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138 CHAPTER 7L2, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk aboutthem. Learning, therefore, is developing language knowledge/ability intentionally.His monitor hypothesis posits that acquisition and learning areused in very specific ways. Acquisition “initiates” our utterances in L2 and isresponsible for our fluency. Learning comes into play only to make changesin the form of our utterance, after it has been “produced” by the acquiredsystem. Together, the three hypotheses claim that incidental learning iswhat counts in the development of L2 knowledge/ability. It must, however,be noted that Krashen does not completely rule out intentional learningwhich, he believes, may play a marginal role.Unlike Krashen, Prabhu claims that language development is exclusivelyincidental. He dismisses any explicit teaching of descriptive grammar tolearners, not even for monitor use as advocated by Krashen. He rightlypoints out that the sequence and the substance of grammar that is exposedto the learners through systematic instruction may not be the same as thelearners’ mental representation of it. He, therefore, sees no reason why anystructure or vocabulary has to be consciously presented by the teacher orpracticed by the learner. The CTP operates under the assumption thatwhile the conscious mind is working out some of the meaning-content, a subconsciouspart of the mind perceives, abstracts, or acquires (or recreates, as acognitive structure) some of the linguistic structuring embodied in those entities,as a step in the development of an internal system of rules. (Prabhu,1987, pp. 69–70)The extent to which learning-centered pedagogists emphasize incidentallearning is only partially supported by research on L2 learning andteaching. As discussed in chapter 2 and chapter 3, research makes it amplyclear that learners need to pay conscious attention to, and notice the linguisticproperties of, the language as well. It has been argued that there canbe no L2 learning without attention and noticing although it is possiblethat learners may learn one thing when their primary objective is to dosomething else (Schmidt, 1993). As Hulstjin (2003) concluded in a recentreview,on the one hand, both incidental and intentional learning require some attentionand noticing. On the other hand, however, attention is deliberatelydirected to committing new information to memory in the case of intentionallearning, whereas the involvement of attention is not deliberately geared towardan articulated learning goal in the case of incidental learning. (p. 361)Language development is meaning focused, not form focused. Closely linked tothe principle of incidental learning is the emphasis placed by learningcenteredmethods on meaning-focused activities. This principle, which is in