Nalin Swaris: Buddhism, Human Rights and Social Renewal

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An Alternative Model for Society: the Buddha Sangha - 96 The Buddhist communes did not have a head corresponding to abbot or abbess, nor father or mother superior of Christian monastic orders. The Dhammapada states that anyone aspiring to be a ‘superior’ in this manner should be regarded “as a fool” (vs.73). The Christian monastic axiom is that the voice of the superior is the voice of God. The superior has to be obeyed without question. Siddhattha Gotama was the member of a warrior class and he was familiar with military discipline and the art of warfare, but he did not wish to impose militaristic discipline on his Sangha. What he required of all his followers was informed understanding and free acceptance of his Teachings. When a person was admitted into the Sangha, he or she undertook to practice poverty and celibacy, but no oath of obedience was required. The Noble Eightfold Way given to householders and renouncers alike was not a table of prohibitions, but a call to positive living. The head of a local Buddhist community was the senior bhikkhu or bhikkhuṇi; seniority being reckoned not by age, but from the year that a mendicant entered the Sangha. The head of a community could not however unilaterally decide matters of doctrine and discipline; these had to be settled by formal assembly of all community members. The Buddha realised that a majority decision may not always be just and correct. He therefore insisted that decisions taken by an assembly be made in what was called the “Presence”, referring to the presence of: a. The complete assembly; b. The parties to the dispute; and, c. The spirit, not merely the letter of the Dhamma and the Vinaya, as it applied to all the members of the Sangha of the Four Directions. As the Sangha grew and spread geographically, problems arose in local communities over correct interpretation of the Dhamma and the [106] general rules of discipline. Guidelines were developed for deciding how the rules could be applied to suit particular situations. But in every case, the interpretations and applications had to be in accord with the spirit of the Dhamma and Vinaya, hence the requirement that a decision be made in their Presence. This meant that decisions could be declared ultra vires – beyond the authority of the constitution and rules – as indeed they often were. The
An Alternative Model for Society: the Buddha Sangha - 97 following principles and procedures are from the Vinaya Piṭaka’s chapters on the Formal Acts of the Sangha and Dissension in the Sangha. This is not an exhaustive list; the points have been chosen to indicate the democratic ethos of the early Buddha Sangha. 1. Disputes that required a formal resolution were twofold: those regarding matters of doctrine and those regarding discipline. 2. Fortnightly meetings were held for edifying discussions about the Dhamma, and to renew the dedication of renouncers in the pursuit of moral perfection. These meetings were similar to the Chapter of Faults in the (much later) Western monastic system. Individuals publicly confessed disciplinary breaches, asked the forgiveness of the community and promised to reform themselves. 3. In addition to these stipulated meetings, extraordinary meetings could be convoked if disputes arose over doctrinal and disciplinary matters. Rules governing the convocation and conduct of such assemblies were clearly laid down. 4. A matter could be validly settled only if all members of a community participated in deliberations. Everyone who enjoyed full membership of the community, however junior, had the right to participate and vote. Thus at least within the Sangha, the principle of universal suffrage was recognised. 5. Issues requiring a complete assembly and a quorum to constitute such an assembly were laid down. 6. [107] The head of a community did not become de jure the president of an assembly called to settle internal disputes and dissension. For such occasions, the assembly elected a learned and virtuous person as its ad hoc president. This position ceased after deliberations were concluded. The rules admonish the president not to use the position as a means for personal elevation within the community.
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Buddhism, Human Rights and Social R
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3 Table of Contents A Note on Canon
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5 A Note on Canonical References [5
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Foreword - 7 physicians to diagnose
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Foreword - 9 the belief that the se
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Introduction - 11 the mandate to pr
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Introduction - 13 [14] against him
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Introduction - 15 was a social move
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Foundations of the Western Philosop
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33 Chapter 2, Brahmin Political The
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Brahmin Political Theory - 35 divis
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Brahmin Political Theory - 37 deter
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Basic Premises of the Buddha’s Me
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Page 45 and 46: 45 Chapter 4, Basic Premises of the
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Page 51 and 52: 51 Chapter 5, The Buddha’s Declar
Page 53 and 54: The Buddha’s Declaration of Human
Page 55 and 56: The Buddha’s Theory of Right - 55
Page 63 and 64: 63 Chapter 7, The Buddha’s Theory
Page 65 and 66: The Buddha’s Economic Philosophy
Page 79 and 80: 79 Chapter 8, The Buddha’s Econom
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Page 103 and 104: 103 Chapter 10, Early Buddhism and
Page 105 and 106: Early Buddhism and Later Centuries
Page 107 and 108: Early Buddhism and Later Centuries
Page 109 and 110: The Fourteen Rock Edicts Appendix -
Page 111 and 112: Appendix - 111 with exerting myself
Page 113 and 114: Appendix - 113 King Piyadasi, does
Page 115 and 116: Appendix - 115 vast, but much has b
Page 117 and 118: Appendix - 117 border areas with co
Page 119 and 120: Appendix - 119 the rajukas have bee
Page 121 and 122: Appendix - 121 have set up Dhamma p
Page 123 and 124: Glossary of Key Terms - 123 discrim
Page 125 and 126: 125 References [139] Aristotle. Pol
Page 127 and 128: 127 About the Author [141] Nalin Sw
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Nalin Swaris: Buddhism, Human Rights and Social Renewal

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