EFFECT OF THE LONG-TERM HEALTH PRACTICES OF TAI CHI ...

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following sections review the literature on executive attention, neuropsychological tests of executive attention function, and the effects of Tai Chi, meditation, and aerobic fitness practice on attention function. Attention Function Attention assists the implementation of system-wide goals in the awake, behaving mammal. Attention effects include increases in firing rate of single units when a monkey attends to a location in space (Leopold & Logothetis, 1996), enhancement of information processing (Corbetta & Shulman, 2002; Oken, Salinsky, & Elsas, 2006), including holding items in working memory (Awh, 2001, Corbetta, 2002; Courtney, 2004; Luck, Vogel, & Shapiro, 1996), doing mathematical calculations (Ishii, Shinosaki, Ukai, Inouye, Ishihara, Yoshimine, Hirabuki, 1991; Mizuhara, Wang, Lobayashi, & Yamaguchi, 2004), planning motor operations (Rushworth, Ellison, & Walsh, 2001; Rushworth, Johansen-Berg, Gobel, Devlin, 2003; Serrien, Ivry, & Swinnen, 2007), maintaining postural control (Huxhold O, Li S-C, Schmiedek F & Lindenberger U, 2006; Silsupadol P, Lugade V, Shumway-Cook A, van Donkelaar P, Chou LS, Mayr U, Woollacott MH, 2009), and resolving response conflicts (Chan & Woollacott, 2007; Milham, 2002; Rushworth, Walton, Kennerley, & Bannerman, 2004a). The executive control microcircuit arrays in the forebrain have been shown to be activated during conflict resolution, processing of novel stimuli, and error detection (Desimone, 1995; Raz, 2004; Milham et al, 2003; Fan, 2002) This key attention component has many outputs, including selection of relevant stimuli or processes and inhibition of irrelevant ones (Knight; 1995; Milham, 2003). 3
Executive control has been localized to the anterior areas of the frontal cortex, including the anterior cingulate and dorsolateral and mediolateral prefrontal cortices (Chan, 2001; Fretwald, 2004; He, 2007; Herd, 2006; Humphries, 2004; Rushworth, 2007; Rushworth, 2004b; Taylor, 2007). The anterior cingulate is thought to mediate response- related processes, while bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is thought to mediate coordination of information relevant to choice of response (Milham, 2003). The left dorsolateral pre-frontal cortex has been found to be activated during tasks requiring regulation of shifts of attention (Callejas, 2005). Three main executive attention components have been identified for neuropsychological tests: 1) Inhibition, 2) Shifting, and 3) Updating (Miyake, et al, 2000). Working memory is often included as a component of executive function (Gilbert, 2008). Coordinated whole system output includes moving percepts, plans, and goals into and out of working memory (Rowe et al, 2002; Rounis et al, 2007; Rafal et al, 2002; Gevins & Smith, 2000; Miller et al, 1996), appropriate gating of relevant sensory- association and motor re-entrant processing, goal-setting and up-dating, and action implementation (Rushworth, 2001a; 2001b; 1998; 1997). Neuropsychological Tests of Executive Attention Function Neuropsychological tests are used to probe attention function. These tests can be combined with neuroimaging (fMRI, PET, EEG) to correlate cognitive output with circuit activation patterns (Poulson et al, 2005; Luck, 1996). Neuropsychological tests of executive function combine working memory requirements with percept identification, rule memorization and task-specific rule 4
Page 1 and 2: EFFECT OF THE LONG-TERM HEALTH PRAC
Page 3 and 4: © 2012 Teresa D. Hawkes iii
Page 5 and 6: NAME OF AUTHOR: Teresa D. Hawkes PL
Page 7 and 8: AD HOC REVIEWER International Journ
Page 9 and 10: Jorge, Nolita, Celeste, Martha, Daw
Page 11 and 12: Chapter Page Participants .........
Page 13 and 14: LIST OF TABLES Table Page II.1 Part
Page 15: systems interact during output of h
Page 19 and 20: has been under active investigation
Page 21 and 22: degree of variability is seen in st
Page 23 and 24: formation. The reader may note that
Page 25 and 26: A study by Audette 2006 investigate
Page 27 and 28: In sitting meditation, whether one
Page 29 and 30: Participants. CHAPTER II GENERAL ME
Page 31 and 32: Multivariate Cross-sectional Design
Page 33 and 34: Figure II.2 Figure II.2 VO2max and
Page 35 and 36: perform the movement safely and ind
Page 37 and 38: memory, inhibition, updating, and s
Page 39 and 40: Expertise Questionnaire. This quest
Page 41 and 42: training groups was compared to gen
Page 43 and 44: these differences. Indeed, not just
Page 45 and 46: physical disorders and be aged 20-7
Page 47 and 48: accurate foot positions, 3) accurat
Page 49 and 50: following sequence: 1) one minute o
Page 51 and 52: subject performing the Tai Chi Leg
Page 53 and 54: 18 17.46 17.46 23.81 23.81 14.29 14
Page 55 and 56: Figure III.4 Figure III.4. Self-rep
Page 57 and 58: Figure III.5 Figure III.5. Post-hoc
Page 59 and 60: To test long-term effects of this t
Page 61 and 62: Field notes were taken during data
Page 63 and 64: CHAPTER IV EFFECT OF LONG-TERM TAI
Page 65 and 66: meditators. All meditation practiti
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This study utilized a complex visuo
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Testing Aerobic Capacity --Rockport
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actual task switch) consisted of tw
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Results Overall results. As expecte
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(p < .001), and aerobic fitness (p
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Figure IV.3 Key Observations by Gro
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with faster reaction times on execu
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Figure IV.4 Figure IV.4. Possible t
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the effects of training. On the swi
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measure. Elecrtroencephalography (E
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(fMRI) Milham et al, 2003), and ele
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as compared to sedentary elderly ad
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practitioners were required to 1) h
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Executive Attention Test. Visuo-spa
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Data Analysis. EEG Data Analysis. N
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Figure V.1. Figure V.1. P3b switch
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(F(3, 49) = 5.459, p = .075, partia
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Figure V.2 Figure V.2. Comparison o
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Figure V.3 Figure V. 3. Comparison
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costs (p = .009, r = -.354), showin
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decade between these two groups. It
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.001, r = .468). Since Tai Chi is c
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predictive measure of VO2max may pr
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CHAPTER VI GENERAL DISCUSSION In ou
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absolute estimated VO2max measure.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Aftanas, L.I. & Goloch
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Berg K, Wood-Dauphinee S, Williams
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Carillo-Reid, L., Tecuapetla, F., T
Page 123 and 124:
Courtney, S.M. (2004). Attention an
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Drew, A.S., Langan, J., Halterman,
Page 127 and 128:
Folk, C.L., Remington, R.W. & Johns
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Grillner S & Graybiel, AM. (2006).
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Hillman, C.H., Kramer, A.F., Belopo
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Kamijo, K. & Takeda, Y. (2010). Reg
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Knight, R.T. (1996). Contribution o
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Li, J.X., Hong, Y. & Chan, K.M. (20
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Maki BE, Zecevic A, Bateni H, Kirsh
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Mizuhara, H., Wang, L-Q., Kobayashi
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Padilla, M.L., Wood, R.A., Hale, L.
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Raz, A. (2004). Anatomy of attentio
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Rushworth, M.F.S., Kennerley, S.W.
Page 149 and 150:
Shadish WR, Cook TD & Campbell DT.
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SooHoo, S., Takemoto, K.Y. & McCull
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Tornay, F.J. & Milan, E.G. (2001).
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cognition and sport exercise. Appli
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Wylie, G., & Allport, A. (2000). Ta
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special keypad. The Mayr Task Switc
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If you have any questions, please f
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How many YEARS have you Meditated?
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If one of the statements does not a
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 26. It is easy for
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51. Sometimes, I feel a sense of pa
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 X 74. Without applyin
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Questionnaires & IRB Form Checklist
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Assembly _____ Ensure all power sou
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MAC OS X Password: geodesic Net app
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Smallwood Experiment Information Sh
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Subject Prep - Motion Analysis ____
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_____Click Collect and Calibrate, d
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Motion Analysis Experiment Informat
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I. IRB forms and Questionnaires. AP
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III. Demographic Information We’d
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**Direct the subjects to look at th
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Read all instructions on the screen
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Please walk as fast as you can for
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Other Correlations Correlations. Co
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Levene's Test of Equality of Error
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