BEARDED VULTURE POPULATION AND HABITAT VIABILITY ...

BEARDED VULTURE POPULATION AND 

HABITAT VIABILITY ASSESSMENT 

(Gypaetus barbatus) 

BRIEFING BOOK 

Sterkfontein Dam, Harrismith 

6 - 10 March 2006 

Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier 

Project

Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) 

BRIEFING BOOK 

prepared by 

Prof. S.E. Piper 

in preparation for the 

Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) 

Workshop 

To be hosted by 

The Conservation Breeding Specialist Group 

(CBSG – IUCN/SSC) 

CBSG Southern Africa 

Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Sponsored by the 

Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project 

Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Birds of Prey Working Group / EWT 

6 - 10 March 2006 

Sterkfontein Dam 

South Africa

Population and Habitat Viability Assessment: Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

SECTION 1 

1. Summary................................................................................................................ 4 

2. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 4 

3. Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 5 

SECTION 2 

4. Draft Participants List........................................................................................... 7 

SECTION 3 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY 

5. Taxonomic description......................................................................................... 9 

6. Life history........................................................................................................... 11 

7. Genetics in southern Africa ............................................................................... 19 

8. Distribution and population status ................................................................... 20 

9. Protection status................................................................................................. 30 

10. Habitat requirements .......................................................................................... 30 

11. Threats ................................................................................................................. 30 

12. Legislation ........................................................................................................... 33 

13. Acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 34 

SECTION 4 PHVA PROCESS 

14. PHVA workshop: A tool for Threatened Species Management ..................... 36 

15. Input Data Required for VORTEX ...................................................................... 47 

SECTION 5 REFERENCES 

16. References........................................................................................................... 53 

SECTION 6 APPENDICES 

Appendix 1: Protection Status Tables ..................................................................... 57 

Appendix 2: Bearded Vulture PHVA Programme.................................................... 58 

Appendix 3: Introducing the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group............... 60 

Appendix 4: Introducing CBSG Southern Africa .................................................... 63 

Appendix 5: The Endangered Wildlife Trust ........................................................... 66 

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SECTION 1 

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1. Summary 

This Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) Population and Habitat Viability Assessment 

(PHVA) Briefing Document serves to provide all participants, attending the PHVA from the 6th 

to the 10th of March 2006, with background information on the species and related current 

conservation activities in South Africa. Background information on the PHVA theory and the 

process that will be followed are also provided. 

The goals of the workshop are to determine conservation priorities for the Bearded Vulture 

(Gypaetus barbatus) and develop a coordinated, collaborative, effective conservation plan for 

the species and its habitat in South Africa. 

The PHVA process uses data on population status and trends, distribution, genetics, health 

status, biology, threats and the ecology of the species to input into computer-based population 

models (VORTEX) which test different management scenarios and forecast current and future 

risk of population decline and/or extinction. 

The outcomes of this workshop will include a comprehensive assimilation of the current data 

available on Bearded Vultures in South Africa, a peer-reviewed conservation strategy for the 

species and its habitat and a number of realistic, achievable conservation actions and 

recommendations for improving the current status of Bearded Vulture in South Africa. 

2. Introduction 

Based on the Bearded Vulture’s small and declining population size, restricted range, range 

contraction, and susceptibility to several threats in Lesotho and South Africa, it is regionally 

classified as Endangered (Barnes 2000). The PHVA will be held to draft a national action plan 

for the species’ conservation and deterministic and stochastic forces will be explored to 

determine the species vulnerability to extinction. 

There are two isolated populations of Bearded Vultures, one in Ethiopia (ca. 4000 pairs) and 

Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania (ca. 50 pairs), another in southern Africa (< 200 pairs). The 

study population is taken as the entire South African population; however a separate North 

Africa model may be prepared. 

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The Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG), an IUCN (World Conservation Union) 

Species Survival Specialist Group, has developed a series of scientifically-based tools to 

undertake risk assessment and species management decision-making. These tools include 

the PHVA process, which uses population and conservation biology, human demography and 

the dynamics of social learning in intensive, problem-solving workshops to produce realistic 

and achievable recommendations for more effective wildlife and habitat management. 

3. Problem Statement 

The Bearded Vulture is not considered to be globally threatened (BirdLife International 2000). 

With an estimated global range of 10 6 to 10 7 km 2 and a population of 10 4 to 10 5 individuals, it is 

thought that the population is declining worldwide but not at a sufficiently fast rate to rate its 

status as anything but of ‘Least concern’ (BirdLife International 2004). 

There is considerable concern surrounding the decline in the distribution and number of the 

Bearded Vulture in South Africa, over the last century. This reduction in range can largely be 

attributed to the loss of natural ungulates, superior animal husbandry practices and improved 

animal hygiene that has lead to a reduction in the food supply and is considered by some (e.g. 

Boshoff et al. 1983) to be the most serious cause of population decline and range contraction. 

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SECTION 2 

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4. Draft Participants List 

Name Affiliation 

Addisu Mitiku Bale Mountains National Park 

Alastair Nelson Frankfurt Zoological Society 

Albert Smith SANParks, Golden Gate National Park 

Andrė Botha BoPWG / Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Andrew Jenkins Percy FitzPatrick Institute 

Bill Howells Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Brenda Daly CBSG SA / Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) 

Dave Walker Private 

David Allan Durban Natural Science Museum 

Doug Burden Mondi Shanduka News Print 

Eduard Goosen Northern Ukhahlamba Drakensberg Park 

Hayley Komen BoPWG / Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Ian Rushworth Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

John Crowson Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Kerryn Morrison Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Mohammednur Yune Bale Mountains National Park 

Ntombifuthi Luthuli Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Oscar Mthimkhulu KZN Wildlife Ukhahlamba Region 

Richard Lechmere-Oertel Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project 

Sonja Krüger Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Steve McKean Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Steven Piper Ornithological Support Services 

Thulo Qhotsokoane National Biodiversity Coordinator 

Tsepo Lepono Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project 

Wigbert Vogeley German Development Service / District Council of 

Quthing 

Yolan Friedmann CBSG SA / Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Yoliswa Ndlovu Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife 

Zella Zintatho Matwele Dept. of Economic Affairs, Enviro and Tourism 

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SECTION 3 

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5. Taxonomic description 

Geographical Variation: Mainly in shade of rufous below and in size. 

Subspp: World two, southern Africa one (del Hoyo, Elliott and Sargatal 1994: 125). 

Vultur barbatus Linnaeus, 1758, Santa Cruz, near Oran, Algeria. 

G. b. barbatus Linnaeus, 1758, NW Africa and SW Eurpe through Turkey, Egypt, Middle East, 

Iran and Afghanistan to Mongolia and central and NE China. 

G. b. meridionalis Keyserling & Blasius, 1840, Wirbelth. Europ., p28; S Africa, Sundays R, E 

Cape (vide Streseman, 1954, Ann. Mus. R. du Congo Belge, new ser. in 4th, Zool., 1:82). 

Throughout species range in s Africa, extralimitally in E Africa and Ethiopia. 

Identification: 110 cm, 5.7 kg, wingspan 2.6 m. Sexes alike, though females may be slightly 

larger. Within a pair, females have broader wings at junction of primaries and secondaries 

because P1 (i.e. the inner-most primary flight feather) and P2 are longer than the adjacent 

secondaries. 

Adult: Appears as a dark bird with a blonde head. Head fully feathered, eye and beard 

prominent, no supra-orbital ridge. Facial mask is black around the eye, extends downwards 

over nostrils and cere to end in a bristly beard, 45-55 mm long. Feathers of crown, sides of 

face and jaws close-cropped downy semi-plumes, feathers of the back of head, nape and 

throat long and shaggy. Colour varies from almost white to bright orange depending on soil 

(see Other, below). Whole of under-body, feathered leggings and long under-tail coverts 

usually orange to rufous (see Other, below). Light colour of under-body spreads onto underwings 

to form ‘armpits’ - these patterns may be unique to each individual (see Individual 

recognition, below). Upper body is dark slate-grey coming up to the base of the neck. Almost 

all the dark upper wing coverts have a light streak along the midrib that broadens out to a blob 

at the tip, feathers of mantle, scapulars and back also streaked. Remiges (i.e. wing flight 

feathers) are blackish and the rectrices (i.e. tail flight feathers) plain dark brown with 

contrasting white quills which create a streaky appearance which is only apparent close-up. At 

rest the bird stands with its body almost horizontal and gives the impression of being 

elongated with short legs. From below, under-wing coverts dark with light-coloured streaks 

along their centres, last row of coverts and flight feathers dark grey. In flight, wings long and 

pointed, appear to have a slightly darker trailing edge, tail long and wedge-shaped when 

fanned. Bill, tarsi and toes brown, cere grey. Eyes with pale yellow iris are surrounded by 

broad scarlet sclerotic ring. 

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Sub-adult: (45-60 months). Like 2 nd immature, but head paler, clearly separated from more 

rufous chest and belly by dark chestnut neck ring. Eye-ring is deep red, not opaque, as in 

adult. 

Immature: (24-45 months) Eyes change to clear yellow by 36 months, though still darker than 

adults, eye-ring deep red and slightly opaque though becoming less so with age. Beard 37 

mm at 36 months (n=1). Transition to complete adult plumage takes 6 years with pale feathers 

first appearing on the upper wing coverts and under-body and only later on the head so 

highlighting the black facial mask. After the first moult flight feathers are rounded and greyer. 

Juvenile: (3-24 months, n=2), Very dark brown all over, feathered mane is blackish. Beard 

short, ca 10 mm. Eyes slightly opaque pale yellow-brown, eye-ring changes from opaque 

brown-red at 8 months to opaque dull red. Rectrices and remiges are plain dark brown, paler 

along shafts and tipped buff. In flight the tail is more wedge-shaped and longer than that of 

adults, the wings are more pointed. Upper wing coverts and contour feathers are not as 

conspicuously streaked as in adults, making upper wing appear dappled. 

Confusing species: Large size, long pointed wings and long wedge-shaped tail are 

distinctive. On the ground, the long folded wings give a hunched appearance and it stands 

with body almost horizontal and gives the impression of being elongated with short legs, unlike 

the larger Cape Griffon Vulture (Gyps coprotheres), the only other sympatric vulture in 

southern Africa, which holds its body almost upright. All age classes are darker than the Cape 

Griffon Vulture and its neck is much shorter. In the air, the Bearded Vulture has longer and 

more pointed wings and tail (Brown 1989; Mundy, Butchart, Ledger and Piper 1992: 202ff). 

Confusion between Bearded Vultures and other species should be unlikely in southern Africa 

(Brown 1997a). 

Individual recognition: Based on a small sample size in a three week study of birds visiting 

the hide at Giant’s Castle (Magdel Combrink, in litt.) it was possible to identify nine different 

adult Bearded Vultures flying past, based on their under-wing patterns (i.e. ‘armpits’). 

Other: The rufous or orange stain on the feathers of the underbelly is from an accumulation of 

iron oxide on the feather barbs, acquired from a passive and incidental contact (C.J. Brown in 

Mundy et al. 1992: 206) though, in captivity, they may actively seek out dust-bathing in iron 

oxide rich soils (see photograph and caption in Frey, Schaden and Bijleveld van Lexmond 

2000: inside back cover. 

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6. Life history 

Breeding: Presumably monogamous in southern Africa, and solitary (Mundy et al. 1992: 213- 

215). Polyandrous trios have been recorded in Europe (Heredia and Donázar 1990) as well as 

solitary behaviour. In southern Africa three adults have been seen, on occasions, at the nests 

on Monks Cowl and Black Mountain in 2004 (S. Krüger pers. comm.) and at the Black 

Mountain nest in 2005 (S. Krüger pers. comm.; S.E. Piper, pers. obs.), though it is not known 

if these trios were made up of one female and two males. Average inter-pair distance = 6.3 km 

and min = 0.7 km in the high Drakensberg, 15 km in the Lesotho highlands and 19 km in the 

northern Eastern Cape Province, average breeding density is estimated at 1 pair/167.5 km 2 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 215). Small exclusive breeding territory, ca 30 m in diameter, is 

maintained around nest only; however, Verreaux’s Eagles (Aquila verreauxii) are chased at 

250 m (Mundy et al. 1992: 215). Most ‘courtship flights’ are initiated by the male who flaps up 

behind the female when she is gliding in the vicinity of the nest, this is followed for a few 

minutes by shallow undulations, either sex may lead (Mundy et al. 1992: 213). One bird flies 

upwards to a height and dives down to the other which rolls on its back and they engage 

talons: the diving bird calls shrilly (commonly observed among large raptors: Simmons and 

Mendelsohn 1993). Up to 14 such dives may occur. With talons locked they may fall through 

the air for a few hundred metres. Thereafter, they may land on a ledge and allopreen (Mundy 

et al. 1992: 214). Allopreening between partners is common, especially in the early morning 

and late afternoon (Mundy et al. 1992: 214). Copulation is preceded by a bout of allopreening, 

usually initiated by the male (Mundy et al. 1992: 214). They may also rub faces and heads 

together, sometimes the male bows a few times and even stamps his feet as if marching. The 

female stands next to the male slightly crouched before copulation that may take only a few 

seconds, occasionally they make a few soft high-pitched calls (Mundy et al. 1992: 214). Prebreeding 

courtship feeding has not been recorded. 

Nest: Males bring the sticks, carried lengthways, eagle-like, while females undertake the 

construction and help to provide the lining (Mundy et al. 1992: 215). They always nest on 

cliffs, usually in potholes or small caves, sometimes on ledges (Mundy et al. 1992: 214). In 

southern Africa nest sites on basalt cliffs average 195 m above ground and 2 814 m above 

sea level while those on sandstone average 47 m above ground and 1 935 m above sea level 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 214). The range of 74 nests in southern Africa was 24-732 m above 

ground and 1 850-3 200 m above sea level (Mundy et al. 1992: 214). The nests on exposed 

ledges were at lower altitudes and not susceptible to snowfalls. Pairs may have from one to 

eight alternative nests ranging from 2 m to 2 km apart, average = 230 m (Mundy et al. 1992: 

214). Often use an alternative nest site each year, usually refurbishing an existing nest, 

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possibly to starve out ectoparasites from the nest fabric (Simmons and Mendelsohn 1993: 

215). However, this is not always the case, the Bearded Vulture nest on Black Mountain, near 

the Sehonghong River was used every year from 1993 to 2005, both years inclusive (R.D. 

Guy pers. comm.). Most nests receive no direct sunlight and are on the leeward side so that 

the parents can approach upwind (Mundy et al. 1992: 214). They construct a large nest of 

many twigs and branches (up to 1 m), average 1 m in diameter and 500 mm deep. Cup, with 

an internal diameter of ca 400 mm is copiously lined with wool, hair and skin (Mundy et al. 

1992: 214-215). Unlike vultures (Gyps species), the nest site is largely unmarked by droppings 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 215). 

Laying dates: May (7), June (23), July (3) and August (1) (Mundy et al. 1992: 216 and RD 

Jeffery unpublished data), clearly autumn and early winter with pairs in the west (i.e. Maloti 

Mountains) laying nearly a month earlier than those in the east (i.e. Drakensberg) (Mundy et 

al. 1992: 216). Breeding is timed to synchronize the maximum food availability in September- 

October with the time of maximum food demand, when the nestling is growing fast and only 1 

adult can leave the nest to forage (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). 

Eggs: 1-3 (1.7, n=38) (Maclean 1993,, RD Jeffery unpublished data), second egg laid 3-5 d 

after first (n=4), but interval can be up to 10 days (Mundy et al. 1992: 216). The egg is broadly 

oval in shape and rufous-orange in colour with a mottling of purple or reddish brown, some 

eggs paler or even whitish. Eggs have a rough shell that acquires iron oxide colouring from 

incubating adults so that they become darker with time (Mundy et al. 1992: 215). Size (n=27) 

86.3-95.5 x 62.8-68.5 mm (86.9 x 65.4 mm) (Maclean 1993; RD Jeffery unpublished data; 

Northern Flagship Institution (= Transvaal Museum, in old speak); Steyn 1982). These data 

come from both South Africa and Kenya and need to be unpacked. Second egg in clutch is 

smaller by 4 mm in length and 3 mm in width (n=2) (Mundy et al. 1992: 215). Mass (n=2, G. b. 

barbatus, Europe) 242 g, i.e. ca 4% of ad mass, thus clutch of 2 is 8% (Mundy et al. 1992: 

215). Pairs breed at most once a year and replacement clutches are unrecorded Mundy et al. 

1992: 216). 

Incubation: Starts with first-laid egg, presumably to prevent it dying of cold (Mundy et al. 

1992: 216). The incubation period is 56-58 days; by both sexes during the day, female only at 

night, female incubates ca 75% of time (Mundy et al. 1992: 216). Incubating adults sit tight but 

rise up ca once per hour to turn egg. A change-over occurs approximately once every 2.5 hr, 

and is quick and ‘stealthy’ and egg(s) are left exposed for less than 2 minutes (Mundy et al. 

1992: 216). Males are more ‘restless’ when incubating. Incoming bird may bring new nest 

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material, outgoing bird may give a high-pitched shriek and defecate when on the wing. 

Sometimes parents ‘bow’ to each other at change-over (Mundy et al. 1992: 216). Adults may 

depart to drink water once or twice a day and may retrieve and eat a bone from a nearby 

cache (Mundy et al. 1992: 216). Predation on eggs is unrecorded and adults drive off other 

Bearded Vultures, White-necked Ravens (Corvus albicollis) and Verreaux’s Eagles (Mundy et 

al. 1992: 216). In the European reintroduction breeding programme, a sex ratio of newly 

hatched Bearded Vultures was observed to be 150 males to 143 females (H. Frey, in litt.). 

This is 51.2% males and is not statistically different from 50% (chi-squared test, p > 68%), the 

95% confidence limits are approximately 45.41% to 56.98%. Thus p=0.5119, where p is the 

sex ratio and the approximate standard deviation of p is 0.028925. 

Development & care of young: Eggs take 2 day to hatch, hatchlings are well covered in 

grey-white down all over except for black down on face and around nostrils; cere is downy, not 

naked and eyes are open (Mundy et al. 1992: 216). Hatchling mass is ca 90-130 grams (from 

captive studies) (Mundy et al. 1992: 216). At ca 21 days nestling is ca 1 kilogram and a 

second coat of thick woolly greyish brown down develops. By 28 days black vanes are visible 

along main feather tracts and eye-ring is developing and reddening. Nestling(s) is/are 

constantly guarded by both adults up to 40 days, by the female at night and thereafter 

decreases to 90 days when it is left completely alone. Nestling(s) is/are left alone at night from 

7 weeks on but guarded during the day and from ca 8 weeks on it is left unguarded during the 

day as well (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). Both adults bring food to the nest, may visit up to once 

every 2 hours, though not always with food. Initially nestlings are fed small pieces of meat that 

are pulled off a larger piece carried to the nest in the adults’ feet; morsels are passed from 

beak to beak, all rather eagle-like (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). In captivity it has been observed 

that adults salivate profusely over morsels, especially for very small nestlings, perhaps 

providing digestive enzymes or lubricating the food (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). Nestlings 

sometimes beg with a bobbing motion and a cheeping call, this becomes louder and shriller in 

a hungry individual (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). By 6 weeks bill and gape are large and feather 

vanes of contour and flight feathers are well out and blackish brown in colour (Mundy et al. 

1992: 217). Bone fragments are fed from 1 week on; as the nestling grows so the proportion of 

bone in the diet increases, mostly limbs and long-bones from sheep and goats, often young 

animals. Other items fed to nestlings include antelope, hyrax, hare, dog and birds (Mundy et 

al. 1992: 217-218). At 6 weeks the nestling has mixture of down and feathers and can 

presumably self-thermoregulate (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). At this age, both adults still bring 

food but the female apparently feeds nestling more often. By 11 weeks the nestling is dorsally 

well covered in feathers, except for downy head and neck; fed ca 550 grams per day and this 

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takes ca 20 minutes and it can take bones of up to 15 cm. From ca 13 weeks the nestling 

snatches food from adults and can feed itself, food is brought ca 3-4 times per day, adults no 

longer stay with nestling (Mundy et al. 1992: 217-218). A captive-bred nestling of 102 days 

weighed 5.65 kg (Mundy et al. 1992: 217). Nestlings of 117 and 120 days were found below 

their nests but could not yet fly, but four other nestlings aged 124-128 days flew successfully, 

giving nestling period of 120–130 days (Mundy et al. 1992: 217-218). A nestling requires ca 40 

kg of food to fledge (Mundy et al. 1992: 218). The fledgling is like the juvenile except for 

underdeveloped lanceolate feathers of head and neck. For first 2 weeks seldom flies more 

than 200 m from nest. Roosts at night at nest where it is fed. At 4 weeks flies up to 3 km from 

nest, practises carrying bones in its feet and visits local ossuary to practise bone dropping; at 

2 months flight is still clumsy. From 2-6 months flies about with its parents, increases its range 

(up to 170 km 2 ) and flight lengths (up to 15 km from nest and 50 km long) and then gains 

independence (Mundy et al. 1992: 218). Last fed by adults at ca 12-14 weeks, this is 

presumably the post fledging dependence period, never returns to nest once the next 

breeding cycle has begun (Mundy et al. 1992: 218). 

Breeding success and Fecundity: At most one fledgling is produced per successful 

breeding attempt, irrespective of the number of eggs laid; the Cain-and-Abel sibling 

aggression syndrome is not known in southern Africa, and the older nestling usually outcompetes 

the younger which then starves to death (Mundy et al. 1992: 217-219). In southern 

Africa 18 breeding attempts produced 16 fledglings (= 0.8889 fledglings per pair p.a.), mainly 

in KwaZulu-Natal but also in Lesotho (Mundy et al. 1992: 217-219). In Kenya a single nest 

yielded seven nestlings from eight breeding attempts (= 0.875 fledglings per pair p.a.) while 15 

breeding attempts from three nests yielded ten nestlings (= 0.6667 fledglings per pair p.a.) 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 218-219). There are few records of predation on nestlings but there is one 

record of a nestling being killed by two White-necked Ravens (Mundy et al. 1992: 218). 

In a study in the Spanish Pyrenees, in 2000, there were 87 territories (61 pairs and 16 

trios, i.e. 18% trios) and of these there were 77 breeding attempts (i.e. 88.5%) with 65% 

producing a juvenile, i.e. 0.65 fledglings per breeding territory p.a. and 0.57 fledglings per 

territory (including non-breeding territories) p.a. (R. Heredia in Frey et al. 2000: 76-79). Later, 

in 2004, 106 territories were located (a larger area was monitored, including some with lower 

productivity) of which 88 held breeding pairs (i.e. 83%) and 33 fledglings were produced from 

84 ‘controlled’ nests giving a fecundity of 0.39 fledglings per breeding attempt or 0.326 

fledglings per territory (including non-breeding territories) p.a. (R. Heredia in Frey, Schaden 

and Bijleveld van Lexmond 2004: 70-72). 

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On the northern side of the Pyrenees a total of 24 territories were monitored in 2004 (22 

pairs and two trios) and 10 fledglings were produced from 20 clutches, with 91% of territorial 

groups breeding, a 50% breeding success and a fecundity of 0.45 fledglings per territory p.a. 

(M. Razine in Frey et al. 2004: 68- 69). 

Recruitment: Assuming 204 breeding pairs in the early 1980s (see Population, below), an 

estimated 181 fledglings would have recruited to the population each year in southern Africa 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 218-219). 

Age first breeding: Probably ca 7 years, though one southern African bird bred at ca 5 years 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 214). 

Breeding senescence: There is no information on when Bearded Vultures stop breeding, in 

the wild, if at all. The oldest known-age pair breeding in the wild (Balthazar, BG 099, released 

1988 and 18 years x Assignat BG 111, released 1989 and 17 years; Bargy Mountain, Haute 

Savoie) breed, successfully, almost every year (H. Frey, in litt.). However, a pair in captivity 

(BG 019 x BG 021, Alpine Zoo, Innsbruck, Austria) are both 40 years old and still breeding 

and produced an offspring in 2005 which was blind and it is suggested that this is because the 

adults are too old (H. Frey, in litt.). 

Survival: Survival of fledglings up to age 4 yr was 12% (i.e. an average annual survival rate of 

59%) while adult survival was 95% p.a. and mean life span of individuals reaching adult 

plumage was 22 years (Mundy et al. 1992: 218-219). There is no evidence to suggest that the 

survival rates of males and females are different. However, the existence of polyandrous trios 

in Europe (Heredia and Donázar 1990), and trios (sex structure unknown) in the southern 

African deme, may point to females having a lower survival rate and hence being in short 

supply. Alternatively, viable territories with adequate food may be in short supply in which 

case polyandrous trios could also form as a result of competition. 

Longevity: There are no published records of maximum age in the wild of African Bearded 

Vultures though a single colour-ringed bird was seen in about 1993 at Giant’s Castle and this 

was probably ringed by Dr. C.J. Brown a decade earlier (S.E. Piper, pers. obs.). In the 

European Alps reintroduction programme, there were still alive, in 2004, three birds that were 

originally released in 1986, i.e. at least 19 years old (Frey et al. 2004: 26). 

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In captivity, the oldest living male (Studbook No. 031) was 45 years old and the oldest 

living female (Studbook No. 003) was 43 years old, both in 2004 (Frey et al. 2004: 18). It is 

possible to estimate approximate longevities from empirical formulae (Newton 1979, quoting 

Lindstedt & Calder 1976): 

T = 16.6 M 0.18 , for wild non-passerines, 

T = 28.3 M 0.19 , for captive birds, with Longevity, T measured in years and mass, M measured 

in kilograms. 

The mass of adult Bearded Vultures is estimate as lying between 5.2 and 6.25 kg (Piper 

2005 or as having a mean mass of 5.74±0.4 kg (Brown 1989), which suggests a 95% range of 

4.94 to 6.64 kg. Using these limits, the longevity of wild birds should be between 22 and 23 

years and captive birds between 38 and 40 years, the latter figure coming close to the 

European experience. If we assume that longevity means that 1 in 100 survive to this age then 

the annual survival rate of adult Bearded Vultures would be 0.81 and if we assumed that it 

means that 1 in 1000 would survive to this age that yields an annual survival rate of 0.73 and 

both of these figures seem very low. 

Senescence: There is no information on senescence in Bearded Vultures, in the wild, if it 

exists. 

Population age structure: Young birds (juvenile & immature) made up 27% of population, 

sub-ads 2.6% and ads 70% (Mundy et al. 1992: 219). The proportion of young birds is higher 

in areas of low breeding density, i.e. nursery areas. 

Foraging and home range: The home range used by an individual in a year is 4 000 km 2 (i.e. 

equivalent to a circle of radius 36 km) to 7 500 km 2 (i.e. equivalent to a circle of radius 49 km) 

(Brown 1997b; Mundy et al. 1992: 209-210). 

Movements: Breeding adults are resident throughout the breeding season but may wander 

short distances to lower altitudes during the summer when not breeding. Marked individuals 

have been seen to move within a daily home range of up to 75-80 km in diameter, though they 

will go up to 90 km from their nest or roost (Brown 1997a), while actually flying 600-700 km 

along their route in a single day (Mundy et al. 1992: 210). Throughout its restricted range in 

southern Africa the bird is considered sedentary. Young birds wander widely but concentrate 

in areas of low adult densities, i.e. nursery areas (Brown 1997a; Mundy et al. 1992: 210). 

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General Habits: Adults are more likely to be seen alone than in pairs, occasionally in pairs 

and sometimes up to 4 birds seen together, seldom form social aggregations, as in other 

species of vulture (Mundy et al. 1992: 208). Couples flying together during the breeding 

season are often two males or two females from nearby breeding territories but outside the 

breeding season partners may forage together (Mundy et al. 1992: 208). Immature birds 

forage singly, in pairs, triplets and even with Cape Griffon Vultures. Larger groups, up to eight, 

sometimes 12-18, may assemble at food sources, e.g. vulture restaurants (Mundy et al. 1992: 

208). They regularly bathe in shallow rock pools and mountain streams after first drinking 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 209). The individual often first submerges its head and then tries to sit in 

the water and wet its back. Birds have been seen in the early morning in a spread-wing 

posture with their backs or sides to the sun (Mundy et al. 1992: 209). Only captive birds have 

been seen dust-bathing (Mundy et al. 1992: 209; see also inside back cover picture of Frey et 

al. 2000). Roost and sleep on cliff ledges, in potholes and small caves or at one of their nest 

sites, never on trees or on the ground in southern Africa (Mundy et al. 1992:209). They sleep 

resting on their bellies with their feet covered by feathers and head and with their neck 

hunched, and the body temperature is not lowered at night (Siegfried and Frost 1973). 

Foraging & Food: Forage exclusively from the air spending up to 80% of daylight hours on 

the wing, using mountain winds, slope drafts and declivity winds in order to search hillsides 

(Mundy et al. 1992: 209). They frequently forage in pairs or small groups so able to search a 

greater area (Mundy et al. 1992: 213). The birds rise between dawn and sunrise moving to a 

sunny spot and flying off if the wind and topography permit (Mundy et al. 1992: 209). 

Occasionally a bird will fly directly to a known food source at first light (Mundy et al. 1992: 

209). Once airborne, almost all progress is by gliding and soaring, seldom flapping and then at 

ca 2-3 beats per second; gliding is ca three times as common as soaring. Where the slope or 

declivity winds permit, birds glide ca 2-4 m above the ground in a sweeping, quartering or 

zigzag fashion at ca 40 km/hr (Mundy et al. 1992: 209-210). They can also search for food by 

flying along ridges at a greater height (20–70 m) and a greater speed (50–77 km/hr) (Mundy et 

al. 1992: 210). In summer they may spend up to 20% of their time searching for food at 

heights of up to 1 000 m (Mundy et al. 1992: 210). There are no observations of predation by 

the Bearded Vulture in southern Africa, and all food is scavenged from commercial and 

communal farms, and from protected areas. Adults avoid human habitation, but immature 

birds visit vulture restaurants more frequently than adults (Mundy et al. 1992: 210-211). When 

an individual is the first to detect a food source, especially a large carcass, it behaves as if it is 

very nervous, circling around, landing afar, taking off and circling again; this behaviour often 

attracts other vultures and eagles (Mundy et al. 1992: 210-211). An adult, if disturbed at this 

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stage, is much more likely to fly off; an immature which is more dependent on large carcasses, 

is more likely to stay and in turn be joined by other immature birds (Mundy et al. 1992: 211). 

Bearded Vultures of all ages give way to Cape Griffon Vultures of all ages and adult 

Verreaux’s Eagles but are not intimidated by immature Verreaux’s Eagles (Mundy et al. 1992: 

211). Food consists mainly bones from both fresh and old carcasses and given a choice they 

prefer bone to fresh meat (Mundy et al. 1992: 212-213) but they require red meat to feed 

nestlings (Brown 1997b). They are well-adapted to handle and process bones, including a 

wide gape of ca 70 mm which allows bones of up to 250 mm long by 35 mm in diameter to be 

swallowed, and digestion can proceed with part of the bone sitting in the throat or even still 

protruding from the mouth (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). Digestive juices are very acidic, probably 

with a pH of ca 1.0-1.5 (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). They are able to disarticulate bones from 

skeletons by tearing or cutting tendons and ligaments using the bill, and thus able to utilise 

completely dried-out carcasses (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). They are able to fly with large bones 

held parallel to the body, and process it at its leisure elsewhere. The heaviest bone removed 

was 4.3 kg, i.e. ca 69-83% of its body weight (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). The most famous 

adaptation, earning the name Ossifrage, is their ability to carry a bone aloft and drop it on an 

ossuary or ‘rock anvil.’ The average size of nine ossuaries in southern Africa was 1 600 m 2 , 

i.e. a diameter of 44 m (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). Gliding downwind at ca 56 m (range 16-70 

m) above ground, the bird steepens its glide, lowers its feet, drops the bone and then turns 

into the wind and descends and lands in a fluttery way (Mundy et al. 1992: 212), a technique 

that has to be learnt by immature birds (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). Bones are dropped an 

average of six times to 21 times (Mundy et al. 1992: 212). Breaking large bones reduces them 

to more manageable pieces and exposes the marrow. The long protrusible tongue, which is 

grooved but smooth along the edges is presumably used to scoop out marrow from bones and 

brains from skulls. The average diet is 70% bone, 25% fresh meat and 5% skin (Mundy et al. 

1992: 212-213). The most identifiable food items brought to the nest in southern Africa are 

from domestic stock, especially sheep and goats but also from cattle (Mundy et al. 1992: 218). 

Afterbirths from sheep are also eaten (Mundy et al. 1992: 213). Estimated food consumption 

465 grams food per day, ca 8% of body mass, which they try to consume every day, avoiding 

the feast and famine strategy of vultures (Gyps species) (Mundy et al. 1992: 213). Breeding 

adults form caches of food items, especially bones in potholes near their nests (Brown 1997b; 

Mundy et al. 1992: 216). Competition with other birds for food is rare; only one record known 

of a presumed adult Verreaux’s Eagle pirating meat from a Bearded Vulture (Scotcher 1973). 

Competition with scavenging mammals exists, currently most likely with domestic dogs and 

Black-backed Jackals Canis mesomelas, but probably with Spotted and Brown Hyaenas 

Crocuta crocuta and Hyaena brunnea in the past. It does not compete with White-necked 

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Ravens and Cape Griffon Vultures (Brown 1997b) as they take mainly red meat, organs and 

entrails. They avoid direct competition with vultures (Gyps species) when feeding nestlings by 

flying much earlier in the morning. Foraging range during the breeding season varies between 

300-750 km 2 though the home range during a year could be between 4 000 and 7 500 km 2 

(Brown 1997b; Mundy et al. 1992: 209-210). 

7. Genetics in southern Africa 

Currently there is no information on the genetic structure of the southern African deme. (A 

deme is a spatially discrete, interbreeding group of organisms all of the same species.) 

However, this deme is likely to be genetically uniform because it is small, less than 600 

individuals all within an area, which is small relative to their likely foraging range. The nature of 

the relationship between the southern African deme and the populations in East Africa is not 

known. Furthermore, the genetic relationship between the two sub-species is also not known. 

In a recent abstract (in Frey et al. 2004: 117) the results of a genetic analysis of the 

mitochondria of the Bearded Vulture were summarised as follows: 

Bearded Vulture populations in the Western Palearctic have experienced a severe 

decline during the last two centuries that has led to the near extinction of the 

species in Europe. In this paper we analyze the sequence variation at the 

mitochondrial control region throughout the species range to infer its recent 

evolutionary and to evaluate the current genetic status of the species. This study 

became possible through the extensive use of museum specimens to study 

populations now extinct. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the existence of two 

divergent mitochondrial lineages, lineage A occurring mainly in Western European 

populations and lineage B in African, Eastern European and Central Asian 

populations. The relative frequencies of haplotypes belonging to each lineage in the 

different populations show a steep East-West clinal distribution with maximal 

mixture of the two lineages in the Alps and Greece populations. A genealogical 

signature for population growth found for lineage B but not for lineage A and the 

Clade B haplotypes in Western populations and clade A haplotypes in eastern 

populations are recently derived, as revealed by their peripheral location in medianjoining 

haplotype networks. This phylogeographic pattern suggests allopatric 

differentiation of the two lineages in separate Mediterranean and African or Asian 

glacial refugia, followed by range expansion from the latter leading to two secondary 

contact suture zones in Central Europe and North Africa. High levels of among 

population differentiation were observed, although these were not correlated with 

geographical distance. Due to the marked genetic structure, extinction of Central 

European populations in the last century resulted in the loss of a major portion of 

the genetic diversity for the species. We also found direct evidence for the effect of 

drift altering the genetic composition of the remnant Pyrenean population after the 

demographic bottleneck of the last century. Our results argue for the management 

of the species as a single population, given the apparent ecological exchangeability 

of extant stocks, and support the ongoing reintroduction of mix ancestry birds in the 

Alps and planned reintroductions in Southern Spain. (José A. Godoy, Juan J. 

Negro, Fernando Hiraldo, José A. Donázar) 

From this it is clear that nothing is clear. 

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8. Distribution and population status 

Distribution: The species is distributed from Europe and North Africa in the west to Asia in 

the east and Africa in the south (Brown 1997a). Within Africa, the nominate race (i.e. G. b. 

barbatus) is only found in the mountains of the north-west. South of the Sahara, in Africa, 

there are two isolated populations, one in Ethiopia (ca. 4000 pairs) and Kenya, Uganda and 

Tanzania (ca. 50 pairs), another in southern Africa (< 200 pairs). The southern African deme 

has a breeding range of about 35,000 km 2 and a foraging range of about 100,000 km 2 (Brown 

1997a). 

This deme is restricted to the high mountain ranges of the Kingdom of Lesotho and to 

the mountainous regions of South Africa in three provinces: the Free State, KwaZulu-Natal 

and the Eastern Cape (including the former Transkei), with almost all sightings at altitudes 

greater than 1 500 m (Brown 1997a). Though formerly it was known from the Cape Fold 

Mountains, in the southern and western Cape, at altitudes less than 1 000 m (Brown 1997a; 

Layard 1867: 2), and even near the coast (collected at Inanda, KwaZulu-Natal by Thomas 

Ayres - Gurney 1864). 

The distribution of the entire southern African deme was rather crudely mapped in the 

last quarter of the twentieth century, based on an intuitive understanding of the species habitat 

requirements but not using any systematic bio-geographic data (e.g. Steyn 1982: 9 ff; Maclean 

1985: 106 ff). More accurate maps were made for South Africa, but excluding Lesotho, at 

about the same time and also giving some idea of range contraction since European 

settlement of the sub-continent (e.g. Boshoff, Brooke and Crowe 1978; Brooke 1984). 

Regional distributions were mapped in the 1970s and 1980s for the then South African 

Provinces of Natal (Cyrus and Robson 1980), Orange Free State (Earlé and Grobler 1987), 

Cape (Boshoff, Vernon and Brooke 1983) and Transvaal (Tarboton and Allan 1984); see 

below for details. 

By 1940 the Bearded Vulture had disappeared from the southern and south-western 

Cape and by 1970 from the Eastern Cape (Brown 1997a). 

The first attempt at a comprehensive distribution map for the southern African deme was 

composed of two elements: a breeding distribution (in 72 ¼ ° ¼° by grid-cells) and a total 

distribution (in 79 ¼ ° ¼° by grid-cells) (Brown 1992). 

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Figure 1: Post-1980 breeding distribution of the Bearded Vulture in southern Africa, mapped 

per ¼˚ square (Brown 1992). 

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Figure 2: Post-1980 distribution of the Bearded Vulture in southern Africa based on my 

sightings augmented by those of reliable colleagues and staff of Forestry and Nature 

Conservation agencies (Brown 1992). 

The Bearded Vulture was located in 92 1/4 ° 1/4 by grid-cells (i.e. 2% of all of southern 

Africa) during the Southern African Bird Atlas Programme (SABAP) and this gives a total 

distributional range of 60,205 km 2 , although this author claimed that this deme’s range was 

100,000 km 2 (Brown 1997a). These data from SABAP were collected, in the main, in the five 

year period 1988 to 1992, both years inclusive (Harrison, Allan, Underhill, Herremans, Tree, 

Parker and Brown 1997), though for KwaZulu-Natal, the earlier data collected between 1970 

and 1979, both years inclusive, for the Bird Atlas of Natal (Cyrus and Robson 1980) were also 

incorporated. Within this range there were 858 records of Bearded Vulture giving an average 

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reporting rate of 13.5% within those grid-cells in which it was sighted (Brown 1997a). The 

highest reporting rates were in grid-cells along the eastern and southern escarpments of the 

Drakensberg and in the highest reaches of the Maloti Mountains (Brown 1997a). The reporting 

rate was slightly higher in winter months and this has been attributed to more birds using 

vulture restaurants and so being more visible to observers (Brown 1997a). There were 15 

grid-cells in which the reporting rate was less than 2% and possibly the Bearded Vulture can 

be regarded as a vagrant in these grid-cells. Note that 92-15 = 77 which is within the range of 

72 (breeding) and 79 (occurrence) predicted from data collected a decade earlier (Brown 

1992). This probably indicates that the species range, as determined about a decade apart, 

using different methods, had not changed significantly. 

Figure 3: Distribution map taken from The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds (Barnes 2000). 

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The Bird Atlas of Natal (Cyrus and Robson 1980: 80), map below, shows the same 

distribution, within KwaZulu-Natal (i.e. 24 grid-cells which is 14% of the grid-cells in the 

Province) as does SABAP (Brown 1997a) but with the added dimension of seasonal 

occurrence: the grid-cells away from the escarpment have only vagrants visiting them. 

Figure 4: Bird atlas of Natal map (Cyrus and Robson 1980). 

The regional atlas for the Free State Province was based on data collect during a fouryear 

period, from January 1983 to December 1986 which preceded SABAP (Earlé and 

Grobler 1987: 74). There were only two grid-cells in which Bearded Vultures were regularly 

recorded, at the adjacent Golden Gate and QwaQwa National Parks. 

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Figure 5: Bird atlas of Free State map (Cyrus and Robson 1980). 

The regional atlas for the Cape Province was based on all data available to the authors, 

published, unpublished and fieldwork for the period 1700 to 1970 (Boshoff et al. 1983: 176- 

180) and their analyses show a dramatic range contraction (ibid.: 188-189). 

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Table A 

Epoch Author Population estimate Method of estimation 

1903 Unknown in 

{Clancey 1966} 

in Kopij 2004 

Present, first written 

record. 

Direct observation? 

1960’s {Clancey 1966} 20 breeding pairs Visceral cogitation. 

1970’s Brown 1977 100 breeding pairs He drove across Lesotho in 

10 days. 

1970’s Steyn 1982: 9 ff 300 birds Analysis of road count data 

collected by a number of 

observers 

Early 1980’s Brown 1992 122.00 breeding pairs He spent some time in 

Lesotho, found 27 breeding 

sites (co-ordinates NOT 

given) plus visceral 

Late 1990’s Kopij 2004 55 to 70 breeding pairs 

though he only counted 

Allan and 

Jenkins 2005 

32 to 43 breeding pairs 

North western region - 

stable since about 1991 

Table A: All known estimates of population size in Lesotho. 

cogitation. 

Literature, field surveys and 

guesswork. 

Aerial survey, literature 

Figure 6: Physical regions in Lesotho, with marked areas, where Bearded Vultures 

were counted during the years 1998-2002 (numbered as Table 1). Grey – Senqu 

Valley; 17-20 – lowland; 16 – foothills; 1-14 – mountains (Kopij 2004). 

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Table B 

Table B: Population size of the Bearded Vulture in selected areas in Lesotho during 

the years 1996-2002 (Kopij 2004). 

There are no modern records for the Bearded Vulture in the former Transvaal Province 

and the ancient records, such as they are, are thought to be unreliable (Tarboton, Kemp and 

Kemp 1987: 41). 

There is a possible range contract in the Free State, see Population, below. The current 

status of the Bearded Vulture in the Eastern Cape Province, including the former Transkei, is 

completely unknown. 

Population: The first estimates of population size in Lesotho were 120 pairs and 300 birds 

(Table A). The first definitive estimate of total population size in southern Africa was 630 birds 

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in the mid-1980s, based on fieldwork undertaken in the early 1980s, and this included 

approximately 204 breeding pairs (Brown 1992). 

In north-west Lesotho a total of 13-14 nests was located in about 1100 km 2 giving a 

density of one nest per 78.5 to 84.6 km 2 (Allan and Jenkins 2005). If the nests were at the 

centres of circular territories then they would be of diameters ranging from 4.99 to 5.189 km 

but if they were at the centres of hexagons then they would have radial arms of 3.89 to 4.04 

km. This suggests that nests would be between 7.78 to 8.08 km or 9.98 to 10.38 km apart, 

depending on the sort of spacing model assumed and assuming maximum packing with no 

unutilised areas. This lies within the region designated “4” (Figure 12 in Brown 1992) where a 

density of one pair per 183.9 km 2 was estimated in the early 1980’s and this is about 43% to 

46% of the density of the 2005 survey (Allan and Jenkins 2005). However, the region 

surveyed by the later workers was only a part of the earlier survey and it is expected to have a 

higher density of breeding Bearded Vultures because the human population density there is 

lower. 

The fates of particular pairs at individual sites and in small regions of Lesotho have been 

discussed by a number of fieldworkers (e.g. Ambrose and Maphisa 1999: 11 & 69; Allan, 

Spottiswoode and Whittingdon 1996, Maphisa 2001; Kopij 2001; Guy 1974; Kopij 2004; 

Osborne and Tigar 1990). Kopij (Kopij 2004), is of the opinion that from the early 1980s to 

about 2001 there was a real decline in breeding pairs and that C.J. Brown had made too 

optimistic an estimate. 

In a survey of a dozen nests known from in the period 1991-2000, seven were confirmed 

breeding during a helicopter survey in September 2005 and two were suspected of still 

breeding and three sites were deserted but an additional nine previously unknown sites were 

located, five with confirmed breeding and four with suspected breeding (Allan and Jenkins 

2005). All-in-all, these authors conclude that the Bearded Vulture population is likely to have 

remained stable in the north western region of the Lesotho highlands during the late 1990s 

and the first five years of this millennium (ibid.). Thus, it would seem that the estimate of 55 to 

70 pairs is a reasonable estimate for 2005 (Kopij 2004), with the decline from the earlier 

higher figure of 122 pairs (Brown 1992) being partitioned into an over optimistic estimate 

coupled with a real decline in the 1980s and early 1990s. 

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Table C 

Region Brown 1992 Nesting pairs Possible additional 

(Krüger & pairs (Krüger & van 

van Zyl, in litt) Zyl, in litt) 

KZN 

19 counted 11 3: Vergelegen, 

Escarpment 37 estimated 

Rugged Glen, Redi 

Peak 

Free State & 

QwaQwa 

Escarpment 

KwaZulu-Natal 

Lowlands 

(Little ‘Berg) 

2 + 2 counted 

3 + 4 estimated 

(OFS/QwaQwa) 

3 counted 

5 estimated 

1 2: QwaQwa, 

GGHNP 

2 2: Nsekeni Vlei, 

East Griqualand 

Farm 

Aborted attempt 

(Krüger & van Zyl, 

in litt) 

1: Royal Natal 

Table C: Comparison of number of pairs of Bearded Vulture breeding in three regions 

of KwaZulu-Natal and Free State Provinces. 

It is clear from the above that the number of breeding pairs counted in the Free State 

Province, including the previous QwaQwa ‘homeland’ has shown a real decrease and it would 

not be surprising if this did not translate into a range contraction, which is easier to detect than 

a decrease in the number of nesting pairs. Similarly, there has been a reduction in the number 

of breeding pairs along the Drakensberg Escarpment between the early 1980s and 2005. 

The most optimistic estimate of the number of breeding pairs along the Drakensberg 

Escarpment and Little ’Berg is 21 pairs, in 2005, down from the count of 26 in the 1980’s 

(Brown 1992; S. Krüger & van Zul in litt.). 

If it is assumed that there has been NO decrease in the Eastern Cape then the total 

number of breeding pairs is likely to be made up as follows: 

Lesotho: 55 to 70 

Transkei: 17 

Rest of the Eastern Cape: 16 

KwaZulu-Natal and Free State Provinces: 21 

This yields a total breeding population of 109 to 124 pairs, say 110 to 125. These 

estimates are about 53% and 61% of the 1980s estimates of 204 pairs. 

0 

0 

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9. Protection status 

Bearded Vultures are not threatened globally (BirdLife International 2000), and are estimated 

to have a global range of 10 6 to 10 7 km 2 with a population of 10 4 to 10 5 individuals. It is 

however thought that the population is declining worldwide but not at a sufficiently fast rate to 

rate its status as anything higher than ‘Least Concern’ (BirdLife International 2004). However, 

in southern Africa it is classified as Endangered (Anderson 2000) with about 38% of 

population lost in recent times. 

Representation in conserved areas: there are between 12 and 19 pairs and between 29 

and 49 individuals in six Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Lesotho (Appendix 1; Barnes 1998a), 

however, ALL Bearded Vultures breed in Lesotho OUTSIDE of protected areas. Considering 

that Lesotho is the heartland of this species (with about 60% of local deme) this is a serious 

issue. In South Africa there are Bearded Vultures in IBAs in KwaZulu-Natal: six IBAs with 30 

pairs and 61 to 102 individuals (Appendix 1; Johnson, Barnes and Taylor 1998) and in the 

Free State two to five individuals, but no breeding pairs in three IBAs (Appendix 1; Barnes, 

Colahan, Nuttall and Taylor 1998). Of the 15 IBAs in which Bearded Vultures have been 

recorded only six have had any breeding observed – a bleak picture (Appendix 1; Barnes 

1998b). Even if these figures are reasonable and if the total number of breeding pairs is about 

204 and the total number of individuals is about 630, see above, then this means that only 

21% to 24% of breeding pairs and only 15% to 25% of all individuals are within IBAs. In fact, 

this conveys a false sense of protection because Bearded Vultures wander far and wide in 

their daily foraging and so could spend most of their day outside protected areas. 

10. Habitat requirements 

In southern Africa, currently restricted to Alpine, Sour and Mixed Grasslands on rugged 

mountains and escarpments, all >1 500 m, though this was not the case in the past (Brown 

1997a). They forage along ridges and valleys in protected areas but range out over communal 

and commercial lands with adult birds more frequently avoiding human habitation, while birds 

of all ages can visit vulture restaurants (Brown 1997a). 

11. Threats 

Each of the major causes of decline are presented and evaluated in terms of their likely impact 

(Anderson 2000). 

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Food supply: The loss of natural ungulates, superior animal husbandry practices and 

improved animal hygiene has lead to a reduction in the food supply and is considered by 

some (e.g. Boshoff et al. 1983) to be the most serious cause of population decline and range 

contraction. Food is hypothesised as a limiting resource in Lesotho (for the same reasons as 

hypothesised by Boshoff et al. 1983, above) and also through the possible lowering of 

stocking rates consequent on overgrazing (D. Allan, in litt.). It is thought that food may be a 

limiting factor in parts of South Africa (S. Krüger, pers. comm.). In Lesotho, it is likely that 

nearly all dead livestock is eaten by the owners of the beast (Maphisa 1997) or harvested by 

shepherds and their attendant packs of feral dogs (S.E. Piper, pers. obs.). In the region 

around the Lesotho Highlands Water Project supplementary fodder is provided, by way of 

compensation to the local villagers and so there is a tendency to keep domestic livestock 

closer to the villages and thus dead livestock are less available to be found first by vultures 

(Maphisa 1997). 

Poisons: An opposing view (e.g. Brown 1991) is that outside of the Western Cape there is an 

adequate food supply but that the species is limited by the injudicious use of poisons. It has 

been suggested that up to 70% of all Bearded Vulture mortalities are due to poisoning (Brown 

1997a); poison is hypothesised as a serious cause of mortality in Lesotho (D. Allan, in litt.). 

Three Bearded Vultures were poisoned in the Eastern Cape (Boshoff 1991) when eating from 

a baited lamb carcass, set for Black-backed Jackals Canis mesomelas or some other ‘problem 

animal’ (see also Brown 1991). A minimum of two Bearded Vultures were poisoned in the 

period 1995-2002 and during this period there was a suspected increase in use of strychnine 

in Lesotho (N. van Zijl, unpublished data, EWT-Poison Working Group, in litt.). No further 

cases of poisoning have been recorded by the Poison Working Group since 2002 (T. Snow, in 

litt.). In a study on the poisoning of game-birds it was estimated that only 14% of poisoning 

incidents were reported and it is likely in Lesotho and other mountainous parts of the Bearded 

Vulture’s range that the reporting rate will be much lower (T. Snow, in litt.). 

‘Coyote Getters’: Two Bearded Vultures were recorded killed in the Fee State Province 

(Colahan 1991; Colahan and Esterhuizen 1997). 

Gin traps: A gin trap was used, at least once, to capture and kill a Bearded Vulture in the 

Free State Province (Ambrose 1983; Colahan 1991; Colahan and Esterhuizen 1997). In 1980 

a man was arrested in Lesotho having in his possession five Bearded Vulture skins, one Cape 

Griffon Vulture skin and a skin of a Verreaux’s Eagle, caught using a gin trap (Ambrose 1983 

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in Kopij 2004) and a nest in the Maphotong Gorge was abandoned after a Bearded Vultures 

was trapped nearby in 1983 (Blair and Blair 1983 in Maphisa 1997). 

Disturbance at the nest: Breeders are disturbed in the vicinity of the nest (Guy 1974; Kopij 

2001) and disturbed off the nest by recreational climbers, photographers (known to be a cause 

of low nest productivity in Europe, Brown 1997a) and as a result of livestock farming activities 

(Vernon and Boshoff 1997). Eggs and nestlings have been stolen and young birds have been 

attacked by vandals (Brown 1991). The intensity of disturbance may increase as a 

consequence of the opening up of the interior of Lesotho for the Lesotho Highlands 

Development Project, there are many new roads in the vicinity of the Katse and Mohale Dams 

and this is likely to allow people and development to ‘bleed’ into much of the highlands 

(Maphisa 1997; D. Allan, in litt.). 

Shooting and direct persecution: This may increase as the number of firearms increases in 

Lesotho (Maphisa 1997). 

Collection for traditional medicine: Vultures are important components in prognostication 

(e.g. predicting the outcomes of horse races, political elections, Beilis and Esterhuizen 2005) 

in traditional medicine. (Mundy et al. 1992: 219; Maphisa 1997). 

Collection for skins and plumage: These are used for ceremonial purposes in southern 

Africa. It is not known if any specimens are removed for taxidermy purposes (Mundy et al. 

1992: 219; Maphisa 1997). 

Collection for food: They are reputed to be used as food within Lesotho (Mundy et al. 1992: 

219). 

Fires: Fires below the nesting cliffs, especially if extensive, intensive and of long duration may 

impact breeding, the Spanish observers at Vergelegen, KwaZulu-Natal were of this opinion (S. 

Krüger, in litt.). This has been documented for the Cape Griffon Vulture (Mundy and Ledger 

1975). 

Electrocution and collision with power-lines: There is only one record of a Bearded Vulture 

being killed after colliding with an 11 kV which was too close to a vulture restaurant (7 th May 

2001, Underberg) and there are no records of electrocution for this species (C. van Rooyen, in 

litt.). (It is not known if this is the same individual collected by Tim. Snow at Swartberg, crica 

1992 – T. Snow, in litt.) If there was a massive increase in the electrification of the Lesotho 

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highlands then electrocution and collisions could increase (Maphisa 1997), however, it would 

be very difficult to detect in Lesotho’s mountainous and remote terrain (C. van Rooyen, in litt.). 

In a study in the Spanish Pyrenees it was found, in 2004 that the most important causes 

of mortality were Poison (42%), Shooting (18%), power-lines (23%) and other 17%), sample 

size, not given (R. Heredia in Frey et al. 2004: 70-72). 

Conservation action includes the opening of vulture restaurants, monitoring (especially 

breeding pairs), awareness programmes (among rural Basotho inhabitants and South African 

commercial farmers) to discourage indiscriminate use of poisons, nest disturbance and 

persecution (Brown 1997a). 

12. Legislation 

The southern African deme of the Bearded Vulture is found in just two countries: Lesotho and 

South Africa. However, within South Africa, it is found in three provinces, each of which has 

separate legislation covering this species. 

Lesotho: The Bearded Vulture is specifically protected under Act 41 of 1967 “The historical 

monuments, relics, fauna and flora act”. In terms of this act the Bearded Vulture is specifically 

listed in the category “Protected Fauna” (section 8, clause d) and see also Legal notice No. 36 

of 1969 “Proclamation of monuments, relics, fauna and flora”, “Protected fauna” – “10. All 

bearded vultures seoli/lammergeyer.” A new act is currently before the Kingdom’s parliament 

(Nature conservation bill 2005) in which (clause 64) the conservation of threatened or 

protected species is proscribed. In this new act the Minister must list these species but “The 

species of fauna and flora proclaimed in terms of section 8 of (the previous act) as protected 

fauna or flora are deemed to be protected in terms of this act”. While Lesotho has signed the 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) 

this has not been ratified because of the high cost of implementation (Kopij 2004). The 

following comment is offered on the effectiveness of the above legislation (Kopij 2004): 

“This proclamation is written in English and unfortunately has not been translated into Sesotho 

(the mother tongue of almost all Basotho which (sic) constitute 98% of Lesotho population). 

Furthermore, it is now out of print and so that only a few legal scholars know it today. If an 

ordinary villager knows about this proclamation, it may be because (of an) unwitting 

infringement and consequent punishment. … Resentment is understandable in such 

circumstances and may prevent its implementation.” 

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South Africa: In general terms, environmental conservation as a whole in South Africa is 

governed by the “Environment Conservation Act 73 of 1989” and subsequent amending 

legislation and proclamations. The following acts also impinge upon nature conservation: 

“National Environmental Management Act, 1998 – Act No. 107” 

“National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, No. 10 of 2004” of which 

Chapter 4, Part 2 covers “Protection of threatened or protected species” while Part 

3 covers “trade in listed threatened or protected species”. 

“National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act, No. 57 of 2003” 

KwaZulu-Natal Province: The protection of wild birds in the province is governed by the 

provisions of the “Nature Conservation Ordinance No. 15 of 1974”. This ordinance governs the 

killing or capture of wild birds (section 114), the sale and purchase of wild birds (section 115), 

the keeping of wild birds in aviaries (section 118), the exhibition or display of wild birds 

(section 121), the export of wild birds (section 125) and a number of other minor items. In 

Schedule 9 the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) is specifically listed among the 

“Specially protected birds”. 

13. Acknowledgements 

The following people are thanked for their contributions towards this document: Sonja Krüger, 

Brenda Daly, Peter Mundy, Christopher Brown, Chris van Rooyen, Steven Evans, Tim Snow, 

Richard Dean, Doug van Zyl, Andrew Jenkins, David Allan, Tsepo Lepono, Richard 

Lechmere-Oertel and Hans Frey. 

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SECTION 4 

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14. PHVA workshop: A tool for Threatened Species Management 

T. W. Clark, G. N. Backhouse and R. C. Lacy. 1990. Endangered Species UPDATE. 8:1-5. 

Introduction 

Population viability assessment (PVA) is a procedure that allows managers to simulate, using 

computer models, extinction processes that act on small populations and therefore assess 

their long-term viability. In both real and simulated populations, a number of interacting 

demographic, genetic, environmental, and catastrophic processes determine the vulnerability 

of a population to extinction. These four types of extinction processes can be simulated in 

computer models and the effects of both deterministic and stochastic forces can be explored. 

In turn, the outcome of various management options, such as reducing mortality, 

supplementing the population, and increasing carrying capacity can also be simulated. Thus, 

PVA provides managers with a powerful tool to aid in assessing the viability of small 

populations and in setting target numbers for species recovery as a basis for planning and 

carrying out recovery programs. In addition, having performance-based management 

programs enables progress to be quantified and assessed. PVA also offers managers a 

powerful strategic planning and policy tool when vying for limited financial resources. This 

paper describes a PVA workshop that used a stochastic computer simulation to model small 

populations of, and explore management options for, six threatened/endangered wildlife 

species in Victoria, Australia. 

The Workshop 

The workshop was co-sponsored by the Department of Conservation and Environment (DCE), 

Victoria, and the Zoological Board of Victoria (ZBV), in cooperation with the Chicago 

Zoological Society (CZS) and was held at the Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental 

Research (DCE), Heidelberg, Victoria, from 28 May through June 1, 1990. 

The objectives of the workshop were to: 1) examine the adequacy of the data on the six 

threatened species; 2) simulate the vulnerability to extinction by using PVA; 3) examine 

outcomes of various management options to restore the species; 4) estimate population 

targets needed for recovery planning; 5) evaluate the potential of PVA as a teaching aid to 

illustrate extinction processes and management options. 

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The six species were: mountain pygmy possum (Burramys parvus); leadbeater’s possum 

(Gymnobelideus leadbeateri); eastern barred bandicoot (Perameles gunnii); long-footed 

potoroo (Potorous longipes); orange-bellied parrot (Neophema chrysogaster); and helmeted 

honeyeater (Lichenostomus melanops cassidix). 

The 32 people attending the workshop represented experienced field biologists and wildlife 

managers with detailed knowledge of these and other threatened species. A month prior to 

the workshop all participants were provided with background reading material (e.g. Shaffer 

1981, Brussard 1985, Samson 1985, Gilpin 1989, and Lacy and Clark 1990). A questionnaire 

on life-history parameters to be completed on each species as a basis for entering values into 

the computer was also provided. Following an introduction and overview of PVA, the 

participants formed teams and commenced work. Simulations, analyses, and discussion were 

ongoing over the next five days. The first week concluded with a report and review of each 

team’s progress. During the following week, teams further refined their simulations and 

commenced preparation of a final report with management recommendations. 

Population Viability Analysis: The VORTEX Model 

The workshop used a computer program, VORTEX, to simulate demographic and genetic 

events in the history of a small population (


________________________________________________ 

process (with appropriate probabilities). Environmental variation (EV) is the variation in the 

probabilities of reproduction and mortality that occur because of changes in the environment 

on an annual basis (or other timescales). 

VORTEX models population processes as discrete, sequential events, with probabilistic 

outcomes determined by a pseudo-random number generator. VORTEX simulates birth and 

death processes and the transmission of genes through the generations by generating 

random numbers to determine whether each animal lives or dies, whether each adult female 

produces broods of size 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 during each year, and which of the two alleles at a 

genetic locus are transmitted from each parent to each offspring. Mortality and reproduction 

probabilities are sex-specific. Mortality rates are specified for each pre-reproductive age class 

and for reproductive-age animals. Fecundity is assumed to be independent of age after an 

animal reaches reproductive age. The mating system can be specified to be either 

monogamous or polygynous. In either case, the user can specify that only a subset of the 

adult male population is in the breeding pool (the remainder being excluded by social factors). 

Those males in the breeding pool all have equal probability of siring offspring. 

Each simulation is started with a specified number of males and females in each prereproductive 

age class and the breeding age class. Each animal in the initial population is 

assigned two unique alleles at some hypothetical genetic locus. The user specifies the 

severity of inbreeding depression which is expressed in the model as a loss of viability in 

inbred animals. The computer program simulates and tracks the fate of each population and 

then produces summary statistics on: the probability of population extinction over specified 

time intervals; the mean time to extinction of those simulated populations that went extinct; the 

mean size of populations not yet extinct; and the levels of genetic variation remaining in any 

extant populations. 

A population carrying capacity specified by the user is imposed by a probabilistic truncation of 

each age class if, after breeding, the population size exceeds the specified carrying capacity. 

The program allows the user to model trends in the carrying capacity, as linear increases or 

decreases across a specified number of years. 

VORTEX models environmental variation simplistically (which is both an advantage and 

disadvantage of simulation modelling), by selecting at the beginning of each year the 

population age-specific birth rates, age-specific death rates, and carrying capacity from 

distributions with means equal to the overall averages specified by the user, and with 

variances also specified by the user. Unfortunately, rarely do we have sufficient field data to 

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estimate the fluctuations in birth and death rates, and in carrying capacity, for a wild 

population. The population would have to be monitored long enough to separate sampling 

error statistically from demographic variation in the number of births and deaths, from annual 

variation in the probabilities of these events. Such variation can be very important in 

determining the probability of extinction, yet we rarely have reasonable estimates for most 

populations of conservation concern. If data on annual variation are lacking, a user can try 

various values, or model the fate of the population in the absence of any environmental 

variation. 

VORTEX can model catastrophes as events that occur with some specified probability and 

which reduce survival and reproduction for one year. A catastrophe is determined to occur if a 

randomly generated number between 0 and 1 is less than the probability of occurrence (i.e. a 

binomial process is simulated). If a catastrophe occurs, the probability of breeding is 

multiplied by a severity factor that is drawn from a binomial distribution with a mean equal to 

the severity specified by the user. Similarly, the probability of survival for each age class is 

estimated in a similar manner. 

VORTEX also allows the user to supplement or harvest the population for any number of 

years in each simulation. The numbers of immigrants and removals are specified by age and 

sex. VORTEX outputs the observed rate of population growth (mean of N[t{/N[t-1]) separately 

for the years of supplementation/harvest and for the years without such management, and 

allows for reporting of extinction probabilities and population sizes at whatever time interval is 

desired (e.g. summary statistics can be given at 5-year intervals in a 100-year simulation). 

Overall, the computer program simulates many of the complex levels of stochasticity that can 

affect a population. Because it is a detailed model of population dynamics, often it is not 

practical to examine all possible factors and all interactions that may affect a population. The 

user, therefore, must specify those parameters that can be estimated reasonably, leave out of 

the model those that are thought not to have a substantial impact on the population of interest, 

and explore a range of possible values for parameters that are potentially important by very 

imprecisely known. A companion program, VORPLOTS, was used at the workshop to 

produce plots of mean population size, time to extinction, and loss of gene diversity from 

simulation results. 

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Equipment Required 

VORTEX requires an MS-DOS microcomputer with at least 640K of memory. A math coprocessor 

speeds up the program substantially. The VORPLOTS plotting program produces 

files in the Hewlett Packard Graphics Language (HPGL), for use on a HP plotter or equivalent. 

A Kodak Dataview EGA enabled projection of a computer display via an overhead projector 

onto a large screen so that all participants could observe demonstrations of VORTEX during 

initial training. 

Computers were used during the daily sessions primarily for exploratory analyses with 

relatively few runs (100 or fewer) of a simulation; more extensive analyses were run overnight. 

A test with 100 runs would take from 15 minutes to 3 hours, depending on the machine used 

and the size of the population being simulated. 

The Workshop Results 

Each team documented its activities and provided a preliminary report of the simulations 

completed, conclusions, an assessment of the conduct of the workshop, and the usefulness of 

the PVA process. Results will be published in peer-reviewed scientific journals by each team. 

All cases showed similar results. First, most species and populations were highly susceptible 

to local extinction. Any further habitat loss or fragmentation or reduction in population size 

and density would result in rapid extinction. Second, in all the cases, more field data would 

have been helpful. Third, management options to stave off extinction were identified and 

results simulated. Options included strict habitat protection, enhancement of existing habitat 

or restoration of lost habitat, captive breeding, and reintroduction of animals to existing habitat 

patches in which the species has become extinct in recent decades or to newly created 

habitat. Various combinations of management strategies were recommended for future 

management. Fourth, the simulations demonstrated that if proactive conservation 

management had been undertaken even 5 to 10 years ago when populations and habitats 

were considerably larger, the task of present day managers would be much more tractable. 

And fifth, improved conservation management for all six species is expected to result from the 

PVA exercise, enhanced research, and subsequent on-the-ground management. Three 

cases illustrate these conclusions; the mountain pygmy-possum (Mansergh et al. in prep.), 

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eastern barred bandicoot (Myroniuk and Patrick in prep.), and orange-bellied parrot (Brown et 

al. in prep.). 

Mountain Pygmy-Possum: The mountain pygmy-possum is a small marsupial restricted to 

alpine and subalpine (.1500m altitude) rock screes and boulderfields within heathlands. The 

species has been well studied and much information is available on its ecology (Mansergh 

1989). Diet consists of invertebrates, seeds, and fruits. Breeding occurs from September to 

December, with litter size of 3 to 4. The young become independent by mid-January. 

Females can breed in their first year, and can live up to 9 years. An unusual feature of the life 

history of Burramys is the fact that sexes are segregated during the non-breeding season. 

The adult population is heavily biased towards females (6F:1M) because of the very high 

mortality experienced by males post-dispersal. 

The current total population is estimated to be 2,300 breeding adults of which 80% are 

females. The species is regarded as vulnerable in Victoria and rare in New South Wales. The 

species is also susceptible to climatic changes associated with global warming. 

The mountain pygmy-possum exists as a number of discrete populations isolated from each 

other on mountain tops. A total of seven populations, ranging from 20-850 individuals 

(representing the situation in the wild) was modelled. High probabilities of extinction were 

observed in all small (150 animals) populations at 25 and 50 years; this could account for the 

absence of the species from apparently suitable habitat within its range. The larger 

populations had a decreased likelihood of extinction. When modelled with a small but steady 

decrease in carrying capacity (1% per annum) such as could occur through climatic change 

with global warming, the probability of extinction increased greatly (to 45% in the case of the 

largest Victorian population of 850 individuals, over 50 years). Disturbance to habitat and 

further fragmentation of populations would increase the likelihood of extinction. 

Eastern Barred Bandicoot: The mainland population of this marsupial species was formerly 

distributed over about 23,000 sq. km of volcanic grassland in western Victoria. This 

population has now declined to 200 or fewer individuals restricted to remnant habitat near 

Hamilton (Clark and Seebeck 1990). The species is polygynous, with females capable of 

breeding from 3 months of age and males from 4 months of age. Gestation lasts about 12 

days, with litters comprised of 1 to 5 offspring (usually 2-3); young remain in the pouch about 

55 days. Females are capable of producing several broods per year. In spite of the very high 

reproductive potential, the population is believed to be declining at about 25% per annum. 

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Juvenile mortality at dispersal from the nest is very high (>90% within the first year). The 

decline of the species is attributed to habitat modification from pastoral activities and predation 

from introduced predators, including the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and the cat (Felis catus). 

Wild and captive populations of the eastern barred bandicoot were simulated. Modelling the 

wild population using available data without any change to current management indicated a 

100% probability of extinction within 25 years, with a mean time to extinction of 7.2 years (+ 

2.1). Doubling the carrying capacity and leaving mortality unchanged had negligible impact on 

the probability of extinction and increased the mean time to extinction by only 2 years. 

Doubling the carrying capacity, reducing mortality by 30% and supplementing the wild 

population with the liberation of captive-bred animals greatly enhanced prospects for survival 

of the wild population. Under this scenario the probability of extinction was reduced to 0% 

over 25 year with a mean final population size of close to the carrying capacity of 300 animals. 

Modeling the existing and proposed captive populations allowed investigation of a variety of 

scenarios. The existing captive population of 16 pairs has an extinction probability of 83% 

over 25 years, with a mean time to extinction of 21.5 years. Doubling the number of adult 

pairs decreased the extinction probability to 0% but the surviving population had very low 

genetic variability, and there is little potential to harvest juveniles for release into the wild. 

Increasing the captive population to 62 adult pairs increased genetic variability and the 

potential to harvest juveniles without jeopardizing the captive population. Maintaining a 

captive population of 62 adult pairs (in two groups at separate locations to avoid catastrophe 

but managed as one population) and establishing two semi-captive populations with a 

capacity for 400 animals gave the best prospects for long term survival, maintenance of 

genetic variability, and production of sufficient offspring to consider reintroductions to suitable 

habitat within their former range. The exercise highlighted the need for a combination of 

management actions, rather than any single action, to prevent the almost certain extinction of 

the wild population under the existing management regime. Reduction of the mortality by 

predator control and traffic management is essential for the survival of the eastern barred 

bandicoot. Captive management will be an important part of the recovery program than that 

currently underway. 

Orange-bellied Parrot: The biology and ecology of the orange-bellied parrot is comparatively 

well know (Loyn et al. 1986). The species is one of the rarest and most threatened birds in 

Australia, with a total population of 150 –200 individuals. The orange-bellied parrot breeds in 

coastal southwest Tasmania in woodlands adjoining extensive sedgelands. After breeding, it 

migrates across Bass Strait to overwinter in coastal regions of southern mainland Australia. 

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The birds feed in a variety of coastal habitats including grassland, saltmarsh, and dune 

systems showing strong preferences for particular habitats and food types in different parts of 

their winter range and at different times of the year. An estimated 40 breeding pairs annually 

produce a total of 50-70 juveniles. The orange-bellied parrot is considered endangered. Loss 

of coastal habitat for development and trapping for the aviculture trade are considered to be 

the primary causes of the species’ decline. Pressure for development on or adjacent to its 

main wintering areas and habitat alteration are now the man threats to its survival. A captive 

breeding program is now underway as part of a range of measures undertaken to ensure the 

future survival of the species. 

Populations were modelled using the current carrying capacity (150), a reduced carrying 

capacity (50), and an increased carrying capacity (500). Simulations which involved varying 

mortality, capture, and supplementation rates of the wild population were run for all carrying 

capacities. Simulating the existing population using current data and management regimes 

indicated that the species would remain extant over the next 50 years at least, and stood a 

good chance of surviving for 100 years. Reducing the carrying capacity to 50 under current 

conditions somewhat surprisingly did not increase the probability of extinction over 50 years, 

although genetic variability was greatly diminished. As would be expected, increasing the 

carrying capacity to 500 birds further reduced the prospects of extinction and greatly 

increased the genetic variability of the population. When modelled with an increased juvenile 

mortality rate (75 % of 50%), the population with the reduced carrying capacity showed a 70% 

probability of extinction within 50 years, while the current and increased carrying capacity 

populations showed extinction probabilities of 20% within that time. Imposing a capture and 

release captive breeding program on the populations only slightly decreased the extinction 

probability of the reduced carrying capacity, high mortality population, but greatly improved 

heterozygosity in the reduced carrying capacity, current mortality population. No extinctions 

occurred in the current and increased carrying capacity populations even at the high mortality 

levels, when simulated with supplementation from a captive breeding program. The 

simulations indicate several points. Juvenile mortality is of great significance to the health of 

the population. Any increase above the present rate of 50% greatly increases the probability 

of extinction, even with an enhanced habitat carrying capacity. The captive breeding program 

is an important back-up to the wild population, and will be extremely valuable if the wild 

population declines. 

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Evaluation of the Workshop 

An evaluation was considered to be an important part of the workshop. All participants rated 

the background material supplied prior to the workshop as good to very good. Provision of 

background material was essential as very few participants had any prior experience with 

PVA. Organization was rated as very good to excellent by participants. The key to success 

was the large number of microcomputers available so that 2 to 3 people per computer was 

possible. Presentations were rated as very good to excellent. 

The workshop format was considered to be a highly successful way of presenting the PVA. 

PVA was considered to be a useful tool to aid threatened species management, providing its 

application and limitations were understood. PVA can focus attention on questions that 

should be addressed through additional research. PVA can be applied to well-studied taxa, 

and the general principles can be applied more widely to other taxa providing program 

characteristics are kept in perspective. All participants would recommend PVA as a 

management tool. 

Conclusion 

The PVA workshop proved a very useful way of quickly learning a new technique for 

threatened species management and conservation. PVA was applied to six species allowing 

a critical, quantitative analysis of extinction probabilities, as well as exploring management 

options to prevent species loss. PVA results will be used in forthcoming management plans 

and actions directed towards restoring these species to a status from which they will be 

relatively immune to extinction from random processes. In the future, it can be expected that 

PVAs will be carried out on additional endangered species to help manage their recovery. 

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A facilitator 

A flip chart recorder 

A computer recorder 

A presenter for plenary sessions 

CBSG WORKING AGREEMENT 

EACH WORKING GROUP WILL HAVE: 

These roles will change and all participants should have a chance to play a role 

FACILITATOR 

Sets time and tasks 

Not the content resource of the group 

Does not evaluate ideas presented 

Keeps purpose front and centre 

Facilitates discussions and encourages participation 

Not the group boss or entertainer 

Helps to build on ideas and suggestions 

Can call time out 

RECORDER 

Acts as group memory 

Records key words and sentences 

Captures all ideas 

Writes legibly and uses large letters 

Don’t worry about spelling 

Use different colours to denote different aspects / ideas 

Hang all flip charts visibly throughout workshop 

Includes all contributions 

Record accurately 

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GROUND RULES 

Accept that all solutions and ideas lie within the minds of all participants 

Leave all personal agendas at the door and participate with an open mind 

All ideas are valid 

Everything is recorded on flip charts 

Everyone participates; no one dominates 

Listen to each other, ask questions, gain clarity 

Treat each other with respect 

Seek common ground 

Differences and problems are acknowledged - not worked 

Observe time frames but be willing to adapt schedules to achieve goals 

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15. Input Data Required for VORTEX 

1) Do you want to incorporate inbreeding depression? Yes or No __________ 

Yes, if you think inbreeding might cause a reduction in fertility or survival 

No, if you think inbreeding would not cause any negative impact 

If you answered “Yes” to Question 1), then we need to specify the severity of the impacts 

of inbreeding by answering the following two questions: 

1A) How many lethal equivalents exist in your population? ________ 

“Lethal equivalents” is a measure of the severity of effects of inbreeding on juvenile 

survival. The median value reported by Ralls et al. (1988) for 40 mammal populations was 

3.14. The range for mammals reported in the literature is from 0.0 (no effect of inbreeding 

on survival) to about 15 (most inbred progeny die). 

1B) What proportion of the total lethal equivalents is due to recessive lethal alleles? 

_______ 

This question relates to how easily natural selection would remove deleterious genes if 

inbreeding persisted for many generations (and the population did not become extinct). In 

other words, how well does the population adapt to inbreeding? The question is really 

asking this: what fraction of the genes responsible for inbreeding depression would be 

removed by selection over many generations? Unfortunately, little data exist for mammals 

regarding this question; data on fruit flies and rodents, however, suggest that about 50% of 

the total suite of inbreeding effects are, on average, due to lethal alleles. 

2) Do you want environmental variation in reproduction to be correlated with 

environmental variation in survival? Yes or No ________ 

Answering “Yes” would indicate that good years for breeding are also good years for 

survival, and bad years for breeding are also bad years for survival. “No” would indicate 

that annual fluctuations in breeding and survival are independent. 

3) Breeding system: Monogamous or Polygynous? ________ 

4) At what age do females begin breeding? ________ 

5) At what age do males begin breeding? ________ 

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For each sex, we need to specify the age at which the typical animal produces its first 

litter. The age at which they “begin breeding” refers to their age when the offspring are 

actually born, and not when the parents mate. 

6) Maximum age? ________ 

When do they become reproductively senescent? VORTEX will allow them to breed (if 

they happen to live this long) up to this maximum age. 

7) What is the sex ratio of offspring at birth? ________ 

What proportion of the year’s offspring are males? 

8) What is the maximum litter / clutch size? ________ 

9) In the average year, what proportion of adult females produce a litter / clutch? ________ 

10) How much does the proportion of females that breed vary across years? 

Ideally, we need this value specified as a standard deviation (SD) of the proportion 

breeding. If long-term quantitative data are lacking, we can estimate this variation in 

several ways. At the simplest intuitive level, in about 67% of the years the proportion of 

adult females breeding would fall within 1 SD of the mean, so (mean value) + SD might 

represent the breeding rate in a typically “good” year, and (mean value) – SD might be the 

breeding rate in a typically “bad” year. 

11) Of litters/clutches born in a given year, what percentage have litters/clutches of … 

1 offspring? ________ 




(and so on to the maximum litter size). 

12) What is the percent survival of females … 

from birth to 1 year of age? ________ 

from age 1 to age 2? ________ 

from age 2 to age 3? ________ (no need to answer this if they begin breeding at age 2) 

from age x to age x+1, for adults? ________ 

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13) What is the percent survival of males … 



from age 2 to age 3? ____(no need to answer this if they begin breeding at age 2) 


14) For each of the survival rates listed above, enter the variation across years as a standard 

deviation: 

For females, what is the standard deviation in the survival rate 



from age 2 to age 3? _____(no need to answer this if they begin breeding at age 2) 


For males, what is the standard deviation in the survival rated 



from age 2 to age 3? _____no need to answer this if they begin breeding at age 2) 


15) How many types of catastrophes should be included in the models? ________ 

You can model disease epidemics, or any other type of disaster, which might kill many 

individuals or cause major breeding failure in sporadic years. 

16) For each type of catastrophe considered in Question 15), 

What is the probability of occurrence? ________ 

(i.e., how often does the catastrophe occur in a given time period, say, 100 years?) 

What is the reproductive rate in a catastrophe year relative to reproduction in normal 

years? ________ 

(i.e., 1.00 = no reduction in breeding; 0.75 = 25% reduction; 0.00 = no breeding) 

What is the survival rate in a catastrophe year relative to survival in normal years? 

________ 

(i.e., 1.00 = no reduction in breeding; 0.75 = 25% reduction; 0.00 = no breeding) 

17) Are all adult males in the “pool” of potential breeders each year? Yes or No ________ 

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(Are there some males that are excluded from the group of available breeders because 

they are socially prevented from holding territories, are sterile, or otherwise prevented from 

having access to mates?) 

18) If you answered “No” to Question 17), then answer at least one of the following: 

What percentage of adult males is available for breeding each year? ________ 

or 

What percentage of adult males typically sires a litter each year? ________ 

or 

How many litters are sired by the average breeding male (of those that sired at least one 

litter)? _____ 

19) What is the current population size? ________ 

(We will assume that the population starts at a “stable age distribution”, rather than 

specifying ages of individual animals in the current population.) 

20) What is the habitat carrying capacity? ________ 

(How many animals could be supported in the existing habitat?) 

(We will assume that the habitat is not fluctuating randomly in quality over time.) 

21) Will habitat be lost or gained over time? Yes or No ________ 

If you answered Yes to Question 21), then … 

22) Over how many years will habitat be lost or gained? ________ 

23) What percentage of habitat will be lost or gained each year? ________ 

24) Will animals be removed from the wild population (to bolster captive stocks or for other 

reasons) ? Yes or No ________ 

If “Yes”, then, 

At what annual interval? ________ 

For how many years? ________ 

How many female juveniles? _______ 1-2 year old females? _______ 2-3 year old 

females? _______ adult females? ________ will be removed each time. 

How many male juveniles? _______ 1-2 year old males? _______ 2-3 year old 

males? _______ adult males? ________ will be removed each time. 

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25) Will animals be added to the population (from captive stocks, etc.)? Yes or No ________ 

If “Yes”, then, 

At what annual interval? ________ 

For how many years? ________ 

How many female 0-1 years? __ 1-2 year old females? _ _2-3 year old females? 

_______ adult females? ______ will be added each time. 

How many male 0-1 years? _______ 1-2 year old males? ______ 2-3 year old males? 

_______ adult males? ________ will be added each time 

Note: VORTEX has the capability to model even more complex demographic rates, if a user 

thinks that greater specificity is needed. For example, breeding or survival rates could be 

specified as functions of age. Contact Philip Miller, Program Officer with CBSG if you would 

like to learn more about this additional flexibility. 

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SECTION 5 

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16. References 

Allan, D. G. and A. R. Jenkins (2005). Preliminary report on a survey of breeding sites of 

Bearded and Cape Vultures in Lesotho. Durban, Durban Natural Science Museum: 8. 

Allan, D. G., C. Spottiswoode and P. Whittingdon (1996). Birds. Lesotho Highlands Water 

Project, final contract report. Contract N. 1008. Baseline biological survey and reserve 

development, phase 1b. volume 6: downstream studies. Unknown (eds). Darling, 

South Africa., AfriDev. Consultants.: 59-79. 

Ambrose, D. (1983). Lesotho's heritage in jepody. Maseru, Protection and preservation 

commission. 

Ambrose, D. and D. H. Maphisa (1999). Guide to the birds of the Roma Campus, National 

University of Lesotho. Lesotho, National University of Lesotho Publishing House. 

Anderson, M. D. (2000). Bearded Vulture. The Eskom Red Data Book of Birds of South Africa, 

Lesotho and Swaziland. K. N. Barnes (eds). Johannesburg, BirdLife South Africa: 39- 

41. 

Barnes, K. N. (1998a). Important bird areas of Lesotho. The Important Bird Areas of southern 

Africa. K. N. Barnes (eds). Johannesburg, BirdLife South Africa: 281-294. 

Barnes, K. N., Ed. (1998b). The Important Bird Areas of Southern Africa. Johannesburg, 

BirdLife South Africa. 

Barnes, K. N., B. D. Colahan, R. J. Nuttall and B. Taylor (1998). Important bird areas of the 

Free State. The Important Bird Areas of southern Africa. K. N. Barnes (eds). 

Johannesburg, BirdLife South Africa: 123-140. 

Beilis, N. and J. Esterhuizen (2005). The potential impact on Cape Griffon Gyps coprotheres 

populations due to the trade in traditional medicine in Maseru, Lesotho. Vulture News 

53: 15-19. 

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Trust: 50-56. 

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SECTION 6 

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Appendix 1: Protection Status Tables 

Barnes 1998a; 

Johnson, Barnes and Taylor 1998; 

Barnes, Colahan, Nuttall and Taylor 1998; and 

Barnes 1998b 

Attached separately 

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Appendix 2: Bearded Vulture PHVA Programme 

MONDAY 6 TH 

MARCH 2006 

18h30 - Delegates arrive, registration and icebreaker 

19:00 – 20:00 DINNER 

Ice Breaker sponsored by the Birds of Prey Working Group 

TUESDAY 7 TH MARCH 2006 - DAY 1 

BREAKFAST 

08:30 – 09:00 Welcome by Yoliswa Ndlovu, General Manager uKhahlamba 

09:00 – 10:30 Presentations 

The 2005 Bearded Vulture ground survey: South Africa 

(Sonja Krüger, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife) 

Current knowledge of Bearded Vulture nesting sites in Lesotho 

(David Allan, Durban Natural Science Museum) 

Vultures and Traditional Medicine; Some Perspectives 

(Steve McKean, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife) 

The current status of Bearded Vulture in Ethiopia 

(Alastair Nelson, Frankfurt Zoological Society, Ethiopia) 

(15 min each) 

10:30 – 11:00 TEA BREAK 

11:00 – 11:30 Introduction to the CBSG, CBSG Southern Africa and the workshop process 

11:30 – 12:00 Introduction to Vortex 

12:00 – 13:00 Plenary Session: Identify key issues 

13:00 – 14:00 LUNCH BREAK 

14:00 – 14:30 Formation of Working Groups & overview of task one 

14:30 – 15:30 Working groups convene and begin on first task 

15:30 – 16:00 TEA BREAK (FUTURE BREAKS SELF-REGULATED) 

16:00 – 16:30 Working Group sessions 

16:30 – 17:30 Plenary – First Working Group Reports 

19:00 – 20:00 DINNER 

WEDNESDAY 8 TH MARCH 2006 - DAY 2 

07:30 – 08:30 BREAKFAST 

08:30 – 09:30 Working groups convene to make changes to first reports 

09:30 – 10:30 Plenary on goals / solutions and filters 

10:30 – 11:00 TEA BREAK and group photos taken 

11:00 – 13:00 Working groups convene and begin second task 

13:00 – 14: 00 LUNCH BREAK 

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14:00 – 15:00 Plenary session to present and discuss goals / solutions 

15:00 – 15:30 Working Groups convene to continue with second task 

15:30 – 16:00 TEA BREAK 

16:00 – 17:30 Working Groups convene and finalise second task 

19:00 – 20:00 DINNER 

THURSDAY 9 TH MARCH 2006 - DAY 3 

07:30 – 08:30 BREAKFAST 

08:30 – 09:30 Plenary session to complete task two 

09:30 – 10:30 Discussion of third task: Strategies and Action plans 

10:30 – 11:00 TEA BREAK 

11:00 – 13:00 Working Groups reconvene to carry on with task three 

13:00 – 14:00 LUNCH BREAK 

14:00 – 15:00 Plenary Session to report back on task three 

15:00 – 15:30 TEA BREAK 

15:30 – 17:30 Working Groups reconvene to carry on with task three 

Plenary session to finalise task three 

19:00 – 20:00 DINNER 

FRIDAY 10 TH 

MARCH 2006 - DAY 4 

07:00 – 08:00 BREAKFAST 

08:00 – 10:30 Working Groups reconvene to finalise reports 

Group integration: Prioritise all solutions 

10:30 – 11:00 TEA BREAK 

11:00 – 12:30 Plenary session to present working group reports, discuss management 

recommendations and report completion 

Workshop closure and survey 

13:00 – 14:00 LUNCH BREAK 

Departure by delegates 

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Appendix 3: Introducing the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group 

Introduction 

There is a lack of generally accepted tools to evaluate and integrate the interaction of 

biological, physical, and social factors on the population dynamics of the broad range of 

threatened species. There is a need for tools and processes to characterise the risk of species 

and habitat extinction, on the possible effects of future events, on the effects of management 

interventions, and on how to develop and sustain learning-based cross-institutional 

management programmes. 

The Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) of IUCN's Species Survival Commission 

(SSC) has 15 years’ of experience in developing, testing and applying a series of scientifically 

based tools and processes to assist risk characterisation and species management decision 

making. These tools, based on small population and conservation biology (biological and 

physical factors), human demography, and the dynamics of social learning are used in 

intensive, problem-solving workshops to produce realistic and achievable recommendations 

for both in situ and ex situ population management. The mission of the Conservation Breeding 

Specialist Group is "to conserve and establish populations of threatened species through 

conservation breeding programmes and through intensive protection and management of 

these plant and animal populations in the wild." 

What does the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group do? 

Wildlife and governmental officials invite the Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) 

to assist in planning and directing their conservation efforts. CBSG uses numerous processes 

and tools which have been developed to carry out its globally recognised programme. (For the 

purposes of this document only details of the PHVA are given) 

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Population and Habitat Viability Assessments (PHVAs) 

A realistic approach to biodiversity conservation is to develop conservation action plans 

designed to save threatened species and their corresponding habitats. Population and Habitat 

Viability Assessment Workshops bring together biologists, wildlife managers and other 

professionals with relevant expertise in a collaborative effort to assess the extinction risk and 

develop improved management strategies for particular threatened species. Computer 

modelling tools, using all available data for the species in question, are utilised to test the 

efficacy of various management strategies and potential scenarios. PHVA workshops are held 

in the countries which the plants and animals inhabit. Moreover, decisions are made by the 

corresponding country's wildlife officials allowing practical and expedient implementation of 

the resulting management plan. 

Integration of Science, Management, and Stakeholders 

The CBSG Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) Workshop process is based 

upon biological and sociological science. Effective conservation action is best built upon a 

synthesis of available biological information, but is dependent on actions of humans living 

within the range of the threatened species as well as established national and international 

interests. There are characteristic patterns of human behaviour that are cross-disciplinary and 

cross-cultural which affect the processes of communication, problem-solving, and 

collaboration: 1) in the acquisition, sharing, and analysis of information; 2) in the perception 

and characterisation of risk; 3) in the development of trust-based partnerships among 

individuals; and, 4) in 'territoriality' (personal, institutional, local, national). Each of these has 

strong emotional components that shape our interactions. Recognition of these patterns is 

essential in the development of processes to assist people in working groups to reach 

agreement on needed conservation actions, collaboration needed, and to establish new 

working relationships. 

Frequently, local management agencies, external consultants, and local experts have 

identified management actions. However, an isolated narrow professional approach which 

focuses primarily on the perceived biological problems seems to have little effect on the 

needed political and social changes (social learning) for collaboration, effective management 

and conservation of habitat fragments or protected areas and their species components. 

CBSG workshops are organised to bring together the full range of groups with a strong 

interest in conserving and managing the species in its habitat or the consequences of such 

management. One goal in all workshops is to reach a common understanding of the state of 

scientific knowledge available and its possible application to the decision-making process and 

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to needed management actions. The CBSG’s decision-making driven workshop process with 

risk characterisation tools, stochastic simulation modelling, scenario testing, and deliberation 

among stakeholders are powerful tools for extracting, assembling, and exploring information. 

This process encourages developing a shared understanding across wide boundaries of 

training and expertise. These tools also support building of working agreements and instil local 

ownership of the problems, the decisions required, and their management during the 

workshop process. As participants appreciate the complexity of the problems as a group, they 

take more ownership of the process as well as the ultimate recommendations made to 

achieve workable solutions. This is essential if the management recommendations generated 

by the workshops are to succeed. 

CBSG's interactive and participatory workshop approach produces positive effects on 

management decision-making and in generating political and social support for conservation 

actions by local people. Modelling is an important tool as part of the process and provides a 

continuing test of assumptions, data consistency, and of scenarios. CBSG participants 

recognize that the present science is imperfect and that management policies and actions 

need to be designed as part of a biological and social learning process. The CBSG workshop 

process essentially provides a means for designing management decisions and programmes 

on the basis of sound science while allowing new information and unexpected events to be 

used for learning and to adjust management practices. 

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Appendix 4: Introducing CBSG Southern Africa 

Species Survival Commission, IUCN – World Conservation Union 

www.ewt.org.za/cbsg 

The Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) is a multinational conservation specialist 

group which has made its mark on the conservation of threatened flora and fauna worldwide. 

CBSG is one of the more than 120 Species Survival Commission Specialist Groups of the 

IUCN - World Conservation Union with over 15 years’ experience in developing, testing and 

applying scientifically-based tools and processes for risk assessment and species 

conservation decision-making. These tools are used in intensive, problem-solving workshops 

to produce realistic and achievable recommendations for both in situ and ex situ population 

management. CBSG tools include Conservation Assessment and Management Plans 

(CAMPs), Population and Habitat Viability Assessments (PHVAs), Conservation 

Masterplanning, Species Action Planning, Modelling exercises and a range of training and 

skills development workshops. 

CBSG regional networks have been developed in regions requiring intensive conservation 

action in order to adapt CBSG tools and processes to the needs of regional stakeholder 

groups and species, utilise local expertise and develop a unique regional conservation 

identity. CBSG Southern Africa was established as an Endangered Wildlife Trust project to 

bring to the local conservation community the wide range of tools and processes developed by 

the CBSG for effective biodiversity conservation and management. 

MISSION: 

To catalyse conservation action in Southern Africa by assisting in the development of 

integrated and scientifically sound conservation programmes for species and ecosystems, 

building capacity in the local conservation community and incorporating practical and globally 

endorsed tools and processes into current and future conservation programmes in Southern 

Africa. 

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CBSG SOUTHERN AFRICA OBJECTIVES: 

Organise a regional network of people and resources for effective biodiversity 

conservation 

Collect, analyse and distribute information pertinent to biodiversity conservation 

Develop integrated national conservation and management programmes 

Provide a neutral, informed and balanced perspective in resolving conflict and providing 

solutions for pressing local conservation issues 

Integrate management programmes for captive and wild populations 

Train and build capacity in local communities in the use and application of globally 

recognised conservation tools and processes 

Develop interactive forums to facilitate effective communication, collaboration and 

partnership building. 

CBSG PROCESSES: 

Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA): The PHVA process is used in the 

development of a strategic recovery/conservation plan for a specific species and its habitat. 

Data on the population status and trends, distribution, genetics, health status, biology, threats 

and ecology of the species is assembled and integrated with estimates of human based 

threats such as land-use and utilisation patterns. Computer-based models are used to test 

different management scenarios and to forecast the current and future risk of population 

decline and/or extinction. 

Conservation Assessment and Management Plan (CAMP): A rapid broad-based 

assessment of a group of taxa of a particular region. Workshop participants use the IUCN Red 

List system to categorise the level of threat of each taxon, based on estimates of nature and 

the severity of threats to the population and/or its habitat. A computerised database aids the 

summarisation of information. CAMPs establish priorities for species and biodiversity 

conservation and generate scientifically sound data on the population and distribution trends 

of taxonomic groups. 

Conservation Planning: Designed to assist other organisations and discipline-based groups 

to define, evaluate and plan their conservation role and activities. The process allows 

institutions to focus their resources on activities which can best achieve their goals. Input is 

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elicited from a wide range of participants, crossing over departmental boundaries in order to 

establish a holistic and effective conservation culture within the organisation. 

Training Workshops: CBSG Southern Africa acts as a conduit between local 

conservationists and like-minded organisations, bringing to the region training in a range of 

tools and processes for more effective conservation. Training is provided in the application of 

the IUCN Red List criteria, VORTEX Modelling and Population Biology, Disease Risk 

Assessment and Workshop Design and Facilitation. 

Global Networking: CBSG Southern Africa is the secretariat of the Global Cheetah Forum 

(GCF) comprising more than 70 members from 14 range countries. The GCF supports and 

fosters the development of progressive, collaborative conservation partnerships and facilitates 

effective communication and information flow between cheetah conservationists worldwide. 

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Appendix 5: The Endangered Wildlife Trust 

The Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) is a South-African-based non-governmental, non-profit, 

conservation organisation, founded in 1973 to conserve threatened species and ecosystems 

in southern Africa, for the benefit of all the people of the sub-region. The EWT has a vision of 

individual and collective responsibility which transcends political ideologies and historical 

divisions of the past, and bestows a duty of care on all as custodians of our amazing natural 

wealth in the subcontinent. The EWT catalyses conservation outcomes through identifying 

priority conservation needs and establishing and facilitating dedicated multi-stakeholder 

Working Groups which: 

Initiate research and conservation action programmes; 

Implement projects which mitigate threats facing species survival; 

Develop and support sustainable natural resource management programmes across 

all stakeholder groups, from individual land-owners, to rural communities, to urban 

environments; 

Create environmental awareness, implement environmental education and build 

capacity for broader public environmental action; 

Strive to integrate environmental, social and economic imperatives within the context 

of achieving sustainable development; 

Advocate and communicate the principles of sustainable living through awareness 

programmes to the broadest possible constituency for the benefit of the region. 

The EWT operates uniquely, establishing dedicated Working Groups through which the 

mission and objectives of the Trust can be achieved. These Working Groups comprise the 

operational units of the organisation and are essentially self-managed programmes 

harnessing the talent and enthusiasm of a dynamic network of specialists and stakeholders in 

an area of conservation priority. Existing Working Groups have developed highly credible track 

records effecting conservation outcomes (see www.ewt.org.za). 

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