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of egoistic attachments and engaging with non-egoistic or spiritual pursuits is a proposition, which is worth considering in the context of global challenge of sustainable development. Indian classical theories provide insight into the crisis caused by competition, consumerism and selfishness. IP recognizes the interplay of the manifest and unmanifest parts of our existence in shaping the events in this world. This makes room for going beyond strict determinism, accepting the emergent nature of reality. It suggests plausible explanations and strategies to deal with uncertainty. An important illustration of this is found in terms of classification of human action (Karma) in terms of Sanchit (accumulated) and Prārabdha (in-action) Karma. This classification implies that human action /behaviour is an evolving process, one that unfolds in the course of time . Also important is the idea of distributed notion of locus of control. IP has also expanded the notion of causality beyond self and nonself (internal-external) categories of perceived causes. Any action depends on the contribution of five factors, i.e., kartā (agent), karma (action), adhisthāna (body), karana (instruments) and daivam (providence) -The Bhagavad Gitā (Ch. 18.14). The actor is one of them and contributes just a part of the total. This is in contrast to the usual categories of internal and external attribution, which lies within the domain of egoistic self. IP emphasizes an organic view often explained in terms of the metaphor of seed and tree. This implies that continuity and transformation are inherent characteristics of life processes. In a major departure from linear mode of thinking this metaphor underlines nonlinear or cyclical mode of life functioning. It also implies the significance of unmanifest in shaping one‟s life. The human experience is complex and its study requires multiple methods including the third person, second person and first person methods. IP is not opposed to empirical methods as pratyaksha (perception) is one method (pramāna) accepted by all the schools of Indian thought but it is certainly not sufficient, particularly when we aim at both parā (self) and aparā (empirical) vidyas (knowledge). Being and knowing become one once we venture towards transcendental realm. The empirical methods are not enough to address the entire range of human experiences. IP does not view human action as neutral, value free or a-moral. Instead it brings out the essential interdependence and interconnectedness of the worlds of human experience in which human beings are responsible players. At one level it proclaims essential unity and asserts that self and non-self are identical in their constitution (i.e., yat pinde tad brahmande). This expands the scope of a discourse on human action. While explaining human action, IP takes into account not only the actor but also the linkages among the person, time and place. With emphasis on dèsh (space), kāl (time) and pātra (participant/person) it recognizes the nonlinear and emergent nature of action that defies simple descriptions in terms of binary categories of cause and effect (e.g., independent and dependent variables, predictors and criterion). It is largely discursive and narrative, and cannot be reduced to simple binary categories. It is supplemented by the position taken by one Indian school of thought that assumes continuity between cause and effect (Satkarya vada). It is reflected in the principle of Karma held by a vast majority of the Indians that refers to the sequence of actions constituting cause and effect. Thus, actions necessarily entail certain consequences. This scheme also empowers the actor to shape the future course of events by engaging in a responsible action. One lives life in obligational relationship (ṛinās) with (guru, ṛish, pitri, bhuta). Life therefore is a kind of sacrifice (yajna), a sacrifice of one‟s desires and ego. Instead of merely describing reality IP emphasizes on and promotes self positive qualities through personal training and practice. The goal of such training is to 10
nurture a balanced personality, which primarily involves Sātvik, Rājasic and Tāmsik Gunas or qualities. Interestingly enough the objects in the surrounding environment also share these three properties and finally to transcend them. Therefore, the life style should involve a harmonious relationship with one‟s environment and not by subjugating the environment. Such a relationship is mutually supportive for person and environment and does not tax any one of them. The Āyurveda talks of this harmony at the level of diet, action, and leisure to maintain health. Health is a state of balance (samatva) and a healthy person is one who is self-anchored (swastha) in a world of flux (samsār) with a body (Sharira) that decays. It must be noted that while everyone has all the three Gunas they exist in different combinations leading to a state of (im)balance reflected in the choice of actions and ensuring the health of mind, body and spirit. A distinction has also been made between godlike and demonic qualities (Daivi and Asuri Sampat) and it is recommended to evolve in the direction of godike qualities. One‟s well being requires adhering to a personal and social conduct rooted in virtuous life (sukhasya mulah dharmah - Chanakya). The aspiration for transcendental existence helps overcome the bodycentered egoistic strivings and offers a decentred view of self. It has implications for work and social relationship. It allows one to be motivated to treat work as a natural duty (dharma) to be performed with reference to the demands of the location in one‟s life space rather than any extrinsic incentive. It is one‟s humble contribution to the worldly operations. Instead of emphasizing on the outcome or reward outside the work context this kind of thinking promotes competence in action as yoga (yogah karmasu kaushalam). Such competence requires sustained and detached action (anasakti). As indicated earlier any action is made possible by several factors therefore attributing causality to self is ignorance. A person is a mere instrument (nimitta) of divinity and, therefore, it is heightened egotism, which assigns personal causality. Some Distinguishing Features of IP Despite all diversity and distinctiveness there are some features common across all systems and schools relevant to IP. Some of these common features, which give IP a distinct identity, are briefly discussed here. IP is deemed to be a universal psychology. It cannot be subsumed under the labels of indigenous, folk or cultural psychology, if that purports to delimit the scope of psychological inquiry. For want of a new term it has been also labeled as Greater Psychology (Dalal, 2000). The vast expanse of IP attends to the perennial issues of human existence (e.g., human strivings, virtues, self-understanding, self-control, Yoga, meditation, human conduct, pain, misery, kleshas, happiness, bliss, health, well being, justice, morality, conflict) which are not bound by any geographical region or time period. Centuries back the sages and thinkers were raising questions and attempted to address problems that are pertinent even today. In this sense IP is both ancient and contemporary at the same time. Indeed, the use of the term „Indian psychology‟ is more of a convenience; may be a more appropriate term is „psychology of Indian origin‟ (Rao, 2008). While the roots of IP are decidedly Indian, it was never proposed as the psychology of the Indian people. For instance, Buddhist psychology, 4 is an integral part of IP, flourished in Sri Lanka, Tibet and Japan among other countries. Most of these theories are propounded as trans-historical, dealing with the intrinsic state and ways to enhance the human potential. It can be mentioned in this context that the teachings and training in IP are not intended for any 11 4 It may be interesting to note that the term Buddhist Psychology was first used in the translation of Buddhist texts by British Indologists. Goleman expressed it as follows, " It was news that Buddhism — like many of the world's great spiritual traditions — harbored a theory of mind and its workings" (2004, p. 72).
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