Mar-Apr 2020 Fitpro magazine for website

MAR/APR 2020 | FITPRO.COM 

HIIT 

More than one way 

to hit your goal 

GROUP X 

Move to the beat 

CHILDREN’S TECH 

Friend or foe? 

REHAB 

The art of 

successful 

rehab 

ALL PAIN, 

NO GAIN: 

Managing 

chronic pain

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Fitpro Mar/Apr 2020 

Welcome 

Educate • Support • Connect 

Editor in chief/exec director | Jane Waller 

Sub editor/editorial consultant | Fiona Bugler 

Sub editor and proofing | Aislinn Kelly 

Content and media assistant | Dominic Munson 

Senior designer | Dawn Turton 

Advertising and sales | Fitpro magazine 

publish@fitpro.com, +44 (0)20 8586 0101 

Imagery | iStockphoto.com | Fitness Professionals 

stock.adobe.com | bigstockphoto.com 

Executive directors | Brent Hallo and Jane Waller 

Contact Fitpro at: 

Fitpro magazine | First Floor Offices 

Saxonbury House | High Street 

London | E11 1QQ | UK 

Call | +44 (0)20 8586 0101 

Website | fitpro.com 

Newsletter | If you’re not already receiving it, 

make sure your contact details are up 

to date by emailing info@fitpro.com 

Often experts in their field will have differing opinions to 

each other. FitPro does not consider it our responsibility 

to judge or form an opinion; however, we can assure our 

readers that all authors for FitPro are reputable and 

qualified in their field. It’s your responsibility to decide 

what works and what doesn’t work for you and your 

business. When choosing to follow any of the 

programmes we publish, remember that before trying 

any new exercise, nutrition or health plan, you should 

consult an appropriate health or fitness professional for 

clearance. Opinions expressed by the authors in this 

magazine or on our blogs do not necessarily reflect those 

of other authors, the publisher or anyone on our team. 

No material in this magazine may be reproduced without 

written consent from the publisher. 

Spring is in the air, and we emerge from our winter 

cocoons to the news that late last week it was 

confirmed that CIMSPA and UK Coaching (current 

operator of REPs) have announced an agreement to 

combine REPs with the CIMSPA Exercise and Fitness 

Directory, to create a single directory for exercise and 

fitness professionals. 

This amalgamation has been an extraordinarily long 

time in the making and was tagged as the worst-kept 

secret in the fitness industry for some time. In many 

ways that’s perhaps not a bad thing, because at least 

everyone was confident that ‘something’ was coming. What was always clear is that 

the UK fitness industry was never going to support two registers of this kind. 

The new directory will be hosted and managed by CIMSPA, offering the industry 

a unified recognition system for people working in the sector and a single 

endorsement mechanism for training providers. All current REPs members will be 

given the opportunity to transfer into the CIMSPA membership scheme and the 

unified directory will be launched in the coming months. 

In parallel with this move, there are also potential benefits for commercial training 

providers. They will ultimately be able to access a unified endorsement system 

aligned with the sport and physical activity sector’s professional standards framework 

and backed by CIMSPA, the sector’s only chartered professional body. 

Meantime, in this copy of the magazine, we’ve explored how in this 24-7 world 

technology can affect our kids and how to help them get back to enjoying the simple 

things in life and harness the positives of tech. We also recognise the power that 

being fit and strong can give to women that goes beyond the gym, as we finish off 

the final part in our Strong Women series, in association with the Association of 

UK Strength and Conditioning. And, on page 14, clinical psychologist Dr Isabelle 

Hung explains the psychology of chronic pain, showing how our brains influence 

our bodies. 

As always, this issue of Fitpro magazine is packed with information to help you and 

your clients enjoy life, be the best version of you and share that secret – it really is 

great to be fit! fp 

Jane Waller 

Executive Director 

Twitter (@fitpro_online) Facebook (facebook.com/fitproltd) Instagram (@fitpro_ltd) FitProLtd 

For references visit fitpro.com/references 

fitpro.com | 3

Contents 

06 

05 Partners in strength 

A new relationship between FitPro and UKSCA 

06 Research review 

Reducing sedentary time 

08 Children’s tech 


08 

12 Move to the beat 

Choosing music to motivate 

14 Chronic pain 

Help clients return from injury 

18 Plyometric anatomy 

14 

Exercises to improve strength, power 

and speed 

22 HIIT your goal 

How to programme HIIT for your clients 

22 

26 The art of successful rehab 

How to create a winning programme 

28 The menstrual cycle and 

strength training 

Strong women (part three of a three-part series) 

28 

4 | FITPRO MAR/APR 2020

COMMENT • INDUSTRY INSIDER 

Partners in strength 

Want to know more about strength and conditioning and how you 

can incorporate it into your sessions? Well, we’re delighted to 

introduce a new and exciting collaboration between FitPro and UK 

Strength and Conditioning Association (UKSCA). Here’s Chris Bishop, 

chair of UKSCA, to tell you more. 

Insurance 

If I were in 

your trainers, 

I’d get insured 

with FitPro. 

In this and the last two issues of Fitpro you have gained insight into strength training 

for women in the Women and Strength series written by Debby Sargent in 

collaboration with UKSCA. With this new partnership between FitPro and UKSCA, we 

aim to bring you an S&C article each issue that is researched, current and applicable 

to you, the fitness professional. We will explore topics that are relevant to our fitness 

community and your continued professional development, asking insightful questions 

and always learning to build a confident community of fit pros. 

The UKSCA was formed in 2004 at the behest of UK Sport and key employers to be 

the independent body representing the UK’s S&C profession. Since then, UKSCA has 

grown to represent over 2,500 members, with more than 850 having attained the highly 

respected ‘Accredited S&C Coach’ (ASCC) professional standard. At its core, UKSCA 

looks to maintain high standards of practice, ensuring that through our membership, 

world-class S&C is available to athletes at all levels across the UK. 

UKSCA defines S&C as “a specialist area encompassing the physical preparation of 

athletes for performance in sport, while aiming to prevent or minimise the risk of injury. 

It includes processes that result in desired physical adaptation in line with a specific 

set of goals which are agreed by all parties (including the athlete themselves). Strength 

training comes in many forms (e.g., use of bodyweight, barbells, dumbbells, etc.), as 

does the conditioning aspect of the job, which may require coaches to plan and deliver 

sessions which focus on plyometrics, agility, speed and endurance development. All in 

all, the desired outcome is enhanced athletic performance for the athlete in question.” 

This definition demonstrates that S&C has its roots in elite and professional sport; 

however, it is becoming widely recognised in areas such as general population, 

rehabilitation, youth and special populations. This is also supported in recent research, 

which shows the benefits that strength training in particular can have on general health. 

While there is a significant amount of sports science that underpins the profession, at 

its heart S&C is concerned with practical application of the science to enable humans 

to move better. Some of the biggest changes over the last 10 years in health and fitness 

have seen the value of good-quality foundation movement skills and their progression to 

the strength training environment soar in popularity. 

With this in mind, there is a demand for knowledge and skills in this area, and often 

with increased demand, those gaps can sometimes be filled with a reduction in the 

quality of education and training being delivered. This partnership fully supports our 

desire to disseminate good practice, knowledge and research in S&C outside our 

traditional membership base. In essence, we feel that partnering with FitPro, a 

well-recognised voice that most importantly shares our values around quality, is a 

perfect match. We look forward to sharing our knowledge and viewpoints with you. fp 

Chris Bishop 

Chair, UK Strength and Conditioning Association 

Don’t risk it! 

Accidents do happen. 

Check out our insurance 

schemes online. 

Click here 

FitPro Insurance is 

underwritten by Aviva. 

FitPro is a trading name for Fitness Professionals Ltd 

which is authorised and regulated by the 

Financial Conduct Authority – FCA number 705177 

5566 

T: +44 (0)20 8586 8635 E: info@fitpro.com 


fitpro.com | 5

Research review 

This issue, Dr Paul Batman reviews the effectiveness of 

interventions to reduce the population’s time spent in a sedentary 

state, as well as increasing levels of physical activity. 

Title: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Physical 

Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Interventions in 

Reducing Sedentary Time in Adults: A Systemic 

Review and Meta-analysis of Controlled Trials 

Authors: SA Prince, TJ Saunders, K Gresty, 

RD Reid 

Source: Obesity Reviews (Nov 2014), 15(11): 905-19 

Since the landmark London Bus Driver studies by 

Dr Jeremy Morris in the 1950s, it has been universally 

accepted that moderate to vigorous exercise 

three to five times per week would attenuate the 

problems of inactivity. Since the early 1980s, lifestyle 

changes have occurred so rapidly that society is now 

confronted with a significant increase in sedentary 

time, unbridled in our evolutionary history. Given that 

most people now sit for more than 10 hours per day, 

there has been a new division between inactivity 

and sedentary time. Sedentary time is now defined 

as an energy expenditure of < 1.5 METs mainly in a 

sitting or reclining posture, while inactivity is now the 

absence of moderate to vigorous physical activity 

(3-6 METs). 

Sedentary time is now recognised as an 

independent risk factor associated with chronic 

diseases such as heart disease, diabetes and cancer, 

as well as a significant contributor to obesity. It has 

been reported that there is still an increased risk of 

mortality and morbidity with increased prolonged 

sedentary time, even in those who exercise according 

to the national physical activity guidelines. 

Given this new information, it is becoming 

increasingly more important to target reducing 

sedentary time as well as increasing physical activity 

levels. The question has been whether interventions 

that emphasise moderate to vigorous exercise also 

reduce sedentary time or is it more effective to 

specifically introduce intervention that reduces 

sedentary time independent of prescribing moderate 

to vigorous exercise? 

The purpose of this study was to review the 

effectiveness of interventions that specifically focus 

on physical activity, physical activity and sedentary 

time, or just sedentary time. 

Methods 

This paper reviewed a large number of high-quality 

studies that also included a control group. Electronic 

databases were searched using diagnostic methods 

that reported on sedentary behaviour outcomes of 

physical activity and/or sedentary interventions in 

adult populations with a mean age > 18 years. The 

final analysis examined studies that used three 

interventions: physical activity only, physical activity 

and sedentary behaviour, and sedentary behaviour 

only. In total, the data came from 33 studies and 

25,446 participants from sample sizes ranging from 

as small as 17 to as great as 12,287, with the age 

range from 18-94 years. 

Results 

Results indicated that interventions that emphasised 

physical activity, and physical activity and sedentary 

behaviour, resulted in only modest reductions in 

sedentary time. In contrast, interventions that 

focused solely on reducing sedentary time produced 

more clinically significant changes. 

Conclusion 

The results of this study indicate that, given the 

massive increase in sedentary time over the past 

40 years and its detrimental health risks, it is now 

important to recognise that it is different from 

moderate to vigorous exercise. Interventions that 

focused on physical activity alone and physical 

activity and sedentary time did not produce results 

as significant as those that focused solely on 

reducing sedentary time. By concentrating just 

on reducing or breaking up sedentary time, an 

average of 90 minutes per day was replaced by 

low-intensity alternatives. 

For every 30 minutes of sedentary time that is 

substituted with light-intensity activity, there is a 

2-4% improvement in triglyceride and insulin levels 

and B cell function. 

Given that older adults are reportedly the most 

sedentary group in society and that physical activity 

programmes have not been successful in 

activating them, a focus on substituting their 

sedentary time with active alternatives could make a 


SEDENTARY LIFESTYLE • RESEARCH UPDATE 

significant impact on their general health. 

A major problem globally is increasing 

physical activity levels based on the current 

recommendations of moderate to vigorous 

exercise three to five times per week. In the 

UK, the penetration rate is approximately 15%, 

while in some Asian countries it is less than 5%. 

Perhaps by concentrating initially on changing 

the one ‘keystone habit’ of reducing sedentary 

time, there could be a major spill-over effect 

that would eventually lead to increased 

participation in moderate to vigorous 

exercise. This is particularly pertinent 

given that the World Health 

Organisation recently reported 

that its 2025 target of decreasing 

physical inactivity globally by 10% 

will not be met at the current rate of 

participation, necessitating a rethink of 

current policies. 

The countries that have the highest 

penetration rates are typically Northern 

European, which also have the lowest 

sedentary rates and lowest obesity rates. 

A further application of the reducing 

sedentary time intervention could be with gym 

drop-outs (50% after 12 months). Irrespective 

of the reason for dropping out of the fitness 

programme, this group could be offered the 

alternative of substituting their sedentary 

time with active lifestyle alternatives. Once 

this keystone habit is established, they might 

then be more inclined to return to the fitness 

programme offered by the fitness centre. 

To avoid becoming ‘Active Couch Potatoes’, 

exercisers should now independently 

concentrate on also reducing their sedentary 

time by replacing their daily inactive periods 

with more active alternatives. For example, 

simply by breaking up sitting periods (eight to 

10 hours per day) every 30 minutes with two 

minutes of standing and strolling could 

potentially reduce sedentary time by more 

than 32-40 minutes per day and result in an 

additional 3,000-4,000 steps per day. fp 

BIOGRAPHY 

Dr Paul Batman has been involved in health 

and fitness for more than 40 years as a 

university lecturer, vocational educator, 

author, researcher, international conference 

presenter and workshop facilitator. Over 

the last 18 years, Paul has built, owned, 

operated and sold two leading health and fitness vocational 

training institutes, and has received a Lifetime Achievement 

award for his services to the Australian fitness industry. Paul 

originally contributed to our Network articles back in the 1990s. 

drpaulbatman.com.au 


fitpro.com | 7

Children and tech: 


In our fast-paced world, technology, social networks and virtual worlds are second nature to 

our children. Fitpro speaks with three individuals to hear their opinions on the benefits and 

concerns of technology on a child’s health. 

Feelings around inadequacy 

and self-doubt make us 

compare ourselves to others and 

we can sometimes believe that 

we are not good enough 

– Ella Wroath 


TECHNOLOGY • CHILDREN 

Dr Isabelle Hung 

Dr Hung is a psychologist working with 

children, young adults and families, and 

treats a range of mental health conditions 

including depression, anxiety, personality 

disorders, bipolar disorder, OCD, and 

relationship difficulties. She runs a website 

and group to help people re-build their lives 

after divorce (divorceclub.com). 

The effect of technology on children and 

adolescents is still thin on the ground and 

there is no conclusive evidence that it is 

good or bad. 

Where technology can be bad is when 

young people use social media networking 

to compare themselves to others and 

experience envy. When this happens they are 

more prone to anxiety and depression. 

When a person takes a 

picture to place on 

social media, they’re 

already thinking about 

how it will look in the 

future – Dr Isabelle Hung 

On the other hand, if people are using 

social networking sites in order to connect 

to others who might be hard to reach (e.g., 

people with chronic health conditions, mental 

health problems or a very niche interest), 

then people’s self-esteem can improve as 

they have a sense of connectedness. 

As a psychologist, one problem I foresee 

with sites such as Instagram is that it leads 

to disconnection with the present moment. 

When a person takes a picture to place on 

social media, they’re already thinking about 

how it will look to others in the future. This 

is the opposite of mindfulness, which 

encourages us to stay in the moment. 

Young children are naturally mindful, but 

older children and teens may need help 

to be in the moment. You can encourage 

present-focused behaviours with games to 

get them to notice what is around them using 

their senses. 

Research has also shown that technology 

can help with child development and 

education. The principles of the Social 

Development Theory by Lev Vygotsky can 

apply. He argued that the range of skill that 

can be developed with adult guidance or 

peer collaboration exceeds what can be 

obtained alone. Technology can therefore 

be a good way of learning and engaging 

your child if you do it with them. You 

cannot simply leave the child alone with 

technology for hours. With or without 

technology, parents need to guide children 

and arm them with the skills they need to 

behave appropriately towards others, and 

to protect themselves from danger whether 

from online groomers or strangers on 

the street. 

Another danger is that algorithms can 

bombard an individual with disturbing or 

unhealthy content, which can lead to or 

encourage obsessions. For example, if a 

teenager is looking at dieting websites, 

then those algorithms may start showing 

dieting adverts and body images on every 

website they visit, even if they do not want to 

see them. 

Good communication between parent 

and child is what really matters, and parents 

should be aware of what’s going on with their 

child online. Hopefully your child will open up 

to you, but if they don’t and you have noticed 

a change in them, try calmly and explicitly 

stating what it is you are worried about, 

for example, grooming. Give your child the 

space to talk freely but, be warned, this can 

take several attempts. 

Ella Wroath 

Ella Wroath started the Soul Circus festival, 

the first to encompass yoga, music and 

environment. She made the huge decision to 

take her children out of school and travel the 

world. Here, she discusses the importance 

of adventure for children and how limiting 

screen time can improve a child’s awareness 

of the world around them (soulcircus.yoga). 

It’s so important for children to gain an 

understanding of the world and to learn 

how to connect with it. In 2019, I travelled 

to France, Spain, Panama and Costa Rica 

with my husband and two children. What 

I enjoyed most of all was teaching them new 

skills using the environment available to us. 

We trekked through jungles learning about 

plants and animals, we surfed and swam in 

the changing tides of the ocean, we explored 

rocks and rivers, watched thunderstorms 

from the tops of mountains, and bathed in 

hot volcanic springs. I aimed to keep them 

engaged with nature rather than turning to 

a screen for enjoyment. It certainly wasn’t 

easy, and there were times when I needed 

a moment’s peace so sat them in front of 

a laptop. 

We moved to Panama to house-sit for a 

few months on a deserted beach. We only 

had power intermittently and absolutely no 

Wi-Fi, giving us a digital detox. We became 

a closer family and much better at resolving 

relationship issues – we were forced to 

address our communication skills instead of 

always having our phones to hide behind. 

Technology and the web are positive. 

Our business is online and this has freed 

us, allowing us to have more time with the 

children, which would never have happened 

in a typical nine-to-five job. We were also 

able to home-school our children by using 

internet resources. At one point, I even read 

my children books off YouTube because we 

weren’t able to pack many heavy items. I 

would Google ‘read-a-long stories’, turn off 

the volume and read them myself. It 


fitpro.com | 9

wasn’t exactly ideal as nothing beats a 

real book. 

I think we’ve found the right balance. 

When we first left the UK, my five-yearold 

could be quite anxious, he got angry 

easily and didn’t like change. The more we 

moved around, the more relaxed he actually 

became. The confidence I see in both of my 

boys now makes me very proud. They will 

engage with anyone, from any nationality. I 

think parents should lead by example and 

reduce their technology use. 

It would be great to see ‘mindful attitudes’ 

introduced within schools. The reason we 

become so addicted is feeling disconnected 

from each other. Feelings around inadequacy 

and self-doubt make us compare ourselves 

to others and we can sometimes believe that 

we are not good enough. If there was more 

education around self-acceptance and selflove 

in schools, then I believe we wouldn’t 

turn to social media so much. 

Above: Ella and her family 

enjoying nature on their 

recent travels and some 

meditation and mindfulness 

at Soul Circus below. 

Child wellness at Soul Circus 

Soul Circus offers a three-day schedule of 

yoga, meditation, mindfulness and movement 

for children. The aim of this programme is to 

encourage children to tune into themselves 

and their ‘super powers’ of healing, intuition 

and love. Children are also able to join the 

adult programme where appropriate; you see 

a lot of parents practising with their little ones 

which is beautiful. 

Andrey Kondratyuk 

Andrey Kondratyuk is the co-founder of 

IntellectoKids, the media, entertainment and 

education platform for parents and their kids 

(intellectokids.com). 

In my opinion, children spend as much time 

glued to the screen as adults. The difference 

is the type of screen. In the past, children 

spent time watching TV, but their attention 

has now turned more towards tablets and 

smartphones. 

Our IntellectoKids 

bedtime stories teach 

ethics and morals with 

stories around friendship 

– Andrey Kondratyuk 

Parents need to be actively involved in 

order to set proper behaviour, monitor time 

spent in front of screens, and ensure that the 

technology is beneficial. As a general rule of 

thumb, children like to follow rules because it 

gives clarity of what is expected and lessens 

their anxiety. 

The IntellectoKids app aims to help 

children discover new things. It encourages 

them to start learning: letters, numbers, 

colours and shapes. It also educates them 

on art and musical instruments, as well as 

chemical elements and their behaviours. This 

app introduces children to basic preschool 

skills that need to develop in an educational 

yet entertaining manner. Our IntellectoKids 

bedtime stories teach ethics and morals with 

stories around friendship, caring for others 

and doing the right thing. 

Monitoring screen time is key. In our 

Super Parents app, there is a 15-minute 

audio tutorial that discusses how parents 

should use technology. It also includes 

recommendations about parental control and 

any anxieties that parents might have. Where 

possible, ‘co-viewing’ is the best option as 

children learn more effectively when they are 

re-taught in the ‘real world’ what has been 

learned through the screen. Parents could 

set a timer on their tablet or phone, so even 

if you lose track of how much time your 

child has already spent, the device or app 

automatically switches off. 

Some may ask: What is a ‘healthy’ amount 

of screen time? Ofcom recently revealed that 

parents couldn’t decide and 67% wanted the 

Government to decide for them. 


TECHNOLOGY • CHILDREN 

Here’s what they’re saying about Intellecto: 

Katie Erangey, mum of Charlie, four and 

Scarlett, three. 

“IntellectoKids Learning Games is excellent. Its 

colourful graphics, characters and gameplay 

allow our kids to have fun while learning important 

skills, including numbers, maths, art and their 

favourite – music! Plus, it gives me time to get 

other chores done while I know the kids are 

playing while learning.” 

Rachel Clarke, mum of Dylan, three. 

“We’ve tried various apps before, but this one 

is a great all-rounder as it focuses on 

pre-schoolers. I want to teach my child to help 

their development but I don’t always have as 

much time as I’d like and I’m not sure if I’m doing 

it right. It’s now easy thanks to IntellectoKids 

Learning Games – especially as the wide variety 

of games and subjects develops a different skillset. 

It gives me confidence that I’m helping my 

children to have fun while learning.” fp 

Above and left: 

IntellectoKids, the media, 

entertainment and education 

platform for parents and 

their kids 

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fitpro.com | 11

Move 

to the beat 

Music has been an essential ingredient of group exercise classes for decades. 

Marietta Mehanni, co-founder of My Group Move, explores how to choose the best music to 

motivate your participants. 

No instructor can deny the importance of music in their 

classes. When asked “Why have music?” the natural 

responses will include “for motivation”, “for fun”, “to enhance 

the enjoyment of the physical activity” and “because it 

makes the time pass quicker”. A powerful stimulus, the influence 

of music has been studied by a number of researchers, including 

Karageorghis, Terry & Lane 1 , Szabo, Small & Leigh 2 , and Tenenbaum 

et al 3 . These studies have shown that music has the power to create 

a variety of physiological and psychological responses and, therefore, 

can be a powerful stimulus for sporting and athletic activities. 

Karageorghis et al 1 proposed that four factors contribute to the 

motivational qualities of a piece of music, these being: 

1. Rhythm response – most notably tempo (speed of music as 

measured in beats per minute) 

2. Musicality – response to pitch-related elements, such as harmony 

and melody 

3. Cultural impact – pervasiveness of the music within society 

4. Association – pertains to the extra-musical associations a piece 

may evoke regarding an event or past memory (e.g., Vangelis’s 

Chariots of Fire with Olympic glory) 

Association, point 4 above, is the least important contributor to the 

motivational quotient of a piece of music, while Budd 4 and 

Karageorghis 1 agreed that tempo is considered to be the most 

significant determinant of musical response. 

Rhythm and tempo 

Neuro psychologists have asserted that the optimal speed at which 

humans are able to process rhythmical stimuli may influence 

preferred tempo. 5 Fast tempo and strong rhythms may contribute 

to preference because they are inherently stimulative. 6 Taking this 

research into consideration, the question then arises of how we, as 

instructors, can use these findings to our advantage in a group fitness 

class. When planning your group fitness class, choose music with a 

tempo that fits the class format you will teach (e.g., strength-based 

workout 130bpm or kickboxing 140bpm). This may seem obvious to 

you but some instructors fail to choose the appropriate bpm for the 

class format they will teach. Use the tempo and energy of the music 

to maximise your clients’ performance. 

With regards to musicality, every song tells a story, so how can 

you become a storyteller using movement? Depending on the class 

format that you teach, you could perhaps use sections of the songs 


MUSIC • GROUP EXERCISE 

❯ 1. Music phrasing 

❯ 2. Moving to music 

1. Phrasing in music often is described as similar to phrasing in 

speech, which is punctuated by a series of commas and full stops. 

2. This video will provide some practice at recognising music 

milestones with movement. 

(e.g., verse or chorus, which have different energy levels) to elevate 

your clients’ mood or energy, or decrease it. Pay close attention to 

the song, as often the chorus will have a stronger melody than the 

instrumental section or the verse. It is important to appreciate this, as 

it will assist with delivery of higher intensity within the exercise chosen 

for that piece. 

Move with the times 

Cultural impact and association is one of the most pervasive 

influences on choice of music and each generation is likely to 

associate most strongly with music that correlates to the decade 

of their formative years (e.g., Baby Boomers to the 60s and 70s, 

and Generation X to the 80s). As such, music from each era may 

stimulate different groups in different ways. Consider experimenting 

with some of the best-known timeless songs and current radio music 

– something that suits everyone. 

However, before you decide which music will motivate your clients 

with regards to cultural impact, consider: 

Share the workload 

Ask yourself, “How hard do I have to work to motivate my 

participants?” Wouldn’t it be fantastic if you could let the music do 

50% of the work for you and if your participants attended your group 

fitness classes because you connected with them through your 

choice of music? If you can achieve this, then you can focus your 

energies on instructing better technique and form, while guiding your 

class through a positive experience that will help them achieve their 

fitness goals. 

It’s crucial that you manage to walk this fine line – a motivated 

instructor and a motivated class is a recipe for success. Now, get 

that music going and your class rockin’. 

Final tips to remember 

• Tune into the music you have chosen to create the 

atmosphere of the class. 

• You want each participant to remember and enjoy at least one 

track played during the class. 

• Consider music that will motivate and excite both you and 

your class. fp 

Move to the Beat is just one of the courses from 

My Group Move you’ll find on the FitPro online CPD 

platform. Click here to view the My Group Move 

online courses and get started. 

• Age group – group fitness classes attract a wide variety of ages, 

ranging from 16 to over 60 years 

• Male/female ratio – depending on the club, this could be 50/50 or, 

in some instances, female participants would dominate 

• Cultural backgrounds – group fitness attracts a huge variety of 

culturally diverse participants 

BIOGRAPHY 

Australia Presenter of 2018 and 2016 NZ Educator of the Year, 

Marietta Mehanni is an award-winning presenter with 30 years of 

experience. Education co-ordinator for Gymstick International, pelvic 

floor ambassador for Continence Foundation Australia, co-creator of 

mSwing and co-founder of My Group Move, Marietta is passionate 

about developing fun exercise formats that are suitable for all ages 

and abilities. 


fitpro.com | 13

All pain, 

no gain: 

Managing 

chronic 

pain 

Dr Isabelle Hung gives an 

insight into how fit pros can 

help clients manage their 

chronic pain, pace their 

return to exercise and deal 

with the emotional struggle 

of injury. 

In 1956, goalkeeper Burt Trautmann 

famously broke his neck during the 

FA Cup final. However, he managed 

to play another 17 minutes of football, 

make two crucial saves and help his team 

(Manchester City) to secure a 3-1 win! 

This story has long served in pain 

lectures to demonstrate the capricious 

and unpredictable relationship between 

pain and injury. There are many more 

stories from both war and sports events 

of catastrophic injuries being sustained 

and the individual continuing their activity, 

sometimes totally unaware of any pain. 


PAIN MANAGEMENT • CLIENT SUPPORT 

“ Chronic pain is pain felt in the 

absence of any serious injury or 

after three months following the 

healing of an injury 

” 

What is persistent pain? 

Persistent pain (sometimes referred to as unresolved or chronic 

pain) is, in some ways, the opposite experience. It is where pain 

is felt in the absence of any serious injury or after three months 

following the healing of an injury. The three-month cut-off is 

significant because healing generally takes up to three months 

(six months for nerves) and so pain after this period is deemed 

to be ‘chronic’. 

association between their pain and the damage to their bodies, 

as something has gone wrong with their pain system. 

It may sound like a rare condition (i.e., that people suffer 

from pain and do not have an underlying cause) but, in fact, it 

is estimated that in Europe as many as one in five suffer from 

the condition 6 . This makes chronic pain more prevalent than 

asthma or diabetes. It is thought to cost €200 billion per annum 

in Europe 6 . In the US, it has cost a whopping $635 billion per 

annum and has been at the centre of the opioid crisis where 

physicians were (wrongly) prescribing highly addictive opioids to 

manage their pain 7 . 

Why does pain persist after an injury has healed? 

The short answer is that we do not know. The pain system in 

the body involves so many nerves, cells, the spine and the 

brain, and we do not know where in this complex system the 

fault lies. 

We know there are several factors that seem to correlate with 

chronic pain 1,2 . 

These include: 

• Stress (work, social life, activity) 

• Depression 

• How much support a person has 

• How debilitating the pain is 

• Smoking and alcohol 

• History of trauma 

• Poor sleep 

• Poor nutrition 

What is the solution? 

Unfortunately, there is no cure for chronic pain. Instead, pain 

management services take a multi-disciplinary approach to 

manage chronic pain. The treatment goal is to manage the pain 

sufficiently such that the individual can live a meaningful and 

satisfying life in the presence of pain. 

The multi-disciplinary team will consist of: 

• consultants and nurses, who will look at whether any 

intervention or medication can help reduce the pain 

This perspective might sound contradictory for athletes and 

other individuals who may have been given a reason for their 

pain, such as a ‘muscle weakness’, ‘protruding disc’ or ‘wear 

and tear’ of a certain joint. The individuals will often have had 

the stated reason for the pain accompanied by a scan, which 

supposedly proves the professional’s perspective. The problem 

is that most people will have imperfections on their scans; the 

difference is that they might not feel pain. 

It is now well-established that the correlation 

between imaging and pain is poor 3,4,5 . 

This means that knee and back 

specialists were not able to 

deduce, from the scans, who 

had pain and who did not. 

This does not mean that 

pain is not real and is all 

‘in the mind’. What it 

does mean, however, 

is that an individual 

cannot always 

trust the 

• physiotherapists and fitness professionals, who will give 

the individual confidence to move and exercise through 

education and teaching individuals to pace their activities 

• psychologists, who help individuals to manage the difficult 

emotions, thoughts and behaviours that are often part and 

parcel of someone suffering from chronic pain. 

NICE recommends that this information is delivered in a pain 

management group typically lasting six to eight days over 

approximately two months. 

It might sound too pessimistic to give up looking for a cure 

but people can put pain at the centre of their lives. This results in 

those people spending nearly all their time and money searching 

for a cure which does not exist, at the expense of other activities 

that will bring them joy and connections, such as socialising or 

creative activities. This often leaves individuals feeling depressed 

and powerless as their life has narrowed, while the pain persists. 

As a fitness professional, you have an invaluable role to help 

people return to exercise, which has been so important to your 

client’s sense of identity and pleasure. 


fitpro.com | 15

Returning to exercise 

Movement is considered critical to managing life and pain. We now 

know that one of the worst things for the body is to stay in bed all 

day. This just leads to muscle loss and stiffening of joints. The trick is 

therefore to help your client ascertain how much exercise and what 

exercise your client wants to do. 

It is important to note that no exercise is discouraged, providing 

that people are prepared to return to that sport slowly and gradually. 

We also don’t spend time just doing physiotherapy or loads of 

swimming before returning to the sport – we just return to the sport. 

The method of returning to exercise (and activity in general) is 

called ‘pacing’, which involves helping your client to find a baseline 

of time/distance when exercise can be done without leading to an 

increase in pain and ensuring that this amount can be done, even on 

a bad pain day. So, a runner might stop running 

after 10 minutes or a tennis player might 

have a gentle knock around for five 

minutes, no matter whether they 

are in pain or not. 

One woman with whom we 

worked wanted to return to 

her Pilates classes, having 

previously practised at a high 

level. Her first few weeks were 

Top tips to deal with the injury positively 

Psychology is a key discipline in the pain management 

programme. It is hard not to feel depressed when you can’t 

exercise. Your client might also sense a real loss of identity if 

sport was a big part of who they were and what they enjoyed. 

Psychologists help individuals notice other parts of their 

identity and focus in on other values and meaningful 

activities. Sport professionals can work alongside the 

psychologists to help clients manage the emotional struggle 

of injury: 

1 

2 

Watch out for those catastrophic and unhelpful thoughts 

that can make someone feel depressed and anxious 

(e.g., “I will never get better”, “I am letting the team 

down”). Instead, try to replace them with something more 

reassuring and balanced (e.g., “I will get better, it might 

just take a long time”). 

Identify values that are important to the client in order 

to be the person they want to be and try to help them 

express these. So, if they pride themselves on being a 

good friend, encourage them to call up a friend and just 

listen to what has been happening in their lives. 

spent practising getting down and up from the floor so that she 

would be able to do the exercises she wanted to do. Once she felt 

confident and relaxed doing this, she was able gradually to increase 

the amount of time she practised Pilates for. After a year of gradually 

increasing the time she practised for, she was back enjoying Pilates 

at a very high level. 

In my experience, it is athletes who struggle the most with pacing 

and returning slowly to exercise. They have been used to exercising 

for hours and pushing themselves hard. Athletes also get a real 

sense of well-being from the physical effort. Therefore, helping your 

client to stop when they feel good and not pushing that little bit extra 

(a behaviour that has traditionally served them so well) is very 

challenging. Pacing helps to prevent the athlete from getting into 

a cycle where they train hard and then spend the next few days 

recovering as they pushed their body too hard. 

Patience is critical when recovering from pain. 

3 

4 

5 

6 

Make sure they see friends and family. A common 

mistake is that people feel too depressed to see anyone 

and worry that they have nothing to say, and therefore 

isolate themselves. Pain or no pain, isolating oneself 

always leads to depression. 

If they feel they cannot return to the sport they loved at 

the level they want to, give them space to grieve that loss 

and maybe even talk to someone about it. 

Once they have grieved, invest time in another activity 

which they can do or which does not cause them to feel 

stressed about injury and brings them pleasure (or at least 

more pleasure than sitting at home). 

Practise mindfulness when the pain is too bad or they just 

feel too overwhelmed by thoughts (good or bad). fp 

BIOGRAPHY 

See page 9 for Dr Isabelle Hung’s biography. 


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5628

Plyometric anatomy 

Explore the science and physiology behind plyometric training and pick up a few exercises 

from this extract of the Plyometric Anatomy book. 

Introduction 

Some of the most effective exercises for improving strength, power 

and speed involve little to no equipment. While the sport training 

and fitness industries are inundated with all types of resistance 

training machines and speed training devices, the combination 

of gravity and the human body is all that is required. Over 

half a century ago, coaches and sport scientists developed 

an approach to training that took advantage of a system of 

explosive athletic movements to improve the force production 

qualities of the human body. This system of training is 

now commonly referred to as plyometrics. The term 

plyometrics – originally coined by US runner and coach 

Fred Wilt in 1975 – is derived from the Greek prefix plio 

meaning ‘more’ or ‘longer’ and the suffix ‘metric’ meaning 

‘to measure’. While the literal translation of the word 

plyometric does not provide much information about 

the details of the system, it does imply a precise 

anatomical approach to exercise. 

Plyometric Anatomy examines the science and 

physiology behind plyometric training and 

identifies both foundational and advanced 

exercises. Exercises are presented in 

a logical progression, starting with 

basic movements and advancing to 

more intense and complex 

movements. Exercises for 

upper- and lower-body training 

are presented, as well as specific 

movements for core development. 

For advanced athletes who have a 

substantial base of training, we provide 

combination exercises that simulate complex 

sport-specific movements. As Yuri Verkhoshansky 

(1969) suggested, it is imperative to model strength 

and power training as closely as possible to the 

function that is to be improved. This book also 

presents key measures for prevention and 

rehabilitation of injuries related to use and 

management of plyometric training. The visual 

nature of this training resource makes it a 

valuable tool in the pursuit of enhanced 

performance and a healthy career in all sports. 

This book utilises the use of colour coding the primary and 

secondary muscles in specific exercises (as seen in the key opposite). 

The darker-coloured muscles are the primary muscles used 

while the lighter-coloured muscles are the secondary muscles 

used in the exercise. 


PLYOMETRICS • PROGRAMMING 

❯ DROP JUMP Watch variation here 

❯❯ Execution 

Stand at the top of a low- to moderate-height box. Initiate the 

movement by stepping off the box, allowing both feet to descend 

to the floor evenly. Do not jump off the box because a jump can 

result in a much longer drop that may result in too forceful 

a landing. 

While descending from the box to the floor, prepare for ground 

contact by slightly flexing the knees, hips and ankles. You do not 

want to land these jumps with any rigid joints. 

The balls of the feet land first, absorbing the initial forces as 

weight transfers to the heels. Once heel contact is made, the 

quadriceps, glutes and hamstrings will handle the landing forces 

in a collective and progressive manner. The torso will come 

forward as the erector spinae muscles also decelerate the weight 

of the upper body during the landing. 

❯❯ Muscles involved 

Primary: Gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, quadriceps (rectus 

femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis), 

hamstrings (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus). 

Secondary: Erector spinae (spinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis), 

soleus, gastrocnemius. 

means of developing leg strength, whether because of a lack 

of equipment or inexperience, drop jumps are a practical way 

to improve lower-body strength. Depending on the box height, 

landing forces can be several times greater than bodyweight. 

When initially performing drop jumps, use a low box and make 

a concerted effort to learn proper bilateral landing mechanics. 

Emphasise sequentially absorbing force through several joints. 

As you gain strength and technical proficiency through low 

drop jumps, gradually progress to incrementally higher boxes to 

increase training load. Heights of boxes can vary from 12 to 30 

inches (30 to 75cm) depending on ability and experience. 

Variation: Drop jump with rotational landing 

Similar to a jump up onto a box, a drop jump can incorporate 

a rotational movement on landing to train you to handle both 

vertical and rotational forces on ground contact. As you step 

off the box, you can initiate a rotational movement with the 

upper torso. During the descent from the top of the box, ground 

preparation can take place for a 90-degree rotation. The landing 

will involve the same vertical deceleration process of a regular 

drop jump. However, rotational forces will add a new dimension to 

the landing, requiring greater involvement from stabilising muscles 

throughout the lower body and core. 

❯❯ Exercise notes 

Drop jumps are an effective means of eccentrically loading the 

muscles of the lower body. When weightlifting is not a practical 

Primary muscles 

Secondary muscles 


fitpro.com | 19

❯ EXPLOSIVE MEDICINE-BALL PUSH THROW 




Hold the medicine ball close to the upper portion of the chest, 

with both hands behind the ball and feet shoulder-width apart. 

Descend into a deep squat. 

Slowly roll forward onto the toes. As the body begins to fall 

forward, rapidly extend at the hips to launch the body forward. 

Once you reach full extension at the hips, powerfully push 

forward with the arms to launch the ball at an angle of 35 to 40 

degrees. Take a few steps after the throw to regain your balance 

and reset for the next throw. 


Primary: Gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, quadriceps (rectus 

femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis), 

erector spinae (spinalis, longissimus, iliocostalis). 

Secondary: Pectoralis major, triceps brachii, anterior deltoid. 


back and forth with a partner or across a field or court with a 

small jog after each throw to catch up to the ball. Explosive 

medicine-ball push throws can travel 10 to 20 yards, 

depending on your ability. The goal is to throw the medicine ball 

with maximal force in order to achieve as much distance on the 

throw as possible. 

Variation: Explosive medicine-ball push throw into sprint 

Perform the explosive medicine-ball push throw as part of the 

start in a sprint effort. Once you launch the ball forward, transition 

smoothly into a sprint over 10 to 40 yards. Use a medicine ball 

of six to 10 pounds to overload the starting movement enough 

to provide a contrast to an unloaded start. Interspersing loaded 

starts with unloaded starts provides a benefit in the form of a 

more powerful starting motion. 

Watch variation here 

The explosive medicine-ball push throw is a good exercise for 

developing starting strength and power, particularly for sprint 

events in track and field and swimming. The rapid development 

of force from the ground through the arms also can contribute to 

contact sports such as American football, rugby and ice hockey. 

It is also a good activity for warming up before explosive activities 

because of all of the muscle groups involved at such a high 

intensity. You can perform this exercise as an explosive throw 


PLYOMETRICS • PROGRAMMING 

❯ MEDICINE-BALL CHEST PASS 



These exercises are 

an extract from 

Plyometric Anatomy, 

Your Illustrated Guide 

to Explosive Power 

by Derek Hansen and 

Steve Kennelly. FitPro 

members can save 25% 

with code FP25. 

Visit uk.humankinetics.com. 


From a tall standing position with feet hip-width apart, draw the 

medicine ball in toward the lower portion of the chest and push 

the ball out powerfully to a partner or against a firm wall. Choose 

a distance between the wall and you or a partner and you that 

allows a strong throw that does not bounce on the ground. 

When catching the medicine ball, absorb the incoming force 

of the medicine ball and then reverse the direction of the ball to 

a partner or the wall. In the case of a wall throw, the medicine 

ball rebounds off the wall and is immediately returned for the 

next throw. Partner throws should simulate this quick return and 

exchange of passes. 

Maintain a firm posture throughout the exercise with a strong, 

stable stance. 


Primary: Pectoralis major, triceps brachii, anterior deltoid. 

Secondary: Serratus anterior, trapezius, rectus abdominis. 


The medicine-ball chest pass is a fundamental upper-body 

plyometric exercise. The reactive nature of catching and returning 

a medicine ball builds both upper-body strength and elastic power 

in the chest, shoulders and triceps and is applicable to many 

sports. Throughout a set of throws, maintain strong posture and 

core rigidity as well as a firm stance with the feet in contact 

with the ground. Any softness in posture will negatively affect the 

power and velocity of the throw. In the early stages of a 

programme, use a higher number of throws (10 to 15 repetitions 

per set) to develop general strength. As the programme 

progresses, use a lower number of throws (four to eight 

repetitions) to develop velocity and power. 

Variation: Squat to chest pass 

The addition of a squat between throws helps to build lower-body 

strength in coordination with upper-body strength and power. 

After catching the medicine ball, descend to the floor in a deep 

squat, keeping the medicine ball in front of the body. As you 

ascend to a tall standing position, throw the medicine ball to a 

partner or against a wall, using some of the momentum generated 

as you rise from the squat. With both partner throws and wall 

throws, be close together to ensure the returning ball arrives at 

chest height with good velocity. 

Watch variation here 


fitpro.com | 21

More than one way 

to HIIT your goal 

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) comes in many forms, writes exercise physiologist 

Tony Boutagy. By understanding your client’s objectives, you can programme the most 

effective type for their needs. 

Interval training refers to an intermittent style of exercise in which 

bouts of more intense effort are separated by periods of recovery 

within a single training session. The high-intensity component of 

interval training can be operationally defined as training sessions 

where bouts of exercise are performed at an intensity higher than one 

could sustain for a prolonged period of, say, more than eight minutes, 

interspersed with recovery periods. 

One of the primary goals of interval training is the use of 

intermittent exercise efforts to expose the body to an accumulated 

intensity greater than one could sustain in a continuous bout. For 

example, if your best time for a 5K run was 20 minutes (4-min per km 

pace), then an interval training session option might involve five 1km 

intervals at 3:30-min/km with two minutes’ rest, thereby accumulating 

5km at a faster time than your best continuous 5km pace. 

Application of this method for general fitness and sports 

conditioning has been recognised for around 100 years, but the last 

decade has seen an explosion of research into the physiological 

adaptations to interval training in both sports settings and in populations 

with cardiometabolic diseases. 

Origins and history 

Elite athletes seeking to improve their sports performance have used 

interval training, in a variety of forms, for almost a century. Originally 

used by German cardiologists as part of the rehabilitation process, 

interval training was quickly adopted by their country’s coaches in 

the 1930s. At a similar time in Sweden, Fartlek training was invented 

by the coach Gösta Holmér, which saw running training sessions 

punctuated with different distances varying in speed. By the 

mid-1930s, the Germans had formalised a structured system of 

interval training for track and field athletes. Within two decades, 

interval training was popularised by the Czech runner Emil Zátopek, 

who won gold medals in the 5,000m and 10,000m races, as well as 

the marathon, at the Helsinki Olympic Games in 1952. 

Thus, interval training itself is not new, being used for many 

decades and extensively scientifically investigated since the 1970s, 

initially from a performance setting and more recently for its effects on 

cardiometabolic health and body composition. 

High-intensity session types 

As a working definition, HIIT can be broadly divided into three distinct 

types: sprint interval training (SIT); short intervals; and long intervals. 

Sprint interval training (SIT) 

Sprint intervals are essentially repeated bouts of ‘all-out’ efforts with 

almost full recovery. Typically, work durations are between 20 seconds 

and up to a minute. The rest between intervals should allow for almost 

complete recovery, so it is normally over five times longer than the 

actual interval duration, typically between two and five minutes. The 


HIIT• PROGRAMMING 

most well-known type of SIT are Wingates, named after the Israeli 

Institute where they were developed. A Wingate session starts at 

four bouts of 30 seconds with four and a half minutes’ active recovery 

between each bout. Like all work efforts in SIT sessions, the 30 

seconds is performed at best possible speed, with no pacing. Although 

the total work performed in the session is only two minutes, the 

perception of effort is enormous, due mostly to the extremely high 

acidosis that is generated during the repeated all-out 30-second bouts. 

Here are three examples of SIT workouts, remembering that 

although the duration of the interval is short, the effort required 

should be maximal! 

Option one: 30-second bouts 

Wingates: Four x 30 seconds with 4:30 minutes’ rest between each 

bout. Add one more interval every two workouts, so that sessions 

one and two would be four x 30-second intervals; sessions three and 

four would have five intervals and sessions five and six would have 

six intervals. For the first timer performing this method, undertake the 

session as written. For the seasoned interval devotee, start with six 

bouts and increase to eight over the six sessions. 

Option two: 20-second bouts 

Six x 20 seconds with 2:10 minutes’ recovery between each bout. 

Each 20-second interval commences every two and a half minutes 

(i.e., train for 20, recover for 2:10). For the beginner, perform as 

written and for the veteran, after the six bouts, actively recover for 

four to six minutes and perform the entire six bouts again. 

Option three: 60-second bouts 

Four x 60 seconds with four minutes’ recovery between bouts. Like 

the Wingates in option one, add an interval every two sessions, so 

that you will perform six bouts on session five and six. Again, like the 

Wingates for the advanced trainee, start with six bouts and progress 

to eight over the same time period. 

“ 12 weeks of sprint interval training 

improved indices of cardiometabolic 

health similar to traditional endurance 

training, despite a five-fold lower 

exercise volume and time commitment 

” 

Using the three work-to-rest ratios above, short intervals gives us 

many options for programme design, with the most common effort 

durations being intervals of 15 seconds, 20 seconds, 30 seconds 

and 40 seconds. 

To summarise, if programming short intervals for a client, you 

would choose one of the 12 options above and perform repeatedly 

for a block of four to 10 minutes at the best sustained pace, actively 

recover for several minutes after the block, and repeat the block three 

or four more times. 

Tabata short intervals 

Most people have been introduced to short intervals through a more 

intense version known as the Tabata Method. Popular in sports like 

speed skating to develop the so-called ‘W’ (formally called ‘anaerobic 

work capacity’), Izumi Tabata published a study in 1996 using a 

typical short interval method used by athletes for decades. In his 

work, Tabata had speed skaters perform four minutes of 20-second 

all-out sprints on a stationary bike interspersed with 10 seconds of 

rest, performing seven to eight lots of 20-second intervals in total. 

This session was performed five days a week for six weeks. At the 

end of the study, the speed skaters increased their VO 2 

max (maximal 

oxygen uptake) by 15% and their anaerobic work capacity by 28%. 

It did not take long before this method became popular in the 

fitness industry. 

Short intervals 

Short intervals are sessions where interval durations between 10-40 

seconds are performed in blocks of four to 10 minutes, alternating 

the recovery duration in one of three ways: equal work-to-rest, 

double work-to-rest or half work-to-rest. Although similar to the work 

durations used in SIT sessions, the goal here is not ‘all-out’ but rather 

best sustained pace for the duration of the block. Normally, a power 

or speed for the interval would correspond to just below, equal to 

or above the power or speed you could sustain for your best three 

to four minutes once off (the so-called p/vVO 2 

max). If one used a 

20-second work period, then the three possible short intervals 

would be: 

• 20-second effort, 40-second recovery (half work-to-rest) 

• 20-second effort, 20-second recovery (equal work-to-rest) 

• 20-second effort, 10-second recovery (double work-to-rest) 

The session would be conducted as a block of four to 10 minutes, 

where you would perform, say, option one above (20 effort/40 

recovery) for six minutes, with the goal of keeping the 20-second 

effort at a similar pace. After the six minutes was completed, you 

would actively rest for two to four minutes and repeat the six-minute 

block another two times. 

Short interval work-to-rest durations 

Interval length One-to-one Two-to-one One-to-two 

(equal work- (double work- (half workto-rest) 

to-rest) to-rest) 

15 seconds 15s/15s 15s/5s (for ease) 15s/30s 

20 seconds 20s/20s 20s/10s 20s/40s 



The Tabata session should take approximately 20 minutes. The 

first 10 minutes are spent warming up. The next four minutes are 

spent performing the Tabata interval: eight bouts of 20 seconds’ 

work interspersed with 10 seconds of rest. The pace at which the 20 

seconds should be performed corresponds to your best 50-second 

interval pace, which can, in theory, be tested in the warm-up for each 

session. The final six minutes would be spent cooling down from 

the four-minute bout. As this is a single four-minute block, Tabata 

intervals are performed much more intensely than traditional short 

intervals: Tabata uses 170% of vVO 2 

max (the minimum velocity at 

which VO 2 

max occurs), whereas most short interval sessions 


fitpro.com | 23

are performed around 95-120% vVO 2 

max, due to the longer duration 

of the blocks and sessions. 

Long intervals 

Long interval protocols are the bread and butter quality sessions of 

the endurance world. They involve work duration bouts of three to 

eight minutes at intensities just under one’s best aerobic maximum 

(p/vVO 2 

max), corresponding to an intensity of between 90-95% of 

HRmax, with short recovery periods of one to two minutes. This type 

of training allows one to accumulate an impressive amount of time at, 

or close to, VO 2 

max in the session. For this reason, long intervals are 

the primary interval of choice for endurance athletes. 

Four commonly performed long interval sessions are: 

• Six x three minutes with two minutes’ recovery 

• Five x four minutes with 60 seconds’ recovery 

• Four x six minutes with two minutes’ recovery 

• 10 x one minute with 60 seconds’ recovery 

Although this session has an interval work bout of less than the 

defined duration for long intervals, the accumulated session load is 

similar, so most people categorise this session type as a long 

interval workout. 

Targets of interval training 

Paul Laursen and Martin Bucheit, in their marvellous and definitive 

textbook on interval training, Science and Application of 

High-Intensity Interval Training, recommend that interval training 

should be categorised into the three primary physiological targets 

of each session, namely, the anaerobic, aerobic or neuromuscular 

systems. Based on this, Laursen and Bucheit further break these 

down into six subtypes of interval training: 

• Type 1 targets the aerobic system only 

• Type 2 elicits both an aerobic response and demands an input 

from the neuromuscular system 

• Type 3 challenges the aerobic and anaerobic system 

• Type 4 hits all three physiological targets (aerobic, anaerobic and 

neuromuscular) 

• Type 5 turns off the oxidative system and exclusively targets the 

anaerobic and neuromuscular systems 

• Type 6 is a neuromuscular-only type of training response 

Knowing the types of each interval method allows the trainer or 

coach to design more specific training programmes for their athletes 

to improve performance in a specific situation. For example, training 

for a marathon or Ironman triathlon would see intervals largely 

targeting a Type 1 response, whereas a six-minute Strava KOM (cycle 

challenge) would be best trained using intervals targeting a Type 3 or 

4 response. 

The health benefits of HIIT 

Several decades of research has shown that interval training is 

at least equivalent to, and in some instances more effective than, 

moderate-intensity continuous aerobic exercise at improving markers 

of cardiometabolic health. HIIT has been shown to improve 

mitochondrial function, insulin sensitivity, glucose control, lipid 

metabolism and blood pressure. 

Leading researcher in this field, Martin Gibala, has recently stated 

that there is now a considerable body of evidence suggesting that 

high-intensity interval training can elicit cardiometabolic health 

benefits comparable or superior to traditional endurance training, 

despite reduced time commitment. This is evidenced by a recent 

systematic review and meta-analyses based on 65 intervention 

studies that concluded, “HIIT may serve as a time-efficient substitute 

or as a compliment to commonly recommended moderate-intensity 

continuous exercise in improving cardiometabolic health”. 

Gibala’s team found that a single session of interval training 

involving 10 × one-minute cycling bouts at 90% maximal heart rate 

elicited larger and longer-lasting reductions in 24-hour postprandial 

glycemia in obese adults, than a 30-minute bout of moderate 

exercise at 65% HRmax that was matched for total external work. 

Other studies have shown that six weeks of Wingate-based SIT 

induced greater reductions in whole-body fat mass and superior 

improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness as compared with 

energy-matched moderate-intensity exercise in overweight and 

obese women. 

More recently, Gibala’s team compared moderate-intensity 

continuous exercise with a short, time-saving interval workout. The 

study showed that 12 weeks of sprint interval training improved 

indices of cardiometabolic health similar to traditional endurance 

training despite a five-fold lower exercise volume and time commitment. 

The sprint protocol involved a total of one minute of ‘all out’ 

intermittent exercise set within a 10-minute time commitment (three 

x 20 seconds with ~2.5 minutes’ rest), whereas moderate training 

consisted of 50 minutes of continuous exercise, and both groups 

trained three times per week. VO 2 

max increased similarly by 19% 

in both groups, and there were comparable improvements in insulin 

sensitivity as determined by intravenous glucose tolerance tests. 

Modes of exercise 

One of the most important considerations for HIIT is the mode of 

exercise being performed during the session. Given that work output 

is so high during the interval, a mentally challenging or technically 

demanding exercise mode is not recommended. Outside of 

specificity for sports, coaches typically recommend the use of 

stationary cycling, rowing, running or one of the cross-country skiing 

machine variations. These machines allow for true session maximal 

efforts with a lessened chance of sustaining an injury due to poor 

mechanics or technique. 

Measuring the work output and training zones 

There are two primary ways in which you can measure your work 

output for each interval session: internal or external monitoring. 

Internal monitoring could use a heart rate monitor or rate of perceived 


HIIT• PROGRAMMING 

exertion, and external monitoring could use speed or power. 

If gauging heart rate, you need to know what your maximal heart 

rate is and for long or short intervals you would aim to conduct the 

bulk of the work bouts between 90-95% of maximal heart rate. The 

goal of these sessions is to accumulate 10 or more minutes above 

90% of HRmax. The heart rate monitor is less useful for sprint interval 

training, as these are conducted at best all-out pace, for which a 

heart rate response is not particularly accurate. Perceived exertion 

would be a far better tool for this session type, as each bout should 

feel as hard as possible. 

An external monitoring approach to interval training would be a 

percentage of peak aerobic speed, velocity or power. An easy field 

test for this would be measuring your best speed, velocity or power 

over four minutes. This corresponds quite nicely to one’s aerobic 

maximum, when measured with an incremental test to exhaustion. 

From here, one can set an appropriate speed, velocity or power 

based on a percentage below, on or above VO 2 

max. For example, as 

an avid cyclist, my power over four minutes is ~500W. If performing 

long intervals, I would aim to conduct my six x three-minute intervals 

at ~88% of 500W (440W). For short intervals, I would go above 

this by around ~20%, and a session of six x 20 seconds with 40 

seconds’ rest would be held at ~600W. For sprint interval training I 

would aim to hit in excess of 800W (~170%). 

Interval training for sporting performance vs health 

Research has shown that the time commitment for improving 

cardiometabolic health using interval training is relatively small, 

ranging from 10-30 minutes per workout. However, in well-trained 

individuals, as one might expect, the volume/duration of interval 

sessions appear to be greater. The majority of studies show that for 

short or long interval sessions, the greatest improvements in VO 2 

max 

are seen with the sessions that accumulate more than 10 minutes of 

work above 90% HRmax. This normally equates to interval session 

duration of 40-60 minutes, including the warm-ups and cool-downs. 

nature of this four-week block method, it is only recommended for 

serious endurance athletes. 

Training-nutrition interaction and the train low philosophy 

Since the recent advent of techniques able to measure the molecular 

response to exercise, scientists have discovered that performing HIIT 

with differing amounts of carbohydrate stored in the muscle can alter 

the physiological response to the session. 

These discoveries have led to a paradigm of training and nutrition 

called Train Low in which sessions are either deliberately conducted 

with low carbohydrate stores in the muscle; with normal carbohydrate 

levels but with carbohydrate-deficient meals consumed afterwards; or 

in the afternoon followed by a low carbohydrate dinner and going to 

bed with low muscle glycogen (recover low and sleep low respectively). 

This change in thinking around fuelling for training is based on 

numerous studies showing greater muscle adaptation to sessions 

performed when the working muscles are deprived of carbohydrate 

during or after training. This makes sense, as training is stress and 

training without a major muscle fuel is even greater stress. Of course, 

these recommendations are for training blocks and not for 

performance, as it is beyond dispute that performance is enhanced 

with adequate glycogen stores. 

Warm-ups for intervals 

Warming up for an interval workout is a special art. You have to 

consider taking yourself from a state of rest, up to the power, speed 

or heart rate demands that the first interval will impose on you. If you 

fail to do this, the consequences for the session will be severe! 

Therefore five to 10 minutes is required to warm up the aerobic, 

anaerobic and neuromuscular systems. As a general rule, spend 

the first five minutes incrementally increasing the heart rate until you 

spend a minute, at minute six of the warm-up, at around 90% of 

maximum. Over the next few minutes, perform several sprints 

between six and 10 seconds to recruit the anaerobic and 

neuromuscular pathways. Recover for a minute and then perform 

your first interval. 

How many interval workouts per week and per programme? 

For the goals of health and body composition, HIIT sessions are 

recommended to be performed twice per week. For performance, 

a twice-a-week approach might be used initially, however, recent 

data suggest that a block periodised organisation of training might 

be more beneficial. Here, interval sessions would be performed each 

day of the week to overload the fitness capacity of the individual. This 

‘hell week’ would then be followed by three lighter weeks, where one 

HIIT session would be performed each week. Due to the intensive 

Wrapping up HIIT 

HIIT can improve your health, body composition and performance. 

In some instances, it is more time effective than traditional 

endurance exercise, while still imparting the benefits of longer 

duration, higher volume sessions. HIIT can be broadly categorised 

into three subtypes: sprint intervals, in which the sprints are 

performed at your best ‘all-out’ pace with almost full recovery; short 

intervals; and long intervals, both of which are performed around 

your best sustained aerobic pace or power. Workouts are typically 

performed twice a week using a mode of exercise that can handle 

high work outputs without fear of technical failure. 

With the majority of the population having enormous demands 

on their time, finding the opportunity to exercise can be difficult. For 

those that can manage the intense nature of the bouts, HIIT has 

become an extremely attractive option, as the time commitment is 

low and the benefits are huge. fp 

BIOGRAPHY 

Tony has been a trainer for 25 years, specialising in the development 

of strength and endurance, and training for body composition. He holds 

a PhD in exercise science and is an accredited exercise physiologist 

(ESSA). Tony runs educational courses for personal trainers in his 

Sydney-based facility. 

This feature was originally published by fitnessnetwork.com.au and has been recreated with permission. 


fitpro.com | 25

art 

The 

of 

successful rehab 

Gordon Cunningham looks at the fit pro’s role in the rehabilitation of an athlete and outlines 

the equipment he recommends for a successful rehab programme. 

Returning from an injury or limitation of movement can be a 

long and unknown process if the right structure and advice 

is not provided from the start. The endless amount of 

information and options can prove to be quite daunting 

and, in some cases, may even stop an individual from starting the 

process. Rehab is put in place to provide long-term health based 

on the individual’s specific needs. Mary Kinch and Andrew Lambert 

write in Clinical Sports Medicine, “Although sports medicine is readily 

classified as science, devising a successful rehabilitation programme 

should be considered an art. Skilful rehabilitation cannot be replaced 

by a recipe approach as each athlete is an individual, who brings very 

different personality and lifestyle factors to the therapy room.” 1 

What’s the fit pro’s role? 

The confusion surrounding the rehab process can unfortunately pass 

onto the personal trainer. What is your role? The number one point is 

that a trainer cannot diagnose or prescribe but instead can support 

and help to prevent future injury, working alongside other health 

professionals to make their client move better and stronger and with 

more confidence during and after the rehab section. Don’t forget the 

basics: look at the bigger picture of making a person move better and 

feel better and, overall, trust you throughout the programme. The old 

statement still applies: if in doubt, refer it out. 

Personal training and therapy have a bigger overlap than you 

would expect and can work well in collaboration as long as you stay 

in lane with your objective. If your goal is to improve or strengthen a 

movement for a client who is a golf professional, then do that. Don’t 

coach them golf or suggest changes to the swing. This applies in the 

therapy section, when working with a sports therapist, doctor and 

other therapy professionals. Link up with injury clinics and GP 

healthcare locations to shadow, take on referrals and build relationships. 

Research courses covering biomechanics, movement and 

rehab of clients, whether sports specific or for the general population. 

What equipment should I use? 

Keep things simple but make equipment a regular if not daily practice 

in programmes. Use kit that is versatile, does not intimidate the client 

and provides the correct feedback for exercise prescription. Here is 

my breakdown of preferred equipment for the rehabilitation process. 

❯❯ 1. PlantarBeam 

PlantarBeam allows you to restore, strengthen and improve your 

control, balance, foot health and movement. Its simplicity and ease of 

use are its obvious virtues. Using the PlantarBeam helps work on 

balance, load and range, varying the gradients to increase or decrease 

the level of ‘work’ required. This is of particular benefit to those with 

a restricted range of movement, who may otherwise struggle with 

floor work. PlantarBeam will help you safely work through your own 

individual challenges and direct your body towards better function and 

better movement. 


REHAB • PROGRAMMING 

Exercise: Work on general balance SL holds on the beam and build up to longer holds, 

working on harder formats of the movement. Allow the foot to spread and start to ‘feel’ 

what is going on to find the balance point. Keep the head upright and looking ahead 

and don’t look at the feet. Increase range and stability through dorsiflexion motions and 

taking the foot through inversion and eversion ranges/positions. This can be done on flat 

or gradient ranges depending on which areas need the most work. 

❯ 1. PlantarBeam 

❯❯ 2. TRX 

Versatile and for everybody, the flexibility of TRX helps you to move better, feel better 

and live better. Independent science shows that Suspension Training ® provides muscular 

and cardiovascular benefits that can amount to a “tremendous impact on an individual’s 

overall health.” 3 

Exercise: Work legs individually, allowing time to correct sequencing and strength issues 

between each side. The TRX suspended lunge is ideal for this, as well as being able to 

work on specific areas while improving strength throughout the rest of the body. The 

bottom-up squat is also the ideal movement sequence to allow mobility throughout the 

ankle, while collaborating with strength and stability into the standing part of the gorilla 

stomp position into standing. 

❯ 2. TRX 

❯❯ 3. ViPR 

Being able to move with load and control the angle, range and intensity is paramount 

in a training/rehab programme. The optional changes in hold positions and weight 

alongside endless progressions and regressions make ViPR a strong selection for 

movement, performance and therapy. 

❯ 3a. ViPR stagger stance 

Exercise a: Stagger stance with lateral hip shift and ViPR tilt towards the opposite side: 

Begin by shifting the hip to one side and tilting ViPR towards the other side to 

counterbalance and drive tension and range of motion. Keep controlled and slow in 

motion. Repeat the motion in sequence, side to side. Stay low in the stagger stance 

position to help maintain hip focus. If you sit high on this motion it will only encourage 

trunk bend into the motion and reduce range on hips. 

Exercise b: ViPR single leg forward reach to balance: This exercise develops strength 

in the hip and foot. Begin balancing on one leg and begin forward flexion and knee bend 

until full range or tapping the floor in front with ViPR, and then return slowly to standing 

position and raise knee of free leg. Place ViPR (same end as knee raised) onto the knee 

and continue arm reach to overhead position (as shown). Return to a standing position 

and hold and repeat. 

❯ 3b. ViPR SL forward reach to balance 

❯❯ 4. Bodyweight 

CARs stands for Controlled Articular Rotations. Creating big circles at each joint, 

CARs are movements designed to help your joints stay healthy. As a living organism, 

your body is nourished by movement: it gets stronger and more pliable with movement. 4 

Exercise: Hip CARS: Start in an all-fours position on the floor. Take deep breaths in and 

pull ribs down and then begin flexion of the knee forwards until maxed out. Then start 

abduction (away from the body) until full position and start turning all the way in and 

reach back into extension. You should feel a squeeze into the hamstring. Then begin the 

movement sequence back in reverse until finishing in original start position. Keep arms 

straight throughout in all fours position and no shifting of the body. fp 

❯ 4. Bodyweight 

BIOGRAPHY 

As the owner of ActivScotland, Gordon Cunningham has learned through experience as a 

sports therapist and PT that sustainable performance is built upon healthy foundations. His 

work is informed by examining behaviours and habits, and cultivating better movement, 

recovery, focus and attention. 

activscotland.com @gordonactiv @activscotland 


fitpro.com | 27

The 

menstrual 

cycle 

and strength 

training 

In the final part of 

our series on the 

menstrual cycle 

and strength training, 

Debby Sargent looks 

at the potential 

psychological changes 

that happen during 

the menstrual cycle and 

how trainers can 

optimise the training 

environment. 

Introduction 

This is the final article in a three-part series 

in association with the United Kingdom 

Strength and Conditioning Association 

(UKSCA) on women and strength training. 

Part one considered how strength and 

power development may be affected 

across the menstrual cycle, while part two 

focused on the potential negative impact 

of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and 

premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) 

on athlete wellbeing. Collectively, these 

articles highlight that, for some female 

athletes, menstrual fluctuations in oestrogen 

and progesterone concentrations can have 

profound physiological effects that will 

influence ‘what’ (i.e., exercise selection), 

‘how much’ (i.e., training volume) and ‘how 

hard’ (i.e., training intensity) the athlete can 

train, all of which are important necessary 

drivers for strength and power adaptations. 

Moreover, these hormonal changes can 

have profound psychological effects on the 

athlete that could exacerbate the unwanted 

physiological effects of oestrogen, as well 

as have detrimental consequences on the 

training environment. The focus of this final 

article, therefore, is to explore potential 

psychlogical changes across the menstrual 

cycle, plus highlight key coaching 

behaviours that may enable the strength and 

conditioning (S&C) trainer to optimise the 

training environment, regardless of 

menstrual cycle influences on trainability. 


STRONG WOMEN • THREE-PART SERIES (PART THREE) 

S&C trainer-athlete relationships 

The interconnected “reciprocal, two-way relationship” 1 between a strength and 

conditioning trainer and the athlete is unique, with athletes often viewing influential trainers 

as “more than just the coach”. 2 The roles of teacher, mentor, friend and parent 2,3 are commonly 

adopted by the S&C trainer based on the needs of the athletes, which means that 

their impact on an athlete’s life is multifaceted and far-reaching 4,5 . Achievement of individual 

and team goals is reduced when conflict exists between an S&C trainer and their athletes 6 , 

plus previous research has noted coaching issues as one of the top three reasons for 

female athletes choosing to quit sport 7 . 

Recent research exploring athletes’ perceptions of effective behaviours and 

characteristics of a successful S&C trainer identified three key themes – these are 

explained in Table 1. 

Table 1: Athletes’ perceptions of behaviours and characteristics of a successful 

S&C trainer 

Theme 

Description of theme 

S&C trainer characteristics, 

attributes and theme facilitators 

Building a strong 

trainer-athlete 

relationship 

Describes the ability of the 

S&C trainer to relate to their 

athlete, including the degree 

of emotional closeness between 

the trainer and athlete 

Mutual trust and respect, caring and 

understanding manner, authenticity 

(i.e., positive moral perspective, 

consistent and flexible), sincerity, 

approachability, sense of humour 

S&C trainer 

actions 

S&C trainer 

values 

Includes effective 

instruction, positive and 

constructive feedback, 

good communication 

and organisation, and 

planning skills 

Emphasises the trainer’s 

intrinsic core values, which 

helps to motivate, inspire 

and focus the S&C trainer 

on enhancing athlete 

performance 

Exceptional discipline, specific 

technical knowledge, ability to 

structure, plan and sequence 

training sessions over different time 

frames (i.e., days, weeks, months 

and years) to meet programme goals 

High performance expectations, 

persistent and consistent trainer 

behaviour that is motivating and 

inspiring, clear demonstration of 

belief in the athlete’s ability to 

succeed 

Adapted from 1 : Szedlak C, Smith MJ, Day MC, Greenlees IA (Oct 2015), Effective behaviours of strength and conditioning 

coaches as perceived by athletes, International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 10(5): 967-84. 

The training environment falls under the remit of the S&C trainer and successful 

management of this requires them to consider, plan and demonstrate the S&C trainer 

characteristics and attributes detailed in Table 1. The trainer’s competence in aligning and 

adjusting their actual behaviours to meet the needs of their female athletes in any given 

context will determine the ‘training atmosphere’ (see Figure 1) created and its effectiveness 

in building and maintaining working relationships (i.e., both trainer-athlete and athlete- 

athlete relationships) 8,9 . A refusal to acknowledge the significance of the S&C trainer- 

athlete relationship, or an underestimation of the direct impact poor S&C trainer-athlete 

relations can have on groups of female athletes, could fundamentally affect the chances of 

them fulfilling their true potential. 

Figure 1: S&C trainer-athlete relationships and the training environment 

S&C trainer 

behaviour 

+ = 

Athlete 

behaviour 

Training 

environment 

atmosphere 

Psychological effects of the 

menstrual cycle 

Mood can be defined as a short-term feeling 

or transient state that not only fluctuates across 

time (i.e., within minutes and/or days) but can 

also vary in intensity. For female athletes, 

mood is relevant to the training process and 

environment because it not only affects overall 

athlete wellbeing and perceptions of health, but 

can also influence an athlete’s behaviour, which 

can affect the stability and nature of the S&C 

trainer-athlete relationship as well as their 

motivation to train. The Profile of Mood States 

(POMS) is a commonly used measure of 

psychological distress that tracks over time 

changes in six different aspects of mood (five 

negative and one positive mood state): tension 

or anxiety, anger or hostility, vigour or activity, 

fatigue or inertia, depression or dejection, 

confusion or bewilderment. A shortened version 

of POMS (37 questions) 10 takes approximately 

10-15 minutes to complete and results in 

each of the six mood states being reported on 

a five-point rating scale ranging from ‘not at 

all’ to ‘extremely’ 11 . A measure of Total Mood 

Disturbance (TMD) can be obtained by adding 

the five negatively affected subscales, then 

subtracting the positive subscale. 

Changes to mood factors have been 

reported across the menstrual cycle (see 

Table 2). Positive moods are more likely 


fitpro.com | 29

Table 2: POMS at the four phases of the menstrual cycle 

Menses Follicular Ovulatory Luteal 

Tension – anxiety 13.2 ± 3.4 8.2 ± 1.9 6.9 ± 2.5 14.4 ± 3.5 

Depression 16.1 ± 6.7 8.1 ± 4.2 8.3 ± 5.1 17.4 ± 6.2 

Anger – hostility 3.9 ± 10.0 4.4 ± 2.3 4.7 ± 3.4 7.4 ± 3.0 

Vigour – activity 9.0 ± 2.4 16.2 ± 1.9 22.7 ± 1.3 12.2 ± 2.3 

Fatigue – inertia 11.2 ± 2.8 5.5 ± 0.7 1.5 ± 0.7 10.4 ± 1.8 

Confusion 9.1 ± 1.4 4.8 ± 1.0 2.8 ± 1.4 8.2 ± 2.0 

Confusion of Mood States (POMS) at the 4 phases of the menstrual cycle – mean (SD). 

A higher score means a greater tendency towards each mood descriptor. 

Adapted from 13 : Reilly T (Feb 2000), The menstrual cycle and human performance: an overview, Biological Rhythm 

Research, 31(1): 29-40. 

experienced in the follicular and post-ovulatory 

(early luteal) phase, with more negative moods 

pronounced prior and during menses 12 . S&C 

trainers working with female athletes may 

recognise the training environment to be more 

‘emotional’ and less stable depending on which 

phase of the menstrual cycle the athlete is 

experiencing. Associated changes in athlete 

behaviour will require the S&C trainer to regulate 

their own coaching behaviour in tandem to 

maintain productive trainer-athlete relationships. 

Interpersonal communication is a key feature of 

effective coaching 13 but the type (i.e., topic and 

content) of communication and how key 

messages are delivered may be very different 

during menses, compared to the follicular phase 

when athletes can be in an emotional and 

vulnerable mood state. Monitoring of the 

menstrual cycle (see part two in this series) 

should allow the S&C trainer to familiarise 

themselves with the extent of the mood changes 

typical for every athlete, such that patterns 

of behaviour become predictable and can, 

therefore, be accommodated in the planning 

stages. In addition, because mood states are 

transient, the S&C trainer should realise that the 

‘right’ coaching behaviour (determined through 

behaviour observation, plus trial and error) could 

have very beneficial effects on mood and an 

athlete’s psychological readiness to train. 

Taking into account the combined physiology (part one of this series) and psychology 

(parts two and three) impact of the menstrual cycle, it would appear that the trainability 

of strength and power for female athletes is greater during the first half of the menstrual 

cycle. However, it should be noted that, although low concentrations of oestrogen 

and progesterone during menses may create a physiological window of adaptation 

for strength and power development, simultaneous mood disturbances that have a 

detrimental effect on psychological wellbeing can negate or limit this increased 

opportunity for athletic development. 

Sex differences are a key consideration in the individualisation process 14 although, 

when it comes to the literature on coaching effectiveness, the female athletic population 

is generally not considered a ‘special population’ group that requires specific attention 

or modifications to the general coaching recommendations. All three articles in this 

series, however, provide evidence to the contrary – an alternative belief is that male and 

female athletes are sufficiently different, both physiologically and psychologically, such 

that approaches to coaching may need to be different or considered in order to maximise 

female athletic development. 

“ 

A proactive determination to plan and implement 

coaching/leadership strategies can transform the 

training environment into one which is inherently 

more controllable and productive 

” 

Coaching behaviours conducive to successful athlete outcomes 

Competence (sport-specific technical and tactical skills, relevant fitness attributes), 

Confidence (overall positive self-worth), Connection (interpersonal relationships) and 

Character (development of good moral values and beliefs) – the 4 C’s – have been 

identified as being holistic athlete development outcomes that should result from 

successful S&C trainer-athlete interactions 13 . Trainer behaviours (the 4 I’s), born out 

of the theory of Transformational Leadership (TL), including idealised influence, inspirational 

motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration (see Table 3) 

have been proposed to effectively target and facilitate these desired training outcomes 

(i.e., the 4 C’s). These TL behaviours are “designed to empower, inspire and challenge 

followers (i.e., the athletes) to enable them to reach their full potential” 15,16 by helping to 

convert followers into leaders of the future 17 . Table 3 provides a full explanation of the 

transformational leadership behaviours, along with some suggested strategies that the 

S&C trainer can use to actively promote these behaviours when coaching. 


STRONG WOMEN • THREE-PART SERIES (PART THREE) 

Table 3: Transformational leadership behaviours – definitions and trainer strategies 

Transformational 

leadership 

behaviour (4 I’s) 

Definition 

Suggested S&C trainer strategies 

Idealised 

influence 

Ability to demonstrate 

positive role model 

behaviours that gain 

the athlete’s trust, 

admiration and respect 

• Create an environment that promotes influential and relatable role models to female athletes – 

use and make visible positive female role models where you can in your daily practice 18,19 

• Be knowledgeable – demonstrate an extensive S&C knowledge but, more specifically, a deep 

understanding of the unique needs and requirements of female athletes (e.g., the effects of 

the menstrual cycle on physiology and psychology and how this affects trainability) 

• Practice what you preach – as an S&C trainer, lead by example and clearly communicate 

these expected standards and values when coaching 2 

• Training environment – make the physical training environment inviting to the female athlete 

(e.g., relevant visual images, promote athletic excellence) 

• Promote mixed-sex athlete support systems (can often be male dominated) – some female 

athletes may be more comfortable disclosing some types of information about themselves 

to another significant female rather than a male 20 

• Training partner compatibility – buddy up female athletes with another athlete (could be 

male or female) such that they will provide them with just the right amount of challenge 

(i.e., this will encourage a feeling of confidence and competency) 21 

Inspirational 

motivation 

Ability to communicate 

a clear, aspirational 

vision for the athlete 

(i.e., goal setting) and 

demonstrate a strong 

belief that it can be 

achieved 

• In conjunction with the athlete, set a challenging and aspirational vision for your athletes within 

the goal-setting process. Structure three types of goals to include outcome, performance and 

process goals 22 and demonstrate confidence in the targets set by ensuring a realistic picture 

of what is achievable in the time frame (i.e., evidence-based assessment of possible and 

expected training adaptations and the necessary training prescription required for success) 

• Coaching styles – female athletes are more likely to respond to and be motivated by 

democratic, as compared to autocratic, coaching styles 23 

Intellectual 

stimulation 

Ability to empower 

athletes to be 

innovative and creative, 

encouraging them to 

contribute ideas to the 

coaching and plan 

• Autonomy, or the athlete’s perception that they have some choice and control in training 

decisions, is an essential element identified within the Self Determination Theory 24 literature. 

Empowering female athletes to take a leading role in writing training programmes to achieve 

the vision laid out in the goal-setting process is a very positive step in developing intellectual 

stimulation 

Individualised 

consideration 

Ability to display a 

deep understanding 

of the individual 

development needs of 

the athlete and show a 

genuine care towards 

the athlete 

• Promote the benefits of shared reflection – the degree of emotional closeness can be 

encouraged if trainers and athletes reflect on experiences collectively. Greater co-operation and 

more harmonious agreement on training decisions can be achieved through this process 

• Mentoring athletes and spending time with them outside the usual training environment allows 

the S&C trainer to gain a much deeper understanding of their athletes, as well as build open 

and honest relationships 25 . Personal circumstances relevant to the ability of the female athlete 

to train can be more comfortably discussed in these less formal and relaxed environments 

Adapted from 15,16 : Bass BM, Riggio RE (Aug 2006), Transformational leadership, Psychology Press. Smith V, Moore EW (Apr 2019), Strategies to increase athletes’ transformational leadership 

behaviors during strength and conditioning sessions, Strength & Conditioning Journal, 41(2): 31-7. 

Summary 

In summary, effective coach-athlete relationships 

and the ability of the S&C trainer to modify 

their behaviour in response to fluctuations in 

their female athletes’ mood and perception 

of wellbeing across the menstrual cycle can 

have profound effects on the resultant training 

environment. While the predictability of an 

athlete’s day-to-day psychological variability 

can be limited, menstrual monitoring data and a 

proactive determination to plan and implement 

coaching/leadership strategies to modify trainer 

behaviour accordingly can transform a belief 

that the female athlete training environment 

can be emotional and unstable into one which 

is inherently more controllable and productive 

for the athlete. A number of strategies and 

areas for S&C trainer professional development 

have been proposed to further develop 

Transformational Leadership behaviours (4 I’s), 

which can ultimately positively influence the 4 

C’s (competence, confidence, connection and 

character) that are characteristic of successful 

coaching episodes. fp 

BIOGRAPHY 

Debby Sargent MSc, ASCC has 

20 years of coaching experience, 

working with individual and 

team-sport athletes. Currently, 

Debby is a lecturer in strength and 

conditioning at the University of 

Gloucestershire. She is also the 

author of Strength and Conditioning for Female 

Athletes (The Crowood Press), providing guidance on 

how to adapt training to be specific for women and 

their unique needs. 


fitpro.com | 31

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Mar-Apr 2020 Fitpro magazine for website

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