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Contents Page EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ......................................................................... 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................ 13 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 15 1.1 Context ......................................................................... 15 1.2 GESAMP WG40 work programme and timeline .......................................... 15 1.3 Structure and scope of the report ..................................................... 16 2 SOURCES OF MICROPLASTICS ...................................................... 17 2.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 17 2.2 Primary and secondary sources of microplastics ........................................ 17 2.2.1 Overview of microplastic sources ............................................. 17 2.2.2 Fragmentation and degradation .............................................. 18 2.3 Sources by sector ................................................................. 20 2.3.1 Sources in brief ........................................................... 20 2.3.2 Producers and converters ................................................... 20 2.3.3 Land-based sectoral consumers .............................................. 21 2.3.4 Sea-based sectoral consumers ............................................... 22 2.3.5 Individual consumers ....................................................... 25 2.3.6 Waste management ........................................................ 25 2.4 Entry points to the ocean ........................................................... 26 2.4.1 Rivers ................................................................... 26 2.4.2 Coastline ................................................................ 30 2.4.3 Marine ................................................................... 31 2.4.4 Atmosphere .............................................................. 32 2.5 Scale variability ................................................................... 32 2.5.1 Time-scale-dependency .................................................... 32 2.5.2 Regional scale dependency .................................................. 33 2.6 Conclusions, knowledge gaps and priorities ............................................ 34 2.6.1 Conclusions .............................................................. 34 2.6.2 Knowledge gaps .......................................................... 34 2.6.3 Research priorities ......................................................... 34 3 DISTRIBUTION, FATE AND ‘HOT-SPOTS’ .............................................. 36 3.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 36 3.2 Microplastics in ocean compartments ................................................. 36 3.2.1 Compartments in brief ...................................................... 36 3.2.2 Microplastics on the ocean surface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 3.2.3 Microplastics in the water column ............................................. 37 3.2.4 Microplastics on the seafloor ................................................. 37 3.2.5 Shoreline/Coastal regions ................................................... 39 3.2.6 Biota .................................................................... 39 3.3 Transport within compartments ...................................................... 39 3.3.1 Upper ocean .............................................................. 39 3.3.2 Water column ............................................................. 40 GESAMP <strong>REPORTS</strong> & STUDIES No. 93 – MICROPLASTICS IN THE OCEAN · 5
3.3.3 Deep ocean .............................................................. 40 3.3.4 Coastlines ................................................................ 40 3.3.5 Biota .................................................................... 41 3.4 Fluxes between compartments ....................................................... 41 3.5 ‘Hot-spots’ and scale-dependency .................................................... 42 3.6 Conclusions, knowledge gaps and research priorities ..................................... 43 3.6.1 Conclusions .............................................................. 43 3.6.2 Knowledge gaps .......................................................... 43 3.6.3 Research priorities ......................................................... 43 4 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF MICROPLASTICS ......................................... 44 4.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 44 4.2 Occurrence of microplastics in biota .................................................. 44 4.2.1 Microplastics in the marine environment ........................................ 44 4.2.2 Exposure pathways and concentrations of microplastics in marine organisms ......... 45 4.2.3 Laboratory studies ......................................................... 45 4.2.4 Field studies .............................................................. 49 4.3 Impacts of microplastics on marine organisms .......................................... 52 4.3.1 Impacts and the level of biological organization .................................. 52 4.3.2 Impacts demonstrated in laboratory experiments ................................ 53 4.3.3 Evidence from the field ..................................................... 55 4.3.4 Summary of taxa included in recent research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4.4 Impact of plastic-related chemicals ................................................... 56 4.4.1 Concentration of chemicals associated with microplastic in the environment .......... 56 4.4.2 Transfer of chemicals from microplastic to marine organisms ....................... 57 4.4.3 Impacts of chemicals from microplastics on organisms in the laboratory .............. 60 4.4.4 Conclusion ............................................................... 60 4.5 Nano-sized plastic debris ........................................................... 60 4.5.1 Definitions ................................................................ 60 4.5.2 Evidence of nano-sized plastic debris in the environment .......................... 61 4.5.3 Potential fate and impacts of nano-sized plastic to humans and other biota ........... 61 4.6 Transport of non-indigenous species .................................................. 62 4.6.1 Processes ................................................................ 62 4.6.2 Impacts .................................................................. 63 4.7 Conclusions, knowledge gaps and priorities ............................................ 64 4.7.1 Conclusions .............................................................. 64 4.7.2 Knowledge gaps .......................................................... 64 5 COMMERCIAL FISH AND SHELLFISH ................................................. 66 5.1 Lessons from the first assessment .................................................... 66 5.2 Global fisheries and aquaculture sectors ............................................... 66 5.2.1 An introduction to seafood .................................................. 66 5.2.2 Capture fisheries .......................................................... 67 5.2.3 Aquaculture .............................................................. 67 5.3 Microplastic contamination and impact on fisheries and aquaculture products ................. 70 5.3.1 Microplastics in commercial finfish ............................................ 70 5.3.2 Microplastics in shellfish and other species ..................................... 72 6 · GESAMP <strong>REPORTS</strong> & STUDIES No. 93 – MICROPLASTICS IN THE OCEAN
Page 1 and 2: 93 REPORTS AND STUDIES SOURCES, FAT
Page 3 and 4: Published by the INTERNATIONAL MARI
Page 8 and 9: 5.4 Impacts on food security ......
Page 10: Table AIII.1 Table AIII.2 Laborator
Page 14: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS GESAMP wishes to a
Page 17 and 18: 5. assess the effects of nano-sized
Page 19 and 20: Table 2.1 Summary of size definitio
Page 21 and 22: 2.3 Sources by sector 2.3.1 Sources
Page 23 and 24: there is potential for weathering-i
Page 25 and 26: Figure 2.2 Principal types of aquac
Page 27 and 28: Increasing the extent and improving
Page 29 and 30: Figure 2.4 Upper panel - comparison
Page 31 and 32: Figure 2.5 Potential sources of mic
Page 33 and 34: Figure 2.7 Model source distributio
Page 35 and 36: ocean will need to be tailored to l
Page 37 and 38: 3 DISTRIBUTION, FATE AND ‘HOT-SPO
Page 39 and 40: Table 3.1 Abundance of microplastic
Page 41 and 42: the microplastic fragments in ocean
Page 43 and 44: 3.5 ‘Hot-spots’ and scale-depen
Page 45 and 46: 4 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF MICROPLASTI
Page 47 and 48: Figure 4.1 Microplastics interactio
Page 49 and 50: Mollusca: Exposure concentrations:
Page 51 and 52: Echinoderms: The brittlestar Ophiur
Page 53 and 54: Figure 4.2 Species of seabirds that
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size of plastic debris (mm) Figure
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Diversity of taxa studied The major
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Figure 4.5 Mechanisms for the bioac
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Estimating chemical transfer The es
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food intake. Likewise, PS-NH2 (5-10
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There is some evidence that micropl
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5 COMMERCIAL FISH AND SHELLFISH Key
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In 2012, finfish mariculture specie
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5.3 Microplastic contamination and
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cal contaminants. Effects including
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Box 5.4 Microplastic contamination
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toxic effects at certain concentrat
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about 11,000 (Van Cauwenberghe et a
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6 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS Key points
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Box 6.1 Examples of producer initia
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Marine plastic size: Impacts on fis
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Table 6.2 Estimates of costs relate
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in tourist numbers and associated r
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private actors to keep beaches and
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Prevention of littering behaviour I
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Table 6.6 Examples of socio-economi
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ut more than 40% are unsure. This u
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Box 6.14 Voluntary vs. paid initiat
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Because of these spatial difference
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factors including the availability
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7 METHOD DEVELOPMENT AND HARMONIZAT
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7.3.1 Microplastics at sea In seawa
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A detailed analysis of microplastic
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8 AN INITIAL RISK ASSESSMENT FRAMEW
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A risk matrix can be developed to i
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Figure 8.4 Risk Assessment Framewor
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Stakeholders: • Coastal communiti
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Method development and harmonizatio
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REFERENCES Section 1 GESAMP (2015).
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Conference. Shangai, China. Heo, N.
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Vianello, A., A. Boldrin, P. Guerri
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Maximenko, N., J. Hafner and P. Nii
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Besseling, E., A. Wegner, E. M. Foe
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De Witte, B., L. Devriese, K. Bekae
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Hardesty, D., C. Wilcox, Chris, T.J
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Lusher, A. L., O’Donnell, C., O
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Spear, L. B., Ainley, D. G. & Ribic
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Brillant, M. G. S. and B. A. MacDon
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Luís, L. G., P. Ferreira, E. Fonte
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Woodall, L. C., A. Sanchez-Vidal, M
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Jambeck, J. R. and K. Johnsen (2015
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Seas At Risk (2011). Ship waste dum
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Leslie, H. A., M.D. van der Meulen,
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ANNEX I - MEMBERSHIP OF THE WORKING
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ANNEX II - WG40 WORK PLAN To use a
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Species Common name Phylum Cnideria
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Species Common name Thyonella gemma
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Species Common name Size of ingeste
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Table AIII.2 Field evidence of micr
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Scientific name Common name Number
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Scientific name Common name Sciades
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Species n Percentage with plastic (
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Table AIII.4 Diverse microbial asse
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Taxonomy Polymer type Polypropylene
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ANNEX V - ECONOMIC COSTS OF ACTIONS
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ANNEX VI - EXAMPLES OF LITTER REDUC
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ANNEX VII - SUMMARY OF POTENTIAL EC
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Human health Communities (coastal t
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ANNEX VIII - LIST OF GESAMP REPORTS
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56. Report of the twenty-fifth sess
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