Art of the Past

35 Years on Madison Avenue 

Art of the Past 

March 2011 

1242 Madison Avenue • New York, NY 10128 

P: 212.860.7070 • F: 212.876.5373 

artofpast@aol.com • www.artofpast.com

Introduction 

Thirty-five years? It seems like only yesterday 

that I was twenty-seven years old and just 

opening my gallery on Madison Avenue. The 

year was 1976. There have been some obstacles 

and hardships during the past thirty-five years, 

but there have been many more rewards. The 

rewards I cherish most are the wonderful 

friends I have made through the gallery. 

When I first opened my doors, I remember that 

some people looked at me as if I were just a 

naïve young man who didn’t know anything. 

They thought that I wouldn’t be able to handle 

the pressure of having a gallery on Madison 

Avenue and that, before long, I would go 

running back to India with my tail between my 

legs. But I’m still here. 

I admit there were a few things I didn’t 

completely understand in the beginning. I 

didn’t completely understand why, one time, 

when I had a nineteenth-century cabinet with a 

Hindu swastika on its top in my window, some 

people rang my bell—not to come in and look at 

the cabinet or the art—only to pop their heads 

in, say a few choice words, and then slam the 

door abruptly. But I also fondly remember the 

many people who were curious about it and 

wanted to learn about its significance. I 

sincerely appreciate all those who supported me, 

at different times, with their friendship and 

encouragement—I would not have survived 

without their help. 

The past thirty-five years have provided me 

with many interesting stories, but one that 

comes to mind is an occasion when I happened 

to be sitting and talking with Amy Poster, the 

curator at the Brooklyn Museum of Art, and a 

young couple walked in. After I had greeted 

them—as I greet anyone who comes into the 

gallery—Amy turned to me and whispered, 

“Do you know who they are?” 

I confessed that I had no idea. She asked if I had 

ever heard of someone named John Lennon. I 

told her honestly that I never had. 

Dumbfounded, Amy then asked me if I at least 

knew who the Beatles were. 

“Oh, yes, I’m pretty sure I have heard of them,” 

I replied. 

The past thirty-five years have been a great 

journey, and I continue to enjoy every moment 

of it. I would like to take this opportunity to 

thank all of you for making this time memorable 

and wonderful, and I wish you all a happy and 

rewarding journey in your own lives. 

—Subhash Kapoor

Saundarya 

It is the exquisite painting Radha and Krishna 

Lying in a Bed (no. 24 in this catalog) that has 

inspired our latest exhibition, Saundarya: 35 

Years on Madison Avenue. The subjects of the 

painting, Radha and Krishna, are symbols of 

beauty, romance, and divine love. The 

painting belongs to a series known as 

Sundar Sringar, which, in Sanskrit, means 

“beautiful adornments.” Since we were 

concentrating this exhibition on themes of 

beauty in South and Southeast Asian art, it 

seemed only appropriate to name the 

catalog and show after the painting. 

Saundarya, the Sanskrit word for beauty, is a 

crucial aspect of the aesthetic experience of 

art. The concept of saundarya relates to the 

subjective engagement with, and 

recognition of, beauty, and should evoke the 

discussion of what makes something sundar, 

or sensually beautiful. This is related to, but 

experientially different from, other 

philosophical concepts of art within a South 

Asian context. Other ideas, such as ananda, 

aesthetic bliss, are also concerned with 

beauty, but as more of a byproduct of a 

necessarily spiritual creative process. 

However, saundarya is about an experience 

that begins externally, with the witnessing of 

sundar, something beautiful, and about the 

transformation of that perception into an 

internal understanding of its beauty. The 

1 For a discussion of saundarya, see Harsha V. Dehejia, Saundarya: 

Half-Received, Half-Perceived, 

http://http-server.carleton.ca/~hdehejia/content/HARSHA.PDF. 

catalyst for the movement from sundar to 

saundarya is a feeling of sheer wonder and 

amazement, or adbhuta. It enables the viewer 

to move from having only a simple aesthetic 

encounter to experiencing instead 

something that is complete, contemplative, 

and enriching. 1 

It is our hope that the artworks included in 

this exhibition will cause you to pause for a 

moment and reflect on them. Whether you 

focus on something as totemic and 

all-important as the bronze Shiva Nataraja 

from the Chola Period (no. 8 in this catalog) 

or the Crowned Standing Buddha from the 

Haripunchai Period (no. 14 in this 

catalog)—or something as small and 

intimate as the Kishangarh painting of 

Savant Singh and Bani Thani attributed to 

Nihal Chand or the Enameled Covered Jar 

(no. 21 in this catalog)—we wish you the 

experience of saundarya. 

—Aaron M. Freedman

1 

Eastern India, West Bengal 

Ancient Region of Chandraketugarh, 

Shunga Period, 1st Century BCE1 Terracotta 

Plaque with the Goddess Durga and Her Attendants 

Dimensions: 19 1 ⁄2 x 10 inches (49.5 x 25.4 cm) 

This plaque is one of the largest and most important 

early Indian molded terra cottas known. 2 The identity of 

the central female figure, the subject of a large number of 

early terracotta plaques from this region, remains 

uncertain, but she may be an early representation of the 

goddess Durga, because, after the third century, Durga is 

usually shown in a narrative format slaying the buffalo 

demon, Mahisha, with weapons held in her many 

hands. In this early depiction, however, she appears 

with her armaments stuck in her coiffure like hairpins. 

The goddess stands in a frontal position on a high 

pedestal, with offerings placed on the base. Her left 

hand is placed on her hip, and the right hangs at her 

side, the palm exposed to the viewer in the 

boon-bestowing gesture. The goddess is shown with 

naturally shaped breasts, a pinched waist, and broad 

hips whose girth is emphasized by a wide hip belt of 

three strands of beads decorated with rows of 

ornamented tassels. Her elaborate jewelry includes rows 

of heavy bracelets, anklets, body chains, and earrings 

with huge curved pendants. Her diaphanous lower 

garment swings out at her ankles. 

The goddess’s attendant figures are highly ornamented 

in a similar fashion. The turbanned male at the goddess's 

right side presents a plate with a highly decorative 

border. The female figure at the left holds a large tray 

over her head that is arrayed with flower blossoms. The 

goddess is comforted by a flywhisk-bearer at her upper 

right and possibly a fan-bearer or standard-bearer at her 

upper left. The scene is framed by two pillars decorated 

with flowers and topped with intricate lotus capitals 

supporting the roof at the top of the plaque. The 

upper-right corner of the plaque is missing; only the 

body of the attendant at the upper right remains. A 

portion of the goddess’s headdress is also gone, as is 

most of the roof at the top of the plaque. 

1 The date has been corroborated by thermoluminescence examination. 

2 A similar example is in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 

New York. See Martin Lerner & Steve Kossack, The Arts of South and 

Southeast Asia (New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1994), fig. 1. 

Published: Enanuel Haque, Studies in Bengal Art 

Series: No.4, Chandraketugarh: A 

Treasure-House of Bengal Terracottas 

(Dhakar: The International Centre 

for Study of Bengal Art, 2001), p. 

356. 

Kathryn H. Selig Brown, Eternal 

Presence: Handprints and Footprints on 

Buddhist Art (Katonah, Katonah 

Museum of Art, 2004), plate 5, p. 38. 

Pratapaditya Pal, Indian Terracotta 

Sculpture: The Early Period (Mumbia, 

Marg Publications, 2002), fig 3, p. 10.

2 Standing Vishnu with Consorts 

Bangladesh 

Post-Gupta Period, 7th–8th century 

Terracotta 

Height: 39 inches (99 cm) 

A four-armed Vishnu stands, in the frontal samapada 

sthanakai position, on a simple plinth, with a consort at 

either side. In his primary left hand, he holds a conch 

shell, and in his primary right, a lotus bud. The other 

two hands rest atop the attendants’ prabhas. The deity’s 

hair falls from gathers below the crown and over his 

shoulders. He is heroically bare-chested but wears a long 

dhoti with a wide sash, wrist bangles, and a tall crown. 

The pendulous, elongated earlobes are pierced with 

earplugs. The face has full, rounded cheeks and chin; 

large eyes with carved pupils; a small, slightly bulbous 

nose; and sensual lips. The two female consorts at either 

side stand gracefully in tribhanga, each cupping a breast 

with her hand. 

By the sixth century, the Gupta Empire, which had ruled 

over North India, had largely broken apart. Eastern 

Bengal, now known as Bangladesh, splintered into the 

kingdoms of Vanga, Samatata, and Harikela, while the 

Gauda kings, who rose in the west, had their capital at 

Karnasuvarna (near modern Murshidabad). Shashanka, 

a vassal of the last Gupta Empire, proclaimed 

independence, unified the smaller principalities of 

Bengal (Gaur, Vanga, Samatata), and vied for regional 

power with Harshavardhana, in Northern India. This 

burst of Bengali power, however, did not last very long 

beyond Shashanka's death. With the overthrow of 

Shaskanka’s son Manava, Bengal descended once more 

into a period of disunity and foreign invasion, until the 

advent of the Pala Dynasty in the mid-eighth century. 

It is probably because of the political turmoil in the 

interim between the Gupta and Pala Dynasties that 

post-Gupta sculpture from Bangladesh, such as this 

Vishnu, is so rare. The sculpture of Vishnu is largely 

influenced by the style of the late Gupta Period and is a 

vital and important example of pre–Pala Period 

sculpture. The rounded shape of the face and full 

proportions of the figure are later interpretations of the 

Gupta-Period classical mannerisms blended with 

indigenous regional styles. Terracotta was an important 

sculptural medium in Bengal during the seventh and 

eighth centuries, as can be seen from its extensive use at 

such contemporary sites as Somapura Mahavira in 

Paharpur, Bengal.

3 Ambika 

Eastern India, Bihar 

Pala Period, 10th Century 

Bronze with silver inlay 

Height: 6 1 ⁄2 inches (15.2 cm) 

In this exquisite bronze sculpture, the crowned, 

two-armed goddess Ambika holds a cluster of mangoes 

in her right hand, while her left hand rests on her left 

knee. 1 She is seated on a double-lotus throne upon a 

high pedestal. One leg is folded; the other rests on a 

small lotus. Her eyes and the tilak on her forehead are 

inlayed with silver. One of Ambika’s infant sons, Siddha, 

stands on his mother's left leg and leans against her arm. 

Buddha, her other son, sits cross-legged along the lower 

left foot of the pedestal. 

Independent images of Ambika began to be produced in 

Eastern India from about the eighth century onward. 

Ambika with her consort, Sarvanabhuti Yaksha, was 

originally worshipped as a Jain yakshi, and, together, 

they were linked with Neminatha, the twenty-third Jina. 

Because of her mango attribute and her having two sons, 

Ambika's became associated with fertility, which led 

eventually to her being worship independently by those 

wishing to bear male children. The popularity of the 

goddess increased dramatically in the eleventh century, 

but the later-period images generally show the goddess 

with multiple arms, holding attributes of more tantric 

significance. 

1 For another example, see Vidya Dehejia, Devi, The Great Goddess: Female 

Divinity in South Asian Art (Washington D.C.: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, 

Smithsonian Institution, 1999), fig. 61, p. 304–5.

Tibet 

12th - 13th century 

Fresco 

4 Paramasukha-Chakrasamvara 


In this early fresco, Chakrasamvara, in rare, white form 

and warrior pose, is shown with his consort, 

Vajravarahi, in mystic union against a brilliant, crimson 

aura. 1 Although most of the left side of the fresco is 

damaged, the iconography of its subjects follows 

standard depictions from other representations of 

Chakrasamvara and Vajravarahi. 

Chakrasamvara has four faces and twelve hands. His 

primary two hands, crossed in the diamond, 

HUM-sound gesture, encircle his consort and hold a 

vajra sceptor and bell, which together symbolize wisdom 

and compassion. His next pair of hands holds an 

elephant hide, symbolizing illusion, and a drum, 

representing a joyous sound. His third left hand holds 

the khatvanga staff, representing the blissful “Thought of 

Enlightenment.” His fourth right hand holds an ax, and 

his fourth left, a kapala. His fifth right hand holds a vajra 

chopper, and his fifth left, a vajra lasso. His sixth right 

hand holds a trident, and his sixth left dangles the 

severed head of the god Brahma. 

Chakrasamvara’s hair is a red, fiery mass, and he wears 

a garland of severed heads around his neck and a tiger 

skin around his hips. His right foot treads on the 

rose-colored goddess, Kalaratri, who represents nirvana, 

while his left foot tramples on Bhairava, who represents 

samsara, with traces of Bhairava's characteristic blue 

color still visible. 

1 Compare with the well known painting of Green Tara, ca. 1260s, in the collection of 

The Cleveland Museum of Art; http://www.clevelandart.org/collections. 

2 Marilyn M. Rhie and Robert A. Thurman, Wisdom and Compassion: The Sacred 

Art of Tibet (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992), p. 217. 

The goddess Vajravarahi, gazing rapturously up at 

Chakrasamvara, is characteristically red in color, with 

one face and three eyes. She is adorned with the 

attributes of a yogini, with bone ornaments and a 

five-skull diadem. She embraces her consort closely, her 

legs wrapped around his waist. 2 Her left hand embraces 

his neck, and her right brandishes a raised vajra chopper.

5 Jina Parsvanatha Shrine 

Western India, Rajasthan 

Dated by inscription, 1106 CE (Samvat 4th Day of Month of Magh, Year 1166) 

Bronze with silver and copper inlay 

Dimensions: 15 x 10 inches (38.1 cm x 25.4 cm) 

This intricately composed bronze altarpiece depicts the 

Jina Parsvanatha seated in deep meditation. Parsvanatha 

is identified primarily by the seven-hooded canopy of 

the snake-king, Dharanendra, over his head. 

Parsvanatha’s eyes are inlayed in silver, as is, in the 

center of his chest, the auspicious diamond mark that 

signifies his divine nature. Seated at the lower-right of 

the Jina, is another depiction of Dharanendra, this one in 

human form. Padmavati, Parsvanatha’s consort, is 

seated at his other side. A three-tiered umbrella appears 

above the snake canopy. The Jina is surrounded by a 

host of adoring attendant figures, chauri bearers, vyalas, 

and elephants. His throne is supported by a pair of lions 

and elephants. Nine heads, symbolizing the planetary 

deities, decorate the base of the shrine, and two deer 

flank a wheel. This lively surround only serves to 

accentuate the simplicity and tranquility of the central 

image of Parsvanatha. 

The compositional balance of this bronze sculpture is 

found in the contrast between the restrained central Jina 

and the active attendant figures. The motionless 

Parsvanatha is shown deep in meditation, with eyes half 

shut and lips curled into a slight smile. His body, 

composed of minimal, rounded forms, is unadorned 

except for the slightest indication of a dhoti. The broad 

shoulders and narrow, tapering waist lend a sense of the 

heroic. The austerity of the Jina’s serene expression is 

framed and emphasized by the beautiful snake hood 

behind the figure’s head and delicately inlayed 

meditation blanket that spills over the throne’s edge. 

Parsvanatha is regarded as a historical figure who lived 

sometime during the eighth century BCE. This story of 

Parsvanatha bears strong similarity to the account of the 

historical Buddha’s triumph over Mara, Lord of the 

Underground, to achieve nirvana. In the case of 

Parsvanatha, however, it was Samvara who attacked the 

meditating Jina with serpents, genii, and an 

overwhelming downpour of rain. It was then that 

Dharanendra appeared, to shelter Parsvanatha from the 

deluge. But, in the end, Samvara could not break the 

Jina’s meditation and so accepted defeat.

6 Mahishasuramardini 

Eastern India, Bengal 

Pala Period, 11th century 

Bronze 

Height: 5 3 ⁄4 inches (14 cm) 

Durga here is portrayed as the ten-armed slayer of a 

buffalo that had been inhabited by the fierce demon 

Mahisha, who was not only a threat to the world, but 

also invincible. Even the Hindu gods who challenged 

him could not kill him, and so, in desperation, they have 

created the goddess Durga to be their champion and 

have given her their weapons. 

The primary right hand holds the spear with which she 

is about to stab Mahisha. In her other right hands she 

holds a vajra, war discus, sword, and arrow. In her left 

hands she holds an elephant goad, an ax, a bow, and a 

shield. 

Durga is depicted just after having severed the buffalo's 

head with her many weapons. Mahisha, in the form of a 

tiny, chubby man, emerges from the buffalo's 

decapitated body and looks up admiringly at the 

warlike but beautiful Durga, even as his toes are being 

bitten by her lion. Durga smiles serenely, hoists Mahisha 

by his hair, and treads gracefully on the buffalo's body. 

All these narrative details are skillfully composed, atop a 

double-lotus base, in a sculpture no larger than a human 

hand.

7 Chandeshvara Nayanar 

South India, Tamil Nadu 

Chola Period, 11th –12th century 

Granite 


A quiet calm radiates from this rare sculpture of the 

Shaivite saint Chandeshvara Nayanar. The saint, or 

nayanar, sits in an erect posture on a solid, unadorned 

base. His left leg is folded into his body and balanced on 

the edge of the base. His right leg hangs down in a 

relaxed manner, the foot resting on a secondary small 

support at the plinth’s base. The figure’s left hand holds 

its left leg in place. The raised right hand displays an ax, 

an attribute also associated with Shiva. Above the broad 

contours of his face and head, his matted locks of hair 

are piled like a crown. The saint is adorned with a 

headband, necklaces, armbands, large earrings, anklets, 

and an elaborate dhoti that falls over the front of the seat 

underneath the left leg. 

Chandeshvara is regarded as the guardian of Shiva 

temples and protector of everything contained within 

the complex. Images of the saint in this role show him in 

an independent shrine within the compound. 

Otherwise, Chandeshvara is depicted within the group 

of sixty-three nayanars. He is most often shown as a 

young man, standing with hands clasped together in 

adoration, and holding his attribute, the ax, in the crook 

of his arm. Seated images of the saint are especially rare, 

but not unknown. There is a comparable stone sculpture 

of Chandeshvara in the Narasamangala Ramalingeshvara 

Temple in Tamil Nadu, 1 and a seated bronze in the 

Madras Museum. 2 The large size of this stone sculpture 

suggests that this image served as a temple protector. 

1 For an image of this Chandeshvara sculpture, see 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chandekeshwar.jpg. 

2 Vidya Dehejia, Slaves of the Lord: The Path of the Tamil Saints (New 

Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, Ltd., 1988), fig. 78.

8 Shiva Nataraja 


Chola Period, 11th century 

Bronze 


His form is everywhere: all-pervading in His Shiva-Shakti: 

Chidambaram is everywhere, everywhere His dance: 

As Shiva is all and omnipresent, 

Everywhere is Shiva‘s gracious dance made manifest. 1 

Shiva as the Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance, is the 

ultimate expression of South Asian art. His image is the 

full and perfect expression of divine totality and pure, 

primal, rhythmic power. As the Nataraja, Shiva creates 

the universe into existence by simultaneously 

awakening inert matter with the rhythmic pulse of his 

dance, sustaining this existence, and sending all form to 

destruction. Ananda Coomeraswamy summarized the 

complexity of Shiva’s dance in a three-part 

interpretation: Shiva is the generative source of all 

movement within the cosmos; he dances for the purpose 

of liberating consciousness from illusion; and he dances 

in Chidambaram, which is not only the center of the 

universe, but also the center of our hearts. 2 

The raised left leg of the Nataraja shows the liberating 

freedom of the dance. The damaru drum in the raised 

right hand forms the damaru-hasta and sounds the note 

of creation. The flame, or agni, in the left hand, 

represents the change brought on by destruction, and 

these two upper hands show the balance between 

creation and destruction. The primary right hand is held 

in abhaya mudra, the gesture of fearlessness, that grants 

protection from evil and ignorance. The primary left 

hand is held in a dance position, but also points to the 

raised foot, which represents ascension and liberation. 

The right foot is planted squarely on the back of the 

malevolent demon Muyalaka and represents the vertical, 

cosmic axis of Shiva’s body. The movement of this 

dance, known as the tandava, gyrates around its axis in a 

balanced frenzy. The surrounding flames of the 

encircling prabha represent the manifest universe and 

also symbolize the transmigration of the ego through 

rebirth. The snake swirling around Shiva’s body is 

kundalini, the divine force that resides in everything. The 

braided and jeweled hair of the god spills down to his 

shoulders and upper arms. The god wears a man’s 

earring in his right ear, and a woman’s in his left, to 

signify his dual nature. 

This Nataraja displays characteristics typical of the 

mature Chola style of the eleventh century. The prabha is 

in the standard circular shape, and consists of circular 

bands decorated with rosettes, with five-tipped flames 

framing the whole. The uppermost of Shiva’s locks 

creates a loop on either side, and encircling the figure of 

the goddess Ganga to the viewer’s left, a detail 

characteristic of the eleventh century. The flame in 

Shiva’s rear left hand is contained in a small bowl. A 

comparable example, also dated to the eleventh century, 

is in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of Art, 

Cleveland. 3 

1 Verse from the Tirukuttu Darshana (Vision 

of the Sacred Dance), forming the ninth 

tantra of Tirumular‘s Tirumantram. 

2 Ananda K. Coomeraswamy The Dance of 

Shiva: Essays on Indian Art and Culture, 

reprint (New York: Dover Publications, 

1985), p.65. 

3 See Vidya Dehejia, Chola: Sacred Bronzes 

of Southern India (London: Royal Academy 

of Arts), ), fig. 1, pp. 46–47.

9 Ganesha with Buddhi and Siddhi 

South India, Northern Karnataka or Southern Maharashtra 

Later Chalukya Period, 11th century 

Brass 


A pleasantly corpulent, four-armed, and nimbused 

Ganesha sits in lordly manner on a lotus throne, atop a 

tall, stepped pedestal in the center of this elaborate 

shrine. The elephant-headed god's primary left hand no 

longer remains, but originally would have held a bowl 

of laddhu, or sweets. The primary right is held in the 

gesture of reassurance, its palm open to the viewer. A 

lasso is held in the secondary right hand, and an ax 

gripped by the secondary left. Ganesha’s chubby legs are 

ornamented with heavy ankle bracelets, and the deity’s 

two shaktis, Buddhi and Siddhi, representing sagacity 

and fulfillment, stand at either side of the lotus throne. 

The three figures are framed by columns consisting of a 

vyala trampling an elephant and a small figure standing 

on a ledge above, next to a projecting makara. The 

columns support a central, three-tiered roof structure, 

with two smaller structures on either side. 

Published: Architectural Digest: The International Magazine of Interior 

Design (Condé Nast Publications, December 2005), p. 

179.

10 


Chola Period, 11th century 

Bronze 

Devi Uma Parameshvari 


The Great Goddess Uma stands at ease, in tribhanga, or 

triple-bent posture, on a lotus atop a square base. The 

figure is shown with its left arm extended in lolahasta, 

the right bent at the elbow, with the hand displaying the 

katakamukha gesture having originally held a flower. A 

rounded crown, indicative of a pre–twelfth-century 

dating, surmounts a pleasant face, and is assimilated 

with the piled jatamukata coiffure generally associated 

with Shiva. The form of the goddess is modeled with an 

opulence and charm rarely encountered in other Chola 

female figures from the period. The head’s subtle tilt to 

the left enhances the sinuous quality of the figure along 

its vertical axis and effectively counters the volumes of 

the voluptuous breasts, wide hips, and fleshy thighs. 

This image of Uma Parameshvari is an iconic example of 

eleventh-century, Chola-Period bronze sculpture. The 

sensual proportions and modeling conform generally to 

the figural style of the Rajaraja I Period. The sacred cord 

descends diagonally between her breasts, unlike the 

cord’s earlier tradition of falling straight down to the 

navel. Although the rounded crown hearkens to Shiva’s 

matted locks of hair, it differs in that it is in the 

karandamukata form. A contemporary example of the 

same size (82.6 cm) in the collection of the Norton Simon 

Museum, Pasadena, California, shares a similar 

particularization of proportion and sense of 

individualized physiognomic features. 2 It was suggested 

by Stella Kramrisch, and later echoed by Pratapaditya 

Pal, that these striking characteristics may indicate the 

Norton Simon piece was the image of a Chola queen 

personified as Uma-Parvati. It may also be that the Uma 

under discussion is also a portrait of a deified queen, if 

not indeed the same queen as the Norton Simon 

goddess. 

1 Sambandar Hymn 260, 4, in Vidya Dehejia, Slaves of the Lord: The Path of 

the Tamil Saints Saints (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 

Ltd., 1988), p. 45. 

2 Pratapaditya Pal, Asian Art at the Norton Simon Museum Volume 1: Art 

from the Indian Subcontinent (Yale University Press: New Haven and 

London, in association with the Norton Simon Art Foundation, 2003), fig. 

170b, pp. 230, 232. 

Fresh as newborn lotus buds, 

lustrous as kongu blossoms, 

honeyed like young coconuts, 

golden kalashas filled 

with the nectar of the gods, 

are the breasts of the resplendent Uma. 1

11 

South India, Southern Karnataka 

Hoysala Period, 13th - 14th century 

Chlorite schist 

Attendant Figure 


1 For a comparable Hoysala attendant figure in situ, see 

http://upload.wikimedia.org /wikipedia/ commons/ 2/2d/ Halebidu_shiva.jpg. 

The figure is a female attendant who stands gracefully, 

both feet planted firmly on the ground. She wears an 

ankle-length skirt ornamented with an intricately 

carved, tasseled belt and a long garland. Her chest is 

bare, exposing her ample bosom, which is decorated 

with a heavy necklace and pendant. Her left arm is held 

straight, her hand flexed, the thumb pointing at the hip 

and the other fingers directed downward. Her raised 

right hand is broken off. On her head, she wears a tall 

crown that connects to the framing arch, and hair 

streams from both sides of the head from behind her 

ears and falls over her shoulders. The arch, bursting 

forth from the open mouths of makaras, mythological 

composite aquatic creatures who symbolize 

auspiciousness, is supported by two columns rising on 

either side of the figure. A large kirtimukha, or “Face of 

Glory,”dominates the center of the arch directly over the 

goddess's head. 

This sculpture may represent an attendant figure that 

was originally placed next to the shrine of a major deity, 

such as Shiva or Vishnu, on the wall of a temple. In her 

broken right hand, the figure holds an unidentifiable 

attribute, the remaining portion of which may be the 

stem of a flower or fruit. 1 It is possible that the figure 

represents a particular goddess, but the remaining 

iconography is insufficient to make a clear identification.

12 Seated Ganesha 

Cambodia 

Angkor Period, Late 12th – 13th century 

Bronze 


A large bronze sculpture of the elephant-headed god, 

Ganesha, is seated in meditation, in a cross-legged, yogic 

posture atop a raised pedestal with a simply decorated 

molding. The dress and adornments are treated in a 

restrained manner, emphasizing the figure’s modeling 

and volumetric form. The four-armed Ganesha wears a 

short sampot, bracelets, anklets, and snake armbands on 

his upper biceps. The sacred thread is a serpent tied at 

the deity’s right shoulder. The crown consists of a tiara 

and a three-tiered, conical headpiece. Ganesha’s trunk 

extends down and across his chest with an emphatic 

curve. 

The later Khmer motifs can be seen in the schematic 

treatment of the folds of skin along the cheeks, the rear 

arrangement of the section of garment attached to the 

back, and the style of the crown. 1 There is also the sense 

of the sculptor's delight in emphasizing the corpulence 

and sheer bulk of the shoulders, chest, belly, and thighs 

that one also finds in South Indian representations of 

Ganesha. 

1 For a comparable example from the Musée National de Phnom Penh, 

Cambodia, see http://www.bridgemanart.com/image/Cambodian/ 

Ganesh-late-12th-early-13th-century-Angkor-bronze/1dd7b8d6d8c24b1e9d70 

2a6a851f1c1b?key=%20Cambodian&thumb=x150&num=15&page=14.

13 

Central Tibet 

Late 13th – mid 14th century 

Distemper heightened with gold on cloth 

Amitayus, the Buddha of Eternal Life 


Amitabha, in the form of Amityus, the Buddha 

of Eternal Life, is seated on a double lotus 

set on a raised throne. He wears a crown 

and the ornaments of the bodhisattva. His 

red skin color, the dhyana mudra 

meditation gesture of his hands, 

and the peacock vehicles 

beneath the throne are all 

characteristics of Amitabha. The 

Buddha wears elaborate 

jewelry and a long, red, 

lower garment similar to 

those worn by the 

flanking, standing 

bodhisattvas. He sits against a 

double-tier throne back that 

is supported by vyalas astride 

elephants. Makaras are atop 

the throne back, and a garuda, with claws 

displayed, spreads its wings above the figure’s 

head. 

The eight bodhisattvas forming a loose mandala around 

the central Buddha are celestial figures associated with 

the fulfillment of earthly boons. At the top of the 

thangka, to the left and right, are small registers that 

depict the four Thatanatas. They are, from left to right: 

Vairochana, Akshobhya, Amitabha, and Amoghassidhi. 

Seated just below the throne is the goddess Kalo. The 

bottom register includes two groups of seated monks 

flanking two blue Achalas, with sword and noose; and 

two red, wrathful Vajrapanis, with bells and vajras. 

The pervasive influences of Eastern Indian compositions 

and styles are exemplified in this painting, even though 

it begins to reflect some of the stylistic changes that 

began in the late thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 

The form of the throne back is typical of the Eastern 

Indian style, but the torana, with addorsed makaras with 

foliate tails, is more Nepalese.

14 

Northern Thailand 

Haripunchai Period, 12th – Early 13th century 

Bronze 

Standing Crowned Buddha 


This fine and impressively large bronze sculpture of a 

crowned Buddha is shown in a strong hieratic position 

with both hands raised in front of the body in abhaya 

mudra, the gesture of reassurance and protection. The 

Buddha's long, flowing monastic robes are scalloped at 

the hems and held in front by a wide, jeweled girdle. 

The smooth modeling of the figure gives the impression 

of the upper body’s being bare, but closer observation 

shows a robe draped over the shoulders, its neckline 

hidden by a wide, intricate necklace. The Buddha is 

further adorned with heavy earrings, armbands, and an 

elaborate crown comprised of a jeweled and chased 

headband and distinctive triangular, leafed forms with a 

large central element. On either side of the headband, 

decorative wing forms, flaring from the bottom of the 

crown, back the protruding ears. The pleasant face is 

composed of broad planes, with high cheeks, a wide 

nose, and full lips. The eyes are half-shut in meditation, 

and the eyebrows meet at the bridge of the nose. 

The ornate formalism of this regal Buddha image has its 

stylistic origins in the Pala culture of Northeastern India 

and the Khmer traditions of Cambodia. The practice of 

depicting a crowned Buddha, or mukutadharin, 

developed in Pala India during the tenth century. 1 The 

crown represents the complete attainment of 

Buddha-hood, as well as the concept of the Buddha as 

the universal sovereign, or god-king, by which the Pala 

kings claimed divine rule. This concept of the 

Mukutadharin Buddha was later also adopted by the 

Khmers of Cambodia. 

1 See example of a tenth-century crowned Pala Buddha from the Rockefeller 

Collection at The Asia Society, New York; Susan L. Huntington and John C. 

Huntington, Leaves From the Bodhi Tree: The Art of Pala India 

(8th–12th centuries) and Its International Legacy (Dayton: The Dayton 

Art Institute, 1989), fig. 15, pp. 140–141. 

2 Compare with a twelfth-century Khmer example: Carol Stratton, Buddhist 

Sculpture of Northern Thailand (Chicago: Buppha Press, 2004), fig. 5.68, 

p. 123; and a contemporary example in the Chao Sam Phraya National 

Museum: Ayutthaya; Hiram W. Woodward, The Sacred Sculptures of 

Thailand: The Alexander B. Griswald Collection (Baltimore: The Walters 

Art Gallery, 1997), fig. 110, p. 110. 

The Khmer influence in this standing Buddha sculpture 

can also be seen most prominently in the treatments of 

the necklace, girdle, and drapery hems. The elaborate 

necklace is composed of pronounced and elongated 

oval-shaped pendants that suspend from the lower 

edge. The girdle, with its suspended tassels or pendants, 

echoes the design of the necklace. The belt rises high at 

the sides, swoops down dramatically at the front, and 

swells at the center, directly under the navel. The lower 

hem of the robe has flowing, scalloped edges rather than 

the more static, straight fashion of earlier-period 

examples. 2 This highly important, large, 

Haripunchai-Period Buddha image is a dynamic 

example of Southeast Asian Buddha sculpture.

15 

Tibet 

14th century 

Gilded bronze with relics within 

Seated Shakyamuni Buddha 

Dimensions: 9 x 7 3 ⁄4 inches (22.9 x 19.7 cm) 

Shakyamuni sits in padmasana, or diamond posture. His 

left hand rests in his lap, palm facing up, in 

contemplation gesture, and his right is in bhumisparsa 

mudra, or earth-witness gesture. This image of the 

Buddha depicts him at the moment of full 

enlightenment, sitting under the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya. 

He wears a robe draped over his left shoulder. The thick, 

double hem traces across his chest and around his upper 

arm, and billows out at his left forearm, and the garment 

hangs over the Buddha’s crossed legs and fans out 

elegantly in front of him. 

The Buddha’s broad shoulders and muscular chest are 

further emphasized by his slender waist. His neck is 

marked with three etched lines, a symbol of beauty. His 

long earlobes are squared and hang to just above his 

shoulders. Since he is deep in meditation, his eyes are 

mere slits, and his lips are turned up in a subtle smile. 

The strong brow frames the urna in the center of his 

forehead. His hair is in tight curls that trace up the 

ushnisha at the top of his head. His hair ornament 

stretches across the front of the Buddha’s head and 

hangs alongside his elongated earlobes. 

The style of squaring the Buddha’s elongated earlobes is 

generally attributed to Western Tibet, and can be seen in 

paintings and sculptures as early as the eleventh 

century. The exaggeratedly narrow waist and angular 

lines of the figure point to a later dating, likely the 

fourteenth century. 1 

1 Marylin M. Rhie and Robert A. F. Thurman, Wisdom and Compassion: 

The Sacred Art of Tibet (New York, Harry N. Abrams, Inc.), p. 75.

16 

Thailand 

Ayutthaya Period, 15th century 1 


Adorned Buddha Protected by the Naga 

This large and important sculpture shows the Buddha 

seated in meditation with legs crossed and hands folded 

in his lap in dhyanamudra. The naga forms a throne, its 

triple-coiled body forming the seat and its seven-headed 

hood rising from behind the Buddha and sheltering him. 

This image is reminiscent of the Buddha meditating 

under the Bodhi tree, and relates literally to the time 

when the serpent king sheltered Buddha Shakyamuni 

from a thunderstorm. That the serpent's body has three 

coils is a reference to the Buddha’s being triumphant in 

the three worlds and to the Three Jewels of Buddhism: 

the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. 2 The Buddha’s being 

protected by the serpent king became the most 

important cult image for Mahayana Buddhism in 

Cambodia during the twelfth century, and had a 

resurgence in popularity during the Ayutthaya Period in 

Thailand. 3 

The kingdom of Ayutthaya, founded in 1351, dominated 

central Thailand for more than four hundred years. Its 

distinctive culture seems to have emerged from various 

local ideas and forms mixing with those of the 

Cambodian-speaking areas to the east and the 

Thai-speaking kingdom of Sukhothai to the north. The 

style of the Buddha’s head, with its square face, straight 

hairline, and somewhat broad nose, is a revival of the 

Cambodian-related traditions of Lopburi. According to 

Hiram Woodward, this stylistic retrogression was a 

common practice during the Ayutthaya Period. 4 This 

period is also the one in which the crowned Buddha was 

depicted meditating under the naga hood, in imitation of 

earlier Khmer examples. 

This sculpture of an adorned Buddha protected by the 

naga is the largest and most complete ceramic example 

of this subject known from the Ayutthaya Period. There 

are other large stoneware examples in the collection of 

the Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide, but these 

sculptures depict subjects of lesser importance, such as 

dharmapalas. 5 

1 The date has been corroborated by thermoluminescence examination. 

2 Helen Ibbitson Jessup and Thierry Zephir, eds., Sculpture of Angkor and 

Ancient Cambodia: Millennium of Glory (New York: Thames and 

Hudson, 1997), p. 273. 

3 Carol Stratton and Miriam McNair Scott, Buddhist Sculpture of Northern 

Thailand (Serindia Publications, Inc., 2004), p. 262. 

4 Hiram Woodward, The Sacred Sculpture of Thailand: The Alexnder B. 

Griswold Collection (Baltimore: The Walters Art Gallery, 1997), pp. 

176-177. 

5 http://www.artgallery.sa.gov.au/agsa/home/Collection/searchResult.jsp

17 

Northern India, probably Delhi-Agra region 

Circa 1525–40 

Opaque watercolor on paper 

Page from a Dispersed Bhagavata Purana Series 

Dimensions: 6 3 ⁄4 x 8 1 ⁄8 inches (17.2 x 21 cm) 

This painting belongs to the earliest-known illustrated 

version of the Bhagavata Purana. The original text of 

eighteen thousand verses, about the supremacy of the 

Hindu god Vishnu and his many manifestations, and 

including the popular incarnation Krishna, was 

composed near the turn of the tenth century. This 

particular series of paintings, like most illustrated 

adaptations of the epic, depicts the events of Krishna's 

life, as related in Book Ten of the Bhagavata Purana. The 

paintings from this series are typically full-page 

illustrations in a horizontal 

format. The 

compositions are 

often 

1 The translation of the lengthy inscription on the verso and the identification of 

the scene as BP X.58.50-55, was provided, with many thanks, by Daniel J. 

Ehnbom. 

compartmentalized and full of bold, flat colors, typified 

by angular movement, with figures’ having large, 

leaf-shaped eyes. This Bhagavata Purana series is widely 

regarded as the most inventive and vigorous example of 

Indian painting from the first half of the sixteenth 

century. 

This animated painting recounts the story of Krishna’s 

attempt to return home with his new bride, Satya, 

daughter of Nagnajit, the king of Kosala. 1 Krishna has 

won Satya’s hand in marriage by completing the 

seemingly impossible task of catching a herd of wild 

bulls and yoking them together, whereupon all the kings 

who have failed the contest rise in anger against him. As 

Krishna and his charioteer, Arjuna, are about to leave 

with Satya, the kings challenge Krishna to fight. To deal 

with them, Krishna sends Arjuna, who pleads for peace, 

but to no avail. At last, Arjuna takes out his mighty bow, 

Gandiva, and begins shooting at his foes. The first round 

of arrows is not intended to kill, but rather to disarm the 

angry kings. When they will not relent, Arjuna 

releases a second shower of arrows, which 

destroys their clothing, embarrassing them and 

ending the conflict. Krishna appears with his 

bride, Satya, in the chariot in the upper left of the 

painting. At the upper center, Arjuna shoots his 

Gandiva bow and causes a rout among the 

angry kings, who are mounted on 

elephants and horses.

18 

Mughal 

ca. 1598-1600 

Illustration from the Razm-nama 

Opaque watercolor heightened with gold on paper 

Painting: 5 1 ⁄2 x 3 1 ⁄4 inches (12.7 x 8.2 cm) 

Folio: 9 1 ⁄2 x 7 1 ⁄2 inches (24.1 x 19.1 cm) 

The Razm-nama is the abridged version of the Hindu 

epic poem the Mahabharata, which tells the story of the 

rivalry between cousins, the Pandavas and the 

Kauravas, who competed for the kingdom of 

Hastinapura. The god Krishna is a central figure who 

assists the Pandava brothers. In 1582–83, at Emperor 

Akbar’s request, the massive work was translated into 

Persian, but the presentation manuscript now preserved 

in the Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum in Jaipur, 

with one hundred sixty-three paintings, was not 

completed until 1586. 

The scene represented in this painting, which is not in 

the Jaipur Razm-nama, shows Bhisma and Yudhisthira 

discussing the issue of trust. Bhisma is relating the story 

of King Brahmadatta’s discourse with the bird Pujani, 

after Brahmadatta’s infant son has killed Pujani’s baby. 

On the left side of the painting, the two brothers are 

seated together in a palace courtyard. Yudhisthira, 

dressed in yellow and orange, listens attentively to 

Bhisma, who is garbed head-to-toe in green accented 

with gold. Bhisma is gesticulating to 

Yudhisthira, as he narrates the parable, 

and the other three Pandava brothers, 

Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, sit behind 

Bhisma. The muted mauve, blue, and 

green, tones of the architecture and sky 

effectively highlight the vibrant colors and 

modeling of the figures. 

The name, “Ibrahim,” written on the scrolls the men are 

holding, 1 may be an informal signature of the painter 

Ibrahim Kahhar, an artist in the royal atelier known to 

have worked on the Razm-nama, 2 but a clear 

attribution to this artist cannot be made. The text on 

the verso of the painting is unrelated poetry 

attached at a later date. 

1 Art of the Past extends a special thanks to John Seyller for translating the 

scrolls in the painting and providing information on the artist Ibrahim 

Kahhar. 

2 See Linda York Leach, Mughal and Other Indian Paintings from the 

Chester Beatty Library (London: Scorpion Cavendish, Ltd., 1995), vol. 2, p. 

1105, for an overview of Ibrahim Kahhar's work.

19 

Nepal 

Malla Period, 17th century 

Schist 

Panchimukhi Durga 


A five-headed Durga in warrior pose stands against a 

plain nimbus with a stylized flame border. As is 

characteristic of Nepali images of the Great Goddess, she 

holds a cup in her primary right hand and displays the 

gesture of exposition with the left. 1 The other eight 

hands hold the various weapons bestowed upon her by 

the gods to fight the buffalo demon Mahishasura. A 

flowing skirt drapes over her lower body, and jewelry 

adorns her bare torso and arms. Around her neck, she 

wears a long flower garland that reaches to her knees. 

Only four of the crowned heads are shown; the one in 

the back is not visible. The goddess balances herself on 

the backs of two lions, one under each foot. 

1 For another Nepali example with the hands arranged in this manner, see 

Pratapaditya Pal, Art of Nepal: A Catalogue of the Los Angeles Museum 

of Art Collection (Los Angeles: Los Angeles Museum of Art), fig. S64, 

p.135. 

2 A.W. Mcdonald & Anne Vergati Stahl, Newar Art: Nepalese Art During 

the Malla Period (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1979), fig. 

38, p. 52 

Since, in this sculpture, the Great Goddess, appearing in 

a panchimukhi, or five-head form, is depicted differently 

from the way she is shown when subduing the buffalo 

demon, it is possible that this goddess is one of the 

Navadurgas, or Nine Durgas. In the Mahadev Temple in 

Patan, Nepal, there is a sixteenth-century wooden strut 

that depicts a Panchimukhi Durga standing on the backs 

of snake-like lions and holding the same attributes as 

this figure. 2

20 

Punjab Hills, Bilaspur 

1700-1725 

Descent of the Ganges 


Dimensions: 9 3 ⁄4 x 6 1 ⁄4 inches (24.8 x 15.9 cm) 

This painting shows the moment before Shiva agrees to 

allow the Ganges River—which had previously flowed 

only in the heavens—to descend to earth. In his prayers 

to Shiva, King Bhagiratha of Ayodhya describes the 

extreme privations he has endured in an attempt to 

purify the ashes of his ancestors and allow them to 

ascend to heaven. Shiva, after accepting King 

Bhagairatha’s request, agrees to aid the descent of the 

Ganges in such a way that the earth will not be 

completely deluged by its powerful waters: the Ganges, 

represented by the goddess Ganga will descend to earth 

directly from Shiva's crown of matted hair. 

Shiva is seated in meditation posture on a tiger skin, 

with Parvati next to him. The god wears a diaphanous 

red cover over his matted hair, which is just beginning to 

stream the Ganges. The divine couple sits on linga rocks 

covered with flowers, against a backdrop of two white, 

similarly linga-shaped mountain peaks. The peaks are 

composed of clusters of smaller linga shapes, outlined in 

an icy blue. Shiva’s flag-draped trisula is placed between 

them. The couchant Nandi gazes adoringly at Shiva 

from the lower range of flower-strewn rocks, and an 

uncrowned, humbled Bhagiratha appears at the lower 

right against a green ground, his hands clasped together 

in prayer and his eyes locked on Shiva. 

Published: Stella Kramrisch, Manifestations of Shiva (Philadelphia: 

Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1981), P-42, p.210; 

Pratapaditya Pal, The Flute and the Brush: Indian Paintings 

from the William Theo Brown and Paul Wonner Collection 

(Newport Beach: Newport Harbor Art Museum, 1976), 

no. 14.

21 

Rajasthan, Bharatpur 

Early 18th century 

Silver with gold wash and enamel 

Enameled Covered Jar 


1 For a comparative enameled jar, see Christiane Terlinden, Mughal Silver 

Magnificence: XVI-XIX C. (Belguim, Antagia, 1987), fig. 152, p. 111. 

2 For more information on the practices of looting by British troops in India, see 

Lawrences James, The Rise and Fall of the British Empire (New York, St. 

Martin’s Press, 2004), pp. 130-131. 

This beautifully enameled jar is covered in an ornate, 

repeated floral motif that continues up to the lid. The jar 

is silver, with a gold wash, and the elaborate design is 

made up of blue, green, and manganese enamel. Seated 

on a narrow foot, the rounded, stout body of the jar 

tapers in to a curved neck, and its two-tiered lid is 

topped with a rounded finial. 1 

The enameling of such decorative pieces, known locally 

as minai work, involves a rather labor-intensive process. 

Such objects were done according to the champlevé 

process, in which an oxide paste is applied to the 

excavated metal surface, and the object then fired at an 

intense heat to fuse the color with the metal. Since each 

color of oxide requires a different temperature for 

fusion, colors were added one at a time, starting with 

those requiring the greatest heat. 

The jar contained a handwritten letter, dated April 9, 

1895, that reads: 

“Enameled cup purchased by Sir Tho Reznik after siege of 

Bharatpur. Left to me by my mother’s will. Doris Benford” 

The British had tried to topple the powerful Bharatpur 

fort in 1805 in the Second Anglo-Maratha War, but were 

badly beaten. In 1825, the British engaged the Bharatpur 

fort again and by January of the following year, had 

taken control of the city. In Lawrence James’, The Rise 

and Fall of the British Empire, there is an account of an 

unknown soldier who saw seven carts of looted silver 

and gold objects taken by the British army to be 

auctioned off to British officers present. 2 Sir Thomas 

Reznik was certainly one of these British officers and he 

purchased this beautiful enameled Mughal jar from the 

auction. The jar had then come to Doris Benford from 

her mother. 

The discovery of the unique history surrounding this 

beautiful enameled jar adds so much richness and 

intrigue to an already wonderful example of early 18th 

century Mughal metalwork.

22 

Attributed to Nihal Chand 

Rajasthan, Kishangarh 

Circa 1760 

Savant Singh and Bani Thani 



Her face is gleaming like the brightness of the sun. 

High-arched, twin penciled eyebrows hover on her brow like black bees 

over a lily pond, 

And her dark tresses fall here and there like the curling tendrils of a 

creeper. 

Bejeweled is her nose, curved and sharp like the thrusting saru plant, 

And her lips have formed a gracious bow parting into a queenly smile, 

Lips red as poppy flowers glowing in the scorching sun 

Of June's long stagnant afternoon — what time the amorous dove 

complains1 In the year 1731, Bankavataji, step-mother of Savant 

Singh, took into her zenana a young girl who became a 

gayana, or singer, in her retinue. This girl, originally 

bought as a slave in Delhi, later became known as “the 

immortal Bani Thani.” Bankavataji returned to 

Kishangarh with her retinue sometime before the 

cardinal year of 1739, when the Persian emperor Nadir 

Shah sacked the Imperial Mughal capital of Delhi. It is 

not known exactly when the Kishangarh prince Savant 

Singh, known also by his nom de plume, Nagari Das, met 

Bani Thani, but it is certain they fell deeply in love, and 

she became his pasvan, or mistress, despite their 

eighteen-year age difference. Both Savant Singh and 

Bani Thani were intensely devoted to the worship of 

Radha and Krishna and were exceptional poets. 

Savant Singh was a passionate and dedicated patron of 

the arts. It is even thought he received formal training at 

the Mughal court, and a handful of paintings bear 

1 A description of Bani Thani by Nagari Das, Eric Dickinson & Karl 

Khandalavala, Kishangarh Painting (New Delhi: Lalit Kalā Akademi, 1959), 

p. 9. 

2 Eric Dickinson and Karl Khandalavala, Kishangarh Painting (New Delhi: 

Lalit Kalā Akademi, 1959), p. 6. 

3 Compare with another portrait of the divine couple by Nihal Chand; M.S. 

Randhawa and D.S. Randhawa, Kishangarh Painting (Bombay: Vakils, 

Feffer, and Simons Ltd., 1980), plate II, pp. 16-17. Compare also with a 

portrait of Radha; Eric Dickinson & Karl Khandalavala, Kishangarh 

Painting (New Delhi: Lalit Kalā Akademi, 1959), pl. IV, pp. 26-27. 

4 Eric Dickinson & Karl Khandalavala, Kishangarh Painting (New Delhi: 

Lalit Kalā Akademi, 1959), Pl. I, pp. 20-21. 

inscriptions with his name in the royal Kishangarh 

collection. 2 Savant Singh developed a close, 

all-important bond with Surdhaj Nihal Chand, an artist 

in the atelier of his father, Raj Singh. Together, Savant 

Singh and Nihal Chand transcended the pictorial form 

of the allegory of Radha and Krishna. The portrait of 

Bani Thani became the model for the divine Radha and 

the archetype for a new model of idealized beauty. This 

creation became the standard for all Kishangarh painting 

well into the nineteenth century, and was highly 

influential throughout the surrounding Rajput courts in 

Rajasthan. 

In this painting, Bani Thani is portrayed with an 

elongated face, arched eyebrows, lotus-like, padmakshi 

eyes tinged with pink, a sharp nose, thin lips, and a 

pointed chin. The same formula is used for the image of 

Savant Singh as Krishna, whose skin is distinguished by 

its light-blue color. 3 The thinly moustached poet-prince 

looks directly at his beloved, raises a flower blossom to 

her, and embraces her about the neck. She, in turn, 

firmly grasps his forearm with her hennaed hand and 

uses her other hand to balance herself on the floor. Bani 

Thani is dressed in a gold sari decorated with a 

repeating green leaf pattern. Savant Singh wears a long 

white jama that flows over his feet, and a light pink scarf 

and turban that echo the color of the pillow, the leaf-like 

carpet, and the subtle tinge in the eyes. Deep yellow 

aureoles frame the lovers' faces that radiate barely 

visible, delicately painted white rays that extend into the 

gold-streaked sky. A white-marble railing is behind the 

couple, and white and pink blossoms decorate the dark 

trees of the garden farther in the distance. 

The outstanding refinement of the handling of form, 

composition, shadow, and deep emotional intimacy are 

signatures of the master-style of Nihal Chand. This 

painting seems almost a close-up of another, earlier 

Nihal Chand painting, A Courtly Paradise, which shows a 

broader view of the similarly dressed lovers seated in 

nearly identical positions in a marble pavilion on a 

palace veranda overlooking a dark forest. 4 After 

becoming disgusted by the fratricidal war between his 

younger brother, Bahadur Singh, and his son, Sardar 

Singh Savant Singh abdicated his throne in 1757, and 

retired to Vrindiban with Bani Thani, where the two 

could devote themselves to the worship of Krishna. 

Although this conflict eventually divided Kishangarh, 

Nihal Chand continued to paint for many years after 

Savant Singh left the throne. This painting was probably 

executed about the time of Savant Singh's abdication or 

soon after his departure.

23 

Northern India 

18th century 

Iron and gold 

Koftgari Box 

Dimensions: 7 3 ⁄4 x 5 1 ⁄2 x 3 1 ⁄4 inches (19.7 x 14 x 8.3 cm) 

Koftgari is a traditional Indo-Persian form of the art of 

damascening, which is the process of inlaying wires of 

gold, or sometimes silver, into an object of steel or iron. 

While this technique was originally used on weaponry 

and armory throughout Persia and Northern India, by 

the end of the 18th century it was more often used for 

decorative objects. 

The word koft means sorrow, named after the harsh 

techniques involved. The design is first engraved into 

the steel using a fine-pointed tool. The gold is beaten out 

to form a thin wire that will fit into the engraved design. 

The piece is then heated, hammered, and finally rubbed 

and polished, using a porous stone. 

1 For a contemporary example of a koftgari box, see Christiane Terlinden, 

Mughal Silver Magnificence: XVI-XIX C. (Belguim, Antagia, 1987), p. 44. 

The four main sections of this box’s sarcophagus-shaped 

lid are filled with designs of foliage sprays. The lid is 

framed with a decorative edge, depicting a feathery-leaf 

pattern. The body of the box features two rounded tiers 

with complementary etched work, and a geometric 

pattern around the base. From the bottom of the box, 

highly angled feet with matching feathery-leaf patterns 

splay out. The hinged lid can be opened with a turn of 

the original key. 1

24 

Punjab Hills, Kangra or Guler 

Circa 1780 

An Illustration from a Sundar Shringar Series: Radha and Krishna Lying on a Bed 


Painting: 5 3 ⁄4 x 9 1 ⁄4 in (14.6 x 23.5 cm) 

Folio: 7 3 ⁄4 x 11 1 ⁄4 in (19.7 x 28.6 cm) 

The Sundar Shringar, a poetic text dealing with the 

moods of love and the classification of heroines, or 

nayika bheda, was composed in the mid-seventeenth 

century by the poet Sundar Kavi, a contemporary of the 

Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. In this instance, the artist 

has chosen the characters of Radha and Krishna to 

depict the idealized notions of courtship and romance 

between the hero and heroine celebrated in the poem. 

Krishna gently caresses Radha, as the two lie on a bed on 

an open terrace beneath a star-studded sky. The blue 

god, clothed in a short, yellow dhoti and adorned with a 

necklace, armbands, earrings, and a gold crown, rests his 

bent right leg on Radha's thigh and holds her arm with 

his right hand. Krishna supports his head with his left 

arm and gazes sweetly at the back of Radha's head. She 

also rests her head on her left arm, and her right hand 

dangles off the side of the bed. Radha is fully dressed, in 

an orange sari with a diaphanous green shawl. The 

scene is intimately framed by the grey palace walls and a 

red shade edged in yellow. 

There is a striking similarity between these Sundar 

Sringar paintings and the famous Tehri Garhwal Gita 

Govinda series, which, in the words of Randhawa, “. . . 

are the finest Kangra paintings in existence. . . . They 

have a strange dreamlike quality, and have an air of 

tenderness and refinement.” Indeed, the finesse of color, 

line, and form in this painting suggests that the artist 

was aware of the other series and may possibly have 

worked in the court atelier at the same period.

25 

by Liladhar of Udaipur 

Rajasthan, Mewar, ca. 1830-35 

Ink, wash, and opaque watercolor on paper 

Garden Darbar of Maharaja Jawan Singh 


A nimbused Maharaja Jawan Singh (r. 1828–1838), sitting 

on a carpet and resting against a large bolster, holds 

court with a group of sardars in a garden, all identified 

by small inscriptions. The maharaja is shown in profile, 

facing Kuwar Bharu Singh, who gesticulates to him with 

his right hand. Behind Bharu Singh sits a freckled 

Maharaja Bhawani Singh, holding a shield. The other 

sardars are, in clockwise order: Sanri Lal of Kharoli 

(thikana of Kota), Kuwar Fateh Singh of Delwara 

(thikana of Mewar), Kuwar Govardhan Singh, Bhawar 

Lal Bhopal Singh, Kuwar Borilal, Sahib Singh, Maharaja 

Anup Singh, and Saluman Rav. The garden is decorated 

with two fountains, and special attention has been paid 

to both their architecture and the gently cascading water. 

A low wall, running behind the group of figures, 

contains dense vegetation. 

1 For the comparison piece found at the Los Angeles Museum of Art 

http://www.tagger.steve.museum/zh-hans/steve/object/46264%5EM 

An inscription at the drawing’s lower right identifies the 

work’s artist as “Liladhar of Udaipur.” The Los Angeles 

County Museum of Art also has a painting attributed to 

Liladhar, Maharaja Fateh Singh and His Entourage, 1 but, 

since Fateh Singh reigned from 1884–1930, the same 

artist could not be responsible for both paintings.

26 

Rajasthan, Pratapgarh 

Mid-19th century 

Glass, gold foil, silver 

Thewa Dish 

Dimensions: 7 x 5 7 ⁄8 inches (17.8 x 14.9 cm) 

The art of making thewa glass is said to have been 

practiced for centuries by the Soni family. The technique, 

a tight-lipped family secret passed down from father to 

son, has produced decorative goods of such quality that 

they have long been revered by royal and noble patrons. 

The craftsman begins with the silver base and 

framework into which the thewa plaques will be 

mounted. Next, he cuts pieces of 

colored glass to fit within the 

silver mount, and cuts and 

etches intricate patterns and 

designs into the gold foil. The 

ornate gold designs are then 

placed atop the glass 

plaques and heated, using 

methods known only by 

the Soni family, to a 

temperature hot 

enough to 

fuse 

1 Joseph M Dye III, The Arts of India, Virginia Museum of Fine Art 

(Richmond, Virginia Museum of fine art, 2001), p. 436. 

the glass with the gold, yet not so hot as to damage the 

delicate designs. 

In this piece, the central oval plaque design, set on blue 

glass, contains eight elegant peacocks with individually 

etched tail feathers. The peacocks are arranged around a 

central floral medallion from which scrolling foliage and 

flowers spray and surround the birds. Two rows of 

raised, scalloped designs create the round form of the 

dish. The outer edge consists of alternating green and 

red plaques depicting elaborate hunting scenes, a 

common theme in thewa works. Nobles sit astride 

horses, camels, and elephants as they hunt tigers, 

antelope, and rabbits. A chevron design is traced in the 

inner and outer edges of each plaque. 

A comparable example of a contemporary piece of thewa 

craftsmanship can be seen the Virginia Museum of Fine 

Arts, Richmond. 1

27 

Western India, Rajasthan 

Circa 1880 

A Family Portrait 

Opaque watercolor heightened with gold and silver on paper 


1 Compare A Portrait of Maharaja Bhopal Singh of Khatoli, in Joachim K. 

Bautze , Interactions of Cultures—The Ehrenfeld Collection (Alexandria: 

Art Services International, 1999), fig. 26, pp. 120-121. 

In a palace courtyard, and framed by an imposing silver 

arch, a group of ten male figures is assembled on a 

vibrant, boldly patterned red carpet and posed formally. 

The central subject, obviously the ruler of this court, is 

dressed in a luxurious emerald-green, gold-patterned 

and -bordered garment. His feet are bare, and he wears a 

thinly striped turban and a long garland of pink flowers. 

He is seated on a golden throne with a red cushion, and 

holds a European-style, ivory-handled, blue walking 

stick in his ringed right hand. His equally adorned left 

hand holds a pink flower blossom and a white scarf 

decorated with a pattern of tiny red flowers and gold 

designs. He displays a prominent tilak on his forehead. 

The other men in the painting are dressed simply, in 

white, except for one—the boy seated to the immediate 

right of the ruler, in the lap of a mature, bearded figure 

holding a pink blossom—who wears a red-patterned 

yellow 

garment and a 

green turban accented 

with gold and holds an 

ivory-handled green 

walking stick. The boy’s 

attire indicates that he is 

the ruler's son. 

The balance of the 

painting’s composition 

is traditionally Rajput in 

nature and is enhanced by 

the strong architecture of the framing 

arch and portrait of the central figure. It 

is interesting to note that, although many 

of the portraits of Indian rulers commissioned during 

the late-nineteenth century blended Rajput traditions 

with techniques borrowed from photography and 

European portrait painting, this particular family 

portrait remains truer to its Rajput roots. 1

28 

Northern India, Himachel Pradesh, Probably Chamba 

Early 19th century 

Cotton embroidered with silk 

Rumal, with Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman 


1 Susan Stronge, The Arts of the Sikh Kingdoms, (London, V&A 

Publications 1999), pp. 131-133. 

2 For a contemporary example of a Chamba Rumal, see Joseph M. Dye, The 

Arts of India: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts (Richmond: Virginia 

Museum of Fine Art, 2001), p. 477. 

Rumals are embroidered cloths that were used as 

coverlets for food or gift offerings during weddings or 

on other ceremonial occasions. While rumals are widely 

believed to have originated in Chamba, examples from 

many surrounding courts have also been identified. The 

designs vary widely, from rather primitive, folk-art 

geometric and floral designs, to highly elaborate 

depictions of court scenes and Hindu gods. 

Traditionally, silk floss was used to embroider fine white 

cotton, using a double satin stitch, making the design 

visible from both front and back. Although rumals were 

often stitched by local women in preparation for a grand 

event, more ornate examples like this one bear such 

strong stylistic similarities to court paintings that they 

were likely drawn and stitched by court artists. 1 

The color palette of this piece consists of muted tones of 

yellow, green, and blue. In the center of the composition, 

Rama sits, with Sita on his lap, amid pale-yellow 

cushions on a platform throne. Rama’s legs are crossed; 

Sita’s are tucked under her. Rama is depicted in his 

typical deep-blue color, and the couple’s garments are 

the same pale yellow as the cushions beneath and 

behind them. 

To the left, Hanuman, the color of bright goldenrod, and 

wearing a lower garment of dark green-and-white 

stripes, approaches Rama and Sita, offering the pair a 

gift. To the right stands a pale-green–clad attendant 

waving a flywhisk. The background is completed by a 

bird flying overhead, a single cypress tree, and a field of 

flowering foliage. 

A simple floral-and-scrolling-vine design frames the 

image, and touches of deep red serve as contrast. 

Though portions of the textile’s stitching have been 

damaged over time, the exquisite detail of its figures and 

fineness of its stitching make it a particularly fine 

example of a Pahari rumal. 2

29 

Northern India, Punjab 

19th century 

Brass 

Plate of Guru Nanak Devji with Bala and Mardana 

Dimensions: 24 x 14 1 ⁄4 inches (61 x 36.2 cm) 

At the center of this composition is Guru Nanak Devji, 

flanked by his constant companions, Bala and Mardana. 

Bala, seated to the guru’s right, holds up a flywhisk, 

while Mardana, to his left, holds his typical rabab. Nanak 

Dev, seated on a carpet and leaning against a large 

bolster, props himself up with his left hand, and, with 

his right, clutches the rosary around his neck. His head 

is tilted to the side, as he loses himself in Mardana’s 

music. Over the heads of the three men stretches the 

foliage of an ornately embossed tree, a bird perched on a 

lower branch, close to the Guru. The scene is framed by 

a cusped arch set below foliate scrolls. A large floral 

band stretches across the plate’s lower portion, and 

additional floral scrolls frame the composition. 

This art form is referred to locally as ubhar-da-kam, or 

raised work, with the designs hammered from the 

underside, creating raised reliefs, as in repoussé work. 

Plates, such as the one depicted Guru Nanak Devji, were 

made to be set into the temple walls as part of a shrine, 

often appearing as a series. These were often gifts from 

devotees to the temples, made evident by the occasional 

inclusion of a donors name and address embossed 

directly on the plate. Comparable examples still adorn 

such temples as the Gurdwara Baba Atal, the Golden 

Temple, and the Shiva temple in Bazaar Bikanerian.

30 

Rajasthan, Nathadwara, Kankroli 

Circa 1908 

Maharana Fatah Singh Visiting Kankroli 

Opaque watercolor heightened with gold and silver on paper 


In an elaborate celebration scene, in a room full of 

worshippers, the central image is of two black stone 

figures, Shri Dvarkadhishji and Shri Mathureshji, two of 

the seven forms of Krishna, or svarupas, who are 

worshipped by the Vaishnava sect. Both are shown as 

the four-armed figures often seen placed at either side of 

images of Shri Nathji. The pair, dressed in matching 

chakdar vagas, or long, four-pointed tunics, are set in 

small niches. 

The high priest of the Kota haveli of Shri Mathureshji, 

Goswami Ranchhorlal, stands to the right of the pair, 

holding a morchal. He has brought Mathureshji to the 

haveli of Dvarjadhishji, in Kankroli, for a special 

ceremony. Presiding 

over the event is 

the high priest of 

Kankroli, 

Goswami 

Balakrishnalalji, who 

stands to the left of the 

shrine, holding an oil lamp, 

as he performs arati. Standing 

before the sacred images are 

miniature figures, possibly 

reenacting stories from the 

life of Krishna, as part of the 

ceremony. In the foreground 

is a small scale image of the 

haveli with worshippers 

gathered around it. 

The impressive haveli has 

soaring ceilings covered in 

green tiles and a two-level 

balcony, upon which female 

attendants stand, overlooking the 

ceremony. Tall golden pillars flank 

the icons and support the 

1 For more information on this particular manorath ceremony, see Tryna Lyons, 

The Artists of Nathadwara: The Practice of Painting in Rajasthan 

(Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2004), pp. 140-141. 

2 Robert Skelton was pivotal in the identification of the event of this painting 

and recommending resource materials. 

balcony. The two side walls of the room are lined with 

grand cusped arches. 

The ceremony depicted was held in honor of Maharana 

Fateh Singh (r. 1884–1930). As maharana of the state of 

Mewar, he ruled over both Kota and Kankroli. Fateh 

Singh, distinguished only by the elaborate sash wrapped 

several times around his waist, stands to the left of the 

enshrined figures. While a maharana would usually 

have been depicted with a nimbus, in this case, since he 

is in the presence of sacred figures, the symbol has been 

omitted. 

While elaborate manoraths, or personalized ceremonies, 

were often held by a donor to honor a resident icon, it 

was highly unusual for such an event to honor a visiting 

icon as well. Only a temple’s high priest could have 

arranged such an event, 1 and it would have been 

commemorated by a painting or series of paintings and 

pichwias. 2

Text: Aaron M. Freedman 

Jennifer M. Moore 

Design: Harish Patel 

Photography: Subhash Kapoor 

Publisher: Art of the Past, Inc. 

1242 Madison Avenue 

New York, NY 10128 

T: 212.860.7070 

F: 212.876.5373 

artofpast@aol.com 

www.artofpast.com 

© 2011 by Art of the Past, Inc. 

No part of this publication may be reproduced 

in any form, or by any means, without the 

prior written permission of the copyright 

holders. 

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