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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 426 4 of 19
According to te ao Māori (Māori worldview), plants and humans are the offspring of
Tānē Mahuta, god of the forests. However, plants were created before humanity, giving
them a senior status [30]. As elder relatives, plants are seen as a link between humans
and the sacred ancestors of Papatūānuku (Mother Earth) and Ranginui (Sky Father) [43].
Māori used their extensive plant knowledge to harvest and utilise the resources that
Aotearoa/New Zealand’s unique ecological systems offer. However, this relationship
between humans and nature was always one of kaitiakitanga (guardianship) and aroha
(love and respect) [41]. The benefits of this relationship had to be reciprocal. Māori
understood that the best way to take care of themselves was to take care of the natural
world so that it could continue to support them and their children for generations [44].
For instance, the incorporation of wairuatanga (spirituality), often in the form of karakia
(chants), ensures that appropriate rituals and traditions are upheld before, during and after
the healing process is conducted to maintain the balance between living and non-living
things (McGowan, 2000). The importance of wairuatanga (spirituality) also explains the
need for spiritual rituals before the collection and use of herbal materials [43], another
essential aspect of RM.
RM is understood today to encompass a wide range of treatments. These can include
mirimiri (massage), karakia (chants), wai (water), ritenga (rituals) and rongoā rākau (herbal
medicines) [45]. Historically, herbal remedies were applied through various methods,
including poultices, steam baths, tonics, and teas [46]. These treatments were used for
numerous ailments and complaints both internally and externally by harvesting the leaves,
sap, bark or roots from certain plants [20,47]. Currently, RM focuses on treating the
illness at the source or on prevention entirely, rather than simply seeking to remedy the
symptoms once they become evident [48]. The emphasis is placed on strengthening family
relationships and mental health as these elements are fundamental to a person’s well-being
and must be considered in conjunction for a patient to heal properly [25,41]. Health and
well-being, as intertwined constructs, result from a subtle balance between mind, body
and spirit [49]. In this way, the treatment differs in its principle values from Western
medicine. While the Western model concentrates on treating the symptoms, RM aims to
heal by improving the mental, physical and spiritual well-being of a patient to generate
awareness about maintaining a healthy equilibrium [50] (Figure 2). With rongoā practices,
iron. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x effectiveness is not simply related to the chemical composition and pharmacological 5 of 20 action
of a plant, but mainly to the process that is conducted within the context of traditional
healing [46].
Figure 2. Fundamental aspects of Māori health and wellbeing.
Figure 2. Fundamental aspects of Māori health and wellbeing.
In summary, RM is strongly associated with concepts of health and well-being. Such
practices permit alleviation of symptoms and enhance well-being for individuals and the
collective while promoting cultural traditions and values associated with place and
whenua (land), and safeguarding environmental stewardship for iwi (tribe), hapū (sub-
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