SPATIAL PLANNING Key Instrument for Development and Effective Governance

that are likely to meet a wider range of objectives. This may include proactive research in order to
measure public opinion on issues and priorities. This has the dual benefit of being able to specifically
include those groups who are not normally represented.
Participatory exercises work best at the local community level where stakeholders are clear about the
constraints and areas open for making decisions that are left open – perhaps the location of new
housing areas. It can also be useful at the more strategic levels, though this will involve including
representative organizations. Participation early in the planning process can be much enhanced where
there are existing partnership arrangements bringing together different stakeholders in forums,
whether at the strategic or local levels. Such forums can act as a “project facilitator” to generate
policies, proposals and projects or to coordinate roundtable discussions.
There are a wide variety of techniques available to stimulate community participation. Their success is
dependent on a number of different factors (Box 3). All techniques are open to adaptation and
variation, but successful implementation depends on the way in which they are used. For example, in
design workshops, invited professionals consult with local residents, elected members, planners and
other groups usually at a district or local level. The events attempt to analyse problems and
opportunities, identify ways forward, design solutions, and develop implementation strategies.
Box 3: Ten Factors for Successful Participation
1. Good timing and clear need
2. Strong stakeholder groups
3. Broad-based involvement
4. Credibility and transparency of process
5. Commitment and/or involvement of high level, visible leaders
6. Support or acquiescence of “established” authorities or powers
7. Overcoming mistrust and scepticism
8. Strong leadership of the process
9. Interim success
10. A shift to a broader concern
Source: UN-HABITAT, 2005.
“Planning for real” takes the form of a public meeting in which a three-dimensional model is used to
trigger discussion amongst the participants about local planning matters, using professionals to assist
in the development of possible planning policies and practice. Role-playing techniques are used as a
way of facilitating participants’ ability to express the views and aspirations of the different groups
involved in the development process with the view to improving awareness of issues, encouraging an
appreciation of different perspectives, and developing communication skills.
Small group workshops on specific topics may also be relevant for strategic planning. Workshops can
employ a wide range of techniques for enabling representatives or citizens to discuss, evaluate, learn
and plan how to influence the development process and projects. Focus groups are a specific version
of small group workshops, bringing together a selected group of people on a regular basis to discuss a
planned or programmed set of topics.
Consultation
Consultation is a valuable tool once the public visioning process has been completed. Consultation is
used to develop a preferred option for bringing a greater level of detail and for obtaining more focused
reviews of the option. The planning authority will have a view about the way forward, but should be
open to making revisions in the light of the conclusions by the consultative group.
32 Spatial Planning - Key Instrument for Development and Effective Governance