Familism in Confucianism - Women's Global Connection
Familism in Confucianism - Women's Global Connection
Familism in Confucianism - Women's Global Connection
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
<strong>Familism</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Confucianism</strong><br />
Nai-Hua, Ko<br />
Shu-Te University, Taiwan<br />
<strong>Confucianism</strong>, a great humanistic Ch<strong>in</strong>ese philosophy, is rooted <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society as<br />
one of the fundamental of culture. Although 2500 years after Confucius established his virtue<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>gs and rules for social reform, the beliefs and customs that he advocated are still alive<br />
today <strong>in</strong> Asian countries, such as Japan, Korea, S<strong>in</strong>gapore, Vietnam <strong>in</strong> addition to Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />
areas (Ma<strong>in</strong>land Ch<strong>in</strong>a, Taiwan, Hong Kong). <strong>Confucianism</strong> has deep <strong>in</strong>fluences and<br />
tremendous impact on how the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese live their lives, and how the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese teach their<br />
younger generation to live their lives. In Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society, <strong>Confucianism</strong> is regarded as a code<br />
of conduct, a set of virtue that should be obeyed and delivered as a part of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese traditions.<br />
In other words, <strong>Confucianism</strong> is composed of moral, social, political and religious teach<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
built up by Confucius and the ancient Ch<strong>in</strong>ese traditions. It is extremely important and also a<br />
def<strong>in</strong>ite duty for Ch<strong>in</strong>ese people to behave.<br />
In Taiwan school education, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese classic philosophy is taught and discussed from<br />
junior high school education. The students were mostly anxious for understand<strong>in</strong>g the literal<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>gs than the thoughts <strong>in</strong> the ancient articles because of the entrance exam<strong>in</strong>es. After the<br />
<strong>in</strong>novation of education system, there are more emphasis on idea <strong>in</strong>spiration than mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
memoriz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese courses at school. The Ch<strong>in</strong>ese classics are cont<strong>in</strong>uously taught until<br />
the university level. However, it is a question that how much the young generation can really<br />
understand the spirit of <strong>Confucianism</strong> and follow the teach<strong>in</strong>gs as beliefs by school education<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the environment and the way young generation value th<strong>in</strong>gs is chang<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In the study of Yang and Cheng (1987), four groups of Confucian values preserved <strong>in</strong><br />
Taiwan were po<strong>in</strong>ted out as below:<br />
(1) Family: family and clan responsibilities, obedience to one’s elders<br />
(2) Group: acceptance of the hierarchical structure of society, trust <strong>in</strong> and<br />
obedience to authority, commitment to the solidarity, harmony, norms of<br />
the group<br />
(3) Job-orientation: education, skills, hard work, frugality<br />
(4) Disposition: austerity, calmness, humility, self-control<br />
Either <strong>in</strong> the family teach<strong>in</strong>g or school education, hav<strong>in</strong>g concern towards the others, towards<br />
the entire group is usually emphasized <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society. Each person doesn’t exist as an<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual, but a part/a member of the family or group. Therefore, a person has to behave by<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g the ethics with the responsibilities that concern to the group he belongs and the<br />
position he stands on. It is a duty for Ch<strong>in</strong>ese people to live <strong>in</strong> this way, and the value of life<br />
presents its splendour after morality accomplished.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Hofstede’s (1980) measure of <strong>in</strong>dividualism, Taiwan is ranked as the<br />
position 44 of 53, which means it is a highly collectivistic society. Individualism and<br />
collectivism are cultural “syndromes”. They reflect attitudes, beliefs, norms, roles, selfdef<strong>in</strong>itions,<br />
and values. Collectivism reflects the relative emphasis on the collective, such as<br />
the union of family, work group, tribe, and nation. The major difference between collectivists<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dividualists is that what they pay attention to (Triandis, 1990). Collectivists def<strong>in</strong>e<br />
themselves by us<strong>in</strong>g group attributes, see behaviour as reflect<strong>in</strong>g group <strong>in</strong>fluences, see<br />
success as due to the help received from others, and failure due to <strong>in</strong>ternal factors. Thus,<br />
collectivists are context-dependent (Cohen, 1991). Collectivists focus on ascribed attributes<br />
of the other, such as family background, age, sex, and so on. The other person’s group<br />
identity is crucial to the collectivist. Groups are perceived as homogeneous, and <strong>in</strong>-groups are
more homogeneous than out-groups. Furthermore, for collectivists, behaviour must be<br />
“appropriate” and whether attitudes are or are not consistent is trivial matter for them.<br />
Emphases on Family<br />
Confucian philosophy has been the most powerful <strong>in</strong>fluence shap<strong>in</strong>g the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />
culture, the conceptions of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese for thousands of years. Undoubtedly, it is composed of<br />
the dom<strong>in</strong>ant value system <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese societies. In <strong>Confucianism</strong>, noth<strong>in</strong>g is more important<br />
for good government and peace than proper family relationships. In <strong>Confucianism</strong>, the family<br />
is the framework for establish<strong>in</strong>g graceful <strong>in</strong>teractions with others. It is still the s<strong>in</strong>gle most<br />
important social <strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>in</strong> impart<strong>in</strong>g ways of learn<strong>in</strong>g to be human. Therefore, family<br />
education is importantly attached as a component for the children’s growth.<br />
The Five Card<strong>in</strong>al Relationships<br />
The ethical arrangements for <strong>in</strong>terpersonal relationships established with the concepts<br />
of benevolence (ren), righteousness (yi), and propriety (li) <strong>in</strong> <strong>Confucianism</strong>. Behaviour that<br />
favours people with whom has a close relationship can be termed benevolence; respect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
those for whom respect is required by the relationship is called righteousness; and act<strong>in</strong>g<br />
accord<strong>in</strong>g to previously established rite or social norms is called propriety. Confucius advised<br />
that social <strong>in</strong>teraction should beg<strong>in</strong> with an assessment of the role relationship between<br />
oneself and others along two social dimensions: <strong>in</strong>timacy/distance and superiority/<strong>in</strong>feriority<br />
(Hwang, 1999).<br />
In <strong>Confucianism</strong>, how to make harmony <strong>in</strong> deal<strong>in</strong>g with relationship issues is<br />
emphasized. The component of hierarchy is certa<strong>in</strong>ly important. To demonstrate this<br />
hierarchy are the five card<strong>in</strong>al relationships as below (Kim, 1979):<br />
1. Parent-Child<br />
The parent-child relationship is considered life’s most stable, unchang<strong>in</strong>g, last<strong>in</strong>g<br />
relationship. Filial piety is the ma<strong>in</strong> emphasis symboliz<strong>in</strong>g the ethics <strong>in</strong> this<br />
relationship. In Ch<strong>in</strong>ese traditional concepts, only a son can make efforts to the family, and a<br />
daughter is worthless because she will be one of the other family’s belong<strong>in</strong>gs anyway.<br />
Therefore, sons won almost all the parents’ love, and stand on a higher position than<br />
daughters <strong>in</strong> the family. Thus, a daughter’s filial piety to her parents was less critical than a<br />
son’s. In fact, <strong>in</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al word<strong>in</strong>g of this relationship was father-son. This relationship<br />
could expand to the relationship between elder generation and young generation. The<br />
younger generation should show his/her respect to the elders <strong>in</strong> the society.<br />
2. Ruler-Subject<br />
This relationship symbolizes loyalty. The ruler-subject relationship can be seen as an<br />
extension of the parents- child relationship, just as parents care for their children. In the same<br />
way, it is an obligation for the ruler to take care for his subjects. To put loyalty <strong>in</strong>to practice,<br />
one as a subject or a child ought to respect and obey the ruler or parents because it is morally<br />
right and obligatory to do so.<br />
3. Elder Brother-Younger Brother<br />
The elder brother-younger brother relationship represents the <strong>in</strong>herent higher status of<br />
someone who is senior <strong>in</strong> age, experience, and therefore, presumably, wisdom. Furthermore,<br />
this k<strong>in</strong>d of relationship is not restricted only to blood brothers. It can be extended to any<br />
senior-junior relationship <strong>in</strong> the group, organization, and society.<br />
4. Husband-Wife<br />
In stark contrast to American culture, the Confucian husband-wife relationship has been<br />
marked by segregation. This relationship is stand<strong>in</strong>g on the status of man and woman <strong>in</strong><br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society. In ancient Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society, marriage did not signify the formation of a new<br />
family. Instead, marriage signified the extension of an exist<strong>in</strong>g family, namely, of course the
husband’s. More succ<strong>in</strong>ctly, it is the one s<strong>in</strong>gular purpose for marriage to provide male<br />
children to perpetuate the husband’s family l<strong>in</strong>e. Even <strong>in</strong> modern society, this traditional<br />
thought is still rooted <strong>in</strong> old generation, and it brought the conflicts between generations.<br />
Under this k<strong>in</strong>d of circumstance, there are only absolute obligations wait<strong>in</strong>g for a wife to<br />
practice, such as obedience towards her husband, towards the parents-<strong>in</strong>-law.<br />
5. Friend-Friend<br />
The friend-friend relationship is based on mutual trust and faithfulness. The<br />
relationship between two friends most closely resembles the American ideal of equality.<br />
We can f<strong>in</strong>d that three of the five card<strong>in</strong>al relationships (Parent-Child, Elder Brother-Younger<br />
Brother, Husband-Wife) are concerned with familial relationships, and the other two are<br />
consangu<strong>in</strong>eous relationships. The conjugal relationship is considered as the least important<br />
familial relationship. This can partially expla<strong>in</strong>s why a man cannot stand on his wife’s side<br />
while there is a conflict between his wife and parents. This illustrates the situation clearly that<br />
<strong>in</strong> a Confucian society, blood is <strong>in</strong>deed thicker than water as Ch<strong>in</strong>ese people usually say. In<br />
addition, it should be noted that, except for the relationship between friends, the relationships<br />
are vertical between superiors and <strong>in</strong>feriors.<br />
Ideal Confucian Family System<br />
In a Confucian-based society, we can f<strong>in</strong>d that it is pla<strong>in</strong> to emphasize, not only<br />
hierarchy, but also the family. Referr<strong>in</strong>g to the relationships and <strong>in</strong>teraction between family<br />
members, there were five characteristics for the ideal Confucian family system as below:<br />
• Only the paternal l<strong>in</strong>e relatives were regarded as relatives.<br />
• Social class and rights were transmitted only from fathers to sons.<br />
• The sole authority <strong>in</strong> the family rested with the father who held control over the<br />
children.<br />
• Marriages were allowed only with those outside the blood clan.<br />
• First-born males held the right to l<strong>in</strong>eal succession.<br />
The Family as One Body<br />
The Confucian concept of filial piety is constructed on the simple fact that each<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual’s body exists solely because of his parents. Therefore, each <strong>in</strong>dividual should<br />
never forget that he won’t be <strong>in</strong> this world if his parents didn’t exist. In Confucians say<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
there was a description about the family members:<br />
Father and son are one body; husband and wife, brothers, are all one body. The relationship<br />
between father and son is like that between head and feet. Husband and wife are a<br />
comb<strong>in</strong>ation of two separate parts of one body; brothers are the four limbs. (Confucian Rites:<br />
Chapter on Mourn<strong>in</strong>g Dress)<br />
Confucians conceptualized the family by analogy to the human body. Each role <strong>in</strong> the<br />
family represents a dist<strong>in</strong>ct part of the human body, and together they constitute an<br />
<strong>in</strong>separable entity. The Confucian configuration of ethical arrangements with<strong>in</strong> a family also<br />
corresponds to the body structure. The up-and-down relationship between head and feet<br />
refers to the superior and <strong>in</strong>ferior positions of father and son. Children’s bodies orig<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
from their parents’, and cont<strong>in</strong>ually children will have their own families. The young<br />
generation will be oriented towards the old one. Relationships between senior and junior<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> a rank order (Hwang, 1999). In addition, the Confucian ethical system is based not<br />
only on the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple of respect<strong>in</strong>g the superior, but also on favor<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>timate.<br />
Filial Piety<br />
As a foundation for the life or perfect goodness, Confucius <strong>in</strong>sisted ma<strong>in</strong>ly on the four<br />
virtues of s<strong>in</strong>cerity, benevolence, filial piety, and propriety. Of all other virtues, filial piety is
the root value on which many others are built (W<strong>in</strong>g 1995). In the “Hiao-k<strong>in</strong>g”, Confucius is<br />
recorded as say<strong>in</strong>g: “Filial piety is the root of all virtue.” “Of all the actions of man there are<br />
none greater than those of filial piety.” In Ch<strong>in</strong>ese people’s m<strong>in</strong>d, the notion of filial piety<br />
prompts sons to love and respect their parents, contribute to their comfort and br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
happ<strong>in</strong>ess and honour to their name by honourable success <strong>in</strong> life. Moreover, by develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
respect and love for parents and sibl<strong>in</strong>gs, and learn<strong>in</strong>g respect for other people from them, the<br />
child develops both self-respect and respect for others.<br />
Our body, with hair and sk<strong>in</strong>, is derived from our parents. One should<br />
not hurt one’s own body <strong>in</strong> any situation. This is the start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t of filial piety.<br />
(Hsiao Ch<strong>in</strong>g, Chapter 1: The Start<strong>in</strong>g Po<strong>in</strong>t and the Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples)<br />
Filial piety <strong>in</strong>cluded the obligation of sons to live after marriage under the same roof<br />
with the father and to give him obedience as long as he lived. The will of the parents was<br />
declared to be supreme even to the extent that if the son’s wife failed to please them, he was<br />
obliged to divorce her. If a dutiful son found himself compelled to scold a wayward father, he<br />
was taught to give the correction with the utmost meekness. The father does not forfeit his<br />
right to filial respect, no matter how great his wickedness.<br />
In traditional Asian culture, a son, usually the first born, and his wife were expected to<br />
provide for his parents <strong>in</strong> their old age. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to L<strong>in</strong> (1993), the greatest regret a Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />
man could have is to lose the opportunity of be<strong>in</strong>g with and serv<strong>in</strong>g his parents on their<br />
deathbed. Thus, the value of filial piety is as important as the very foundation of develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
one’s self and becom<strong>in</strong>g a fully developed human be<strong>in</strong>g. Even <strong>in</strong> current Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society,<br />
this is still regarded as an obligation for the son, especially the first son. This could affect<br />
female’s choices while they are search<strong>in</strong>g for an appropriate marriage partner. To be the first<br />
son of a family could be considered as a disadvantage for marriage because the wife of the<br />
son is expected to take care of the parents-<strong>in</strong>-law on daily life and f<strong>in</strong>ance. Therefore, when<br />
the parents lost the ability to take care of themselves, it is an obligation for the wife to do the<br />
caregiv<strong>in</strong>g. Sometimes, liv<strong>in</strong>g with the parents becomes the reason of the discord between the<br />
couples.<br />
In a study of immigration culture about caregiv<strong>in</strong>g (Patricia, X<strong>in</strong>wei, Karen & Afaf,<br />
2002), the results led to the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g that through personal growth and f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g mean<strong>in</strong>g, the<br />
caregivers <strong>in</strong>tegrated the caregiver role <strong>in</strong>to their lives and became more connected with their<br />
families and with<strong>in</strong> themselves from the <strong>in</strong>terviews of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese American women. Although<br />
the women were moderately acculturated and <strong>in</strong>fluenced by two sets of standards and<br />
worldviews, the primary strategies used to manage the caregiv<strong>in</strong>g challenges were connect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and calibrat<strong>in</strong>g. They reflected what they were educated <strong>in</strong> childhood to the behaviours. The<br />
teach<strong>in</strong>g of values <strong>in</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al country cont<strong>in</strong>ually plays an absolute role to manag<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
behaviours <strong>in</strong> their lives.<br />
Ideal Role for Woman <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Tradition<br />
<strong>Confucianism</strong> del<strong>in</strong>eates proper conduct for everyone, especially women. Fight<strong>in</strong>g<br />
women’s rampant “loose morals” <strong>in</strong> a concerted effort to produce “virtuous women”,<br />
<strong>Confucianism</strong> governed women’s conduct with the so-called three obediences: (1) a young<br />
girl should obey her father; (2) a married woman should obey her husband; (3) a widow<br />
should obey her oldest son. We can f<strong>in</strong>d that two of these obedience directly match two of the<br />
five card<strong>in</strong>al relationships (parent-child, husband-wife). The third obedience seems to be a<br />
paradox. In theory, a widow was expected to obey her son. However, <strong>in</strong> practice, the son<br />
usually obeyed and paid respect to his mother (Kim, 1979).
In order to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the world of women and men <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society, we can beg<strong>in</strong><br />
with Ch<strong>in</strong>ese characters. As well known, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese ancient words were pictograph. They<br />
presented the ideas and images of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese people had towards the concepts and mean<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
that word. The Ch<strong>in</strong>ese character for “woman” shows a female figure sitt<strong>in</strong>g at home. On the<br />
other hand, the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese character for “man” is a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of “field” and “labor”.<br />
Therefore, by <strong>in</strong>terpretation, a woman should work <strong>in</strong>side the home while a man should work<br />
outside on the farm (Park, 1986). It is fair to say that the entire social structure was<br />
characterized by sexual segregation. Even after marriage, the physical structure of the house<br />
facilitated this separated lifestyle, with the husband and wife stay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> separate quarters most<br />
of the time. The women’s quarter was called the “<strong>in</strong>ner room” and it was <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ner w<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The men’s quarter was called the “outer room” and it was <strong>in</strong> the outer w<strong>in</strong>g. The <strong>in</strong>herent<br />
symbolism of the language is impossible not to notice (Park, 1986; Kendall, & Peterson,<br />
1983).<br />
Traditional Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society was male-centered. Sons were preferred over<br />
daughters, and women were expected to be subord<strong>in</strong>ate to fathers, husband, and sons. When<br />
married, it was a woman who left her natal family and community, and went to live <strong>in</strong> a<br />
family and community of strangers where she was subord<strong>in</strong>ate to her mother-<strong>in</strong>-law. Far<br />
fewer women were educated than men, and sketchy but consistent demographic evidence<br />
would seem to show that female <strong>in</strong>fants and children had higher death rates and less chance<br />
of surviv<strong>in</strong>g to adulthood than male. In extreme cases, female <strong>in</strong>fants were the victims of<br />
<strong>in</strong>fanticide, and daughters were sold, as chattels, to brothels or to wealthy families. Bound<br />
feet, which were customary even for peasant women, symbolized the pa<strong>in</strong>ful constra<strong>in</strong>ts of<br />
the female role. In current Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society, the dest<strong>in</strong>y of female would not be so miserable<br />
as <strong>in</strong> the ancient environment, however, female would be the prefer choice when someone<br />
has to sacrifice for the family or group.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the Confucian structure of society, women at every level were to occupy<br />
a position lower than men. Most Confucians accepted the subservience of women to men as<br />
natural and proper. At the same time they accorded women’s honour and power as mother<br />
and mother-<strong>in</strong>-law with<strong>in</strong> their family. Some examples of “Confucian <strong>in</strong>spired say<strong>in</strong>gs” as<br />
bellow could still be a shackle aga<strong>in</strong>st women’s growth and self-actualization <strong>in</strong> modern<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese society:<br />
“A woman’s duty is not to control or take charge.”<br />
“Woman’s greatest duty is to produce a son.”<br />
“A woman ruler is like a hen crow<strong>in</strong>g.”<br />
“Women are to be led and to follow others.”<br />
“A woman should look o her husband as if he were Heaven itself, and<br />
never weary of th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g how she may yield to him.”<br />
Through the years, a whole body of literature was written, educat<strong>in</strong>g women on selfdiscipl<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
etiquette, relationships with <strong>in</strong>-laws, household management, humility, and<br />
chastity. Biographies written about admirable women emphasized their unselfish loyal and<br />
self-sacrific<strong>in</strong>g will<strong>in</strong>gness to do anyth<strong>in</strong>g to help their husband and his family. Although<br />
ideology is one th<strong>in</strong>g and the reality of the lives of women often another, the log shadow of<br />
basic beliefs about the nature and role of women had far-reach<strong>in</strong>g effects.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Human be<strong>in</strong>gs live <strong>in</strong> their own webs of significance, which are woven with reference<br />
to their own cultural traditions (Geertz, 1973). From the perspective of cultural psychology,<br />
social discourse on actions <strong>in</strong> one’s own culture necessarily has one’s cultural structure of<br />
mean<strong>in</strong>g (Shweder, 1991; Shweder & Sullivan, 1993). In addition, the core cultural ideas<br />
that profoundly <strong>in</strong>fluence people’s ways of th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g also have that culture’s structure of
mean<strong>in</strong>g. If we compare cultures by reduc<strong>in</strong>g them to a few dimensions, the major webs of<br />
significance <strong>in</strong> each culture are torn to pieces (Hwang, 1999).<br />
<strong>Confucianism</strong> is primarily an ethical system to which rituals at important times dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
one’s lifetime have been added. Partly, we have exam<strong>in</strong>ed some of the major ideas of<br />
<strong>Confucianism</strong> as it relates to the family and woman issues. We have also discussed how the<br />
Confucian transformation of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese affected every aspect <strong>in</strong> the society. The <strong>Confucianism</strong><br />
deep <strong>in</strong>side the culture became great <strong>in</strong>fluences on the behaviors and thoughts of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />
people. Although the environment changed, the pervasive <strong>in</strong>fluence of <strong>Confucianism</strong> cannot<br />
be ignored. Whether good or bad, it is not possible for a society to forget centuries of<br />
tradition and custom. Therefore, after the young generation educated with<strong>in</strong> a western way<br />
and the environment was globalized, the conflicts occurred because the earlier teach<strong>in</strong>gs from<br />
the traditions and the new thoughts. When an <strong>in</strong>dividual began to th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>in</strong> his own way, the<br />
traditional expectation of obedience will face the failure more or less. While we encourage<br />
our children to th<strong>in</strong>k, we cannot teach and satisfy them just simply say<strong>in</strong>g “It is our tradition<br />
and custom. My father did this to me, and my grandfather did this to my father too. So, it is<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> for you to accept this.” The old generation said this to us with pride, sometimes<br />
wistfully, and sometimes even apologetically. However, it will not work if we treat the next<br />
generation with<strong>in</strong> the same way.<br />
References<br />
Andrew, J. F., Tiffany, Y., & Vivian, T. (2002). The impact of family obligation on<br />
the daily activities and psychological well-be<strong>in</strong>g of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese American adolescents.<br />
Child Development, 73(1), 302-314.<br />
Aiken, C. F. (1996). The Catholic encyclopedia. The Encyclopedia Press, Inc.<br />
Chao, S. Y., & Roth, P. (2000). The experiences of Taiwanese women car<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
parents-<strong>in</strong>-law. Journal of Advanced Nurs<strong>in</strong>g, 31(3), 631-638.<br />
Cohen, R. (1991). Negotiat<strong>in</strong>g across cultures. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C.: United States<br />
Institute of Peace Press.<br />
David, H., & Roger, A. (1987). Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g through Confucius. State University of<br />
New York Press, Albany.<br />
Geertz, C. (1973). The <strong>in</strong>terpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books.<br />
Harry, C. T. (1993). The cont<strong>in</strong>gency model <strong>in</strong> cross-cultural perspective.<br />
Leadership theory and research: Perspectives and directions, Academic Press, Inc.<br />
He<strong>in</strong>z, C. B. (1997). Asia, a new <strong>in</strong>troduction. Waveland Press.<br />
Ho, D. Y. (1994). Filial piety, authoritarian moralism, and cognitive<br />
conservatism <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese societies. Genetic, Social & General Psychology<br />
Monographs, 120(3), 349-365.<br />
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences <strong>in</strong> work-<br />
related values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.<br />
Hwang, K. K. (1993). Dao and the transformative power of <strong>Confucianism</strong>: A theory<br />
of East Asian modernization. In W. M. Tu (Ed.), The Triadic Chord: Confucian ethics,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial East Asia, and Max Weber (pp. 229-278). S<strong>in</strong>gapore: The Institute of East<br />
Asian Philosophies.<br />
Hwang, K. K. (1995). Knowledge and action: A social psychological <strong>in</strong>terpretation of<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cultural tradition [<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese]. Taipei: Psychological Publishers.<br />
Hwang, K. K. (1998). Two moralities: Re<strong>in</strong>terpret<strong>in</strong>g the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g of empirical<br />
research on moral reason<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Taiwan. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 1(3),<br />
211-238.<br />
Hwang, K. K. (1999). Filial piety and loyalty: Two types of social<br />
identification <strong>in</strong> <strong>Confucianism</strong>. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 163-183.
Joel, J. K. (2001). Classic Asian philosophy: A guide to the essential texts. Oxford<br />
University Press, Inc.<br />
Jones, P. S. (1996). Asian American women car<strong>in</strong>g for elderly parents. Journal of<br />
Family Nurs<strong>in</strong>g, 2(1), 56-75.<br />
Judith, T. & Chen, J. M. (2000). Liv<strong>in</strong>g arrangements, <strong>in</strong>come pool<strong>in</strong>g, and the life<br />
course <strong>in</strong> urban Ch<strong>in</strong>ese families, Research on Ag<strong>in</strong>g, 22(3), 238-261.<br />
Kendall, L., & Mark, P. (1983). Korean women: View from the <strong>in</strong>ner room. New<br />
Haven: East Rock Press, Inc.<br />
Li, C. (1997). Shift<strong>in</strong>g perspectives: Filial morality revisited. Philosophy East & West, 47(2),<br />
211-232.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>, Y. (1993). On grow<strong>in</strong>g old gracefully. In C. Sommers & F. Sommers (Eds.), Vice<br />
and virtue <strong>in</strong> everyday life (3 rd ed., pp. 751-757). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace<br />
Jovanovich.<br />
Lu, L., & Shih, J. B. (1997b). Sources of happ<strong>in</strong>ess: A qualitative approach. The<br />
Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 181-187.<br />
Mattielli, S. (1977). Virtues <strong>in</strong> conflict: Tradition and the Korean woman today.<br />
Seoul: Royal Asiatic Society.<br />
Park, Young-hai, ed. (1986). Women of the Yi Dynasty. Seoul: Research Center for<br />
Asian Women.<br />
Patricia S. Jones, X<strong>in</strong>wei E. Z., Karen J., & Afaf I. M. (2002). Caregiv<strong>in</strong>g between<br />
two cultures: An <strong>in</strong>tegrative experience, Journal of Transcultural Nurs<strong>in</strong>g, 13(3),<br />
202-209.<br />
Philip J. Ivanhoe. (2000). Confucian moral self cultivation. Hackett, Indianapolis.<br />
Robert, D. S., & Shirley K. S. (2000). Intergenerational learn<strong>in</strong>g and family<br />
harmony, Educational Gerontology, 26, 261-283.<br />
Shweder, R. A. (1991). Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g through culture: Expeditions <strong>in</strong> cultural psychology.<br />
Cambridge, Harvard University Press.<br />
Shweder, R. A., & Sullivan, M. A. (1991). Cultural psychology: Who needs it.<br />
Annual Reviews of Psychology, 44, 497-523.<br />
Sung, K. T. (1995). Measures and dimensions of filial piety <strong>in</strong> Korea. The<br />
Gerontologist, 35, 240-247.<br />
Sun, R. J. (2002). Old age support <strong>in</strong> contemporary urban Ch<strong>in</strong>a from both<br />
parents’ and children’s perspectives, Research on Ag<strong>in</strong>g, 24(3), 337-359.<br />
Triandis, H. C., McCusker, C., and Hui, C. H. (1990). Multimethod probes of<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59,<br />
1006-1020.<br />
W<strong>in</strong>g, C.C.K. (1995). Love the parents and care for the children: Filial piety and<br />
<strong>in</strong>tergenerational cooperation <strong>in</strong> traditional Ch<strong>in</strong>a. Journal of Socio-Economics, 24(2),<br />
391-409.<br />
Yang, K. S., & Cheng, P. S. (1987). Chuan tong jia zhi guan, ge ren xian dai x<strong>in</strong>g ji<br />
zhu zhi x<strong>in</strong>g wei: Hou lu jia xue shuo de yi xiang wei guan yan zheng [Confucianized<br />
values, <strong>in</strong>dividual modernity, and organizational behaviour: An empirical test of a<br />
post-Confucian hypothesis]. Bullet<strong>in</strong> of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia S<strong>in</strong>ica,<br />
64, 1-49.