra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>for</strong><br />
certified organic<br />
product.<br />
Excellent nutrition<br />
(due to high prote<strong>in</strong><br />
glue used to hold<br />
layers toge<strong>the</strong>r);<br />
worms like this<br />
material; possible<br />
revenue source from<br />
WM fees<br />
High N content<br />
provides good<br />
nutrition; opportunity<br />
to turn problematic<br />
wastes <strong>in</strong>to highquality<br />
product<br />
Source: Munroe (2007).<br />
Heavy metal <strong>and</strong>/or<br />
chemical<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation (if<br />
from municipal<br />
sources); odor dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
application to beds<br />
(worms control fairly<br />
quickly); possibility<br />
of pathogen survival<br />
if process not<br />
complete<br />
Salt must be r<strong>in</strong>sed<br />
off, as it is<br />
detrimental to worms;<br />
availability<br />
varies by region<br />
Moisture levels not as<br />
high as o<strong>the</strong>r feeds,<br />
requires more <strong>in</strong>put<br />
<strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Higher value than<br />
most feeds, <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e<br />
expensive to use; low<br />
moisture content;<br />
some larger seeds<br />
hard to digest <strong>and</strong><br />
slow to break down<br />
Must be shredded<br />
(waxed variety)<br />
<strong>and</strong>/or soaked (nonwaxed)<br />
prior to<br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Must be<br />
precomposted until<br />
past Thermophillic<br />
stage<br />
13<br />
Vermitech Pty Ltd. <strong>in</strong><br />
Australia has been very<br />
successful with this<br />
process, but <strong>the</strong>y use<br />
automated systems; EPAfunded<br />
tests <strong>in</strong> Florida<br />
demonstrated that worms<br />
destroy human pathogens<br />
as well as does<br />
<strong>the</strong>rmophillic compost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(<strong>East</strong>man et al., 2001).<br />
Beef farmer <strong>in</strong> Antigonish,<br />
Nova Scotia, Canada, are<br />
produc<strong>in</strong>g certified organic<br />
vermicompost from cattle<br />
manure, bark, <strong>and</strong> seaweed<br />
Probably best to mix this<br />
feed with o<strong>the</strong>rs, such as<br />
manures<br />
Danger: Worms consume<br />
gra<strong>in</strong>s but cannot digest<br />
larger, tougher kernels;<br />
<strong>the</strong>se are passed <strong>in</strong> cast<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>and</strong> build up <strong>in</strong> bedd<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> sudden<br />
overheat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Some worm growers claim<br />
that corrugated cardboard<br />
stimulates worm<br />
reproduction<br />
Compost<strong>in</strong>g of offal, blood<br />
wastes, etc. is difficult <strong>and</strong><br />
produces strong odors.<br />
Should only be done with<br />
<strong>in</strong>- vessel systems; much<br />
bulk<strong>in</strong>g required.
2.1.3. Moisture<br />
The bedd<strong>in</strong>g used must be able to hold sufficient moisture if <strong>the</strong> worms are to have a<br />
livable environment. Earthworms do not have specialized breath<strong>in</strong>g devices. They<br />
brea<strong>the</strong> through <strong>the</strong>ir sk<strong>in</strong>, which needs to rema<strong>in</strong> moist to facilitate respiration. Like<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir aquatic ancestors, earthworms can live <strong>for</strong> months completely submerged <strong>in</strong><br />
water, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y will die if <strong>the</strong>y dry out (Sherman, 2003). The ideal moisture-content<br />
range <strong>for</strong> materials <strong>in</strong> conventional compost<strong>in</strong>g systems is 45-60%. In contrast, <strong>the</strong><br />
ideal moisture-content range <strong>for</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g or vermiculture processes is 70-<br />
90%. With<strong>in</strong> this broad range, researchers have found slightly different optimums:<br />
Dom<strong>in</strong>guez <strong>and</strong> Edwards (1997) found that <strong>the</strong>re is a direct relationship between <strong>the</strong><br />
moisture content <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth rate of earthworms. E. <strong>and</strong>rei cultured <strong>in</strong> pig manure<br />
grew <strong>and</strong> matured between 65 <strong>and</strong> 90% moisture content, <strong>the</strong> optimum be<strong>in</strong>g 85%.<br />
Until 85% moisture, <strong>the</strong> higher moisture conditions clearly facilitated growth, as<br />
measured by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> biomass. Increased moisture up to 90% clearly<br />
accelerated <strong>the</strong> development of sexual maturity, whereas not all <strong>the</strong> worms at 65-75%<br />
developed a clitellum even after 44 days. Additionally, earthworms at sexual maturity<br />
had greater biomass at higher moisture contents compared to worms grown at lower<br />
moisture contents. Canadian researchers <strong>in</strong> Nova Scotia tested moisture contents with<br />
different bedd<strong>in</strong>g materials, i.e. organic materials <strong>in</strong>cluded shredded corrugated<br />
cardboard, waxed corrugated cardboard, immature municipal solid waste compost,<br />
biosolids (sewage sludge), chicken manure <strong>and</strong> dairy cow manure <strong>in</strong> a variety of<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ations. They found that 75-80% moisture contents produced <strong>the</strong> best growth<br />
<strong>and</strong> reproductive response (GEORG, 2004).<br />
The moisture content preferences of juvenile <strong>and</strong> clitellate cocoon-produc<strong>in</strong>g (adult)<br />
E. fetida <strong>in</strong> separated cow manure have been <strong>in</strong>vestigated. It ranged from 50% to 80%<br />
<strong>for</strong> adults, but juvenile earthworms had a narrower range of suitable moisture levels<br />
from 65% to 70%. Clitellum development occurred <strong>in</strong> earthworms at a moisture<br />
content from 60% to 70% but occurred later at a moisture content from 55% to 60%.<br />
The tolerance limit <strong>for</strong> low moisture conditions on <strong>the</strong> growth of E. fetida was<br />
reported to be below 50% <strong>for</strong> up to 1 month (Re<strong>in</strong>ecke <strong>and</strong> Venter, 1987). While<br />
Gunadi et al. (2003) found that <strong>the</strong> earthworm growth rate was fastest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> separated<br />
cattle manure solids with a moisture content of 90% with a maximum mean weight of<br />
earthworms of 600 mg after 12 weeks. The slowest growth rate of E. fetida was <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
separated cattle manure solids at a moisture content of 70%.<br />
2.1.4. Aeration<br />
Worms require oxygen <strong>and</strong> cannot survive anaerobic conditions (very low or absence<br />
of oxygen). When factors such as high levels of grease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> feedstock or excessive<br />
moisture comb<strong>in</strong>ed with poor aeration conspire to cut off oxygen supplies, areas of<br />
<strong>the</strong> worm bed, or even <strong>the</strong> entire system, can become anaerobic. This will kill <strong>the</strong><br />
worms very quickly. Not only are <strong>the</strong> worms deprived of oxygen, <strong>the</strong>y are also killed<br />
by toxic substances (e.g., ammonia) created by different sets of microbes that bloom<br />
under <strong>the</strong>se conditions. This is one of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> reasons <strong>for</strong> not <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g meat or o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
greasy wastes <strong>in</strong> worm feedstock unless <strong>the</strong>y have been pre-composted to break down<br />
<strong>the</strong> oils <strong>and</strong> fats.<br />
14
2.1.5. Temperature control<br />
Controll<strong>in</strong>g temperature to with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> worms‟ tolerance is vital to both<br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> vermiculture processes.<br />
2.1.5.1. Low temperatures<br />
Eisenia can survive <strong>in</strong> temperatures as low as 0 o C, but <strong>the</strong>y don‟t reproduce at s<strong>in</strong>gledigit<br />
temperatures <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y don‟t consume as much food. It is generally considered<br />
necessary to keep <strong>the</strong> temperatures above 10 o C (m<strong>in</strong>imum) <strong>and</strong> preferably 15 o C <strong>for</strong><br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g efficiency <strong>and</strong> above 15 o C (m<strong>in</strong>imum) <strong>and</strong> preferably 20 o C <strong>for</strong><br />
productive vermiculture operations.<br />
2.1.5.2. Effects of freez<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Eisenia can survive hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir bodies partially encased <strong>in</strong> frozen bedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> will<br />
only die when <strong>the</strong>y are no longer able to consume food. Moreover, tests at <strong>the</strong> Nova<br />
Scotia Agricultural College (NSAC) have confirmed that <strong>the</strong>ir cocoons survive<br />
extended periods of deep freez<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> rema<strong>in</strong> viable (GEORG, 2004).<br />
2.1.5.3. High temperatures<br />
Compost worms can survive temperatures <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-30s but prefer a range <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 20s<br />
( o C). Above 35 o C will cause <strong>the</strong> worms to leave <strong>the</strong> area. If <strong>the</strong>y cannot leave, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
will quickly die. In general, warmer temperatures (above 20 o C) stimulate<br />
reproduction.<br />
Hou et al. (2005) studied <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence of some environmental parameters on <strong>the</strong><br />
growth <strong>and</strong> survival of earthworms <strong>in</strong> municipal solid waste. Earthworms atta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong><br />
highest growth rate of 0.0459g / g-day at a temperature of 19.7˚C. The shortest growth<br />
period was 52 days at 25˚C, with <strong>the</strong> largest growth rate 0.0138 g /g-day. At 15˚C,<br />
20˚C <strong>and</strong> 25˚C, <strong>the</strong> fastest growth rate appeared, respectively, <strong>in</strong> 53 days, 34 days <strong>and</strong><br />
27 days, with <strong>the</strong> growth rate 0.0068, 0.0123 <strong>and</strong> 0.0138 g /g-day.<br />
Activities <strong>in</strong> all soil organisms follow a typical seasonal fluctuation. This cycle is<br />
related to optimal temperature <strong>and</strong> moisture, such that a peak <strong>in</strong> activity usually<br />
occurs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> spr<strong>in</strong>g as temperature <strong>and</strong> moisture become optimal after cold w<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
temperatures. In systems where snow accumulates on <strong>the</strong> soil surface, such that <strong>the</strong><br />
soil does not actually freeze, fungal activity may cont<strong>in</strong>ue at high levels throughout<br />
<strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>in</strong> litter. Decomposition may cont<strong>in</strong>ue at <strong>the</strong> highest rates through <strong>the</strong><br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter under <strong>the</strong> snow <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> litter. In systems where moisture becomes limit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
summer, activity may reach levels even lower than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter. When temperatures<br />
rema<strong>in</strong> warm <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fall <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>s aga<strong>in</strong> after a summer drought, such as <strong>in</strong><br />
Mediterranean climates, a second peak of activity may be observed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fall. If <strong>the</strong>se<br />
peaks are not observed, this suggests <strong>in</strong>adequate organic matter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil.<br />
15
The growth of E. fetida <strong>in</strong> organic matter substrates with different moisture<br />
contents <strong>and</strong> temperatures has been studied by various authors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> laboratory. This<br />
species ga<strong>in</strong>ed weight maximally <strong>and</strong> survived best at temperatures between 20˚C<br />
<strong>and</strong> 29˚C <strong>and</strong> moisture contents between 70% <strong>and</strong> 85% <strong>in</strong> horse manure <strong>and</strong> activated<br />
sludge (Kaplan et al., 1980). Edwards (1988) reported that <strong>the</strong> optimum growth of E.<br />
fetida <strong>in</strong> different animal <strong>and</strong> vegetable wastes occurred at 25-30˚C <strong>and</strong> at a moisture<br />
content range of 75-90%, but <strong>the</strong>se factors could vary <strong>in</strong> different substrates.<br />
2.1.5.4. Worms‟s response to temperature differentials.<br />
Compost worms will redistribute <strong>the</strong>mselves with<strong>in</strong> piles, beds or w<strong>in</strong>drows<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to temperature gradients. In outdoor compost<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>drows <strong>in</strong> w<strong>in</strong>tertime,<br />
where <strong>in</strong>ternal heat from decomposition is <strong>in</strong> contrast to frigid external temperatures,<br />
<strong>the</strong> worms will be found <strong>in</strong> a relatively narrow b<strong>and</strong> at a depth where <strong>the</strong> temperature<br />
is close to optimum. They will also be found <strong>in</strong> much greater numbers on <strong>the</strong> south<br />
fac<strong>in</strong>g side of w<strong>in</strong>drows <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> opposite side <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> summer.<br />
Edwards (1988) studied <strong>the</strong> life cycles <strong>and</strong> optimal conditions <strong>for</strong> survival <strong>and</strong> growth<br />
of E. fetida, D. veneta, E. eugeniae, <strong>and</strong> P. excavatus. Each of <strong>the</strong>se four species<br />
differed considerably <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>the</strong>ir responses <strong>and</strong> tolerance to different<br />
temperatures. The optimum temperature <strong>for</strong> E. fetida was 25 °C, <strong>and</strong> its temperature<br />
tolerance was between 0 <strong>and</strong> 35°C. Dendrobaena veneta had a ra<strong>the</strong>r low temperature<br />
optimum <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>the</strong>r less tolerance to extreme temperatures. The optimum<br />
temperatures <strong>for</strong> E. eugeniae <strong>and</strong> P. excavatus were around 25 °C, but <strong>the</strong>y died at<br />
temperatures below 9°C <strong>and</strong> above 30°C. Optimal temperatures <strong>for</strong> cocoon<br />
production were much lower than those <strong>for</strong> growth <strong>for</strong> all <strong>the</strong>se species.<br />
2.2. Methods of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
2.2.1. Pits below <strong>the</strong> ground<br />
Pit of any convenient dimension can be constructed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> backyard or garden or<br />
<strong>in</strong> a field. It may be s<strong>in</strong>gle pit, two pits or tank of any sizes with brick <strong>and</strong> mortar with<br />
proper water outlets. The most convenient pit or chamber of easily manageable size is<br />
2m x 1m x 0.75m. The size of <strong>the</strong> pits <strong>and</strong> chambers should be determ<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong> volume of biomass <strong>and</strong> agricultural waste. To combat <strong>the</strong> ants from attack<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> worms, it is good to have a water column <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> centre of <strong>the</strong> parapet wall of <strong>the</strong><br />
verm<strong>in</strong>-pits.<br />
Photo 2.1.<br />
Open Pit Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Source: Kirungakottai<br />
(http://www.icasaweb.google.com)<br />
16
2.2.2. Heap<strong>in</strong>g above <strong>the</strong> ground<br />
The waste material is spread on a poly<strong>the</strong>ne sheet placed on <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n<br />
covered with cattle dung. Sunitha et al. (1997) compared <strong>the</strong> efficacy of pit <strong>and</strong> heap<br />
methods of prepar<strong>in</strong>g vermicompost under field conditions. Consider<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
biodegradation of wastes as <strong>the</strong> criterion, <strong>the</strong> heap method of prepar<strong>in</strong>g vermicompost<br />
was better than <strong>the</strong> pit method. Earthworm population was high <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> heap method,<br />
with a 21-fold <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> Eudrilus eugenae as compared to 17-fold <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pit<br />
method. Biomass production was also higher <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> heap method (46-fold <strong>in</strong>crease)<br />
than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pit method (31-fold). Consequent production of vermicompost was also<br />
higher <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> heap method (51 kg) than <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pit method (40 kg). On <strong>the</strong> contrary,<br />
Sa<strong>in</strong>i (2008) compared <strong>the</strong> efficacy of pit <strong>and</strong> heap methods under field conditions<br />
over three seasons (w<strong>in</strong>ter, summer <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y) us<strong>in</strong>g, Eisenia fetida. A pit size of 2 ×<br />
0.5 × 0.6 m (length × width × depth); <strong>and</strong> heap of size 2 × 0.6 × 0.5 m (length × width<br />
× hight) were prepared with <strong>the</strong> same amount of mixture. The pits <strong>and</strong> heaps were<br />
made under shady trees, <strong>in</strong> open field hav<strong>in</strong>g a temporary shed made of straw, raised<br />
on pillars, to prevent <strong>the</strong>m from direct sunlight <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>fall. The pits had brick l<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>and</strong> plastered bottoms. The pits <strong>and</strong> heaps carry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> organic waste mixture were<br />
covered with gunny bags <strong>and</strong> were watered at 10 liter/pit or heap daily, except on<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>y days, to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> moisture. On <strong>the</strong> basis of <strong>the</strong> results of three seasons, it was<br />
concluded that summer <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter were better <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> pit method, whereas <strong>the</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>y<br />
season favored <strong>the</strong> heap method <strong>for</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, utiliz<strong>in</strong>g Eisenia fetida.<br />
However, if <strong>the</strong> annual per<strong>for</strong>mance of <strong>the</strong> two methods is compared, <strong>the</strong> pit method<br />
produced more worms <strong>and</strong> more biomass. There<strong>for</strong>e, on <strong>the</strong> latter grounds, <strong>the</strong> pit<br />
method of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g is more suitable than <strong>the</strong> heap method <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> semi-arid<br />
sub-tropical regions of North-West India.<br />
2.2.3. Tanks above <strong>the</strong> ground<br />
17<br />
Photo 2.2.<br />
Open heap vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Source: Department of Agriculture,<br />
Andaman & Nicobar:<br />
(http://agri.<strong>and</strong>.nic.<strong>in</strong>/vermi_culture.htm)<br />
Tanks made up of different materials such as normal bricks, hollow bricks, local<br />
stones, asbestos sheets <strong>and</strong> locally available rocks were evaluated <strong>for</strong> vermicompost<br />
preparation (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).
18<br />
Photo 2.3.<br />
Commercial vermicompost operation<br />
at KCDC Bangalore, India.<br />
Source: Basavaiah (2006)<br />
2.2.4. Cement r<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
Vermicompost can also be prepared above <strong>the</strong> ground by us<strong>in</strong>g cement r<strong>in</strong>gs. The size<br />
of <strong>the</strong> cement r<strong>in</strong>g should be 90 cm <strong>in</strong> diameter <strong>and</strong> 30 cm <strong>in</strong> height (Nagavallemma et<br />
al., 2004).<br />
2.2.5. Commercial model<br />
Photo 2.4.<br />
Cement r<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Source: Nagavallemma et al.<br />
(2004)<br />
This model conta<strong>in</strong>s partition walls with small holes to facilitate easy movement<br />
of earthworms from one chamber to ano<strong>the</strong>r (Figure 2.1). Provid<strong>in</strong>g an outlet at one<br />
corner of each chamber with a slight slope facilitates collection of excess water. The<br />
four components are filled with plant residues one after ano<strong>the</strong>r. Once <strong>the</strong> first<br />
chamber is filled layer by layer along with cow dung, earthworms are released. Then<br />
<strong>the</strong> second chamber is started fill<strong>in</strong>g layer by layer. Once <strong>the</strong> contents <strong>in</strong> first chamber<br />
are decomposed <strong>the</strong> earthworms move to <strong>the</strong> chamber 2, which is already filled <strong>and</strong><br />
ready <strong>for</strong> earthworms. This facilitates harvest<strong>in</strong>g of decomposed material from <strong>the</strong><br />
first chamber <strong>and</strong> also saves labor <strong>for</strong> harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g earthworms. This<br />
technology reduces labor cost <strong>and</strong> saves water as well as time (Twomlow, 2004).<br />
Water is saved by reduc<strong>in</strong>g evaporation from <strong>the</strong> surface dur<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g from one<br />
room to ano<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> limited distances with m<strong>in</strong>imum exposure to drier air outside.<br />
Tanks can be constructed with <strong>the</strong> dimensions suitable <strong>for</strong> operations. with small<br />
holes to facilitate easy movement of earthworms from one tank to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.
19<br />
Photo 2.5.<br />
Commercial vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g unit<br />
Source: Ecoscience<br />
Research Foundation:<br />
(http://www.erf<strong>in</strong>dia.org)<br />
Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g based on <strong>the</strong> use of worms results <strong>in</strong> high quality compost. The<br />
process does not require physical turn<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> material. To ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> aerobic<br />
conditions <strong>and</strong> limit <strong>the</strong> temperature rise, <strong>the</strong> bed or pile of materials needs to be of<br />
limited size. Temperatures should be regulated so as to favour growth <strong>and</strong> activity of<br />
worms. Compost<strong>in</strong>g period is longer as compared to o<strong>the</strong>r rapid methods <strong>and</strong> varies<br />
between six to twelve weeks.<br />
Figure 2.1.<br />
Commercial model of<br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
developed by<br />
ICRISAT.<br />
Source: Twomlow,<br />
2004.
2.3. The trial experience <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
2.3. 1. Earthworm types used:<br />
Four types of earthworms were brought to <strong>Egypt</strong> from Australia. from Australia:<br />
Lumbriscus Rubellus (Red Worm), Eisenia Fetida (Tiger Worm), Perionyx Excavatus<br />
(Indian Blue), <strong>and</strong> Eudrilus Eugeniae (African Night Crawler).<br />
2.3.2. Bedd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Two types of vermiculture were used. The first was aim<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
population <strong>and</strong> known as breed<strong>in</strong>g vermiculture. The o<strong>the</strong>r type is <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g system<br />
aim<strong>in</strong>g at convert<strong>in</strong>g organic matter <strong>in</strong>to vermicompost.<br />
Commercially available per<strong>for</strong>ated plastic conta<strong>in</strong>ers, generally used <strong>for</strong> harvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fruits <strong>and</strong> vegetables, each has <strong>the</strong> dimensions of 30cm wide, 50cm long <strong>and</strong> 20cm<br />
height were used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g system. The first 5cm from <strong>the</strong> bottom was l<strong>in</strong>ed by<br />
a mixture of 2/3 shredded cardboard <strong>and</strong> 1/3 shredded newspaper, as bedd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material. The cardboard <strong>and</strong> newspaper were wetted <strong>in</strong> a bucket of water; <strong>and</strong><br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> excess water to run out be<strong>for</strong>e us<strong>in</strong>g. The next layer was 5cm of pH<br />
neutral cast<strong>in</strong>gs spread evenly, <strong>the</strong>n 1-2kg/m² of adult worms was supplied. Every 1-2<br />
days, 1-2kg of old manure was added. The surface was covered by 5cm shredded<br />
newspaper to keep moisture.<br />
The grow<strong>in</strong>g system was made of brick, with <strong>the</strong> dimensions 1m width, 0.5m height,<br />
<strong>and</strong> 3m long, <strong>and</strong> 0.5m between beds. The bottom of <strong>the</strong> beds was <strong>in</strong>sulated by 20cm<br />
cement layer with a slight slope <strong>in</strong> order to facilitate collection of leachate (Photo<br />
2.7).<br />
The sequence of layers <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g beds was <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g system<br />
except that <strong>the</strong> base of <strong>the</strong> bed was 10cm of cardboard/newspaper moist mixture, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> worms spread over <strong>the</strong> surface were <strong>the</strong> juvenile worms only.<br />
20<br />
Photo 2.6.<br />
Earthworms used <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Source: Au<strong>the</strong>r
2.3.3. Food<br />
21<br />
Photo 2.7.<br />
Trial vermicompost set up at<br />
Dokki.<br />
Source: Author<br />
For <strong>the</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g boxes, a mixture of rabbit manure <strong>and</strong> fresh kitchen<br />
scraps (citrus not more than 1/3 of food scraps) were used. The feed was mixed well<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mix<strong>in</strong>g unit until it resembles dairy slurry. This was added <strong>in</strong> one strip along<br />
lengthwise wall <strong>in</strong> a maximum 5cm thick <strong>and</strong> 10cm wide. The feed was supplied<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> only when first strip is f<strong>in</strong>ished, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> new feed is added along opposite wall.<br />
As <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g beds, <strong>the</strong> feed varies over time. Potato wastes from <strong>the</strong><br />
manufacturers as potato peels were brought <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> site to be dried <strong>and</strong> used as<br />
needed. Plant wastes from <strong>the</strong> location were shredded <strong>and</strong> mixed with animal manure<br />
to be composted <strong>for</strong> 1-2 weeks. This semi-composted material was <strong>the</strong> base feed that<br />
goes to <strong>the</strong> mix<strong>in</strong>g unit with available fruits <strong>and</strong> vegetable wastes were brought from<br />
<strong>the</strong> nearby shops. The feed mixture was spread evenly on <strong>the</strong> surface of <strong>the</strong> beds.<br />
Photo 2.8.<br />
Mixture of food wastes <strong>and</strong> shredded<br />
plant material ready to be mixed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
rotat<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Source: Author<br />
In order to facilitate <strong>the</strong> work, a shredd<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e was manufactured locally (Photo<br />
2.9) to prepare large plant material be<strong>for</strong>e mixed with o<strong>the</strong>r fruit or vegetable wastes<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a rotat<strong>in</strong>g mix<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>e.
2.3.4. Moisture<br />
Photo 2.9.<br />
The locally manufactured shredd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mach<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Source: Author<br />
The rule of thump is to check manually <strong>for</strong> moisture on a daily basis to ensure that is<br />
not too dry, <strong>and</strong> when water<strong>in</strong>g it is important not to make it too wet. Only fresh water<br />
was used. The breed<strong>in</strong>g boxes were rearranged to make <strong>the</strong> first on <strong>the</strong> top to become<br />
<strong>the</strong> first from <strong>the</strong> bottom <strong>in</strong> order to avoid moisture variations between <strong>the</strong> boxes.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>structions were:<br />
- Water little <strong>and</strong> often – only <strong>the</strong> newspaper on <strong>the</strong> surface should be wet.<br />
- Water after check<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> bed surface – if already damp, skip one water<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
- Water should be used to supplement exist<strong>in</strong>g humidity <strong>and</strong> replace evaporation.<br />
- Use a spray or mist, not jets of water.<br />
2.3.5. Aeration<br />
The aeration was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>the</strong> bottom of beds or boxes has sufficient bedd<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> surface is only shredded newspaper. The aeration could be a<br />
problem ma<strong>in</strong>ly if water<strong>in</strong>g is not done properly lead<strong>in</strong>g to too wet conditions.<br />
Only <strong>the</strong> newspaper on <strong>the</strong> surface should be wet, <strong>and</strong> as mentioned earlier, water<br />
should be used to supplement exist<strong>in</strong>g humidity <strong>and</strong> replace evaporation. Beds<br />
must be mixed if:<br />
- The bed smells bad.<br />
- The bed is too wet.<br />
- The bed is hot or lukewarm to touch.<br />
- The worms are not distributed evenly on <strong>the</strong> surface.<br />
- The section of bed turned only when <strong>the</strong>re is no food on <strong>the</strong> surface of<br />
<strong>the</strong> bed, <strong>and</strong> to a depth of 10-15cm only.<br />
22
2.3.6. Temperature<br />
The location of <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g beds was selected <strong>in</strong> order to avoid strong w<strong>in</strong>ds. A<br />
shad<strong>in</strong>g roof made of reed mats was <strong>in</strong>stalled <strong>in</strong> order to prevent direct solar radiation<br />
over <strong>the</strong> beds <strong>in</strong> summer. The mats were removed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter.<br />
Narrower mats were used to cover <strong>the</strong> beds, as <strong>the</strong>y shade <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g beds, <strong>and</strong> also<br />
protect from birds, cats or dogs.<br />
The breed<strong>in</strong>g boxes were laid under grape v<strong>in</strong>es grown <strong>in</strong> a shaded greenhouse. In<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter, <strong>the</strong> v<strong>in</strong>es were pruned allow<strong>in</strong>g sun to penetrate, while <strong>in</strong> summer <strong>the</strong> shad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
screens <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> shade of <strong>the</strong> green leaves of <strong>the</strong> v<strong>in</strong>es were pleasant, not only<br />
temperature wise, but also moisture as well. No o<strong>the</strong>r temperature control measures<br />
were used <strong>and</strong> this made grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g conditions ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed stable over both<br />
summer <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter without major reduction <strong>in</strong> worms‟ activities. Temperatures<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed by daily check<strong>in</strong>g. The general practice was to turn <strong>the</strong> beds or boxes<br />
when conditions were not suitable. When a bed is hot or lukewarm to touch, it must<br />
be mixed gently <strong>in</strong> order to allow air flow between <strong>the</strong> layers. In such cases,<br />
precomposted food must be used to prevent over heat<strong>in</strong>g from organic matter<br />
decomposition. It should be remembered that earth worms move from one side to<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r horizontally, <strong>and</strong> from <strong>the</strong> bottom to be close to surface <strong>and</strong> close or far from<br />
<strong>the</strong> food accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> com<strong>for</strong>table comb<strong>in</strong>ation of moisture <strong>and</strong> humidity. In such<br />
dynamic situations, temperature varies over time of <strong>the</strong> day, season, type of organic<br />
material, <strong>the</strong> cover<strong>in</strong>g material, as well as uni<strong>for</strong>mity of <strong>the</strong> beds.<br />
2.3.7 Harvest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
23<br />
Photo 2.10.<br />
The shaded grow<strong>in</strong>g beds at Dokki<br />
greenhouse station.<br />
Source: Author<br />
Harvest<strong>in</strong>g is an important procedure <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> success of vermiculture operations.<br />
Regardless of <strong>the</strong> harvest<strong>in</strong>g target, it should be done quickly <strong>and</strong> simply. The target<br />
of harvest could be cast<strong>in</strong>gs, adult worms or babies <strong>and</strong> eggs.<br />
a- Harvest<strong>in</strong>g cast<strong>in</strong>gs is per<strong>for</strong>med accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g steps:<br />
- Select<strong>in</strong>g a grow<strong>in</strong>g bed.
- Plac<strong>in</strong>g narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure along each side of bed.<br />
- Wait<strong>in</strong>g 1-2 days<br />
- Scoop<strong>in</strong>g out from <strong>the</strong> centre of <strong>the</strong> bed some cast<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
- Check<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> eggs <strong>and</strong> worms – <strong>the</strong>se should be very limited.<br />
- Collect<strong>in</strong>g cast<strong>in</strong>gs from centre of bed.<br />
- Spread<strong>in</strong>g cast<strong>in</strong>gs to dry.<br />
- When cast<strong>in</strong>gs clump <strong>and</strong> crumble, pack <strong>in</strong>to plastic bags with p<strong>in</strong>prick<br />
holes<br />
24<br />
Photo 2. 11. Harvest<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
cast<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
source: Basavaiah (2006)<br />
b- Harvest<strong>in</strong>g adult worms is per<strong>for</strong>med accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g steps:<br />
- Select<strong>in</strong>g a grow<strong>in</strong>g bed.<br />
- Plac<strong>in</strong>g narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure <strong>in</strong>side 70% shade-cloth along<br />
centre of bed.<br />
- Wait<strong>in</strong>g 1-2 days.<br />
- Collect<strong>in</strong>g worms <strong>and</strong> cast<strong>in</strong>gs from side walls.<br />
Photo 2. 12.<br />
Harvested adult worms from <strong>the</strong><br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g beds.<br />
Source: Author
- Check<strong>in</strong>g size of worm – should be approach<strong>in</strong>g reproductive state <strong>and</strong><br />
clitellum should be noticeable.<br />
- Plac<strong>in</strong>g adult worms <strong>in</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g beds.<br />
- Check<strong>in</strong>g cast<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>for</strong> eggs - replace <strong>in</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g bed.<br />
25<br />
Photo 2. 13.<br />
A couple of adult worms, with clear<br />
clitellum <strong>in</strong> both of <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
Source: Author<br />
c- Harvest<strong>in</strong>g babies is per<strong>for</strong>med accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g steps:<br />
- Select<strong>in</strong>g a breed<strong>in</strong>g bed.<br />
- Plac<strong>in</strong>g narrow strips of 1-2 day old manure or th<strong>in</strong> fruit peels (not citrus)<br />
<strong>in</strong>side 90% shade-cloth along centre of bed.<br />
- Wait<strong>in</strong>g1-2 days.<br />
- Empty<strong>in</strong>g contents straight <strong>in</strong>to grow<strong>in</strong>g bed, under newspaper cover.<br />
- Check<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> babies that may be caught <strong>in</strong> shade-cloth.<br />
d- Harvest<strong>in</strong>g eggs is per<strong>for</strong>med accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g steps:<br />
- Select<strong>in</strong>g a breed<strong>in</strong>g bed.<br />
- Bait<strong>in</strong>g one side of <strong>the</strong> bed.<br />
- Wait 1-2 days.<br />
- Scoop<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>the</strong> bed on <strong>the</strong> opposite side of <strong>the</strong> bait.<br />
- Check<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> adult worms <strong>and</strong> replace <strong>in</strong> bed.<br />
- Plac<strong>in</strong>g contents directly <strong>in</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g bed.<br />
- Plac<strong>in</strong>g new bedd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> food on empty side of breed<strong>in</strong>g bed.<br />
Photo 2.14.<br />
Worm eggs.<br />
Source: Author
3. Use of compost worms globally <strong>in</strong> countries of similar climate<br />
The previous two chapters covered <strong>the</strong> historical background as well as <strong>the</strong> trial The<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Cuba <strong>and</strong> India are examples of countries with similar overall conditions<br />
to <strong>Egypt</strong> Their technologies are simple <strong>and</strong> could be easily adapted to <strong>the</strong> local<br />
conditions. The United States of America is <strong>the</strong> model example of advanced<br />
technologies <strong>in</strong> vermiculture. Such examples will broaden <strong>the</strong> readers choice with<br />
what could be done <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> future. Un<strong>for</strong>tunately, vermicompost <strong>and</strong> vermiculture are<br />
very limited <strong>in</strong> MENA region, Most of <strong>the</strong> studies look at utilization of local species<br />
to produce vermicompost. For example, Aldadi et al. (2005), Nourbakhsh (2007) <strong>and</strong><br />
Yousefi et al. (2009) had some studies <strong>in</strong> Iran aim<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> waste water treatment.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g examples were selected to broaden <strong>the</strong> picture of commercial<br />
production. One could adapt or modify any of <strong>the</strong>m or even create a newer version.<br />
3.1 Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Philipp<strong>in</strong>es<br />
The worms used are Lumbricus rubellus <strong>and</strong>/or Perionyx excavator. The worms are<br />
reared <strong>and</strong> multiplied from a commercially-obta<strong>in</strong>ed breeder stock <strong>in</strong> shallow wooden<br />
boxes stored <strong>in</strong> a shed. The boxes are approximately 45 cm x 60 cm x 20 cm <strong>and</strong> have<br />
dra<strong>in</strong>age holes; <strong>the</strong>y are stored on shelves <strong>in</strong> rows <strong>and</strong> tiers. A bedd<strong>in</strong>g material is<br />
compounded from miscellaneous organic residues such as sawdust, cereal straw, rice<br />
husks, bagasse, cardboard <strong>and</strong> so on, <strong>and</strong> is moistened well with water. The wet<br />
mixture is stored <strong>for</strong> about one month, be<strong>in</strong>g covered with a damp sack to m<strong>in</strong>imize<br />
evaporation, <strong>and</strong> is thoroughly mixed several times. When fermentation is complete,<br />
chicken manure <strong>and</strong> green matter such as water hyac<strong>in</strong>th is added. The material is<br />
placed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> boxes <strong>and</strong> should be sufficiently loose <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> worms to burrow <strong>and</strong><br />
should be able to reta<strong>in</strong> moisture. The proportions of <strong>the</strong> different materials will vary<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> nature of <strong>the</strong> material but a f<strong>in</strong>al prote<strong>in</strong> content of about 15% should<br />
be aimed at. A pH value as near neutral as possible is necessary <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> boxes should<br />
be kept at temperatures between 20 o C <strong>and</strong> 27 o C. At higher temperatures, <strong>the</strong> worms<br />
will aestivate <strong>and</strong>, at lower temperatures, <strong>the</strong>y hibernate. The excess worms that have<br />
been harvested from <strong>the</strong> pit can be used <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r pits, sold to o<strong>the</strong>r farmers <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same purpose, used or sold <strong>for</strong> use as animal feed supplement, used or sold <strong>for</strong> use as<br />
fish food or, may even be used <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> human food preparations (Misra <strong>and</strong> Roy,<br />
2003).<br />
African night crawler was <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1970s <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
production vermicast<strong>in</strong>gs as an organic fertilizer. Its use today rema<strong>in</strong>s focused <strong>for</strong><br />
this purpose. Recently, with ris<strong>in</strong>g cost of imported fishmeal, a study explores on <strong>the</strong><br />
commercial farm<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> species, specifically on its production economics, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
technical challenges <strong>in</strong> husb<strong>and</strong>ry <strong>and</strong> operation (Cruz, 2005). This project was<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g assistance of <strong>the</strong> DOST-PCAMRD 1 . The site chosen was a flat but slightly<br />
<strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g area (around 3%) of approximately 1,000 m 2 . It is partially shaded by<br />
mahogany trees <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> morn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> afternoon. The soil is clay loam with nearly<br />
neutral pH. Water used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> experiment was provided from an adjacent deep well.<br />
1 Philipp<strong>in</strong>e Council <strong>for</strong> Aquatic <strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e Research <strong>and</strong> Development, (Department of Science <strong>and</strong><br />
Technology)<br />
26
A total of 8 units of 1 m x 5 m earthworm plots were constructed on bare<br />
ground utiliz<strong>in</strong>g roof<strong>in</strong>g material as sidewalls. The sidewalls had a total height of<br />
around 40 cm, of which 3-4 cm was sunk on <strong>the</strong> ground. Wooden stakes supported<br />
<strong>the</strong>se sidewalls. Each plot was sub-divided <strong>in</strong>to two units of 1 m x 2.5 m beds <strong>for</strong> ease<br />
of management. The unit was provided with a hapa net l<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, to prevent <strong>the</strong> worms<br />
from digg<strong>in</strong>g beneath <strong>the</strong> substrate <strong>and</strong> escap<strong>in</strong>g. Plots were covered with a plastic<br />
sheet to protect it from direct sunlight <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>. A horizontal wooden beam stretch<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> length of plot <strong>and</strong> held by vertical poles provided <strong>the</strong> support <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> plastic sheet<br />
cover. Earthworm plots were kept covered with a plastic canopy, <strong>and</strong> opened only<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>spection or when water<strong>in</strong>g was done.<br />
27<br />
Photo 3.1.<br />
Earthworm plots show<strong>in</strong>g plastic<br />
covers <strong>and</strong> support frame<br />
Source: Wormsphilipp<strong>in</strong>es.com<br />
Several types of substrates were used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> study; <strong>the</strong>se were sugarcane bagasse,<br />
mudpress, spent mushroom substrate, <strong>and</strong> cow manure. The plots were watered every<br />
3-6 days, depend<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>the</strong> wea<strong>the</strong>r. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> dry months, water<strong>in</strong>g was rout<strong>in</strong>ely<br />
done every 3 days.<br />
Based on <strong>the</strong> data <strong>and</strong> experience ga<strong>the</strong>red <strong>in</strong> this study, <strong>the</strong> cost <strong>and</strong> return<br />
projection <strong>for</strong> a larger scale earthworm farm are based on <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g key<br />
assumptions:<br />
- 3 full-time workers with a salary of PhP150 (3.33$)/day<br />
- Crop cycle of 60 days (2 months), or 6 production cycles/yr<br />
- Total of 52 units of 2.5 m 2 area earthworm plots<br />
- Stock<strong>in</strong>g of 1 bed a day (26 work<strong>in</strong>g days a month)<br />
- Harvest<strong>in</strong>g of 1 bed a day (26 work<strong>in</strong>g days a month)<br />
- Earthworm stock<strong>in</strong>g biomass of 3 kg/plot <strong>and</strong> harvest biomass of 9 kg/plot,<br />
fter 60 days (200% biomass ga<strong>in</strong>)<br />
- Total substrate volume of 600 kg/plot/crop cycle based on two 300 kg<br />
load<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
- 70% recovery of vermicast<strong>in</strong>gs from total substrate weight<br />
- 20% recovery of vermi-meal from total earthworm biomass<br />
The total operational cost <strong>for</strong> 52 plots <strong>for</strong> a 2 month crop cycle is estimated at<br />
PhP80,401.79 (1783.74$), <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> cost of equipment depreciation (capital cost<br />
assumed at PhP5,000 per plot, depreciated <strong>in</strong> 6 crops or 1 year). The total volume of
vermicast<strong>in</strong>gs produced per crop is 21,840 kg based on a production of 420 kg/plot<br />
(from 600 kg x 70% recovery). The total gross production of earthworm biomass per<br />
crop is 468 kg, based on a yield of 9 kg/plot (from <strong>the</strong> 3 kg starter <strong>and</strong> 6 kg of biomass<br />
ga<strong>in</strong>). At <strong>the</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g price of 0.11$/kg of vermicast<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> 0.22$/kg <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
earthworms biomass, gross sales <strong>for</strong> one crop cycle is estimated at 2356.11$ <strong>and</strong><br />
1035.62$, respectively. This would provide <strong>the</strong> venture a net profit of around 742.73$<br />
every 2 months, <strong>and</strong> a rate of return of 249.83% annually. The study suggests a<br />
potential <strong>for</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> use of earthworms <strong>in</strong> farm-made moist feeds. Such type<br />
of feed is simple to produce <strong>and</strong> is proven to work well when properly <strong>for</strong>mulated <strong>and</strong><br />
processed. In as much as <strong>the</strong> production technology <strong>for</strong> earthworm farm<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />
readily adopted at <strong>the</strong> village level, where organic raw materials abound <strong>and</strong> where<br />
labor is cheap.<br />
3.2 Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Cuba<br />
In Cuba, different methods are used <strong>for</strong> worm propagation <strong>and</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
first <strong>and</strong> most common is cement troughs, two feet wide <strong>and</strong> six feet long, much like<br />
livestock water<strong>in</strong>g troughs, used to raise worms <strong>and</strong> create worm compost. Because of<br />
<strong>the</strong> climate, <strong>the</strong>y are watered by h<strong>and</strong> every day. In <strong>the</strong>se beds, <strong>the</strong> only feedstock <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> worms is manure, which is aged <strong>for</strong> about one week be<strong>for</strong>e be<strong>in</strong>g added to <strong>the</strong><br />
trough.<br />
First, a layer of three to four <strong>in</strong>ches of manure is placed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> empty trough, <strong>the</strong>n<br />
worms are added. As <strong>the</strong> worms consume <strong>the</strong> manure, more manure is layered on top,<br />
roughly every ten days, until <strong>the</strong> worm compost reaches with<strong>in</strong> a couple <strong>in</strong>ches of <strong>the</strong><br />
top of <strong>the</strong> trough, about two months. Then <strong>the</strong> worms are separated from <strong>the</strong> compost<br />
<strong>and</strong> transferred to ano<strong>the</strong>r trough.<br />
The second method of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g is w<strong>in</strong>drows, where cow manure is piled<br />
about three feet across <strong>and</strong> three feet wide, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>n it is seeded with worms. As <strong>the</strong><br />
worms work <strong>the</strong>ir way through it, fresh manure is added to <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> row, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
worms move <strong>for</strong>ward. The rows are covered with fronds or palm leaves to keep <strong>the</strong>m<br />
shaded <strong>and</strong> cool. Some of <strong>the</strong>se rows have a drip system - a hose runn<strong>in</strong>g alongside<br />
<strong>the</strong> row with holes <strong>in</strong> it. But mostly, <strong>the</strong> rows are watered by h<strong>and</strong>. Some of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
rows are hundreds of feet long. The compost is ga<strong>the</strong>red from <strong>the</strong> opposite end when<br />
<strong>the</strong> worms have moved <strong>for</strong>ward. Then it is bagged <strong>and</strong> sold. Fresh manure, seeded<br />
with worms, beg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong> row <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> process aga<strong>in</strong>. Some of <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>drows have bricks<br />
runn<strong>in</strong>g along <strong>the</strong>ir sides, but most are simply piles of manure without sides or<br />
protection. Manure is static composted <strong>for</strong> 30 days, <strong>the</strong>n transferred to rows <strong>for</strong><br />
worms to be added. After 90 days, <strong>the</strong> piles reach three feet high. It has been reported<br />
that worm populations can double <strong>in</strong> 60 to 90 days.<br />
28
3.3. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> India<br />
Photo 3.2.<br />
W<strong>in</strong>drows vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g method:<br />
<strong>in</strong> Havana, Cuba .<br />
Source: newfarm.org<br />
A study on production <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g of vermicompost was carried out dur<strong>in</strong>g 2007-<br />
08 <strong>in</strong> Dharwad District of Karnataka (Shivakumar et al., 2009). The study made an<br />
attempt to analyze <strong>the</strong> economics of vermicompost production, market<strong>in</strong>g methods<br />
followed, f<strong>in</strong>ancial feasibility of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> problems faced <strong>in</strong><br />
vermicompost production <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Dharwad District. The players <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />
vermicompost production activities are <strong>the</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g sector, government organizations,<br />
private organizations <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r agencies. This has encouraged many government <strong>and</strong><br />
nongovernment agencies to promote vermicompost production. The rough estimates<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate that Karnataka state produces around 40,000 to 50,000 metric tons annually.<br />
The study perta<strong>in</strong>s to Dharwad district. Two locations of <strong>the</strong> district, namely Dharwad<br />
<strong>and</strong> Kalaghatagi were purposively selected <strong>and</strong> two villages each were r<strong>and</strong>omly<br />
selected from each location. For <strong>the</strong> economics of production, 10 vermicompost<br />
producers, who followed traditional heap system of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, were r<strong>and</strong>omly<br />
selected from each village. Thus, <strong>the</strong> total sample size was 40 producers. The results<br />
revealed that 70 % of vermicompost producers were illiterate. With regard to family<br />
type of vermicompost producers, it can be seen that as many as 60 % of <strong>the</strong>m had a<br />
family, while 40 percent had jo<strong>in</strong>t families. A majority of <strong>the</strong>m (~70 %) had annual<br />
<strong>in</strong>come <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> range of $257 to 1070$ followed by around 18 per cent of <strong>the</strong>m hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>come of more than $1070 per annum <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> rest hav<strong>in</strong>g annual <strong>in</strong>come of less than<br />
$257. With respect to method of production, heap method of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g was<br />
followed by 70 % of <strong>the</strong> producers <strong>and</strong> trench method was followed by <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
30 %. With respect to method of production, a majority of respondents were found to<br />
produce vermicompost us<strong>in</strong>g heap method because it costs considerably lower<br />
compared to <strong>the</strong> trench method of production. The production of Vermicompost<br />
provided part time employment <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> family members <strong>and</strong> hence it generated<br />
additional revenue <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> family.<br />
The total cost of production of vermicompost per ton was 28.6$. The total market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cost amounted to $4.3 per ton <strong>in</strong> channel-I (<strong>the</strong> producer-seller sold <strong>the</strong> produce to<br />
29
users <strong>in</strong> Dharwad) <strong>and</strong> $3.2 per ton <strong>in</strong> channel-II (<strong>the</strong> producer-seller sold <strong>the</strong> produce<br />
through BAIF to <strong>the</strong> users <strong>in</strong> Kalghatagi). The net returns per ton of vermicompost<br />
were $26 <strong>in</strong> channel-I compared to $24.5 <strong>in</strong> channel-II. The net present value <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vermicompost production was $2136.89, <strong>the</strong> benefit cost ratio at 12% discount rate<br />
was 3.44, <strong>in</strong>ternal rate of return was 38% <strong>and</strong> payback period was 1.71 years.<br />
Some isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> India such as Andaman <strong>and</strong> Nicobar isl<strong>and</strong>s are known <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir wide<br />
variety of crops such as paddy, coconut, areca_nut, clove, black pepper, c<strong>in</strong>namon,<br />
nutmeg <strong>and</strong> vegetables. About 2-3 kg of earthworms is required <strong>for</strong> 1000 kg of<br />
biomass, whereas about 1100 number earthworms are required <strong>for</strong> one square meter<br />
area. Non burrow<strong>in</strong>g species are mostly used <strong>for</strong> compost mak<strong>in</strong>g. Red earthworm<br />
species like Eisenia foetida <strong>and</strong> Eudrillus eng<strong>in</strong>ae are most efficient <strong>in</strong> compost<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g. Summary <strong>for</strong> Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale is shown <strong>in</strong> Table<br />
3.1.<br />
Women self-help groupes (SHGs) <strong>in</strong> several watersheds <strong>in</strong> India have set up<br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g enterprises. By becom<strong>in</strong>g an earn<strong>in</strong>g member of <strong>the</strong> family, <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g process, which has raised <strong>the</strong>ir social status. One of<br />
<strong>the</strong> women managed to earn earned $36 per month from this activity. She has also<br />
<strong>in</strong>spired <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>ed 300 peers <strong>in</strong> 50 villages. (Nagavallemma et al., 2004).<br />
30<br />
Photo 3.3.<br />
Women self-help group <strong>in</strong>volved<br />
<strong>in</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, to promote<br />
micro-enterprises <strong>and</strong> generate<br />
<strong>in</strong>come<br />
Source: Nagavallemma et al.<br />
(2004)
Table 3.1. Summary <strong>for</strong> Production of Vermicompost at Farm Scale <strong>in</strong> Andaman <strong>and</strong><br />
Nicobar (A&N) Isl<strong>and</strong>s, India:<br />
Parameters Low ly<strong>in</strong>g area Hilly area<br />
Low ly<strong>in</strong>g +<br />
Hilly area<br />
Area (ha) 0.08 5.08 5.08<br />
Cropp<strong>in</strong>g System<br />
Vermicompost requirement<br />
(kg/year)<br />
Crop residue requirement (kg)<br />
Paddy-<br />
vegetable<br />
2500 + 5000<br />
= 7500<br />
7750 Paddy<br />
system +<br />
homestead waste<br />
31<br />
1 Coconut/<br />
2 Areca_nut<br />
spices<br />
Paddy-vegetable<br />
/ (1 ha) Coconut/<br />
arecanut/spices (1 ha)<br />
2500 7500 + 2500 =10000<br />
1750 from<br />
coconut or<br />
areca_nut<br />
plantations<br />
3000 from paddy<br />
system + 6500 from<br />
plantations<br />
Gliricidia production from<br />
fence (kg)<br />
1250 1250 2500<br />
Cow dung required (kg) 6000 2000 Kg 8000 kg<br />
Number of animals required<br />
1 cow + 4 goats+<br />
10 poultry birds<br />
1 cow 2cow<br />
Total waste <strong>for</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g (kg) 15000<br />
5000<br />
20000<br />
Earth worms required (kg)<br />
7.5<br />
2.5<br />
10<br />
RCC r<strong>in</strong>gs required<br />
Number of units<br />
Capital Cost / year (A)<br />
6 r<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
2 (3 r<strong>in</strong>gs +<br />
3 r<strong>in</strong>gs)<br />
Expenditure/year<br />
2r<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
1 (2 r<strong>in</strong>gs)<br />
8 r<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
2 (4 r<strong>in</strong>gs+<br />
4 r<strong>in</strong>gs)<br />
Cost of r<strong>in</strong>gs $ 191.8$ 191.8$ 255.8$<br />
Cost of shed $ 53.3 53.3 74.6$<br />
Runn<strong>in</strong>g cost /year (B)<br />
Labour <strong>and</strong> Miscellaneous cost 127.9$ 127.9$ 159.86$<br />
Packag<strong>in</strong>g cost 79.93$ 79.93$ 106.6$<br />
Total (A+B) 452.9$ 452.9$ 596.8$<br />
Returns / year<br />
Vermicompost<br />
production (kg/year)<br />
Returns<br />
159.8 159.8 213.2<br />
1438. 8$ 1438. 8$ 1918.2$<br />
Net returns $ /year 985.8$ 985.8$ 1321.6$<br />
Source: MBM-CARI-XIV, Vermicompost Production, central agricultural research <strong>in</strong>stitute, <strong>and</strong>aman<br />
<strong>and</strong> nicobar isl<strong>and</strong>s,, Central Agricultural Research India.: http://cari.res.<strong>in</strong>/<br />
1 Coconut <strong>and</strong> arecanut produces around 8100 <strong>and</strong> 6900 kg of wastes/year, respectively. Hence,<br />
on an average, 7500 kg of wastes will be available per year <strong>for</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g. If all <strong>the</strong> available<br />
wastes are utilized <strong>for</strong> production, <strong>the</strong> requirement of cowdung will be 5500 kg/year which can be<br />
met from one cow. Includ<strong>in</strong>g Gliricidia, <strong>the</strong> total waste availability will be 15000 kg/year which<br />
requires 7.5 kg of earth worms <strong>and</strong> 2 units compris<strong>in</strong>g 3 r<strong>in</strong>gs + 3 r<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>for</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g. The total<br />
production will be 7500 kg of vermicompost/year. The additional quantity of 5000 kg/year<br />
available can be sold.<br />
2 Areca nut is <strong>the</strong> seed of <strong>the</strong> Areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows <strong>in</strong> much of <strong>the</strong> tropical Pacific,<br />
Asia, <strong>and</strong> parts of east Africa
3.4. Vermicompost „teas‟ <strong>in</strong> Ohio, USA<br />
These aqueous vermicompost extracts or „teas‟ are much easier to transport <strong>and</strong> apply,<br />
than solid vermicomposts, <strong>and</strong> can duplicate most of <strong>the</strong> benefits of vermicomposts<br />
when applied to <strong>the</strong> same crops. Additionally, <strong>the</strong>y can be applied to crops as foliar<br />
sprays.<br />
Work at The Ohio State University has shown that vermicompost „teas‟ <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>the</strong><br />
germ<strong>in</strong>ation, growth, flower<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> yields of tomatoes, cucumbers, <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r crops <strong>in</strong><br />
similar ways to solid vermicomposts. The aerated, vermicompost „teas‟ suppressed<br />
<strong>the</strong> plant diseases Fusarium, Verticillium, Plectosporium, <strong>and</strong> Rhizoctonia to <strong>the</strong> same<br />
extent as <strong>the</strong> solid.<br />
Vermicompost „teas‟ also suppressed populations of spider mites (Tetranychus<br />
urticae) <strong>and</strong> aphids (Myzus persicae) significantly.<br />
Additionally, <strong>the</strong>y had dramatic effects on <strong>the</strong> suppression of attacks by plant<br />
parasitic nematodes such as Meloidogyne on tomatoes both <strong>in</strong> terms of reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
numbers of root cysts significantly <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g root <strong>and</strong> shoot growth <strong>and</strong> Physicochemical<br />
characteristics of <strong>the</strong> feed <strong>and</strong> optimum worm density are important<br />
parameters <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> efficient work<strong>in</strong>g of a vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g system. The results<br />
showed that E. fetida growth rate was faster at higher stock<strong>in</strong>g densities; however,<br />
biomass ga<strong>in</strong> per worm was faster at lower stock<strong>in</strong>g densities. Sexual maturity was<br />
atta<strong>in</strong>ed earlier at higher stock<strong>in</strong>g densities. Growth rate was highest <strong>in</strong> 100% cow<br />
dung at all <strong>the</strong> stock<strong>in</strong>g densities when compared to textile mill wastewater sludge<br />
conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g feed mixtures. A worm population of 27–53 worms per kg of feed was<br />
found to be <strong>the</strong> most favorable stock<strong>in</strong>g density. Even when <strong>the</strong> physical conditions<br />
(temperature <strong>and</strong> moisture) <strong>and</strong> quality of waste (size, total organic carbon, total<br />
nitrogen, <strong>and</strong> total available phosphorus) are appropriate <strong>for</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
problems can develop due to overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g of earthworms. This study clearly showed<br />
that when E. fetida was allowed to grow at different stock<strong>in</strong>g densities <strong>the</strong> worms<br />
grew slowly at higher stock<strong>in</strong>g densities. The maximum body weight of earthworm<br />
was higher at lower stock<strong>in</strong>g densities. Maturation rate was also affected by stock<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rate. Worms atta<strong>in</strong>ed sexual maturity earlier <strong>in</strong> crowded conta<strong>in</strong>ers. Worms of same<br />
age developed clitellum at different times at different population densities. The results<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate that population of 27–53 worms per kg <strong>and</strong> 4–8 worms per 150 g/feed<br />
mixture is optimum (Garg et al., 2008).<br />
Most of <strong>the</strong> research on utilization of earthworms <strong>in</strong> waste management has focused<br />
on <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al product, i.e. <strong>the</strong> vermicompost. There are only few literature references<br />
that have looked <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> process, or exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong> biochemical trans<strong>for</strong>mations that<br />
are brought about by <strong>the</strong> action of earthworms as <strong>the</strong>y fragment <strong>the</strong> organic matter,<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>mation of a vermicompost with physicochemical <strong>and</strong> biological<br />
properties which seem to be superior <strong>for</strong> plant growth to those of <strong>the</strong> parent material.<br />
It has been reported that <strong>the</strong> storage of organic wastes over a period of time could<br />
alter <strong>the</strong> biochemistry of <strong>the</strong> organic matter <strong>and</strong> could eventually lead to <strong>the</strong><br />
stabilization of <strong>the</strong> organic waste. Never<strong>the</strong>less, we hypo<strong>the</strong>size that add<strong>in</strong>g<br />
earthworms to <strong>the</strong> organic wastes would accelerate <strong>the</strong> stabilization of <strong>the</strong>se wastes <strong>in</strong><br />
32
terms of decomposition <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eralization of <strong>the</strong> organic matter, lead<strong>in</strong>g to a more<br />
suitable medium <strong>for</strong> plant growth(Atiyeh et al., 2000).<br />
3.5. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> United K<strong>in</strong>gdom<br />
In <strong>the</strong> UK, although <strong>the</strong> number of <strong>in</strong>door or enclosed systems appears to be<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, most vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g systems would appear to be based on ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
outdoor w<strong>in</strong>drows or covered shallow beds. There is very little evidence of<br />
mechanisation <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> use of labor sav<strong>in</strong>g equipment, such as earthworm harvesters,<br />
is rare. The bed is approximately 5m wide, 50m long <strong>and</strong> 0.5m deep. The beds<br />
typically comprise wooden sides covered <strong>in</strong> a woven semi-permeable fabric<br />
conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g coir or shredded wood chip bedd<strong>in</strong>g placed directly on <strong>the</strong> soil surface.<br />
When <strong>in</strong>stalled, <strong>the</strong> bed would have been <strong>in</strong>oculated with start<strong>in</strong>g culture of adult<br />
earthworms at a density of approximately 0.5kg earthworms per m3 of bed. Up until<br />
recently, most vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g facilities were modest <strong>in</strong> size with bed areas around<br />
1,000 m 2 , but <strong>the</strong>re is now a trend towards much larger units, as much as ten times<br />
this size. Very large units can process large amounts of waste, of <strong>the</strong> order of<br />
thous<strong>and</strong>s of tonnes per year, mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m comparable to many of <strong>the</strong> smaller<br />
municipal compost<strong>in</strong>g operations.<br />
There is very little <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation available on <strong>the</strong> nature of <strong>the</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> UK <strong>and</strong> what little exists is considered to be commercially sensitive.<br />
There are at least four major suppliers of large-scale vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g systems<br />
currently operat<strong>in</strong>g. In year 2000, <strong>the</strong>re were around 90 <strong>in</strong>dividual operators with<br />
81,000 m 2 of beds. The total <strong>in</strong>vestment would have exceeded £1.25 million<br />
(Frederickson, 2003).<br />
33
4. Current on-farm <strong>and</strong> urban organic waste management practices<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>: gap analysis.<br />
The most important material <strong>for</strong> compost production is <strong>the</strong> organic material. There are<br />
two ma<strong>in</strong> sources of organic matter: farm wastes <strong>and</strong> urban wastes. In order to obta<strong>in</strong><br />
such materials, one should underst<strong>and</strong> waste management practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> area. This<br />
chapter covers such an important subject.<br />
4.1. On-farm organic waste<br />
Agricultural wastes are def<strong>in</strong>ed accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> relevant legislation as “waste from<br />
agriculture that <strong>in</strong>cludes any substances or object which <strong>the</strong> holder discards or <strong>in</strong>tends<br />
or is required to discard”. The disposal of biomass represents a problem <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />
<strong>and</strong> society. It has been estimated that <strong>the</strong> off-farm disposed plant <strong>and</strong> animal wastes<br />
are 27 <strong>and</strong> 12 million tons annually, respectively. Burn<strong>in</strong>g of crop residues is a<br />
problem <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, especially rice wastes. <strong>Egypt</strong> cultivates about 360.000 ha of rice<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to 2008 statistics, with a production of 6 million tons of straw.<br />
It is up to <strong>the</strong> grower to decide <strong>the</strong> way of dispos<strong>in</strong>g his agriculture wastes. The most<br />
common practice <strong>for</strong> dispos<strong>in</strong>g is by dump<strong>in</strong>g it at municipal waste sites, dump<strong>in</strong>g it<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> desert or by simply burn<strong>in</strong>g it. The failure of any management plan to tackle <strong>the</strong><br />
agriculture waste, especially rice straw, is based on <strong>the</strong> assumption that this waste is<br />
free, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> grower has to give it away. In fact <strong>the</strong> grower realizes that <strong>the</strong> waste<br />
becomes valuable once collected <strong>and</strong> ready <strong>for</strong> transport. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, as long<br />
as <strong>the</strong> residues are <strong>in</strong> his property, no one could <strong>for</strong>ce him to h<strong>and</strong> it over. For him,<br />
burn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> residue <strong>in</strong> site has some agricultural benefits, such as use of m<strong>in</strong>erals of<br />
<strong>the</strong> ash, or gett<strong>in</strong>g rid of <strong>in</strong>sects <strong>and</strong> diseases on above <strong>the</strong> ground as a result of<br />
burn<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Even though <strong>the</strong> practice is well known, farmers <strong>in</strong> many parts of <strong>the</strong> world especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong>mselves at a disadvantage by not mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> best use<br />
of organic recycl<strong>in</strong>g opportunities available to <strong>the</strong>m, due to various constra<strong>in</strong>ts which<br />
among o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong>clude absence of efficient expeditious technology, long time span,<br />
<strong>in</strong>tense labor, l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestment requirements, <strong>and</strong> economic aspects.<br />
In rural areas, <strong>in</strong> particular, <strong>the</strong> implementation of effective solid waste management<br />
systems is faced with a number of constra<strong>in</strong>ts. These constra<strong>in</strong>ts are related to<br />
environmental conditions, <strong>in</strong>stitutional/ adm<strong>in</strong>istrative issues, f<strong>in</strong>ancial matters,<br />
technical deficiencies <strong>and</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> legal limitations.<br />
As <strong>for</strong> agriculture waste, two options <strong>for</strong> treat<strong>in</strong>g rice straw are recommended. The<br />
first is to collaborate with <strong>the</strong> fresh universities graduates to collect such dispersed<br />
produced amount <strong>in</strong> order to be used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> compost mak<strong>in</strong>g activities, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
option is to <strong>in</strong>stall small manufactures <strong>for</strong> fiber process<strong>in</strong>g to produce packages <strong>for</strong><br />
exported crops as rice straw could be used as a virg<strong>in</strong> material.<br />
34
4.1.1. Weak po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> rice straw system <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
There is an extreme shortage of <strong>the</strong> comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, rak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> bal<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
<strong>and</strong> no enough trucks to transport <strong>the</strong> ready straw bales (economical problem).<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> un-paved dirt roads that makes <strong>the</strong> transportation between<br />
farms <strong>and</strong> market (economical <strong>and</strong> managerial problems) almost impossible.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>s, agricultural co-operations have to work to provide a<br />
storage place <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> ready bales, trucks <strong>and</strong> some mechanical equipment to<br />
overcome <strong>the</strong> previous obstacles. To facilitate such work, GIS maps should<br />
provide <strong>the</strong> farms sites <strong>in</strong> each governorate <strong>and</strong> a full study of <strong>the</strong> road status<br />
that will be used <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> transportation.<br />
4.2. Urban wastes<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> four systems were <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> solid waste management be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>the</strong> trend to<br />
privatization; The Governmental system <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Cairo <strong>and</strong> Giza "Cleans<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
Beautification Authorities". These central agencies were responsible <strong>for</strong> municipal<br />
solid waste activities <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g regulation of private service delivery. In spite of<br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g such powerful entities, <strong>the</strong>y were not effective <strong>and</strong> faced lots of problems.<br />
The second system is <strong>the</strong> conventional Zabbaleen (<strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal waste collectors) system,<br />
which offers door-to-door service <strong>in</strong> return <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> monthly fee. Thirdly, <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong>mal private sector system, which has been <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> larger cities <strong>and</strong> some<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>cial towns. Each private operator must have a collection license or a service<br />
contract <strong>for</strong> his assigned area from <strong>the</strong> local municipality. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>the</strong>re is Non<br />
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), which per<strong>for</strong>m some limited solid waste<br />
services, especially <strong>in</strong> rural areas <strong>and</strong> small cities.<br />
4.2.1. Overview of solid waste management problem <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
The problem of solid waste management <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> has been grow<strong>in</strong>g at an alarm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rate. Its negative manifestations, as well as its direct <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>direct harmful<br />
consequences on public health, environment <strong>and</strong> national economy (particularly as<br />
related to manpower productivity <strong>and</strong> tourism) are becom<strong>in</strong>g quite apparent <strong>and</strong> acute.<br />
In large cities like Cairo <strong>and</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>ria <strong>the</strong> problem reached such serious proportions<br />
that <strong>the</strong>y called <strong>for</strong> considerable government <strong>in</strong>tervention <strong>and</strong> a series of judicious<br />
actions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> short, medium, <strong>and</strong> long term.<br />
In essence, <strong>the</strong> problem –as described <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> National Waste Management Strategy<br />
2000- lies <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact that:<br />
"The present systems could not satisfy <strong>the</strong> served community needs with its various<br />
strata <strong>for</strong> a reasonably accepted cleans<strong>in</strong>g level, as well as <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> negative<br />
health <strong>and</strong> environmental impacts, or <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> aes<strong>the</strong>tic appearance".<br />
35
The clearly evident symptoms of <strong>the</strong> problem are:<br />
- Various levels of waste accumulations at various places <strong>and</strong> locations that<br />
became liable to various vectors (rodents <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>sects) <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
pollution, bad smells <strong>and</strong> appearance, aside from frequent uncontrolled open<br />
burn<strong>in</strong>g that all contribute to negative health <strong>and</strong> environmental impacts.<br />
- Ineffective <strong>and</strong> environmentally non-sound h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g, treatment <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
techniques that may pose health risks.<br />
- Prevalent open-dump type of r<strong>and</strong>om solid waste disposal as well as<br />
<strong>in</strong>discrim<strong>in</strong>ate dump<strong>in</strong>g lead<strong>in</strong>g to various associated health <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
hazards.<br />
4.2.2. Ma<strong>in</strong> factors contribut<strong>in</strong>g to soil waste management problem<br />
Municipal solid waste contents <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> years 2000-2008 <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir distribution are<br />
illustrated <strong>in</strong> Table (4.1) <strong>and</strong> Table (4.2). The ma<strong>in</strong> factors contribut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> solid<br />
waste problems <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> could be summarized as follows:<br />
- Actions taken <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> past were not always susta<strong>in</strong>able, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> issues were not<br />
addressed <strong>in</strong> a comprehensive <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrated manner.<br />
- Accurate <strong>and</strong> reliable data concern<strong>in</strong>g solid waste quantities, rates of<br />
generation, composition does not exist. Numerous attempts to quantify <strong>the</strong><br />
problem have been made; however, <strong>the</strong>se attempts are by no means<br />
comprehensive or rigorous.<br />
- Laws are not applicable with very weak mechanisms <strong>for</strong> en<strong>for</strong>cement.<br />
- The <strong>in</strong>volvement of <strong>the</strong> private sector <strong>in</strong> SWM activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> has been<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imal till <strong>the</strong> last decade when <strong>the</strong> private sector became more <strong>in</strong>volved.<br />
- Ineffective recycl<strong>in</strong>g activities, especially with all k<strong>in</strong>ds of waste mixed<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r without any plan to encourage sort<strong>in</strong>g at source. Moreover, nonhazardous<br />
<strong>and</strong> hazardous wastes are mixed through <strong>the</strong> "waste cycle".<br />
- Low level of public awareness <strong>and</strong> improper behaviors <strong>and</strong> practices <strong>in</strong><br />
relation to solid waste h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> disposal.<br />
Table 4.1. Municipal solid waste contents 2000, 2005 <strong>and</strong> 2008<br />
Waste % 2000 Waste % 2005 Waste % 2008<br />
Organic materials 45-55% 50-60% 50-60%<br />
Paper 10-20% 10-25% 10-25%<br />
Plastic 3-12% 3-12% 3-12%<br />
Glass 1-5% 1-5% 1-5%<br />
Metal 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7% 1.5- 7%<br />
Fabrics 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7% 1.2- 7%<br />
O<strong>the</strong>rs 11-30% 11-30% 11-30%<br />
Source: EEAA (2001) <strong>and</strong> (2006) <strong>and</strong> CAPMAS (2010)<br />
36
Table 4.2. Distribution of waste accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> sources <strong>in</strong> 2000 <strong>and</strong> 2005<br />
Source<br />
Estimated quantity<br />
2000 2005<br />
Municipal garbage 14-15 million ton 15-16 million ton<br />
Industrial 4-5 million ton 4.5 - 5 million ton<br />
Agricultural 23 million ton 25-30 million ton<br />
Sludge 1.5 -2 million ton 1.5 -2 million ton<br />
Clear<strong>in</strong>g banks<br />
sewage outputs<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
20 million ton 20 million ton<br />
Hospitals 100 -120 million ton 100 -120 million ton<br />
Construction<br />
demolition waste<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
3-4 million ton 3-4 million ton<br />
Source: EEAA (2007)<br />
4.2.3. Waste generation rates<br />
The total quantity of solid wastes generated <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> is 118.6 million tons/year <strong>in</strong><br />
2007/2008 as shown <strong>in</strong> Table (4-3) estimates, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g municipal solid waste<br />
(garbage), <strong>in</strong>dustrial waste, agricultural waste, sludge result<strong>in</strong>g from sanitation<br />
treatment, hospital wastes, construction <strong>and</strong> demolition debris <strong>and</strong> wastes from <strong>the</strong><br />
clean<strong>in</strong>g of canals <strong>and</strong> dra<strong>in</strong>s. Municipal solid wastes (garbage) <strong>in</strong>clude rema<strong>in</strong>s of<br />
households (about 60 %), shops <strong>and</strong> commercial markets, service <strong>in</strong>stitutions such as<br />
schools <strong>and</strong> educational <strong>in</strong>stitutes, utilities, hospitals, adm<strong>in</strong>istrative build<strong>in</strong>gs, streets,<br />
gardens, markets, hotels, <strong>and</strong> recreation areas, <strong>in</strong> addition to small factories <strong>and</strong><br />
camps.<br />
Resource recovery reduces <strong>the</strong> quantity of raw materials needed <strong>in</strong> production<br />
processes. It may <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e reduce dependency on imports <strong>and</strong> save <strong>for</strong>eign currency.<br />
Reused rubber <strong>and</strong> plastics, <strong>for</strong> example, reduce <strong>the</strong> need <strong>for</strong> imported raw materials<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> reuse of organic waste as compost reduces <strong>the</strong> dependence on imported<br />
chemical fertilizers.<br />
Resource recovery saves natural resources, particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of raw materials<br />
<strong>and</strong> energy. The recycl<strong>in</strong>g of alum<strong>in</strong>um, <strong>for</strong> example, results <strong>in</strong> energy sav<strong>in</strong>gs 14 of<br />
up to 96%. An environmentally sound waste disposal system should <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e <strong>in</strong>volve<br />
resource recovery as much as possible.<br />
However, waste recovery also creates employment opportunities that can conflict with<br />
environmental <strong>and</strong> health criteria. Although <strong>the</strong> reuse of organic waste helps to<br />
prevent environmental degradation <strong>and</strong> pollution, <strong>the</strong> recovery methods <strong>the</strong>mselves<br />
are often not environmentally sound <strong>and</strong> may pose health hazards <strong>for</strong> workers. With<strong>in</strong><br />
solid waste disposal systems environmental, socio-economic <strong>and</strong> health costs are<br />
rarely considered. The total costs of safe <strong>and</strong> environmentally acceptable solid waste<br />
disposal are poorly documented <strong>and</strong> are <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e underestimated. However, it is<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st this background that resource recovery needs to be valued <strong>and</strong> supported <strong>in</strong><br />
order to use <strong>the</strong> potential of recovery to its full extent <strong>and</strong> to improve exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
practices.<br />
For many people, work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal waste sector is <strong>the</strong> last resort <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> daily<br />
struggle <strong>for</strong> survival. Incomes are usually m<strong>in</strong>imal, <strong>and</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g conditions are often<br />
appall<strong>in</strong>g. Never<strong>the</strong>less, some traders have managed to set up a feasible bus<strong>in</strong>ess that<br />
can earn reasonable profits. All <strong>the</strong>se people provide a valuable service to society as a<br />
37
whole; <strong>in</strong> many cities <strong>the</strong> municipal refuse collection <strong>and</strong> disposal services are<br />
woefully <strong>in</strong>adequate, particularly <strong>in</strong> low-<strong>in</strong>come areas, where waste accumulates <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> streets. Improved recovery processes could <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e reduce <strong>the</strong> amounts of waste<br />
that need to be collected, <strong>and</strong> thus <strong>the</strong> costs of municipal waste disposal, <strong>and</strong> could<br />
help to reduce <strong>the</strong> risk to human health.<br />
For example, Cairo is renowned <strong>for</strong> its extensive <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal waste recycl<strong>in</strong>g system. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cairo metropolitan area, 6000 tons of municipal solid waste is generated daily.<br />
The municipality collects about 2400 tons per day, while <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal workers collect<br />
about 2700 tons of household waste per day us<strong>in</strong>g a fleet of some 700 donkey carts.<br />
The balance of 900 tons rema<strong>in</strong>s on <strong>the</strong> city streets, vacant lots <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> peripheries of<br />
poorly serviced low-<strong>in</strong>come areas of <strong>the</strong> city.<br />
Table 4.3. Distribution of wastes accord<strong>in</strong>g to its sources <strong>and</strong> Governorates 2007/2008<br />
Governorate<br />
Source (ton/month)<br />
Municipal Industrial Agricultural Sludge<br />
m 3<br />
38<br />
Clear<strong>in</strong>g<br />
banks &<br />
sewage<br />
Hospitals<br />
Construction<br />
<strong>and</strong><br />
demolition<br />
Cairo 1761668 149914 - - - 49860 811488<br />
Giza 139650 - - - - - 77100<br />
Qalyobia - - - - - - -<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ria - 620500 1296506 - - - -<br />
Behira 27330 - 4099.5 5072500 - 1366.5 -<br />
Menofia 3281224 2749.42 20617.7 7168 169239 899.57 5035.83<br />
Gharbia 40860 32.5 10069.6 - - 0.5 -<br />
Kar ElSheih 65600 - 369619 - 3550 33 56<br />
Damitta 1124 337.2 - - - - -<br />
Daqhlia - - 456517 - - - -<br />
North S<strong>in</strong>ia 14.75 700 2083.3 8.3 - 31.7 283.3<br />
South S<strong>in</strong>ia 47 - - - - - -<br />
Port Said 18390.1 - - 2205 - 244.11 -<br />
Ismailia 17160 240 2918 369750 25000 35.9 17053<br />
Suis 118625 51666.7 - 18250 37083.3 243.33 760.417<br />
Sharqia 12000 - - - - 11.648 -<br />
Beni Suif 45420 178 - 335.3 - 32.88 975<br />
M<strong>in</strong>ia 13406 53.4 45666.5 218 3186 33.08 2566<br />
Assuit 6120 - - - - - -<br />
New valley 2322 - 6166 416 666 14.7 583<br />
Sohag 2691 382 409 330 250 290 1919<br />
Qena<br />
2046<br />
480m3<br />
15<br />
90m 3 340 - 1500 9.5<br />
135<br />
12545m 3<br />
Asswan 76003.3 6360 64.1667 0.5833 0.833333 134.46 4080<br />
Red sea<br />
16650<br />
12750m 3 - - - - 2.55<br />
1500<br />
100m 3<br />
Luxor 550 50 250 120 150 8 360<br />
Total<br />
5649880.15<br />
13230 m<br />
833278 2215326 8587.88 203541.8 53255 924254.55<br />
3 90 m 3 - 5462713 m 3 37083.3 m 3 - 12645 m 3<br />
Source: EEAA (2007).<br />
The <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal sector <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> plays a significant role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> solid waste services<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g waste recycl<strong>in</strong>g. This sector has been grow<strong>in</strong>g significantly over <strong>the</strong> last<br />
three decades. There<strong>for</strong>e, it is essential to underst<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> recognize <strong>the</strong> complex role<br />
of this sector <strong>in</strong> solid waste services <strong>and</strong> to benefit from its exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>frastructure <strong>and</strong><br />
expertise <strong>in</strong> any <strong>for</strong>mal <strong>in</strong>itiative (GTZ, 2004).
Over <strong>the</strong> last three decades, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal garbage collectors have drastically<br />
developed <strong>the</strong> volume <strong>and</strong> scope of activities <strong>the</strong>y per<strong>for</strong>m. Solid waste operators <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal sector generally per<strong>for</strong>m five functions: collection, transportation,<br />
recovery, trade, <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g. It is usually a family bus<strong>in</strong>ess where men do <strong>the</strong><br />
transportation <strong>and</strong> trad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> women do most of <strong>the</strong> sort<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The waste sort<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> recovery is almost entirely done <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> courtyard of garbage<br />
collector‟s houses. After waste collection <strong>and</strong> transportation to <strong>the</strong> Zabbaleen area,<br />
waste is sorted <strong>in</strong>to: (i) organic waste that is fed to <strong>the</strong> animals, sold to o<strong>the</strong>rs as<br />
animal feed, or sent <strong>for</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>and</strong> (ii) non-organic waste that is categorized<br />
<strong>in</strong>to: paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, bones, <strong>and</strong> residual non-recyclable waste.<br />
Subsequently, ano<strong>the</strong>r sort<strong>in</strong>g process is <strong>the</strong>n undertaken to sort different sub-types of<br />
each of <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> categories while non-recyclable waste is transported to <strong>the</strong> municipal<br />
disposal site on a monthly basis. The recovered material is sold while <strong>the</strong> nonrecoverable<br />
materials are sent to <strong>the</strong> municipal dumps. Recyclable materials sorted<br />
<strong>in</strong>to categories <strong>and</strong> sub-categories of paper, plastic, metal, glass, fabric, <strong>and</strong> bones are<br />
transferred to recycl<strong>in</strong>g workshops.<br />
In 2000, <strong>the</strong>re were more than 220 recycl<strong>in</strong>g workshops <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Zabbaleen area of<br />
Cairo. About 90% own <strong>the</strong>ir workshop space (even if <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mally) while <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
10% rent <strong>the</strong>ir workshop. A workshop employs six workers on average. The average<br />
area of <strong>the</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g workshop is 155 square meters but varies widely depend<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
<strong>the</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g activity per<strong>for</strong>med. Generally plastic recycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> cloth gr<strong>in</strong>ders use up<br />
<strong>the</strong> most space <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir workshops usually have an area more than 200 m 2 . Metal<br />
recycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries need less space.<br />
4.2.4. Major conventional solid waste systems are<br />
- Governmental system: municipalities or clean<strong>in</strong>g authorities (Cairo <strong>and</strong> Giza)<br />
collect <strong>and</strong> transfer wastes from <strong>the</strong> streets, b<strong>in</strong>s, public conta<strong>in</strong>ers, <strong>and</strong> supervises<br />
public dumpsites <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> operation of compost<strong>in</strong>g plants ei<strong>the</strong>r directly or through<br />
<strong>the</strong> private sector.<br />
- Traditional “Zabbaleen” (garbage collectors) system: <strong>in</strong> this system, which date<br />
back to <strong>the</strong> early twentieth century, collectors collect garbage from household units<br />
<strong>and</strong> some commercial establishments, <strong>and</strong> transfer it to <strong>the</strong>ir communities<br />
(Zabbaleen villages) <strong>for</strong> sort<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g. Although work<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>and</strong><br />
methods used, that are of m<strong>in</strong>imal costs <strong>and</strong> do not comply with <strong>the</strong> requirements of<br />
health <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment, yet <strong>the</strong>y are considered by clients as a considerably<br />
good service. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, this system achieves <strong>the</strong> highest recovery degree possible;<br />
sometimes reach 80% of <strong>the</strong> garbage collected by Zabbaleen, which is estimated by<br />
3000 tons per day <strong>in</strong> Cairo (about 30% of <strong>the</strong> total amount generated daily). Local<br />
private companies: <strong>the</strong>se collect <strong>and</strong> transfer garbage <strong>in</strong> a number of <strong>Egypt</strong>ian cities.<br />
They represent a developed model of <strong>the</strong> garbage collectors‟ system, work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
limited areas under <strong>the</strong> supervision <strong>and</strong> control of municipalities or clean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
authorities. The f<strong>in</strong>al disposal of wastes takes place ei<strong>the</strong>r at <strong>the</strong> garbage collectors<br />
communities or <strong>in</strong> public dumpsites.<br />
39
4.3. Overview of organic waste recovery options<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce organic material <strong>for</strong>ms all farm wastes <strong>and</strong> a large proportion of urban refuse,<br />
ways can be sought as to use this resource more effectively. Organic material can be<br />
reused <strong>in</strong> three ways:<br />
- to feed animals (fodder),<br />
- to improve <strong>the</strong> soil (compost),<br />
- to produce energy (biogas or briquettes).<br />
The first two options are already very common <strong>in</strong> economically less developed<br />
countries. In Lahore, Pakistan, <strong>for</strong> example, 40% of urban refuse is collected by<br />
farmers <strong>and</strong> used as animal feed <strong>and</strong> soil amendment.<br />
4.3.1. Feed<strong>in</strong>g animals<br />
Rais<strong>in</strong>g animals is <strong>the</strong> easiest possibility; <strong>in</strong> most cases organic waste can be fed<br />
directly to domestic animals without pretreatment, but cook<strong>in</strong>g or <strong>the</strong> addition of<br />
nutrients may sometimes be necessary. This strategy refers to divert<strong>in</strong>g food not<br />
appropriate <strong>for</strong> human consumption to animal feed. While a potentially useful outlet<br />
<strong>for</strong> food scraps that o<strong>the</strong>rwise would be disposed, this avenue tends to be limited<br />
primarily to food processors <strong>and</strong> beer <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>and</strong> may not be feasible <strong>for</strong> urban<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions. In some cases, rural corrections facilities <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>-grant colleges have <strong>the</strong><br />
appropriate comb<strong>in</strong>ation of circumstances that allows <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> collection <strong>and</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> food scraps to on-site animals.<br />
4.3.2. Compost<br />
Compost<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>the</strong> microbial decomposition of discarded organic materials under<br />
controlled conditions. The end product, compost, is used as an organic soil<br />
amendment. It promotes microbiological activity <strong>in</strong> soils necessary <strong>for</strong> plant growth,<br />
disease resistance, water retention <strong>and</strong> filtration, <strong>and</strong> erosion prevention. Compost can<br />
be used <strong>in</strong> various ways. As a soil amendment, compost enhances <strong>the</strong> physical,<br />
chemical, <strong>and</strong> biological properties of soil. The macro-nutrient value of compost is<br />
typically not high relative to fertilizers. Compost enriches <strong>the</strong> soil by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
organic matter. Additionally, compost <strong>in</strong>creases soil‟s capacity to hold water. By<br />
amend<strong>in</strong>g soil with compost, soil is better able to hold nutrients. Nutrients do not<br />
leach as easily; ra<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>y are released more slowly to plants, which can reduce <strong>the</strong><br />
need <strong>for</strong> fertilizers. Compost can also suppress fungal diseases <strong>in</strong> soil, which can be<br />
particularly important to <strong>the</strong> golf <strong>and</strong> nursery <strong>in</strong>dustries.<br />
The utilization of earth worms, as discussed previously, could play a strong role <strong>in</strong><br />
convert<strong>in</strong>g organic wastes, whe<strong>the</strong>r urban or rural, <strong>in</strong>to a valuable vermicompost<br />
material.<br />
4.3.3 L<strong>and</strong>fill disposal or <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>eration<br />
This strategy refers send<strong>in</strong>g organic materials to a disposal facility to be l<strong>and</strong>filled or<br />
<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>erated. This is considered <strong>the</strong> least desirable strategy from a social,<br />
environmental, <strong>and</strong> sometimes economic perspective.<br />
40
The garbage from which <strong>the</strong> recyclable items have been removed is dumped by a<br />
mechanical front-end loader through a grid onto a conveyor belt, which transfers <strong>the</strong><br />
garbage to a hopper <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally to a rotat<strong>in</strong>g, cyl<strong>in</strong>drical drum, where <strong>the</strong> compost is<br />
sieved. At <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong> sieve, children anxiously wait <strong>for</strong> some useful remnants. The<br />
maturity of <strong>the</strong> compost is determ<strong>in</strong>ed by measur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> temperature.<br />
Normally, <strong>the</strong> plant processes 30 tons (60 m 3 ) of compost per shift per day. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
season when l<strong>and</strong> is prepared <strong>for</strong> cultivation (November to February) output is<br />
doubled by work<strong>in</strong>g two shifts per day. The plant provides jobs <strong>for</strong> 11 employees (1<br />
consultant, 1 plant manager, 1 technician, 1 electrician, 1 operation <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
manager, 3 security guards, 2 drivers, <strong>and</strong> 1 messenger). Mechanical parts <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
plant can be bought <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, although some electrical parts have to be imported.<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> quality of <strong>the</strong> compost appears to be good, it has been found to conta<strong>in</strong><br />
small pieces of glass <strong>and</strong> plastics, <strong>and</strong> large quantities of heavy metals.<br />
The major pressures on solid waste management <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> are exemplified <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> waste quantities generated due to <strong>the</strong> escalat<strong>in</strong>g population, on <strong>the</strong> one<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> change <strong>in</strong> consumption patterns <strong>in</strong> towns <strong>and</strong> villages alike, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> addition to <strong>the</strong> lack of awareness <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> wrong h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g of solid wastes <strong>in</strong><br />
general. Various studies on ducted dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> last two decades <strong>in</strong> a number of<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>ian Governorates <strong>and</strong> cities po<strong>in</strong>t out to a significant decrease <strong>in</strong> municipal solid<br />
waste collection efficiency totally lack<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> some rural areas. Consequently, large<br />
amounts of waste accumulations appeared <strong>in</strong> streets, vacant l<strong>and</strong> between build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>and</strong> different areas <strong>in</strong> cities <strong>and</strong> populated areas throughout <strong>the</strong> past years. Such areas<br />
have become focal po<strong>in</strong>ts of environmental pollution <strong>and</strong> represent significant<br />
pressures on human health as well as on <strong>the</strong> environment.<br />
41
Table 4.4. <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s Integrated Solid Waste Management Plan <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> period 2007-<br />
2012.<br />
Governorate<br />
The cost of <strong>the</strong> program / million <strong>Egypt</strong>ian pound<br />
Remove<br />
Accumula-<br />
tions<br />
Improve<br />
process of<br />
collections &<br />
transportation<br />
Establish<br />
<strong>in</strong>termediate<br />
station<br />
42<br />
Establish<br />
recycle<br />
centers<br />
Improve<br />
work <strong>in</strong><br />
controlled<br />
Dumpsites<br />
Establish<br />
sanitary<br />
l<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
Total with<br />
million<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>ian<br />
pound<br />
Cairo --- 13 13 30 40 30 126<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ria 15 17 5 5 --- --- 42<br />
Giza --- 30 30 10 10 30 110<br />
Kalyobiya --- 19.5 19.5 10 10 30 89<br />
Dakahilya 60 56.5 16 10 --- 30 172.5<br />
Gharbeya 52 31.5 16 10 --- 30 139.5<br />
Monofiya 6 33 10 10 --- 30 89<br />
Beheira 8 47 13 10 --- 40 118<br />
Kafr-ELShiekh 6 27 10 15 --- 30 83<br />
Sharkia 10 48.5 10 10 --- 30 108.5<br />
Damietta 3 26 10 10 --- --- 64<br />
Fayoum 3 20.5 4 5 --- 15 62.5<br />
Bani Suif 3 22 5 5 --- 30 65<br />
Menia 10 28.5 6 10 --- 30 84.5<br />
Assiut 3 28.5 6 10 --- 30 72.5<br />
Sohag 4.5 35 7 5 --- 30 86.5<br />
Qena 4.5 30.5 7 5 --- 30 82<br />
Luxor 2 2 3 5 --- 15 27<br />
Aswan 6 17 3.5 5 --- 15 46.5<br />
Ismailia 7 17.5 3 5 --- 30 62.5<br />
Port Said 6 7 2.5 5 5 --- 25.5<br />
Suez 10 7.5 2.5 5 5 --- 30<br />
Red Sea 7.5 14 2 5 --- 30 58.5<br />
Matrouh --- 26 5 5 --- 15 51<br />
North S<strong>in</strong>ai --- 31 4 5 --- 30 70<br />
South 7.5 15 3 5 --- 30 60.5<br />
New Valley --- 15 2 5 --- 10 37<br />
total 234 666 218 220 70 655 2063<br />
Source: EEAA (2008) <strong>and</strong> (2009).
Table 4.5. Solid waste accumulation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Governorates.<br />
Governorate Accumulations <strong>in</strong> m 3 Governorate Accumulations <strong>in</strong> m 3<br />
Cairo 500000 Menoufia 280000<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ria 344830 Kafr_El Sheikh 227000<br />
Giza 500000 Damietta 100000<br />
Behairah 600000 Gharbia 1500000<br />
Qalyubia 500000 Dakahlia 1300000<br />
Sharqia 510000 North S<strong>in</strong>ai 140000<br />
Matruh 146429 South S<strong>in</strong>ai 512000<br />
Port Said 359040 Suez 1168550<br />
Ismailia 350000 Red Sea 11885000<br />
Fayoum 292500 Beni Suef 150000<br />
M<strong>in</strong>ya 951000 Assiut 250000<br />
Sohag 281845 Qena 258480<br />
Luxor 107022 Aswan 385240<br />
Total accumulation 23598936<br />
Source: EEAA (2008) <strong>and</strong> (2009).<br />
43
Table 4.6. Solid waste amount produced by governorates <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> organic materials<br />
percentages <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2008.<br />
Governorate<br />
Cairo<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ria<br />
Port Said<br />
Suez<br />
Damietta<br />
Behairah<br />
Kafr_El Sheikh<br />
Dakahlia<br />
Ismailia<br />
Menoufia<br />
Gharbia<br />
Sharqia<br />
Qalyubia<br />
Giza<br />
Fayoum<br />
Beni Suef<br />
Menia<br />
Assiut<br />
Suhag<br />
Qena<br />
Aswan<br />
Luxor<br />
Red Sea<br />
New Valley<br />
Matruh<br />
North S<strong>in</strong>ai<br />
South S<strong>in</strong>ai<br />
Total<br />
Source: CAPMAS (2010)<br />
Total waste<br />
(Ton/Day)<br />
44<br />
10000<br />
2700<br />
1014<br />
325<br />
1319<br />
911<br />
1361<br />
3718<br />
572<br />
897<br />
2960<br />
717<br />
1738<br />
9062<br />
706<br />
924<br />
785<br />
187<br />
98<br />
343<br />
364<br />
164<br />
395<br />
917<br />
260<br />
337<br />
287<br />
43061<br />
% of organic<br />
material<br />
50%<br />
65%<br />
34%<br />
50%<br />
70%<br />
60%<br />
80%<br />
70%<br />
75%<br />
65%<br />
65%<br />
70%<br />
70%<br />
60%<br />
60%<br />
65%<br />
50%<br />
75%<br />
80%<br />
90%<br />
8%<br />
50%<br />
20%<br />
25%<br />
40%<br />
20%<br />
75%
5. Potential of vermiculture as a means to produce<br />
fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
The concept of us<strong>in</strong>g earthworms to stabilize organic wastes (vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g) is not<br />
new, <strong>and</strong> is <strong>in</strong> use on vary<strong>in</strong>g scales <strong>in</strong> a large number of both developed <strong>and</strong><br />
underdeveloped countries. The capital cost of establish<strong>in</strong>g systems has proven to be a<br />
barrier to <strong>the</strong> large scale use of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, largely due to <strong>the</strong> high value placed<br />
on <strong>the</strong> worms <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
Three factors contribute to <strong>the</strong> economic susta<strong>in</strong>ability of <strong>the</strong> system. The first is <strong>the</strong><br />
provision of a susta<strong>in</strong>able waste stabilization process, a service which can generate<br />
ongo<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>come but which, at <strong>the</strong> moment, is provided at m<strong>in</strong>imal cost. The second is<br />
<strong>the</strong> creation of a saleable <strong>for</strong>m of soil conditioner <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of vermicast. The third<br />
is <strong>the</strong> production of prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m of worm-meal, a valuable source of am<strong>in</strong>o<br />
acids, vitam<strong>in</strong>s, long cha<strong>in</strong> fatty acids <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>for</strong> chicken <strong>and</strong> fish.<br />
Recycl<strong>in</strong>g of farm waste <strong>and</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g is <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r alternative to use m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
fertilizers. The <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g compost <strong>in</strong> conventional agricultural will be coupled<br />
by a decrease <strong>in</strong> fertilizers usage <strong>and</strong> will result <strong>in</strong> higher quality production <strong>and</strong> less<br />
pollution hazards.<br />
Organic agriculture could be one of <strong>the</strong> important options that have a good<br />
opportunity <strong>in</strong> a wide zone of <strong>the</strong> newly reclaimed l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>. Wider production<br />
of organic material will <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> opportunities of more growers to jo<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> organic<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
This chapter sheds <strong>the</strong> light on <strong>the</strong> fertilizer needs <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>and</strong> potentiality of us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vermicompost as a fertilizer <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, especially <strong>for</strong> organic farm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
5.1. Fertilizer use <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Application of fertilizers <strong>for</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g crops is a rout<strong>in</strong>e operation <strong>in</strong> modern<br />
agriculture <strong>and</strong> one of <strong>the</strong> essential requirements <strong>for</strong> a high quantity <strong>and</strong> quality yield<br />
under extensive agricultural systems. Fertilizers are primary <strong>in</strong>put <strong>in</strong> extensive<br />
agricultural systems, but <strong>the</strong>y are considered as one of <strong>the</strong> important sources of air,<br />
water <strong>and</strong> soil pollution as well as greenhouse gases (greenhouse gases) of climate<br />
change.<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> has a long history of us<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong>eral fertilizers. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, excessive<br />
amounts of soluble salts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> soil can prevent or delay seed germ<strong>in</strong>ation, kill or<br />
seriously retard plant growth, <strong>and</strong> possibly render soils <strong>and</strong> groundwater unusable.<br />
The degree of environmental impacts can depend on <strong>the</strong> fertilizer application method.<br />
The <strong>Egypt</strong>ian fertilizers first production was from about 75 years ago. Now, <strong>Egypt</strong> is<br />
ranked as one of <strong>the</strong> countries that are highly consum<strong>in</strong>g fertilizers <strong>in</strong> agricultural<br />
activities. The total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2<br />
million Mt, 32% of <strong>the</strong> total production is exported. Excessive use of such chemical<br />
components have a harmful effect on <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian environment <strong>and</strong> human health,<br />
45
which needs to f<strong>in</strong>d o<strong>the</strong>r alternatives such as, organic agriculture that could be one of<br />
<strong>the</strong> important options that have a good opportunity <strong>in</strong> a wide zone of <strong>the</strong> newly<br />
reclaimed l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>. Moreover, recycl<strong>in</strong>g of farm waste <strong>and</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r alternative <strong>for</strong> renew<strong>in</strong>g soil fertility that has very low organic content<br />
(Table.5.1). Harvest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fruits or gra<strong>in</strong>s, which is a small proportion of a whole<br />
plant system, <strong>and</strong> return<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g plant residues after compost<strong>in</strong>g back to <strong>the</strong><br />
soil will result <strong>in</strong> a m<strong>in</strong>imum need <strong>for</strong> additional m<strong>in</strong>erals. Substitut<strong>in</strong>g any quantity<br />
of chemical fertilizers will result <strong>in</strong> a cleaner production <strong>and</strong> environment, as well as<br />
less emissions of greenhouse gases, <strong>and</strong> consequently <strong>the</strong> organic farm<strong>in</strong>g growers<br />
can get substituted through <strong>the</strong> clean development mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto<br />
protocol, which will be discussed <strong>in</strong> more details <strong>in</strong> a separate chapter later.<br />
Table 5.1. Physical <strong>and</strong> chemical analysis of various soil types.<br />
Item<br />
North<br />
Delta<br />
South<br />
Delta<br />
46<br />
Middle &<br />
Upper<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong><br />
<strong>East</strong> Delta West Delta<br />
Soil texture Clayey Clayey Loamy clay S<strong>and</strong>y Calcareous<br />
pH (1:2.5) 7.9-8.5 7.8-8.2 7.7-8.0 7.6-7.9 7.7-8.1<br />
Percent total soluble salts 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.4 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.6 0.2-0.6<br />
Percent calcium carbonate 2.6-4.4 2.0-3.1 2.6-5.3 1.0-5.1 11.0-30.0<br />
Percent organic matter 1.9-2.6 1.8-2.8 1.5-2.7 0.35-0.8 0.7-1.5<br />
Total soluble N (ppm) 25-50 30-60 15-40 10 – 20 10 -30<br />
ppm available P (Olsen) 5.4 -10 3.5-15.0 2.5-16 2-5.0 1.5-10.5<br />
ppm available K (ammonium<br />
acetate)<br />
250-500 300-550 280-700 105-350 100-300<br />
Available Zn (DTPA) (ppm) 0.5-4.0 0.6-6.0 0.5-3.9 0.6-1.2 0.5-1.2<br />
Available Fe (DTPA) (ppm) 20.8-63.4 19.0-27.4 12.4-40.8 6.7-16.4 12 - 18<br />
Available Mn (DTPA) (ppm) 13.1-45 11.2-37.2 8.2-51.6 3-16.7 10 - 20<br />
Source: <strong>FAO</strong> (2005).<br />
5.2. Fertilizer statistics<br />
The dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> food <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r agricultural commodities is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> due to<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> population <strong>and</strong> improvements <strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ards. Ef<strong>for</strong>ts cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
to improve crop productivity <strong>and</strong> quality. Appropriate fertilization is one of <strong>the</strong> most<br />
important agricultural practices <strong>for</strong> achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> agricultural improvement (<strong>FAO</strong>,<br />
2005).<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> commercial types of fertilizers used <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> percentage of active<br />
<strong>in</strong>gredients are listed <strong>in</strong> Table 5.2.
Table 5.2. The ma<strong>in</strong> types of fertilizers used <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Element Fertilizer<br />
Nitrogen - urea (46.5 percent N)<br />
- ammonium nitrate (33.5 percent N)<br />
- ammonium sulphate (20.6 percent N)<br />
- calcium nitrate (15.5 percent N)<br />
Phosphate - s<strong>in</strong>gle superphosphate (15 percent P 2 O 5 )<br />
- concentrated superphosphate (37 percent P 2 O 5 )<br />
Potassium - potassium sulphate (48 to 50 percent K 2 O)<br />
Mixed <strong>and</strong><br />
compound<br />
fertilizers<br />
Source: <strong>FAO</strong> (2005).<br />
- potassium chloride (50 to 60 percent K 2 O)<br />
-N, P, K, Fe, Mn, Zn <strong>and</strong>/or Cu <strong>in</strong> different <strong>for</strong>mulations <strong>for</strong><br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r soil or foliar application. The micronutrient may be <strong>in</strong><br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r m<strong>in</strong>eral or chelated <strong>for</strong>m.<br />
The improvement <strong>in</strong> fertilizers production is achieved through <strong>the</strong> last decades. The<br />
total production quantity of fertilizers is approximately reaches to 2 million Mt, 32%<br />
of <strong>the</strong> total production is exported. The rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g quantity of production after<br />
export<strong>in</strong>g is less than <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> quantity by about 43%. There<strong>for</strong>e, <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
compensates <strong>the</strong> shortage <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> dem<strong>and</strong>s by import<strong>in</strong>g fertilizers by about 43% of <strong>the</strong><br />
total consumption. Figure (5.1.) illustrates <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend of fertilizers<br />
production <strong>and</strong> export. This <strong>in</strong>crease is ma<strong>in</strong>ly due to <strong>the</strong> rapid agricultural horizontal<br />
<strong>and</strong> vertical expansion.<br />
1000 tonnes<br />
3500<br />
3000<br />
2500<br />
2000<br />
1500<br />
1000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008<br />
Production Import Export<br />
Figure 5.1.Production, imports <strong>and</strong> exports (1000 tonnes of nutrients) trends of<br />
fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Source: <strong>FAO</strong> ( 2010).<br />
47
The latest fertilizers consumption is shown <strong>in</strong> Figure (5.2) <strong>and</strong> illustrates that<br />
phosphorus <strong>and</strong> nitrogen fertilizers are <strong>the</strong> highest consumed type of fertilizers under<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>ian conditions. The most recent <strong>FAO</strong> statistics of 2010 <strong>in</strong>dicated that <strong>the</strong>re is an<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> nitrogen fertilizer consumption <strong>for</strong> 2008 (1721105 ton N) <strong>and</strong> phosphorus<br />
(229911 tons). This <strong>in</strong>crease reached 60 <strong>and</strong> 61% <strong>in</strong> 2008 compared to 2002 <strong>for</strong><br />
nitrogen <strong>and</strong> phosphorus, respectively.<br />
In addition, <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> fertilizers consumption is obvious <strong>and</strong><br />
additional <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> fertilizer dem<strong>and</strong> is expected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> next few years.<br />
1000 tonnes N<br />
2000<br />
1800<br />
1600<br />
1400<br />
1200<br />
1000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
Consumption <strong>in</strong> nutrients (tonnes of nutrients)<br />
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008<br />
N P K<br />
Figure 5.2. Nitrogen, phosphate, potassium <strong>and</strong> total fertilizers consumption <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
Source: <strong>FAO</strong> (2010).<br />
5.3. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g as fertilizers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
The production of consistently high-quality vermicompost is especially important to<br />
growers of high-value crops. The <strong>in</strong>fluence of production factors, such as <strong>the</strong><br />
variability <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> characteristics of <strong>the</strong> organic feedstocks, <strong>the</strong> length of time of<br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> various parameters used as maturity <strong>in</strong>dicators, are<br />
essential aspects to be considered <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g guidel<strong>in</strong>es <strong>for</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> quality of<br />
vermicompost. The vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry anticipates a need <strong>for</strong> compost quality<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicators as <strong>the</strong> production, utilization <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g of vermicompost exp<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
Various organic wastes tested <strong>in</strong> past as feed material <strong>for</strong> different species of<br />
earthworms <strong>in</strong>clude sewage sludge, paper mill <strong>in</strong>dustry sludge, water hyac<strong>in</strong>th, paper<br />
waste, crop residues, cattle manure, etc.<br />
Many studies were conducted <strong>in</strong> order to evaluate vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g from various<br />
waste sources as follows:<br />
48<br />
250<br />
200<br />
150<br />
100<br />
50<br />
0<br />
1000 tonnes P & K
5.3.1. Urban waste vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Home compost<strong>in</strong>g is a tradition <strong>in</strong> many countries, <strong>and</strong> is recommended as an<br />
important waste management option <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> European Union policy. Advantages are<br />
that <strong>the</strong> waste does not have to be transported <strong>and</strong> that home gardens are provided<br />
with nutrients <strong>and</strong> humus. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, it has an educational importance <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
environmental awareness. Limit<strong>in</strong>g conditions to its adoption are <strong>the</strong> availability of<br />
space <strong>for</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> compost application, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> lack of knowledge as to <strong>the</strong><br />
correct compost<strong>in</strong>g procedure. This <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong> selection of substrates that are<br />
suitable <strong>for</strong> home compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> provision of suitable process conditions.<br />
In a city like Cairo, <strong>the</strong>re is a possibility of produc<strong>in</strong>g vermicompost from <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
houses. Hav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> suitable amount of earthworms <strong>in</strong> a double basket system with a<br />
per<strong>for</strong>ated one <strong>in</strong>side, organic wastes could be vermicomposted without any odors or<br />
side annoyance. Although <strong>the</strong> system is not widely established, but with <strong>the</strong> proper<br />
awareness <strong>and</strong> public support could be implemented. This could both create an<br />
<strong>in</strong>come to <strong>the</strong> poor families, <strong>and</strong> produce considerable amount of vermicompost that<br />
goes directly to agricultural activities. In addition, it has <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g advantages:<br />
Saves money <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> environment<br />
It reduces household garbage disposal costs;<br />
It produces less odor <strong>and</strong> attracts fewer pests than putt<strong>in</strong>g food wastes <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
garbage conta<strong>in</strong>er;<br />
It saves <strong>the</strong> water <strong>and</strong> electricity that kitchen s<strong>in</strong>k garbage disposal units<br />
consume;<br />
It produces a free, high-quality soil amendment (compost);<br />
It requires little space, labor, or ma<strong>in</strong>tenance;<br />
It spawns free worms <strong>for</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Several options <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Zabbaleen <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational companies‟<br />
contracts were explored dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terviews with staff members at CID, rais<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
issue of local-global confrontation <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> possible contribution of a private–public<br />
partnership. The Zabbaleen could act as sub-contractors, as <strong>the</strong>y implement a<br />
“segregation system”, separat<strong>in</strong>g organic from non-organic waste. They could<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to collect household waste while medical <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial waste <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong>fill<br />
management could be h<strong>and</strong>led by mult<strong>in</strong>ational companies. Transfer stations could be<br />
established where a major proportion of non-organic waste could be recovered <strong>and</strong><br />
directed to exist<strong>in</strong>g traders. The Zabbaleen could receive <strong>in</strong>organic waste from<br />
companies as <strong>in</strong>put to <strong>the</strong>ir recycl<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>esses, as small communitybased<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g facilities are established. In such ways <strong>the</strong> traditional <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal Zabbaleen<br />
system could be <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> new privatized large-scale waste collection system<br />
to <strong>the</strong> mutual benefit of both sides. Despite such suggestions, recent developments<br />
have demonstrated <strong>the</strong> unlikelihood of fruitful local–global partnerships. Instead,<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational companies favour tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Zabbaleen as waged employees, while<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m to search l<strong>and</strong>fill sites <strong>for</strong> organic waste <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir pig-rear<strong>in</strong>g activities<br />
(Fahmi, 2005).<br />
49
5.3.2. Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g of agricultural wastes<br />
Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g of crop residues <strong>and</strong> cattle shed wastes can not only produce a<br />
value-added product (vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g) but at <strong>the</strong> same time acts as best culture<br />
medium <strong>for</strong> large-scale production of earthworms.<br />
The compost<strong>in</strong>g ability <strong>and</strong> growth per<strong>for</strong>mance of E. eugeniae were evaluated by<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g a variety of comb<strong>in</strong>ations of crop residues <strong>and</strong> cattle dung, under laboratory<br />
conditions. The best results <strong>in</strong> terms of nutrient enhancement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> end product were<br />
recorded <strong>in</strong> vermicomposted beds as compared to experimental compost<strong>in</strong>g without<br />
worms. Moreover, vermicompost showed higher amounts of total nitrogen, available<br />
phosphorous, exchangeable potassium <strong>and</strong> calcium content. The ready end product<br />
showed relatively lower C:N ratio <strong>and</strong> comparatively was a more stabilized product.<br />
A considerable amount of worm biomass <strong>and</strong> cocoons were produced <strong>in</strong> different<br />
treatments. However, quality of <strong>the</strong> feed stuff, used <strong>in</strong> this study was of a primary<br />
importance, determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> earthworm‟s growth parameter, e.g. <strong>in</strong>dividual biomass,<br />
cocoon numbers, growth rate. The results suggest that crop residues can be used as an<br />
efficient culture media <strong>for</strong> large-scale production of E. eugeniae <strong>for</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able l<strong>and</strong><br />
restoration practices at low-<strong>in</strong>put basis (Suthar, 2008).<br />
5.3.3. Vermicomposts effect on plant growth<br />
It is well established that earthworms have beneficial physical, biological <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical effects on soils <strong>and</strong> can <strong>in</strong>crease plant growth <strong>and</strong> crop yields <strong>in</strong> both natural<br />
<strong>and</strong> managed ecosystems. These beneficial effects have been attributed to<br />
improvements <strong>in</strong> soil properties <strong>and</strong> structure, to greater availability of m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
nutrients to plants, <strong>and</strong> to biologically active metabolites act<strong>in</strong>g as plant growth<br />
regulators.<br />
Earthworm (Eisenia foetida) compost strongly affects soil fertility by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
availability of nutrients, improv<strong>in</strong>g soil structure <strong>and</strong> water hold<strong>in</strong>g capacity. It has<br />
been suggested that earthworms can <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> velocity of decomposition of organic<br />
residues <strong>and</strong> also produce several bioactive humic substances. These substances are<br />
endowed with hormone like activity that improves plant nutrition <strong>and</strong> growth. Humic<br />
acids (HAs) comprise one of <strong>the</strong> major fractions of humic substances.<br />
An experiment was conducted to p<strong>in</strong>po<strong>in</strong>t precisely a biological mechanism by which<br />
vermicomposts can <strong>in</strong>fluence plant growth positively <strong>and</strong> produce significant<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> overall plant productivity, <strong>in</strong>dependent of nutrient uptake. Mix<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
conta<strong>in</strong>er media with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g concentrations of vermicompost-derived humic acids<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased plant growth, <strong>and</strong> larger concentrations usually reduced growth, <strong>in</strong> a pattern<br />
similar to <strong>the</strong> plant growth responses observed after <strong>in</strong>corporation of vermicomposts<br />
<strong>in</strong>to conta<strong>in</strong>er media with all needed m<strong>in</strong>eral nutrition. Plant growth was <strong>in</strong>creased by<br />
treatments of <strong>the</strong> plants with 50–500 mg/kg humic acids, but decreased significantly<br />
when <strong>the</strong> concentrations of humic acids <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er medium exceeded 500–1000<br />
mg/kg. Although some of <strong>the</strong> growth enhancement by humic acids could have been<br />
partially due to <strong>in</strong>creased rates of nitrogen uptake by <strong>the</strong> plants, most of <strong>the</strong> results<br />
reported exceed those that would result from such a mechanism, very considerably.<br />
However, this does not exclude <strong>the</strong> possibility of o<strong>the</strong>r contributory mechanisms by<br />
50
which humic acids could affect plant growth. There is a fur<strong>the</strong>r alternative explanation<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> hormone-like mode of action of humic acids <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se experiments. In our<br />
laboratory, we have extracted plant growth regulators such as <strong>in</strong>dole acetic acid,<br />
gibberell<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> cytok<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>s from vermicomposts <strong>in</strong> aqueous solution <strong>and</strong><br />
demonstrated that <strong>the</strong>se can have significant effects on plant growth. Such substances<br />
may be relatively transient <strong>in</strong> soils. However, <strong>the</strong>re seems a strong possibility that<br />
such plant growth regulators which are relatively transient may become adsorbed on<br />
to humates <strong>and</strong> act <strong>in</strong> conjunction with <strong>the</strong>m to <strong>in</strong>fluence plant growth (Atiyeh et al.,<br />
2002).<br />
Vermicompost has been promoted as a viable alternative conta<strong>in</strong>er media component<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> horticulture <strong>in</strong>dustry. The addition of vermicompost <strong>in</strong> media mixes of 10%<br />
<strong>and</strong> 20% volume had positive effects on plant growth. The greatest growth<br />
enhancement was on seedl<strong>in</strong>gs dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> plug stage of <strong>the</strong> bedd<strong>in</strong>g plant crop cycle.<br />
Growth <strong>in</strong>creases up to 40% were observed <strong>in</strong> dry shoot tissue <strong>and</strong> leaf area of<br />
marigold, tomato <strong>and</strong> green pepper. The <strong>in</strong>creased vigor exhibited was also<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed when <strong>the</strong> seedl<strong>in</strong>g plugs were transplanted <strong>in</strong>to larger conta<strong>in</strong>ers with<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ard commercial pott<strong>in</strong>g substrates without vermicompost. Additionally, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
were benefits apparently result<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> nutritional content of <strong>the</strong> vermicompost.<br />
All of <strong>the</strong> plugs were produced without <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>put of additional fertilization. The<br />
potential exists <strong>for</strong> growers to use vermicompost-amended commercial pott<strong>in</strong>g<br />
substrates dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> plug production stage without <strong>the</strong> use of additional fertilizer<br />
(Bachman <strong>and</strong> Metzger, 2008).<br />
5.4. Potentiality of vermicompost as a source of fertilizer <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Consider<strong>in</strong>g urban wastes as mentioned <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous chapter <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2005<br />
ranged from 15 to 16 million tons, compostable matter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wastes as 50-60% <strong>and</strong><br />
average collection efficiency as 70%. <strong>Egypt</strong> has an estimated potential of produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from urban wastes about 1.99 million tons of compost each year conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g about<br />
21,000 ton N, 5,000 ton P, <strong>and</strong> 10,640 ton K (Table 5.2). Inappropriate solid waste<br />
management <strong>and</strong> production of poor quality of composts are ma<strong>in</strong> constra<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong><br />
exploit<strong>in</strong>g such large amount plant nutrients <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g crop productivity.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, agricultural wastes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> could produce almost four times<br />
compost material compared to urban wastes, assum<strong>in</strong>g that 100% of it is organic<br />
material <strong>and</strong> all of it is accessible to <strong>the</strong> grower. There are o<strong>the</strong>r advantages of this<br />
waste, which are <strong>the</strong> availability of space <strong>and</strong> directly l<strong>in</strong>ked to <strong>the</strong> farm. This<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imizes <strong>the</strong> need of collection <strong>and</strong> transportation. The amounts of N, P <strong>and</strong> K that<br />
could be produced from agricultural wastes are almost four folds of that of <strong>the</strong> urban<br />
wastes.<br />
From both sources, <strong>the</strong> total composted material is almost 10 million tons, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
about 10 thous<strong>and</strong> tons of nitrogen, 20 thous<strong>and</strong> tons of phosphorus, <strong>and</strong> 41 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tons of potassium. Nitrogen fertilizer obta<strong>in</strong>ed from organic wastes could save up to<br />
5.9% of that consumed <strong>in</strong> 2008; while more than 10% of phosphorus fertilizers<br />
consumed <strong>in</strong> 2008 could be saved.<br />
51
Table 5.3. Potential nutrients that could be obta<strong>in</strong>ed from urban <strong>and</strong> agriculture<br />
wastes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>*<br />
Waste Ton/year<br />
Fraction<br />
organic<br />
Fraction<br />
efficiency<br />
collection<br />
Fraction<br />
of waste<br />
to be<br />
compost Quantity, Ton Type<br />
15500000 0.55 0.70 0.33 1,988,968 Compost<br />
20,815 N<br />
Urban<br />
5,088 P<br />
10,639 K<br />
23000000 1.00 1.00 0.33 7,665,900 Compost<br />
Agriculture<br />
80,225<br />
19,610<br />
N<br />
P<br />
41,004 K<br />
9,654,868 Compost<br />
Total<br />
101,039<br />
24,698<br />
N<br />
P<br />
51,642 K<br />
*Estimated as <strong>the</strong> assumptions of fractions <strong>and</strong> fixed percent of N, P <strong>and</strong> K <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
compost.<br />
Source: CAPMAS (2010)<br />
52
6. Current animal feed prote<strong>in</strong> supplements production<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> potential to substitute desiccated<br />
compost worms as an animal feed supplement or use<br />
of live worms <strong>in</strong> aquaculture <strong>in</strong>dustries.<br />
Production of vermicompost <strong>and</strong> vermiculture is covered <strong>in</strong> previous chapters. In<br />
order to utilize <strong>the</strong> products <strong>and</strong> byproducts of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry, clear end-users should be<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> order to facilitate <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry. One important possible<br />
consumption cha<strong>in</strong> is <strong>the</strong> utilization <strong>in</strong> animal <strong>and</strong> fish feed prote<strong>in</strong> supplement. This<br />
chapter h<strong>and</strong>les such possibilities.<br />
6.1. Animal <strong>and</strong> aquaculture feed<br />
The basic reason <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> poor per<strong>for</strong>mance of livestock <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries is <strong>the</strong><br />
seasonal <strong>in</strong>adequacy of feed, both <strong>in</strong> quantity <strong>and</strong> quality (Makkar, 2002). These<br />
deficiencies have rarely been corrected by conservation <strong>and</strong>, or, supplementation,<br />
often <strong>for</strong> lack of <strong>in</strong>frastructure, technical know-how, poor management, etc. In<br />
addition, many feed resources that could have a major impact on livestock production<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be unused, undeveloped or poorly utilized. A critical factor <strong>in</strong> this regard<br />
has been <strong>the</strong> lack of proper underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> nutritional pr<strong>in</strong>ciples underly<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
utilization.<br />
Poultry waste has been successfully used <strong>in</strong> rum<strong>in</strong>ant rations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>. The total<br />
bacterial count was considerably lower <strong>in</strong> sun dried poultry waste compared to <strong>the</strong><br />
oven dried waste. Aflatox<strong>in</strong>s were not detectable <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> concentrate mixtures<br />
conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g poultry litter. Both feed <strong>in</strong>take <strong>and</strong> milk production <strong>in</strong> ewes was not<br />
affected by <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>clusion of 14% poultry waste as a dietary supplement, suggest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that cottonseed meal <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r high prote<strong>in</strong> feed <strong>in</strong>gredients could be, at least partially<br />
replaced, by poultry waste without any loss <strong>in</strong> productivity. The weight <strong>and</strong> age at<br />
puberty of lambs fed a ration conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 17% poultry waste was similar to those given<br />
a ration without any poultry waste. Similarly, poultry waste up to 20% <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> diet had<br />
no detrimental effect on growth <strong>in</strong> cattle <strong>and</strong> buffaloes <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> reproductive<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance <strong>in</strong> buffalo heifers evaluated. The <strong>in</strong>clusion of 15% poultry waste <strong>in</strong><br />
mixed concentrate feed decreased <strong>the</strong> cost of feed by about 10% (Makkar, 2002).<br />
It is an ancient practice <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a to feed earthworms to livestock <strong>and</strong> poultry, i.e. to<br />
dig earthworms from fields to feed chickens <strong>and</strong> ducks or to graze chicken <strong>and</strong> ducks<br />
to feed on earthworms at ease. Earthworms are rich <strong>in</strong> nutrients with high prote<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to measurements, <strong>the</strong> crude prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> dry earthworms reaches about 70%,<br />
while <strong>in</strong> wet earthworms about 10-20%. The am<strong>in</strong>o acids of earthworm prote<strong>in</strong> are<br />
complete, especially <strong>the</strong> contents of Glutamic acid, Leuc<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> Lys<strong>in</strong>e, among which<br />
Arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e is higher than fish meal, <strong>and</strong> Tryptophan is 4 times higher than <strong>in</strong> blood<br />
powder, <strong>and</strong> 7 times higher than <strong>in</strong> cow liver. Earthworms are rich <strong>in</strong> Vitam<strong>in</strong> A <strong>and</strong><br />
Vitam<strong>in</strong> B. There is 0.25mg of Vitam<strong>in</strong> B1 <strong>and</strong> 2.3mg of Vitam<strong>in</strong> B2 <strong>in</strong> each 100 g of<br />
earthworms. Vitam<strong>in</strong> D accounts <strong>for</strong> 0.04%-0.073% of earthworms‟ wet weight. In<br />
view of <strong>the</strong> great effects of El Niño, fish meal from Peru can not meet <strong>the</strong> market<br />
53
dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world. Thus earthworms are <strong>the</strong> best substitute with <strong>the</strong> functions of<br />
supplements, anti-diseases <strong>and</strong> allurement. Earthworms are used as additive to<br />
produce pellet feeds <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> USA, Canada <strong>and</strong> Japan, which account <strong>for</strong> 50% of <strong>the</strong><br />
pellet feed market. However, when earthworms are used as feeds, one must note that<br />
earthworms degrade quickly <strong>and</strong> should be processed with<strong>in</strong> several hours by hot<br />
w<strong>in</strong>d or freeze dry<strong>in</strong>g. In general earthworms conta<strong>in</strong> more pollutants than fish meal<br />
because it is hard to clean residues from <strong>the</strong> epidermis <strong>and</strong> seta of earthworms. Some<br />
people realize that it is better to feed earthworms <strong>in</strong> wet. For fowls, <strong>the</strong> earthworm<br />
amount could reach 50% <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> swamp eel 100% (Kangm<strong>in</strong>, 2005).<br />
6.2. Worm meal<br />
Worm meal or verm<strong>in</strong>-meal is an excellent source of prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> nutrients.<br />
Earthworms typically conta<strong>in</strong> over 80% moisture <strong>and</strong> can be fed directly to animals.<br />
To preserve <strong>the</strong> worms <strong>and</strong> process <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong>to to a more convenient food <strong>the</strong>y can be<br />
dried <strong>and</strong> ground up <strong>in</strong>to worm meal.<br />
In addition to <strong>the</strong> prote<strong>in</strong>, worms are a valuable source of essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids <strong>and</strong><br />
vitam<strong>in</strong>s. The fats <strong>in</strong> worms are highly unsaturated <strong>and</strong> no additional antioxidants<br />
need to be added to <strong>the</strong> worm meal to preserve it.<br />
Worm meal may replace fish meal <strong>and</strong> meat <strong>and</strong> bone meal. Broilers fed with<br />
earthworm meal consumed 13% less feed <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> same weight ga<strong>in</strong> than those fed<br />
with ord<strong>in</strong>ary broiler diet, but given live <strong>in</strong> earthworms matured 15 days earlier than<br />
<strong>the</strong> control group without earthworms (Hertrampf <strong>and</strong> Piedad-Pascual, 2000).<br />
Earthworms are <strong>the</strong> best bait <strong>for</strong> anglers. Pay attention to <strong>the</strong> palatability of various<br />
species of earthworms. It is said that Eisenia foetida can produce a substance fish do<br />
not like. In Australia <strong>the</strong>y culture 3-4 species of earthworms: red wiggler Lumbricus<br />
rubellus, Indian blue Perionyx excavatus, African earthworm Eudrilus eugeniae, <strong>and</strong><br />
Eisenia foetida. Table (6.1) shows <strong>the</strong> different composition of several earth worms.<br />
Different fish prefer different species of earthworms as bait, <strong>the</strong> palatability of<br />
earthworms is out of question. Table (6.2) shows <strong>the</strong> richness of verm<strong>in</strong> meal with<br />
essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids, while Table (6.3) demonstrate <strong>the</strong> macro <strong>and</strong> trace m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus eugeniae).<br />
The prote<strong>in</strong> content of earthworms is complete, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 8-9 essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids<br />
<strong>for</strong> human be<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 9-10% tasty glutamic acid. Compared with o<strong>the</strong>r meat,<br />
<strong>the</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> of earthworms is higher than meat <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> lipid, 2% lower than meat.<br />
From <strong>the</strong> view po<strong>in</strong>t of health, earthworms might be one of ideal food with high<br />
prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> low lipid <strong>for</strong> human be<strong>in</strong>gs. In sou<strong>the</strong>rn Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Taiwan people used to<br />
eat earthworms. There are many dishes of earthworms: m<strong>in</strong>ce meat of earthworm as<br />
stuff<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> dumpl<strong>in</strong>gs to <strong>in</strong>crease delicacy <strong>and</strong> prevent it from go<strong>in</strong>g bad. It is said<br />
that spiced sauce from ROK has a big market <strong>in</strong> SEA. For human consumption a<br />
worm farm should use beer spent gra<strong>in</strong>s or mushroom spent substrate to feed<br />
earthworms. The Edible Fungi Scientific Center <strong>in</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>gyuan as well as Shanghai<br />
Academy of Agriculture has developed artificial logs which do not require pure<br />
hardwood chips. Each year Q<strong>in</strong>gyuan produces some 50,000 tons of used logs. This<br />
substrate of shiitake Lent<strong>in</strong>us edodes could also generate as much as 5,000 tons of<br />
54
earthworms <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> turn can be processed to quality human food. It is said that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are 200 k<strong>in</strong>ds of food from earthworms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> U.S.A (Kangm<strong>in</strong>, 2005). Earthworms<br />
are <strong>the</strong> future of seafood. Not yet, but <strong>the</strong>y will be (Sh<strong>in</strong>er , 2009).<br />
Table 6.1. Chemical composition % of various worm meal (<strong>in</strong> dry matters)<br />
Eisenia Lumbricus<br />
foetida terrestils<br />
Moisture<br />
83.3 81.1<br />
Crude prot<strong>in</strong>e 57.4 56.1<br />
Crude fat 13.2 2.1<br />
Ash<br />
10.8 28.7<br />
Crude fiber 0.7 -<br />
N-free extract 18.2 13.1<br />
Source: Hertrampf <strong>and</strong> Piedad-Pascua l(2000).<br />
55<br />
Allolobophora<br />
longa<br />
78.3<br />
50.4<br />
1.4<br />
35.2<br />
-<br />
12.9<br />
Table 6.2. Essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid profile of vermi meals (g/16 gN)<br />
Eisenia Lumbricus<br />
foetida terrestils<br />
Arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e<br />
3.67 3.17<br />
Histid<strong>in</strong>e<br />
1.39 1.38<br />
Isoleuc<strong>in</strong>e 2.85 2.20<br />
Leuc<strong>in</strong>e<br />
4.90 4.11<br />
Lys<strong>in</strong>e<br />
4.16 3.52<br />
Methion<strong>in</strong>e 0.83 1.11<br />
Phenylalan<strong>in</strong>e 2.65 2.02<br />
Theron<strong>in</strong>e 3.07 2.48<br />
Tryptophan 0.67 0.44<br />
Val<strong>in</strong>e<br />
3.11 2.30<br />
Source: Hertrampf <strong>and</strong> Piedad-Pascua l( 2000).<br />
Allolobophora<br />
longa<br />
3.15<br />
1.01<br />
2.24<br />
3.57<br />
3.43<br />
0.5<br />
2.65<br />
2.11<br />
-<br />
2.46<br />
Neries sp. Eudrilus<br />
eugeniae<br />
-<br />
85.3<br />
47.0 56.4<br />
25.2 7.9<br />
6.6 13.1<br />
-0.6 5.9<br />
20.6 17.8<br />
Eudrilus<br />
eugeniae<br />
4.95<br />
1.58<br />
2.82<br />
5.22<br />
4.50<br />
1.04<br />
2.47<br />
3.22<br />
0.63<br />
3.39<br />
Table 6.3. Macro <strong>and</strong> trace m<strong>in</strong>eral contents of freeze dried vermi meal (Eudrilus<br />
eugeniae)<br />
Calcium<br />
Phosphorus<br />
Sodium<br />
Iron<br />
Z<strong>in</strong>c<br />
Copper<br />
Cadmium<br />
%<br />
%<br />
%<br />
mg/kg<br />
mg/kg<br />
mg/kg<br />
mg/kg<br />
Source: Hertrampf <strong>and</strong> Piedad-Pascual (2000).<br />
1.5<br />
0.9<br />
0.2<br />
100.0<br />
122.5<br />
7.8<br />
21.0<br />
The key to <strong>the</strong> multi-pronged success of earthworms as aquaculture fodder is <strong>the</strong>ir diet<br />
of organic wastes. L<strong>and</strong>-based pollution, such as fester<strong>in</strong>g animal manure, is an<br />
enormous problem <strong>for</strong> coastal fisheries impacted by runoff. Brita<strong>in</strong> alone produces 84<br />
megatons of cow manure, 9 megatons of pig waste <strong>and</strong> 5 megatons of chicken waste<br />
each year, much of which flows to <strong>the</strong> coast as runoff. This pollution is a significant<br />
contributor to <strong>the</strong> decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g productivity of wild fish stocks, as fish struggle to cope<br />
with <strong>the</strong>ir heavily contam<strong>in</strong>ated environment. Earthworms solve this problem by<br />
convert<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>and</strong> animal wastes <strong>in</strong>to high-prote<strong>in</strong> aquaculture feed. Earthworms<br />
convert cow manure <strong>in</strong>to dry matter at a remarkable 10 percent clip, such that<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong>‟s 84 megatons of cow manure could produce 8.4 megatons of dehydrated
earthworms, deliver<strong>in</strong>g a prote<strong>in</strong> punch of 5.9 million tons. The recipe is<br />
uncomplicated: f<strong>in</strong>d crap, add worms, wait, <strong>the</strong>n harvest, dry <strong>and</strong> gr<strong>in</strong>d.<br />
The rock-solid implications of earthworms <strong>for</strong> aquaculture have already been verified.<br />
Two species of worms were fed to a group of trout, a classic <strong>in</strong>tensive aquaculture<br />
species, while ano<strong>the</strong>r group was fed commercial trout pellets made from fishmeal.<br />
The results were splendid: <strong>the</strong> earthworm-fed fish grew as well or better than <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
fishmeal-fed counterparts. Ano<strong>the</strong>r study <strong>in</strong>dicated <strong>the</strong> effectiveness of earthworm<br />
feed on tilapia aquaculture, f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g that tilapia actually grew better with earthworm<br />
supplements than with fishmeal.<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g earthworms as fish feed presents a truly novel method <strong>for</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> impact<br />
of aquaculture on mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems. The benefits are threefold. Earthworms eat<br />
pollut<strong>in</strong>g manure, improv<strong>in</strong>g water quality of coastal fisheries <strong>and</strong> aid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> recovery<br />
from over-fish<strong>in</strong>g. Elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g fishmeal from aquaculture diets will also significantly<br />
reduce overall stress on wild fisheries as well as allow <strong>for</strong> production cost control<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependent of <strong>the</strong> price of wild fish. Thirdly, <strong>and</strong> not <strong>in</strong>significantly, earthworms can<br />
be used <strong>in</strong> place of fishmeal to feed l<strong>and</strong> animals such as cows, pigs <strong>and</strong> chickens. At<br />
present, l<strong>and</strong> animal consumption accounts <strong>for</strong> a great deal of fishmeal <strong>in</strong>take, <strong>and</strong><br />
transition<strong>in</strong>g livestock to an earthworm diet will take huge pressure off wild fisheries.<br />
Earthworms are a triple-w<strong>in</strong> solution to <strong>in</strong>tensive aquacultures‟ appetite <strong>for</strong> fishmeal.<br />
The worms are by no means a silver bullet as <strong>the</strong>y cannot solve all of aquaculture‟s<br />
problems immediately. Pollution from <strong>in</strong>tensive crustacean aquaculture will rema<strong>in</strong> a<br />
serious threat to coastal habitats until <strong>the</strong> lagoons are ei<strong>the</strong>r moved <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> or farmed<br />
less <strong>in</strong>tensively. This is to say noth<strong>in</strong>g of mollusk aquaculture, a genu<strong>in</strong>e champion of<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able prote<strong>in</strong> production.<br />
Earthworms, with an important high prote<strong>in</strong> component, are used to feed chickens,<br />
pigs, rabbits, <strong>and</strong> as a dietary supplement <strong>for</strong> ornamental fish or o<strong>the</strong>r fish species<br />
difficult to raise <strong>and</strong> Some authors claim that <strong>in</strong> breed<strong>in</strong>g of aquarium fish it is<br />
essential to use a variety of food.<br />
Vermicompost produced <strong>in</strong> ecological boxes can be used <strong>for</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
created biomass can be a highly nutritious food <strong>for</strong> animals, because it consists of 58–<br />
71% prote<strong>in</strong>, 2.3–9.0% fat depend<strong>in</strong>g on earthworm species <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> way earthworms<br />
are fed with organic waste.<br />
6.3. Earthworms, <strong>the</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able aquaculture feed of <strong>the</strong> future<br />
Aquaculture is a boom<strong>in</strong>g global <strong>in</strong>dustry: from 2002 to 2006, world aquaculture<br />
production <strong>in</strong>creased from 40.4 million metric tons to 51.7 million metric tons. Over a<br />
three-decade span from 1975 to 2005, aquaculture production grew tenfold. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this same span of time, however, wild capture fell from 93.2 to 92.0 million metric<br />
tons. The <strong>in</strong>herent exhaustibility of <strong>the</strong> oceans necessitates that economically efficient<br />
<strong>and</strong> environmentally responsible aquaculture fill <strong>the</strong> gap between supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>for</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish <strong>and</strong> shellfish worldwide.<br />
56
Genetic contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> pollution, both chemical <strong>and</strong> biological, are serious<br />
blemishes on <strong>the</strong> face of responsible aquaculture; however, <strong>the</strong> solution is simple.<br />
Float<strong>in</strong>g or l<strong>and</strong>-based solid-wall tanks, such as those already <strong>in</strong> use <strong>in</strong> British<br />
Columbia, elim<strong>in</strong>ate escapes altoge<strong>the</strong>r. Wastes <strong>and</strong> uneaten feed, all collected with<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> tank, are pumped through a filter, elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir respective eutrophy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
pollut<strong>in</strong>g effects. The real problem with status quo aquaculture isn‟t genetic<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ation or pollution, but ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>efficiency <strong>and</strong> un-susta<strong>in</strong>ability of<br />
fishmeal as used <strong>for</strong> fish feed.<br />
Carnivorous f<strong>in</strong>fish aquaculture, <strong>the</strong> type employed <strong>in</strong> salmon <strong>and</strong> tuna farm<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
typically depends on fishmeal, an oily paste made from ground fishes such as<br />
mackerel <strong>and</strong> sard<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>for</strong> feed. Each pound of farmed fish <strong>for</strong> human consumption<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s many pounds of fishmeal throughout <strong>the</strong> farm<strong>in</strong>g process, present<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
serious barrier to <strong>the</strong> expansion of responsible aquaculture. Tilapia, a onetime d<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
hall staple, is only 25 percent calorie efficient, mean<strong>in</strong>g that it takes four tons of<br />
fishmeal to grow only one ton of tilapia. Sard<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> mackerel serve as important<br />
sources of prote<strong>in</strong> worldwide <strong>and</strong> as <strong>the</strong> diet of larger, commercially valuable stocks.<br />
New sources of feed must be developed <strong>in</strong> order to facilitate <strong>in</strong>dustrial expansion <strong>and</strong><br />
ease aquaculture‟s stra<strong>in</strong> on <strong>the</strong> world‟s over-fished oceans.<br />
Organic manures if not decomposed completely be<strong>for</strong>e application <strong>in</strong> aquaculture<br />
pond may deteriorate <strong>the</strong> water quality as <strong>the</strong>y utilize oxygen dur<strong>in</strong>g decomposition.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e, <strong>the</strong> amount of any organic manure to be added <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pond ma<strong>in</strong>ly depends<br />
upon its biological oxygen dem<strong>and</strong> (BOD), as <strong>the</strong>ir excessive use may cause severe<br />
dissolved oxygen depletion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> pond <strong>and</strong> results <strong>in</strong> production of toxic gases like<br />
CO2, H2S, NH3, etc., <strong>and</strong> can spread parasitic diseases.<br />
A study suggests higher potential of utiliz<strong>in</strong>g vermicompost as compared to cow dung<br />
<strong>and</strong> hence can be used more effectively <strong>for</strong> manur<strong>in</strong>g semi-<strong>in</strong>tensive carp culture<br />
ponds without affect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> hydro biological parameters. In develop<strong>in</strong>g country like<br />
India, agriculture <strong>and</strong> livestock work <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration, where livestock waste (ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
cow dung) is <strong>the</strong> most commonly used organic manure <strong>in</strong> agriculture <strong>and</strong> aquaculture.<br />
Hence, <strong>the</strong> small scale on farm <strong>in</strong>tegration of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g of livestock <strong>and</strong><br />
agriculture waste with <strong>the</strong> rural aquaculture (extensive/semi-<strong>in</strong>tensive) holds ample<br />
scope <strong>for</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g economically <strong>and</strong> ecologically susta<strong>in</strong>able farm<strong>in</strong>g system <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> socio-economic upliftment of rural population <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries (Kaur <strong>and</strong><br />
Ansal, 2010).<br />
The research on Carassius auratus, showed that a 10% supplement of E. fetida<br />
earthworms <strong>in</strong> food, given to those fish, caused a doubl<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong>ir biomass. The<br />
research on P. reticulata, fed on earthworms only, also showed benefits. Compared to<br />
<strong>the</strong> group fed with Bio-vit, <strong>the</strong> fish were characterized by a larger number of broods<br />
<strong>and</strong> larger numbers of surviv<strong>in</strong>g fry. From this research it can be seen that E. fetida is<br />
a highly nutritious food that is eagerly eaten by all age groups of <strong>the</strong> exam<strong>in</strong>ed species<br />
of fish. For <strong>the</strong> advocates of <strong>the</strong> ecological box, it means ano<strong>the</strong>r possible use of one<br />
of its products. That is because <strong>in</strong> addition to us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> vermicompost, it gives ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
possibility of feed<strong>in</strong>g selected aquarium fish with <strong>the</strong> produced biomass of<br />
earthworms. The results of <strong>the</strong> research not only <strong>in</strong>dicate <strong>the</strong> possibility of reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
57
<strong>the</strong> cost of fish-keep<strong>in</strong>g, but also better results of that culture (Kostecka <strong>and</strong> Paczka,<br />
2006).<br />
Three meals were <strong>for</strong>mulated from <strong>the</strong> earthworm (Endrilus eug<strong>in</strong>eae) <strong>and</strong> maggot<br />
(Musca domestica) <strong>and</strong> fish (Engraulis encrosicolus). These meals were evaluated as<br />
a potential replacement <strong>for</strong> fishmeal. This is because fishmeal could be very<br />
expensive at times. The three meals were used <strong>in</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> catfish (Heterobranchus<br />
isopterus) <strong>for</strong> 30 days. On <strong>the</strong> basis of weight <strong>in</strong>crement, <strong>the</strong> best growth per<strong>for</strong>mance<br />
was produced by maggot meal. It was followed by earthworm <strong>and</strong> fish meals,<br />
respectively. Based on food conversion ratio maggot meal was aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> best,<br />
followed by earthworm <strong>and</strong> fish meals respectively. The importance of supplementary<br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g was evidenced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher weight <strong>in</strong>crement <strong>in</strong> fish that were fed than those<br />
that were not fed. Maggot <strong>and</strong> earthworm meals could <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e be a whole or partial<br />
replacement <strong>for</strong> fishmeal. The difficulty <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> harvest<strong>in</strong>g or rear<strong>in</strong>g maggots <strong>and</strong><br />
earthworms may however reduce this potential (Yaqub, 1991).<br />
The use of vermicompost <strong>in</strong> pisci-culture is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g its <strong>in</strong>creased recognition <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
conservation of energy <strong>and</strong> optimum but economical utilization of available resources<br />
with simultaneous pollution control. Vermicompost is hazard free organic manure,<br />
which improves quality of pond base <strong>and</strong> overly<strong>in</strong>g water as well as provides<br />
organically produced aqua crops. The additions of manures affect <strong>the</strong> relative<br />
abundance of <strong>the</strong> plankton <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir community structure <strong>in</strong> aquatic system. Proper<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ations of <strong>in</strong>organic nutrients (NPK) are <strong>the</strong> major factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong><br />
growth <strong>and</strong> production of plankton <strong>in</strong> a pond. Vermicompost conta<strong>in</strong>s all <strong>the</strong> major<br />
organic nutrient components of N, P <strong>and</strong> K along with some necessary micronutrients<br />
<strong>for</strong> plankton growth (Table 6.4).<br />
In aquaculture <strong>in</strong>dustry, capital <strong>in</strong>vestment apart, <strong>the</strong>re are also operat<strong>in</strong>g expenses,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>for</strong> seed, fertilizer, feed <strong>and</strong> labors. Among those, <strong>the</strong> cost of feed <strong>and</strong><br />
fertilizer constitute about 70% of <strong>the</strong> total expenses. For this reason <strong>the</strong>re is need <strong>for</strong><br />
search<strong>in</strong>g out chapter sources <strong>for</strong> feed <strong>and</strong> fertilizer. So, this is particularly significant<br />
<strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g nations, where fish farmers are unable to buy costly fish feed <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical fertilizer vermicompost <strong>for</strong>ms an abundant alternative natural resource <strong>for</strong><br />
less expensive manure <strong>and</strong> fish feed <strong>for</strong> higher fish yield. However, <strong>the</strong> amount of<br />
available nitrogen <strong>and</strong> phosphorus from vermicompost is less when compared with<br />
conventional fertilizers <strong>and</strong> research should be oriented to <strong>in</strong>crease its nitrogen <strong>and</strong><br />
phosphorus concentration through alteration of substrate composition.<br />
Table 6.4. Different nutrient concentration <strong>in</strong> manure <strong>and</strong> fertilizer applied (average<br />
value of triplicate sample analyzed)<br />
Parameters<br />
Available N<br />
(mg·g -1 )<br />
Available P<br />
(mg·g -1 )<br />
Available K<br />
(mg·g -1 )<br />
Dry weight of fertilizer<br />
<strong>and</strong> manure used (g)<br />
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18 ± 0.07 46 ± 0.05 Nil 3.04<br />
Vermicompost 1.5 ± 0.05 1.4 ± 0.08 1.0 ± 0.05 99.0<br />
Compost<br />
Souce: Chakrabarty et al, (2009).<br />
1.0 ± 0.08 0.55 ± 0.09 1.0 ± 0.05 252.0<br />
Sample of soil, compost, vermicompost <strong>and</strong> DAP were analyzed <strong>for</strong> available P, N<br />
content as well as <strong>for</strong> organic carbon. The dry weights of <strong>the</strong> fertilizer <strong>and</strong> manure<br />
58
were ranged from 3.04 to 252.0 g <strong>in</strong> different treatments (50 kg P2O5 content basis)<br />
(Table 6.5).<br />
Table 6.5. Average values* (±SD) of physio-chemical parameters of water, primary<br />
productivity of phytoplankton <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al body weights <strong>and</strong> fish production of<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>us carpio <strong>in</strong> various treatments.<br />
Parameters Control (T-1) Compost<br />
(T-2)<br />
59<br />
Diammonium<br />
phosphate<br />
(T-3)<br />
Vermicompost<br />
(T-4)<br />
Temperature (˚C) 30.0 ± 4.3 30.0 ± 5.1 30.0 ± 4.9 30.00 ± 5.5<br />
pH 7.06 ± 0.4 7.26 ± 0.6 7.14 ± 0.1 7.43 ± 0.6<br />
Dissolved oxygen (mg l -1 ) 6.01 ± 0.9 6.21 ± 1.1 7.74 ± 1.0 7.02 ± 1.2<br />
Ortho phosphate (mg l -1 ) 0.09 ± 0.09 0.19 ± 0.06 0.52 ± 0.10 0.30 ± 0.14<br />
Organic phosphate (mg l -1 ) 0.08 ± 0.19 0.27 ± 0.15 0.20 ± 0.14 0.35 ± 0.21<br />
Total phosphate (mg l -1 ) 0.10 ± 0.10 0.66 ± 0.16 0.88 ± 0.25 0.68 ± 0.21<br />
NO3–N (mg l -1 ) 0.06 ± 0.08 0.12 ± 0.06 0.28 ± 0.03 0.16 ± 0.04<br />
Total <strong>in</strong>organic N (mg l -1 ) 0.06 ± 0.005 0.40 ± 0.02 0.80 ± 0.04 0.62 ± 0.03<br />
Total <strong>in</strong>organic nitrogen (N)/total 1.6 0.61 0.90 0.91<br />
phosphate (P)<br />
Community respiration (mg C m -2 h -<br />
1<br />
)<br />
20.13 ±±9.3 28.13 ± 12.5 35.79 ± 18.2 38.58 ± 13.1<br />
F<strong>in</strong>al mean body weight (g) 18.24 ± 2.3 22.25 ± 3.6 39.50 ± 4.3 45.77 ± 3.9<br />
Fertilizer/manure added (g) 0 252 3.04 99<br />
Stock<strong>in</strong>g density 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00<br />
Initial average <strong>in</strong>dividual length 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02 1.40 ± 0.02<br />
(cm)<br />
Initial average <strong>in</strong>dividual weight (g) 2.40 ± 0.01 2.40 ± 0.03 2.40 ± 0.04 2.40 ± 0.02<br />
F<strong>in</strong>al average <strong>in</strong>dividual length (cm) 4.20 ± 0.03 6.80 ± 0.06 7.60 ± 0.04 8.80 ± 0.07<br />
F<strong>in</strong>al average <strong>in</strong>dividual weight (g) 3.76 ± 0.01 8.29 ± 0.05 12.92 ± 0.03 16.76 ± 0.07<br />
Growth <strong>in</strong>crement (g fish -1 day -1 ) 0.0151 0.0654 0.1169 0.1595<br />
Production of fish (kg ha -1 90 day-1) 385.92 1,952.64 3080.45 3,970.56<br />
Total weight ga<strong>in</strong> (TWG) (g fish -1 ) 0.57 2.45 4.38 5.98<br />
Survival (%) 85 88 87 90<br />
*Each average value applies to 90 days samples.<br />
Source: Chakrabarty et al. (2009).<br />
Where:<br />
Absolute growth (AG) = f<strong>in</strong>al body weight - <strong>in</strong>itial body weight<br />
Growth <strong>in</strong>crement (GI) = f<strong>in</strong>al body weight - <strong>in</strong>itial body weight /<br />
number of culture days after fish <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
Total weight ga<strong>in</strong> (TWG) = f<strong>in</strong>al body weight - <strong>in</strong>itial body weight /<br />
<strong>in</strong>itial body weight<br />
The dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> organically cultured food <strong>for</strong> human consumption is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g across<br />
<strong>the</strong> globe <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> this reason organic aquaculture is <strong>the</strong> need of <strong>the</strong> present time. Wide<br />
variety of organic manures such as grass, leaves, sewage water, livestock manure,<br />
domestic wastes, night soil <strong>and</strong> dried blood meal have been used.<br />
6.4. Possibilities of worms as animal feed <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>:<br />
For a long time, extensive fish farm<strong>in</strong>g was <strong>the</strong> type practiced <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, where only<br />
chemical <strong>and</strong>/or organic fertilizers were applied <strong>for</strong> promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> natural productivity<br />
of ponds. Agricultural by-products such as wheat bran <strong>and</strong> rice bran were used <strong>for</strong><br />
supplementation <strong>in</strong> some farms. As <strong>the</strong> technology of fish farm<strong>in</strong>g has developed,
aquaculture started to exert some significant dem<strong>and</strong> on fish feed. In 2001, <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
twelve feed mills that produced about 68 500 tons of specialized feeds. Most of feeds<br />
are produced <strong>for</strong> self-sufficiency to support <strong>the</strong> needs of Governmental fish farms, but<br />
some quantities are available <strong>for</strong> sale to private sector. Because of <strong>the</strong> cost, such mills<br />
produce fish feeds of 18-32% prote<strong>in</strong> of s<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g type pellets, however, higher prote<strong>in</strong><br />
float<strong>in</strong>g feeds could be produced upon request. High quality fish meal provide <strong>the</strong><br />
major component <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> commercial fish feeds <strong>and</strong> may constitute up to 60% of <strong>the</strong><br />
total diet <strong>for</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e species, with higher levels be<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>in</strong> starter <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>gerl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
rations. Generally, a good range of raw materials is available <strong>for</strong> fish manufacture <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>. However, price <strong>and</strong> competition from <strong>the</strong> human food <strong>and</strong> animal feed<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustries limits <strong>the</strong> choice. High quality feed materials are <strong>in</strong> short supply <strong>and</strong> are<br />
expensive. Apart from fish meal (imported <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous), <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> available<br />
prote<strong>in</strong> sources are: soybean meal (hexane-extracted), cottonseed meal (expeller),<br />
meat meal, poultry offal meal <strong>and</strong> fea<strong>the</strong>r meal. O<strong>the</strong>r possibilities <strong>for</strong> new feed<br />
materials may be <strong>the</strong> wide spread mar<strong>in</strong>e macroalgae or fresh water weed hyac<strong>in</strong>th.<br />
On local basis, <strong>the</strong>re is a scope <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong>to fish feeds particularly <strong>for</strong><br />
tilapia <strong>and</strong> mullets. Tables 6.6 <strong>and</strong> 6.7 show <strong>the</strong> proximate composition of <strong>the</strong> tested<br />
feed <strong>in</strong>gredients, namely: acid fish silage (AFS), fermented fish silage (FFS), soybean<br />
meal (SBM), a mixture of FFS <strong>and</strong> SBM (MIX), green macroalga Ulva meal (UM)<br />
<strong>and</strong> red macro-algae Pterocladia meal (PM) compared to fish meal (FM) from<br />
different sources <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir am<strong>in</strong>o acid profiles, respectively.<br />
Table 6.6. Composition (%dry matter) of tested prote<strong>in</strong>s sources or supplements <strong>for</strong><br />
fish feeds<br />
Ingredient Prote<strong>in</strong> Lipid Ash Moisture NFE Fiber DE<br />
AFS1 72.90 13.12 12.76 73.28 1.22 - 164<br />
AFS2 73.40 17.10 8.30 - 1.20 - 178<br />
AFS3 63.00 22.10 9.68 75.00 - - 177<br />
FFS 56.67 12.7 20.04 0.98 - - 135<br />
SBMG 44.80 20.60 5.40 5.50 29.20 - 161<br />
SBMB 44.00 1.80 8.00 8.94 37.26 - 103<br />
SBMD 44.00 4.00 6.53 11.00 38.17 7.30 110<br />
UM 17.44 2.5 32.85 3.69 41.47 5.47 64<br />
PM 22.61 2.18 37.3 3.05 28.29 9.62 35<br />
FM1 72.05 10.94 7.00 5.00 8.98 1.02 160<br />
FMD 61.00 8.95 20.72 6.20 9.73 - 136<br />
FMD 61.00 5.00 16.60 5.00 16.70 0.70 127<br />
Source: Wassef (2005).<br />
NFE: Nitrogen free extract, by difference; DE: Digestible energy (MJ/Kg); AFS: acid fish silage;<br />
FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal (G: germ<strong>in</strong>ated; B: boilled fullfat; D:<br />
defatted); MIX: mixture of FFS <strong>and</strong> SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal (D:<br />
domestic product; I: imported Manhaden).<br />
60
Table 6.7. Am<strong>in</strong>o acid (g/100g prote<strong>in</strong>) profiles of tested prote<strong>in</strong> sources or<br />
supplement as compared to fish meal (FM)<br />
Am<strong>in</strong>o acid (AA) AFS FFS SBM MIX UM PM FM<br />
Indispensable (IAA)<br />
Arg<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>e (ARG)<br />
Histid<strong>in</strong>e (HIS)<br />
Isoleuc<strong>in</strong>e (ILE)<br />
Leuc<strong>in</strong>e (LEU)<br />
Lys<strong>in</strong>e (LYS)<br />
Methion<strong>in</strong>e (MET)<br />
Phenyl-alan<strong>in</strong>e (PHE)<br />
Threon<strong>in</strong>e (THR)<br />
Val<strong>in</strong>e (VAL)<br />
Tryptophan (TRP)<br />
Total IAA<br />
Dispensable (DAA)<br />
Aspartic Acid (ASP)<br />
Ser<strong>in</strong>e (SER)<br />
Glutamic Acid<br />
(GLU)<br />
Glyc<strong>in</strong>e (GLY)<br />
Alan<strong>in</strong>e (ALA)<br />
Tyros<strong>in</strong>e (TYR)<br />
Prol<strong>in</strong>e (PRO)<br />
Cyste<strong>in</strong>e (CYS)<br />
Total (DAA)<br />
Total am<strong>in</strong>o acids<br />
03.62<br />
02.36<br />
02.66<br />
04.43<br />
05.27<br />
01.81<br />
02.36<br />
02.60<br />
03.01<br />
00.63<br />
28.75<br />
05.97<br />
02.62<br />
08.81<br />
03.50<br />
03.74<br />
02.04<br />
02.60<br />
00.73<br />
30.01<br />
58.76<br />
02.86<br />
01.33<br />
01.87<br />
03.73<br />
03.95<br />
01.35<br />
02.30<br />
01.41<br />
02.41<br />
00.36<br />
21.57<br />
61<br />
05.59<br />
04.30<br />
03.64<br />
06.09<br />
04.49<br />
01.25<br />
04.30<br />
02.97<br />
03.86<br />
36.94<br />
15.20<br />
04.15<br />
13.03<br />
03.14<br />
03.54<br />
04.03<br />
04.46<br />
01.13<br />
48.68<br />
85.62<br />
06.20<br />
02.48<br />
03.27<br />
00.51<br />
05.44<br />
02.22<br />
03.06<br />
03.74<br />
03.94<br />
00.72<br />
31.58<br />
05.85<br />
02.80<br />
03.47<br />
05.21<br />
05.62<br />
04.40<br />
04.45<br />
03.94<br />
07.46<br />
43.20<br />
11.54<br />
04.48<br />
09.35<br />
05.53<br />
07.19<br />
03.31<br />
05.15<br />
01.27<br />
47.82<br />
91.02<br />
04.46<br />
02.70<br />
04.53<br />
05.92<br />
06.90<br />
03.26<br />
04.78<br />
04.23<br />
06.69<br />
43.47<br />
10.59<br />
04.08<br />
10.22<br />
07.49<br />
07.23<br />
03.65<br />
04.64<br />
01.51<br />
49.41<br />
92.88<br />
05.88<br />
02.48<br />
04.41<br />
05.71<br />
04.42<br />
02.50<br />
03.87<br />
03.76<br />
04.75<br />
00.80<br />
38.58<br />
02.04<br />
00.66<br />
03.30<br />
04.13<br />
01.47<br />
01.47<br />
00.97<br />
12.57<br />
51.15<br />
Source: Wassef (2005).<br />
AFS: acid fish silage; FFS: fermented fish silage; SBM: boiled full fat soy meal; MIX: mixture of FFS<br />
<strong>and</strong> SBM; UM: Ulva meal; PM: Pterocladia meal; FM: fish meal.<br />
There is still a great opportunity <strong>for</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> to use <strong>the</strong> tremendous amount of organic<br />
wastes to be used as meal not only <strong>for</strong> poultry, rabbits, ducks, <strong>and</strong> geese, but also <strong>for</strong><br />
aquaculture <strong>and</strong> large animals. The only miss<strong>in</strong>g part is to create awareness <strong>and</strong> to<br />
develop capacity build<strong>in</strong>g programs <strong>in</strong> a well established demonstrated sites<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g different geographic regions of <strong>the</strong> country.
7. Current on-farm <strong>and</strong> urban organic waste management practices<br />
<strong>and</strong> environmental effects of those practices, e.g. carbon <strong>and</strong> methane<br />
emissions.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> beneficiaries of this work are <strong>the</strong> agriculture producers <strong>in</strong> general <strong>and</strong><br />
organic farm<strong>in</strong>g producers specifically. Previous chapters covered all aspects of<br />
production of vermicompost <strong>and</strong> vermiculture. As an organic grower <strong>in</strong>terest, <strong>the</strong><br />
environmental positive impacts of utiliz<strong>in</strong>g such methods of production, it is<br />
important to underst<strong>and</strong> how vermicompost contribute to improve reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
production of greenhouse gases, <strong>and</strong> consequently help mitigat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> global<br />
warm<strong>in</strong>g. This chapter aims at highlight<strong>in</strong>g on-farm <strong>and</strong> urban organic waste<br />
management practices <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> environmental effects of those practices.<br />
7.1. Emissions from vermicompost<br />
Compost<strong>in</strong>g has been identified as an important source of CH4 <strong>and</strong> N2O. With<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g divergence of biodegradable waste from l<strong>and</strong>fill <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sector, it is important to quantify emissions of CH4 <strong>and</strong> N2O from all <strong>for</strong>ms of<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> from all stages. The study focused on <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al phase of a two stage<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>and</strong> compared <strong>the</strong> generation <strong>and</strong> emission of CH4 <strong>and</strong> N2O<br />
associated with two differ<strong>in</strong>g compost<strong>in</strong>g methods: mechanically turned w<strong>in</strong>drow <strong>and</strong><br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g. The mechanically turned w<strong>in</strong>drow system was characterized by<br />
emissions of CH4 <strong>and</strong> to a much lesser extent N2O. However, <strong>the</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
system emitted significant fluxes of N2O <strong>and</strong> only traces amounts of CH4. High N2O<br />
emission rates from vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g were ascribed to strongly nitrify<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> process<strong>in</strong>g beds comb<strong>in</strong>ed with <strong>the</strong> presence of de-nitrify<strong>in</strong>g bacteria with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
worm gut (Hobson et al., 2005).<br />
Different o<strong>the</strong>r reports from several countries stated that any possible emissions of<br />
greenhouse gases by earthworms from soil or vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g systems is extremely<br />
small when compared with <strong>the</strong> well-documented emissions of nitrous oxide, methane<br />
<strong>and</strong> carbon dioxide from <strong>in</strong>organic fertilizer manufacture, l<strong>and</strong>fills, manure heaps,<br />
lagoons, crop residues <strong>in</strong> soils <strong>and</strong> manure from pigs <strong>and</strong> cattle <strong>in</strong> housed systems.<br />
While <strong>the</strong>re will be N2O emissions from all <strong>the</strong>se sources, <strong>the</strong>re is no justification <strong>for</strong><br />
suggest<strong>in</strong>g that environmentally-friendly <strong>and</strong> energy-efficient systems <strong>for</strong> produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vermicomposts <strong>and</strong> composts should be restricted because of <strong>the</strong>ir potential to<br />
produce greenhouse gases. The global production of nitrogenous greenhouse gases <strong>in</strong><br />
agriculture should be compared from all sources be<strong>for</strong>e vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g is publicly<br />
condemned <strong>in</strong> such a sensational way (Edwards, 2008).<br />
Recent research has shown that certa<strong>in</strong> types of vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g can generate<br />
significant amounts of N2O. These <strong>in</strong>itial f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong>dicate a need <strong>for</strong> more research to<br />
be conducted be<strong>for</strong>e any sound recommendations on vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g can be given.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> amount of emissions from compost<strong>in</strong>g depends on <strong>the</strong> specific compost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
method used <strong>and</strong> on how well <strong>the</strong> process is managed, it is not possible to give a<br />
62
def<strong>in</strong>itive answer to <strong>the</strong> question of how much compost<strong>in</strong>g contributes to climate<br />
change. Most studies on emissions from compost<strong>in</strong>g have been carried out <strong>in</strong><br />
developed countries where conditions differ from <strong>the</strong> target countries of this study.<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, several environmental agencies have concluded that when compost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is done properly, it generates very small amounts of greenhouse gases (IGES, 2008).<br />
Chan et al. (2010) <strong>in</strong>vestigated greenhouse gas emissions from three different home<br />
waste treatment methods <strong>in</strong> Brisbane, Australia. Gas samples were taken monthly<br />
from 34 backyard compost<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>in</strong>s from January to April 2009. Averaged over <strong>the</strong><br />
study period, <strong>the</strong> aerobic compost<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>in</strong>s released lower amounts of CH4 (2.2 mg·m -<br />
2 ·h -1 ) than <strong>the</strong> anaerobic digestion b<strong>in</strong>s (9.5 mg·m -2 ·h -1 ) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>in</strong>s<br />
(4.8 mg . m -2. h -1 ). The vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g b<strong>in</strong>s had lower N2O emission rates (1.2 mg m -2<br />
h -1 ) than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs (1.5–1.6 mg·m -2 ·h -1 ). Total greenhouse gas emissions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
both N2O <strong>and</strong> CH4 were 463, 504 <strong>and</strong> 694 mg CO2e m -2 ·h -1 <strong>for</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
aerobic compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> anaerobic digestion, respectively, with N2O contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
>80% <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> total budget. The greenhouse gas emissions varied substantially with<br />
time <strong>and</strong> were regulated by temperature, moisture content <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> waste properties,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emission through proper<br />
management of <strong>the</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g systems. The results suggest that home compost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
provides an effective <strong>and</strong> feasible supplementary waste management method to a<br />
centralized facility <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>for</strong> cities with lower population density such as <strong>the</strong><br />
Australian cities.<br />
In terms of greenhouse gas emissions dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> maturation process, <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>drow<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g process was characterized by emission of CH4. Emission of greenhouse<br />
gases from vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g was predom<strong>in</strong>antly N2O with comparatively little CH4<br />
emitted, demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g that sufficiently aerobic conditions were ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g beds to <strong>in</strong>hibit CH4 production. The global warm<strong>in</strong>g potential of <strong>the</strong><br />
vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g maturation system was estimated to be approximately 30 times<br />
greater than that <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> w<strong>in</strong>drow compost<strong>in</strong>g system. The emission of greenhouse<br />
gases from <strong>the</strong>se types of compost<strong>in</strong>g systems requires fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>vestigation.<br />
Vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g by worms decreases <strong>the</strong> proportion of 'anaerobic to aerobic<br />
decomposition', result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a significant decrease <strong>in</strong> methane (CH4) <strong>and</strong> volatile<br />
sulfur compounds which are readily emitted from <strong>the</strong> conventional (microbial)<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g process. Vermi-compost<strong>in</strong>g of waste organics us<strong>in</strong>g earthworms <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e<br />
has a dist<strong>in</strong>ct advantage over <strong>the</strong> conventional aerobic compost<strong>in</strong>g as it does not allow<br />
<strong>the</strong> greenhouse gas methane (CH4) to be <strong>for</strong>med. Molecule to molecule, methane is a<br />
20-25 times more powerful greenhouse gas than CO2. Earthworms can play a good<br />
part <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> strategy of greenhouse gas reduction <strong>and</strong> mitigation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> disposal of<br />
global organic wastes as l<strong>and</strong>fills also emit methane result<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> slow anaerobic<br />
decomposition of waste organics over several years. However, recent research done <strong>in</strong><br />
Germany has found that earthworms produce a third of nitrous oxide (N20) gases<br />
when used <strong>for</strong> vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g. Molecule to molecule N:0 is a 296 times more<br />
powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). This needs fur<strong>the</strong>r study (Daven<br />
<strong>and</strong> Kle<strong>in</strong>, 2008).<br />
63
7.2 Total emissions from waste sector <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Total emissions <strong>for</strong> 2000 amounted to about 193 megaton of carbon dioxide<br />
equivalent 1 . With <strong>the</strong> total emissions <strong>for</strong> 1990 amount<strong>in</strong>g to about 117 megaton of<br />
carbon dioxide equivalent., The average greenhouse gases emissions <strong>in</strong>crease is about<br />
5% annually. In this respect, <strong>the</strong> estimated total greenhouse gases emissions <strong>for</strong> 2008<br />
are about 288 megaton of carbon dioxide equivalent. <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s specific greenhouse<br />
gases emissions <strong>for</strong> 2000 amounted to 2.99 megaton of carbon dioxide per capita,<br />
while direct CO2 emissions per capita <strong>in</strong> 2000 amounted to 1.98 ton per capita.<br />
The total greenhouse gas emissions <strong>in</strong> 1990 of carbon dioxide, methane, nittrogen<br />
oxide, Perfluorocarbons, haloflorocarbons, sulpher hexafloride (exclud<strong>in</strong>g emissions<br />
from l<strong>and</strong> use change), <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> world amounted to 29,910 megaton of carbon dioxide..<br />
The total 1990 emissions of <strong>Egypt</strong> amounted to about 117 megaton of carbon dioxide,<br />
based on emissions of dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide (EEAA, 1999). These figures<br />
denote that <strong>the</strong> share of <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> total World emissions <strong>in</strong> 1990 was 0.4%.<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>‟s total emissions are about 193 dioxide, methane, nittrogen oxide, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
emissions of manure management, agriculture soil, <strong>and</strong> field burn<strong>in</strong>g of agricultural<br />
residues, <strong>and</strong> emissions from some sources of sub-categories, such as methane<br />
emissions from aerobic waste water treatment plants, nitrogen oxide emissions from<br />
domestic wastewater <strong>and</strong> emissions from <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>eration, all of which were not <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1990 figures. Moreover, more updated figures <strong>for</strong> activity data were used <strong>for</strong><br />
solid waste generation <strong>and</strong> wastewater generation <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000. Based on this <strong>and</strong><br />
tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>the</strong> world total emissions <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000, amount<strong>in</strong>g to 33,017<br />
megaton of carbon dioxide equivalen, <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s share <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> total world emissions <strong>for</strong><br />
2000 was 0.58% (EEAA, 2010).<br />
1 Each of <strong>the</strong> greenhouse gases has a global warm<strong>in</strong>g potential (GWP) value compared to CO2, which has global<br />
warm<strong>in</strong>g potential=1. All quantities of green house gases are converted to CO 2 equivalent quantities by<br />
multiply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> weight of such gas by its GWP to obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> CO 2 equivalent weight.<br />
64
Table 7.1. Summary of greenhouse gases emissions <strong>for</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>, 2000, as of its Second<br />
National Communications 1 submitted <strong>in</strong> July 2010.<br />
Greenhouse gases<br />
Source & S<strong>in</strong>k<br />
Categories<br />
Total National<br />
Emissions & Removals<br />
ALL ENERGY<br />
(Fuel Combustion &<br />
Fugitive)<br />
CO2<br />
(Kt)<br />
CH4<br />
(Kt)<br />
65<br />
N2O<br />
(Kt)<br />
128,227 1,877 79<br />
106,629 447<br />
Fuel combustion 105,161 3<br />
Petroleum & energy<br />
trans<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>in</strong>dustries<br />
41,436<br />
Industry 26,987<br />
930<br />
(tons)<br />
680<br />
(tons)<br />
Transport 27,120 1<br />
Small combustion 9,389<br />
Agriculture 229<br />
Fugitive emissions from<br />
fuels<br />
188<br />
(tons)<br />
10<br />
(tons)<br />
1,469 444<br />
Oil & Natural Gas 1,469 444<br />
INDUSTRIAL<br />
PROCESSES<br />
581<br />
(tons)<br />
559<br />
(tons)<br />
130<br />
(tons)<br />
180<br />
(tons)<br />
222<br />
(tons)<br />
25<br />
(tons)<br />
2<br />
(tons)<br />
22<br />
(tons)<br />
22<br />
(tons)<br />
21,594 -- 16<br />
PFCs<br />
(Kt)<br />
160<br />
(tons)<br />
--<br />
--<br />
--<br />
SF6<br />
(Kt)<br />
5<br />
(tons)<br />
5<br />
(tons)<br />
5<br />
(tons)<br />
5<br />
(tons)<br />
HFCs<br />
(Kt)<br />
28<br />
(tons)<br />
Total<br />
(Mt<br />
CO2e)<br />
193.3<br />
-- 116.3<br />
-- 105.5<br />
--<br />
-- -- --<br />
-- -- --<br />
-- -- --<br />
-- -- --<br />
-- -- -- 10.8<br />
-- -- --<br />
160<br />
(tons)<br />
--<br />
28<br />
(tons)<br />
Cement production 17,251 -- -- -- -- -- --<br />
Lime production 31 -- -- -- -- -- --<br />
Iron <strong>and</strong> steel <strong>in</strong>dustry 1,576 -- -- -- -- -- --<br />
Nitric acid production -- -- 16 -- -- -- --<br />
Alum<strong>in</strong>um production -- -- --<br />
160<br />
(tons)<br />
Ozone Deplet<strong>in</strong>g Substitutes -- -- -- -- --<br />
27.8<br />
-- -- --<br />
28<br />
(tons)<br />
Ammonia production 2,736 -- -- -- -- -- --<br />
1 As per Kyoto Protocol, <strong>Egypt</strong> submitted it's Second National Communication <strong>for</strong> Climate Change to<br />
<strong>the</strong> United Nations Framework Convention <strong>for</strong> Climate Change (UNFCCC) <strong>in</strong> June 2010.<br />
--
Greenhouse gases<br />
Source & S<strong>in</strong>k<br />
Categories<br />
CO2<br />
(Kt)<br />
CH4<br />
(Kt)<br />
66<br />
N2O<br />
(Kt)<br />
PFCs<br />
(Kt)<br />
SF6<br />
(Kt)<br />
HFCs<br />
(Kt)<br />
Total<br />
(Mt<br />
CO2e)<br />
AGRICULTURE -- 599 62 31.7<br />
Agriculture soils -- -- 33 -- -- -- --<br />
Enteric fermentation -- 385 -- -- -- -- --<br />
Manure management -- 28 28 -- -- -- --<br />
Rice cultivation --<br />
Field burn<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
agricultural residues<br />
118<br />
WASTE 3 832<br />
-- -- -- -- --<br />
-- 68 1 -- -- -- --<br />
10<br />
(tons)<br />
-- -- -- 17.5<br />
Solid waste disposal on l<strong>and</strong> -- 557 -- -- -- -- --<br />
Wastewater treatment -- 275<br />
10<br />
(tons)<br />
-- -- -- --<br />
Waste <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>eration 3 -- -- -- -- -- --<br />
Source: EEAA (2010).<br />
7.3. Emissions from agricultural wastes<br />
The global N2O emission from crop residue has been estimated at 0.4 tera gram<br />
nitrogen per year, us<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> IPCC default emission factor of 1.25% of applied residue<br />
N emitted as N2O. However, this default emission factor is based on relatively few<br />
experimental studies. Recent experiments showed that <strong>the</strong> emission factor <strong>for</strong> crop<br />
residues can vary considerably with residue quality, particularly <strong>the</strong> carbon/nitrogen<br />
(C/N) ratio <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> amount of m<strong>in</strong>eralizable N. Generally, higher emissions follow<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporation of residue with lower C/N ratios. It could be concluded that earthworm<br />
activity has <strong>the</strong> potential to <strong>in</strong>crease N2O emissions from crop residues up to 18-fold;<br />
that <strong>the</strong> earthworm effect is largely <strong>in</strong>dependent of bulk density; <strong>and</strong> that earthworm<br />
species, specifically, impact N2O emissions <strong>and</strong> residue stabilization <strong>in</strong> soil organic<br />
matter. However, earthworm-mediated emissions of N2O mostly resulted from residue<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> soil, <strong>and</strong> disappeared when plow<strong>in</strong>g of residue <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> soil was<br />
simulated. Our results suggest that, irrespective of earthworm activity, farmers may<br />
decrease direct N2O emissions from crop residues with a relatively low C/N ratio by<br />
leav<strong>in</strong>g it on top <strong>for</strong> a few weeks be<strong>for</strong>e plow<strong>in</strong>g it <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> soil. However, field<br />
studies should confirm this effect, <strong>and</strong> possible trade-offs to o<strong>the</strong>r (<strong>in</strong>direct) emissions<br />
of N2O should be taken <strong>in</strong>to consideration be<strong>for</strong>e this can be recommended (Rizhiya<br />
et al., 2007).
Over <strong>the</strong> past three years, a comprehensive research program on vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g has<br />
been developed at <strong>the</strong> Ohio State University. This has <strong>in</strong>cluded experiments<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> effects of vermicomposts on <strong>the</strong> germ<strong>in</strong>ation, growth, flower<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong><br />
fruit<strong>in</strong>g of vegetable plants such as bell peppers <strong>and</strong> tomatoes, as well as on a wide<br />
range of flower<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g petunias, marigolds, bachelor‟s button,<br />
chrysan<strong>the</strong>mums, impatiens, sunflowers, <strong>and</strong> po<strong>in</strong>settias. A consistent trend <strong>in</strong> all<br />
<strong>the</strong>se growth trials has been that <strong>the</strong> best plant growth responses, with all needed<br />
nutrients supplied, occurred when vermicomposts constituted a relatively small<br />
proportion (10% to 20%) of <strong>the</strong> total volume of <strong>the</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>er medium mixture, with<br />
greater proportions of vermicomposts <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> plant growth medium not always<br />
improv<strong>in</strong>g plant growth. Some of <strong>the</strong> plant growth responses <strong>in</strong> horticultural conta<strong>in</strong>er<br />
media, substituted with a range of dilutions of vermicomposts, were similar to those<br />
reported when composts were used <strong>in</strong>stead (Atiyeh et al., 2000).<br />
Table (7.2) <strong>and</strong> Figure (7.1) present <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s total greenhouse gas emissions by gas<br />
type, <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000, while Table (7.2) <strong>and</strong> figure (7.2) present <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s total<br />
greenhouse gas emissions by sector <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000.<br />
Table 7.2. <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s greenhouse gas emissions by gas type <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000.<br />
Gas<br />
Emissions<br />
(mega ton CO2<br />
equivalent)<br />
67<br />
Emissions<br />
(%)<br />
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 128.2 66.3<br />
Methane, CH4 39.4 20.4<br />
Nittrogen oxide, N2O 24.4 12.6<br />
Perfluorocarbons, PFC 1.1 0.6<br />
Sulpher hexafluoride, SF6 0.1 0.1<br />
Haloflorocarbons, HFC's<br />
blend<br />
0.1<br />
0.1<br />
TOTAL<br />
Source: EEAA (2010).<br />
193.3 100
CH4<br />
;<br />
Figure 7.1. <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s greenhouse gases emissions by gas type <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000 <strong>in</strong><br />
mega ton CO2 equivalent.<br />
Source: EEAA (2010).<br />
Table 7.3. <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000<br />
Sector<br />
N2<br />
O;<br />
39.44 ; 20%<br />
PFC;<br />
24.36 ; 13%<br />
1.04 ; 1%<br />
Emissions<br />
(mega ton CO2<br />
equivalent)<br />
68<br />
SF6; 0.11; 0%<br />
HFC's blend; 0.05; 0%<br />
CO2;<br />
128.22;<br />
66%<br />
Emissions<br />
(%)<br />
Fuel Combustion 105.5 55<br />
Fugitive Fuel Emissions 10.8 6<br />
Agriculture 31.7 16<br />
Industrial Processes 27.8 14<br />
Waste 17.5 9<br />
TOTAL 193.3 100<br />
Source: EEAA (2010).
Agriculture;<br />
31.72;<br />
16%<br />
Industrial Processes;<br />
;<br />
27.77; 14%<br />
Fuel Combustion<br />
Waste;<br />
17.49;<br />
9%<br />
Fugitive fuel;<br />
10.81; 6%<br />
Fugitive fuel emissions<br />
Figure 7.2. <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s greenhouse gases emissions by sector <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000, <strong>in</strong> mega<br />
ton CO2 equivalent.<br />
Source: EEAA(2010).<br />
Table (7.3) <strong>and</strong> figure (7.2) show <strong>the</strong> change of sectors‟ contribution to <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s total<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventory. It is clear that <strong>the</strong> total greenhouse gas emissions of <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong><br />
2000 to be 165% of that <strong>in</strong> 1990. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this period <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s population <strong>in</strong>creased by<br />
123% with an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> GDP of 277% (M<strong>in</strong>istry of Economic Development,<br />
2007). The ratio of GDP, at <strong>the</strong> 1981/82 fixed prices, <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000 to that <strong>for</strong><br />
1990 is 151%, denot<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> greenhouse gas emissions seems to be<br />
correlated to <strong>the</strong> GDP <strong>in</strong>crease ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> population growth. It is clear that<br />
emissions from agriculture are <strong>the</strong> second after fuel combustion <strong>and</strong> be<strong>for</strong>e <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
processes.<br />
7.4. Vermifilters <strong>in</strong> domestic wastewater treatment<br />
There is ano<strong>the</strong>r important use that helps <strong>the</strong> environment which is <strong>the</strong> use of<br />
vermiculture as a biological filter <strong>for</strong> domestic waste water. use of earthworms <strong>in</strong><br />
filtration systems, which has been termed vermifiltration (VF) (X<strong>in</strong>g et al., 2010).<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>n, several studies have been conducted to evaluate <strong>the</strong> use of vermifilters <strong>in</strong><br />
domestic wastewater treatment, municipal wastewater treatment, <strong>and</strong> sw<strong>in</strong>e<br />
wastewater treatment processes, as well as <strong>in</strong> simultaneous sludge reduction<br />
processes. However, less attention has been given to <strong>the</strong> use of vermifilters to dispose<br />
of excess sludge directly. Moreover, most studies conducted to evaluate VFs have<br />
only focused on <strong>the</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ation purification efficiencies, but <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />
between earthworms <strong>and</strong> microorganisms, which are very important <strong>for</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>the</strong> sludge stabilization mechanisms <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> VFs, have not been fully <strong>in</strong>vestigated.<br />
A study was conducted to explore <strong>the</strong> feasibility of us<strong>in</strong>g a VF to stabilize sewage<br />
sludge while focus<strong>in</strong>g on elucidat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> earthworm–microorganism <strong>in</strong>teractions<br />
responsible <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> decomposition of organic matter <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vermifilter. Additionally,<br />
this <strong>in</strong>vestigation sought to identify <strong>the</strong> primary mechanism by which sewage sludge<br />
stabilization <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vermifilter occurs based on <strong>the</strong> chemical <strong>and</strong> spectroscopic<br />
69<br />
Industrial Processes<br />
Fuel Combustion;<br />
105.51;<br />
55%<br />
Agriculture<br />
Waste
properties of <strong>the</strong> treated sludge, <strong>the</strong> microbial community <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biofilm, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
earthworm–microorganism <strong>in</strong>teractions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> vermifilter reactor. The results of this<br />
study provide useful <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> use of a vermifilter <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> optimal<br />
sewage sludge treatment. A cyl<strong>in</strong>der shaped vermifilter (30 cm <strong>in</strong> diameter <strong>and</strong> 60 cm<br />
<strong>in</strong> depth) that was naturally ventilated was equipped with a 0.5-<strong>in</strong>ch polypropylene<br />
pipe with holes to ensure uni<strong>for</strong>m distribution of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluent (Figure 7.3). The<br />
vermifilter conta<strong>in</strong>ed a 0.5 m filter bed of ceramic pellets (6–9 mm <strong>in</strong> diameter). A<br />
layer of plastic fiber was placed on <strong>the</strong> top of <strong>the</strong> filter bed to avoid direct hydraulic<br />
impact on <strong>the</strong> earthworms <strong>and</strong> to ensure an even <strong>in</strong>fluent distribution. The <strong>in</strong>fluent<br />
sludge was <strong>in</strong>troduced to <strong>the</strong> vermifilter via a peristaltic pump. After pass<strong>in</strong>g through<br />
<strong>the</strong> filter bed, <strong>the</strong> treated sludge entered <strong>in</strong>to a sedimentation tank below <strong>the</strong><br />
vermifilter <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> supernatant <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sedimentation tank was recycled.<br />
Figure 7.3. Layout of <strong>the</strong> Vermifilter<br />
Source: Zhaoa et al. (2010).<br />
The vermifilter may be an efficient technology <strong>for</strong> stabilization of excess sludge from<br />
domestic Waste Water Treatment Plants. The volatile suspended solids (VSS)<br />
reduction <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> VF reached 56.2–66.6%, which met <strong>the</strong> criteria <strong>for</strong> aerobic <strong>and</strong><br />
anaerobic sludge stabilization (>40%). The presence of <strong>the</strong> earthworms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> VF<br />
<strong>in</strong>duced an additional 25.1% reduction <strong>in</strong> volatile suspended solids. On average, <strong>the</strong><br />
earthworm–microorganism <strong>in</strong>teractions were responsible <strong>for</strong> approximately 46% of<br />
<strong>the</strong> improvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> VSS reduction. Moreover, a detailed characterization of<br />
sludge <strong>and</strong> earthworm cast samples revealed that earthworms <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> VF improved <strong>the</strong><br />
microbial activity by trans<strong>for</strong>m<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>soluble organic materials <strong>in</strong>to a soluble <strong>for</strong>m <strong>and</strong><br />
selectively digest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> sludge particles of 10–200 μm to f<strong>in</strong>er particles of 0–2 μm,<br />
while enhanc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> bacterial diversity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> biofilm. Additionally, improved sludge<br />
settleability with a compact structure <strong>and</strong> low SVI values (33–45 mL/g) were<br />
achieved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence of earthworms, which was favorable <strong>for</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r sludge<br />
process<strong>in</strong>g (Zhaoa et al., 2010).<br />
70
8. Survey of global vermiculture implementation projects focused on<br />
greenhouse gas emission reductions<br />
Vermicompost is one of <strong>the</strong> activities that could mitigate <strong>the</strong> greenhouse gases<br />
(GHGs) that cause global warm<strong>in</strong>g. Both urbane wastes <strong>and</strong> agricultural residues<br />
produce considerable amounts of greenhouse gases as described <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> previous<br />
chapter. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> environmental regulations, <strong>the</strong> reduction of greenhouse<br />
gases could be a source of f<strong>in</strong>ancial benefits <strong>for</strong> vermicompost producers. There<strong>for</strong>e,<br />
this chapter deals with examples of reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> emissions through vermicompost<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
which may assist <strong>the</strong> firms work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this bus<strong>in</strong>ess to sell <strong>the</strong>ir carbon reduction <strong>in</strong><br />
what is called "carbon market". Every ton of CO2e reduced could be sold with around<br />
10 Euros accord<strong>in</strong>g to pre-signed contract. The mechanism that regulates such activity<br />
is <strong>the</strong> clean development mechanism (CDM) of <strong>the</strong> Kyoto prorocol. Under <strong>the</strong> CDM<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialized countries can purchase greenhouse gas emission reductions from<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g countries to help meet <strong>the</strong>ir obligations under <strong>the</strong> Kyoto Protocol.<br />
8.1. Background<br />
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) proposed under article 12 of <strong>the</strong> Kyoto<br />
Protocol is an important potential <strong>in</strong>strument to promote <strong>for</strong>eign <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong><br />
greenhouse gas emission reduction options while simultaneously address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> issue<br />
of susta<strong>in</strong>able development.<br />
The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of <strong>the</strong> Kyoto Protocol programs<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Under <strong>the</strong> CDM, an<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialized country with a greenhouse gas reduction target can <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> a project <strong>in</strong><br />
a develop<strong>in</strong>g country without a target <strong>and</strong> claim credit <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> emissions that <strong>the</strong><br />
project achieves. German companies, <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong>vested <strong>in</strong> a w<strong>in</strong>d power project <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>, thus replac<strong>in</strong>g electricity that would o<strong>the</strong>rwise have been produced from coal.<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>the</strong>n sold <strong>the</strong> credit <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> emissions that have been avoided to Germany<br />
which, <strong>in</strong> turn, used <strong>the</strong>m to meet its own greenhouse gas reduction target.<br />
Both sides benefit from CDM projects. For <strong>in</strong>dustrialized countries, <strong>the</strong> CDM greatly<br />
reduces <strong>the</strong> cost of meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> reduction commitments that <strong>the</strong>y agreed to under <strong>the</strong><br />
Kyoto Protocol. Develop<strong>in</strong>g countries receive f<strong>in</strong>ancial <strong>and</strong> technical assistance <strong>in</strong><br />
upgrad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir energy <strong>in</strong>frastructure <strong>and</strong> can sell certified emission reductions <strong>for</strong><br />
profit. This diversification of external earn<strong>in</strong>gs will reduce oil-export<strong>in</strong>g countries'<br />
dependence on <strong>the</strong> highly volatile world oil price.<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> is striv<strong>in</strong>g to develop efficient, transparent <strong>and</strong> strong criteria <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g, approval <strong>and</strong> control of CDM projects, thus mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> country<br />
attractive <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational CDM <strong>in</strong>vestors <strong>and</strong> ensur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> efficient implementation<br />
of CDM projects. The private sector will play an important role <strong>in</strong> this process, be it<br />
as project hosts, <strong>in</strong> project design <strong>and</strong> implementation, or <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> verification of<br />
emission reductions. Donors <strong>and</strong> governmental authorities are <strong>the</strong> potential facilitators<br />
of CDM projects. Environment 2007 <strong>the</strong>re<strong>for</strong>e <strong>in</strong>tends to <strong>in</strong>crease awareness <strong>and</strong><br />
br<strong>in</strong>g toge<strong>the</strong>r bus<strong>in</strong>esses <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> various f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>in</strong> order to ensure <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
full participation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> CDM process.<br />
71
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change – UNFCCC was<br />
agreed at <strong>the</strong> United Nations Conference on Environment <strong>and</strong> Development<br />
(UNCED) <strong>in</strong> Rio de Janeiro, 1992. This agreement aims at <strong>the</strong> stabilization of<br />
greenhouse gases <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> atmosphere, at a level that would prevent dangerous changes<br />
to <strong>the</strong> climate.<br />
The UNFCCC adopted Kyoto Protocol at <strong>the</strong> third conference of parties (COP3) <strong>in</strong><br />
Kyoto, Japan <strong>in</strong> 1997. The Protocol sets b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g commitments by 39 developed<br />
countries <strong>and</strong> economies <strong>in</strong> transition, listed <strong>in</strong> Annex B, to reduce <strong>the</strong>ir greenhouse<br />
gas emissions by an average of 5.2 per cent on 1990 levels (<strong>the</strong> first commitment<br />
period, 2008 - 2012).<br />
The UNFCCC divides countries <strong>in</strong> two ma<strong>in</strong> groups: Annex I parties that <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrialized countries <strong>and</strong> countries with “economies <strong>in</strong> transition” /EITs (<strong>the</strong><br />
Russian Federation, <strong>the</strong> Baltic States <strong>and</strong> several o<strong>the</strong>r Central <strong>and</strong> <strong>East</strong>ern European<br />
countries). All <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs are called non-Annex I countries.<br />
Annex I countries that have ratified <strong>the</strong> Kyoto Protocol can <strong>in</strong>vest <strong>in</strong> projects that both<br />
reduce greenhouse gases <strong>and</strong> contribute to susta<strong>in</strong>able development <strong>in</strong> non-Annex I<br />
countries. A CDM project provides certified emissions reductions (CERs) to Annex I<br />
countries, which <strong>the</strong>y can use to meet <strong>the</strong>ir greenhouse gas reduction commitments<br />
under <strong>the</strong> Kyoto Protocol. Article 12 of <strong>the</strong> Kyoto Protocol sets out three goals <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
CDM: i) To help mitigate climate change; ii) To assist Annex I countries atta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
emission reduction commitments, <strong>and</strong> iii) To assist develop<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> achiev<strong>in</strong>g<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able development.<br />
In addition to contribute towards susta<strong>in</strong>able development, CDM project c<strong>and</strong>idates<br />
look<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> approval under <strong>the</strong> CDM must lead to real, measurable reductions <strong>in</strong><br />
greenhouse gas emissions, or lead to <strong>the</strong> measurable absorption (or “sequestration”) of<br />
greenhouse gases <strong>in</strong> a develop<strong>in</strong>g country. The six greenhouse gases <strong>and</strong> gas classes<br />
com<strong>in</strong>g from varied sources of <strong>the</strong> economy are: carbon dioxide "CO2" (source: fossil<br />
fuel combustion; de<strong>for</strong>estation; agriculture); methane "CH4" (source: agriculture; l<strong>and</strong><br />
use change; biomass burn<strong>in</strong>g; l<strong>and</strong>fills); nitrous oxide "N2O" (source: fossil fuel<br />
combustion; <strong>in</strong>dustrial; agriculture); hydrofluorocarbons "HFCs" (source: <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
/manufactur<strong>in</strong>g); perfluorocarbons "PFCs" (source: <strong>in</strong>dustrial/manufactur<strong>in</strong>g); sulphur<br />
hexafluoride "SF6" (source: electricity transmission; manufactur<strong>in</strong>g(.<br />
The basel<strong>in</strong>e <strong>for</strong> a CDM project is <strong>the</strong> scenario used to show <strong>the</strong> trend of<br />
anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions that would occur <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> absence of <strong>the</strong><br />
proposed CDM project. The basel<strong>in</strong>e basically shows what would be <strong>the</strong> future<br />
greenhouse gas emissions without <strong>the</strong> CDM project <strong>in</strong>tervention. Each CDM project<br />
has to develop its own basel<strong>in</strong>e. Once a basel<strong>in</strong>e methodology has been approved by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Executive Board, o<strong>the</strong>r projects can use it too. For small-scale projects, guidance<br />
is provided on st<strong>and</strong>ard basel<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Greenhouse gas emissions from a CDM project activity must be reduced below those<br />
that would have occurred <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> absence of <strong>the</strong> project. It must be shown that <strong>the</strong><br />
project would not have been implemented without <strong>the</strong> CDM. Without this<br />
“additionality” requirement, <strong>the</strong>re is no guarantee that CDM projects will create<br />
72
<strong>in</strong>cremental greenhouse gas emissions reductions equivalent to those that would have<br />
been made <strong>in</strong> Annex I countries, or play a role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ultimate objective of stabiliz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.<br />
CERs generated by CDM projects that are used by Annex 1 countries to meet <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
Kyoto targets allow emissions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se countries to rise. There<strong>for</strong>e if CERs are<br />
awarded to activities that would happen without <strong>the</strong> CDM project, i.e. <strong>for</strong> reductions<br />
that would occur anyway, Annex 1 emissions are allowed to rise without a<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g cut elsewhere, <strong>the</strong>reby rais<strong>in</strong>g global emissions. The only w<strong>in</strong>ners are<br />
<strong>the</strong> buyers of cheap credits, because host countries do not receive new <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>and</strong><br />
climate change is not be<strong>in</strong>g mitigated.<br />
CDM projects assist develop<strong>in</strong>g countries to achieve susta<strong>in</strong>able development.<br />
Industrialized countries have developed domestic policies to comply with <strong>the</strong> Kyoto<br />
Protocol. This has led to a grow<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong> carbon credits. Develop<strong>in</strong>g countries<br />
may supply such carbon credits. While many factors <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>the</strong> size <strong>and</strong> stability of<br />
<strong>the</strong> global market, facts <strong>in</strong>dicate that this market would move billions of dollars a<br />
year, <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong>eign <strong>in</strong>vestment capital flow <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g countries.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> Kyoto Protocol, <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> various sectors of non-Annex I<br />
countries may qualify <strong>for</strong> CDM credits <strong>in</strong> 1) energy fuel combustion: energy<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustries; manufactur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>and</strong> construction; transport; o<strong>the</strong>r sectors; 2)<br />
Fugitive emissions from fuels: solid fuels; oil <strong>and</strong> natural gas; 3) <strong>in</strong>dustrial processes:<br />
m<strong>in</strong>eral products; chemical <strong>in</strong>dustry; metal production; o<strong>the</strong>r production; production<br />
<strong>and</strong> consumption of halocarbons <strong>and</strong> sulphur hexaflouride; 4) solvent; 5) agriculture:<br />
enteric fermentation; manure management; rice cultivation; agricultural soils;<br />
prescribed burn<strong>in</strong>g of savannas; filed burn<strong>in</strong>g of agricultural residues; 6) solid waste<br />
disposal on l<strong>and</strong>; wastewater h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g; waste <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>eration; 7) l<strong>and</strong>-use, l<strong>and</strong>-use<br />
change, <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>estry: af<strong>for</strong>estation; re<strong>for</strong>estation; avoided de<strong>for</strong>estation <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>rmal<br />
energy <strong>in</strong> small-scale projects.<br />
8.2. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) achievements <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
Clean Development Mechanism is one of Kyoto Protocol three mechanisms which<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude Jo<strong>in</strong>t Implementation <strong>and</strong> Emissions Trad<strong>in</strong>g. The aim from apply<strong>in</strong>g CDM is<br />
<strong>the</strong> implementation of projects reduc<strong>in</strong>g greenhouse gas emissions from different<br />
sectors such as <strong>in</strong>dustry, waste recycl<strong>in</strong>g, transport, switch<strong>in</strong>g to usage of natural gas<br />
as a fuel, <strong>and</strong> af<strong>for</strong>estation to absorb greenhouse gas. These projects contribute to<br />
achiev<strong>in</strong>g susta<strong>in</strong>able development goals, create job opportunities, produce additional<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancial return from sell<strong>in</strong>g carbon reduction certificates as a result.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g 2007, NCCC held 6 meet<strong>in</strong>gs (3 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Bureau <strong>for</strong> CDM (EB-CDM)<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Council <strong>for</strong> CDM (EC-CDM)). Seventeen CDM projects have been<br />
approved <strong>and</strong> Letters of No-Objection (LoN) have been issued (first phase of project<br />
approval). Such projects <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
1. Abatement of nitrous oxide from <strong>the</strong> acid factory, Delta Fertilizers <strong>and</strong> Chemical<br />
Industries.<br />
73
2. Abatement of nitrous oxide from <strong>the</strong> acid factory, KIMA Chemical Industries.<br />
3. Abatement of nitrous oxide from <strong>the</strong> acid factory, Nasr Fertilizers <strong>and</strong> Chemical<br />
Industries.<br />
4. Fuel switch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> reduction of cl<strong>in</strong>ker, National Cement Company.<br />
5. Fuel switch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial processes, El-Delta Steel Company.<br />
6. Equipment replacement <strong>and</strong> fuel switch<strong>in</strong>g, El-Max Sal<strong>in</strong>as Company,<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>ria.<br />
7. L<strong>and</strong> fill<strong>in</strong>g, treatment, <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g, Sou<strong>the</strong>rn Region, Cairo Governorate.<br />
8. Installation of cogeneration unit operat<strong>in</strong>g by gas recovered from <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
processes, Alex<strong>and</strong>ria Carbon Black Company.<br />
9. Replacement of fuel oil by natural gas, Dakahlia Sp<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Weav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Company.<br />
10. Replacement of light oil <strong>and</strong> coke gas by natural gas as a fuel <strong>for</strong> furnaces, Nasr<br />
Forg<strong>in</strong>g Company.<br />
11. Fuel Switch<strong>in</strong>g from Light Oil to Natural Gas <strong>in</strong> Spr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Transport Needs<br />
Manufactur<strong>in</strong>g Co.<br />
12. Methane Reduction by Compost<strong>in</strong>g of Municipal Waste from Cairo North <strong>and</strong><br />
West.<br />
13. Capture <strong>and</strong> flar<strong>in</strong>g of biologically-generated methane from Abu Zaabal<br />
l<strong>and</strong>fills,Qalyubia.<br />
14. Replacement of light oil by natural gas, Damietta Sp<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Weav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Company.<br />
15. Reduction of sodium carbonate, Nile Oils <strong>and</strong> Detergents Company.<br />
16. Reduction of CO2 emissions, <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>for</strong> Oils <strong>and</strong> Soap Company.<br />
17. Switch<strong>in</strong>g fuel from heavy oil to natural gas, El-Nasr Wool <strong>and</strong> Selected Textile<br />
Company (STIA).<br />
8.3. <strong>Egypt</strong> National Strategy on <strong>the</strong> CDM<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> has participated to <strong>the</strong> National Strategy Studies (NSS) Program, launched by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Government of Switzerl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Bank <strong>in</strong> 1997.<br />
This program has assisted <strong>Egypt</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> development of <strong>the</strong> CDM Strategy which was<br />
undertaken <strong>in</strong> collaboration with <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry of State <strong>for</strong> Environmental Affairs <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>ian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA).<br />
The <strong>Egypt</strong>‟s NSS on <strong>the</strong> CDM aims at ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g environment <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> relevant<br />
sectors <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> environmental impacts of development, through<br />
identification of priority policies <strong>and</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir implementation.<br />
1- Ratification on <strong>the</strong> United Nations Framework Convention on Climate<br />
Change, <strong>the</strong> issuance of Law 4/1994 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> Protection of <strong>the</strong> Environment,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> participation <strong>in</strong> various <strong>in</strong>ternational workshops <strong>and</strong> conferences<br />
related to climate change to avoid hav<strong>in</strong>g any <strong>in</strong>ternational obligations on<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g countries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Egypt</strong> .<br />
2- Ratification of Kyoto's Protocol, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian<br />
Designated National Authority <strong>for</strong> Clean Development Mechanism (DNA);<br />
74
consist<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Bureau <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian Council <strong>for</strong> Clean<br />
Development Mechanism.<br />
3- M<strong>in</strong>istry of Electricity <strong>and</strong> Energy: establishment several projects <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field<br />
of New <strong>and</strong> Renewable Energy (W<strong>in</strong>d - Solar - Hydro - Bio), <strong>and</strong> encourag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Energy Efficiency Projects .<br />
4- M<strong>in</strong>istry of State <strong>for</strong> Environmental Affairs: establish<strong>in</strong>g guid<strong>in</strong>g schemes <strong>for</strong><br />
private sector to encourage <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> field of clean energy projects,<br />
waste recycl<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> af<strong>for</strong>estation .<br />
5- Maximiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> benefit from Kyoto Protocol Mechanisms through<br />
implement<strong>in</strong>g Clean Development Mechanism Projects .<br />
In addition to <strong>the</strong> State's concern <strong>in</strong> maximiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> benefit from Kyoto Protocol<br />
Mechanisms, especially Clean Development Mechanism, it established <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Egypt</strong>ian Designated National Authority <strong>for</strong> Clean Development Mechanism<br />
(DNA-CDM), <strong>in</strong>stantly after ratify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> protocol <strong>and</strong> its entrance <strong>in</strong>to <strong>for</strong>ce <strong>in</strong><br />
2005. The DNA has achieved tangible progress <strong>in</strong> several sectors, 36 projects<br />
have been approved with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> framework of <strong>the</strong> Mechanism. This is <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />
sectors of: New <strong>and</strong> Renewable Energy, Industry, Waste Recycl<strong>in</strong>g, Af<strong>for</strong>estation,<br />
Energy Efficiency, <strong>and</strong> Fuel Switch<strong>in</strong>g to Natural Gas. This is <strong>for</strong> an estimated<br />
total cost of 1200 Million US Dollar. These projects are considered as a source <strong>for</strong><br />
attract<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong>eign <strong>in</strong>vestments, provid<strong>in</strong>g employment opportunities, <strong>and</strong><br />
contribut<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> implementation of Susta<strong>in</strong>able Development plans <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
8.4. The national regulatory framework<br />
The law number 4 of 1994 <strong>and</strong> its executive regulation conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> national policy <strong>and</strong><br />
regulatory framework govern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>and</strong> competitiveness of <strong>the</strong> agro residue<br />
based biomass sector. In <strong>the</strong> protection of air environment from pollution section<br />
article (36) said that <strong>in</strong> carry<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>the</strong>ir activities, establishments subject to <strong>the</strong><br />
provisions of this law are held to ensure that emissions or leakages of air pollutants do<br />
not exceed <strong>the</strong> maximum limits permitted <strong>and</strong> Article (38) Concern about dump, treat<br />
or burn garbage <strong>and</strong> solid waste, while Article (42) talk about <strong>the</strong> consideration which<br />
should be given by <strong>the</strong> competent bodies, accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong>ir activities, when burn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
any type of fuel or o<strong>the</strong>r substance, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Precautions, Permissible limits, <strong>and</strong><br />
Specification of Chimneys While Article (45)Talk about <strong>the</strong> necessary precautions<br />
<strong>and</strong> procedures laid down by <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry of Manpower <strong>and</strong> Employment to prevent<br />
<strong>the</strong> leakage or emission of air pollutants <strong>in</strong>side <strong>the</strong> work. Annex I conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
executive regulation of law number 4 of 1994 which govern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>and</strong><br />
competitiveness of <strong>the</strong> agro residue based biomass sector.<br />
75
9. Analysis of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian context <strong>and</strong> applicability of vermiculture<br />
as a means of greenhouse gas emission reduction.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> waste sector, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian relevant m<strong>in</strong>istries, <strong>in</strong> collaboration with concerned<br />
governorates, have developed several plans <strong>and</strong> programs over <strong>the</strong> past ten years to<br />
improve <strong>the</strong> process of collection, reuse <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g of waste, yet <strong>the</strong>re are several<br />
barriers to achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> goals of <strong>the</strong>se programs. These <strong>in</strong>clude f<strong>in</strong>ancial constra<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
<strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> mitigation of greenhouse gass emissions from <strong>the</strong> waste sector; <strong>the</strong> significant<br />
dependence on external f<strong>in</strong>ancial support, as grants <strong>and</strong> concessionary loans,<br />
complicat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>and</strong> slow<strong>in</strong>g down implementation; limited public<br />
awareness about <strong>the</strong> economic benefits of reuse <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g of waste leads, lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>the</strong> hesitation of fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutions to consider waste management activity as a<br />
viable option; <strong>the</strong> need of technology transfer <strong>and</strong> high <strong>in</strong>vestments <strong>for</strong> some waste<br />
treatment options, such as anaerobic digestion; <strong>the</strong> weak en<strong>for</strong>cement of exist<strong>in</strong>g laws<br />
<strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>for</strong> violations <strong>in</strong> h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g waste.<br />
9.1. Profile of wastes <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong><br />
9.1.1. Municipal solid waste<br />
Waste <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> can be considered as constituted of solid waste <strong>and</strong> wastewater. The<br />
total annual amount of solid waste produced <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> is about 17 Mt accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />
year 2000 estimates. The amount of accumulated solid waste (i.e. waste not collected<br />
<strong>and</strong> dumped <strong>in</strong> disposal sites but ra<strong>the</strong>r dumped on roads <strong>and</strong> empty l<strong>and</strong>s) was<br />
estimated to be about 9.7 Mt <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> year 2000, with a total volume of 36,098,936 m 3<br />
(EEAA 2007). This solid waste can be categorized <strong>in</strong>to municipal waste, <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
waste, agriculture waste, waste from clean<strong>in</strong>g waterways <strong>and</strong> healthcare waste.<br />
Household waste constitutes about 60% of <strong>the</strong> total municipal waste quantities, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 40% be<strong>in</strong>g generated by commercial establishments, service<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions, streets <strong>and</strong> gardens, hotels <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r enterta<strong>in</strong>ment sector entities. Per<br />
capita generation rates <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>ian cities, villages <strong>and</strong> towns vary from lower than 0.3<br />
kg <strong>for</strong> low socio-economic groups <strong>and</strong> rural areas, to more than 1 kg <strong>for</strong> higher liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards <strong>in</strong> urban centers. On a nationwide average, <strong>the</strong> composition is about 50-60%<br />
food wastes, 10-20% paper, <strong>and</strong> 1-7% each of metals, cloth, glass, <strong>and</strong> plastics, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>der is basically <strong>in</strong>organic matter <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
Currently, solid waste quantities h<strong>and</strong>led by waste management systems are estimated<br />
at about 40,000 tons per day, with 30,000 tons per day be<strong>in</strong>g produced <strong>in</strong> cities, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> rest generated from <strong>the</strong> pre-urban <strong>and</strong> rural areas. Various studies <strong>in</strong>dicate low<br />
waste collection efficiencies, vary<strong>in</strong>g between less than 35% <strong>in</strong> small prov<strong>in</strong>cial<br />
towns to 77% <strong>in</strong> large cities.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>al dest<strong>in</strong>ations of municipal solid waste entail about 8% of <strong>the</strong> waste be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
composted, 2% recycled, 2% l<strong>and</strong>filled, <strong>and</strong> 88% dumped <strong>in</strong> uncontrolled open<br />
dumps. In this respect, 16 l<strong>and</strong>fills exist <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>: 7 <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greater Cairo Region, 5 <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Delta governorates <strong>and</strong> 4 <strong>in</strong> Upper <strong>Egypt</strong>. Their capacities range between 0.5 <strong>and</strong><br />
76
12 Mt per day. They are usually operated by private entities. Recently, 53 sites have<br />
been identified <strong>for</strong> new l<strong>and</strong>fills, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> construction of 56 compost<strong>in</strong>g plants<br />
throughout <strong>the</strong> country is underway.<br />
9.1.2. Agricultural wastes<br />
<strong>Egypt</strong> produces around 25 to 30 Mt of agriculture waste annually (around 66,000 tons<br />
per day). Some of this waste is used <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> production of organic fertilizers, animal<br />
fodder, food production, energy production, or o<strong>the</strong>r useful purposes.<br />
9.2. Mitigat<strong>in</strong>g greenhouse gas from <strong>the</strong> solid wastes<br />
As a non-annex I country, <strong>Egypt</strong> is not required to meet any specific emission<br />
reduction or limitation targets <strong>in</strong> terms of commitments under <strong>the</strong> UNFCCC, or <strong>the</strong><br />
Kyoto protocol. However, mitigation measures are already <strong>in</strong> progress. <strong>Egypt</strong> is fully<br />
aware that greenhouse gas emissions reduction, particularly by major producers, is <strong>the</strong><br />
only measure that could ensure <strong>the</strong> mitigation of global warm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> climate change.<br />
The mitigation measures <strong>in</strong> this section are based on those described <strong>in</strong> national plans<br />
<strong>and</strong> country studies documents (Table 9.1).<br />
Six ma<strong>in</strong> criteria have been selected <strong>for</strong> prioritization of mitigation measures <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
waste sector accord<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>Egypt</strong>'s Second National Communication. These entail<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment costs; payback periods; greenhouse gases emission reductions potentials;<br />
duration of implementation; priority <strong>in</strong> national strategies/programs; <strong>and</strong> contribution<br />
to susta<strong>in</strong>able development. Mitigation options, concluded from a multi-criteria<br />
analysis, were comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>for</strong> each sub-sector <strong>in</strong> order to generate a number of<br />
scenarios <strong>for</strong> solid waste <strong>and</strong> wastewater. The lowest greenhouse gas emitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
scenario was selected <strong>for</strong> implementation dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> period 2009 to 2025.<br />
Mitigation measures under one or more of appropriate treatment categories, <strong>the</strong><br />
associated emission reduction potential, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestment costs calculated <strong>for</strong> 25 years<br />
lifetime <strong>in</strong> simple l<strong>in</strong>ear amortization cost, are summarized <strong>in</strong> tables (III.6) <strong>and</strong> (III.7)<br />
<strong>for</strong> solid waste <strong>and</strong> wastewater, respectively (EEAA, 2007).<br />
77
Table 9.1. Summary of identified mitigation measures <strong>for</strong> solid wastes.<br />
Mitigation Measure<br />
78<br />
Emission<br />
reduction<br />
potential<br />
(ton CO2e per<br />
ton MSW)<br />
Investment cost<br />
(US$/ton MSW)<br />
Compost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g facilities 0.38 0.92<br />
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with<br />
electricity generation only,<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) with<br />
substitution <strong>in</strong> cement kiln,<br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> recycl<strong>in</strong>g facilities<br />
Anaerobic digestion with recycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(flar<strong>in</strong>g biogas)<br />
Anaerobic digestion with recycl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
facilities (with electricity<br />
generation)<br />
Source: EEAA (2010).<br />
< 0.3<br />
< 0.3<br />
2.07<br />
1.97<br />
0.342 12.16<br />
0.547<br />
16.16<br />
The <strong>Egypt</strong>ian relevant m<strong>in</strong>istries, <strong>in</strong> close collaboration with concerned governorates,<br />
have developed several plans <strong>and</strong> programs over <strong>the</strong> past ten years to improve <strong>the</strong><br />
process of deal<strong>in</strong>g with waste reduction, reuse, recycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>/or proper disposal.<br />
These plans <strong>and</strong> programs lead to <strong>the</strong> reduction <strong>in</strong> emissions from <strong>the</strong> waste sector.<br />
Yet <strong>the</strong>re are several barriers to achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> goals of <strong>the</strong>se programs. These<br />
comprise <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
Although f<strong>in</strong>ancial support <strong>for</strong> mitigation of greenhouse gases emissions from<br />
<strong>the</strong> waste sector <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong> has <strong>in</strong>creased significantly over <strong>the</strong> last years, it still<br />
represents a clear constra<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> implementation of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tended programs.<br />
The significant dependence on external f<strong>in</strong>ancial support, as grants <strong>and</strong><br />
concessionary loans, complicates <strong>the</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g process, <strong>and</strong> slows down<br />
implementation.<br />
The limited public awareness about <strong>the</strong> economic benefits of mitigation options<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> waste sector leads to <strong>the</strong> hesitation of fund<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutions to consider<br />
waste management activity as an economically viable option.<br />
Technology transfer represents ano<strong>the</strong>r barrier ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> anaerobic digestion<br />
technologies as it needs high capital <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>and</strong> skills to operate correctly.<br />
Some technologies are designed on site-specific bases, which are not optimal <strong>for</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r regions. Highly local skilled experts <strong>and</strong> extensive studies are needed <strong>for</strong><br />
prov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> suitability <strong>and</strong> applicability of <strong>the</strong> technology accord<strong>in</strong>g to different<br />
vary<strong>in</strong>g local conditions <strong>in</strong> <strong>Egypt</strong>.<br />
All parties <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> waste sector are relatively of limited environmental<br />
management experience <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> mechanisms <strong>for</strong> coord<strong>in</strong>ation with EEAA are<br />
not well established. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, privatization of <strong>the</strong> waste sector lacks clear
modalities <strong>for</strong> partnership, particularly with regards to private-public<br />
partnership.<br />
Weak en<strong>for</strong>cement of exist<strong>in</strong>g laws <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>for</strong> violations <strong>in</strong> h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g<br />
waste reduces <strong>the</strong> opportunity <strong>for</strong> achiev<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> goals of <strong>the</strong> planned programs.<br />
9.3. Mitigat<strong>in</strong>g greenhouse gas from <strong>the</strong> agriculture wastes<br />
As <strong>the</strong> activities of agriculture are too complicated <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> share of emission from all<br />
agriculture activities is almost 16%, it was not mentioned <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mitigation options <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> National Communication of <strong>Egypt</strong>. Although no studies have been reported on <strong>the</strong><br />
mitigation from <strong>the</strong> agricultural wastes, vermicompost could save considerable<br />
amounts of greenhouse gases from reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> amount of crop residues burned.<br />
Fur<strong>the</strong>r studies are still required to elaborate on this subject.<br />
79
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General <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation <strong>and</strong> FAQ<br />
WORM FACTS<br />
Annex 1<br />
SMALLEST: Less than an <strong>in</strong>ch<br />
LARGEST: 22 Foot found <strong>in</strong> South Africa<br />
An earthworm has a bra<strong>in</strong>, five hearts, <strong>and</strong> “ brea<strong>the</strong>s” through its sk<strong>in</strong><br />
An earthworm produces its own weight <strong>in</strong> casts everyday<br />
There are over 1 million earthworms <strong>in</strong> one acre of soil<br />
Earthworms can burrow as deep as fifteen feet<br />
Earthworms are 82% prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> are a food source <strong>for</strong> many people around <strong>the</strong><br />
world<br />
Eat<strong>in</strong>g earthworms can reduce cholesterol, as <strong>the</strong> basic essential oil of<br />
earthworms is Omega 3<br />
Benefits of Earthworms<br />
Increased moisture absorption<br />
Improved soil aeration <strong>and</strong> dra<strong>in</strong>age<br />
Leach<strong>in</strong>g counteracted by nutrient-rich cast<strong>in</strong>gsbrought to <strong>the</strong> surface<br />
Nutrients are pre-digested, mak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m readily available to microorganisms<br />
<strong>and</strong> plants<br />
Worm cast<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>for</strong>m aggregates which improve soil structure<br />
Cast<strong>in</strong>gs neutralize soil by buffer<strong>in</strong>g acid <strong>and</strong> alkal<strong>in</strong>e conditions<br />
Worm tunnels create fertile channels <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth of plant roots<br />
The bottom l<strong>in</strong>e: Earthworms <strong>in</strong>crease crop yields while build<strong>in</strong>g soil fertility<br />
reserves.<br />
FAQ Compost Worm -<br />
Do compost worms also eat normal earth or only rott<strong>in</strong>g organic material?<br />
Although <strong>the</strong> compost worms Eisenia foetida <strong>and</strong> Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei are not commonly<br />
found <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>eral grounds, scientific <strong>in</strong>vestigations show that <strong>the</strong>y also eat m<strong>in</strong>eral<br />
earth. However, <strong>the</strong>y select an organic enriched fraction from <strong>the</strong> bulk soil<br />
(approximately by a factor 2), which is also typical <strong>for</strong> soil dwell<strong>in</strong>g worms.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e, compost worms can also be used to clean contam<strong>in</strong>ated m<strong>in</strong>eral grounds.<br />
Can compost worms be used <strong>for</strong> decontam<strong>in</strong>ation of m<strong>in</strong>eral soils?<br />
Yes, because <strong>the</strong>y eat m<strong>in</strong>eral soils too. Experiments were done with <strong>the</strong> harbour<br />
sludge of Rotterdam.<br />
Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei is commonly used <strong>in</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard toxcicity tests <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> bioassays <strong>for</strong><br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ated soils (Cortet et al., 1999).<br />
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How long will <strong>the</strong> material <strong>in</strong>gested by <strong>the</strong> compost worm be <strong>in</strong> his gut?<br />
In adult compost worms (Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei) appr. 3 to 4 hours, <strong>in</strong> juvenile worms appr.<br />
11 to 13 hours. The scientists expected <strong>the</strong> opposite (a longer retention time <strong>for</strong> adult<br />
worms).<br />
For Eisenia foetida 2.5 h were measured at 25°C, <strong>in</strong>dependent from <strong>the</strong> weight or <strong>the</strong><br />
length of <strong>the</strong> worm. At 18°C <strong>the</strong> retention time was about 3.5 hours.<br />
Lumbricus terrestris shows a retention time of 20 hours. O<strong>the</strong>r worm species 11 to 13<br />
hours (Lumbricus festivus, Lumbricus rubellus, Allolobophora calig<strong>in</strong>osa).<br />
How do compost worms multiply?<br />
Like all earthworms, compost worms have female <strong>and</strong> male gender organs<br />
(hermaphrodite). If <strong>the</strong>y pair off, <strong>the</strong> genitals come mutually to narrow contact. These<br />
are localized <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> wide r<strong>in</strong>gs (clitellum) of adult worms. This r<strong>in</strong>g walks <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
course of <strong>the</strong> next days on <strong>and</strong> on to <strong>the</strong> back <strong>and</strong> is shored up, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> end, so that a<br />
yellowish cocoon orig<strong>in</strong>ates which has <strong>the</strong> <strong>for</strong>m a lemon. After a certa<strong>in</strong> time, out of<br />
this small mites are slipp<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
How often does a conception take place with <strong>the</strong> mat<strong>in</strong>g of compost worms?<br />
It comes to 61% of <strong>the</strong> mat<strong>in</strong>gs to <strong>the</strong> transfer of sperm. Of it a mutual transfer of<br />
sperm takes place <strong>in</strong> 88.2% of <strong>the</strong> cases, <strong>in</strong> 9.8% <strong>the</strong> transfer occurred only <strong>in</strong> one<br />
direction. Merely <strong>in</strong> one case a self conception occurred.<br />
Is a self-fertilization also possible with compost worms?<br />
Although reported very often with earthworms, a self-sperm transfer could be clearly<br />
documented <strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> first time. This occurs very seldom <strong>and</strong> was observed with<br />
Eisenia foetida. Self conception is an extreme <strong>for</strong>m of <strong>in</strong>breed<strong>in</strong>g. The genetic<br />
diversity is lowered what normally leads to a reduction <strong>in</strong> fitness of <strong>the</strong> species. For<br />
this reason mechanisms of self-<strong>in</strong>compatibility have been developed <strong>in</strong> many species.<br />
Which compost worm multiplies faster? Eisenia foetida or Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei?<br />
Scientific <strong>in</strong>vestigations from <strong>the</strong> year 2003 showed that Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei multiplies<br />
much faster under <strong>the</strong> elective conditions of <strong>the</strong> study. The percentage of <strong>the</strong> worms,<br />
that produced cocoons was substantially higher (33% compared with 3.5%). Also <strong>the</strong><br />
number of <strong>the</strong> produced cocoons was higher with Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei, likewise <strong>the</strong> slip rate<br />
of <strong>the</strong> mites from <strong>the</strong> cocoons. The life ability of <strong>the</strong> cocoons was possibly equally<br />
high with both species.<br />
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What do eat compost worms?<br />
Fungi are probably a primary source of food <strong>for</strong> many earthworm species. Rott<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material from plants, which is richly colonized with it, is <strong>the</strong> most popular "meal" <strong>for</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> worms.<br />
Slows <strong>the</strong> compost<strong>in</strong>g process down because <strong>the</strong> fungi <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> compost are eaten<br />
by <strong>the</strong> worms?<br />
On <strong>the</strong> contrary, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> general, it is even accelerated. More diverse fungal<br />
communities <strong>in</strong>habited earthworm-processed substrates than were found <strong>in</strong> fresh<br />
substrates. This, although it is generally believed that fungal hyphae are destroyed <strong>and</strong><br />
may be a preferred food source <strong>for</strong> earthworms. Worms probably accelerate <strong>the</strong><br />
compost<strong>in</strong>g process by both graz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> dispersal, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>directly by <strong>the</strong>ir effects on<br />
<strong>the</strong> substrate (burrow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> cast<strong>in</strong>g).<br />
Can earthworms nibble at liv<strong>in</strong>g roots?<br />
No! The earthworms to which also <strong>the</strong> compost worms belong, attack no liv<strong>in</strong>g roots.<br />
They live on <strong>the</strong> dead plant material colonized richly with micro-organisms. In<br />
addition, <strong>the</strong>y have no tools (teeth, grater plates or o<strong>the</strong>r th<strong>in</strong>gs) by which <strong>the</strong>y could<br />
nibble at roots. The earthworm <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> flowerpot or plant patch does not harm <strong>the</strong><br />
plants.<br />
Are certa<strong>in</strong> fungi preferred by earthworms as food?<br />
Earthworms can make a good dist<strong>in</strong>ction between <strong>the</strong> different k<strong>in</strong>ds of fungi.<br />
Lumbricus terrestris prefers Fusarium oxysporum <strong>and</strong> Mucor hiemalis, o<strong>the</strong>r tested<br />
mushrooms are only sometimes eaten or are avoided even completely. In case of <strong>the</strong><br />
compost worm Eisenia foetida it was shown, that <strong>the</strong> black melan<strong>in</strong>e conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
fungus C. cladosporioides was <strong>the</strong> most attractive <strong>in</strong> contrast to Aspergillus niger<br />
which was <strong>the</strong> least attractive. For Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei still no <strong>in</strong>vestigations were done.<br />
Does a quicker worm compost<strong>in</strong>g take place if <strong>the</strong> plant leftovers are <strong>in</strong>oculated<br />
with certa<strong>in</strong> fungi be<strong>for</strong>e?<br />
This is possible, however, <strong>for</strong> <strong>the</strong> normal leisure gardener too exaggeratedly <strong>and</strong> also<br />
not necessary. Investigations proved that a previous addition of A. flavus accelerates<br />
<strong>the</strong> growth of Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei. Mucor sp. should accelerate <strong>the</strong> growth with five o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
earthworms. Never<strong>the</strong>less, with Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei M. circ<strong>in</strong>elloides shows <strong>the</strong> opposite<br />
effect.<br />
What role do compost<strong>in</strong>g worms play besides <strong>the</strong> use as humus producer, fish<br />
bait <strong>and</strong> animal food?<br />
The compost worms Eisenia fetida <strong>and</strong> Eisenia <strong>and</strong>rei play an important role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
ecotoxicological assessment of compounds <strong>in</strong> soil <strong>and</strong> are <strong>the</strong> recommended OECD<br />
87
earthworm test species. This species has been used to exam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> relative toxicity<br />
<strong>and</strong> predict <strong>the</strong> short <strong>and</strong> long-term effects of toxic substances on earthworm<br />
populations <strong>in</strong> field soil. The compost<strong>in</strong>g worm (Eisenia fetida) is representative of<br />
three o<strong>the</strong>r species of earthworms (Allolobophora tuberculata, Eudrilus eugenia, <strong>and</strong><br />
Perionyx excavus). For Eisenia fetida a very large toxicological literature database is<br />
exist<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
88
ISBN 978-92-5-106859-5<br />
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 6 8 5 9 5<br />
I2196E/1/04.11