Science, Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development

I N T E R N ATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE 

Series on Science for Sustainable Development No. 4 

… strengthening international science for the benefit of society… 

S c i e n c e, Tr a d i t i o n a l 

Knowledge 

and Sustainable 

Development

ICSU Series on Science 

for Sustainable Development 

The ICSU Se r i es on Sc i e n ce for Sus tai n a ble Dev elopment is produ ced by th e 

I n te r n ational Co uncil for Sc i e n ce in co n n ec tion with pre parations for the 2002 

World Summit on Sus tai n a ble Dev elopment (WSSD). The aim of WSSD is to 

bring tog e ther gov e r n m e n t s, Un i ted Nations agencies and other key sta keh old 

e rs, including re p res e n tativ es of civil soc i e ty and the Sc i e n ti fic and Tec h n ol og ical 

Co m m un i ty, to build upon the 1992 Un i ted Nations Co n fe re n ce on Envi ro nment 

and Dev elopment (UN CED) and to enhan ce efforts tow ard the future of 

s us tai n a ble dev elopment. The Se r i es includes a set of inte r - d i s c i pl i n ary re po r t s 

focusing on major issues th at are rel ev ant to science for sus tai n a ble dev el o pment. 

The Se r i es is meant to serve as a link be tw een the scienti fic co m m un i ty an d 

d ec i s i o n - m a ke rs, but the re ports should also be us eful to all oth e rs inte res ted in 

the co n tr i b ution of science to sus tai n a ble dev elopment. The Se r i es highlights th e 

fun d am e n tal role science has pl ay ed and will pl ay in finding sol utions to the chall 

e n g es of sus tai n a ble dev elopment. It exam i n es expe r i e n ces since UN CED an d 

l ooks tow ards the future. It provi d es up-to - d ate know l edge, exam i n es les s o n s 

l ear n ed, succes s es achiev ed, and diffi cu l ti es enco un te red; while also outl i n i n g 

future res earch agendas and actions to enhan ce problem sol ving and good pra cti 

ces in sus tai n a ble dev elopment. The Se r i es was made po s s i ble due to a genero 

us grant provi d ed by the David and Lucile Pa c kard Fo un d ati o n . 

ICSU 

The Inte r n ational Co uncil for Sc i e n ce (ICSU) is a non- gov e r n m e n tal org an is 

ation re p res e n ting the inte r n ational science co m m un i ty. The membe rsh i p 

i n c l u d es bo th national science aca d e m i es (98 membe rs) and inte r n ati o n a l 

s c i e n ti fic unions (26 membe rs). The co m b i n ed expe r tise from th ese two gro u p s 

of scienti fic org an i s ations provi d es a wide spec tr um of scienti fic expe r ti s e 

e n a bling ICSU to address major inte r n ational, inte rd i s c i pl i n ary issues, bey o n d 

the sco pe of the indivi dual org an i s ations. ICSU builds upon this scienti fic expe rtise 

in a num ber of ways. It initi ates, des i gns and co - o rd i n ates major inte r n ati onal, 

inte rd i s c i pl i n ary res earch program m es, par ti cu l arly in the areas of globa l 

e nvi ro n m e n tal change. It also es ta bl i sh es pol i cy and advi s o ry co m m i ttees to 

a d d ress impo r tant matte rs of common co n cern to scienti s t s, such as edu cati o n 

and ca pa c i ty building in science, access to data, or science in dev eloping co untr 

i es. ICSU acts as a focus for the exc h ange of ideas, co m m un i cation of scientific 

info r m ation and dev elopment of scienti fic stan d ards and netw o r ks. Beca us e 

I C SU is in co n tact with hun d reds of th o us ands of scientists worldwide, it is ofte n 

ca l l ed upon to re p resent the world scienti fic co m m un i ty.

ICSU Series on Science for Sustainable Development No. 4 

Science, Traditional 


and Sustainable 

Development 

Prepared by 

The International Council for Science and 

the United Nations Educational, Scientific 

and Cultural Organization

The reports in this series have been put together 

by groups of scientists on behalf of the various 

sponsoring bodies. While every effort has been 

made to make them as authoritative as possible, 

the reports do not formally represent the views 

of either the sponsoring organisations nor, where 

applicable, the individual members affiliated to 

those organisations. 

Suggested Citation: 

International Council for Science. 2002. ICSU 

Series on Science for Sustainable Development 

No. 4: Science, Traditional Knowledge and 

Sustainable Development. 

24 pp. 

This Report was compiled and edited primarily 

by D. Nakashima and D. Elias, UNESCO. 

© ICSU 2002 

ISSN 1683-3686 

Cover Images: 

Each of the photographs on the cover represents 

one of the three pillars of sustainable 

development. (from left to right): 

• Environment: © CNRS Photothèque / P. Dollfuss 

View of Lake Yamdrok, a field of mustard crops 

in southern Tibet, China. 

• Social: © IRD / E. Katz 

Mixtec woman washing coffee grains, Oaxaca, 

Mexico. 

• Economic: © IRD / E. Deliry-Antheaume 

View of the Newton, Johannesburg, Gauteng 

Province, South Africa. 

Graphics and layout: 

Atelier Marc Rosenstiehl, France 

Printed by Stipa 

Printed on recycled paper

S C I E N C E, T R A D I T I O N A L K N O W L E D G E A N D S U S TA I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T 3 

Preface 

In addressing the goals of sus tai n a ble deve l o p m e n t, th e 

role of science is crucial; scienti fic knowledge and approp 

r i ate te c h n ol og i es are ce n tral to res olving the eco n o m i c , 

s ocial and env i ro n m e n tal problems th at make cur re n t 

d evelopment paths un s us tai n a ble. Howeve r, science does 

not co n s ti tute the only form of knowledge, and closer links 

need to be es ta bl i shed be tween science and other fo r m s 

and sys tems of knowledge in addressing sus tai n a ble development 

issues and problems at the local level such as 

n atural res o urces management and biod ive rs i ty co n s e rvation. 

Tra d i tional soc i e ti es, usually with strong cu l tural roo t s, 

h ave nur tured and re fined sys tems of knowledge of th e i r 

own, re l ating to such dive rse domains as as tro n o my, 

m e te o rol ogy, geol ogy, ecol ogy, bo tany, agr i cu l ture, phys i ol 

ogy, psyc h ol ogy and health. Such knowledge sys te m s 

re p resent an enormous we a l th. Not only do th ey re p res e n t 

o ther approa c h es of the acq ui s i tion and co n s tr u c tion of 

k n owledge and har bo ur info r m ation often as yet un k n ow n 

to science, but th ey are also expressions of other re l ati o nships 

be tween soc i e ty and nature in general and of sus tain 

a ble ways of managing natural res o urces in par ti cu l ar. 

However, the research community, with the exception 

of some disciplines specifically focused on studying traditional 

soc i e ti es and tra d i tional knowledge, such as ethnology, 

ethnobotany and ethnoscience, has not yet enga- 

ged in ways of better linking science to other knowledge 

sys tems. To do so would bring impo r tant advan ta g es to 

both sides, and provide, to those in need of knowledge for 

p urs uing sus tai n a ble development goa l s, a broa d e r 

range of empirical information. 

For scientists to reach a common understanding of the 

importance of traditional knowledge, it is essential to disti 

n g ui sh clearly be tween science, pseudo-science an d 

traditional knowledge. The first four chapters of the present 

Re port re p resent the findings of an ICSU Stu dy 

Group asked to establish such a distinction following the 

1999 World Conference on Science (WCS) organized by 

the Un i ted Nations Edu cational, Sc i e n ti fic and Cu l tura l 

O rg an i zation (UN ESCO), in coo pe ration with ICSU. 

UN ESCO itself has also moved towards impl e m e n ti n g 

the WCS recommendations by launching an international 

project on Local and Indigenous Knowledge Systems 

in a Global Society (LINKS). I am pleased that this Report 

is published in cooperation with UNESCO. It is my hope 

that the Report will be used as an inspiration for the way 

ahead in co u pling science with tra d i tional knowl e d g e , 

and in developing par tn e rships be tween the scienti fi c 

co m m un i ti es, the hol d e rs of tra d i tional knowledge, in 

particular indigenous peoples, and other stakeholders in 

sustainable development. 

Professor TH OMA S RO S SWA LL 

Exe cutive Dire c to r 

I C SU


Table of Content 

7 

9 

11 

13 

16 

18 

20 

22 

22 

23 

24 

Introduction 

The Nature of Traditional Knowledge 

Distinguishing between Science, Pseudo-Science and 

Traditional Knowledge 

Interactions between Science and Traditional Knowledge 

Coupling Science and Traditional Knowledge: Towards More 

Equitable Partnerships 

The Way Forward 

Literature Cited 

Annexes 

ANN EX I - TEX TS P E R TA IN IN G TO TR A D I T I ONA L AN D LOCA L KN OWLE DGE 

F R OM T H E UN ESCO - I C SU WO R LD CON FE R EN CE ON SCI EN CE 

ANN EX II - RESO LUT I ON O F T H E 2 6 T H GEN E R A L AS S EM B LY O F I C SU 

ON T H E FO LLOW-U P TO T H E WO R LD CON FE R EN CE ON SCI EN CE 

ANN EX III - TH E I C SU STUDY GR O U P


Introduction 

The Declaration on Sc i e n ce and the Use of Sc i e n ti fi c 

Kn owledge adopted by the World Co n fe re n ce on Sc i e n ce 1 

affirms that scientific knowledge has led to remarkable innovations 

that have been of great benefit to humankind. Yet at 

the same time it also notes the challenge re m aining to us e 

this knowledge in a res po n s i ble manner to address hum an 

needs and as p i rations. This is a task th at needs many par tn 

e rs, and which calls for a broad col l a bo ration be twe e n 

science and society in meeting the challenges of the future. 

In paragraph 01 of the Declaration it is stated: 

“The sciences should be at the servi ce of hum an i ty as a 

w h ole, and should co n tr i b ute to providing ev e ryone with a 

deeper understanding of nature and society, a better quality of 

l i fe and a sus tai n a ble and hea l thy envi ronment for pres e n t 

and future generations.” For scientists to be better equipped 

for th ese tasks th e re is a need for them to be aware of th e 

social and cultural settings of their endeavour. 

For many sustainable development problems at the local 

level proper interaction between science 2 and local and indigenous 

cultures is crucial in order to find viable solutions. In 

this co n n e c tion para gra ph 26 of the Declaration (Annex 1) 

ob s e rves: “ …th at tra d i tional and local know l edge sy s tems as 

dyn amic expressions of pe rce iving and un d e rs tanding th e 

w o r l d, can make and histo r i cally have made, a valuable co n tr ib 

ution to science and tec h n ol ogy, and th at th e re is a need to 

p res e rve, pro tec t, res earch and pro m o te this cu l tural herita g e 

and empirical know l ed g e .” 

This principle is expanded in the Science Agenda - Framework 

for Action also adopted by the WCS under the section 

e n ti tled “Modern science and other sys tems of knowl e d g e ” . 

Of critical interest to this Report are the following two recommendations 

(Annex 1): 

“G ov e r n m e n tal and non-gov e r n m e n tal org an i zati o n s 

should sus tain tra d i tional know l edge sy s tems th rough activ e 

s u p port to the soc i e ti es th at are kee pe rs and dev el o pe rs of th i s 

k n ow l edge, their ways of life, their lan g u a g es, their social org an 

i zation and the envi ronments in which th ey live, and fully recogn 

i ze the co n tr i b ution of women as re po s i to r i es of a large par t 

of tra d i tional know l ed g e .” 

“G overnments should support coo pe ration be tw een hold 

e rs of tra d i tional know l edge and scientists to expl o re the rel ati 

o n ships be tw een diffe rent know l edge sy s tems and to fo s te r 

i n te r l i n ka g es of mutual be n efi t .” 

It is also included in the re co m m e n d ations coming fro m 

World Conference on Science that the attainment of sustainable 

development, calling for balanced interrelated policies 

aimed at economic growth, poverty reduction, human wellbe 

i n g, social equi ty and the pro te c tion of the Ear th ’s 

res o urces, commons and life - s u p port sys te m s, is one of th e 

gre atest challenges which the world co m m un i ty has eve r 

fa ced. We must enhan ce and har n ess knowledge and our 

scientific capabilities to develop sustainably. 

At its 30 th Session in Paris 1999, the General Conference of 

UNESCO adopted the two principal documents of the WCS, 

the Declaration and the Framework. The 26 th General Assembly 

of ICSU held in the same year in Cairo, Egypt, also unanim 

o usly endorsed the two principal documents of the WC S . 

Both ICSU and UNESCO urged members and Member States 

respectively to make both documents widely known among 

m e m be rs of the scienti fic co m m un i ty and decision-make rs . 

Further, it was agreed by both governing bodies to promote 

the principl es set out in the Declaration, and to ta ke th e 

a p p ro p r i ate steps to tran sl ate into co n c re te action th e 

1. The World Conference on Science (WCS), organized by UNESCO in co-operation 

with ICSU, was convened in Budapest, Hungary, from 26 June to 1 July 1999. 

2. While the term ‘science’ used in this Report refers to the natural sciences in the 

first place, it is often meant to include all domains of the sciences (including the 

biomedical and engineering sciences, and the social and human sciences).

8 

Science Agenda - Framework for Action by implementing the 

recommendations set out within it and by forging new partnerships 

to this end. 

The ICSU General Assembly acknowledged “the impo rtance 

of empirical knowledge built up over generations and 

grounded in practical evidence but emphasized at the same 

time th at such knowledge must be disti n g ui shed fro m 

a p p roa c h es th at seek to pro m o te an ti - s c i e n ce and pseudoscience.” 

It is for this reason that the ICSU General Assembly 

re q u es ted the ICSU Exe cutive Board to car ry out a criti ca l 

study of this issue. The ICSU Executive Board established an 

Ad hoc ICSU Stu dy Group for this pur pose (Annex III). This 

Re port makes the findings and co n c l usions of the Stu dy 

Group available to a larger public in the context of the preparation 

of the World Summit on Sustainable Development 

(WSSD). The first four chapters of this Report, following this 

Introduction, represent an edited version of the Study Group’s 

own report. In the last two chapters of the present Report, the 

S tu dy Gro u p ’s own re co m m e n d ations which we re targ e te d 

only on possible ICSU follow-up, have been expanded significan 

tly in sco pe in order to provide gui d e l i n es for par ti c i patory 

research aimed at interlinking scientific and traditional 

knowledge, and for the type of partnership initiatives advocated 

by the World Summit on Sustainable Development. 

S C I E N C E, T R A D I T I O N A L K N O W L E D G E A N D S U S TA I N A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T 

Throughout the preparatory process of the World Summit 

on Sustainable Development, governments and other stakeholders 

have stressed the need for making greater use of both 

s c i e n ti fic knowledge and te c h n ol ogy on the one han d, an d 

tra d i tional knowledge on the oth e r. Many issues re l ated to 

sustainable natural resources management and to biodiversity 

conservation, as well as its sustainable use, require indeed 

a co u pling of scienti fic and tra d i tional knowledge. Thus, 

moving towards sustainable development in many areas will 

require a closer cooperation between scientists and the holders 

of traditional knowledge which include local people in 

general and indigenous peoples in particular. Necessarily, for 

addressing concrete sustainable development problems this 

cooperation will have to be expanded to include other relevant 

sta ke h ol d e rs such as national governments and loca l 

a uth o r i ti es, bus i n ess and indus try, and other major gro u p s 

identified in Agenda 21. At the meetings of the UN Commission 

for Sus tai n a ble Development during the fi rst half of 

2002 devo ted to the pre parations of the World Summit on 

Sustainable Development, representatives of the International 

Sc i e n ti fic and Te c h n ol og i cal Co m m un i ti es, Indigenous 

Pe o pl es and of Bus i n ess and Indus try have initi ated a dial 

ogue and have agreed to expl o re, tog e ther with UN ESCO, 

the po s s i b i l i ty of developing a small num ber of par tn e rsh i p 

projects in different parts of the world.


The Nature of Traditional 


In this report the term “Traditional Knowledge” is used in 

the fol l owing sense, which is in acco rd an ce with co m m o n 

usage of the term in the literature: 

“Traditional knowledge is a cumulative body of knowledge, 

k n ow - h ow, pra c ti ces and re p res e n tations mai n tai n ed an d 

d ev el o ped by peo pl es with exte n d ed histo r i es of inte ra c ti o n 

w i th the natural envi ronment. These soph i s ti cated sets of 

un d e rs tan d i n g s, inte r p re tations and meanings are part an d 

parcel of a cu l tural co m plex th at enco m pas s es lan g u a g e , 

n aming and clas s i fi cation sy s te m s, res o urce use pra c ti ces, 

ritual, spirituality and worldview.” 3 

Tra d i tional knowledge prov i d es the basis for loca l - l eve l 

decision-making abo ut many fun d am e n tal as pects of day - 

to-day life: 

• hunting, fishing and gathering; 

• agriculture and husbandry; 

• preparation, conservation and distribution of food; 

• location, collection and storage of water; 

• coping with disease and injury; 

• interpretation of meteorological and climatic 

phenomena; 

• manufacture of clothing and tools; 

• construction and maintenance of shelter; 

• orientation and navigation on land and sea; 

• management of ecological relations of society 

and nature; 

• adaptation to environmental/social change. 

It is impo r tant to note th at the term ‘tra d i tional knowledge’, 

is only one of several designations currently employed 

by practitioners in the field. A variety of scientific, social and 

political considerations make it all but impossible for a single 

term to suit all settings – each one has its sh o r tco m i n g s 

( Na kashima and Roué 2002). The terms ‘tra d i tional knowledge’ 

and ‘tra d i tional ecol og i cal knowledge’ (TEK), fo r 

example, may be misleading as they underscore knowledge 

a ccum u l ation and transmission th rough past generati o n s, 

b ut ob s cure their dy n amism and ca pa c i ty to adapt an d 

c h ange. Another widely used term, ‘indigenous knowl e d g e ’ 

(IK), emph as i zes attachment to pl a ce and es ta bl i sh es a link 

with indigenous peoples. For some, however, this connection 

is problematic because it narrows the term’s application and 

excludes certain populations who may not be officially recogn 

i zed as ‘indigenous pe o ple by their res pe c tive gove r nm 

e n t s, but who neve r th e l ess po s s ess soph i s ti cated sets of 

k n owledge abo ut their natural env i ronments. In co n tras t, 

terms such as ‘local knowledge’ are easily applied to a variety 

of contexts, but suffer from a lack of specificity. Other terms 

th at are enco un te red in the lite rature include ‘indigenous 

s c i e n ce’, ‘far m e rs’ knowledge’, ‘fi sh e rs’ knowledge’ and ‘fol k 

knowledge’. 

Traditional knowledge, like any other form of knowledge, 

is developed within certain cultural groups over a given period 

of time and within specific environmental and social settings. 

At the same time, history has demonstrated how knowledge 

has been actively sh ared and exc h anged am o n g 

societies, and in this matter, holders of traditional knowledge 

are no diffe rent. They acknowledge, accept and adopt elements 

from other knowledge systems, just as other societies 

adopt elements of traditional knowledge. 

As with any other system of knowledge, traditional knowledge 

is embedded within particular worldviews. In this respect 

modern science is no diffe re n t, it is also an c h o red in a 

s pe c i fic wo r l dv i ew an d, more to the po i n t, a spe c i fic view 

about people’s relation to nature that is strongly instrumental 

(Thomas 1983). In contrast, the worldview embraced by traditional 

knowledge holders typically emphasizes the symbiotic 

nature of the relationship between humans and the natural 

world. Rather th an opposing man and nature as in 

3. The formulation endorsed by the ICSU Study Group.

10 

Western thought, traditional knowledge holders tend to view 

people, animals, plants and other elements of the universe as 

i n te rco n n e c ted by a network of social re l ations and obl i g ations 

(i.e. Feit 1973, Fienup-Riordan, 1990). 

Hol i s tic co s m ol og i es th at inte r twine elements th at are 

ecological and social, as well as empirical and spiritual, have 

confounded scientists who seek to separate ‘fact’ from ‘superstition’. 

The scientist’s dualistic approach, however, presents 

certain dangers. Practices that appear in the first instance as 


s u pe rs ti ti o us to the outside ob s e rver may, once additi o n a l 

k n owledge abo ut the env i ronment and cu l ture is acq ui re d 

p rove to be appro p r i ate and empirically sound ways of 

coping with environmental problems. Furthermore, practices 

may have latent meanings that may only be revealed through 

a fuller understanding of the culture as a whole. Traditional 

knowledge interweaves empirical, spiritual, social and other 

co m ponents. In general, by isol ating elements from such a 

holistic worldview, one runs the risk of misrepresenting both 

the elements and the whole.


Distinguishing between Science, Pseudo-Science 

and Traditional Knowledge 

This section discus es the re l ati o n ship among science , 

pseudo-science and traditional knowledge. It first addresses 

the noto r i o usly diffi cult problem of the demarcation be tween 

science and pseudo-science. Once the characteristics 

of pseudo-science are clarified this provides a basis distinguishing 

pseudo-science from traditional knowledge. 

The Demarcation of Pseudo-science from Science 

Ph i l o s o ph e rs of science have debated the demarcation of 

p s e u d o - s c i e n ce from science for many deca d es. Un fo r tun ate 

l y, hope of finding a criterion th at would un am b i g u o usl y 

d e m arcate pseudo-science from science has not been fu lfi 

l l e d, and is no longer ente r tained (see Curd and Cl over 1998). 

The main reason for the abandonment of this project is a 

growing awareness of the diverse and fractured approaches 

to knowledge within science itself. Diffe rent sciences are 

much more dissimilar to each other than previously thought, 

and th e re is little hope to expose the un i ty of science by an 

a p peal to a unique scienti fic meth od or any other mean s 

(Feyerabend 1993, Galison and Stump, 1996). Consequently, 

the demarcation of science from pseudo-science can not be 

a c h i eved by identi fying a single un ive rsal criterion. Wh at 

counts as good scientific practice in one scientific field may 

be outdated or even inappropriate in another scientific field. 

At best, there are different criteria whose validity depends on 

the res pe c tive scienti fic co n text an d, fur th e r m o re, on ti m e , 

which is ve ry un s ati s fa c to ry. In addition, many pra c ti ces, 

ideas, concepts, models, hypotheses and even speculations in 

a lively field of science are of a heur i s tic chara c ter with o ut 

being expl i c i tly mar ked as such in eve ry instan ce of th e i r 

occur re n ce. Mo re ove r, the degree to which a spe c i fic element 

of science is accepted as a heuristic device or as a more 

or less solid result may vary from one scientist to the oth e r. 

T h ese fa c to rs make the co n trast be tween science an d 

pseudo-science appears somewhat blurred. 

However, the project of demarcating pseudo-science from 

science is not so hopeless even if the inner diversity and the 

h e ur i s tic elements of science are ta ken into acco unt. Two 

main approaches present themselves. The first one is broadly 

s oc i ol og i cal, co n ce n trating on social as pects of pseudoscience, 

and the second one is epistemological. Commencing 

w i th the soc i ol og i cal approach, it is noted th at a pseudos 

c i e n ti fic field from its ince p tion is always in more or les s 

explicit competition with a corresponding science. Further, it 

is typically not propounded by people educated in the scientific 

field with which it is competing. For example, there is a 

movement against relativity theory that defends ideas about 

time and spa ce th at are more in agreement with co m m o n 

sense than relativity theory. Proponents of the movement are 

typ i cally not physicists but pe o ple often edu cated in oth e r 

s c i e n ti fic discipl i n es. A be tter known movement is cre ati o n 

s c i e n ce, which co m pe tes strongly with evol uti o n ary th e o ry. 

Again, many if not most proponents of creation science are 

not professional biol og i s t s, and the extra - s c i e n ti fic, i.e. re l igious 

base of the movement is obvious. However, this sociological 

approach results only in a necessary but not in a sufficient 

co n d i tion for a demarcation of pseudo-science fro m 

s c i e n ce. Ps e u d o - s c i e n ce does stand in co m pe ti tion with 

some es ta bl i shed scienti fic tra d i tion, but so someti m es do 

minority views within science, fighting a prevalent tradition, 

without becoming unscientific. Thus, we need additional evid 

e n ce in order to chara c te r i ze a field as pseudo-scienti fi c , 

and this evidence relates to its cognitive content. 

The second approach to demarcate pseudo-science from 

s c i e n ce is episte m ol og i cal. It is based on a somewh at more 

advanced form of a characterization of science given at the 

World Science Conference in Budapest in 1999 (Hoyningen- 

Huene 2000). According to this account, science is characterized 

as being systematic to a higher degree than comparable 

p i e ces of eve ryd ay knowledge. Sc i e n ce is more sys te m ati c 

th an eve ryd ay knowledge with res pect to the fol l owing six 

aspects:

12 

• how science describes; 

• how science explains; 

• how science establishes knowledge claims; 

• that science has an ideal of completeness; 

• how science expands knowledge; 

• how science represents knowledge. 

Due to its ideal of co m pl e te n es s, science has inbuilt dy n am 

i cs re g arding the improvement of knowledge. This dy n amic 

can abstra c tly be des c r i bed as the te n d e n cy to 

co n s tan tly incre ase the sys te m atic chara c ter of knowl e d g e 

and th e re by to make progress. Des c r i p tions be come more 

sys te m atic by higher degre es of accura cy of ob s e rvati o n , 

e x pl an ations be come more sys te m atic by th e o r i es th at are 

m o re and more co m p re h e n s ive, new and more accurate l y 

re pe ated experiments incre ase the degree of sys te m atic testing 

and th e re by the effi c i e n cy of dete c ting mista kes, re pe ated 

surveys of the field incre ase the aware n ess of knowl e d g e 

g a p s, and so on. In any area of science, the te n d e n cy to make 

k n owledge more sys te m atic in all pra c ti cal po s s i ble dire ctions 

can be ob s e rved. 

In co n tras t, many of the pseudo-scienti fic fields are co mparatively 

static. It is extremely rare for such fields to atte m p t 

a sys te m atic as s essment of their cogn i tive claims. In par ti cul 

ar, wh e re claims are of an es s e n tially proba b i l i s tic nature , 

l i ke in all talk abo ut te n d e n c i es or (not exa c tly spe c i fi e d ) 

i n fl u e n ces, sys te m atic stati s ti cal tes ting proce dures are ca lled 

fo r. Howeve r, ve ry rarely do pseudo-scienti fic movements 

get invol ved in any sort of stati s ti cal tes ting procedures; 

an e cd o tal ev i d e n ce prevails. If cogn i tive claims of 

p s e u d o - s c i e n ti fic movements are sys te m ati cally eva l u ate d 

at all, this is usually not done by the movement itself in a selfc 

r i ti cal way, but by science. Fur th e r m o re, in pseudo-scientific 

fields usually no attempt is made at a sys te m atic expansion 

of cogn i tive claims into new are as; typ i ca l l y, with 

res pect to sco pe, pseudo-scienti fic movements are extremely 

co n s e rvative. Mo s tl y, the dy n am i cs to be ob s e rved in 

p s e u d o - s c i e n ti fic fields (if any) is defe n s ive: it consists at 


most of attempts to oppose the co un te r - atta c ks of the respe 

c tive scienti fic tra d i ti o n . 

In co n c l usion: Ps e u d o - s c i e n ce is an enterprise th at is 

a l ways in co m pe ti tion with science; it po s es as science by 

mimicking it. Howeve r, a closer look reveals th at pseudos 

c i e n ce displ ays a deve l o p m e n tal pattern th at is ve ry different 

from the developmental pattern of science proper. Where 

as science tr i es to incre ase the degree to which it is 

systematic with respect to all those aspects where this is feasible, 

pseudo-science is mostly static and if moving forward 

at all, it is only enhancing its protective belt against criticism 

from the scientific tradition it tries to displace. 

On the Demarcation of Pseudo-science 

from Traditional Knowledge 

The demarcation of pseudo-science from tra d i ti o n a l 

k n owledge is fairly strai g h tfo rward. As noted ear l i e r, tra d i ti onal 

knowledge is a cum u l ative body of knowledge, know - 

h ow, pra c ti ces and re p res e n tations mai n tained and deve l oped 

by pe o pl es with extended histo r i es of inte ra c tion with th e 

n atural env i ronment. Thus, it has typ i cally originated indepe nd 

e n tly of science in a par ti cu l ar cu l tural setti n g, and criti ca l l y, 

i n d e pe n d e n tly from Wes tern cu l ture. Tra d i tional knowledge is 

th e re fo re neither intended to be in co m pe ti tion with science , 

nor is such a co m pe ti tion the neces s ary result of their inte ra ction. 

On the co n trary, tra d i tional knowledge has info r m e d 

s c i e n ce from its ve ry beginnings and it co n ti n u es to do so 

tod ay. If co m pe ti tion be tween science and tra d i tional knowledge 

ar i s es at all, then the initi ative typ i cally co m es fro m 

pe o ple who want science to re pl a ce th ese other forms of 

k n owledge. Ps e u d o - s c i e n ce, on the other han d, tr i es at leas t 

par tly to de-legiti m i ze existing bod i es of scienti fic knowl e d g e 

by gaining equal episte m ol og i cal status. The existe n ce of 

p s e u d o - s c i e n ce as an enterprise in co m pe ti tion with science is 

th us invar i a bly bo und to the existe n ce of science itself wh ere 

as tra d i tional knowledge is independent of science .


Interactions between Science and 

Traditional Knowledge 

While inte ra c tion be tween tra d i tional knowledge an d 

science has recently emerged as an issue of widespread interest 

and co n cern, in actual fact the dialogue be tween th es e 

knowledge systems has a long history. The important role that 

tra d i tional knowledge has pl ayed in the development of 

modern science has been clearly demonstrated by historians 

of science. This includes contributions not only to the expansion 

of empirical data but also to the construction of schemes 

by which this informa tion is ordered, as well as the development 

of scientific methods and concepts. 

The dialogue be tween scientists and tra d i tional knowledge 

holders has an extensive history within occidental traditions. 

Noteworthy examples include the physics of Galileo, 

who used knowledge of ballistics developed by craftsmen at 

the arsenal in Ve n i ce, and Li n n a e us’ cod i fied use of Lati n 

binomials for plant and animal nomenclature, that was founded 

on studies of Sami (Lapp) naming and classification systems 

(Balick and Cox 1997). 

During the colonial period, when Europe was ‘discovering’ 

the world, the disciplines of ethno botany and ethno zoology 

were established to grapple with the sudden influx of biological 

information from distant places. These disciplines grew by 

leaps and bo unds with the es ta bl i shment of bo tan i cal gardens 

and the publ i cation of herbal and tre ati s es in Re n ai ssance 

Europe from the sixteenth century onwards (Ambrosoli 

1997), all bolstered by substantial inputs of traditional knowledge. 

The prima ry mission, however, was not to understand 

th ese other knowledge sys tems per se, but rather to glean 

from them useful information for the further development of 

wes tern science during the colonial pe r i od. Efforts focus e d 

on compiling lists of novel plants and animals that were ‘useful’ 

to local populations and consequently, thought to be of 

potential utility ‘back home’. 

D uring the colonial pe r i od scientists did not rely only on 

l ocal experts to identi fy spe c i es of inte rest. They adopte d 

e n ti re clas s i fi cation schemes th at order and inte r p ret th es e 

e col og i cal sys tems acco rding to an indigenous logic. In th i s 

m an n e r, Wes tern ta xonomic knowledge and pra c ti ce we re 

significantly transformed by their encounter with traditional 

systems of knowledge and meaning. For example, Rumphius’ 

seminal eighteen ce n tury wo r k, He r bar i um Ambo i n e n s e, 

relied heavily upon indigenous descriptions of plant ecology, 

and in par ti cu l ar Ma l ay sys tems of clas s i fi cation (Pe e te rs 

1979; Ellen and Harris 1999). During the ninete e n th an d 

twentieth centuries, this tapping of local knowledge became 

routine, and many additions and revisions to scientific taxonomic 

un d e rs tandings “iro n i cally depended upon a set of 

diagnostic and classificatory practices, which though repres 

e n ted as science, had been derived from earlier cod i fi cations 

of indigenous knowledge” (Ellen and Harris 1999). Thus 

s c i e n ce has a long histo ry of expansion th rough the approp 

r i ation of tra d i tional knowledge, at ti m es with little acknowledgement 

of the origins of these borrowed ‘discoveries’. 

A mar ked sh i ft occur red in the inte ra c tion be twe e n 

science and traditional knowledge during the middle of the 

twentieth century with the emergence of a new umbrella disc 

i pline. Eth n o - s c i e n ce is a scienti fic approach to tra d i ti o n a l 

k n owledge th at is roo ted in the pioneering work of Harol d 

Conklin among the Hanunoo of the Philippines in the 1950’s. 

Conklin (1957) dedicated his study of a society’s knowledge 

of its natural environment on a rigorous examination of indig 

e n o us seman tic cate g o r i es. The disti n g ui shing fe ature of 

Conklin’s methodological approach was his focus on indigenous 

taxonomies of almost 2000 plant species and his appreciation 

that this knowledge was intimate to Hanunoo culture 

and wo r l dv i ew. Subsequent res e arch co n firmed the subtl e 

and meticulous nature of indigenous knowledge, illustrating 

for exam ple th at this ‘s c i e n ce of the co n c re te’ (Lev i - S tra us s 

1966) names and orders large numbers of plant and animal 

taxa, bypassing in many cases those known to science. Ethnoscience 

focused its attention on indigenous taxonomies, stimulating 

considerable debate over the extent to which these

14 

classification systems exhibit universal characteristics (Berlin 

1974, 1992, Atran 1991, Bulmer 1967, Friedburg 1974, Ellen 

and Reason 1979, Ellen 1998). 

Ethno-botanical research has continued as a strong tradition, 

p articularly in India and in Mexico. Extensive work has 

focused on “sacred” groves occurring throughout India that 

are protected and managed by local communities. Research 

into these groves integrates botanical, ecological and management 

pe rs pe c tives with local soc i o - cu l tural fram ewo r ks . 

Such approa c h es have examined the re l ati o n ship be twe e n 

traditional knowledge and biodiversity conservation in terms 

of how proh i b i tions may co n tr i b ute help to managing an d 

preserving ecosystems (Ramakrishnan et al 1998). 

Early res e arch in Arc tic No r th America on Inuit (Esk i m o ) 

knowledge of the bio-physical environment, in particular the 

i ce env i ro n m e n t, was co n du c ted by Nelson (1969). Subseq 

u e n tl y, res e arch on indigenous knowledge in the circum 

polar region was stimulated by the need to resolve territorial 

land claims and as a result, document land use and related 

traditional ecological knowledge (Freeman 1976, 1979). The 

application of traditional knowledge to the assessment of the 

environmental and social impacts from large-scale development 

projects emerged soon after (Berkes 1988, Nakashima 

1990, Roué and Nakashima 2002). 

In the Pacific Islands, research was initiated on traditional 

knowledge and systems of marine resource tenure. The pioneering 

work of Johannes (1978) on the demise of traditional 

conservation methods in Oceania set the stage for a number 

of impo r tant co n tr i b utions in this domain, such as on th e 

knowledge of the marine fishers of Palau, (Johannes, 1981) a 

UNESCO anthology on Traditional Knowledge and Management 

of Coastal Systems in Asia and the Pacific (Ruddle and 

Joh an n es 1985) and more re ce n tl y, Hv i d i n g ’s writings on 

maritime knowledge and tenure in the Solomon Islands (Hviding 

1996). These studies focus upon traditional knowledge 

of marine species including their habitat, aggregation behaviour, 

spawning migration and taxonomies. In addition, they 

illustrate that there exist elaborate indigenous conservation 

and management practices for marine biodiversity. 

During the 1980s, researchers in multilateral and bilateral 

d evelopment agencies be g an to re cogn i ze the sign i fi can ce 


of indigenous knowledge for sustainable development, both 

for environmental conservation and technologies for agricultural 

produ c tiv i ty (Bennett 1992). For exam ple, scientists in 

the CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural 

Res e arch) sys tem be g an to value par ti c i pato ry te c h n ol ogy 

development, using the traditional practices and indigenous 

knowledge of lo cal populations as a starting point. Work on 

indigenous soil classification and management systems has 

been undertaken by Warren (1992) within a broader framework 

of illus trating par ti c i pato ry approa c h es to deve l o pment 

in Afr i ca. The Ce n ter for Indigenous Kn owledge fo r 

Agriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD) has promoted 

indigenous knowledge systems as a critical resource base for 

development and the design of sustainable agricultural systems. 

Work done on indigenous soil characterization in northern 

Zambia by Si kana (1994) clearly demonstrates th at 

local knowledge is relative and site specific. Having reviewed 

both research and development work on rural people’s knowledge 

and western agricultural science undertaken in Africa 

(Scoones and Thompson 1994) one can conclude that both 

systems are value-based, context-specific and influenced by 

social relations of power. It is advocated that to engage with 

local knowledge systems, research must come to terms with 

contrasting sets of ideas, values, representations and performances. 

Most recently, there has been renewed recognition of indig 

e n o us knowledge as a po te n tial source for biod ive rs i ty 

science. Traditional peoples knowledgeable about their local 

fl o ra and fa una have co n tinued to draw the atte n tion of 

scientists to new species (e.g. primate species recently discovered 

in Central and South America, ungulates in Southeast 

Asia, and plant species throughout the tropics). In the 1980s 

and 1990s, this taxonomic knowledge has attracted the interest 

of ph ar m a ce uti cal and agr i cu l tural co m pan i es (Ch a dwick 

and Marsh 1994), triggering co n cern abo ut bio-pro spe 

c ting and the inte l l e c tual pro pe r ty rights of loca l 

communities. 

Traditional knowledge and traditional medicinal practices 

co n tinue to provide for the primary health care needs of 

some 80% of the wo r l d ’s po p u l ation (WHO et al. 1993). In 

China (Lin 2001) and India (Mishra 2002), traditional medicine 

is actively suppo r ted and res e arched. Even wes te r n 

medicine, founded on Greek traditions, continues to be stron-


gly infl u e n ced by tra d i tional knowledge. In the USA, pl an t 

materials continue to be an important component in 25% of 

p res c r i p tions (Far n swo r th and Soe j ar to 1985). Disow n i n g 

the role of tra d i tional knowledge in medicine would disenfranchise 

a large maj o r i ty of the wo r l d ’s po p u l ation, ign o re 

much of what constitutes modern medicine, and curtail discovery 

of new drugs and the treatment of diseases for which 

we still have no satisfactory cures. 

Conservation strategies can be based on traditional knowledge 

and resource use (Redford and Padoch 1992, Redford 

and Mansour 1996) and enable effective management and 

par tn e rships with o ut which co n s e rvation goals are un l i ke l y 

to be attained. This also raises a number of challenges including 

land te n ure, genetic res o urce ow n e rsh i p, inte l l e c tu a l 

property rights and benefit sharing (ten Kate and Laird 1999), 

and co n fronts scientists with issues of professional eth i cs 

(Cunningham 1996). 

Tra d i tional knowledge is providing empirical insight into 

c rop domes ti cation, bre e d i n g, and management (Co n k l i n 

1957, Boster 1984, Na bh an 1985, Br ush 2000, Johns an d 

Keen 1986, Sa l i c k, Ce l l i n ese, and Knapp 1997), as well as 

p r i n c i pl es and pra c ti ces of swidden agr i cu l ture, agro - e cology, 

agro-forestry, crop rotation, pest and soil management 

and other agr i cu l tural activ i ti es (Bunch 1982). Tra d i ti o n a l 

knowledge also informs science about natural forest management 

and biodiversity management (Nabhan 2000, Posey 

1985, Peters 1990, Pinard 1993, Pinedo-Vasquez et al. 2001, 

Salick 1992).

16 

Coupling Science and Traditional Knowledge: 

Towards More Equitable Partnerships 

The study of indigenous knowledge has expanded and has 

re ce ived incre ased inte rest from res e arch and fun d i n g 

bodies. The debate has grown from what constitutes and is 

the value of indigeneous knowledge to include “how can 

such knowledge systems be used to ensure equitable benefit 

sharing of the resources with the contributing communities” 

(Slikkerveer 1999). In the context of the application of traditional 

knowledge in sus tai n a ble development this mar ks a 

sh i ft away from inte ra c tions and exc h an g es of knowl e d g e 

th at have prev i o usly co n ce n trated on te c h n ol ogy tran s fe r, 

based on ‘to p - d own’ approa c h es to deve l o p m e n t, toward s 

more equitable partnerships (Sillitoe 1998, 2001). 

There are a number of complex obstacles to protecting the 

rights of holders of traditional knowledge, innovations, practi 

ces and te c h n ol og i es. Inte r n ational pro pe r ty right re g i m es 

m ay pose bar r i e rs to equi ta ble be n e fit sh aring (Dutfi e l d 

1999). One of the most pra c ti cal means to negoti ate an d 

move forward in this complex area has been the drawing up 

of codes of ethics and research guidelines. Numerous intern 

ational professional as s oc i ations and soc i e ti es have be e n 

addressing the important issues concerning rights, participation, 

disclosure, co n s e n t, ve to, co n fi d e n ti a l i ty, pro te c ti o n , 

compensation, reward sharing, research support and access 

(Laird and Posey 2002). Patent and copyright laws, have evolved 

within ve ry par ti cu l ar soc i o - e conomic and pol i ti ca l 

contexts. They are designed to protect individuals or companies 

whose specific ‘inventions’ require safeguarding in view 

of their pe rce ived mar ket value. Yet it is diffi cult for such 

ar rangements to acco m m od ate tra d i tional knowl e d g e , 

which is collectively owned, whose ‘invention’ extends across 

several generations, and whose intent is not commercial profitability 

but rather understanding about the natural environment, 

support for subsistence, and social meaning. 

Given these inherent incompatibilities, the application of 

co nve n tional inte l l e c tual pro pe r ty rights (IPR’s) may have 

impacts quite other that those intended. By protecting select 


elements in isol ation from the larger cu l tural co n te x t, IPR’s 

e n co urage fra gm e n tation and ato m i s ation of the cu l tura l 

system. By designating knowledge ‘owners’, they may trigger 

s ocial dissention be tween those re cogn i zed as pro p r i e to rs 

and other co m m un i ty membe rs th at are excluded. And 

fi n a l l y, as co nve n tional IPR’s serve to pro tect knowledge by 

setting the rules for their commercial exploitation, they in fact 

deliver up local knowledge to the global market place (Barsh 

1999). Ex i s ting IPR ar rangements are cu l turally inapprop 

r i ate for pro te c ting tra d i tional knowledge sys tems. Tod ay 

e fforts are turning towards the co n s i d e ra bly more challenging 

task of defining co m pl e tely new or s ui generis sys te m s 

for protection. 

Universal education programs provide important tools for 

h um an deve l o p m e n t, but th ey may also co m p romise th e 

transmission of indigenous language and knowledge. Inadvertently, 

they may contribute to the erosion of cultural diversity, 

a loss of social cohesion and the alienation and disorientation 

of yo uth. A classic exam ple from Afr i can school 

cur r i cula co n cerns the instr u c tion abo ut the fo ur seas o n s . 

This ethnocentric representation of nature as an annual cycle 

of “spring, summer, autumn and winter” is completely at odds 

w i th the real life expe r i e n ce of No r th Afr i can children. Its 

uncritical imposition erodes confidence of youth in their own 

experience and in the cultural interpretation of the world provided 

by their parents and grandparents. 

In sh o r t, when indigenous children are taught in science 

c l ass th at the natural world is ord e red as scientists order it, 

and that it functions as scientists believe it functions, then the 

va l i d i ty and auth o r i ty of their pare n t s’ and gran d pare n t s’ 

k n owledge is denied. While their parents may po s s es an 

extensive and sophisticated understanding of the local enviro 

n m e n t, clas s room instr u c tion impl i c i tly informs th at 

science is the ultima te authority for interpreting ‘reality’ and 

by extension local indigenous knowledge is second rate and 

obsolete.


In many communities, there is an urgent need to reconsider 

the ar ti cu l ation be tween exog e n o us and endog e n o us 

k n owledge fl ows and the pe d a g og i cal meth ods th at gui d e 

these processes. Actions are urgently needed to enhance the 

i n te rg e n e rational transmission of local and indigenous 

knowledge, in order to empower communities to build their 

own sus tai n a ble futures based upon bo th endog e n o us an d 

exogenous knowledge. 

Greater emphasis must be placed on levelling the playing 

field and appre c i ating tra d i tional knowledge not as sets of 

i n fo r m ation but as inte gral co m ponents of other living an d 

dynamic societies and cultures. 

Tra d i tional knowledge co n s e rvation th e re fo re must pas s 

through the pathways of conserving language (as language 

is an es s e n tial tool for cu l tura l l y - a p p ro p r i ate encoding of 

k n owledge); ensuring knowledge transmission; stre n g th ening 

the control of traditional societies over the processes of 

c h ange th at affect them; and co n s e rvation and co n ti n u e d 

a ccess to the env i ronments upon which their way - of - l i fe 

depends.

18 

The Way Forward 

It is acknowledged in the introductory note to the Science 

Agenda – Framework for Action of the World Conference on 

Sc i e n ce (Annex 1) th at modern science does not co n s ti tute 

the only form of knowledge available to further the development 

of humankind. Traditional knowledge systems harbour 

an enormous an d, for the most par t, un ta p ped we a l th of 

information that is acquired and constructed within a wide 

range of cultures. It is also acknowledged that these unique 

knowledge systems are increasingly weakened in the face of 

globalization and the growing dominance of a single view of 

the natural world as espoused by science. 

The va l u a ble co n tr i b ution to science th at has been made by 

tra d i tional knowledge sys tems was re cogn i zed at the Wo r l d 

Co n fe re n ce on Sc i e n ce. Fur th e r, the need to pres e rve, pro te c t, 

res e arch and pro m o te this empirical knowledge was advocated. 

To as s ure mutually be n e ficial and enriching exc h an g es 

be tween th ese two distinct knowledge sys tems re q ui res th e 

d evelopment of a way fo rward th at is based on two lines of 

a c tion. The fi rst co n cerns re co m m e n d ations for action with i n 

the scienti fic co m m un i ty to raise aware n ess abo ut the un i q u e 

va l u es of tra d i tional knowledge sys tems. The second area of 

a c tion th at must be pre d i cated on the fi rs t, co n cerns es ta bl i shment 

of a fo un d ation upon which to build par tn e rships th at 

can co n s tr u c tively co u ple science and tra d i tional knowl e d g e . 

Measures to be Taken by the Scientific Community 

Sc i e n tists and scienti fic insti tutions should pro m o te dial 

ogue and build aware n ess and un d e rs tanding within th e 

s c i e n ti fic co m m un i ty abo ut tra d i tional knowledge and its 

relationship to science. Specifically, they need to: 

• Recognize that science does not constitute the only form 

of empirical knowledge about the world; 

• En co urage res e arch into the histo ry and ph i l o s o phy of 

s c i e n ce to identi fy and highlight the tan g i ble co n tr i b u- 


tions that traditional knowledge systems have made to the 

development of science; 

• Raise aware n ess of the impo r tant disti n c tions be twe e n 

traditional knowledge, science and pseudo-science; 

• Re cogn i ze th at tra d i tional knowledge sys tems offe r 

unique and va l u a ble approa c h es to the acq ui s i tion an d 

co n s tr u c tion of knowledge, proces s es th at can only be 

a d d ressed by acknowledgement of the spe c i fic cu l tura l 

milieu within which they are reproduced; 

• Recognize that scientists are also influenced by their own 

cultures in which they learn, work and research; 

• Promote and support research into traditional knowledge 

systems that represent considerable stores of, as yet “undiscovered”, 

knowledge and potential for mutually beneficial 

exchanges with science. 

Actively support and strengthen the systems of acquisition, 

transmission and mai n te n an ce of tra d i tional knowledge in 

the societies that are keepers and developers of that knowledge. 

Specifically with respect to building appropriate bases 

to articulate equitable exchanges between traditional knowledge 

and science: 

• Un d e rs tand th at knowledge in tra d i tional soc i e ti es, 

contrary to an often held perception, is also dynamic and 

constantly evolving; 

• Re cogn i ze th at th e re also exist tra d i tional proces s es of 

tran s m i tting and acq uiring tra d i tional knowledge, an d 

th at th ese proces s es des e rve to be mai n tained and supported; 

• Recognize, support and encourage research into the role 

of wo m e n ’s tra d i tional knowledge th at has often be e n 

neglected. 

UN ESCO, ICSU and other scienti fic bod i es should wo r k 

together to advocate and implement these measures.


Building Partnerships for Enhancing Knowledge 

and Action 

Partnerships between the S&T communities and local and 

indigenous peoples will in many areas be essential to promoting 

sustainable development. The founding principle to foster 

positive interaction between holders of traditional knowledge 

and the scienti fic co m m un i ty is th at col l a bo rati o n 

m ust be initi ated be tween equal par tn e rs. This goal can n o t 

be attained un l ess par tn e rships are fo unded upon mutu a l 

respect and understanding, transparent and open dialogue, 

and informed consent and just returns for the holders of traditional 

knowledge through the flow of rewards and benefits. 

These commitments are critical, as the fields of interplay between 

tra d i tional and scienti fic knowledge extend we l l 

beyond research and environmental management into areas 

i nvolving bus i n es s, government and development inte rve ntion. 

Re co m m e n d ations to assist in the development of respo 

n s i ble approa c h es to the co u pling of tra d i tional knowledge 

with science in sustainable development must address 

a broad range of stakeholders. 

In the fi rst pl a ce the S&T co m m un i ty must be re a dy an d 

co m m i tted to impl e m e n ting neces s ary chan g es in th e 

conduct of science aimed at sustainable development goals 

which are particularly relevant for working with the holders 

of tra d i tional knowledge. A much gre ater sh are of res e arc h 

m ust be inte grated probl e m - o r i e n ted and inte rd i s c i pl i n ary, 

addressing the social, economic, and environmental pillars of 

s us tai n a ble development. Tra d i tional div i d es be tween th e 

n atural, social, economic, and engineering sciences an d 

other major stakeholders must be bridged. Research agendas 

m ust be defined th rough broad- bas e d, par ti c i pato ry 

a p p roa c h es involving the hol d e rs of tra d i tional knowl e d g e 

and those in need of scientific information. 

In the formulation of partnerships the issue of ownership 

of knowledge must be understood and acknowledged as the 

s tar ting point for building effe c tive par tn e rships be twe e n 

other stakeholders and the holders of traditional knowledge. 

The holders of traditional knowledge must be fully recognized 

as the rightful owners of their intellectual heritage. Scientific 

research must pay due attention, and give due credit, to 

those peoples who produce and hold that knowledge. 

In tra d i tional soc i e ti es the acq ui s i tion, transmission an d 

maintenance of knowledge most often takes place outside of 

the formal classroom setting. Local social and cultural framewo 

r ks of auth o r i ty, meaning and re p res e n tations of knowledge 

must be understood, respected and upheld. The recogn 

i tion of the ow n e rsh i p, use and pra c ti ce of tra d i ti o n a l 

knowledge systems in their local context (social and cultural) 

p rov i d es the neces s ary fo un d ation to fo rge equi ta ble par tnerships. 

It is only on this basis that scientific research and traditional 

knowledge can be articulated on equal terms in sustainable 

development, research and resource management. 

B eyond the building of col l a bo rative par tn e rships at th e 

local level between members of the scientific community and 

h ol d e rs of tra d i tional knowledge, it will be neces s ary to 

expand these collaborative partnerships to include national 

g overnment agencies, local auth o r i ti es, bus i n es s, indus try, 

NGOs and, appropriate intergovernmental organizations. At 

the most fundamental level, it is critical for the scientific community 

and other partners to understand that for indigenous 

pe o pl es res pect for their te r r i to r i es and self-dete r m i n ati o n 

are basic preconditions for partnerships. 

In this respect, the following principles should be applied: 

• En s ure the full and effe c tive par ti c i pation of tra d i ti o n a l 

knowledge holders during all stages of elaboration of sustai 

n a ble development pol i c i es, pl ans and program s, 

alongside the scientific and technological community; 

• A c k n owledge and res pect the social and cu l tural bas es, 

including the authority structures within which traditional 

knowledge is embedded; 

• Recognize the rights of traditional people to own, regulate 

a ccess and sh are be n e fits of their unique sets of knowledge, 

resources and products 

• Ensure that traditional knowledge holders are fully informed 

of po te n tial par tn e rships and th at th ese are only 

entered into with prior informed consent; 

• Promote models for environmental and sustainable governance 

that incorporate principles of genuine partnership 

and col l a bo ration be tween scienti fic and tra d i ti o n a l 

knowledge; 

• Pro m o te training to be tter equip yo ung scientists and indigen 

o us pe o ple to car ry out res e arch on tra d i tional knowl e d g e .

20 

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A grawal, A. (1993). Mob i l i ty and co n trol am o n g 

nomadic sh e ph e rds: The Case of the Rai kas . 

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22 

Annexes 

Annex I – Texts pertaining to Traditional and Local 

Knowledge from the UNESCO-ICSU World Conference 

on Science 

Par. 26 Considering …th at tra d i tional and local knowledge sys tems as 

dy n amic expressions of pe rce iving and un d e rs tanding the wo r l d, can 

m a ke and histo r i cally have made, a va l u a ble co n tr i b ution to science 

and te c h n ol ogy, and th at th e re is a need to pres e rve, pro te c t, res e arc h 

and pro m o te this cu l tural heritage and empirical knowl e d g e … 

Par. 38 Inte l l e c tual pro pe r ty rights need to be appro p r i ately pro te c te d 

on a global bas i s, and access to data and info r m ation is es s e n tial fo r 

Par. 35 Modern science does not co n s ti tute the only form of knowledge, 

and closer links need to be es ta bl i shed be tween this and oth e r 

fo r m s, sys tems and approa c h es to knowledge, for their mutual enrichment 

and be n e fit. A co n s tr u c tive inte r - cu l tural debate is in ord e r, to 

help find ways of be tter linking modern science to the broader knowledge 

heritage of hum ankind. 

Par. 36 Tra d i tional soc i e ti es, many of them with strong cu l tural roo t s, 

h ave nur tured and re fined sys tems of knowledge of their own, re l ati n g 

to such dive rse domains as as tro n o my, mete o rol ogy, geol ogy, ecol ogy, 


DECLARATION ON SCIENCE AND THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 

un d e r taking scienti fic work and for tran sl ating the results of scienti fi c 

res e arch into tan g i ble be n e fits for soc i e ty. …There is also a need to further 

develop appro p r i ate national legal fram ewo r ks to acco m m od ate 

the spe c i fic re q ui rements of developing co un tr i es and tra d i ti o n a l 

k n owledge, sources and produ c t s, to ensure their re cogn i tion an d 

a d e q u ate pro te c tion on the basis of the informed consent of the custo 

m ary or tra d i tional ow n e rs of this knowl e d g e . 

INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO THE SCIENCE AGENDA-FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION 

bo tany, agr i cu l ture, phys i ol ogy, psyc h ol ogy and health. Such knowl e d g e 

sys tems re p resent an enormous we a l th. Not only do th ey har bo ur info rm 

ation as yet un k n own to modern science, but th ey are also expres s i o n s 

of other ways of living in the wo r l d, other re l ati o n ships be tween soc i e ty 

and nature, and other approa c h es to the acq ui s i tion and co n s tr u c ti o n 

of knowledge. Special action must be ta ken to co n s e rve and cu l tivate 

this fragile and dive rse world heritage, in the fa ce of globa l i zation an d 

the growing dominan ce of a single view of the natural world as es po used 

by science. A closer linkage be tween science and other knowl e d g e 

sys tems is expe c ted to bring impo r tant advan ta g es to bo th sides.


Par. 32 Modern scienti fic knowledge and tra d i tional knowl e d g e 

should be brought closer tog e ther in inte rd i s c i pl i n ary projects dealing 

w i th the links be tween cu l ture, env i ronment and development in such 

are as as the co n s e rvation of biol og i cal dive rs i ty, management of 

n atural res o urces, un d e rs tanding of natural hazards and miti g ation of 

their impact. Local co m m un i ti es and other re l evant pl aye rs should be 

i nvol ved in th ese projects. Indiv i dual scientists and the scienti fic co mm 

un i ty have the res po n s i b i l i ty to co m m un i cate in po p u l ar lan g u a g e 

the scienti fic expl an ations of th ese issues and the ways in wh i c h 

s c i e n ce can pl ay a key role in addressing them. 

Par. 33 Gove r n m e n t s, in co - o pe ration with un ive rs i ti es and higher 

e du cation insti tuti o n s, and with the help of re l evant Un i ted Nati o n s 

o rg an i zati o n s, should extend and improve edu cation, training an d 

fa c i l i ti es for hum an res o urces development in env i ro n m e n t - re l ate d 

s c i e n ces, utilizing also tra d i tional and local knowledge. Special effo r t s 

in this res pect are re q ui red in developing co un tr i es with the co - o pe ration 

of the inte r n ational co m m un i ty. 

Se c tion 3.4 Modern science and other sys tems of knowl e d g e 

Annex II – Resolution of the 26 th General Assembly 

of ICSU on the Follow-up to the World Conference 

on Science 

1. World Conference on Science 

The 26 th General Assembly of ICSU 

No ting the succes s ful holding of the World Co n fe re n ce on Sc i e n ce in 

B u d a pest from 26 June to 1 July 1999; 

Re cogn i zes and appre c i ates the par tn e rship with UN ESCO in the org an 

i zation and staging of the Co n fe re n ce ; 

Re co rds its grate ful appre c i ation to the Hun g ar i an Government and th e 

Hun g ar i an Aca d e my of Sc i e n ces for their genero s i ty and coo pe ration in 

h o s ting the Co n fe re n ce ; 

Ex p res s es co n cern abo ut parts of the documents adopted by the Co n fere 

n ce, nota bly para gra ph 26 of the Declaration on Sc i e n ce and secti o n 

3.4 Modern science and other sys tems of knowledge of the Fram ewo r k 

for Action; of par ti cu l ar co n cern is the ph rase “tra d i tional and loca l 

k n owledge sys te m s”. The impo r tan ce of empirical knowledge built up 

over generations and gro unded in pra c ti cal ev i d e n ce is acknowl e d g e d 

b ut such knowledge must be disti n g ui shed from approa c h es th at seek to 

p ro m o te an ti - s c i e n ce and pseudo-science, and which degrade th e 

SCIENCE AGENDA-FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION 

Par. 83 Governments are called upon to fo r m u l ate national pol i c i es 

th at allow a wider use of the appl i cations of tra d i tional forms of learning 

and knowledge, while at the same time ensuring th at its co mm 

e rc i a l i zation is pro perly rewarded. 

Par. 84 En h an ced support for activ i ti es at the national and inte r n ati o n a l 

l evels on tra d i tional and local knowledge sys tems should be co n s i d e red. 

Par. 85 Co un tr i es should pro m o te be tter un d e rs tanding and use of trad 

i tional knowledge sys te m s, instead of focusing only on extra c ti n g 

elements for their pe rce ived uti l i ty to the S&T sys tem. Kn owl e d g e 

should fl ow simultan e o usly to and from rural co m m un i ti es 

Par. 86 Gove r n m e n tal and non-gove r n m e n tal org an i zations sh o u l d 

s us tain tra d i tional knowledge sys tems th rough active support to th e 

s oc i e ti es th at are ke e pe rs and deve l o pe rs of this knowledge, th e i r 

ways of life, their lan g u a g es, their social org an i zation and the env ironments 

in which th ey live, and fully re cogn i ze the co n tr i b ution of 

women as re po s i to r i es of a large part of tra d i tional knowledge. 

Par. 87 Governments should support coo pe ration be tween hol d e rs of trad 

i tional knowledge and scientists to expl o re the re l ati o n ships be tween diffe 

rent knowledge sys tems and to fo s ter inte r - l i n ka g es of mutual be n e fit. 

va l u es of science as un d e rs tood by the ICSU co m m un i ty. ICSU re affi r m s 

its support for the va l u es and meth ods of ve r i fi a ble science ; 

Re cognizing th at the re l ation be tween tra d i tional knowledge an d 

m odern science is bo th impo r tant and a highly co m plex pol i ti cal an d 

s oc i ol og i cal ques tion and one th at cannot be addressed in a few lines of 

a wide-ranging docum e n t ; 

Re q u ests the Exe cutive Board of ICSU to set up a criti cal stu dy of this issue. 

Wi th the above res e rvati o n s, the 26th General Assembly of ICSU 

D e c i d es to endorse the two principal documents of the Co n fe re n ce: th e 

D e c l aration on Sc i e n ce and the Use of Sc i e n ti fic Kn owledge and th e 

Sc i e n ce Agenda - Fram ework for Action, taking into acco unt th e 

co n cerns expressed; an d 

Urg es all ICSU Me m be rs to : 

d i s tr i b ute and make bo th documents and this res ol ution widely know n 

among membe rs of the scienti fic co m m un i ty, pro m o te the principl es set 

o ut in the Declaration, and ta ke the appro p r i ate steps to tran sl ate into 

co n c re te action the Sc i e n ce Agenda - Fram ework for Action by impl em 

e n ting the re co m m e n d ations set out within it, fo rging new par tn e rships 

to do so; 

Keep the ICSU Se c re tar i at re g u l arly informed of all meas ures th ey have 

ta ken to implement the Sc i e n ce Agenda - Fram ework for Acti o n .

24 

Annex III – The ICSU Study Group 

At its meeting on 19 Se p te m ber 2000, the Exe cutive Board of ICSU decided 

to set up a small Stu dy Group to pre pare a re port on this issue for th e 

next session of the General Assembly in Rio de Jan e i ro in Se p te m be r 

2002. The man d ate spe c i fi cally asked the Stu dy Gro u p : 

(i) to car ry out the re q ui red an a l ysis of the re l ati o n ship be tween tra d i ti onal 

knowledge sys tems and modern science; an d 

(ii) to give adv i ce to ICSU on fur ther action (see, in par ti cu l ar, para gra ph 

87 of the WCS Fram ework for Acti o n ) . 

The Stu dy Group was es ta bl i shed in mid 2001 and was asked to pre pare 

a Re port for the next GA of ICSU in 2002. This meant th at the Stu dy 

Group had to submit its Re port to the EB of ICSU by the end of Jan u ary 

2002. The Stu dy Group met th ree ti m es: a fi rst org an i zational meeti n g 

on 2-3 Octobe r, 2001; a working session on 10-11 Dece m be r, 2001; an d 

a final session on 28-29 Jan u ary, 2002. All meetings have took pl a ce in 

Paris. 

The membe rship of the Stu dy Group was as fol l ows : 

• Jens Erik Fe n s ta d( c h ai r ) is a Professor of Math e m ati cs at the Un ive rs 

i ty of Osl o, No rway. He was Vi ce - Re c tor of the Un ive rs i ty and a fo rmer 

President of the Inte r n ational Union of Histo ry and Ph i l o s o phy of 

Sc i e n ce (Division of Logic, Me th od ol ogy and Ph i l o s o phy of Sc i e n ce ) . 

He was a member of the Exe cutive Board of ICSU and is now th e 

Ch air of the UN ESCO World Commission on the Eth i cs of Sc i e n ti fi c 

Kn owledge and Te c h n ol ogy. 

• Paul Hoy n i n g e n - Hu e n e is the Dire c tor of the Ce n ter for Ph i l o s o phy 

and Eth i cs of Sc i e n ce at the Un ive rs i ty of Han n ove r, Germany. He 

g ave the pl e n ary lecture on “The Nature of Sc i e n ce” at the Wo r l d 

Co n fe re n ce on Sc i e n ce (WCS) in Budapes t, 1999. 

• Hu Qiheng is a Res e arch Professor on Auto m atic Co n trol of Ch i n es e 

A ca d e my of Sc i e n ces. She is the past Vi ce - President of CAS and Vi ce - 

President of China Assoc i ation for Sc i e n ce and Te c h n ol ogy (CA S T). Sh e 

is a member of the ICSU SC R ES (Standing Co m m i ttee on Res po n s i b il 

i ty and Eth i cs in Sc i e n ce) and heads the Internet Soc i e ty of Ch i n a. 

• John Kokwaro is a Professor of Botany at the Un ive rs i ty Of Nai rob i , 

Ke nya. He is a specialist in sys te m ati cs and eth n obo tany. He is a Fe l l ow 

of the Li n n e an Soc i e ty, London, and was the fi rst Exe cutive Dire c tor of 

the Afr i can Aca d e my of Sc i e n ces . 

• D o u g l as Na kash i m a ( ob s e rver) is a Programme Specialist in th e 

UN ESCO ’s Sc i e n ce Se c to r, Par i s, Fran ce. He heads the UN ESCO project 

on «Local and Indigenous Kn owledge Sys tems in a Global Soc i e ty 

( LINKS)». He was a co - o rg an i zer of the WCS Session on «Sc i e n ce an d 

Other Sys tems of Kn owl e d g e » . 

• Jan Sa l i c k is the Curator of Eth n obo tany at the Missouri Botan i ca l 

G arden, USA. She is a Pas t - President of the Soc i e ty of Eco n o m i c 

B o tany, a member of the US National Co m m i ttee of the Inte r n ati o n a l 

Union of Biol og i cal Sc i e n ces, and a Fe l l ow of bo th the American Assoc 

i ation for the Advan cement of Sc i e n ce and of the Li n n e an Soc i e ty. 


• Wesl ey Sh r um is a Professor of Soc i ol ogy at Lo ui s i ana State Un ive rs 

i ty, USA. He is Ch air of the US National Co m m i ttee of the Inte r n ati onal 

Union of Histo ry and Ph i l o s o phy of Sc i e n ce and Se c re tary of th e 

Soc i e ty for Social Stu d i es of Sc i e n ce. 

• B. V. Subbaraya p pa is a Professor at the National Insti tute of Advanced 

Stu d i es in Ban g a l o re, India. He was the Exe cutive Se c re tary of th e 

I n d i an National Sc i e n ce Aca d e my and a former President of the Inte rn 

ational Union of Histo ry and Ph i l o s o phy of Sc i e n ce (Division of Histo 

ry of Sc i e n ce). He chai red the WCS Session on “Sc i e n ce and Oth e r 

Sys tems of Kn owl e d g e ” .

ICSU Series on Science 

for Sustainable Development 

1. Report of the Scientific and Technological 

Community to the World Summit 

on Sustainable Development, 20 pp. 2002. 

2. Energy and Transport, 20 pp. 2002. 

3. Resilience and Sustainable Development, 

37 pp. 2002. 

4. Science, Traditional Knowledge and 

Sustainable Development, 24 pp. 2002.

I N T E R N ATIONAL COUNCIL FOR SCIENCE 

51, Boulevard de Mo n tm o re n cy 

75016 Par i s, Fran ce 

Tel.: 33 (0) 1 45 25 03 29 

Fax: 33 (0) 1 42 88 94 31 

E - m ail: secre tar i at@ i cs u.o rg 

h ttp : //w w w. i cs u.o rg 

I C S U ’s Mission 

To identify and address major issues of importance to science and society, 

by mobilising the res o urces and knowledge of the inte r n ational scienti fi c 

community; to promote the participation of all scientists, irrespective of race, 

citizenship, language, political stance or gender in the international scientific 

e n d e avo ur; to fa c i l i tate inte ra c tions be tween diffe rent scienti fic discipl i n es 

and be tween scientists from ‘Developing’ and ‘Deve l o ped’ co un tr i es; to sti m u l ate 

constructive debate by acting as an authoritative independent voice for international 

science and scientists.

Science, Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development

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