Understanding Human Behaviour .pdf - Community

September 2012 •Factors influencing human
development
F920: UNDERSTANDING HUMAN
BEHAVIOUR & DEVELOPMENT
•Theories of human
development
•Application of theories to aid
the understanding of human
behaviour and development
This unit provides an understanding of the influences that can affect growth
and development and of the concepts and theories that can be used to
explain human behaviour across different life stages.
Topics covered:
Factors influencing human development
Theories of human development
The application of theories to aid the understanding of
human behaviour and development
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [1]

FACTORS:
Human development is affected by many factors which may be
advantageous or detrimental. These factors may be biological or a
result of person who uses services’ experiences and/or the
influences of the environment in which individuals are raised.
This is the so-called nature versus nurture debate.
You need to have a broad understanding of how both nature and
nurture contribute to the development of individuals.
You will need to
know how each factor
affects the PIES
development of
children,
adolescents,
adults and the
elderly
1 Genetic influences (choose two):
Cystic fibrosis
Down’s Syndrome
Tourette’s Syndrome
Haemophilia
Huntington’s disease
Susceptibility to cancers and heart disease
2 Socio-economic influences:
Family
Education
Housing,
Culture
Access to health services
Nutrition
Income differences
3 Influences of the physical environment:
Water pollution
Air pollution
Noise pollution
Housing conditions/location
flooding
Nature
Hygiene
versus
4 Psychological influences:
Self-concept
Concept of others
Fear
Phobias
Anxiety
Useful link:
Nurture
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/
hi/health/5337580.stm
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [2]

DEVELOPMENT:
Task 1:
Give two example of
physical, intellectual,
emotional and social
development of the
following client groups:
Children
Adolescents
Adults
The elderly
Task 2:
Give two example of
physical, intellectual,
emotional and social needs
of the following client
groups:
Children
Adolescents
Adults
The elderly
Task 3:
For each of the factors on
page 2, explain the positive
and negative effects on the
PIES development of
children, adolescence,
adults and the elderly.
Useful
link:
Needs of the elderly: http://
www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/
modern/changing_society/
needs_of_the_elderly/
revision/1/
NEEDS:
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [3]

THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Psychodynamic perspective
Biological perspective
Humanist perspective
Constructivist perspective
Behavioural perspective
Social learning perspective
Some theorists believe that human development proceeds in stages.
Others place emphasis on genetic, environmental and social influences
on development. You will need to outline and evaluate theories that can
be used to interpret and explain human development, at each life stage.
1 Psychodynamic perspective:
Freud
Erikson
2 Biological perspective:
Eysenck
Cattell
3 Humanist perspective:
Maslow
Rogers
4 Constructivist perspective:
Piaget,
Vygotsky
5 Behavioural perspective:
Pavlov,
Skinner
6 Social learning perspective:
Tajfel
Latane
Bandura
You will need to
know one theorist in
detail from each
perspective
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [4]

The Psychodynamic Perspective: Erikson
Erikson (1963) argued that there is a fixed and predetermined sequence of stages in human
development. The genes dictate a timetable for development. It is human nature to pass through the
genetically determined sequence of the 8 psychosocial stages.
Erikson’s first 5 stages of development are similar to Freud’s theory. Freud argued that only early
experiences influence adult life. However, Erikson believed that personality development does NOT
stop in childhood. He argued that people continue to develop and change throughout life.
The stages are universal regardless of whether you are a male or female or where you are from.
However, Erikson argued that sociocultural environment as having a significant influence on our
behaviour and thinking.
Based on observations of patients in his psychoanalytical practice, Erikson proposed 8 stages of the
psychosocial stages of development.
Each stage centres around a crisis involving a struggle between two conflicting personality outcomes.
One of these outcomes is posi/ve (adap/ve), whilst the other is nega/ve (maladap/ve). According to Erikson
every personality has a mixture of both, but a healthy development involves adap/ve outweighing the
maladap/ve.
Previous childhood experiences have an impact on our later life and how we deal with certain
situations/ people. Unsatisfactory experiences can be compensated for in later life. Positive early
experiences can be reversed by later bad experiences.
According to Erikson, adolescence to be the key time to form self identity. At this age, the inability to
integrate the self into coherent whole means individual suffer a role confusion and low self-esteem.
As we grow older, our self-concept develops. From the ages 0-11, there is a significant person who
acts as the main role model.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [5]

Criticism
Erikson’s theory was criticised for being too rigid.
Erikson’s research was based on a small sample, mainly white, middle class males. Therefore,
cannot be generalised to the rest of the population, especially women (Gilligan 1982).
Also, it is hard to disprove/ falsify.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [6]

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
1. The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
2. Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the dependability
and quality of the child’s caregivers.
3. If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is
inconsistent and unpredictable.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1. The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control. 2
2. Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe that learning to
control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
3. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and
clothing selection.
4. Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Psychosexual Stage 3- Initiative vs. Guilt
1. Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This
stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five. During the
initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interaction.
2. Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative by
planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges.
3. During this stage, it is important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to help children
make appropriate choices. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may cause children
to feel ashamed of themselves and to become overly dependent upon the help of others.
4. Play and imagination takes on an important role at this stage. Children have their sense of
initiative reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to play. When efforts to
engage in physical and imaginative play are prevented by caregivers, children begin to feel that
their self-initiated efforts are a source of embarrassment. Success in this stage leads to a sense
of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
1. This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
2. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
3. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be
successful.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [7]

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
1. During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense
of self.
2. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
3. Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed
that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. isolation
1. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40.
During this period of time, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with
other people.
2. While psychosocial theory is often presented as a series of neatly defined, sequential steps, it is
important to remember that each stage contributes to the next. For example, Erikson believed that
having a fully formed sense of self (established during the identity versus confusion stage) is
essential to being able to form intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a
poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
3. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
1. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
2. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
1. This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
2. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted
and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness
and despair.
3. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [8]

The Biological perspective: Eysneck
brain calm chemistry extroversion blood sugar levels stimulation
inherited traits change introversion instability stability
aggressive outgoing excitement Questionnaire risky extroversion
low
Personality development is influenced by the _____________ and body ______________. Biological
differences may explain why some people become aggressive or depressed, whereas other people in similar
circumstances do not. This can be shown some/mes when fluctua/ons in body affects behaviour e.g.,
____________________________________. He argued that intelligence is _____________.
According to Eysenck, “we are born with different tendencies to react to the world in different ways” this
means that we are born with certain______________ (characteris/cs) which will result in personality
development and these will not/cannot________________.
Eysenck believed that human personality could be described in terms of an individual’s level of
_________________ versus _______________ (refers to a person’s tendency to seek
_____________________); ________________versus instability (this refers to the person’s
tendency to become emotionally upset); and tough minded versus tender minded. Level of
introversion, extroversion, stability and instability can be measured by Eysenck’s Personality
__________________ (EPQ).
A person who is highly extroverted is more likely to take risks, to have lots of friends and to be
______________, than someone who is introverted, whilst an introverted person is keen to avoid
________________. A stable person is usually ___________, whilst an instable individual is likely to
overreact to certain situations and can become _________________.
Stable extraverts are outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, leaders; unstable
extraverts are touchy, restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible; stable introverts
are calm, even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive; and unstable
introverts quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious and moody.
According to Eysenck criminal behaviour is particularly associated with high levels of
_________________and ______________. He argued that extroverts are born with low level of
arousal (they do not get excited very easily) and are constantly seeking to raise it through
excitement and taking part in ___________ behaviour.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [9]

However, introverts are born with ___________level of arousal and are likely to be over stimulated
by kinds of activity that extroverts find most comfortable. Introverts prefer quiet activities e.g.,
reading, painting, going to a quiet restaurant etc.
Evaluation:
simplistic effect introvert elaborate limit reductionist cause
criminal label extrovert
Eysenck’s theory was criticised for being too ____________. Heim (1970) criticised EPQ because
of being limited to “yes” and “no” answers, it does not give the individual a chance to
______________on their answers.
It is _____________, because it fails to address how issues such as motives, the unconscious,
environment, or beliefs about self affect personality development.
In regards to ___________ personality, it is hard to determin _________ and __________for
example, is it the unstable extroverted personality that leads to criminal bevaiour or the criminal
behavior that leads to unstable extroverted personality.
This theory can be used to _____________ individuals and __________ their experiences e.g., an
individual who is considered to be an ___________might just be provided with quiet activities and
__________ with active activities all the time. Thus not developing the other side of their personality.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [10]

The Humanistic Perspective: Maslow
hierarchy of needs pyramid self-actualization subjective
Life experiences disrupted fulfilment growth needs esteem, love and other social needs
Safety needs human motivation deficiency Physical and Physiological needs
lower level not generalizable Belongingness and Love needs Esteem needs
unrepresentative unscientific cognitive needs spiritual needs
Aesthetic needs
Maslow (1954) presents a -------------------------- which can be divided into basic needs or
-------------------------------- (e.g. physiological, safety, love, and esteem) and -------------------------
(cognitive, aesthetics and self-actualization).
One must satisfy-------------------------- basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth
needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest
level called --------------------------------------.
---------------------------------------- Maslow believed that humans have the need to increase their intelligence and
thereby chase knowledge. Cognitive needs is the expression of the natural human need to learn, explore,
discover and create to get a better understanding of the world around them. This growth need for self-
actualization and learning, when not fulfilled leads to confusion and identity crisis. Also, this is directly
related to need to explore or the openness to experience.
-------------------------------------based on Maslow’s beliefs, it is stated in the hierarchy that humans need beautiful
imagery or something new and aesthetically pleasing to continue up towards Self-Actualization. Humans need
to refresh themselves in the presence and beauty of nature while carefully absorbing and observing their
surroundings to extract the beauty that the world has to offer. This need is a higher level need to relate in a
beautiful way with the environment and leads to the beautiful feeling of intimacy with nature and everything
beautiful.
Self-transcendence needs or -----------------------: This is the desire to help others reach self-actualization.
This need when fulfilled, leads to feelings of integrity and take things to another level of being.
Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-
actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often ------------------------------by failure to meet lower level
needs. ------------------------------- including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate
between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-
actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based
on----------------------------------------------------------------------
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Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-
actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often ------------------------------by failure to meet lower level
needs. ------------------------------- including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate
between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-
actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based
on----------------------------------------------------------------------
Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that --------------------------------------is based on
people seeking ------------------------------------ and change through personal growth. Maslow described
self-actualized people as those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of.
1. ------------------------------- air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. ------------------------------- protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. --------------------------------- work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial
responsibility, etc.
5. Cognitive needs human desire for growth motivates them to want to learn
6. Aesthetic needs need for beauty etc
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and
peak experiences.
Criticisms
His methodology is very ----------------------------------------- because his research method was
-----------------------------------. He looked at the biographies and writings of 21 people he identified as
being self-actualized. From these sources he developed a list of qualities that seemed characteristic
of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity in general. This means that his sample was
too small, thus his findings are --------------------------------------- and
---------------------------------------------------------------------.
Not all needs are met in these ways, e.g. large numbers of people living in poverty in India have their
belonging needs met because of the closeness of the community. Also many creative people lived in
poverty be throughout their lives yet they self-actualized. E.g. include artists such as Rembrandt and
Van Gough.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [12]

!
!
!
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The Constructivist Perspective: Vygotsky
! community Culture language social interaction socio-cultural
mental processes/strategies culture biological strategy countries
remembering better learner peers Zone of Proximal
Development independently guidance skilled withdrawal
scaffolding increase collaborative co-operative!
! Vygotsky saw children as curious, problem-solving beings who play an active part in their own
development. Vygotsky places emphasis on ____________, _________________ and
____________ _______________ affecting/contributing to cognitive development.
!
Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental (important) role of social interaction in the
development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that _______________
plays a central role in the process of "making meaning".
Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic materials/abilities for intellectual
development. !
Eventually, through interaction within the __________________ environment,
these are developed into more sophisticated and effective
_______________________________ which he refers to as Higher Mental Functions.
For example, memory in young children this is limited by ______________ factors. However,
how we develop our memory will be determined by our ______________e.g., the type of
memory ___________ that is promoted/ used in different cultures/ _________________. For
example, in our culture we learn note-taking to aid memory, but in other cultures/countries they
might have a different method of _______________________ e.g., repetition.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social
!
interaction with a more knowledgeable other (MKO). The MKO may model behaviours
and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. A more knowledgeable other refers to
someone who has a _______________understanding or a higher ability level than the
___________ it can be their teacher, parent, siblings, older children or ____________.
Vygotsky refers to this as co-operative or collaborative dialogue. The child tries to understand
the actions or instructions provided by the MKO (often the parent or teacher), then internalizes
the information and uses it to guide their own learning.
Vygotsky developed the concept of "the ________________________________," or ZPD. This
is ! an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve
________________ and what a child can achieve with ________________and encouragement
from a ___________ partner (it can be their teacher, parent, siblings, older children or peers).
This sort of assistance has been called _______________________. An important aspect of
scaffolding is that there is a gradual _____________ of support as the child’s knowledge and
! confidence _______________.
He argued that MKO plays an important role in the ZPD. Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a
!
young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the
puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies,
such as finding all the comer/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put
together herself and offers encouragement when she does so. As the child becomes more
competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this
type of social interaction involving _________________ or _______________________
dialogue promotes cognitive development.
For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by themselves
and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all) if left on their own, but was able to solve it
following interaction with the father, and has developed this skill that will be applied to future
jigsaws.
!
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [13]

MKO less instruction increases Assessment pair work
mental functions more interaction prompts withdraw
different capable scaffolding
In fact, the _________ need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support employees in their learning
process, are now using electronic performance support systems. Electronic tutors have also been used in
educational settings to facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that
they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the learner
does.
Evidence for Vygotsky and the ZPD
Freund (1990) conducted a study in which children had to decide which items of furniture should be placed in
particular houses of a dolls house. Some children were allowed to play with their mother in a similar situation
before they attempted it alone (zone of proximal development) whilst others were allowed to work on this by
themselves (Piaget's discovery learning). Freund found that those who had previously worked with their
mother (ZPD) showed greatest improvement compared with their first attempt at the task. The conclusion
being that guided learning within the ZPD led to greater understanding/performance than working alone
(discovery learning).
Application of Vygotsky’s theory
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive
_______________ or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their
own - developing higher ____________ ________________.
Vygotsky also views ________________with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies.
He suggests that teachers use co-operative learning exercises e.g., ________ _________, where
__________ able children work with ___________able children to develop different skills and knowledge -
within the zone of proximal development.
Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at _______________ levels who can
help each other learn.
According to Vygotsky, for the curriculum to be developmentally appropriate, the teacher must plan activities
that include not only what children are _____________ of doing on their own but what they can learn with
the help of others (Karpov & Haywood, 1998).
Instruction can be planned to provide practice in the zone of proximal development for individual children or for
groups of children.
_________________should be carried out to find out what the child knows already and identify what they need
help with and what kind of instructions, hints and ___________ can be developed to help the children within
the ZPD.
The teacher should gradually _______________ (limit) their support as the child’s knowledge and
confidence___________________ (the process of ___________________).
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [14]

The Behavioural Perspective: Skinner
Outline and evaluate Skinner’s theory.
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Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [15]

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Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [16]

Social Learning approach
consequences Vicarious high environment reinforced models aggressive
watching observational model imitate low masculine feminine
observing self-efficacy give up anti- social media positive
environment biology laboratory ecological generalise
In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) states behaviour is learned from the
______________through the process of _______________learning. He argued that people can learn
new information and behaviours by ___________ other people. Children observe the people around
them behaving in various ways. Whether behaviour is imitated depends on the ____________and the
____________________ of the observed behaviour.
This is illustrated during the famous bobo doll experiment.
Bandura demonstrated that children learn and ___________ behaviours they have observed in other
people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When
the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
_____________actions they had previously observed.
Individuals that are observed are called __________. In society we are surrounded many influential
models, such as parents within the family, characters on children’s TV, friends within their peer group
and teachers at school. These models provide examples of_______________ and
________________behaviour to observe and imitate.
Steps in observational learning:
1. Behaviour is modelled by a role model, e.g. parent, friend or celebrity
2. Observer identifies with the role model
3. Behaviour is observed and noted
4. Behaviour is imitated and learned
5. Whether the behaviour is repeated depends on reinforcement and rewards
According to Bandura’s social learning theory we are more likely to imitate a person who is
______________for their behaviour. _____________reinforcement is, therefore, a reinforcement
which is received indirectly by ________________ another person who is being reinforced.
Self efficacy refers to the beliefs of what we are capable of achieving. Bandura argued that people with
___________ self-efficacy beliefs (they are confident and have high self esteem) for a specific task
make more effort to achieve results whereas people with_________ self-efficacy beliefs (not
confident and have low-self esteem) for a particular task will show a tendency to give up
quickly. Bandura (1989) argued that self-efficacy beliefs are important, because they determine what
we will try to do things.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [17]

Also, individuals with high __________________ are more likely to aspire to be like their role model, set
challenging goals for themselves and believe that they will be able to achieve them e.g., I will make
sure I get good grades at school to go to university and become a teacher, just like my dad; I will train
really hard and will become a successful athlete, just like Hussein Bolt.
Individuals with low self-efficacy beliefs are less likely to set goals because they think that they will not
be able to achieve them and are likely to ________ ____ really easily. They are more likely to follow
others and give in to peer pressure and take part in ______________________behaviour e.g.,
committing crime etc.
Evaluation:
Research into the social learning theory has led to concerns about ___________ violence and the possibility of
children imitating aggressive role models on television. This theory has highlighted the need for ___________
role models in the media.
The social learning theory concentrates on how behaviour that is learnt from the ________________ and ignores
the role of ____________ e.g., children with ADHD.
Most of the experiments have been conducted in a ______________, therefore, lack _____________ validity. It is
difficult to _______________ the findings to the real world.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [18]

APPLICATION OF THEORIES TO HEALTH, SOCIAL CARE
AND EARLY YEARS SETTINGS
Application of Bandura’s Social
Learning theory to care settings
Bandura’s modification of behaviour
• Select an appropriate role model. This
role model will be a more effective if the
child sees them as:
o someone with similar values
o more powerful
o warm and loving
o liked and
respected
!
Psychodynamic perspective
Biological perspective
Humanist perspective
Constructivist perspective
Behavioural perspective
Social learning perspective
Application of Maslow’s Humanistic
approach to Care Settings
The hierarchy of needs allows service providers
to understand what client/children’s needs are.
It also encourages service providers to see
clients/children as individuals who are striving
to meet these needs. Assessment and planning
can help clients/children meet these needs.
The care values can be related to the
triangle:
• Promote equality and diversity – all
clients still have to have their needs met
despite their age! So if a care worker is
carefully applying this value then this can
help the resident to feel appreciated and
respected.
• Promoting rights and beliefs - Although
staff may have to follow strict routines
• Reward any positive behaviour that this
role model carries out. The child is then
more likely to copy behaviours which are
rewarded.
• Try to ensure that the role model’s
behaviour is noticeable, that your
rewards are noticeable and that the
behaviours can be easily copied.
they should also encourage residents to
make decisions for themselves where
possible.
• Confidentiality – This is very important
for trust building and so can help meet
the sense of belonging and self esteem
needs.
Services will not be appropriate if they do
not meet the needs of the individual who
uses them, therefore they must be
planned and designed so that they do
meet users needs. We all have the same
basic needs. Maslow represented these
needs in the form of a pyramid showing
which needs must be met first before
others could be satisfied.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [19]
!

Complete the table below
H&SC SETTING CLIENT GROUP THEY
CATER FOR
Pre-schools
Schools
Nurseries
Childminding
services
Children’s
centres
Day-care
centres
Support daycare
centres
Residential
homes
Hospices
Respite care
Foster care
Nursing homes
Children’s
homes
HOW THEY MEET THE PIES NEEDS OF THE CLIENT GROUPS
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [20]

Provision for needs to be met in early
years settings
Provision for needs to be met in
Day care settings
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody,
aids and adaptations, meals.
Early years workers are often role models Day care centres encourage independence in
for children so should lead by example e.g. personal hygiene and the SLT can be applied here
the language they use between each other e.g. a service user says that they are able to
will be imitated. Research shows that shower themselves today to the care worker and
children imitate vocab and accent as well as gets praised for this by the care worker. Another
actual words.
service user is watching this and when it is his turn
for a shower he says ‘actually I think I can do it
myself today’
The way the early years workers eat their
lunch is likely to be imitated by the children
therefore they should display good table
manners i.e. eating with mouth closed,
knife and fork in correct hands.
EYW’s need to be trained to provide
reinforcement via praise for good behaviour.
When children see their friends being
reinforced for good behaviour, they are
likely to copy that good behaviour too.
When a child behaves poorly in the setting
an EYW must deal with it appropriately i.e.
negative punishment – time out on a chair.
They cannot ignore this otherwise other
children will imitate the bad behaviour
because they feel they will not get told off
for it by the EYW.
A child is most likely to copy someone with
similar values, someone who is more
powerful than them, someone who is warm
and loving and someone who is liked and
respected. In short, a child will copy
someone who they admire and want to be
like.
Bandura would say that if a child observes
behaviour of another child who, for
example, generally shares well and takes
turns they will notice that this behaviour is
rewarded by being popular. The child will
then copy this behaviour and in turn will
internalise it and it will then take on that
behaviour as normal.
Application of Bandura’s Social Learning theory to care settings
At day care centres intellectual stimulation is
encouraged. SLT can be applied here e.g. the
carers sit down to play chess. Service users see this
and start their own chess group.
Physiotherapy takes place in day care centres and
e.g. of SLT can be applied here – Fred and Bert
both have arthritis. One is having physiotherapy for
the condition and one isn’t. Fred’s arthritis is
getting better and Bert can see this, so Bert now
decided to have physiotherapy.
One of the services that is provided by a day care
centre is advice giving. An example of this within
the SLT is: a service user is stubborn and has
problems with money, which makes him very
worried and not nice to be around. He agrees to
get help with this and over a period of time
everyone can see a substantial difference in his
behaviour – showing happiness and being friendlier.
One of his friends sees how much happier he is and
decides to seek advice for his own financial
matters.
At day centres advice is given. An example of the
SLT here would be Mary tells her friend Ann about
seeking advice today about her financial problems.
Ann also has financial problems and therefore
suggests to Mary that she also wants to seek
financial advice and therefore asks to go with her.
Barbara may come into the day care centre and say
that she is going to see the chiropodist about some
problems with her feet. Elizabeth overhears this
and decided to go along with Barbara because she
also has problems with her feet.
Provision for needs to be met in
Residential and nursing homes
Certain powerful residents can encourage antisocial
behaviour through SLT e.g. a popular
male resident flirts with the nurses so other
residents start to do it e.g. a resident is
bulling another resident and some residents
begin to imitate the bully and join in.
SLT can be applied to pro-social behaviour
e.g. residents in lounge A always share the
remote, so residents in lounge B start to do
this too.
A service user may act aggressive towards the
care worker due to previous experience of
visiting their parent/s in a home where they
were also aggressive towards the care worker
which helped them get what they wanted
If a service user is in a home where a lot of
the other service users acted in a particular
manner e.g. depressed/angry/happy then they
may model this behaviour.
One of the elderly ladies has a routine of
changing the sheets that she still carries over
from being at home. Therefore she always
takes off her dirty sheets before the maid
comes round in order to help her out. As a
result of this, the maid chats to her and
smiles. The lady across the hall sees this and
decides to do the same as she has never been
talked to by the maid before.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [21]

Application of Eysenck’s personality theory to care settings
Provision for needs to be met in early years settings Provision for needs to be met in
Day care settings
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody, aids
and adaptations, meals.
Provision for needs to be met in
Residential and nursing homes
The biological approach argues that aggression must The biological approach argues that aggression The biological approach argues that aggression must be
be discharged due to it being innate for some must be discharged. Aggression is likely to discharged. Care workers at a residential home will need to
children. In nurseries the EYW’s must make sure occur at a day care centre as they are away be trained to deal with this. This is due to residents being in
they allow children to channel their aggression from their main carer (who they would not care for 24/7. They do not get the opportunity to vent this
appropriately e.g. kicking a ball against a wall. want to be aggressive to). It is important that frustration in their own home (like you or I may do). Care
Squezzing playdough. Give them the message that it service providers respond to this aggression workers must realise this and recognise that they may need
is ok and natural to be angry but they need to appropriately in order to stop a confrontation to be left alone or use their own unique ways for discharging
control it acceptably. EYW’s must ensure that there from escalating e.g. when facing a potentially their aggression i.e. being pushed around the garden in a
are appropriate activities for aggressive energy. aggressive person, do not stand face to face, wheelchair to ‘rant and rave’ about a resident who has been
do speak calmly and softly and use slow,
relaxed movements.
annoying them.
One of the possible outlets for aggression is sport. Service providers in these type of settings will When a resident is getting aggressive (which some are
This is called channelled aggression, if it is not be trained to look for signs of extroversion, biologically pre-determined to be), make sure there are no
accompanied by anger. Early years settings with instability and neurotiscism and are now able to aggressive environmental cues about i.e. another resident
aggressive children should use a lot of sport to make a professional referral for the client to that ‘winds them up’, a certain uniform – like the security
channel aggression or suggest this to the parents to receive medication to control the unsocial guard patrolling the building…
implement outside of the setting e.g. tackling in characteristics of the extremes of these
rugby, boxing clubs. Sport can provide a safe outlet dimensions.
for aggression according to biological theory.
We know through the biological perspective that Service providers should try to manage an Service providers in these type of settings will be trained to
children with downs syndrome (chromosome 21) are elderly person with a predisposition to anger by look for signs of extroversion, instability and neurotiscism and
friendly, easy to get along with, caring, loving and reinforcing positive social behaviour and not are now able to make a professional referral for the client to
approval seeking. The care for these children must reinforcing aggression e.g giving praise for receive medication to control the unsocial characteristics of
take account of these characteristics and promote positive social conversation and ignoring angry the extremes of these dimensions.
them. These are tender minded characteristics outbursts
according to Eysenck.
EYW’s should try to manage a child with a When a resident is getting aggressive (which Service providers should try to manage an elderly person with
predisposition to anger by reinforcing positive social some are biologically pre-determined to be a predisposition to anger by reinforcing positive social
behaviour and not reinforcing aggression e.g according to eysenck), make sure there are no behaviour and not reinforcing aggression e.g giving praise for
providing praise for hugging other children and not aggressive environmental cues about i.e. positive social conversation and ignoring angry outbursts
providing attention for snatching toys.
another resident that ‘winds them up’, a certain
uniform – like the security guard patrolling the
building…
EYP’s need to be able to manage children on the Under Eysenck’s theory a service provider may
extremes of the extroversion-introversion scale e.g. label a person depending on their innate traits
for a child who is quiet and shy we would need to e.g. there would be a tendancy to label
purposely involve them in group work. For an someone as aggressive who shows these
extrovert make sure they are always challenged and behaviours. This is a disadvantage of applying
that they do not take over.
Eysenck’s theory as it does not give the client
much room for improvement – techniques
would not be taught to manage angry
outbursts because it is biological and therefore
nothing can be done about it!
A service user may act neurotic and have a
moody, changeable, and restless response to
life events and will therefore show less
optimism when it comes to taking part in
activities. Taking part in activities is
characterstic of a day care centre so service
providers will need experience/training in
dealing with this type of personality.
A client’s behaviour is influenced by their
personality so some actions may simply be due
to their inherited traits. Some behaviour could
even be the result of a physiological issue.
The care worker should consider that the
client’s behaviour may be due to low blood
sugar level, illness or stress. Care workers
should try to fulfil their duties in an effective
manner in order to support their clients; this
could involve tasks such as helping the client
maintain their personal hygiene, making sure
that they have a healthy balanced diet,
encouraging them to take part in light exercise,
providing access to health care services etc.
If a resident was an extrovert, displaying behaviour that was
very dominant, e.g. not letting people help them in any way
and not letting other people talk or contribute, the care
worker will need to control the situation and calm them
down, explaining they would benefit from help and also
giving other people the chance to talk. Care workers need to
be aware of the extroversion/introversion scale in order to
manage behaviour and enable daily living for other residents
to be comfortable – it is their home and they should feel at
ease.
The care worker should consider that the client’s behaviour
may be due to low blood sugar level, illness or stress. Care
workers should try to fulfil their duties in an effective manner
in order to support their clients; this could involve tasks such
as helping the client maintain their personal hygiene, making
sure that they have a healthy balanced diet, encouraging
them to take part in light exercise, providing access to health
care services etc.
A client’s behaviour is influenced by their personality so some
actions may simply be due to their inherited traits. Some
behaviour could even be the result of a physiological issue.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [22]

Application of Maslow’s Humanistic approach to Care Settings
Stages of hierarchy (bottom of table =
bottom of the pyramid)
Provision for needs to be met in early years settings
Self-actualisation
According to Maslow children cannot self-actualise. This happens
(where an individual meets the ultimate goal in life; around middle age. Prior to this all their needs are still being met. In
this is where they are free from pressures which are childhood they will not have developed a full identity/personality.
attached to previous levels/stages of dev and they are
now free to explore who they have ‘become’ – they
are likely to be more independent, feel emotionally
fulfilled, have positive social development as they will
have a greater acceptance of others and realistic
perception of self)
Self-esteem Needs
EYWs should respect children so they feel they are being listened to
(need to be recognised and acknowledged. Need to and valued e.g. set aside time to listen to their worries and views.
feel respected. This need is met by success being Answer questions that they pose. Staff must be trained and aware of
recognised too. Self-esteem is part of an individuals cultural differences so that they respect these in the children. Praise is
emotional development )
so important for self-esteem. Encouragement to complete tasks so as
they can see that they succeed. Group recognition of interests/
(Cognitive needs – we require stimulation/activities to achievements can be seen through activities such as show and tell and
promote knowledge and understanding; success here circle time.
will affect an individual’s self-concept)
A good way to relax the children and start a circle time session, is by
teaching and gradually building up to a simple game. The objective is
(Aesthetic needs – the need to experience beauty, to arrive at a situation where everyone gets the chance to speak, and
truth etc – this will have a direct effect on our to provoke an open discussion, to give time to celebrate achievements
emotional development)
and then to provide time to calm down and bring closure to the
setting.
Love and Belongingness
EYWs should build up a relationship with children to prevent children
(attachment to primary carer, feeling socially included. from feeling isolated and that they belong. Lots of group activities
There is a need for love and affection to be shown should be planned to build group cohesion. Activities to promote
towards the service user. Individual can then build on friendships between children should also be encouraged e.g. board
both their social and emotional development) games, role-play. Good working relationships with parents are also
important between EYW and parent. Child needs to see this in order to
feel they are loved and belong at the setting.
Safety/security Needs
EYWs should keep dangerous objects e.g. scissors. away from
(freedom from threat, danger, intimidation. To feel children. The doors should be locked at all times (staff have an access
safe physically and emotionally – this allows for code/key). Risk assessments should be carried out on a daily basis to
development of skills such as independence and maintain standards of the build and equipment. Emotional safety
emotional security)
should also be maintained e.g. the key worker system is used so as a
child can form a special bond with a carer to enable them to feel
secure. Carers should maintain a healthy emotional atmosphere e.g.
bullying must be stopped and disputes resolved.
Many children are anxious about making the move from nursery to
primary school. Circle time, buddies and mentors are some of the ways
of calming anxieties and answering questions.
Physical Needs
EYWs should provide children with activities so that their basic needs
(food, warmth, shelter – generally understood to be can be met e.g. nap time, food, frequent drinks, play equipment to
basic needs which need to be met before individual enhance physical development. Hygiene standards to prevent illness
can progress onto higher levels/stages)
for the children. Advice would be provided for parents on
immunisations and vaccinations and the appropriate age for each one.
It is the responsibility of the EYW to suggest a child sees a doctor if
illness is suspected.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [23]

Stages of hierarchy (bottom of
table = bottom of the pyramid)
Provision for needs to be met in
Day care settings
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody, aids and adaptations, meals.
Self-actualisation
Care workers need to prevent barriers from occurring so that residents are able to achieve
(where an individual meets the ultimate self-actualisation –
goal in life; this is where they are free from
pressures which are attached to previous Care workers need to provide opportunities for service users so that they can self-actualise.
levels/stages of dev and they are now free Self actualisation is something that occurs when all our other needs are met. This involved
to explore who they have ‘become’ – they accomplishing something we’d never thought we could achieve due to not having the physical
are likely to be more independent, feel or emotional space because of meeting our other needs. This will be things like providing
emotionally fulfilled, have positive social services outside of the centre that will meet their ‘searching needs’ i.e. playing a musical
development as they will have a greater
acceptance of others and realistic instrument, learning to cook Indian food, learning to jive.
perception of self)
Self-esteem Needs
Service users need to feel respected. They need to be provided with independence and treated as an
(need to be recognised and acknowledged. individual. We need to value people for who they are e.g. use their name when addressing them,
Need to feel respected. This need is met by respect their cultural beliefs and needs.
success being recognised too. Self-esteem
A day care centre provides advice as a service therefore listening to service user’s worries and views is
is part of an individuals emotional
paramount in meeting this need.
development )
Encouragement to complete tasks so as they can see that they succeed. Group recognition of interests/
(Cognitive needs – we require stimulation/ achievements can be seen through activities such as appropriate awards at a presentation evening i.e.
activities to promote knowledge and best chess player of the year. They could also celebrate achievements through exhibition – art and
understanding; success here will affect an gardening. It is very important to help them feel as if they have a purpose in life i.e. making necklaces
individual’s self-concept)
or knitting baby clothes to sell at the village fete. Apply the care values efficiently so that the individual
develops or maintains a healthy self-esteem. Giving them options so that they can choose things for
(Aesthetic needs – the need to experience themselves (promoting individual rights and beliefs)
beauty, truth etc – this will have a direct
effect on our emotional development)
Love and Belongingness
Care workers need to provide safe, supportive relationships for service users. This is encouraged
(attachment to primary carer, feeling through group activities. Service users are usually encouraged to be involved in planning the care and
socially included. There is a need for love development of themselves as well as the day care centre as a whole. Day care centres need to be
and affection to be shown towards the
involved in the wider community and market themselves as a nice place to be as well as this it is
service user. Individual can then build on
important for the service users so as they too can become part of the wider community and feel as if
both their social and emotional
development)
they belong in the community. Service providers need to be in contact with the family of service users so
as the user feels as if s/he is loved and valued as they communicate about him/her. Older people need
to be able to talk to professional care workers about their interests and problems too in order to feel
they ‘belong’ at the day care centre.
Keeping information on the service user confidential so that the individual can build a trusting
relationship with the care worker and allow them to feel that what they tell the care workers are going
to be kept confidential
Care workers should try to understand the service user’s challenging behaviour by encouraging them to
talk about their needs and worries. Care workers should recognise that personal development comes
from the love and respect from others. So to put that into practise the care worker should make sure
that the client is treated in a way that they would treat someone they loved or respected regardless of
their behaviour.
Safety/security Needs
Care workers need to provide a secure and safe environment for service users.
(freedom from threat, danger, intimidation. Physical security = the building is safe and risk assessments are carried out on this by the
To feel safe physically and emotionally – thi
allows for development of skills such as staff. A key system so if necessary strangers cannot get in or service users wander off. Able
independence and emotional security) residents will have their own access/departure arrangements i.e. a swipe card to enter and
exit the building.
The resources in the building need to be up to a required standard e.g. the hoists are charged
before use, the wheelchairs have sufficient breaks. The activities provided to meet physical
needs have to be safe and risk assessed before using. Supervision is a role of a day care
centre – residents will feel safer if you are supervising them walking down the corridor to go
to toilet by themselves for example.
Emotional safety = All staff are trained and CRB checked – service users know this and this
contributes to their sense of safety. There will be equal ops and bullying policies to monitor
and evaluate any issues which should arise for the service users and providers. As part of
their job role service providers encourage relationships between the service users – this aids
in making service users feel safe once they have developed bonds with others.
Counselling can be offered in a day care setting to reduce anxiety and help the client to feel
emotionally safe.
Physical Needs
Care workers need to provide basic needs for service users, such as meals. Day care centres
(food, warmth, shelter – generally
provide this as part of their service. They also provide other health care e.g. chiropody, maybe a
understood to be basic needs which need
to be met before individual can progress
hairdresser, some may provide baths i.e. some service users may not bath themselves at home
onto higher levels/stages)
due to being unable to get in and out of the bath, so they will come to a day care centre for this.
Activities to maintain physical health are also paramount e.g. armchair yoga, walking round the
gardens; carers may help with exercises specific to their condition i.e. a stroke patient. Careful
assessment and care planning can help service users to meet their physical needs.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [24]

Stages of hierarchy (bottom of
table = bottom of the pyramid)
Self-actualisation
(where an individual meets the
ultimate goal in life; this is where
they are free from pressures which
are attached to previous levels/stages
of dev and they are now free to
explore who they have ‘become’ –
they are likely to be more
independent, feel emotionally
fulfilled, have positive social
development as they will have a
greater acceptance of others and
realistic perception of self)
Provision for needs to be met in
Residential and nursing homes
Care workers need to prevent barriers from occurring so that residents are able to achieve self-actualisation –
Care workers need to provide opportunities for service users so that they can self-actualise. Self actualisation is
something that occurs when all our other needs are met. This involves accomplishing something we’d never
thought we could achieve due to not having the physical or emotional space because of meeting our other
needs. This will be things like providing services outside of the home that will meet their ‘searching needs’ i.e.
playing a musical instrument, learning to cook Indian food, learning to jive.
Self-esteem Needs
Service users need to feel respected. They need to be provided with independence and treated as an individual.
(need to be recognised and We need to value people for who they are e.g. use their name when addressing them, respect their cultural
acknowledged. Need to feel beliefs and needs. When people live in a setting one must actually provide for cultural needs rather than just
respected. This need is met by
respect it e.g. a room to pray would be essential as they live there and cannot go home to do it.
success being recognised too.
A residential setting should provide emotional support for service users; therefore listening to service user’s
Self-esteem is part of an
individuals emotional
worries and views is paramount in meeting this need.
development )
Encouragement to complete tasks so as they can see that they succeed. Group recognition of interests/
achievements can be seen through activities such as appropriate awards at a presentation evening i.e. best
(Cognitive needs – we require chess player of the year. They could also celebrate achievements through exhibition – art and gardening. It is
stimulation/activities to promote very important to help them feel as if they have a purpose in life i.e. making necklaces or knitting baby clothes to
knowledge and understanding; sell at the village fete. Good working relationships need to be developed with service provider and user a balance
success here will affect an of being friendly and professional is required to meet the self-esteem needs of somebody residing in a setting.
individual’s self-concept) Apply the care values efficiently so that the individual develops or maintains a healthy self-esteem. Giving them
options so that they can choose things for themselves (promoting individual rights and beliefs)
(Aesthetic needs – the need to
experience beauty, truth etc –
this will have a direct effect on
our emotional development)
Love and Belongingness Residential care workers need to provide safe, supportive relationships for service users. This is encouraged
(attachment to primary carer, through group activities. Service users are usually encouraged to be involved in planning the care and
feeling socially included. development of themselves as well as the running of the home. Residential settings to be involved in the wider
There is a need for love and community and market themselves as a nice place to live, as well as this it is important for the service users so
affection to be shown as they too can become part of the wider community and feel as if they belong in the community. Service
towards the service user. providers need to be in contact with the family of service users so as the user feels as if s/he is loved and valued
Individual can then build on as they communicate about him/her. Often in a residential setting residents will have their own responsibilities
both their social and that contribute to the running of the home e.g. Marj does the tea and coffees of an evening, Fred waters the
emotional development) plants and so on. This helps them to feel as if they live in the home and belong to it.
Keeping information on the service user confidential so that the individual can build a trusting relationship with
the care worker and allow them to feel that what they tell the care workers are going to be kept confidential
Care workers should try to understand the service user’s challenging behaviour by encouraging them to talk
about their needs and worries. Care workers should recognise that personal development comes from the love
and respect from others. So to put that into practise the care worker should make sure that the client is treated
in a way that they would treat someone they loved or respected regardless of their behaviour.
Safety/security Needs Residential care workers need to provide a secure and safe environment for service users.
(freedom from threat, Physical security = the building is safe and risk assessments are carried out by the staff. A key system is used to
danger, intimidation. To feel prevent strangers getting in or service users wander off. Able residents may have their own access arrangements
safe physically and i.e. a swipe card to enter and exit the building.
emotionally – thi allows for The resources in the building need to be up to a required standard e.g. the hoists are charged before use, the
development of skills such as wheelchairs have sufficient breaks. The activities provided to meet physical needs have to be safe and risk
independence and emotional assessed before using. Supervision is a role of residential care staff – residents will feel safer if you are
security)
supervising them walking down the corridor to go to toilet by themselves for example.
Emotional safety = Most staff are trained and CRB checked – service users know this and this contributes to their
sense of safety. There will be equal ops and bullying policies to monitor and evaluate any issues which should
arise for the service users and providers. As part of their job role service providers encourage relationships
between residents – this aids in making service users feel safer once they have developed bonds with others.
Each resident has their own bedroom where they can feel safe to have solitary time and quality sleep (residents
who do not get enough sleep are often tearful and moody).
Counselling can be offered in a day care setting to reduce anxiety and help the client to feel emotionally safe.
In a residential home you need trusting relationships with the care workers as you have to trust them to meet
your needs day and night. This will contribute to your feelings of emotional safety.
Physical Needs
Residential homes will meet service users’ basic needs. Basic needs will include; meals, clothing and washing
(food, warmth, shelter – facilities. Residential homes provide this as part of their service, but it should be tailored to meet the individuals’
generally understood to be needs. They also provide other health care e.g. chiropody, hairdresser. Activities to maintain physical health are
basic needs which need to also paramount e.g. armchair yoga, walking round the gardens, carers may help with exercises specific to their
be met before individual can condition i.e. a stroke patient. Resources e.g comfortable beds and routines that promote quality sleep are
progress onto higher levels/ important to services users’ physical wellbeing e.g. Bill goes to bed at 7 and Ethel at 8 as Bill needs a bit more
stages)
sleep than Ethel. Medication routines need to be followed day and night by the nursing staff. A check on personal
hygiene daily is paramount. Opportnities for intimate relationships will be provided in their own personal living
space. Aids and adaptations in the home will be provided to meet a variety of physical needs.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [25]

Application of Skinner’s behaviourist approach to Care Settings
Provision for needs to be met in early years settings
Principles Description
of operant of principle
conditionin
In the past, most settings chose to control the behaviour of their children by using positive and negative
g
punishment (misbehaving or disregarding school rules resulted in punishments). Today, many school systems and
other childhood authorities are inclined to provide positive and negative reinforcement to encourage good
behaviour, reserving punishment techniques only as a last resort. While the results are not usually as immediate,
they are typically seen as healthier, providing children with appropriate behavioural guidelines while allowing them
their dignity – a nice intro to an application answer
Positive This is where If behaviour is rewarded then it will probably be repeated. Therefore, in childcare settings, only good behaviour
reinforcemyou
‘add’ should be rewarded e.g. Praising children using house points or stickers (adding something pleasant) when they
ent something
pleasant to
have been good (behaviour strengthened)
strengthen a Children need an appropriate reward for good behaviour e.g. for tidying the toys away. Every time a child behaves
behaviour in an appropriate way then they should be rewarded. This will establish an appropriate behaviour pattern. It should
then be rewarded occasionally to ensure it is repeated.
Occasionally bad behaviour will be rewarded and this should be avoided in a childcare setting i.e.giving them
constant attention (adding something pleasant) when they are behaving badly i.e. screaming. E.g. if a child has a
temper tantrum to get what they want and the adult gives in, then this will reinforce the child’s behaviour.
Positive reinforcement should be used to encourage the child to change their behaviour e.g. praise, smiles, house
points or merit stickers. This is to encourage them to behave. Bad behaviour should be ignored as Skinner says that
behaviour that is not rewarded is unlikely to be repeated.
Ideas for positive reinforcement in a setting:
Prompt feedback on work acts as a positive reinforcer e.g. ‘good girl’ for colouring a picture will make the child want
to sit down and colour another picture straight away.
Plenaries (a discussion at the end of a set activity) are a good way to share ideas, provide praise and listen to each
other – all of these are positive reinforcers
Question and answer sessions would be encouraged by skinner. They are an opportunity to quickly give
reinforcement to children
Evaluative point:
Note: for positive reinforcement to work, it must be consistent – this is hard to remember when EYW’s are preoccupied
with other duties/children/activities to prepare
From these examples you can see that positive reinforcement can be used to strengthen good and bad behaviour
and should be discussed like this when you are asked to evaluate
Negative This is where There is one child who is always fidgeting on the carpet. The EYW may use negative reinforcement as a technique
reinforcemyou
‘take for combating this e.g.’ if you sit still (behaviour you want to strengthen) you do not have to do your tidying up
ent away’ duties today’ (taking away something unpleasant for the child). The result will be that the child will sit still –
something negative reinforcement has worked.
unpleasant to
strengthen a Negative reinforcement is used in settings to prevent behaviour being repeated e.g. a child is naughty – you do not
behaviour respond with your usual punishment – naughty step (taking away usual punishment which is something unpleasant)
and instead you ignore the behaviour, which in theory will make it go away (this is the result you want).
Positive This is where Punishment should only be used when necessary and should be outweighed by reinforcement i.e. a child should be
punishmenyou
‘add’ reinforced far more than it is punished (Skinner).
t something
unpleasant to An example of when positive punishment is necessary would be in the case of physical aggression e.g. if a child is
weaken a hitting and kicking another child you cannot ignore this. You would have to show your disappoint in this child and
behaviour also tell their parents (both of these actions are adding something to the situation). This may reinforce the child not
to be aggressive again i.e. they will fear that you will tell their mum.
After this punishment you would need to watch the child for prosocial behaviours like hugging the boy he beat up 2
days previous – you would then reward him for this with praise and maybe even a sticker! The rewards for prosocial
behaviour would need to be consistent to ‘stamp out’ the aggressive behaviour.
Negative This is where Punishment should only be used when necessary and should be outweighed by reinforcement i.e. a child should be
punishmenyou
‘take reinforced far more than it is punished.
t away’
something An example of when negative punishment is necessary would be in the case of a child swearing e.g. if a child is
pleasant to using obscene language in the setting it can not be ignored. You could provide negative punishment for this e.g.
weaken a putting him on the ‘time out’ spot (this is taking away his time). This may reinforce the child not to swear again i.e.
behaviour they will fear that you will put them in the ‘time out’ spot
After this punishment you would need to watch the child for prosocial vocab like using other words to show
frustration e.g. ‘naughty teddy’ – you would then reward him for this with praise and maybe even a sticker! The
rewards for prosocial vocab would need to be consistent to ‘stamp out’ the swearing.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [26]

Behaviour
shaping
Generalis
ation
Discrimin
ation
Provision for needs to be met in early years settings cont...
Basically, you start with a very Skinner said that parents reward infant babbling by giving the infant attention and
low criteria and gradually shaping. This increases vocalization. Parents shape the child’s language behaviour
increase your criteria until you e.g. a smile from EYW when baby makes a sound, a cuddle and a smile when they
reach your target behavior. For say their first word, praise when they string a sentence together and so on….
example, you could first teach
a horse to approach a trailer, Behaviour shaping of language is a natural process and is not intentional by the
and then teach it to put 2 feet parents.
in the trailer, then 4 feet, and Criticism
then walk to the front of the • Some parents pay little attention to their children but language still
trailer. By breaking the behavior develops
down into small steps, you can • In the second year of life – language development is rapid and shaping is
create a new behavior without such a lengthy process. The two don’t go together!
anything ever becoming too • Parents rarely reinforce correct grammar in a child’s speech – this makes it
difficult or scary for the horse. less likely that shaping enables children to learn grammar (Brown and
Hanlon, 1970)
Behaviour shaping has helped improve the communication skills of autistic children
in a childcare setting. This is the process:
• The therapist first identifies an activity that the child enjoys e.g. playing
with a special toy.
• Every time the child looks at the therapist, she gives him the toy
• Eventually the child will look at the therapist in anticipation of the toy, but
she withholds it until the child reaches for the toy.
• Now, when he reaches for the toy he is given it and at the same time the
therapist says ‘please’
• When reaching has become established, the toy is withheld until the child
himself makes a sound when he reaches. Then he is given the toy.
• This process continues, reinforcing the behaviour until it is established and
then withholding reinforcement until a more specific behaviour becomes
established.
IF THE TECHNIQUE IS SUCCESSFUL, THE CHILD MAY EVENTUALLY SPEAK
SPONTANEOUSLY.
This has been found to be an effective technique, but reinforcement usually needs
to be maintained in order for the child to continue the behaviour.
In generalization, a behavior The child saying please when they want something due to them being rewarded for
may be performed in more saying it before e.g. being rewarded in a nursery for saying please when they ask
than one situation. For for a drink, means that they will generalise this to other situations where please will
example, the rat who receives be necessary.
food by pressing one lever, may
press a second lever in the
cage in hopes that it will
receive food.
Learning that a behavior will be EYPs will provide praise only for activities they want children to show. E.g. in the
rewarded in one situation, but playground children may be praised for saying hello to friends parents but they will
not another e.g. children will not be praised for saying hi to every adult at the playground.
be rewarded when greeting
friends and family but not
strangers
Extinction The elimination of the behavior Children who are not reinforced consistently will end up extinguishing their
by stopping reinforcement of behaviours e.g. Tim is interested in a musical instrument. He gets lots of praise and
the behavior. For example, a passes exams in the first year of playing it (both act as reinforcers). In the second
rat who received food when year he only passes one exam and people are not praising his playing of the
pressing a bar, receives food no instrument anymore. Tim gives up playing the instrument.
longer, will gradually decrease
the amount of lever presses From this we learn that behaviours we want to encourage in early years settings
until the rat eventually stops must always be reinforced.
lever pressing.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [27]

Principles of
operant
conditioning
Description of
principle
Positive This is where you
reinforceme ‘add’ something
nt pleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour
Negative This is where you
reinforceme ‘take away’
nt something
unpleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour.
Positive This is where you
punishment ‘add’ something
unpleasant to
weaken a
behaviour.
Negative This is where you
punishment ‘take away’
something
pleasant to
weaken a
behaviour
Provision for needs to be met in day care settings
Personal support, supervision, advice, chiropody, aids and adaptations, meals.
Prosocial behaviours develop because they are rewarded e.g. residents who help
with daily duties in a day care centre will receive praise and likeability. This will
make them feel good and they will want to help with the daily duties next time they
come.
Calm and cooperative behaviour is rewarded in day-care settings with positive
responses from the care workers such as praise and thanks.
Older people can be reinforced with activities which they enjoy e.g. bingo or playing
cards.
Some people reward antisocial behaviour e.g. an old man who makes comments of
a sexual nature towards a service provider may get laughs from his friends. The
laughs that he gets will reinforce this form of anti-social behaviour. For this to stop
he would have to mix with people who did not find this impressive – he would then
not receive the attention required to repeat this behaviour.
This perspective helps carers to understand antisocial behaviour and helps them to
be able to manage it i.e. rewarding pleasant behaviours and ignoring or punishing
unpleasant ones If the cooperative behaviour is rewarded, then the antisocial
behaviour is unlikely to return.
Negative reinforcement is less likely to be used at a day care setting , but here is an
example of how it could be implemented:
Ethel loves gardening and the gardening needs to be done at the day-care setting
by service users (as one of the activities offered at the setting). They key worker
says to Ethel “you don’t have to do the washing up (taking away something
unpleasant) if you help Miriam with the gardening today” (something that you want
doing and Ethel likes)
Positive punishment is even more unlikely to be used. The only form of positive
punishment would be disappointment from a service provider to a service user if
they have acted inappropriately e.g. having a food fight. Any other form of positive
punishment in a day care setting would be regarded as abuse.
See column to the left – positive punishment will only be effective if it is
outweighed with reinforcement i.e. next time the service user is eating properly
they get praised for it. This praise will need to be consistent to stop the food fight
from happening again.
E.g. Did not help clean away the dinner plates so they had to wash up.
Because they are adults the negative punishment cannot be applied often. If they
were to apply it frequently they would be bordering on abuse. (The practitioner can
only take away their time and if it is appropriate to the behaviour being punished)
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [28]

Behaviour Basically, you start with a very low The behaviour of service users can be changed by behaviour
shaping criteria and gradually increase your modification techniques.
criteria until you reach your target
behavior. For example, you could first The key to successful reinforcement behaviour modification
teach a horse to approach a trailer, and techniques is consistency. It is necessary for the teacher to
then teach it to put 2 feet in the trailer, follow through on the established reinforcement schedule
then 4 feet, and then walk to the front without exception.
of the trailer. By breaking the behavior
down into small steps, you can create a Behaviour modification techniques could be used with teaching
new behavior without anything ever a service user to knit.
becoming too difficult or scary for the The person who is the leader (the service provider), must
horse.
define clearly what it is the service user needs to learn and
how the individual is to show that the learning has taken place.
Generalisati
on
Discriminati
on
Provision for needs to be met in day care settings cont...
The stages that take place in this type of learning are:
• Setting the goal i.e. making a scarf
• Establishing the student’s operant level (what do they
need to learn and what do they already know)
• Using reinforcement to strengthen or condition
behaviour i.e. always reinforce ‘new steps’ in the
knitting process
• Withhold reinforcement until new things are learnt in
the knitting process or extinguish other individual
behaviour i.e. do not reinforce mistakes in the scarf by
providing attention to them.
In generalization, a behavior may be When the service user cuddles another service user and gets a
performed in more than one situation. welcoming response – they may then try and cuddle all service
For example, the rat who receives food users (the problem with this is that some people do not like to
by pressing one lever, may press a be tactile.
second lever in the cage in hopes that it
will receive food.
Learning that a behavior will be Service users will seek financial help at a day acre setting and
rewarded in one situation, but not will receive the help they require, this will reinforce them to
another e.g. children will be rewarded seek advice again. The problem is that day care centres do not
when greeting friends and family but provide advice on all life matters and service users need to
not strangers
learn this.
Extinction The elimination of the behavior by Service users who are not reinforced consistently will end up
stopping reinforcement of the behavior. extinguishing their behaviours e.g. Ethel is scared of having her
For example, a rat who received food feet done but has been praised for visiting the chiropodist in
when pressing a bar, receives food no the last two weeks every day at the day care centre. The
longer, will gradually decrease the following week she receives no praise or encouragement and
amount of lever presses until the rat decides to stop going.
eventually stops lever pressing.
From this we learn that behaviours we want to encourage in
day care settings must always be reinforced.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [29]

Principles of
o p e r a n t
conditioning
Provision for needs to be met in residential and nursing homes
Description of
principle
Positive This is where you
reinforcement ‘add’ something
pleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour
Negative This is where you
reinforcement ‘take away’
something
unpleasant to
strengthen a
behaviour.
Positive This is where you
punishment ‘add’ something
unpleasant to
weaken a behaviour.
Negative This is where you
punishment ‘take away’
something pleasant
to weaken a
behaviour
Positive behaviour like acting independently is rewarded greatly in residential homes.
Prosocial behaviours develop because they are rewarded e.g. residents who help with
living duties i.e. washing clothes in a residential setting will receive praise and likeability.
This will make them feel good and they will want to help with the living duties
on a weekly basis.
Calm and cooperative behaviour is rewarded in day-care settings with positive
responses from the care workers such as praise and thanks.
The residents are rewarded with days out when they are being cooperative which
reinforces this behaviour.
Older people can be reinforced with activities which they enjoy e.g. bingo or playing
cards.
Some people reward antisocial behaviour e.g. an old man who makes comments of a
sexual nature towards a service provider may get laughs from his friends. The laughs
that he gets will reinforce this form of anti-social behaviour. For this to stop he would
have to mix with people who did not find this impressive – he would then not receive
the attention required to repeat this behaviour.
This perspective helps carers to understand antisocial behaviour and helps them to be
able to manage it i.e. rewarding pleasant behaviours and ignoring or punishing
unpleasant ones If the cooperative behaviour is rewarded, then the antisocial
behaviour is unlikely to return.
Negative reinforcement is less likely to be used at a residential setting , but here is an
example of how it could be implemented:
Ethel loves gardening and the gardening needs to be done at the by service users (as
one of the activities offered at the setting). They key worker says to Ethel “you don’t
have to do the washing up (taking away something unpleasant) if you help Miriam
with the gardening today” (something that you want doing and Ethel likes)
Positive punishment is even more unlikely to be used. The only form of positive
punishment would be disappointment from a service provider to a service user if they
have acted inappropriately e.g. having a food fight. Any other form of positive
punishment in a residential setting would be regarded as abuse.
See column to the left – positive punishment will only be effective if it is outweighed
with reinforcement i.e. next time the service user is eating properly they get praised
for it. This praise will need to be consistent to stop the food fight from happening
again.
e.g. Taking away their leisure activity because they attacked the practitioner.
Because they are adults the negative punishment cannot be applied often. If they
were to apply it frequently they would be bordering on abuse. (The practitioner can
only take away their time and if it is appropriate to the behaviour being punished)
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [30]

Provision for needs to be met in residential and nursing homes cont...
Behaviour
shaping
Basically, you start with a Token Economy
very low criteria and Behaviour is rewarded with tokens. These can be exchanged
gradually increase your for something the individual wants. Used mostly in
criteria until you reach your institutional settings e.g. the psychiatric section in a
target behaviour. For residential home e.g. taking a shower is rewarded with 5
example, you could first tokens and washing up is rewarded with 5 tokens. The
teach a horse to approach a service user can now watch a video which costs 10 tokens.
trailer, and then teach it to This is very effective for managing patients and improving
put 2 feet in the trailer, then their self-care and social skills.
4 feet, and then walk to the Evaluation
front of the trailer. By • Requires close monitoring of patient behaviour for it
breaking the behaviour to work – sometimes this is not possible.
down into small steps, you • The patients tend to become very dependant on the
can create a new behaviour system, making it difficult for them once they leave
without anything ever
becoming too difficult or
scary for the horse.
the institution
Generalisati In generalisation, a When the service user cleans and organises all the lounges
on behaviour may be as they were rewarded with some flowers for cleaning and
performed in more than one tidying the lounge they usually sit in.
situation. For example, the
rat who receives food by
pressing one lever, may
press a second lever in the
cage in hopes that it will
receive food.
Discriminati
on
Learning that a behaviour Care workers could praise service users for sticking to
will be rewarded in one routines and going to sleep at bedtime although they should
situation, but not another not be praised for sleeping in the day.
e.g. children will be
rewarded when greeting
friends and family but not
strangers
Extinction The elimination of the Residents who are not reinforced consistently will end up
behaviour by stopping extinguishing their behaviours e.g. Jack is scared of having a
reinforcement of the bath (due to a recent hip operation) but has been praised for
behaviour. For example, a having a bath twice a week every day in the home. The
rat who received food when following week he receives no praise or encouragement and
pressing a bar, receives food decides to stop having a bath – his fear of damaging his hip
no longer, will gradually returns.
decrease the amount of
lever presses until the rat From this we learn that behaviours we want to encourage in
eventually stops lever residential care settings must always be reinforced.
pressing.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [31]

Application of Vygotsky’s constructivist approach to Care Settings
Task: use the information on page 13-14 to apply Vygotsky’s theory to an early years
setting.
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Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [32]

Application of Erikson’s psychodynamic approach to Care Settings
Task: use the information on page 5-8 to apply Erikson’s theory to health, social
care and an early years setting.
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Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [33]

ATTACHMENT
You need to understand the importance of bonding
(attachment) between a child and their primary carer as
initially studied by Bowlby and how this may relate to the
psychological perspective of Freud and Erikson.
Attachment is an emotional bond to another person.
Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment
theorist, describing attachment as a "lasting
psychological connectedness between human
beings" (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). Bowlby believed that
the earliest bonds formed by children with their
caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues
throughout life.
According to Bowlby, attachment also serves to keep
the infant close to the mother, thus improving the
child's chances of survival.
The central theme of attachment theory is that
mothers who are available and responsive to their
infant's needs establish a sense of security in their
children. The infant knows that the caregiver is
dependable, which creates a secure base for the child
to then explore the world.
Problems with Attachment
What happens to children who do not form secure
attachments? Research suggests that failure to form secure
attachments early in life can have a negative impact on
behavior in later childhood and throughout the life. Children
diagnosed with oppositional-defiant disorder (ODD), conduct
disorder (CD) or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
frequently display attachment problems, possibly due to early
abuse, neglect or trauma. Clinicians suggest that children
adopted after the age of six months have a higher risk of
attachment problems.
While attachment styles displayed in adulthood are not
necessarily the same as those seen in infancy, research
indicates that early attachments can have a serious impact on
later relationships. For example, those who are securely
attached in childhood tend to have good self-esteem, strong
romantic relationships and the ability to self-disclose to others.
As adults, they tend to have healthy, happy and lasting
relationships
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [34]

When secure attachment is formed, this means:
More confidence to explore, solve problems and maintain interests
Enthusiasm persistence and cooperation
Greater happiness
Attentiveness
Willingness to participate in class
Higher grades at school
Greater empathy towards others
Social competence and skills
Higher self-esteem
Ability to form meaningful relationships with peers
Trusting in the world as a ‘good place’
Greater self-respect
Greater self-confidence and self-concept
Task: Explain how Bowlby’s attachment theory relates to
the psychological perspective of Freud and Erikson.
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Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [35]

NATURE VS
NURTURE
People behave the way they do because they are animals who
act in accordance with their animal instincts and are determined
by their biology.
People behave the way they do because they are determined by
the things other people teach them, the things they observe
around them, and because of the different situations they are put
in.
Factors that affect the development of:
Behaviour
Personality
Language
Gender Roles
Behaviour:
Pro-social behaviour
Cooperation
Working together
Helping and caring behaviours
In children this includes
sharing,
Taking turns, responding to the
needs of others
Gender:
Boys
More risk taking
More aggressive
More physical
Rough & tumble play
Better mathematical
Gender cont:
Anti-social Behaviour
Clear Biological differences
Occupational choice differs
Playtime differs in children
To what extent do media stereotypes affect the
Personality:
A unique set of characteristics
Difficulty in getting on with
others
Aggressive & disruptive, in
children this includes hitting,
bullying, teasing, verbal abuse.
Hostile
Uncooperative
Skills & spatial ability (map
reading!)
Girls
Higher verbal ability
Higher spelling conversational
ability.
Less Physical
‘Caring’ less aggressive.
Relatively stable over time
What factors affect how our personality is shaped?
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [36]

Nature Vs Nurture cont...
Nature: Genetics
Family traits, physical appearance, similarities, height, hair colour, eye colour
Genotype
The genetic pattern an individual inherits.
Every human has 23 pairs of chromosomes, half inherited from the mother and half from the
Father. These combine to form a UNIQUE gene pattern known asyour GENOTYPE.
Evidence to support the nature argument:
Dr Thomas Bouchard of the Minnesota Centre for Twin Adoption Research concluded that genetic
factors play a huge part in human behaviour. The study focussed on identical twins who had been
raised apart from each other.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0yTCShemS_0&feature=player_embedded (2.30 mins)
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/09/27/sunday/main3304885.shtml (paper article)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1gwnzW4jOMI (10 mins)
Genetic patterned behaviour – behaviours we are born with.
Genetic patterned behaviour:Attachment in humans, Imprinting in
animals – both behaviours promote survival
MATURATION – a timetable of development built into a person’s genotype
Walking
Language
Puberty
These are all UNIVERSAL and happen
at roughly the same time. Variation in
timings may be due to environmental
influences e.g. nutrition.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [37]

Genes alone do not predict development….
Mental illness & Environment
Obesity & Envirnoment
Environmental Factors:
Please see the previous sections to recap on how these
factors affect human development.
PARENTING STYLE: FEATURES
Authoritarian Cold
Child has little choice
Unaffectionate
Strict rules
Frequent punishment
Democratic
Cognitive Development &
Deprivation
Emotionally Warm
Encourages Self-reliance
Frequent guidance
Explains rules
Punishes serious wrong-doings
Shares decision making
Income
Housing
Nutrition (pre and post natal)
Education
Access to health facilities
Parenting Styles
Play Opportunities
Weather
Interaction with others
Permissive Little guidance
Emotionally warm
Does not apply rules or allows the child to do what he/she wants
Inconsistent
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [38]

Summary
Because someone is born into a low income environment, does NOT mean they will
grow up to be poor & disadvantaged.
It is important to understand that a person’s sense of ‘SELF’ influences their
development and the CHOICES they make gives them more CONTROL over their
environment.
A person’s ability is strongly influenced by their GENOTYPE and the ENVIRONMENT.
Task: CASE STUDY
Rachel’s parents have always been interested in music. Her mother is a music teacher at the local
school and teaches the piano to pupils at home. Rachel’s father has a large collection of records
and CDs of all kinds of music and conducts a local choir in his spare time. There is always music
playing in the house, coming from the CD player or the piano. Rachel, at 6 is already showing a real
interest in music. When listening to music, she can repeat the rhythm and comments on changes in
tone and pitch. She can already play a few simple tunes on the piano and is interested in the way
that tunes can be written down on sheet music
1) Do you think Rachel’s musical ability is genetically determined?
2) What factors in Rachel’s nurture do you think contributed to her enjoyment of music?
3) What factor do you think is the most important?
4) Thinking of two more possible examples write down arguments for and against both the nature
& nurture argument
5) Why do you think the nature-nurture debate is relevant to those who work in health and social
care?
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [39]

LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
In order to further appreciate the nature vs. nurture debate, you
need to understand the role of the behavioural and social learning
perspectives in the development of language and how theorists
such as Chomsky and Lennerberg view language development
biologically.
You need to know the study of ‘feral’/severely deprived
children.
THE STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
As children we learn to speak in stages with increasing complexity.
Below are the stages (copied from a mark scheme):
Stages
The pre-linguistic
Sounds, noises, gurgling etc. Baby listens intently, responds to tone of
voice, recognises familiar voices. By 9 months repeats sounds, uses
appropriate gestures. Babbling takes on ‘tune’ of language they are
hearing.
Holophrase (to approx 12 months)
Single words with a range of meanings, used with purpose. Cooperation
develops in conversations and in following instructions.
Tuneful babble develops into expressive ‘jargon’ – voice goes up and
down appropriately
Telegraphic (to approx 2 years)
Abbreviated phrases used with meaning e.g. ‘doggie gone’.
Understands wide range of vocabulary and uses around 50 words.
Uses own name and names objects and actions. Rapid development
of vocabulary and understanding. Enjoys songs, conversations,
rhymes etc.
Developing grammar (between approx 2-3 years)
Plurals, pronouns, adjectives, tenses etc. Complex sentence structure,
examples of ‘virtuous errors’ e.g. I goed to the park. Enjoys
conversations and asking questions.
Extended use of language (between 3-4 years)
Can use past, present and future more easily. Enjoys jokes, nonsense
words etc. Will imitate swearing. Will learn their address, age etc.
Creative and fluent language (from 4 years)
The immediate culture influences the use of language – adapting to
conventions, roles of language etc. Children are beginning to
understand that different audiences and situations require different
ways of talking.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [40]

Language Theories
Nature Nurture Debate: A look at Language Development
The nature nurture debate surrounds whether human behaviour is the product of inherited factors or the
result of social influences. Many theorist put forward evidence to support their claims, for nature they
examine language development and other hormonal and chemical processes in the body and inherited
tendencies. Proponents of the nurture side of the argument make reference to the effects of the
environment on human development, they support view by examining cases of isola/ons such as the feral
children, the impact of socializa/on, language development etc. A more sound approach seem to be a
combina/on of biology and the environment of human development be it language or other aspects of our
development.
Nature: Biological Theory
This theory was popularized by Noam Chomsky who proposed at language learning is biological.
Chomsky proposed that all humans have a language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD contains
knowledge of grammatical rules common to all languages (Shaffer, et.al, 2002).The LAD also
allows children to understand the rules of whatever language they are listening to. Chomsky also
developed the concepts of transformational grammar, surface structure, and deep structure.
Transformational grammar is grammar that transforms a sentence. Surface structures are words
that are actually written. Deep structure is the underlying message or meaning of a sentence.
(Matlin, 2005). In essence his theory suggest that the ability to learn language is biological, he
supports this argument by noting that the brain structure of babies helps them to be receptive to
learn language easily. In other words people (babies) are wired to learn language.
This theory is supported by Lenneberg (1964), who states that first /me language acquisi/on is
matura/onal or dependent on age; he calls this the cri/cal period hypothesis. This theory suggests that
people could only acquire or master language at a certain age. For example, he states that because of the
way in which the brain works, it is only possible for language to be mastered before puberty, aQer this
period language may be learned but it will not be fully mastered. [The cri(cal period hypothesis states that
the first few years of life is the crucial (me in which an individual can acquire a first language if presented
with adequate s(muli. If language input doesn't occur un(l a=er this (me, the individual will never achieve a
full command of language — especially gramma(cal systems.]
This theory is supported by using cases of isolaCon, feral children etc. An interes/ng example of this is the
case of Genie, also known as "The Wild Child". A thirteen-­‐year-­‐old vic/m of lifelong child abuse, Genie was
discovered in her home on November 4, 1970, strapped to a po^y chair and wearing diapers. She appeared
to be en/rely without language. Her father had judged her retarded at birth and had chosen to isolate her,
and so she had remained un/l her discovery. It was an ideal opportunity to test the theory that a nurturing
environment could somehow make up for a total lack of language past the age of 12. She was unable to
acquire language completely, although the degree to which she acquired language is disputed.
Further support for Lenneberg’s view that language learning is biological is found in second language
acquisi/on, which explains that children learn second language at a faster rate than adults. In fact, children
will master a second language, while and adult may never be able to do so. Children who learn second
language are generally more fluent than adults.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [41]

CriCcisms of the biological theory:
Robertson (2002) noted that factors other than age may prevent adults from learning a second language
as fluently as children. These factors are environmental and may include: levels of personal mo/va/on,
anxiety, /me etc.
Theories like Skinner also maintain that language acquisi/on is social and learned through reinforcement.
Nurture: The Behaviourist theory
This theory have consistently attack the view that language acquisition is biological. The Learning
perspective argues that children imitate what they see and hear, and that children learn from
punishment and reinforcement. (Shaffer,Wood,& Willoughby,2002).
The main principle of operant conditioning, as defined by Skinner is positive and negative
reinforcement. Reinforcement is the process in which a behaviour is strengthened, and thus,
more likely to happen again. Positive Reinforcement is making a behaviour stronger by following
the behaviour with a pleasant stimulus. For example, a rat presses a lever and receives food.
Negative Reinforcement is making a behaviour stronger by taking away a negative stimulus. For
example, a rat presses a lever and turns off the electric shock.
Skinner viewed babies as ‘empty vessels’ which language had to be ‘put in to’. He said children
learn language from their environment and consequences of their actions (a nurture view of
language). According to Skinner (1957), children initially produce sounds at random and the
reinforcement of appropriate sounds results in the production of recognisable words.
Skinner accepted pre-linguistic vocalisations such as cooing and babbling were probably
inborn, he argued that adults shape the baby’s sound into words by reinforcing those which
resemble real words. He would suggest that the child will not progress from babbling to
language unless the parent’s shape the child’s language behaviour.
Methods of reinforcement includes: touch, attention and feeding e.g., “mum can I have a
glass of water please”
After rewarding vocalisations for a while, parents become used to a child’s babbling and pay less
attention to it. This motivates the infant to vary the babbling. Sometimes, by accident, the child
produces more recognisable speech sounds e.g. if an infant suddenly said ‘Dadadada’, parents
might respond excitedly to this, thinking that the child is trying to say the word ‘Daddy’. The
response reinforces the child’s production of this type of speech sound. Other sounds that are
less like actual speech tend to be ignored.
However, parents soon get bored by repetitions of ‘Dadadada’, and this motivates the child to
modify such sounds until the shaping process results in recognisable words. This process
continues, resulting in sentences of increasing complexity and grammatical correctness.
In addition, the use of language is rewarded when a child asks for something and as a result,
succeeds in getting it.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [42]

Another important feature of Skinner’s theory is the idea that children imitate speech sounds and
words spoken by caregivers and, provided this imitation is rewarded, learning will take place.
This is how children learn new words. However, this theory assumes that without reinforcement,
imitation will not result in learning. This is a rather unconvincing explanation for several reasons:
� Some parents pay very little attention to the vocalisation of their infants, who still develop
language despite this – could use Chomsky (the biological approach here)
Ø� Shaping (as described above) is a very lengthy process, whereas a child’s language
development, particularly during the second year of life is rapid
� Observational studies of parent-child conversations (Brown and Hanlon, 1970) show that
parents rarely reinforce correct grammar in a child’s speech, but instead tend to focus on
the truthfulness or accuracy of statements. This makes it less likely that shaping enables
children to learn grammar.
� The theory assumes that imitation without reinforcement will not lead to learning (explain
Bandura’s theory of language to show that this is unlikely)
Nurture: Bandura
Social learning theory suggests that learning can take place in several ways. As a result of
reinforcement, by modelling or/and by extracting cognitions from observed examples of
behaviour.
Children clearly observe and imitate the language behaviour they hear. An infant’s use of
vocabulary, for example, is similar to that of parents and siblings. Accent too, is strongly
influenced by the accent a child most commonly hears. For example, a child who grows up
speaking English with a Welsh accent and then moves to Somerset at the age of 10 is likely to
develop a West Country accent through contact with peers at school (imitation).
Young children begin to use grammar in the telegraphic speech stage. However, they are not
taught the rules of grammar. Instead, they extract from them examples they hear. Foe example
one simple grammatical rule is that nouns can be nade plural by adding an ‘s’. Children hear
adults refer to one house and several houses, one car and several cars. Children’s extraction of
this rule is most noticeable when they apply it to that small group of nouns to which the rule does
not apply, such as ‘sheep’, ‘mouse’ ‘man’ and ‘woman’. If a child says ‘look sheep’s’, adults might
laugh at this apparently silly mistake. However, the mistake only occurs because the child is
applying the usual rule for making plurals (extracting cognitions).
There is no doubt that social learning makes an important contribution to language acquisition.
However, it is not a complete explanation. The speed at which infants acquire language suggests
that there is a genetic predisposition for this. Furthermore, the sequence of stages of language
development are similar in children all over the world – again supporting the language
acquisition is innate.
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [43]

Complete the table below:
Nature
Nurture
1. Chomsky -­‐ LAD
2.
3.
Theory Examples Evidence for Both
1. Children everywhere say mama or da
da as their first words
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [44]
2.
3.
1. Evidence from twin studies suggests
that even if children are born with the
ability to develop language they s/ll have
to be taught.
2.
3.
ApplicaCon of
Theories
1.Skinner
1. Skinner-­‐ children learn language 1. Within the family parents praise
because it is reinforced through children when they speak correctly. E.g.
2.
praise.
they may say ‘well done.’
Applica/on of Bandura’s theory in
residen/al care sekng. (How might new
residents change their behaviour?)
2.Bandura:
• observe behaviour of others –
observa/on and imita/on/copying of
par/cularly that which receives
behaviour
-­‐ choose role models who can be
2.
•
approval of those in charge
iden/fy those they are most
iden/fied with
like, those they wish to be like/
-­‐ low self esteem can lead to greater
imita/on
-­‐ vicarious reinforcement increases
likelihood of imita/on
-­‐ reward must be no/ceable
3.
•
•
be friends
with
imitate behaviour that gains
approval e.g. from carers/
other residents
iden/fy with ‘in-­‐group’ e.g.
-­‐ experimental work based on Bobo
popular residents who have
doll
friends/take
part in social ac/vi/es
3. Vygotsky:
• iden/fy the ‘out-­‐group’ e.g.
�������� emphasises social interac/on/
residents who are aggressive/
importance of adults or ‘more
knowledgeable others’
�������� language is the driving force
behind cogni/ve development
�������� pre-­‐intellectual language and pre-­‐
•
•
rude/selfish/uncoopera/ve
(or vice versa – resident may
wish to iden/fy with the
unsocial residents)
wait to see what others will do
before taking ac/on e.g.
intellectual thought operate
making a complaint -­‐
separately before 2 – 3
‘bystander apathy’
�������� social linguist stage -­‐ language
Changes in behaviour:
only used for social reasons (mee/ng
needs)
�������� at age 2 – 3 language and thought
interact -­‐ controlling own
behaviour and thinking – crea/ng
‘self-­‐talk’ (oQen spoken out loud,
occurs during play)
•
•
•
•
fit in with rou/ne
take part in social ac/vi/es
co-­‐operate with others – carers
and other residents
join in group ac/vi/es/
conversa/ons e.g. following
par/cular TV programmes/
discussing families/health etc
�������� from age 7 self-­‐ talk becomes
• take up new hobbies/ac/vi/es
silent inner speech
to become part of group
�������� social processes shape language/
• become more nega/ve/
language shapes thought
complaining/argumenta/ve/
�������� sensa/on and a^en/on are innate
aggressive if others take this
�������� the process of learning s/mulates
approach
a mo/ve to learn more
3.PuOng Vygotsky into pracCce:
�������� zone of proximal development –
Useful:
the distance between the child’s
�������� emphasises role of teacher in being
current and poten/al ability
able to interact

Factors that promote Language Development
Babies need to be spoken to and communicated with. Use of Baby Talk Register (BTR), (‘motherese/
fatherese’) – high pitched, slow and repetitive with a ‘pattern’ of conversation ie pausing for
response from baby (smile, frown, quietening, waving) then responding and continuing babies need
to hear speech, language, conversation going on around them
Language needs to be put into context – use of gestures, commentary on what is happening
Babies need to be encouraged to respond – positive feedback given to early attempts
Babies need to have opportunities for individual focus and attention – eye contact, facial expression
etc (hearing TV etc does not stimulate language development)
Children need to be given opportunities to practice language in a supportive environment, listened
to, allowed to make mistakes, encouraged to ask questions etc
Children need to be given opportunities to practice language in a supportive environment, listened
to, allowed to make mistakes, encouraged to ask questions etc
Social factors influence language development through exposure to wide vocabulary, different uses
of language etc – Bernstein’s restricted and elaborated language codes
Reading and story telling contributes to development of understanding of grammar, use of language
etc
Factors that promote Language Development
Lack of stimulation – not being spoken to, listened to, read to
Deprivation and neglect – extreme cases of isolation, poor parenting,
Disruption, frequent changes of carer – linked to being in foster care
Lack of opportunity to practice – noisy environment, surrounded by TV,
music, lack of specific conversation with child
Excessive correction, stress, pressure leading to anxiety in use of language
Disability – visual and hearing impairment. Learning difficulties. Facial
deformity, poor muscle control et
Created by Miss D. Wali and C. Regis [45]