Biologically-Respectful Tourism - LinkBC

CATHERINE A.
EVANS
INFO@TOURSEXPLORE.COM
CEVANS@CAPILANOU.CA
BIOLOGICALLY‐RESPECTFUL TOURISM:
EXAMINING ENVIRONMENTAL CAMPAIGNS
OF THE SUNSHINE COAST, BC
July 2012
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Table of Contents
Summary .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Nature of the problem ........................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Rise of non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) .................................................................................................................................. 4
Case Study: The Lower Sunshine Coast.................................................................................................................................................. 4
Research objectives ................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
The rise of biodiversity consciousness ....................................................................................................................................................... 5
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) ....................................................................................................................................... 5
The sustainable tourism agenda ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Towards biologically‐respectful tourism versus sustainable tourism .................................................................................................... 6
Biologically‐respectful tourism case studies .............................................................................................................................................. 7
Bhutan .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Costa Rica ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Haida Gwaii, British Columbia ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
Lessons learned ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Agents of transformational change ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Communicating the change message .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Instruments to guide and enforce change ........................................................................................................................................... 10
Methodology............................................................................................................................................................................................ 11
Critical incident technique ................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Step 1: Identification of aims ........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Step 2: Identification of the incidents to be collected ..................................................................................................................... 12
Step 3: Data collection ..................................................................................................................................................................... 13
Step 4: Data analysis ........................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Step 5: Project dissemination .......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Cluster analysis of community environmentally‐themed campaigns ...................................................................................................... 15
The need to protect natural assets ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
The need for increased food security .................................................................................................................................................. 22
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The need for education & nature awareness ...................................................................................................................................... 25
Other community concerns ................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Towards effective campaign strategies : Conceptual Model ................................................................................................................... 31
Managerial/leadership realm .............................................................................................................................................................. 32
Choosing effective leadership to manage the campaign ................................................................................................................. 32
Adopting an effective management plan ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Working effectively with partners ................................................................................................................................................... 33
Establishing a formal society ............................................................................................................................................................ 34
Achieving adequate levels of funding/volunteers ........................................................................................................................... 34
Engaging The wider community in the process ............................................................................................................................... 35
Using scientific assessment & surveys ............................................................................................................................................. 35
Starting to succession plan and engage youth ................................................................................................................................. 36
Providing incremental goals & celebrating successes ...................................................................................................................... 36
Purchase or conversion of private land for preservation ................................................................................................................ 37
Continuing efforts toward higher levels of protection .................................................................................................................... 37
Building an effective communications realm....................................................................................................................................... 37
Using the right tools & activities during the campaign .................................................................................................................... 38
Reaching the right target market ..................................................................................................................................................... 40
Establishing a community watch program ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Evaluating the campaign ...................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Summary and conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................... 42
References ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
Appendix A: Goals and targets Biodiversity 2011‐2020 .......................................................................................................................... 49
Appendix B: Bhutan’s Gross National Happiness Philosophy ................................................................................................................. 51
Appendix C: Ecotourism Society’s code of conduct ................................................................................................................................. 51
Appendix D: List of acronyms and abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... 52
Appendix E: Photo Credits ....................................................................................................................................................................... 52
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SUMMARY
This report summarizes graduate‐level research undertaken by Catherine A. Evans through to early 2012 as part of the Masters of
Tourism Management program at Royal Roads University.
Her research was spurred by an interest in the relationship between biological diversity and tourism. Evans first investigated this
relationship by reviewing literature and case studies of regions that have adopted biologically‐friendly societal and tourism
strategies.
The bulk of Evans’ original graduate research looked at environmentally‐themed campaigns conducted by Non‐Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) in the Lower Sunshine Coast region of British Columbia. Her use of the critical incident technique culminates in
a conceptual model: Effective strategies for community environmentally‐themed campaigns that can serve as a resource for
organizations creating transformational change towards biologically‐respectful attitudes and behaviours (p. 31).
INTRODUCTION
NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
There has been growing global awareness of biodiversity at risk as an impetus for change in recent decades. Nonetheless, a disparity
persists between what people say they value, and their actions. Given the enormity of global tourism, and its cumulative negative
impacts on the natural landscape, remedies are of the utmost importance.
RISE OF NON‐GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS (NGOS)
Princen & Finger suggest that NGOs appear to be key actors in moving societies away from environmental degradation and toward
sustainable economies (2004, p. 11). The sheer numbers of NGOs worldwide is astonishing. According to the organization Wiser
Earth, there are more than one million organizations actively working toward ecological sustainability, economic justice, human
rights protection, political accountability and peace – issues that are systemically interconnected and intertwined (Wiser Earth, n.d).
CASE STUDY: THE LOWER SUNSHINE COAST
The lower Sunshine Coast of British Columbia is home to 404 tourism businesses
(Carlysle‐Smith & Evans, 2002, p. 12). Accelerated population growth combined with a
proximity to Vancouver has brought the region under typical growth pressure, resulting in
escalating land use conflicts between economic sectors. At present the region has less
than 3% in protected park status, well below the 14% BC standard, and marine protected
areas in the region amount to less than 1%. Plans for mitigating human impacts are
unclear as the area is lacking both a regional land use plan, and a regional growth strategy
(Sunshine Coast Regional District, SCRD, n.d). The regional DMO (Destination Marketing
Organization) 2007 tourism plan mentions ‘sustainability’ solely in the context of financial
viability (2007, p. 20).
Despite these challenges, the region’s residents display high conservation values evidenced by an astoundingly high number of
active community environmental and social service organizations, most of NGO status. The resulting unique situation on the
Sunshine Coast provides an opportunity to examine the complex relationship between biodiversity, society and the tourism industry
and examine the growing NGO environmental phenomenon.
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RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The goal of this research was to discover obstacles that prevent pro‐environmental organizations in the region from reaching their
full potential, as well as discover what instrument(s) might improve societal, industry and visitor attitudes and actions. Such
discoveries will ideally have application to branding campaigns aimed at developing biologically‐respectful education and tourism
for residents and visitors on BC’s Sunshine Coast.
A literature review was conducted to examine the complex relationship between biological diversity (aka biodiversity) and tourism.
It covers the rise of awareness of biodiversity, contrasts between the terms biodiversity and sustainability, lessons from regions
with more biologically‐friendly societal and tourism models, and potential instruments and agents for influencing change towards
biologically‐respectful tourism stewardship.
THE RISE OF BIODIVERSITY CONSCIOUSNESS
The abundance of general, scientific and academic literature on this subject supports
the notion that the value of biodiversity is well‐documented. In addition to
recreational, spiritual, and aesthetic values, biodiversity has wide implications and
uses in agriculture, medicine, genetic, social, economic, scientific, educational and
cultural processes (Grubb et al, 1993, p. 76; UNEP‐WMO, 2002, p. 3).
Within the realm of tourism, Ritchie & Crouch (2003) state that “the diversity,
uniqueness, abundance, accessibility and attractiveness of scenic, ecological,
recreational and other natural physical features… represent a primary motivation for
travel” (p. 20). Recognizing this factor, several tourism regions have appealed to
visitors through natural branding including New Zealand’s ‘100% Pure’, Costa Rica’s ‘no artificial ingredients’, and British Columbia’s
‘Super Natural BC’. They all rely heavily on the image and awareness of a natural landscape. Despite the broad consensus on the
value of nature, the literature suggests a discrepancy in what people say they value and their actions that result in a lack of
protection and increasingly negative impacts.
THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD)
1992 the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was drafted under the auspices of the UNEP a month prior to the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro. This binding instrument was formally signed by 153 states
plus the European Commission (p. 14‐15). Canada, as one of those signatories, is committed to these articles that include definitions,
terms of sustainable use, conservation strategies, and parameters for international co‐operation (p. 14‐15).
When the nations re‐grouped a decade later in 2002, Canada joined 187 signatory states in additional biodiversity commitments,
including a new ten‐year target of creating protected areas in each jurisdiction to form a global network of protected areas. This
network would be the main combatant of threats to biodiversity (UNEP, 1992, p. 4; Furman, Varjopuro, Van Apeldoorn and
Adamescu, 2007, p. 196‐197).
Representatives for the CBD re‐grouped in Nagoya, Japan in 2010 to check on the status of the world’s protected areas and create
the strategic direction for the coming decade. To increase the awareness of the magnitude of threats and motivate nations to
resolve, the UNEP declared the previously‐announced year of biodiversity would become the decade for biodiversity from 2011 –
2020. New goals, targets and rationale were drafted (UNEP, 2010, pp. 1‐20).
A summary of the five principle goals and twenty targets in this plan are contained in Appendix A. What developed from the Nagoya
Conference was the proposition that “National biodiversity strategies and action plans (NBSAPs) should become the “key instrument
for translating the Convention and decisions of the Conference of the Parties into national action as a means of achieving the
objectives” (UNEP, 2010, p. 9).
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While examining this directive on a National level, the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS) reported on the ‘good, the
bad and the ugly’ in “the largest national park system in the world” (2009, p. 1). Their 2009 report stated that “the pace of park
creation slowed” from previously‐praised levels in 2008 with “just under 10% of Canada’s lands and less than 1% of our oceans and
freshwater permanently protected,” an insignificant change from the year prior (ibid, p. 1).
THE SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AGENDA
On the surface, a biodiversity strategy might be easily confused with advancing sustainability, a concept gaining momentum in the
common lexicon since its introduction by the 1987 World Commission on Environment and Development (UNEP‐WTO, 2005 p. 8),
“a process to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (ibid).
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (WTO) advocates that all tourism should be sustainable on four levels:
environmentally, economically, socially and culturally (p. 2). However, linking the term “sustainable” to “development” slants and
narrows the focus, forcing concepts to be viewed through the lens of development.
Furthermore, Smith (1992) suggests that the economy wins when pitted against the
environment (p. 39).
When one considers the magnitude of the combined and cumulative impacts of regional,
national and global tourism on natural systems, a severe ‘ecological footprint’ (WWF,
2010b) is evident and is clearly unsustainable. The Living Planet Report tells us that
“business as usual” is not an option (WWF & the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation
and Development, 2010b, p. 3).
Yet, in their recent policies and principles brief, BC’s provincial Tourism Industry Association (TIABC) mentions sustainability only as
a prefix to growth (2011, p. 6‐7). Such oversight might appear to support the notion our province’s lead tourism Association sees the
travel agenda as business as usual. TIABC acknowledges that “global ecosystems and social justice systems are under pressure” and
that “decreasing environmental quality and increasing volatility are impacting businesses” (p. 18). Rather than suggesting actions to
mitigate these impacts, however, they suggest “businesses and destinations that demonstrate good environmental and social
stewardship will be better positioned to meet the changing expectation” and can thus capitalize on the ‘trend’ (p. 18).
Lansing & De Vries (2007) propose that the rise in consumer consciousness is indeed being exploited; travellers are being lured into
a false sense they are participating on a “morally preferable” and “personally fulfilling” journey while falling for a ‘marketing ploy’
(p. 81).
As a further impediment, within the biological realm, not all species are valued equally. Newsome, Dowling & Moore (2005) bring
to light the issue of selective significance in their book Wildlife Tourism. Their studies stress that most people identify concern and
interest for specific mammals, and birds over reptiles, or invertebrates, or other life forms (Bart, 1972, Green et al, 2001, Moscardo
et al, 2001, Shackley, 1996 as cited by Newsome, Dowling & Moore, 2005, p. 8).
TOWARDS BIOLOGICALLY‐RESPECTFUL TOURISM VERSUS SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
While it might be possible to ‘sustain’ discriminatory wildlife viewing in favour of much‐loved mega fauna, for full biologicallyrespectful
tourism to occur, wildlife tourism, as well as any nature based travel, will need to embrace a wider natural history scope.
The UNEP‐WMO (2002) define biodiversity as “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,
marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species, and of ecosystems” (p. 3). They explain that biodiversity stresses three levels – genetic, species and ecosystem
(p. 3).
Petrosillo et al (2007) argue that biodiversity stewardship results will only be achieved by changing the way people think about the
conservation of species and ecosystem diversity (p. 29). Such a change could move away from the protection of key commercial
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species or charismatic species in relation to man’s food needs or recreational curiosity and towards a more holistic ecosystem
based approach.
In Aldo Leopold‘s Sand County Almanac he defined an alternative land ethic that creates and considers economic value for all
species (1949, p. 177). These sentiments have been echoed by a growing number of scientists, conservationists, educators and
others (Constanza et al, 1997; Erlich & Erlich 2008). E.O. Wilson (1993) asks “who has the authority and can judge the ultimate value
of nature? Do species that have co‐evolved not share an innate right to exist, universal and independent of what humans feel about
the matter” (p. 37)? He adds “However biodiversity arose it was not put on this planet to be erased by any one species” (2006, p.
89).
With regards to tourism, Goodwin (1996) alludes it is possible to shift the direction of destination planning to be more compatible
with conservation goals, a factor often associated with the term ‘ecotourism’ (as cited by Gössling, 1999, p. 304). This form of travel
is about “uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel” (Ecotourism Society, n.d).
That ecotourists can be promoters of goodwill or generous supporters of conservation through financial and educational benefits is
also documented by D’Amore & Jafari (1988), Boo (1990), Kohl (2002), and Powell & Ham, (2008). Appendix C identifies a traveler’s
code of conduct developed by the Ecotourism Society that can serve as a tool for eco‐sensitive journeys. However, Gössling (1999)
reminds us that “although there is incredible demand for nature based tourism and protected area visitation; ecotourism is
presently just a small segment of nature based tourism” (p. 304).
If ‘sustainable travel’ is not working as an effective brand, might a new brand of ‘biologically‐respectful tourism’ enter the lexicon
and shift attitude and behaviour? Biodiversity management, a centrepiece of sustainability, could widen the protective scope to
encompass the totality of life on the planet. If tourism is to have any relationship with safeguarding biodiversity, it stands to reason
that all tourism should become biologically‐respectful.
BIOLOGICALLY‐RESPECTFUL TOURISM CASE STUDIES
The question, then, is whether or not biologically‐respectful tourism is a viable model. Regions that provide evidence for this
concept include the destinations of Bhutan, Costa Rica and Haida Gwaii. Each of these regions and their efforts are profiled in the
following sections.
BHUTAN
The middle path National environment strategy for Bhutan (1998) includes a range of
ecologically‐friendly strategies such as a National Forest Policy Act that mandates a 60%
forest cover. The environmental strategy also sets policies dedicated to a spectrum of
educational, agricultural, energy, wildlife and tourism management objectives (1‐93).
Additionally, the strategy commits the nation to preserve its cultural heritage with
regulations for official dress, language, building architecture and traditions (pp. 17‐47).
Crucial to the success of these policies is Bhutan’s ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH)
philosophy (p. 19). King Jigme Singye Wangchuck’s government originated the GNH
model with the notion that national happiness is more important than gross domestic product. Based largely on Buddhist religion,
the model endorses ‘respect for all living things’ and considers wealth in the form of personal development and the acquisition of
knowledge (p. 19). This in contrast to Western economies where “a country could only be called developed once it reached a certain
advanced level of material consumption.” The full GNH value system can be found in Appendix B.
Tourism is a relatively new industry to Bhutan, which began in 1974 when the doors of the nation first opened to travellers (Tourism
Council of Bhutan, n.d). “Realizing that an unrestricted flow of tourism could easily contaminate the pristine environment, and the
rich and unique culture” (p. 51), protective measures were put into place.
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To this end, travel to Bhutan includes compliance with pre‐departure visa requirements, tight restrictions on tourism numbers,
mandatory accompaniment of locally trained guides, restricted access to certain cultural and protected areas, and strict monitoring
by the Ministry of Trade. The country has adopted a high‐value, low‐volume tourism strategy charging a $200 USD per‐person, perdiem
for its 6000 plus annual visitors, which must be paid prior to arrival. This rate increased by 25% on January 1, 2012 (Tourism
Council of Bhutan, n.d). The policies and practices have gained admiration in selected circles. In November 2011 Bhutan hosted a
Himalayan biodiversity summit and the 2012 Pacific Asia Travel Association Adventure Travel and Responsible Tourism Conference
and Mart (PATA, n.d).
COSTA RICA
According to UNEP‐WTO (2005), Costa Rica is a nation with a “longstanding emphasis on
ecotourism and sustainability” (p. 139). Similar to Bhutan, it leans away from a focus on
gross domestic product (GDP) as a prime success indicator.
In 2010, the country ranked 3rd of 163 countries in the Environmental Performance Index
(EPI, 2010) that quantifies environmental performance against a benchmark of twenty‐five
indicators across ten policy categories. The previous year they placed 1st in the Happy
Planet index (New Economics Foundation NEF, n.d) that combines indicators of life
expectancy, life satisfaction, and ecological footprint (NEF, n.d). These feats evidence a
heightened socio‐environmental philosophy nurtured over time (NEF, n.d).
A quote from Nobel Peace Prize winner and two‐time President Oscar Arias Sanchez (1987) illustrates this unique value system:
“Because our country is a country of teachers, we closed the army camps,
and our children go about with books under their arms, not with rifles on their shoulders. We believe in dialogue, in
agreement, in reaching a consensus.”
(Better World Heroes, n.d).
Echoing an international brand promise as “one of the most bio‐diverse countries in the world” (UNEP‐WTO, 2005, p. 139), Costa
Rica markets on a platform of “no artificial ingredients”, which permeates promotional literature and industry practice (Costa Rica
Tourism Board (CTB), 2011; UNEP‐WTO, 2005 p. 139). The CTB describes their ‘consolidated’ system of protected areas along with
“impressive scenic beauty” as key tourism strengths. In 2005 the UNEP‐WTO (2005) identified these attributes as helping to attract
one million international tourists a year (p. 139).
How did Costa Rica reach this integration of conservation efforts and branding? Rex Govorchin, tourism promoter, feels education
served to diffuse ‘grumbles’ between conservationists and those lobbying for economic or agrarian developments (p.1). The
development of protected parks, many privately owned, now comprise 20% of the nation’s territory (Costa Rica Travel & Tourism
Bureau, n.d). Today, park fees and ecotourism revenue finance these protected areas independently of the National Budget (UNEP‐
WTO, 2005, p. 143) and the park system acts as “an environmental bank, protecting species that have all but disappeared in
neighbouring countries” (Govorchin, n.d, p. 7).
Many of the early ecotourism businesses and private nature reserves were established by biologists and conservationists studying
the country’s flora and fauna (UNEP‐WTO, p. 140). UNEP‐WTO suggests these early adopters were governed by “strong conservation
and social ethic” allowing the conservation philosophy to influence the tourism operators that followed (p. 140). Tourism continues
to “develop in such a way as to contribute effectively and constructively against any form of social degradation, generating
economic benefits, protecting the environment, and supporting our people’s culture and values” illustrating a high level of top‐down
influence (CTB, 2011).
In order to avoid the high costs and potential discriminatory application of legally‐binding regulations (UNEP‐WTO, 2005 p. 140‐141),
industry‐led and voluntary measures such as the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) are encouraged. CST offers credible and
objective criteria (p. 142), allowing visitors to differentiate tourism businesses based on the degree to which they comply with
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sustainable models of natural, cultural, and social resource management. Operators are encouraged to attain increasingly higher
levels of certification with state‐supported rewards in the form of marketing (p. 141). This model is now being taught by Costa Rica
to its Latin neighbours. Another state conservation incentive comes in the form of annual compensation or land tax exemptions for
turning private lands into private reserves. This serves to conserve biodiversity, protect the water supply, and reduce carbon
emissions that would result from deforestation of the lands (p. 142‐143).
HAIDA GWAII, BRITISH COLUMBIA
Haida Gwaii, a collection of islands located on the West Coast of British Columbia, is a
Canadian region that puts nature and culture above all else.
The area formerly known as the Queen Charlotte Islands has evolved considerably over
the past two decades to become an exemplary site for conservation and collaborative
management. In 1993, the principles of Haida culture led to the creation of Gwaii Haanas
National Park & Haida Heritage Site. In 2010 the protected area was expanded to include
Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area (Parks Canada, n.d). The Council of Haida
Nation (CHN) partnered to create the Gwaii Haanas Back Country Management Plan
(Archipelago Management Board, 2003), a Marine Use Plan for the jurisdiction (CHN, 2007), and is currently in the process of
updating a combined Management Plan (N. Fournier, personal communication November 17, 2011).
The goals, objectives and strategies outlined in these two plans detail practices of respect, responsibility, long‐term sustainability,
being thankful, and seeking wise council for monitoring. It is a precautionary approach “to minimize threats through collaborative
management, and seek to reverse current destructive trends and guide restoration into future balance” (CHN, 2007, pp. 4‐7). The
plans manage human activities in Gwaii Haanas and identify a specific list of activities that are currently acceptable and
unacceptable for the two main archipelago industries; tourism and fisheries (AMB, 2003, pp. 5‐7).
Tourism regulations include licensing, limits on numbers, and regulations on non‐Haida ownership (p. 7). The AMB also set an overall
use level of 33,000 user‐nights in Gwaii Haanas, which equates to roughly 2,000 annual visitors split between day use and multi‐day
use operators (p. 12). Other regional plans control levels of ‘crowding’, restrict permanent buildings, manage visits to sensitive
ecosystems, and ensure each visit to a heritage site is accompanied by a Haida watchman (pp. 29‐39). In one of the strictest of all
Canadian protected area plans, the Haida challenge people to adapt to this “wild place” rather than expect the place to be modified
to provide them with the amenities they may expect at home or at other places they visit (AMB, 2003, p. 19).
LESSONS LEARNED
Successes gleaned from the three cases studies of Bhutan, Costa Rica and Haida Gwaii provide a means of summarizing conditions
to which biologically‐respectful or ethical based tourism while protecting biodiversity can prevail. These are:
• Government support and/or influence on environmental policies.
• Widespread philosophical and/or spiritual beliefs in societal and natural value systems.
• High levels of education or knowledge pursued as measures of societal development.
• Limits on carrying capacities.
• Consensus building.
• Visionary leadership.
• Regulations and expectations placed on tourism operators and visitors.
• Willingness to mentor best practices.
• High yield‐low volume tourism models.
• Meaningful and widely supported sustainable certification systems.
• Influencing visitors to adapt to wild places.
• Use of both motivational means and monetary incentives for safeguarding protected areas.
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AGENTS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL CHANGE
Choosing the right leader or manager is seen as an essential first step in transformational change. In A Force for Change, Kotter
(1990) explains the difference between the words ‘leadership’ and ‘management’. He refers to leadership as a process that directs
and mobilizes people and their ideas (p. 3), where management, derived in response to “the emergence of large numbers of
complex organizations” is a means to bring order and consistency to a potentially chaotic organization (p. 4). Effective leadership
behaviours and traits as described by Senge (1990), Kotter (1005), and Yukl (2005) are essential ingredients to navigate effectively
through complex scenarios in uncertain times. There will be core challenges in finding solutions. Orr (1992) suggests that “If we
consider not only the complexities of nature, from soil bacteria to planetary bio‐geochemical cycles, but also the human impacts,
with their various kinds of synergies, feedback loops, leads, and lags, the idea of managing the planet, unlike piloting a 747, requires
a level of knowledge that we are not likely to acquire” (p. 158).
Despite the complexities of an ideal solution with conflicting ‘environmental worldviews’, Clapp & Davergne (2005) plead that
“unless we act immediately with resolve and sacrifice, in a mere hundred years or so, humanity itself will engulf the earth” (p.1).
In a speech given by Kofi Annan, UN Secretary General on 2004’s International Day of Biodiversity, he stated “the preservation of
biodiversity is not just a job for Governments. International and non‐governmental organizations (NGO’s), the private sector and
each and every individual have a role to play in changing entrenched outlooks and ending destructive patterns of behavior”
(Convention on biodiversity, 2004).
COMMUNICATING THE CHANGE MESSAGE
“Under the context of project management, awareness and communications is a way to influence people’s knowledge and attitudes
and, hence, the actions that they take” (World Wildlife Fund, 2007, p. 3). The WWF Awareness & Communication Template (2007)
is a useful tool to build successful communication strategies for environmentally‐themed campaigns. Recommendations include:
1. Understanding the context.
2. Identifying the target audience for your awareness and communications strategy.
3. Identify your awareness and communication objectives.
4. Defining the key message and call to action, consider ‘brand’ or ‘theme’.
5. Choose activities and tools to help deliver your key message and call to action.
6. Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of your message.
(p. 4 and p. 13)
To increase effectiveness in the campaign objectives WWF (2007) also suggest that the
strategy is:
(p. 7‐8).
• Outcome Oriented: Directed to critical factors that affect one or more project goals.
• Measurable: Definable in relation to some standard scale (numbers, percentage, fractions, or all/nothing states).
• Time Limited: Achievable within a specific period of time.
• Specific: Clearly defined so that all people involved in the project have the same understanding of what the terms
in the objective mean.
• Practical: Achievable and appropriate within the context of the project site.
INSTRUMENTS TO GUIDE AND ENFORCE CHANGE
While the desire to change may be a goal; the concept must be grounded in consciousness, policy and practice. To this end
Newsome, Dowling & Moore (2005) explain that protection policies can range from voluntary to compulsory and with little state
involvement to state domination (p. 153) and present a spectrum of potential instruments available below.
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• Motivational – education, partnerships, incentives such as awards and management agreements.
• Self‐regulatory – codes of practice and guidelines for visitors and for operators, eco‐labeling and certifications,
environmental managements systems.
• Economic – fees & charges, licenses & leases, land purchases, payments (grants, compensations and subsidies.
• Regulatory – legislation & regulation (acts), direct provision (roads, water and infrastructure support), and planning
such as land use zoning, and recovery/protection of endangered or threatened species.
(pp. 151‐171)
A new report by the David Suzuki Foundation called Restore BC’s Urban Natural Capital evaluates the efficacy of existing policy
options and provides guidance and recommendations for new solutions that regions and municipalities should adopted in order
to protect and restore ecosystem services in developed regions of British Columbia including: (1) public ownership, (2) regulatory,
and (3) market‐based instruments (Molner, 2011 p. 5).
Of interest will be whether or not the instruments described by Newsome, Dowling and Moore et. al. (2005) and the tools and
strategies identified by the David Suzuki Foundation report could be applicable and find acceptability in regions such as the Sunshine
Coast. With this in mind, a research project was conducted in the region in 2011; the methodology is outlined in the following
section.
METHODOLOGY
The primary research of this project investigated NGO’s and conservation groups in the Sunshine Coast region who have conducted
environmentally‐themed campaigns. More specifically, it focused on tools used to convey the message, activities chosen during the
campaigns.
The study region stretches 100 km along British Columbia’s Pacific Ocean from Port Mellon on Howe Sound to Earl’s Cove on Jervis
Inlet and contains just over 28,000 residents (Sunshine Coast Regional District, n.d).
A framework known as ‘critical incident technique’ was employed to discover ‘critical’ or ‘revelatory’ success and/or failure
(Flanagan, 1954 as cited by Robson, 2011, p. 366, Kemppainen, 2000. p. 1264) in campaign strategy. The study followed a mixedmethod
sequential approach, which researchers Mason, Augustyn and Seakhoa‐King (2010) suggest as worthwhile for exploratory
qualitative research. This method is especially useful when there is a lack of sufficient information to triangulate or where the topic
is under‐researched (pp. 433‐435) as is the case on the lower Sunshine Coast.
While there is some controversy over combining quantitative and qualitative research paradigms (Robson, 2011, p. 162), it is the
belief of this researcher that using a mixed‐strategy is necessary to deal with the complexities of a multi‐faceted study. The
Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioral Research (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003) provided a valuable tool for conducting
this research. The qualitative and quantitative research phases overlapped and the research remained flexible accommodating
change throughout the research process.
CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE
The critical incident technique (CIT) was developed in 1954 by J. Flanagan and other members of the Aviation Psychology Program
of the United States Army; their research was carried out during World War II (Robson, 2011, p. 366‐367), at a time when there was
“an urgent need to train flight crews in a very short time, and to understand the specific behaviors that led to the success or failure
of a mission” (Kemppainen, 2000, p. 1264). The CIT technique drew focus to ‘critical incidents’, which Flanagan (1954) defined as
“any observable human activity that is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about the
person performing the act” (as cited by Robson, 2011, p. 366).
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This methodology has transferability to the question of biodiversity conservation. If we accept what many are saying about
ecological degradation (Hester & Harrison, 2007; Orr, 1992; Orr 1993; UNEP, 1992; Wilson, 2006; WWF, 2010) there is an urgent
need to discover vital leverage points for attitudinal and behavioral changes. Further to findings by Caldwell (1985, p. 9); Hawken
(2007); and Princen & Finger (2004, p. 11), an assumption was made that environmental NGOs may play a crucial role as agents
of potential change in preventing the loss of biodiversity, as well as other critical environmental issues.
The technique’s five steps as detailed in a user’s guide by Schluter, Seaton & Chaboyer (2008, pp. 108‐112) were incorporated into
the study.
STEP 1: IDENTIFICATION OF AIMS
The first step required an identification of the research questions or the aim of the study.
RESEARCH QUESTION
How do community non‐governmental organizations construct environmentally‐themed campaigns to help build biologicallyrespectful
stewardship in residents and visitors?
SECONDARY QUESTIONS
1. Have current attitudes and behaviors towards biodiversity have changed in the past decade?
2. Who is best to take the lead in regards to biologically‐respectful stewardship in residents and visitors – environmental NGO’s,
scientists, industry and/or government?
3. What instrument(s) may be potential tools for biologically‐respectful education and tourism?
SAMPLE AUDIENCE, SELECTION OF ORGANIZATIONS AND CAMPAIGNS
Local NGOs and conservation organizations on the lower Sunshine Coast were identified through community searches, resulting
in a list of 27 potential organizations assumed to be undertaking environmentally‐themed activities. Five of these organizations
were deemed unsuitable based on one or more of the following conditions:
• Organization had not been active in the study area for an extended period of time.
• Organization had not been involved in an environmentally‐themed activity.
• Activity that the organization was involved with was not aimed at an audience beyond its membership such as club
recreational or social events.
• Activity did not involve multiple communication activities.
• Activity was not focused on achieving environmental change.
(Clow & Baack, 2012, p. 6., Cox, 2006 as cited by Kazakova, 2009, p. 6).
Websites, meeting minutes, publications and brochures of the remaining 22 organizations were scoured to discover which of these
had conducted a comprehensive environmentally‐themed communication campaign over the past decade. One project, whose
original aim of creating park status fell outside this ten‐year parameter, was included because of current efforts for park expansion.
The time frame chosen reflected an assumption that research beyond ten years might yield less reliable data and nuance, and
publications might not be easily available. The term ‘campaign’ was used interchangeably with the term ‘project.’
Forty such campaigns were identified and became the research scope.
STEP 2: IDENTIFICATION OF THE INCIDENTS TO BE COLLECTED
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The term ‘incident’ defined in the Concise Oxford Dictionary (2001) as an event or occurrence; an instance of something happening
was sufficiently broad to allow a wide spectrum of interpretations.
In this study ‘incident’ was used as a methodological lens from which to isolate communication tools and activities used by the NGOs
when constructing their environmental campaigns. In his original study Flanagan (1954) recommended that incidents collected
should be remarkably effective or ineffective and distinguished from standard operations as having more memorable impact (as
cited by Schluter, Seaton & Chaboyer, 2008, p. 108). Additionally, the term ‘incident’ was used synonymously with the term
‘revelatory’ as proposed by Norman et al (1992, as cited by Schluter, Seaton & Chaboyer, 2008) to single out the actions or situations
that would be most revealing.
To achieve these revelatory occurrences campaign managers were asked to rank the perceived effectiveness of each tool and each
activity used using a five‐point Likert scale. The responses at the extreme ends of the scale would serve to isolate ‘critical’ success
and failure.
STEP 3: DATA COLLECTION
With CIT individual researchers can make their own choices regarding the methods of data collection and analysis. The four data
collection phases used in this study were: Exploratory Research, Survey, Discovery, and Interviews.
TABLE 1: RESEARCH TIMELINE
ACTIVITY
Sep 2011
Oct 2011
Nov 2011
Dec 2011
Jan 2012
Feb 2012
Mar 2012
Apr 2012
May 2012
Literature review
QUALITATIVE| Exploratory research
Conduct pilot test of campaign survey
QUANTITATIVE | QUALITITAVE (Campaign survey)
QUALITATIVE | Interviews (perceptions of impact)
QUAL & QUAN | Discovery / Descriptive statistics/ Analysis
Final report
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Research to answer the primary and secondary questions began with:
• An exploration of campaign brochures and publications.
• Analysis of grey literature from government and regional conservation organizations.
• Review of existing research papers including conceptual frameworks.
• Existing theories on environmental campaign strategies.
• Data arising from the concurrent sustainability research conducted by the SCRD.
During this phase, the names and contact information of each campaign manager were sought in order to compile a targeted list for
the survey phase. A research log book kept an audit trail with respect to situations related to the study. Each campaign was isolated
into a file and colour‐coded in both log input and computer entries. This task, while laborious, proved highly effective for analysis
and re‐tracing. Campaigns were numbered in the reporting stage.
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CAMPAIGN SURVEY
The subsequent survey phase sought answers from campaign managers regarding the organization, its campaign, and contributing
partners. The survey was designed using Constant Contact Survey and administered online. A benefit of this platform is that data
can be entered manually by the researcher for respondents not able to use online services. Printed copies of the campaigns were
offered to campaign managers should they prefer an alternative however all chose online administration.
As recommended by Robson (2011) pilot testing of the survey was done to identify potential problems (p. 405); one campaign
manager piloted the survey by email. Two questions were found to be confusing and were modified prior to the survey release.
After initial testing of this content, finding no technical issues, a timed release of three more surveys followed. For good measure,
this step was repeated in two more test campaigns.
As no issues were discovered, the survey was released to the remaining sample on January 6, 2012. From January 6 to 18, seven
surveys were returned. A reminder email resulted in an additional nine surveys. Phone calls and a final email reminder resulted in
a final total of 33 of the 40 targeted completions for a response rate of 82.5%. Phone calls originally meant as exploratory probes or
as reminder calls resulted in un‐structured interviews taking place, with sufficient data collected to analyze an additional six projects.
In the end, 39/40 projects were covered through surveys and unstructured interviews for a response rate of 97.5%.
A crucial success factor was approaching potential campaign managers in a manner that built a good first impression; necessary
for obtaining the depth and breadth of data. Managers were contacted through a ‘one‐degree of separation’ of a mutual friend.
Such friends were discovered by snowballing through the community
which proved successful given the nature of the study region. An attitude
of genuine respect and gratitude for participation was adopted,
assurances of confidentiality were provided, and all attempts were made
to limit time constraints on the campaign managers. Additionally the
candidates were briefed on the merits of the study in the introductory
email and made aware that their organizations would be able to view the
final report on completion.
Appendix D serves as a guide to the acronyms and abbreviations listed in
this paper. A copy of the survey questions is available upon request.
INTERVIEWS
Schluter, Seaton & Chaboyer (2008) highlight three important ingredients in the success of mixing the stages of CIT data collection:
1. A rich description of the event should be explored.
2. Critical’ actions of the person(s) involved in the event should be collected.
3. The outcome of the event should be analyzed to ascertain the effectiveness of the action (p. 107).
As such, the research also included a number of interviews with campaign managers. Although originally intended as semistructured
interviews conducted at the conclusion of the research as suggested by Tashakkori & Teddlie (2003, p. 308), relationships
developed with the campaign managers earlier in the research led to a series of unstructured interviews instead. The data tables
show the projects where such interviews took place.
STEP 4: DATA ANALYSIS
The data obtained through discovery, questionnaires, and interviews was examined for recurring themes, activities, and practices
in order to identify patterns and relationships. Each campaign was considered in isolation, clustered in themes, and then crossanalyzed.
Where possible, the strategies observed in the community were measured against secondary research and existing best
practices.
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STEP 5: PROJECT DISSEMINATION
The findings were concentrated and discussed in two ways:
1. Cluster analysis of community environmentally‐themed campaigns: aims, primary targets, and perceived results.
2. Effectiveness and ineffectiveness of campaign strategies.
CLUSTER ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTALLY‐THEMED CAMPAIGNS
Research undertaken between September 2011 and January 2012 identified 40 environmentally‐themed projects conducted during
the past decade by 22 independent Non‐Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and conservation groups in the study region.
Survey, discovery, and un‐structured interviews led to the emergence of five themed clusters:
1. Food Security (n=6);
2. Wildlife Management & Protection (n=10);
3. Land & Oceans Management & Protection (n=10);
4. Education (n=7); and
5. Other: consisting of judicial, energy security, environmental jobs, air quality/pollution, and water conservation (n=7).
Figure 1 illustrates the cluster composition.
FIGURE 1: CLUSTERS OF COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTALLY‐THEMED CAMPAIGNS
NGO & Conservation Group Clusters
Other (air,
water, energy,
judicial), 7,
18%
Food Security,
6, 15%
Education, 7,
18%
Land & Oceans
Protection &
Management,
10, 25%
Wildlife
Protection &
Management,
10, 25%
The results for each cluster are presented in the following five cluster tables and discussion.
THE NEED TO PROTECT NATURAL ASSETS
For decades the Sunshine Coast Forest District has experienced significant habitat loss, habitat degradation, and a lack of protection,
with a low percentage of protected areas (less than 1.5% of land area protection prior to 1990). After more than 20 years of effort to
increase this level now just 3% is protected. Often zones of protection are isolated to ‘very small parcels’. Mt. Elphinstone forest, for
Page 15

instance, has just 139 ha protected, divided between three separated areas. Such fragmentation is deemed inadequate to
maintain biodiversity.
The Sunshine Coast is one of the few remaining regions in British Columbia that does not yet have a strategic land use plan or
regional growth management framework. Between 2001 and 2006 the population rose 8.4%. This accelerated growth, combined
with the proximity to Vancouver has brought the region under development pressure, resulting in escalating land‐use conflicts
between economic sectors.
The campaigns highlighted a sense of insufficient community engagement in the stakeholder and judicial processes. Some
campaigns were underpinned by demand for more accountability from resource professionals and a perceived lack of sustainability
in logging, fishing, and mining practices. A proposed deep sea mining port elicited a strong reaction from the community and was
the catalyst for another campaign. An extreme decline of the salmon fishery was the direct impetus for two additional projects.
Many cited the forestry industry, the laws governing its practices, and impacts including: logging approvals in at‐risk species habitat,
silty water impacting the community watershed, and proposed developments within various sensitive eco‐systems.
The condition of threatened, endangered, unique, and key commercial species and special habitats provided impetus to identify
and create ‘wildlife habitat areas’ or ‘ecological reserves’ or new protected zones. One project heralded the discovery of a new
species pair of small freshwater fish that represented ‘an example of parallel evolution in nature’ that was ‘found nowhere else on
Earth’. The proliferation of invasive plants such as: Purple Loosestrife, Himalayan Blackberry, Scotch Broom, Evergreen Blackberry,
Yellow Flag, and St. John's Wort were seen as threats to native flora and a Biodiversity Strategy Framework was envisioned for the
whole Sunshine Coast.
The combination of these issues resulted in twenty campaigns the researcher clustered into two distinct themes; land and ocean
protection & management (LOPM), and wildlife protection & management (WPM). It is noted that cross‐over did occur between
themes.
LAND & OCEAN PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT CLUSTER
Table 2 provides a comparative analysis of the ten campaigns/projects undertaken by nine separate organizations clustered under
LOPM. The table shows the aim of the campaign, the primary target for the campaign and the perceived results. The table was
constructed with the help of eight surveys along with four unstructured interviews and attendance at two events.
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TABLE 2: LOPM CAMPAIGN AIMS AND PERCEIVED SUCCESSES OR FAILURES
Campaign
name
Aim of Campaign
Primary
Target
Result
Comments
Francis Point
Marine Park
Acquisition
Acquisition of 300‐acre waterfront property for
creation of Francis Point Provincial Park and
Ecological Reserve.
Gov
Creation of Francis Point Provincial Park
72.80 ha and Ecological Reserve 9.22 ha.
Mt Elphinstone
Provincial Park
Expansion
Expand current park and protect adjacent
forest areas.
Ind‐
Forestry
Failed to stop Block A7124 crown timber
auction in Feb 2012, however in Mar 2012
Dakota Ridge Ancient Forests were given
protection status by the Province as part of
an Old Growth Management Area (OGMA)
set aside to protect bio‐diversity and social
values. Feb 2012 agreement reached that
logging will never take place within the
lower Mt. Elphinstone section called ‘Heart
of the Park’ block.
Following cut‐block auctions the campaign target
shifted to pressure on the company awarded the
timber rights.
Save the Caren
Range
Protection of 6000 hectares of crown land in a
Class A Provincial Park.
GP
Partial success was achieved in 1999 with
the creation of Spipiyus Provincial Park,
which protected half of the area proposed
for protection resulting in 2979 ha
protected including 800 ha of old growth.
Park creation is part of larger effort to protect
shoreline to summit series of intact ecosystems.
Establishing Mt
Artaban Nature
Reserve
Raise $ 40,000 for a land survey and to conduct
a management plan to establish a Nature
Reserve on Gambier Island.
GP
Fund‐raising exceeded target, and
management plan completed. 107 ha of
land protected in 2009.
The new PA connects to two other protected
areas for a total ‘network’ of 525 ha. One of the
shorter PA campaigns with success achieved
within 3 years of effort.
Expansion of
Ambrose Lake
Ecological Reserve
Expand the existing ecological reserve & stop
proposals to log in two district lots (DL)
adjacent to the boundary of the ecological
Gov
Success in securing the addition to Ambrose
Lake Ecological Reserve, after more than
Raised public awareness only to make
government aware that they weren’t alone in
their concerns in order to keep people out of the
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eserve. ten years of campaign effort. restricted‐access site.
Expand & protect
Sargeant Bay
Provincial Park
To expand the Provincial Park to include areas
around Triangle Lake and to restore and
protect the natural habitat of Sargeant Bay PA.
GP 83 + 5 ha successfully added in 2007/2008
to the 155 ha already protected in 1990
Society now in its 35 th year. 84 newsletters – rate
of two per year. Extensive volunteer force
required to restore wetlands, build access trails,
and control invasive plants.
Habitat Area
Nomination
Project
Identify lands that in their natural condition
are supporting local sustainable businesses.
Phase two will identify the critical biodiversity
values of the entire planning area and the most
appropriate opportunities to protect these
values.
Gov
Currently only ½ way through the two‐year
project.
Motivated by lack of effective protection for
species‐at‐risk and extreme decline of the salmon
fishery. Additional problem is lack of public
knowledge about ecosystem functions and
services.
Preparation for
Land and Resource
Management
Planning (LRMP)
To prepare the conservation sector to
participate effectively in an LRMP. A secondary
purpose was to assist local governments in
participating. LRMP processes provide an
opportunity to resolve environ‐mental land use
issues in a cooperative and scientific way.
GP
Project might be considered a ‘failure’
because at the conclusion the Provincial
Government cancelled the LRMP process.
The Sunshine Coast is one of the few remaining
regions in BC that does not yet have a strategic
land use plan or a regional growth management
strategy.
Wetlands
Restoration Denise
Cargill Area
To restore 10 acres of wetland in front of the
Iris Griffith Centre. Project also serves to
educate public on the essential services
wetlands play in sustaining healthy wildlife
populations, and human communities and
economies.
NS Ongoing restoration in progress Named after founding sponsor. Among the vital
ecosystem services provided by wetlands: water
supply and purification, nutrient cycling, sediment
filtration, flood mitigation/abatement, climate
regulation, sustenance of plant and animal life,
provision of recreational and tourism
opportunities
Bear Bay forest
protection
Block BC timber sales from auctioning off Bear
Bay Forest to private logging firms.
NSI
The cut‐block was auctioned off in Oct.
2009 and subsequently logged.
Failure to save this forest area despite having a
coalition of 8 NGOs, two years of public
campaigning, a scientific study, and an alternative
economic strategy for the forest.
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Primary Target codes: Gov = Government, Ind = industry, Edu = Education, GP = general public
Un‐structured interviews: # 19 (30 minutes ‐ November 8, 2011), # 20/21/29 combined (50 minutes ‐ December 28, 2011), # 17 (10
minutes, February 4, 2012)
Attendance at organization events: # 15 (February 21, 2012), # 22 (Bioblitz)
NS ‐ no survey: Information gathered from un‐structured interview, publications and website
NSI ‐ no survey or un‐structured interview: Information gathered from publications, website
WILDLIFE PROTECTION AND MANAGEMENT CLUSTER
Table 3 provides a comparative analysis of the ten campaigns/projects under‐taken by eight separate organizations clustered under
WPM with a breakdown of three fish (2 commercial stock) one bear, two invasive plant species, one wildlife rescue, one general
wildlife (mainly amphibians & reptiles), and one overall biodiversity. The table was constructed with the help of nine surveys and
two unstructured interviews.
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TABLE 3: WPM CAMPAIGN AIMS AND PERCEIVED SUCCESSES OR FAILURES
Campaign name Aim of Campaign Primary
Target
Result
Comments
Sea Change
Project
Improve Environmental knowledge and
stewardship around conservation and
restoration of marine ecosystems.
Edu
Increased funding to marine ecosystem
projects, higher number of volunteers and
organizations working on marine projects.
Wildlife rescue
and
rehabilitation
Operating care facility for treatment and
care of injured/orphaned wildlife found on
the Sunshine Coast with goal of release
back to the wild. Educating the public and
Government on methods to reduce
human/wildlife conflict and its subsequent
negative effects on wildlife populations.
GP
In operation for over 25 years. In order of
350 ‐ 450 wild creatures received for care
every year.
Salmon
enhancement
Enhancement of chum and Coho salmon
populations returning to streams of two
watersheds: Anderson/Myers Creeks and
Sakinaw Lake in the hope of restoring
them to historical levels.
GP
Some gains and some losses in streams
enhanced.
Mostly on hold since 2000 when government
shifted priorities from hatchery production of
juvenile fish to habitat enhancement based on
realization that introducing fish into a broken
watercourse is less beneficial than fixing the
watercourse.
Invasive Species
Project
The control of Purple Loosestrife in a local
lake.
GP
Inspects along the shores of Lily Lake
illustrate a gradual removal of the
spreading plant from the area.
Framework for a
Biodiversity
Strategy for the
Sunshine Coast
To create a framework Biodiversity
Strategy for the whole Sunshine Coast.
GP
This 2‐3 year project began in fall 2011, not
yet time to assess true effectiveness,
although it’s already having a marked effect
on public perception. Also in process to
develop one of two planned biodiversity
$320,000 in off‐coast funding obtained. Frequent
articles in both local newspapers, council reports,
and cascading biodiversity buzz to other
organizations.
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Regional District
parks. Biodiversity Summit set for end of
May‐early June, 2012.
Invasive Plant
Control
To control a proliferation of invasive
plants such as: Himalayan Blackberry,
Scotch Broom, Evergreen Blackberry,
Yellow Flag, and St. John’s Wort.
GP
Project started in 1993 with pulling and
clipping. Turning point in 2003 when
society gained control and by 2010 the park
was essentially free of these invasive
plants.
Between the years 1998‐2002 high manpower
hours were documented to achieve results.
Bear Aware To reduce Black bear conflicts. GP Funding to program cut by government. Enhanced signage and public information
increasing. Other organizations and entities also
involved in bear projects. Project is morphing into
new model in order to continue efforts.
Sunshine Coast
Salmon
Enhancement
Project
Education of public, especially students,
on anatomy, habitat requirements, and
importance of salmonids and watersheds.
Help support a good, diverse population
of salmonids on the Sunshine Coast.
Edu
Thousands of schoolchildren introduced to
salmon education. 1.5 million salmon
raised & released annually. Aug. 2011 saw
returns for pinks. Coho and steelhead
would not be there without the
tremendous efforts of Chapman Creek
Hatchery volunteers and two staff.
2011 lost funding to host “Rivers Day” event.
Sunshine Coast
Wildlife Project
Protect wildlife habitat; enhance wildlife
habitat; mitigate threats to populations of
endangered wildlife; increase community
awareness of threats to wildlife and
habitats; increase number of Sunshine
Coast community members acting as
sound environmental stewards.
GP
Highly visible stewardship role in
community.
One of two recipients of the 2012 Cottage Life
Magazine Environment Grants. Funds used to build
new turtle nesting beaches and create landowner
stewardship guides. Received Canadian Wildlife
Federation Endangered Species funding for nest
monitoring and radio telemetry equipment. Visibly
active in the community. Youth participation
noticed.
Nelson Island
Sticklebacks
Protect benthic‐limnetic sympatric species
pair of stickleback “among the rarest …
most threatened species on Earth”.
NS
Ecological predictions led to discovery of a
new species pair of three spine stickleback
in Quarry Lake, Nelson Island.
These small, freshwater fish are restricted to
specific coastal lakes in British Columbia’s Georgia
Basin and found nowhere else on Earth.
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Primary Target codes: Gov = Government, Ind = industry, Edu = Education, GP = general public
Un‐structured interviews: #36 (30 minutes ‐ November 8, 2011), # 35, # 7, # 24, # 30, # 15 (40 minutes ‐ January 6, 2012)
NS: no survey, information from un‐structured interview and gathered from publications & website
THE NEED FOR INCREASED FOOD SECURITY
Perceptions and realities of food security concerns prompted six of the campaigns.
The issues illuminated by managers in the food security cluster pointed out the Sunshine Coast has only a three‐day stock of food,
and a limited amount of land suited to large‐scale agriculture. As such, small‐scale/home‐scale vegetable and fruit production is seen
as a key means to help create food security, while also serving to improve the health of families, and the environment. Food that is
grown organically, sustainably, and locally, reduces fossil fuel from trucking in food, can help to boost the economic viability of local
food producers, and increase community resilience, health, and sustainability.
Coupled with the concern over locally‐sourced food was a perception of ‘social isolation’ reported to accompany the loss of
traditional sustainable skills, and a lack of human connection to the local environment. The benefits of improving ‘social
connectedness’ would help promote a culture of learning and sharing, and increase awareness of the local ‘food shed’.
All of the food security projects are currently operating under one umbrella society. Six surveys completed by five different
campaign managers and one unstructured interview were used to construct the following Table.
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TABLE 4: FOOD SECURITY CAMPAIGN AIMS AND PERCEIVED SUCCESSES OR FAILURES
Campaign
name
Aim of Campaign
Primary
Target
Results
Comments
Hands on Lands Matching up of people willing to share their
land for growing food with people wanting to
grow food but have no land.
GP Only two successful matches were made. Suffering from a turnover of coordinators. Merger
planned with grow your own dinner project.
The Farm Gate
Market
To provide a venue for local, sustainably
produced food to increase the
convenience/feasibility of shopping locally.
Providing a place to connect to local farmers
and producers.
GP
Mid‐week, mid‐coast local farmers
market now in its fourth year.
Aim for 80% local/80% organic.
Green Banner
Local Food
Directory
2010 campaign to promote producers,
retailers, grocers, cafes, markets &
restaurants that carry local sustainable food.
GP
82 producers, retailers, grocers, cafes,
markets & restaurants promoted through
14,000 copies of the directory paralleling
a successful ‘purple banner’ project that
promotes the coastal arts community.
Currently no ‘green banners’ flying outside the 82
directory participants. Funding was based on onetime
grant however a self‐funded 2012 directory is
in process along with efforts to obtain and display
the banners.
Grow Your Own
Dinner project
To recruit experienced mentors and match
them to clients to plan and create their own
food garden.
GP
Despite sharply increased interest from
people who want to learn how to grow
some of their own food for economic and
health reasons, the project is limited by
mentorship and land capacity.
In 2012 the project will be combined with the
‘hands on lands’ initiative. Duplication observed in
the community by other individuals and
organizations may highlight a need for wider
community collaboration.
Live & Learn
Connecting Community, Nature, & Know‐
How for Local Food. To seek out elders and
others in the community with food security
GP
Frequent and accessible learning
opportunities offered. Skills database
Makes use of formal evaluation using the Outcome
Measurement Framework, for volunteer tutor
programs. Visionary leader behind society and
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skills (gathering, fishing, growing, preserving
for the winter), offer mentor training in order
for teaching their skills to others.
developed. Mentor’s manual created.
project died Feb 20, 2012. Other staff turnover
noted. While evidence of succession planning exists,
the loss may prove is of enormous magnitude.
Creator’s Touch
Garden
Garden project that respects ‘Mother Earth’
while providing sustainable living.
GP
Casual delivery ‐ just working behind the
scenes with a few individuals.
Primary Target codes: GP = general public
Un‐structured interview: # 9, #10 (50 minutes – November 3, 2011)
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THE NEED FOR EDUCATION & NATURE AWARENESS
It is the conviction of those in the education cluster that the raising of consciousness about natural history increases interest, and
that interest breeds stewardship. The perceived need for nature awareness tied with a perceived lack of public knowledge about
environmental issues and human‐caused conflicts were the catalyst for several of the campaigns.
A need was expressed to encourage children and adults to visit nature and understand their environment, and all the wonderful
'ecoservices' the natural world provides. An additional issue raised was that of “Nature deprivation in children”: that connecting
children to nature would help foster their appreciation, and respect for the natural world around them.
EDUCATION CLUSTER
Seven campaigns/projects undertaken by six separate organizations were clustered under a theme of Education. Six surveys, seven
unstructured interviews, and attendance at three events were used to construct Table 5.
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TABLE 5: EDUCATION CAMPAIGN AIMS AND PERCEIVED SUCCESSES OR FAILURES
Campaign
Name
Aim of Campaign
Primary
Target
Results
Comments
Nature
School
Program
Connect children to nature to help foster their
appreciation love and respect for the natural world
around them. Facilitate teachers and parents to plan
and deliver environmental education.
GP
5 years running. Programs offered help
children and adults interpret, study and
experience the natural world.
Visible presence observed involving
youth/nature education.
Sunshine
Coast
Natural
History
To provide an umbrella organization for naturalists
on the Sunshine Coast and to bring naturalists
together for educational programs and projects. To
give a platform for members with specific concerns.
GP
Monthly meetings with guest naturalists
well‐attended often with 80 or more
guests. Nearing 40 years including the
precursor society. Annual bird count
now in its 33rd year. 2011 bird count
was reported to be 2 nd best ever.
Frequent press releases printed.
President maintains weekly column on birds.
Monthly meetings are delivered to
predominantly senior audience.
Wetlands
Day
Deepening the awareness in the school community
and the surrounding community of the importance
of the wetland at Sargeant’s Bay.
Edu
Delivery to lots of interested parties
such as the Halfmoon Bay Community
School, SCRD, BC Parks and Sargeant’s
Bay residents.
Creation of
the
Sunshine
Coast
Botanical
Garden
To create a Botanical gardens as a driving force in
the community to improve gardening practices and
landscaping and land management practices for
stewardship, conservation, education and
community involvement.
GP
44 acres secured through purchase
agreement. Well over $1 million raised
to support creation of the gardens.
Membership has grown from 70 active
members to 750, 125. Initiated over 800
pounds to food program for the food
bank through the seniors, veggie &
Regular press in local newspapers. Strong
support to community pillars. Labour
intensive projects to rehabilitate and
manage such an extensive property are
evidenced. Successes in fund‐raising highly
visible.
Page 26

organic gardens.
Project
Aware
Internationa
l Ocean
Clean up
Increase awareness of debris being dumped into
ocean. Global vision to “return to a clean, healthy
and abundant ocean planet” (Miller, J. (2011 p. 53).
GP
Due to small number of divers versus a
large ocean area the task is symbolic.
Part of global marine protection effort
launched by Professional Association of
Dive Instructors (PADI) in 1989. Now
supported by 1000 dive operators.
Focusing on local awareness and
commitment for a global initiative. Recycling
challenge exists as too much is required to
clean up ocean debris and ends up in landfill
instead of the ocean dump.
Synchronicit
y Festival
Marriage of Art + nature + change at the core of
mandate. To display the diversity of progressive and
innovative people who live and work in area and to
cross‐pollinate their networks.
GP
Grew from an around the table concept
to 350 participants in 2010, to over
1000 in 2011. Expectations of success
seen for August 2012 festival.
Provide locals and tourists with a fresh new
look at Gibsons and the surrounding area.
One of the projects with a strong youth
focus.
Establish the
Iris Griffith
Centre
To create a centre for field studies and
interpretation in order to explore the natural
wonders of BC’s Sunshine Coast.
GP
NS
Funds successfully raised. State of the
art green building, solar, watercatchments,
septic 2,500 square foot
centre was built in 2005 and now open
six days a week to the public. Exhibits
illustrate human interaction with
natural environment.
Continues to grow & expand especially plans
for a future separate field Studies centre
across the road from the present IGC site.
Hampered by remoteness.
Primary Target codes: GP = general public, Edu – Education
Un‐structured interviews: # 5 (25 minutes ‐ October 13, 2011), # 4 (20 minutes ‐ November 16, 2011), # 6 (15 minutes ‐ November 22, 2011), # 2 – (15 minutes ‐ November 25,
2011), # 7, # 35 (40 minutes ‐ January 6, 2012), # 1 (15 minutes ‐ January 22, 2012), # 41* (20 minutes ‐ January 22, 2012) * represents interview with person other than
campaign manager
NS: no survey completed information from un‐structured interview and gathered from publications & website
Attendance at organization events: # 5 (September 24, 2011), # 2 (January 6, 2012), # 4 (January 22, 2012)
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OTHER COMMUNITY CONCERNS
Seven campaigns/projects undertaken by 5 separate organizations are clustered under other community concerns and relate
to breaches of law/judicial processes, the negative effects of poor air quality, the need to improve energy security, and the need
for improved water quality and conservation.
Four surveys were completed along with three unstructured interviews and displayed in Table 6.
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TABLE 6: OTHER CAMPAIGN AIMS AND PERCEIVED SUCCESSES OR FAILURES
Campaign
Name
Aim of Campaign
Primary
target
Results
Comments
Environment &
jobs project
To employ displaced forest workers in park
related restoration projects.
NS
Employed 6 workers for 18 months in
projects ranging from creation of wildlife
nesting areas, trail installation and
maintenance.
Open burning
By‐law Sechelt
Hoped to get developers in the area to stop
burning land‐clearing slash.
Gov
Bylaws were passed on both issues by the
District of Sechelt. Continued pressures in
the SCRD begin with limited ban and then
to a total ban on all outdoor burning from
April 15 to October 15.
Backyard
burning ban in
Sechelt and ban
on cosmetic
pesticides in
Sechelt.
Educate the public; educate the Mayor and
Councilors of Sechelt; to enact bylaws for
backyard burning and the use of cosmetic
pesticides.
Gov
The Town of Gibsons was an early leader in
enacting bylaws to ban backyard burning
and ban the use of cosmetic pesticides. This
was a good incentive for Sechelt to do the
same. Bylaws were passed on both issues
by the District of Sechelt.
Continued efforts contribute to ban on all
outdoor burning in the SCRD from April 15 –
October 15.
Biofuels as
energy
alternative
To promote the use of high quality biofuels as
diesel fuel alternatives.
NS
Small group of diesel car members are
using purified vegetable oil from
restaurants waste.
Limited amount of wasted oil limits growth of
project to possibly 100 diesel car owners.
Other energy alternative organizations are in
initial stages of developing in the region.
Save Our
Sunshine Coast
To stop a UK‐based mining company from
building a deep sea port with a 10km conveyor
belt in Wood Bay, a residential area. They
acquired the mineral rights to the Sechelt
GP
Federal government called for a
comprehensive environmental assessment.
Pan Pacific Aggregates withdrew and sold
the property in question.
Project had almost 100% support from the
communities on the Sunshine Coast. The area
that the proposed aggregate mining site is
home to many bird species, some
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Peninsula by the click of a computer mouse.
endangered or at risk, pristine wetlands,
many lakes with cutthroat trout. In the
marine areas, there are eel grass beds, and
the marbled murrelet feeding grounds that
would have been devoured. Company still has
mineral rights to the Caren Range. This area is
on Sechelt Indian Band territory and slated as
a conservancy.
Uphold
environmental
values
See environmental law enforced. Gov Included intervention on three judicial
review cases before the BC Supreme Court;
(1) decision to log in Marbled Murrelet
nesting habitat, (2) ethics case against the
Professional Forester’s Association and (3)
alleged health risk from logging in a
community drinking watershed. Also for
complaint to a certification body (SFI) and
several complaints to the BC Forest
Practices Board.
Continuous effort. Some gains and some
losses.
(1) 128 logging approvals in scarce old growth
stands, mountain goad and marbled murrelet
habitat. This case focused only on murrelet
habitat. (2) Arbitrary decisions rejecting
complaints from the public. (3) Pollution of
public drinking water with no accountability.
Documentation of at‐risk species has strong
implications for government and also for
logging companies that hold environmental
certifications.
Collaboration with other organizations was
visibly strong.
Water & Water
Conservation
Develop agreements for water consumption,
drinking water quality, and human effects on
aquifers & protect aquatic species and
habitats.
NS
Following a two‐day summit, collaborative
input from over 80 local stakeholders,
scientists and water management
professionals created Water Framework
Master Plan. Project is ongoing and
increasing in scope.
Despite landmark agreement to safeguard
drinking water, jointly manage and protect
Chapman Creek and Gray Creek (signed by
the Sechelt Indian Band and the SCRD) the
Provincial Government still has ultimate
authority over allowing or disallowing
development.
Primary Target codes: GP = general public, Edu – Education
Un‐structured interviews: # 29, # 20, # 21 (50 minutes ‐ December 28, 2011), # 24, # 30, 35, 7 (40 minutes ‐ January 6, 2012, # 27 (15 minutes ‐ February 8, 2012)
NS: no survey completed, information from un‐structured interview and gathered from publications & website
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TOWARDS EFFECTIVE CAMPAIGN STRATEGIES / CONCEPTUAL MODEL
The conceptual model is intended for use by organizations creating transformational change through their efforts. Once the
campaign analysis was completed, effectiveness and ineffectiveness of collective strategies were identified and used to formulate
a conceptual model. Two realms – the overlapping ‘managerial/leadership’ and the ‘communications’ – were identified with a list
of suggested interdependent core activities as illustrated in Figure 2.
The effective strategies attached to the managerial‐leadership realm were derived from this research, highlighting thirteen core
tactics. The communications realm was adapted from a WWF communication template. The model presented here promotes the
use of six core tactics. Each campaign thus becomes a distinct entity with its own vision, theme, clear messaging, and timeline.
The two realms are to work in tandem, and with continuous momentum.
FIGURE 2: EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTALLY‐THEMED CAMPAIGNS
The following section discusses the effective and ineffective tactics uncovered during the research.
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MANAGERIAL/LEADERSHIP REALM
CHOOSING EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP TO MANAGE THE CAMPAIGN
As per Kotter (1990) it is wise to choose effective leaders (pp. 3‐4). The size and scope of an organization will dictate individual needs
in this regard. Q. 2 of the survey asked campaign mangers to identify their relationship to the organization. Twenty‐eight of the
thirty‐three respondents identified themselves as either program/project coordinators or current/past executive board members.
Although the question about remuneration was never broached, organizations surveyed were mostly small, non‐profit societies.
The assumption was made that relatively few of those managing would be paid well, if at all for their contributions. Experience, as
measured by number of years respondents had been with an organization, was deemed important. Q. 3 asked how long the
manager had been involved with the organization. The results can be seen in figure 3.
FIGURE 3: YEARS THE CAMPAIGN MANAGER HAD BEEN INVOLVED WITH THE ORGANIZATION
Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Less than 1 year 1 3.0%
1 to 3 years 3 9.0%
4 to 7 years 9 27.2%
7 to 10 years 2 6.0%
Over 10 years 18 54.5%
33 100%
A direct relationship was not made between the length of time a manager was with the organization and the effectiveness of the
campaign; however 29 of the 33 respondents, or 87.7% had been with the organization for over four years. More than half of the
respondents had been with the organizations for over 10 years, interpreted as extremely high levels of personal dedication. The
research objective was to cover the effectiveness of the campaigns, not the leaders, and as such this serves as a point of interest
(Kotter, 1995, pp. 60‐67).
The strategies revealed in the study suggest leaders were adopting many effective leadership/managerial behaviours and traits
although some ‘critical mistakes’ were observed:
1. Creating a more heightened sense of urgency might have helped jurisdictional projects that were not completed in ‘one
council sitting’.
2. There was a strong need to improve communications originating from the organizations. Emails, collateral, and letters of
correspondence were frequently observed entering the public domain with sloppy or unprofessional appearances, and
with excessive grammatical errors – potentially leading to cases where valid issues could be “written off”. Signage was often
of poor quality, placed in locations with little or no traffic, or completely absent in places of visible significance.
3. Not “walking the talk” was also observed. One of the campaigns promoting forest protection and respect failed to stop
organizational members from carrying out damaging environmental practices during the campaign. In several campaigns
this disconnect was displayed as a failure to recognize the value systems of others, polarization of the community on issues,
and focus on confrontation rather than solution.
Effective leadership/and or management roles are essential to the success of a project. According to one of the survey respondents
“there are progressive and innovative people that live and work among us who can cross‐pollinate their networks, and provide
residents and visitors” with solutions. Improved leadership and avoiding critical mistakes could serve as indispensable ingredients for
respectful environmental changes on the lower Sunshine Coast.
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ADOPTING AN EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT PLAN
An effective plan can serve as a road map. Given that 50% of the campaigns dealt with protecting natural assets, and that several
more were indirectly campaigning on a similar vein, the use of a protected area (PA) management plan should be considered. On a
Provincial level, BC Parks requires the preparation of a management plan in order to guide a protected area’s management over the
next ten to twenty years (Bell & Adair, 2008, p. 1). Nationally such management plans are mandated for a ten to fifteen year span
(Parks Canada, n.d). Funding sources often require their recipients to produce such a road map as in the case of the Sunshine Coast
Botanical Gardens. The benefit of such a plan for Francis Point Park and Ecological Reserve helped determine the appropriate
recreational use in the Park that would not compromise the biodiversity values on the property (p. 10).
Other management plans used during the campaigns provided indicators of unique flora and fauna within the PA, or proposed PA,
highlighted tourism and recreational interest/opportunities, areas of scientific and educational study, and focal points for effective
protection and planning. While different terminology was used in naming various sites, the scope of protection would be clarified
though such a plan, and results would serve as determinants for successful, sustainable protection. As such measuring the
effectiveness of the management plans is crucial.
Use of measurement will be discussed in the communications realm, however at this juncture it bears mentioning that
measurements may be hampered by: absence of paid parks staff in almost all of the PAs, lack of revenues from park use (as most
of the parks have no visitor fees), and lack of adequate resources for more iterative feedback systems.
WORKING EFFECTIVELY WITH PARTNERS
Expanding the coalition efforts by reaching out to external partners can greatly enhance the campaign efforts. Q. 13 asked “did
other organizations or partners contribute to your campaign or project?” The answers are in figure 4.
FIGURE 4: EXTENT OF PARTNERING IN THE CAMPAIGNS
Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Yes 25 75.7%
No 8 24.2%
No responses 0 0%
33 100%
Twenty‐five of the 33 survey respondents (76%) worked with other organizations or partners in order to further their campaign
aims. It was surprising that close to one quarter (24.2%) did not.
The benefits of partnering proved outstandingly beneficial to a large number of the campaigns. For example, at the Ambrose Lake
Ecological Reserve expansion, the Sunshine Coast Conservation Association provided critical help in securing funding for a researcher
to assist the campaign as well as an independent assessment of the expansion area. The Francis Point Marine Park campaign
partnered with the Municipal government, the Provincial government, the Nature Trust of BC and the Nature Conservancy of
Canada to successfully achieve PA status. The Land resource and management planning (LRMP) campaign enjoyed the participation
of local environmental organizations from all around the Sunshine Coast Forest District as well as liaison with local governments.
Partnering by the jobs and environments project led to funds to provide new environmental employment opportunities for displaced
resource sector workers.
A good portion of the WPM, LOPM and Education campaigns included a considerable list of collaborators from among government,
commercial, business, recreational and private stakeholders. In the case of Project Aware, while the small local effort to “clean up
the ocean” might amount to a symbolic gesture, when combined with the 1000 dive centres globally that have also risen to the task
– the efforts intensify and the effects magnify.
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Partnering and networking also led to increased spheres of influence. The food cluster project management was active on the SCRD
Food Policy Council and Agricultural Advisory Committee weighing in on all ‘food” issues. The executive of another successfully ran
for a seat on the Town of Gibsons council in the November 2011 election.
Those campaigns that partnered widely and effectively were rewarded with tips for funding sources, financial and human capital
contributions of significance, guidance, or at times helped maintain momentum through purely moral support. Those who preferred
to go it alone, or who found it easier do the work themselves, may find short‐term successes compromise the overall long‐term goal
of public awareness. A silo, issue‐based approach to environmental movements was mentioned as leaving the general public
disengaged and unclear how to pitch in.
ESTABLISHING A FORMAL SOCIETY
The transfer of money often leads to legalities and obligations, and in response formalized societies and land trusts have been
established by many of the organizations operating in the lower Sunshine Coast region. The Sargeant Bay Society was formed in
order to “prevent the area from becoming yet another housing development.” Kerfoot & Thomas, reporting on Sargeant Bay
Provincial Park, said “forming a properly registered society early on in the process was key to their success because it put structure
in place to receive funds and establish a society dedicated to a clear purpose (1995, p. 27).
Despite the formalized structure, the fight for this protected area was still “long and hard.” During the study, newspaper clippings
were collected that reported on donations or awards to the organizations or projects in the study. It was not uncommon to see
photographs of $25,000 funding cheques being presented. Formal societies and those with prior track records were seen repeatedly
in the position of accepting these funds. One society spoke about being approached by government, endowment trusts, and
foundations to act as stewards of both money and property and their reluctance to accept such offers until they had the proper
tools in place to be responsible recipients. Faith by the donors that money would be spent wisely is crucial to the continuation of
vital public and private funding. With the rising trend towards corporate socio‐environmental stewardship, a recommendation
would be to ensure a formal structure is in place to receive funds, and to create the conditions for which these funds will keep
coming, namely success in the stated campaign objectives.
ACHIEVING ADEQUATE LEVELS OF FUNDING/VOLUNTEERS
According to Yukl “The survival and prosperity of an organization depends on adaptation to the environment and the acquisition of
necessary resources” to be responsive to the situation at hand (2005, p. 17). Successful campaigns require access to sufficient capital
and extensive volunteer/member support. Q. 12 asked the campaign managers to identify “how did the organization fund the
campaign or project” with the ability to check all responses that were applicable.
FIGURE 5: FUNDING SOURCES FOR CAMPAIGNS
Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Membership 14 42.4%
Fundraising 15 45.4%
Grants 24 72.7%
Donations 18 54.5%
Endowments 1 3.0%
Sponsorships 3 9.0%
Fees for Service/Sales 6 18.1%
Twenty‐four of the campaigns (72.7 %) were reliant on grants. Donations were also high at 54.5% (18 projects), followed by
fundraising at 45.4 %, and membership at 42.4%. This highlights a substantially high level of effort to obtain necessary revenue to
remain solvent in the absence of core funding. While clearly necessary, such efforts might be viewed as detracting from
organizational aims.
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For such a small community, exceptionally high levels of generosity and volunteerism were observed and documented in volunteer
award celebration pamphlets as well as publications by Sunshine Coast Community Foundations. Some of the campaigns reached
out to provincial and national partners. It was not uncommon to see lists of 15 – 25 major donor groups listed in the LOPM, WPM
and education cluster campaigns stemming from community grants, provincial funding, and corporate environmental funds with
a large influx of money from off‐coast sources.
At least two fundraising galas were observed during the study. Both used the press to thank a list of more than 100 donors along
with totals raised at the events in the order of tens of thousands of dollars.
At least four of the projects were successful at securing $1,000,000 or more in capital through grants under Island Coastal Economic
Trust (ICET) or Community Adjustment Fund (CAF), as well as numerous smaller local grants. Some of the campaigns within these
three clusters were also able to use moneys received from bequests. One coast resident donated $100,000 to each of two coast
projects posthumously. While there was much success reported in funding, a number of campaigns reported declines in their
funding. While in the past government funding was common practice, such direct funding disappeared from several projects while
government support continued to come in the form of technical expertise and advice. Access to capable grant writers and access to
a network of donors are two effective means to generate funds.
Organizations with high membership would be at an advantage as would those with experienced grant writers. Such realities may
help explain the low membership pricing strategy commonly observed across most organizations with annual fees often in the range
of $30 for an individual or $35 for a family. One organization with minimal membership fees reported 700 members with 125 noted
to be ‘active.’ Without adequate fund‐raising or volunteer retention, often the project is compromised, the momentum is slowed
and in at least one case only continued after funding from out‐of‐pocket expenditures were infused into the project.
ENGAGING THE WIDER COMMUNITY IN THE PROCESS
While the question regarding community stakeholder involvement was never posed, the issue was raised by many as a factor of
their success. Stakeholder interests can easily pit community members against government or industry, and industry against
organizations. By not engaging the community organizations risk polarization, diminished effectiveness, and inability to have local
council adopt policies.
Some highly effective campaigns approached this optimal stakeholder engagement. For instance the Francis Point Provincial Park
and Ecological Reserve campaign (Bell & Adair, 2008, p. 1‐2) noted a high degree of public input, use of knowledgeable individuals,
consultation with local First Nations, and engaging government officials at all levels. Engaging the community was a critical success
factor in the Mt. Artaban Park creation by stimulating 91 industrial partners and individuals to make contributions exceeding the
amount needed for the survey and management plan. During the Save our Sunshine Coast campaign, there was “almost 100%
support from the communities”, the four governments, and the Sechelt Indian Band.
A few of the campaigns exhibited narrow or singular viewpoints as evidenced at community forums or in exchanges reported in
the press. While such observations are speculative, they do illustrate a publicly displayed level of divergence and resentment and
suggest a need for wiser means of reaching agreement or consensus (Newsome, Dowling & Moore, 2005, p. 123; Priem, 1990, p.
473; Senge, 1990, pp. 223‐231).
USING SCIENTIFIC ASSESSMENT & SURVEYS
As each of these projects centres on an ‘environmental’ theme, an assumption was made that the use of scientific studies would
be beneficial in order to substantiate claims, or ensure the project was using the right protection mechanism. Q. 9 asked the
respondents “how often did the organization use scientists or independent scientific studies to substantiate the campaign claims”?
FIGURE 6: USE OF SCIENTISTS OR INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC STUDIES TO SUBSTANTIATE CAMPAIGN CLAIMS
Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Very often 10 30.3%
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Often 8 24.2%
Sometimes 6 18.1%
Rarely 8 24.2%
Never 1 3.0%
No responses 0 0%
Just over one‐half of the projects reported they ‘often or very often” used science to support claims. On the other hand roughly
one‐quarter ‘rarely or never’ used them. In the projects that reported using such methods they were identified as required for
funding or to provide “credibility to change a bylaw” or construct management plans. Scientific findings were used to classify
“relatively undisturbed …biogeoclimatic zones” and identify distributions and abundances of shrubs, mosses, lichens, grasses,
wildflowers, birds, reptiles, amphibians and mammals as well as providing methods to accurately measure the age range of trees
in the ‘ancient forests’.
The use of scientific reports and assessments provided the rationale for successful expansion of Ambrose Lake Ecological reserve
in order to protect “relatively rare bog and landscape seldom found elsewhere in BC”. Researchers from the University of British
Columbia (UBC) were cited in two projects involving wildlife and plant protection.
Despite these accolades, the scientific surveys on their own were not shown to be effective at achieving the campaign aim. Lyytimäki
and Hilden (2007) suggest that while the scientific community tends to address specific questions, policy is driven by broad issues
and more general concerns (p. 67). To avoid this ‘incongruity’, they suggest involving all key stakeholders from an early stage in the
policy development process to provide the best evidence available, to help to monitor the effects of current policies, and to provide
solutions to unexpected events and policy failures (p. 67). In all cases, use of scientists and scientific studies were part of a ‘bundle’
of multiple campaign tools and activities used over time.
STARTING TO SUCCESSION PLAN AND ENGAGE YOUTH
It is important to replace human capital lost to volunteer burnout, age, shifting priorities, and death.
From the start of this research project to completion, two project visionaries and leaders died and several others moved on to new
ventures. The wisdom of leaders, often elders, was well‐documented in the majority of the campaigns, helping to achieve important
milestones using their experience with complex jurisdictional issues, negotiating skills, proposal writing, and communication best
practices. Efforts should be made by organizations to understand what motivates leaders in order to encourage or retain effective
individuals in this essential role. The need for mentorship is evidenced and as such organizations should ensure that knowledge and
experience is preserved and passed forward.
While several projects included inter‐generational activities, attendance at organizational events evidenced a dominant presence
of elderly board members and absence of youth. Societies whose management teams are comprised primarily of seniors must act
quickly to ensure continuation of important work and bridge the generational gap (Weisss, Molinaro and Davey, 2007). Including
‘youth’ in the campaign can bring fresh and innovative approaches, extend the reach of the organization to connect to new value
paradigms, make use of talent with modern technology, and to replace stale ideas. The vigour of youth would certainly be helpful
in campaigns that involve back‐breaking labour and energy, such as the persistent removal of invasive species.
The Synchronicity Festival was one campaign that made mention of their efforts towards attracting the Sunshine Coast’s ‘younger
generation’ stating they wanted the Coast to be a place where younger residents would want to relocate. This strategy was widely
also employed by the Sunshine Coast Wildlife Project in hosting stewardship events and engaging youth in wildlife‐centred projects.
PROVIDING INCREMENTAL GOALS & CELEBRATING SUCCESSES
Q. 11 asked the respondents to “provide the duration of the campaign or project” Figure 7 displays the results.
FIGURE 7: CAMPAIGN DURATION
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Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Single event (over one day/week/weekend) 2 6.0%
Multi‐Month 7 21.2%
Annual 4 12.1%
Ongoing 25 75.7%
No responses 0 0%
Four projects occurred on an annual basis. Seven of 33 projects reported their projects had a multi‐month timeframe. The most
popular response, however, was ‘ongoing’ reported by just over three‐quarters of the campaigns, some in the order of 20 to 35
years. One respondent displayed an optimistic view by saying “although this was a failure, a measure of success can be seen in the
level of engagement from sectors that would not otherwise be engaged”. Yukl says that providing evidence and measurement of
progress in the early phases with repeated ‘small wins’ can increase the confidence of an individual or team and leadership (2005,
p. 306). Such incremental goal‐setting can further serve to keep up momentum and enthusiasm, and help retain needed volunteers
through the long battle.
PURCHASE OR CONVERSION OF PRIVATE LAND FOR PRESERVATION
One permanent way to protect special areas is through the purchase of private or crown land, or by receipt of such lands through
endowments. Gambier Island Conservancy (GIC) created a “land trust fund’ to accumulate funds in excess of the amounts normally
allowed by registered charities in order to negotiate and accept a ‘free crown grant of land’ on the island.
Launched in 2004, the BC Free Crown Grant program enables government to provide crown land to local governments, public
agencies, and community organizations “health, education, public safety, community infrastructure, and public facilities that benefit
the public‐at‐large” (www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/tenure_programs/ programs/community/index.html as cited by Molner, 2011, p. 24).
In the case of Gambier Island, the 107 hectare parcel that was successfully transferred was valued at $1.2 million (retrieved from
www.gambierc.ca/events.html).The Sunshine Coast Botanical gardens were created from a collective land purchase by an
association.
If 3% of the coast is protected, this leaves 97% as either private or crown land. This reality, coupled with a highly conservationminded
elderly citizenry, creates opportunity for expanded private land transfers, crown land conversions, and private land
stewardship programs leading towards heightened protection of the regions natural capital.
CONTINUING EFFORTS TOWARD HIGHER LEVELS OF PROTECTION
Upgrading the status of PAs is seen as providing higher levels of protection for biodiversity. Ecological Reserves, for instance, are
“selected to preserve representative and special natural ecosystems, plant and animal species, features and phenomena and as such
restrict access to permit holders (Retrieved from http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/planning/mgmtplns/ambrose/ambroseps.pdf).
Adoption of Class A park status prohibits commercial resource extraction (mining, logging, oil & gas extraction and hydro‐electrical
development) and manages park use (Bell & Adair, p. 15). To this end several of the projects are pursuing PA upgrades. The process
is often very long. According to one survey respondent “it was a twelve year campaign to get Provincial Park status”.
Despite this daunting roadblock several of the projects are intent on persevering with higher levels of PA perceiving the benefits to
be worth the effort. Francis Point Park and Ecological Reserve is planning on conserving the adjacent sub‐tidal marine resources (Bell
& Adair, p. 5) and in the case of the Caren Range, current protection is seen as “part of larger effort to protect from development a
shoreline to summit series of intact ecosystems.”
BUILDING AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONS REALM
Building on the premise that communications are a way to influence people’s attitudes and actions an effective strategy is vital. As
crossover does occur from the managerial/leadership realm only the functions that have not yet been discussed will be presented.
Page 37

During the survey, respondents were asked “what were the objectives of the campaign or project?” The campaign managers could
choose any or all answers that applied (Q.10). The results can be found in Figure 8.
FIGURE 8: CAMPAIGN OBJECTIVES
Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Protest/Activism 6 6.0%
Educate 27 81.8%
Build Awareness 29 87.8%
Protect 25 75.7%
Other 15 45.4%
No responses 0 0%
Building awareness and educating were ranked highest as campaign objectives with 87.8 % and 81.8% respectively. Protection was
also a priority with 75.7% of the respondent campaigns pursuing this objective. A range of ‘other’ replies suggested activities such
as cleaning up the ocean, getting political action, or restoration indicating broad based purpose. Additionally the campaign managers
were able to articulate a clear and often deep understanding of the issue from their own lens.
USING THE RIGHT TOOLS & ACTIVITIES DURING THE CAMPAIGN
The tools and activities an organization chooses are the means by which the message can be channeled or delivered to the outside
world in order to elicit the needed call to action (WWF, p. 10). Using the Constant Contact Survey campaign managers from each of
the themed‐projects were asked to identify the tools and activities used during the campaign and the perceptions of their
effectiveness. Figure 9 displays the top 30 choices of tools and activities.
FIGURE 9: TOP THIRTY CHOICES OF TOOLS AND ACTIVITIES USED DURING THE CAMPAIGNS
Tool or activity selected (# of responses, n= 33)
Word of mouth (29)
Press releases (28)
Website (25)
Email newsletter (21)
Lecture or presentation (21)
Members meeting (20)
Poster or flyer (20)
Public display (20)
Editorials (19)
Ads in local newspapers (18)
Workshop (16)
Letter writing (15)
Radio interviews (13)
Festival (12)
Lobbying (11)
Educational kits (10)
Social media (10)
Television interviews (10)
Media kits (7)
Banners on streets (6)
Radio ads (6)
Trade show or exhibition (6)
Ads in magazines (5)
Door to door (5)
Parade (5)
Talks to groups & industry (5)
Rally (4)
Summit (4)
Television ads (4)
Ads in provincial newspapers (3)
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Of interest was that one of the invasive species campaigns indicated use of zero communication tools or activities, accomplishing
the aim of the campaign through sole use of a handful of in‐house volunteers. Outside of this isolated project, others saw benefit in
widespread communication efforts ranging from three tools or activities to as many as thirty. The average number equated to
twelve tools or activities used in each campaign.
While it may be assumed that popularity may be a partial indicator of effectiveness, the true measure of the tool or activities’
effectiveness would be to judge its effectiveness in accomplishing the campaign objective. To this end the perceptions of
effectiveness became a barometer for this. The campaign managers were asked to rank the effectiveness of each tool and activity
used in the campaign with a five point Likert scale that ranged from very effective to very ineffective.
TABLE 7: PERCEIVED EFFECTIVENESS OF TOOLS AND ACTIVITIES USED DURING THE CAMPAIGN
Tool or Activity Selected # of Responses (N=33) Rating* score
Boat rally 1 1
Lecture or presentation 21 1.6
Word of mouth 29 1.7
Email newsletter 21 1.7
Public display 20 1.7
Workshop 16 1.7
Letter writing 15 1.7
Land purchase or acquisition 3 1.7
Television interviews 10 1.8
Festival 12 1.9
Website 25 2
Members meeting 20 2
Radio interviews 13 2
Social media 10 2
Rally 4 2
Press releases 28 2.1
Educational kits 10 2.1
Lobbying 22 2.2
Summit 4 2.2
Poster or flyer 20 2.3
Editorials 19 2.3
Ads in local newspapers 18 2.3
Media kits 7 2.3
Parade 5 2.4
Banners on streets 6 2.8
Radio ads 6 2.8
Door to door 5 2.8
Ads in magazines 5 3
Trade show or exhibition 6 3.2
Television ads 4 3.2
Ads in provincial newspapers 3 3.7
* The Rating Score is the weighted average calculated by dividing the sum of all weighted ratings by the number of total
responses.
Limitation: As some of the tools and activities were identified in the comments section, they were not ranked and are excluded from the weighted mean.
With the critical incident technique in mind, it was hoped that a significant number of highly effective and highly ineffective tools
and activities would be reported, and provide a better lens to view the perceived effectiveness of campaign strategy. This was not
the case, and the number of highly ineffective tools and activities identified was minimal. In order to adjust, ineffective strategy was
compiled against three rating choices (neutral, ineffective or very ineffective). The results are presented in figure 9 and broken by
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cluster. In the 33 completed surveys a total of 336 effective tools and activities were identified by the campaign managers. 82.3%
of the tools and activities used were perceived to be effective or highly effective and only 17.7 % were identified as ineffective.
FIGURE 9: COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF TOOLS AND ACTIVITIES (INCIDENTS) BY CLUSTER
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Effective versus Ineffective Communication Tools
(Incidents )
85
24
73
14
63 61
18
11
44
3
Land & Oceans (n=8)
Wildlife (n=9)
Education (n=6)
Food (n=6)
Other (n=4)
Effective
Neutral or
Ineffective
Oddly the perceived success seems contrary to the reality. When measured directly against campaign aims, there would appear to
be disconnect that might involve issues of not reaching the right market to initiate the change, or not measuring against the true
campaign objectives. This is discussed further below.
REACHING THE RIGHT TARGET MARKET
Failing to reach the right audience may contribute to the success or failure of a campaign. Campaigns of change, as with the case of
those in the study, must consider whom they want to influence (WWF, 2007, p. 6). Survey questions 14 to 17 asked respondents to
identify the primary target market, the secondary market, and the opinion of the current level of knowledge of the campaign issue
with that market.
Most advocacy was initially directed towards the general public, with twenty‐one respondents (63.6%). Approximately one in five
campaigns (18.1 %) directed their advocacy to government. Two of the campaigns noted that although their target was the general
public, it was in order to mobilize action towards another entity, most often the government. Three respondents targeted the
educational sector and one an unspecified ‘industry’. Two respondents stated the environment was a target, although the question
was not intended to identify the beneficiary.
The greatest areas of change in the secondary markets were that the general public became less of a focus (although still strong at
30.3 %) and industry rose to nine campaigns (27.3 %). Government also became a stronger focus with 21.2% secondary target
attention.
ESTABLISHING A COMMUNITY WATCH PROGRAM
A significant number of the campaigns were alerted to infractions and opportunities by a network of residents, other conservation
organizations, and funding partners. To this end a formal program of environmental watch with a call to action could assist
Page 40

campaigns with their vigilance and make it difficult for adverse actions to remain invisible. Attentive monitoring of publicly available
records such as logging or mining approvals may also prove effective in prompting action.
EVALUATING THE CAMPAIGN
Selecting the right tools can leverage scarce monetary and human resources often characteristic of community NGOs, and ensure
the message influences the desired response. Q. 22 asked “did you evaluate the success or failure of the campaign or project? If yes,
using what method, and if not, why not?
FIGURE 11: CAMPAIGNS THAT EVALUATED SUCCESS OF FAILURE
Answer Number of Responses Response Ratio
Yes 24 72.7%
No 9 27.2%
No responses 0 0%
Twenty‐four of the campaigns evaluated success or failure, however surprisingly more than one‐quarter did not. Reasons for not
evaluating were mainly resource issues such as insufficient time, insufficient funds, and insufficient people. The exception to this
came from two projects that were in year one of a two‐three year project, where assessment had not taken place.
For those who did measure, a long list was provided that included:
• Use of parks and its trails by residents and visitors.
• Numbers of participants at meetings or attendees at arranged activities.
• The number of times communication efforts were published.
• Number of times meetings with planning officials occurred.
• The increased number of members in the organization.
• The number of responses to a survey or request for action.
• Number of inquiries, phone calls, web site hits, thank‐you letters, feedback forms, donations, etc.
It appears that few of the community projects used measurements directly related to overall aims and objectives and would be
an area of recommended improvement.
A number of the projects met the WWF (2007) suggested specific measurement criteria (pp. 7‐8) by producing records such as:
• Counts of spawning salmon returns in the creeks.
• New growth of native plants in areas where invasive species were removed.
• Number of hectares habitat conserved or enhanced.
• Decreasing rates of wildlife mortality or increase in nesting success.
Three used comprehensive measurement/frameworks within wildlife related projects and for mentorship in the food security.
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
This research and review of literature shows that embedding biologicallyrespectful
attitudes and behaviours in the consciousness of residents and
visitors can be achieved in a community such as the Sunshine Coast through
an extensive and effective base of community NGOs. It is clear from this
research that a high degree of dedication to environmentally‐themed
campaigning continues to be prevalent. Escalating land‐use conflicts
between economic sectors, combined with limited success in past protective
measures, indicates a call for increased effectiveness of these campaigns in
the study area. Improvements in leadership and communications will help
overcome obstacles that are preventing pro‐environmental actions from
advancing.
The high proportion of activist residents on the Coast is similar to the initial establishment of ecotourism in Costa Rica, with great
potential for ecotourism to take root in the region. Commercial and non‐commercial tourism and recreation activities already
occurring within the region will fall under pressure to deliver experiences in a truly sustainable manner. Successes gleaned from
the cases studies of Bhutan, Costa Rica and Haida Gwaii provide the Sunshine Coast and similar regions with guidance on how
biologically‐respectful or ethically‐based tourism can develop side by side with conservation values.
The conceptual model developed from this research highlighted thirteen core functions of leadership/management and six core
functions of a communications realm that can serve as a template to help improve the effectiveness these campaigns have on the
Sunshine Coast of BC. This is especially true when it comes to choosing the most appropriate tools and activities to obtain a specific
outcome, and to evaluate the success against prime campaign objectives. Moving forward with resolve and a sense of urgency may
help propel the preservation of biodiversity and compel overall natural resource stewardship.
The Critical Incident Technique proved a useful methodological framework as it allowed a focus on both effective and ineffective
strategy as well as revealing tools and tactics that might have been overlooked had the focus been directed to critical success or best
practices alone. The research and literature review showed that every level of the community have an essential part to play;
environmental NGOs, scientists, industry, government, and residents. As the Sunshine Coast diversifies its economy away from its
traditional resource base, it will need alternatives that positively co‐exist with high conservation values of its residents and
guardians. Although innovative ways of protecting private land may provide forward movement, it is likely that additional strategies
and funding will be needed to sustain the conservation movement in the area.
While tools and practices may emerge from SCRD sustainability plans or any future biodiversity or tourism strategy, binding
instruments and legislation may be more challenging across the four jurisdictions currently governing the lower Sunshine Coast:
the SCRD, the Sechelt Indian Government District, the Town of Gibsons, and the District of Sechelt.
When near and off‐shore waters are included, and provincial and federal governments are added to the jurisdictional complexity,
this task is further challenged. This compels the Sunshine Coast to consider innovative methods such as the instruments described
by Newsome, Dowling & Moore (2005) and also by the Suzuki Foundation’s Policy Options to Protect, Enhance and Restore Natural
Capital in B.C.’s Urban Area (Molner, 2011).
This study shows these could be applicable and find acceptability widely on the Sunshine Coast. It was also shown in this research
that a broad array of organizations have power to influence and activate change through environmentally‐themed campaigns. It is
believed the results may be used to foster the foundation of attitudinal change in marketing for policy and planning in nature and
nature‐based tourism development. Such action may play a pivotal role in societal, industry and visitor attitudes and actions as well
as safeguarding the overall biodiversity of regions like the lower Sunshine Coast.
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APPENDIX A: GOALS AND TARGETS BIODIVERSITY 2011‐2020
STRATEGIC GOAL A: ADDRESS THE UNDERLYING CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS BY MAINSTREAMING
BIODIVERSITY ACROSS GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY
Target 1: By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it
sustainably.
Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction
strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into nation accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems.
Target 3: By 2020, at the latest, incentives, including subsidies, harmful to biodiversity are eliminated, phased out or reformed in
order to minimize or avoid negative impacts and positive incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are
developed and applied, consistent and in harmony with the Convention and other relevant international obligations, taking into
account national socio‐economic conditions.
Target 4: By 2020, at the latest, Governments, business and stakeholders at all levels have taken steps to achieve or have
implemented plans for sustainable production and consumption and have kept the impacts of use of natural resources well within
safe ecological limits.
STRATEGIC GOAL B: REDUCE THE DIRECT PRESSURES ON BIODIVERSITY AND PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE USE
Target 5: By 2020, the rate of loss of all natural habitats, including forests, is at least halved and where feasible brought close to
zero, and degradation and fragmentation is significantly reduced.
Target 6: By 2020, all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying
ecosystem based approaches, so that overfishing is avoided, recovery plans and measures are in place for all depleted species,
fisheries have no significant adverse impacts on threatened species and vulnerable ecosystems and the impacts of fisheries on
stocks, species and ecosystems are within safe ecological limits.
Target 7: By 2020, areas under agriculture, aquaculture and forestry are managed sustainably, ensuring conservation of biodiversity.
Target 8: By 2020, pollution, including from excess nutrients, has been brought to levels that are not detrimental to ecosystem
function and biodiversity.
Target 9: By 2020, invasive alien species and pathways are identified and prioritized, priority species are controlled or eradicated
and measures are in place to manage pathways to prevent their introduction and establishment.
Target 10: By 2015, the multiple anthropogenic pressures on coral reefs, and other vulnerable ecosystems impacted by climate
change or ocean acidification are minimized, so as to maintain their integrity and functioning.
STRATEGIC GOAL C: TO IMPROVE THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY BY SAFEGUARDING ECOSYSTEMS, SPECIES
AND GENETIC DIVERSITY
Target 11: By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially
areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed,
ecologically representative and well‐connected systems of protected areas and other effective area‐based conservation measures,
and integrated into the wider landscape and seascape.
Target 12: By 2020, the extinction of known threatened species has been prevented and their conservation status, particularly of
those most in decline, has been improved and sustained.
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Target 13: By 2020, the genetic diversity of cultivated plants and farmed and domesticated animals and of wild relatives, including
other socio‐economically as well as culturally valuable species is maintained and strategies have been developed and implemented
for minimizing genetic erosion and safeguarding their genetic diversity.
STRATEGIC GOAL D: ENHANCE THE BENEFITS TO ALL FROM BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Target 14: By 2020, ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health,
livelihoods and well‐being, are restored and safeguarded, taking into account the needs of women, indigenous and local
communities and the poor and vulnerable.
Target 15: By 2020, ecosystem resilience and the contribution of biodiversity to carbon stocks has been enhanced, through
conservation and restoration, including restoration of at least 15% of degraded ecosystems, thereby contributing to climate
change mitigation and adaptation and to combating desertification.
Target 16: By 2015, the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising
from their Utilization is in force and operational, consistent with national legislation..
STRATEGIC GOAL E: ENHANCE IMPLEMENTATION THROUGH PARTICIPATORY PLANNING, KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT AND CAPACITY‐BUILDING
Target 17: By 2015, each Party has developed, adopted as a policy instrument, and has commenced implementing, an effective,
participatory and updated national biodiversity strategy and action plan.
Target 18: By 2020, the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities relevant for the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and their customary use of biological resources, are respected, subject to national
legislation and relevant international obligations, and fully integrated and reflected in the implementation of the Convention with
the full and effective participation of indigenous and local communities, at all relevant levels.
Target 19: By 2020, knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and trends,
and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied.
Target 20: By 2020, at the latest, the mobilization of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan for
Biodiversity 2011‐2020 from all sources and in accordance with the consolidated and agreed process in the Strategy for Resource
Mobilization should increase substantially from the current levels. This target will be subject to changes contingent to resources
needs assessments to be developed and reported by Parties.
Source: UNEP, 2010 Strategic plan for biodiversity 2011‐2020 pp. 2‐10
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APPENDIX B: BHUTAN’S GROSS NATIONAL HAPPINESS PHILOSOPHY
According to both Buddhist and pre‐Buddhist philosophies, the mountains, rivers, streams, rocks and soils of Bhutan are believed
to be the domain of the spirits. Pollution and disturbances are believed to be the cause of death and disease for those spirits. The
Buddhist respect for all living things has led to the development and adoption of ecologically friendly strategies – a solid base upon
which a national environmental strategy can be built. This, coupled with the Buddhist tenet that the acts of life will be rewarded or
punished in the next, provides a motivational principle for sustaining Bhutan’s natural resource base.
Historically speaking, economic development has generally been dedicated to improving the quality of life. In Western cultures, this
has usually meant the satisfaction of the population’s material wants. According to this conventional definition, a country could only
be called “developed” once it reached a certain advanced level of material consumption. On an individual level, this translates into
consumerism and materialism.
Compounding the waste and excess inherent in these attributes is their essentially progressive and competitive nature. Not only do
individuals want to be better off than they were last year, they also want to be better off than their neighbours, who are seeing their
material fortunes improve. Given that the vast majority of these material acquisitions are derived from nature, this geometrically
rising pattern eventually exceeds the ability of the surrounding resource base to regenerate itself. Unless consumption patterns are
altered or foreign resources can be brought in to fill the gaps, the inevitable result is unsustainable development. This dynamic is
only accelerated when individually increasing “needs” are compounded by collectively increasing populations.
In Bhutanese culture, however, the original definition of development was based on the acquisition of knowledge. Those who
possessed greater knowledge were considered to be more developed. In a similar vein, the process of communal enrichment was
based on a dynamic in which those who possessed superior knowledge imparted that knowledge to others. In the Buddhist religion,
this concept of personal development was refined even further to entail overcoming the delusion arising from ignorance, aggression,
and the desire for consumption and acquisition.
The notion that gross national happiness is more important than gross domestic product is thus inherent to the Bhutanese value
system.
Source: Royal Government of Bhutan, 1998 National environment strategy for Bhutan p. 19
APPENDIX C: ECOTOURISM SOCIETY’S CODE OF CONDUCT
Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who implement and
participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism principles:
• Minimize impact.
• Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect.
• Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.
• Provide direct financial benefits for conservation.
• Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.
• Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental, and social climate.
(Ecotourism Society, n.d. Code of Conduct).
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APPENDIX D: LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AMB
BC
CAF
CBD
CHN
CPAWS
CST
CTB
DMO
EDU
EPI
GIC
GDP
GNH
GOV
GP
IND
ICET
LOPM
NBSAP
NEF
NGO
NS
NSI
PA
PADI
PATA
SC
SCRD
TIABC
UNCED
UNEP
UNEP‐WMO
UNEP‐WTO
WCWC
WPM
WWF
Archipelago Management Board
British Columbia
Community Adjustment Fund
Convention on Biological Diversity
Council of Haida Nations
Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society
Certification for Sustainable Tourism
Costa Rica Tourism Board
Destination Marketing Office/Organization
Education
Environmental Performance Index
Gambier Island Conservancy
Gross Domestic Product
Gross National Happiness
Government
General Public
Industry
Island Coastal Economic Trust
Land and ocean protection & management
National Biodiversity Strategies & Action Plan
New Economics Foundation
Non‐governmental organization
No survey
No survey or un‐structured interview
Protected area
Professional Association of Dive Instructors
Pacific Asia Travel Association
Sunshine Coast
Sunshine Coast Regional District
Tourism Industry Association of British Columbia
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
United Nations Environment Program
United National Environment Programme and World Meteorological Organization
United National Environment Programme and World Tourism Organization
West Coast Wilderness Committee
Wildlife Protection and Management
World Wildlife Fund/World Wide Fund for Nature
APPENDIX E: PHOTO CREDITS
Front Cover:
Page 4:
Page 5:
Page 6:
Page 7:
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Page 9:
Page 10:
Page 14:
Page 19:
Page 22:
Page 25:
Page 28:
Page 42:
Marine Panel, Patrick Klein
Puget Sound Crab, Brandon Evans
Harpy Eagle, Catherine Evans
Cloud Forest, Catherine Evans
Bhutan Guide, Shang‐ri‐la Tours, Catherine Evans
White‐faced Capuchin, Catherine Evans
Haida Interpretation, Bluewater Adventures
Masked dancers, Bhutan, Shang‐ri‐la Tours
Wolf Eel, Patrick Klein
Sea Lions, Patrick Klein; Bears in the Community, Lissa Forshaw
Farmer’s Market, Tourism BC/Toshi Kawano
Educating Visitors, Catherine Evans
Seal Pup Rescue, Lissa Forshaw
Connecting to Nature, Catherine Evans
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