Dam Breaks and Alluvial Cycles, Pleasant Valley ... - NORFMA

Dam Breaks and Alluvial Cycles
Pleasant Valley, Washington
Matthew Durkee
NORFMA 2009 Annual Conference
Yakima, Washington
September 15, 2009

Which Pleasant Valley?
U.S. Army
Yakima Training Center
Hanford
Nuclear Reservation

U.S. Army - Yakima Training Center (YTC)

http://www.pbase.com/rpdoody/image/62842739
Fred G. Redmond
Memorial Bridges
When built in 1971,
were the longest
concrete span bridges
in USA.
549.5 ft. long
325 ft. above canyon
Selah Canyon
up to
Pleasant Valley
“Pleasant Valley,”
now Range 15.
View to east

How did I end here speaking
about Selah Creek meandering
through Pleasant Valley?
Fan Site, 2007. View to northwest.

Habitat Protection Crew Leader
(2001-2004, Seasonal)
Hydrologist & Project Manager
(2006-2008)
Graduate Student, MS Geology
(2006-Present)
Former Contract Employee with:
Environment and Natural Resources Division
U.S. Army - Yakima Training Center
Currently with Yakima County:
Engineering Technical Specialist
Surface Water Management Division
(2008-Present)

Project Guidance and Assistance
Thesis Committee:
Dr. Lisa Ely, Advisor - Dept of Geology
Dr. Beth Pratt-Sitaula - Dept of Geology
Dr. Allen Sullivan - Dept of Geography
Yakima Training Center (YTC) Staff:
Randy Korgel – Archeologist
Ryan Bowlin – Archeological Technician
Gideon Cauffman – Former YTC Archeological Technician,
current Yakama Nation Archeologist
Jenna Durkee – Occasional field assistant and everything else

Project Funding
Student Research & Travel
Grants

- Spanish for brook.
- Steep-walled channel
- Oversized channel
- Cut by water into
easily eroded sediment
- Depth and width vary
- Cut by flood event(s)
- Centuries to fill back in
- Semi-arid & arid environments
- Ephemeral and intermittent
streams
What is an Arroyo?
Meyers Gulch, Oregon. 2005. View to west. Cooper Brossy

Common Causes
- Climate Fluctuations (Drought, Floods)
- Land Use Change (Grazing, Logging)
- Wildland Fire
- Base Level Change
- Combination
Riparian Corridor Destabilization + Floods = Arroyo

Arroyo Evolution Model
Model of arroyo evolution depicting changes shown at a cross section
view over time following channel incision (Gellis, 1992)

- Developed throughout western
United States, especially the
Southwest.
- Many current arroyos incised
during the late 1800s and early
1900s.
- Semi-arid regions:
- Incomplete vegetation cover
- Sufficient water to move
surface materials.
Arroyo Distribution
http://www.cpluhna.nau.edu/Change/arroyos3.htm

Arroyo Research
- Recent arroyo and paleo-arroyos both
studied extensively in Southwest USA.
- Phenomenon still not well understood.
- Debate about natural processes vs.
anthropogenic impacts.
- Limited research of current arroyos in
Pacific Northwest.
- Little to no research of paleo-arroyos in
Pacific Northwest.
(focus of my research)
Cooper Brossy

Why Understand Arroyos?
Ecohydrological Implications
Flooding Downstream
Land Use Implications
Displacement of People
Corrective Treatment Expense
Hydraulic Modeling and Flood Science
Climate and Paleoclimate Change

Ecohydrological Implications
- Separates stream from floodplain
- Lowers water table
- Less sunlight
- Flora and fauna altered
- Invasive species replace natives
- Stream flow drops
- Water quality impacts,
higher turbidity
- Riparian ecosystems altered
http://www.fgmorph.com/fg_8_17.php

Flooding Downstream
Higher Flooding Potential Downstream
- Excessive sediment deposits:
- Reduce natural regulatory functions
- Fill channels, flood waters can’t be stored
- Stream channel geometry changes
- Straightens & shortens channel
- Limits flood dispersal and increases velocity

Land Use Implications
Create Barriers and Hazards Decreased Agricultural Productivity
- Travel - Irrigation difficulties
- Livestock watering - Soil erosion and downstream damage

- Unable to farm
Displacement of People
- Relocate or switch to ranching
- Infrastructure damage
- Small towns destroyed or abandoned
in Southwest (Vogt 2003)
- Prehistoric arroyo incision may have
forced the Anasazi to abandon
settlements in southern Utah and
northern Arizona (Hereford 1995)
Ranch buildings separated by
Johnson Creek arroyo, 2007.

Corrective Treatment Expense
- Mitigation dates to Civilian
Conservation Corps projects in 1930s.
- Mitigation measures such as tree
planting and control structures
are costly.
- U.S. Army expends hundreds of
thousands of dollars on erosion
control structures, habitat restoration,
and training safety measures.
Selah Creek gabion during flood, 1996.
Selah Creek gabion collapse during flood, 1999.

Meyers Gulch, Oregon
Alluvium down cut up to 50 ft.
during the late 1800s and
early 1900s.
May have been during 1884 and
1904 large floods.
Northeast of Bend, OR near Painted Hills.
2005. View to east.
Brad Wilson photo

- Largest flood in U.S. for
drainage of its size.
- 54,500 ft³/s from 12.7 sq. miles.
- 3.5 to 4 in. of rainfall mostly
within 30 min.
Meyers Gulch, Oregon
July 13, 1956 Flood
- Published discharge estimate from
USGS team that responded.
Upstream from Cross Section C, July 1956. (USGS 2003)

- Controversy over discharge
- USGS estimate much higher
than Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)
- 54,500 ft³/s vs. 17,700 ft³/s
- BOR studied as part of
spillway design for Central Oregon.
- Revisited in 2003.
1956 photo. Bank Overflow,
perched flow? (USGS 2003)

Rio Puerco River, New Mexico
Voght 2003 and Aby 2004
Near Cabezon, 1885 E.A. Bass Same reach, 1977 H.E. Malde
Towns of San Ignacio, San Fernando y Blas, and San Francisco
all abandoned.
Contribution to Rio Grande River:
- 78% of total suspended sediment load
- Only 4% of the flow

Paleo-Arroyos
- Natural episodes of arroyo cutting and backfilling
- Backfilling over periods of hundreds of years have been
documented, predominately in the southwestern USA
- La Nina and El Nino Cycles?
Examples: Curry Draw, Arizona and others (Bull 1997)
Kanab Creek, Utah (Webb 1991)
Paria River Basin, Arizona (Hereford 2002)
North Dakota badlands (Gonzalez 2001)
Curry Draw, Arizona Bull 1997

Study Area
Yakima Training Center,
Focus on Selah Creek
Anthropogenic Land Use and Impacts
Related to Current Arroyos
Later on…..Paleo-Arroyo Research
But first a little background…

Regional Geology
- Columbia River Basalts (CRBs)
(17-14 million yr ago)
- Yakima Fold Belt
(age debated)
- Missoula Floods deposits
( ~15 thousand yr ago)
- Loess deposition during and after
glacial periods
http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/columbia/forest/geology/
INSERT PICTURES
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/PacificNW/Maps/pacificNW_volcanics.html

Study Area
Hydrology & Geomorphology
- Sediments accumulated
in valley bottoms (synclines) from
loess mantle
- Missoula Floods deposits
- Ephemeral and Intermittent Streams
- Selah Creek rarely flows full length.
- Stream channels controlled by
bedrock structures and alluvial fans.
- Arroyos in most YTC watersheds.
- Incised as different times,
possibly due to varying causes.

If the streams are ephemeral,
when does sediment transport
and deposition occur?
Extended Rains Rain-On-Snow Rain-On-Frozen Ground
Taylor Pond levee breach, 1980. View to south.

Selah Creek
Upstream of Pleasant Valley Dam site
Base “Flow” 1996 Rain-On-Snow Flood

Spring & Summer Thunderstorm
Lmuma Basin, YTC, view to east
Flash Floods
Corey Bonsen

Anthropogenic
Land Use & Impacts

~10,000 years ago to present
Wanapum People still reside in
village adjacent to the YTC and
Priest Rapids Dam
Native Americans
Horses brought to Pacific Northwest
as early as 1725 (Owens 2005).
Unsure if range fires were used
to clear areas in the shrub-steppe.

Euro-American Settlement
Began ~1870s
Ranching Livestock Grazing Farming Silica Mining
Transportation Homesteaders
Corral on YTC, 1970s. Charlie Reno photo
Sander’s Ranch, Johnson Creek

“Pleasant Valley” and Spitzenburg
Selah Creek 1907-1910
- First Irrigation Reservoir in Pacific Northwest?
- Pleasant Valley Irrigation Company
- Incorporated Nov. 4, 1907.
- Opened office at 4 N. 2 nd St. in North Yakima (now Yakima)
- Planned orchard and farming community
- Subdivided and sold 10 acre tracts
View to east, 2007.
Carolyn Ehlis pan stitch
Spitzenburg
PV Dam

Pleasant Valley Dam Construction, Spring 1908
60’ high, 800’ long. Earthen with thin concrete wall core.
Yakima Daily Republic front page article covering Pleasant Valley Dam
construction contract, left article- Jan. 23, 1908.
Wagon teams hauling cement for the dam.
Excavation for dam,
from Yakima Morning Herald advertisement,
Feb. 23, 1908
Jack Crawford , chief engineer.
Construction of dam (Lince 1984)

Pleasant Valley Irrigation Company advertisements
Yakima Daily Republic – Spring 1908

Simulated Bathymetry of Pleasant Valley Reservoir
Capacity estimated at 1300 acre-feet (Durkee 2007)

Spitzenburg, WA 1908-1910
Planned community named for a popular apple variety of the time.
Located near the present day Selah Airstrip,
a few miles down stream of the Pleasant Valley Dam
near end of canal.
Surveyor’s Building Kinney Hotel and Post Office
(Lince 1984)

January 21, 1909
Yakima Morning Herald
- Rain-on-snow event fills reservoir
- Ice and debris blocked spillway
- Pleasant Valley Irrigation Company
employs 30 to 40 workers to keep
the spillway clear.

February 6, 1909
Yakima Morning Herald
Covers Pleasant Valley Dam failure
Friday Feb. 5, 1909

Pleasant Valley Dam Failure
February 5, 1909
A mystery because of differing witness accounts……
- Dynamite used to break up ice blocking spillway
- Dynamite used to sabotage dam
- Canal gates would not close
- Canal gates would not open
- Poor engineering
- Lack of bedrock footing and seepage
Regardless the dam was rebuilt…………
(Haynes 1971)

Yakima Morning Herald - Jan. 25, 1910
Witnesses report Stump family drowned….
No records confirming this have been found.
(Haynes 1971)

Break in dam, photo undated (Lince 1984)
Pleasant Valley Dam and Spitzenburg
abandoned soon after
Pleasant Valley Dam, 2007.

Impacts on Selah Creek Riparian Zone
- Deeply incised Selah Creek (Haynes 1971)
- 1959 aerial photos show relatively little change.
- Separated stream from floodplain, lowing water table
- Loss of perennial flow
Feb. 2008 runoff event, view to east.

1908
2009

U.S. Military
- U.S. Military Reservation (World War II to Present)
- Livestock grazing leased to ranchers until 1995
- Direct Disturbance
- Indirect Impacts from Fire
- YTC Land Rehabilitation and Fire Management

Thesis Project
Hypothesis
Paleo-arroyos cut and backfilled prior to
Euro-American settlement in Selah Creek
and adjacent watersheds.

Approach & Objectives
- Identify, document, and characterize
evidence of paleo-arroyos on primarily Selah Creek.
- Determine timing of paleo-arroyo incision and backfilling.
- Identify any links to past regional climate fluctuations.
- Compare timing with Southwest paleo-arroyos to
determine any negative correlations.

Why Selah Creek for
Paleo-Arroyos?
- Pleasant Valley Dam failure exposed stratigraphy
- Less vegetation to obscure view
- Moderate exposures of stratigraphy
- Relatively broad, wide valley
- More meander bends

Previous Related Studies at YTC
- Salmon Habitat Enhancement Thesis (Sullivan 1994)
- Documented Johnson Creek arroyo incision (mid to late 1900s), effects, and possible mitigation
approaches.
- Archeological Studies
- Project Fogoil (Eastern WA Univ. 2000)
- Baseline radiocarbon and tephra ages
- Identified 4 alluvial cycles
- Existence of paleo-gullies in some
watersheds mentioned.
(none in Selah Creek mentioned).
http://artofwar.ru/img/l/lomachinskij_a_a/text_0200/smoke-generator.jpg

Project Fogoil Alluvial Chronology
and Regional Context
Four Alluvial Cycles Identified
Period Climate Vegetation Alluvial Cycles
14000-10000 BP Full glacial conditions ameliorate
and Holocene warming begins
Sagebrush,
grasses, and trees
expand
10000-7000 BP Cooler and moister than today Dry adapted
species expand
7000-4000 BP Max. aridity immediately prior to
Mazama ash with decreasing
aridity and cooling after.
4000-2300 BP Cooler and moister than
preceeding period., esp at 3600
BP.
2300 BP - Present Warming, drying, approaching
modern conditions.
Sagebrush
expands, grasses
and trees retreat
Grasslands and
trees expand.
Grasslands
retreating
Adapted from Galm 2000 and King 1994.
Aggradation on top of
course gravels which
provide contact with
bedrock.
Episodic, strong erosion
event after 8000 BP and
before Mazama.
Aggradation and then
another erosion event
between 5000-4000 BP.
Aggredation and
localized landscape
stability.
Erosion (this study)
2000-1500 BP and
aggradation after 1500 BP.

Methods
- Basic information on current arroyos.
- Historical research
- Identified, mapped, and characterized
paleo-arroyos
- Identify timing of paleo-arroyo incision
and backfilling.
- Carbon 14
- Tephra
- Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL)
Buried Charcoal Layer

Challenges & Considerations
- Colluvium covers much of the arroyo walls,
including portions of identified paleo-arroyos.
- Difficulty in measuring size and direction of paleo-arroyo.
- Floods from dam failure and later erosion have erased much of
the paleo-arroyo(s) fill.
- Difficult access due to shift in military training

Results and Discussion
Selah Creek Overview

Bank Swallow Site
Paleo-arroyo 21+ m wide, 4-5 m deep
Cut massive silty alluvium and filled
with fine to coarse bedded sands

http://www.flickr.com/photos/donlbe/38302857/
(Galm 2000)
Tephras
Paleo-arroyo(s) cut
Mazama tephra
Shows paleotopography
Mazama tephra
From Crater Lake
(7700 cal yr BP)
Glacier Peak and
Mt. St. Helens
identified in study
area by Project Fogoil.
http://www.dustydavis.com/blogimages/crater_lake_large.jpg
Mazama tephra downstream
of Bank Swallow Site

Tributary Site A
2 m wide, 4 m deep
Tributary Sites
Tributaries of Selah Creek cut and filled
after base level changed on main stem
Selah Creek

Fan Site
- Paleo-arroyo: 4-5 m depth, 20+ m wide.
- Cut massive silty alluvium and filled with fine to coarse bedded sands
- Selah Creek incised 1540±40 cal yr BP
Bottom of Paleo-arroyo channel
1540±40 cal yr BP, 5 cm above contact.

Change in base level
the primary cause?
Deposition of highly erodible sediments
the cause?
Prior to this valley fill,
base level elevation was near where it is today.
Changes in: Sediment supply?
Paleoclimatic conditions?
Flooding characteristics?
Combination?

Selah Creek - 1908
Selah Canyon Connection
http://www.flickr.com/photos/left-handed_genius/3824216525/sizes/l/
“Where is the water that cut the canyon?”
Appears oversized with current lack of flow
Hydrology changed after dam failure
Perennial before
Now intermittent, rarely flows entire length
Selah Creek - 2008

- Much to do for a dry creek bed.
Conclusions
- Geomorphology and hydrology of Selah Creek changed dramatically
- Majority from Pleasant Valley Dam failure.
- Some incision/widening and aggradation since.
- Selah Creek incised just prior to 1540±40 cal yr BP forming a
paleo-arroyo.
- May have incised and filled more than once.
- First identified and documented paleo-arroyo(s)
in the Pacific Northwest.
- Change in base level may be cause, needs further study

Further Studies
- Identify cause(s) of Selah Creek paleo-arroyo incision
- Other Nearby Watersheds
- Cold Creek (YTC & Hanford)
- Correlation with Regional Paleoclimate
- Negatives correlations of timing with Southwest.
- Hydraulic Modeling of Pleasant Valley Dam Break
- U.S. Army just acquired LiDAR for YTC.
- Identify flood scouring, deposits in Selah Canyon.