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638 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER REFERENCES JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND RESEARCH [1] Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. R., & Daniels, L. B.(1999). Common misconceptions of critical thinking. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 31(3), 269-283. [2] Bowell, T., & Kemp, G. (2002).Critical thinking: a concise guide. New York: Routledge. [3] Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Lexington, MA: D. C. Health. [4] Farrell, S. C. (2007). Reflective language teaching. London: Continuum. [5] Feuerstein, M. (1999). Media literacy in support of critical thinking. Learning, Media and Technology, 24(1), 43-54. [6] Fisher, R. (1990). Teaching children to think. London: Nelson Thorns Ltd. [7] Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group, Inc. [8] Garrison, D. R. (1991). Critical thinking and adult education: A conceptual model for developing critical thinking in adult learners. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 10(4), 287-303. [9] Glenn, C. (2004). Making sense: A real-world rhetorical reader. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin‟s. [10] Greenlaw, S. A., & Deloach, S. B. (2003). Teaching critical thinking with electronic discussion. The Journal of Economic Education, 34(1), 36-52. [11] Jeevanantham, L. S. (2005). Why teach critical thinking? Africa Education Review, 2(1), 118-129. [12] Kabilan, K. M. (1999). Developing the critical ESL learner: The Freire‟s way. Paper presented at 5 th MELTA International Conference, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia. [13] Kabilan, K. M. (2000). Creative and critical thinking in language classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(6), June 2000. [14] Mason, M. (2008). Critical thinking and learning. Australia: Blackwell Publishing. [15] McGregor, D. (2007). Developing thinking; Developing learning a guide to thinking skills in education. New York: McGraw- Hill: Education, Open University Press. [16] Reyes, A. S., & Vallone, L. T. (2008). Constructivist strategies for teaching English language learners. California: Corwin Press, A Sage Publication. [17] Sharma, C. (1995). Linguistic factors in critical thinking. Early Child Development and Care, 107(1), 35-43. [18] Summer, W. G. (1940). Folkways: A study of the sociological importance of usages, manners, customs, mores, and morals. New York: Ginn and Co. [19] Unrau, J. N. (1997). Thoughtful teachers, thoughtful learners: A guide to helping adolescents think critically. Ontario: Pippin Publishing Corporation. [20] Warburton, N. (2007). The basics of essay writing. Great Britain: Routledge. [21] Williams, R. L. (2005). Targeting critical thinking within teacher education: The potential impact on society. The Teacher Educator, 40(3), 163-187. [22] Wink, J. (2000). Critical pedagogy notes from the real world. New York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc. [23] Wright, I. (2002). Is that right?: Critical thinking and the social world of the young learner. Ontario, Canada: Pippin Publishing Corporation. [24] Zainuddin, H., & Moore, A. R. (2003). Enhancing critical thinking with structured controversial dialogues. The Internet TESL Journal, 9(6), June 2003. Mansoor Fahim is an associate professor of TEFL at Allameh Tabataba‟i University, Tehran, Iran from 1981 to 2008 as a member of the faculty of English Language and Literature at Allameh Tabataba‟i University in Tehran, Iran when he retired as an associate professor of TEFL. He has taught English at a welter of universities. At present, he runs Research methods, Psycholinguistics, Applied Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition, and Seminar classes at MA .level and First Language Acquisition, Psycholinguistics, and Discourse Analysis courses at Ph.D. level at a number of universities including Allameh Tabataba‟i and Islamic Azad Universities, Science and Research Campus. Moreover, he has several published articles and books mostly in the field of TEFL and has translated some books into Farsi. Dr. Fahim is currently a member of the editorial board of some Iranian journals of Applied Linguistic Studies. At present, he runs Research methods, Psycholinguistics, Applied Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition, and Seminar classes at M.A. level and First Language Acquisition, Psycholinguistics, and Discourse Analysis courses at Ph.D. level. He has published several articles and books mostly in the field of TEFL and has translated some books into Farsi. Pantea Hashtroodi is a Ph.D. candidate in TEFL at the Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Center, Tehran. Her main interests of research are in Psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, translation, and first and second language acquisition. She holds a B.A. in English Translation and M.A. in TEFL from the Islamic Azad University South-Tehran branch. During her study at B.A. and M.A. she was one of the top students of the university. She has published some articles so far. She has worked in some good institutes in Tehran, and she has the experience of teaching at NIOC exploration as well. In addition she has worked professionally with 5 to 12 years old children at one of the famous institutes in Tehran.
ISSN 1798-4769 Journal of Language Teaching and Research, Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 639-646, July 2012 © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Manufactured in Finland. doi:10.4304/jltr.3.4.639-646 Individual Learner Differences and Second Language Acquisition: A Review © 2012 ACADEMY PUBLISHER Shahila Zafar School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, Vellore-632014, TN, India Email: shahela.zafar@gmail.com K. Meenakshi School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, Vellore-632014, TN, India Email: k.meenakshi@vit.ac.in Abstract—The level of second language acquisition depends on many factors controlled by nature or shaped by nurture. The present paper studies the role of individual learner differences in second language acquisition (SLA). The individual differences, viz., age, sex, aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, learning strategies, and personality are defined and classified. A detailed review of the studies conducted in relation to the seven individual differences follows. The paper concludes by emphasizing that a language teacher must recognize the individual differences in his/ her students in order to impart effective language learning. Index Terms—second language acquisition, individual learner difference, personality, age, sex, aptitude, motivation, cognitive style, learning strategies I. INTRODUCTION Some people achieve almost native speaker‘s levels of competence in a foreign language while others never seem to progress much beyond beginner level. Some second language learners make rapid and seemingly effortless progress while others progress only very slowly and with great difficulty. The reason probably is that people are different! They have different personalities, thus each individual is different from the other. Individual differences are, ―enduring personal characteristics that are assumed to apply to everybody and on which people differ by degree‖ (Dörnyei, 2005). Personality is made up of a range of interrelated forces which are unconscious (affected by past experience), biological or conditioned (affected by culture). We learn about personality in an almost incidental way, acquiring knowledge through introspection and our own personal interaction with other people, assisted perhaps by reading great works of literature. However, in order to use our knowledge of personality in research, it is necessary to have instruments which offer a more rigorous and scientific way of providing information which is both reliable and valid. The differences that one can explore are: A. Age B. Sex C. Aptitude D. Motivation E. Cognitive Style F. Learning Strategies G. Personality These factors are intricately interlocked with each other and in totality play important roles in language learning. Language teachers should be aware of their effects. In a sequence, we will take a look at their role in second language learning. II. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND SLA A. Age It is generally believed that children are more successful Second Language (L2) learners than adults, but one must define the term ‗success‘ here. Some define ―success‖ as initial rate of learning while other studies define it as ultimate achievement. Also, some studies define ―success‖ in terms of how close the learner‘s pronunciation is to a native speaker‘s, others in terms of how closely a learner approximates native grammaticality judgments, and still others in terms of fluency or functional competence. It is very important to keep evaluative criteria clearly in mind while judging conflicting claims. The question of whether, and how, age affects L2 outcomes has been a major issue in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) for several decades. It is believed that there is a critical period for first language acquisition. Children are believed to have only a limited
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Cognitive Styles and Performance on
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