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MAS276: Rings and Groups<br />
Lecturer’s version<br />
Dr E. Cheng<br />
J24 Hicks Building<br />
Semester 2, 2011–12<br />
http://cheng.staff.shef.ac.uk/mas276/<br />
<strong>Without</strong> <strong>beauty</strong>, <strong>we</strong> <strong>are</strong> <strong>lost</strong>.<br />
Contents<br />
Introduction 4<br />
I Rings 8<br />
1 Introduction to rings 8<br />
1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8<br />
1.2 Subrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />
2 Division 19<br />
2.1 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20<br />
2.2 Zero-divisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22<br />
2.3 Integral domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31<br />
3 Factorisation 37<br />
3.1 Unique factorisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38<br />
3.2 Euclidean domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2 CONTENTS<br />
II Groups 55<br />
4 Revision 55<br />
4.1 Definitions and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55<br />
4.2 Basic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58<br />
4.3 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62<br />
5 Quotient groups 63<br />
5.1 Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63<br />
5.2 Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64<br />
5.3 Quotient groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70<br />
6 Conjugacy 72<br />
6.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73<br />
6.2 The class equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79<br />
7 Homomorphisms 88<br />
7.1 Kernels and images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88<br />
7.2 Quotient groups revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96<br />
7.3 First isomorphism theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102<br />
III Homework and Tutorial Questions 109<br />
8 Homework questions 110<br />
9 Tutorial questions 120
CONTENTS 3<br />
Information<br />
Please see the course <strong>we</strong>bpage for ans<strong>we</strong>rs to some Frequently Asked Ques-<br />
tions on matters such as what to do if you miss a lecture. If you email me<br />
with a question that is already ans<strong>we</strong>red in the FAQ, I will not reply.<br />
• Homework is due every <strong>we</strong>ek whether or not you have a tutorial. There<br />
is also tutorial work for every <strong>we</strong>ek whether or not you have a tutorial.<br />
These exercises and instructions <strong>are</strong> at the back of the booklet.<br />
• There will be an online test each <strong>we</strong>ek. These will count for<br />
The deadline for these is:<br />
...........................................<br />
...........................................<br />
• There will be “office hours” each <strong>we</strong>ek when you can come and ask for<br />
extra help with any lecture material or exercises. These <strong>are</strong> at<br />
...........................................<br />
• In <strong>we</strong>ek #n should should do tutorial sheet #n, which will help you<br />
with<br />
1. Online Test Week #n, due on Thursday of <strong>we</strong>ek #n, and<br />
2. Homework Sheet #n, due on Monday of <strong>we</strong>ek #(n + 1).<br />
• For this course you have two hours of lectures per <strong>we</strong>ek and one hour<br />
of tutorial per fortnight. We expect you to do at least three hours of<br />
private study per course per <strong>we</strong>ek as <strong>we</strong>ll. If you do not do this<br />
amount, you <strong>are</strong> likely to find that there is too much material<br />
to learn all at once before the exams.
4 Introduction<br />
Introduction<br />
You have already met groups.<br />
Groups <strong>are</strong> sets of things where those things interact with each other in<br />
nice ways.<br />
Some key examples <strong>are</strong>:<br />
• symmetry groups of various objects (rotations and reflections)<br />
• the integers under addition<br />
• similarly Q, R, C<br />
• n × n matrices under addition<br />
• polynomials under addition<br />
But in the cases apart from symmetries, saying something is a group simply<br />
doesn’t capture everything that’s going on. It’s a bit like saying<br />
A frying pan is a lump of metal.<br />
Beer is a liquid.<br />
In Numbers and Proofs you studied various properties of integers:<br />
• addition and subtraction<br />
• multiplication<br />
• divisibility—when can <strong>we</strong> divide?<br />
• division with remainder<br />
• highest common factor, Euclid’s algorithm<br />
• prime numbers<br />
• unique factorisation into primes
Introduction 5<br />
• modular arithmetic<br />
What <strong>we</strong>’re going to do now is find out what basic properties about Z<br />
enabled us to do all that.<br />
Question: Why do <strong>we</strong> want to know this?<br />
It’s like saying: Why might <strong>we</strong> want to know how a car/computer works?<br />
• sheer curiosity<br />
• so that if it goes wrong <strong>we</strong> can fix it<br />
• it might help us drive better, especially in bad <strong>we</strong>ather<br />
• it helps us be able to use a different one<br />
• <strong>we</strong> can show off to our friends<br />
Numbers <strong>are</strong> great. Numbers <strong>are</strong> everywhere. It would be nice to understand<br />
them better.<br />
But also, there <strong>are</strong> other number-like situations where it would be nice to be<br />
able to use all the techniques <strong>we</strong> know about integers—so <strong>we</strong> have to know<br />
whether that will work or not. Will everything go horribly wrong??<br />
Example: Fermat’s Last Theorem<br />
Example: Will there be some strange loopholes e.g. doctors vs nurses<br />
football?
can always divide<br />
e.g. Q, R, C<br />
6 Introduction<br />
fields <strong>are</strong> vacuously all of those<br />
Groups<br />
Rings<br />
Fields Integral domains<br />
Key examples<br />
Unique factorisation domains<br />
Euclidean domains<br />
these <strong>are</strong> about what<br />
happens when you can’t<br />
divide by some non-zero<br />
things<br />
• Z Q R C<br />
divide can do<br />
analysis<br />
can solve<br />
poly<br />
equs<br />
• R[i] throw some extra thing in and stir it up<br />
Z[i] = the “Gaussian integers”<br />
Z[ √ d ] where d is a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer<br />
+, −,0<br />
also × and a distributive law<br />
no zero-divisors<br />
unique factorisations<br />
can do Euclid’s algorithm<br />
• Zn gives us different behaviour depending on whether n is prime or<br />
not<br />
• R[x] = polynomials with coefficients in R
Introduction 7<br />
• R[x1,... xn] = polynomials in n variables<br />
• Matn(R) = n × n matrices with coefficients in R
8 Section 1. Introduction to rings<br />
Part I<br />
Rings<br />
1 Introduction to rings<br />
1.1 Definitions<br />
Think about Z and what <strong>we</strong> can do with it:<br />
• add<br />
• subtract<br />
• multiply<br />
• <strong>we</strong> can’t necessarily divide<br />
• <strong>we</strong> have special numbers 0 and 1 — what is special about them?<br />
Definition 1.1.1. A ring is a set R equipped with two operations: addition<br />
+ and multiplication × (or just .) i.e.<br />
for all a,b ∈ R <strong>we</strong> have an element a + b ∈ R and a × b ∈ R<br />
satisfying the following axioms:<br />
1. associativity of + ∀a,b,c ∈ R (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)<br />
2. additive identity ∃0 ∈ R s.t. ∀a ∈ R a + 0 = a = 0 + a<br />
3. additive inverse ∀a ∈ R ∃(−a) ∈ R s.t. a + (−a) = 0<br />
4. commutativity of + ∀a,b ∈ R a + b = b + a<br />
these four say R is an Abelian group under +<br />
5. associativity of × ∀a,b,c ∈ R (ab)c = a(bc)<br />
6. multiplicative identity ∃1 ∈ R s.t. ∀a ∈ R a.1 = a = 1.a<br />
these two say R is a monoid under ×<br />
7. distributive law ∀a,b,c ∈ R a(b + c) = ab + ac<br />
∀a,b,c ∈ R (b + c)a = ba + ca
1.1 Definitions 9<br />
Examples 1.1.2. Some of these examples <strong>we</strong>’ll do in more detail later.<br />
1. Our most basic intuitive examples <strong>are</strong><br />
Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C<br />
—<strong>we</strong>’ll later see that these <strong>are</strong> subrings as shown.<br />
2. Note that the even numbers do not form a ring—why?<br />
there’s no unit<br />
They’re something else useful called an “ideal” which you’ll meet later<br />
if you do Rings and Modules.<br />
3. 2 × 2 real matrices form a ring.<br />
What is 1? What is 0?<br />
4. Polynomials with real coefficients form a ring.<br />
What is +? What is ×? What is 1? What is 0?<br />
5. Zn is a ring for each natural number n.<br />
Definition 1.1.3. A commutative ring is a ring R in which × is commu-<br />
tative, i.e.<br />
∀a,b ∈ R ab = ba<br />
Note that in this case <strong>we</strong> can drop some parts of the axioms—which?<br />
half of multiplicative identity, half of distributivity <br />
Remarks 1.1.4. Here <strong>are</strong> some remarks about the definition which <strong>are</strong><br />
boring, but it would be somehow wrong not to mention them.<br />
1. Some people don’t demand a 1 in their definition of ring.<br />
2. Some people don’t allow 0 = 1 in their definition of ring.<br />
3. Some people always demand commutativity of × in their definition of<br />
ring.<br />
Remarks 1.1.5. Here <strong>are</strong> some more interesting remarks.
10 Section 1. Introduction to rings<br />
1. We don’t demand multiplicative inverses. If <strong>we</strong> have them in a ring<br />
R, that ring is called a field.<br />
2. Many of the most obvious things <strong>we</strong> think <strong>are</strong> true <strong>are</strong> not actually<br />
axioms—<strong>we</strong> have to prove them from scratch.<br />
3. Identities and inverses <strong>are</strong> characterised by the axiom they obey, as<br />
<strong>we</strong> will now see.<br />
Lemma 1.1.6. “Identities <strong>are</strong> unique”<br />
Let R be a ring. Suppose <strong>we</strong> have u,u ′ ∈ R such that<br />
1. ∀x ∈ R u + x = x i.e. u is an additive identity, and<br />
2. ∀x ∈ R u ′ + x = x i.e. u ′ is an additive identity.<br />
Then u = u ′ .<br />
Proof.<br />
Putting x = u ′ in (1) gives u + u ′ = u ′ .<br />
Putting x = u in (2) gives u ′ + u = u.<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have<br />
u ′ = u + u ′<br />
= u ′ + u by commutativity of +<br />
= u<br />
as required. <br />
Since identities <strong>are</strong> unique <strong>we</strong> can “name this baby”. We name it 0, and<br />
then any element satisfying this property must be 0.<br />
Next <strong>we</strong> can do something very similar for additive inverses.<br />
Lemma 1.1.7. “Inverses <strong>are</strong> unique”<br />
Let R be a ring, and let x ∈ R.<br />
Suppose <strong>we</strong> have a,b ∈ R such that<br />
1. x + a = 0 i.e. a is inverse to x<br />
2. x + b = 0 i.e. b is inverse to x
1.1 Definitions 11<br />
Then a = b.<br />
Proof.<br />
But also<br />
x + b = 0 =⇒ a + (x + b) = a + 0<br />
a + (x + b) = (a + x) + b by<br />
= (x + a) + b by<br />
= 0 + b by<br />
= b by<br />
= a by definition of 0<br />
associativity of +<br />
.................................................<br />
commutativity of +<br />
.................................................<br />
assumption 1<br />
.................................................<br />
definition of 0<br />
.................................................<br />
Thus a = a + (x + b) = b as required. <br />
So, like with the identities, <strong>we</strong> can “name this baby”. We call it −x, and<br />
anything satisfying this property must be −x.<br />
Note 1.1.8.<br />
a − b is defined to be a + (−b).<br />
Lemma 1.1.9. Let R be a ring and x ∈ R.<br />
Then 0.x = 0.<br />
Proof.<br />
0x + 0x = (0 + 0)x by<br />
= 0x by<br />
Now, subtracting 0.x from both sides gives<br />
(0x + 0x) − 0x = 0x − 0x<br />
= 0 by<br />
distributive law<br />
.................................................<br />
definition of 0<br />
.................................................<br />
definition of −<br />
.................................................
12 Section 1. Introduction to rings<br />
But<br />
(0x + 0x) − 0x = 0x + (0x − 0x) by<br />
Thus<br />
= 0x + 0 by<br />
= 0x by<br />
0x = (0x + 0x) − 0x<br />
= 0<br />
associativity of +<br />
.................................................<br />
definition of −<br />
.................................................<br />
definition of 0<br />
.................................................<br />
as required. <br />
Lemma 1.1.10. Let R be a ring and x ∈ R. Then<br />
−(−x) = x<br />
Proof. We need to show that x is the additive inverse of −x, i.e.<br />
x + (−x) = 0.<br />
But this is true by definition of −x, so x = −(−x) as required. <br />
This is like Cinderella. Incidentally (and irrelevantly), did you know that<br />
in the original, her slipper wasn’t made of glass at all?<br />
Lemma 1.1.11. Let R be a ring and a,b ∈ R. Then<br />
Proof. We need to show that<br />
i.e. (−a)b + (ab) = 0<br />
(−a)b = −(ab).<br />
(−a)b is the additive inverse of (ab).<br />
i.e. .................................................................................................................
1.1 Definitions 13<br />
Now by the distributive law<br />
(−a)b + (ab) ((−a) + a).b<br />
LHS................................. = ................................<br />
0.b<br />
= .......................... by definition of additive inverse<br />
0<br />
= ................... by Lemma 1.1.9<br />
Thus (−a)b = −(ab) as required. <br />
Corollary 1.1.12. Let R be a ring and a ∈ R. Then<br />
Proof.<br />
Question: Can you tell the time?<br />
(−1)a = −a.<br />
(−1)a = −(1.a) by Lemma 1.1.11<br />
Definition 1.1.13. Integers mod n<br />
= −a by definition of 1. <br />
Let n ∈ N. Then the ring Zn or Z/nZ is defined as follows:<br />
• its set of elements is { 0, 1,... , n − 1 }<br />
• + is addition mod n<br />
• × is multiplication mod n <br />
Definition 1.1.13 by equivalence classes.<br />
Let x,y ∈ Z. We say x ≡ y (mod n) if n|x − y.<br />
This is an equivalence relation.<br />
Equivalence classes <strong>are</strong> represented by the elements {0,1,... n − 1}
14 Section 1. Introduction to rings<br />
The equivalence classes form a ring: <strong>we</strong> define operations<br />
and so on. This ring is Zn.<br />
[x] + [y] = [x + y]<br />
Definition 1.1.14. Polynomial rings<br />
Let R be a ring.<br />
Then <strong>we</strong> define R[x] to be the set of all polynomials with coefficients in R,<br />
i.e.<br />
for any n ∈ N0, where each ai ∈ R.<br />
This is a ring.<br />
Given<br />
<strong>we</strong> define<br />
So the first few terms of f.g <strong>are</strong>:<br />
a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + · · · + anx n<br />
f = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + · · · + anx n<br />
g = b0 + b1x + b2x 2 + · · · + bmx m<br />
f + g = <br />
(ak + bk)x k<br />
k<br />
f.g = <br />
<br />
( aibj)x k<br />
k<br />
i+j=k<br />
a0b0 + (a0b1 + a1b0)x + (a0b2 + a1b1 + a2b0)x 2 + · · ·<br />
...........................................................................................................................<br />
We also need a 0 and a 1. These <strong>are</strong>:<br />
Definition 1.1.15. Matrix rings<br />
Let R be a ring, n ∈ N.<br />
0 is 0, 1 is 1<br />
................. <br />
We write Matn(R) for the set of all n × n matrices with coefficients in R.<br />
This is a ring with with the usual matrix addition and multiplication.<br />
0 and 1 <strong>are</strong>:<br />
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞<br />
0 0 1 0<br />
⎝ ⎠ and⎝<br />
⎠<br />
0 0 0 1
1.2 Subrings 15<br />
Note that this is a non-commutative ring. For example:<br />
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞<br />
1 1 0 0<br />
⎝ ⎠ and⎝<br />
⎠<br />
0 1 0 1<br />
do not commute: ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞<br />
1 1 0 0 0 1<br />
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = ⎝ ⎠<br />
0 1 0 1 0 1<br />
but ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞<br />
0 0 1 1 0 0<br />
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ = ⎝ ⎠<br />
0 1 0 1 0 1<br />
1.2 Subrings<br />
Remember subgroups? Subrings <strong>are</strong> very similar.<br />
Definition 1.2.1. Subring<br />
Let R be a ring. A subring of R is a subset S ⊂ R such that S is a ring<br />
with the same +, ×,0,1 as R.<br />
Explicitly, this means for all a,b ∈ S:<br />
a + b ∈ S<br />
−a ∈ S<br />
0 ∈ S —automatic, but it’s good to remember it<br />
those say that S is a subgroup of R<br />
ab ∈ S<br />
1 ∈ S <br />
Examples 1.2.2. Some examples and non-examples of subrings:<br />
1. Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C<br />
2. Is Z2 a subring of Z?<br />
No: eg 1 + 1 = 0 ∈ Z2 but 1 + 1 = 2 ∈ Z.<br />
Comp<strong>are</strong> with: Zn is not a subgroup of Z. It is a quotient group.
16 Section 1. Introduction to rings<br />
3. Is Z2 a subring of Z4?<br />
No: same counterexample.<br />
4. Are the odd numbers a subring of Z?<br />
No: eg they <strong>are</strong> not closed under addition.<br />
5. Are the even numbers a subring of Z?<br />
No: eg they do not contain 1.<br />
The only subring of Z is Z itself.<br />
6. Define R = { a<br />
b<br />
This is a subring of Q.<br />
∈ Q | b is odd }.<br />
Given a c<br />
b , d ∈ R <strong>we</strong> can check:<br />
• a c ad + bc<br />
+ =<br />
b d bd<br />
which is in R because<br />
• − a<br />
b<br />
• a<br />
b .c<br />
ac<br />
=<br />
d bd<br />
is in R because<br />
which is in R because<br />
• 1 = 1<br />
1<br />
odd × odd = odd<br />
........................................<br />
b is odd<br />
...........................................<br />
which is in R because 1 is odd.<br />
7. Is the trivial ring 0 a subring of R?<br />
odd × odd = odd<br />
........................................<br />
No, unless R = 0 as <strong>we</strong>ll, because in 0, 0=1, which is only true if the<br />
only element is 0.<br />
8. Is Matn(R) a subring of R?<br />
No, as it isn’t even a subset of R.<br />
9. Is R[x] a subring of R? R is a subring of R[x]?<br />
1. No, as again it isn’t even a subset of R. 2. Yes<br />
10. Given a ring R and a natural number n, let S be the subset of R[x]<br />
consisting of polynomicals of degree at most n. Is this a subring of R?<br />
Only if n is 0, otherwise it won’t be closed under multiplication.
1.2 Subrings 17<br />
Definition 1.2.3. Z[ √ d] BRING YOGHURT<br />
Given d ∈ Z, the ring Z[ √ d] is defined to be all numbers of the form<br />
a + b √ d<br />
for any a,b ∈ Z. It is defined as a subring of C, so + and × <strong>are</strong> as in C.<br />
Note <strong>we</strong> need to check that Z[ √ d] is a ring: is it closed under the + and ×<br />
<strong>we</strong> have defined?<br />
√ √ √<br />
Given a1 + b1 d,a2 + b2 d ∈ Z[ d], <strong>we</strong> have<br />
√ √<br />
• a1 + b1 d + a2 + b2 d = (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2) √ d<br />
√ √<br />
• (a1 + b1 d)(a2 + b2 d) = (a1a2 + b1b2d) + (b1a2 + a1b2) √ d<br />
√ √<br />
• −(a1 + b1 d) = −a − b d<br />
• 1 = 1 + 0. √ d<br />
So this really is a subring of C. <br />
We <strong>are</strong> taking the integers and “throwing something in”.<br />
So the interesting cases <strong>are</strong> when √ d is not an integer—the most interesting<br />
cases <strong>are</strong> when √ d is irrational, which is why <strong>we</strong> use the following condition.<br />
Definition 1.2.4. Squ<strong>are</strong>-free integers<br />
An integer d is called squ<strong>are</strong>-free if it has no repeated prime factors.<br />
Equivalently:<br />
n ∈ Z and n 2 |d =⇒ n = ±1.<br />
Note that 0 is not squ<strong>are</strong>-free. <br />
So, examples of squ<strong>are</strong>-free integers <strong>are</strong>: 2, 10, 15, .........................<br />
Examples of integers that <strong>are</strong> not squ<strong>are</strong>-free <strong>are</strong>: 8, 9, 12, 18, ...................<br />
Actually what <strong>we</strong> usually end up needing to use is:<br />
Lemma 1.2.5. Let d be squ<strong>are</strong>-free. Then for any a ∈ Z<br />
d|a 2 ⇒ d|a.
18 Section 1. Introduction to rings<br />
Lemma 1.2.6. Let d = 1 and squ<strong>are</strong>-free. Then √ d ∈ Q.<br />
Proof. Both of these <strong>are</strong> on Tutorial sheet 3. <br />
Proposition 1.2.7. Let d = 0,1 and squ<strong>are</strong>-free.<br />
Then every element of Z[ √ d] has a unique expression as a + b √ d.<br />
This should remind you of a basis for a vector space. It is very similar. It is<br />
very different from the situation with polynomials—with polynomials, none<br />
of the fruit gets stirred back in.<br />
Proof. By contradiction.<br />
√ √<br />
Suppose a1 + b1 d = a2 + b2 d with b1 = b2.<br />
Then<br />
⇒<br />
a1 − a2 = (b2 − b1) √ d<br />
√ a1 − a2<br />
d =<br />
b2 − b1<br />
since b1 = b2<br />
⇒ √ d is rational # contradicts Lemma 1.2.6<br />
So <strong>we</strong> must have b1 = b2. But this also gives a1 = a2. <br />
Definition 1.2.8. Gaussian integers<br />
When d = −1 <strong>we</strong> get Z[ √ d] = Z[i].<br />
This is called the Gaussian integers and consists of all complex numbers<br />
a + bi where a,b ∈ Z. <br />
Finally here’s a definition that <strong>we</strong> won’t use, but it’s here for completeness.<br />
Definition 1.2.9. Ring homomorphism Given rings R,S, a ring ho-<br />
momorphism is a function f : R −→ S such that<br />
1. ∀a,b ∈ R f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b) group homomorphism<br />
2. ∀a,b ∈ R f(ab) = f(a).f(b)<br />
3. f(1) = 1
Remarks 1.2.10.<br />
1. Just like for group homomorphisms, <strong>we</strong> also have f(0) = 0, but <strong>we</strong><br />
don’t have to include this as an axiom because it follows from (1),<br />
using additive inverses.<br />
f(a) + f(0) = f(a + 0) = f(a), so can add −f(a) to both sides.<br />
If <strong>we</strong> had multiplicative inverses, <strong>we</strong> wouldn’t have to demand f(1) =<br />
1.<br />
2. This definition ensures that if R is a subring of S, the inclusion R −→ S<br />
is a ring homomorphism.<br />
2 Division<br />
Division is hard when you teach it to small children. We didn’t demand it<br />
in a ring. Anyway, what is division?<br />
Comp<strong>are</strong> this with the question: What is subtraction?<br />
adding the additive inverse<br />
Ans<strong>we</strong>r: .................................................................<br />
So division is defined to be multiplication by the multiplicative inverse<br />
—if it exists!<br />
For example given x ∈ Z, 1<br />
x<br />
—in fact it’s only in Z if x = ±1.<br />
might not be in Z<br />
But given x = 0 ∈ Q <strong>we</strong> definitely have 1<br />
x ∈ Q<br />
and likewise for R, C.<br />
Now 1<br />
x<br />
then <strong>we</strong> can “divide by x” by multiplying by 1<br />
x .<br />
is “number such that when you multiply it by x you get 1” —and<br />
The elements <strong>we</strong> can divide by <strong>are</strong> called units.<br />
19
20 Section 2. Division<br />
2.1 Units<br />
Definition 2.1.1. Unit<br />
Let R be a ring and x ∈ R. Then x is called a unit if it has a multiplicative<br />
inverse, i.e.<br />
∃y ∈ R s.t. xy = 1 = yx.<br />
Note: We proved that if it a multiplicative inverse, then it is unique (this<br />
is the same proof as the additive case, Lemma 1.1.7). So <strong>we</strong> can “name this<br />
baby”, and <strong>we</strong> name it x −1 .<br />
Examples 2.1.2.<br />
1. In Z the only units <strong>are</strong> ±1. (They <strong>are</strong> very unit-like.)<br />
—in fact ±1 <strong>are</strong> always units.<br />
2. In Q every non-zero x is a unit: x −1 = 1<br />
x .<br />
Likewise in R and C.<br />
3. In Matn(R) the units <strong>are</strong> the<br />
invertible matrices.<br />
......................................<br />
4. On Tutorial sheet #1 you found the units in Zn for some n.<br />
On Tutorial sheet #2 you saw that the units <strong>are</strong> in Zn <strong>are</strong> easy to<br />
find.<br />
Lemma 2.1.3. If x and y <strong>are</strong> units then xy is a unit.<br />
Proof. We show that xy has an inverse given by: y −1 x −1<br />
(y −1 x −1 )(xy) = 1<br />
(xy)(y −1 x −1 ) = 1<br />
Theorem 2.1.4. Units in Zn.<br />
Let n > 1 be an integer and let a ∈ Zn. Then<br />
a is a unit in Zn ⇔ hcf(a,n) = 1
2.1 Units 21<br />
Proof. Recall from Numbers and Proofs:<br />
hcf(a,n) = 1 ⇐⇒ ∃r,s ∈ Z s.t. ar + ns = 1<br />
⇐⇒ ∃r,s ∈ Z s.t. ar − 1 = ns<br />
⇐⇒ ∃r ∈ Z s.t. n|ar − 1<br />
⇐⇒ ∃r ∈ Z s.t. ar ≡ 1 (mod n)<br />
⇐⇒ ∃y ∈ Zn s.t. ay = 1 ∈ Zn<br />
i.e. hcf(a,n) = 1 iff a is a unit in Zn. <br />
This theorem gives us a way of not only finding if something has an inverse<br />
in Zn, but of actually finding it.<br />
Example 2.1.5. Is 47 a unit in Z157? If so, find its inverse.<br />
1. We use Euclid’s algorithm to find hcf(157,47):<br />
157 = 3.47 + 16<br />
47 = 2.16 + 15<br />
16 = 1.15 + 1<br />
15 = 15.1 + 0<br />
So hcf(157,47) = 1<br />
......... and 47 is/is not* a unit in Z157.<br />
2. We feed the numbers back in to find r,s ∈ Z s.t. ar + ns = 1:<br />
Line 1: 16 = 157 − 3.47<br />
Line 2: 15 = 47 − 2.16<br />
= 47 − 2.(157 − 3.47)<br />
= 7.47 − 2.157<br />
Line 3: 1 = 16 − 1.15<br />
= (157 − 3.47) − (7.47 − 2.157)<br />
= 3.157 − 10.47<br />
So −10.47 ≡ 1 (mod 157).<br />
−10 ≡ 147<br />
and .......................... is the inverse of 47 in Z157.
22 Section 2. Division<br />
Proposition 2.1.6. The units of a ring R form a group U(R) under ×.<br />
Proof. We need to show<br />
1. x,y ∈ U(R) =⇒ x.y ∈ U(R)<br />
2. x ∈ U(R) =⇒ x −1 ∈ U(R).<br />
Then <strong>we</strong> automatically get 1 ∈ U(R). Now<br />
1.<br />
is Lemma 2.1.3<br />
.....................................................................<br />
2. We need to show that x−1 is a unit, i.e., that it has an inverse. We<br />
x<br />
show that its inverse is ............ :<br />
x −1 .x = 1 = x.x −1<br />
by definition of x −1 . <br />
Examples 2.1.7.<br />
1. In Z <strong>we</strong> have U(Z) = {1, −1} which is a group, isomorphic to C2, the<br />
cyclic group of order 2.<br />
2. In Q the non-zero elements form a multiplicative group.<br />
3. In Z8 the units <strong>are</strong> {1,3,5,7}. Every element has order 2.<br />
2.2 Zero-divisors<br />
How do <strong>we</strong> usually solve quadratics? E.g.<br />
x 2 + 3x = 2 = 0 as in HW # 1<br />
(x + 1)(x + 2) = 0<br />
⇒ x + 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0<br />
⇒ x = −1, −2
2.2 Zero-divisors 23<br />
We crucially used the fact that<br />
ab = 0 ⇒ a = 0 or b=0.<br />
.........................................................................<br />
“You can’t multiply non-zero things and get zero.”<br />
Whereas in Z6<br />
ab = 0 ⇒ 1. a = 0<br />
or 2. b = 0<br />
or 3. {a,b} = {2,3}<br />
or 4. {a,b} = {3,4}<br />
So if <strong>we</strong> try to solve that quadratic <strong>we</strong> get<br />
(x + 1)(x + 2) = 0 ⇒ 1. x + 1 = 0 i.e. x = 5<br />
or 2. x + 2 = 0 i.e. x = 4<br />
or 3. {x + 1,x + 2} = {2,3} i.e. x = 1<br />
or 4. {x + 1,x + 2} = {3,4} i.e. x = 2<br />
So the solutions <strong>are</strong> x = 1,2,4,5 —there <strong>are</strong> four solutions!<br />
What about in Z9? Z12? Z30? this is long<br />
Z9 3,3,<br />
Z12 2,2,3<br />
Z30 2,3,5<br />
x + 1,x + 2 x<br />
x + 1 = 0 8<br />
x + 2 = 0 7<br />
x + 1,x + 2 x<br />
x + 1 = 0 11<br />
x + 2 = 0 10<br />
3,4 2<br />
8,9 7
24 Section 2. Division<br />
x + 1,x + 2 x<br />
x + 1 = 0 29<br />
x + 2 = 0 28<br />
5,6 4<br />
9,10 8<br />
14,15 13<br />
15,16 14<br />
20,12 19<br />
24,25 23<br />
The moral is that our methods for solving quadratics <strong>are</strong> rather more com-<br />
plicated if <strong>we</strong> have more options for ab = 0. In this example the problem<br />
was caused by the fact that 2.3 = 0 and also 3.4 = 0.<br />
In fact, it’s not just quadratics that go wrong, e.g.<br />
has two solutions:<br />
or more simply<br />
x ≡ 2,5<br />
.........................<br />
2x ≡ 4 (mod 6)<br />
2x ≡ 0 (mod 6)<br />
x ≡ 0,3<br />
has two solutions: .........................<br />
So even solving linear equations is a bit strange. We also know that<br />
does not necessarily mean a ≡ b e.g.<br />
3a ≡ 3b (mod 6)<br />
3.1 ≡ 3.5 , or 0,2; 2,4; 0,4; 3,5<br />
...................................................<br />
All this is because in Z6 <strong>we</strong> have the possibility of multiplying non-zero a<br />
and b getting zero.<br />
These <strong>are</strong> called zero-divisors.
2.2 Zero-divisors 25<br />
Definition 2.2.1. Let R be a ring and r ∈ R.<br />
Then r is called a left zero-divisor if<br />
r is called a right zero-divisor if<br />
∃s = 0 ∈ R s.t. rs = 0.<br />
∃s = 0 ∈ R s.t. sr = 0.<br />
If R is both a left and a right zero-divisor <strong>we</strong> simply say it is a zero-divisor;<br />
in particular if R is commutative then <strong>we</strong> don’t need to distinguish bet<strong>we</strong>en<br />
left and right.<br />
If R = 0 then 0 is certainly a zero-divisor. This is a “boring” case, so if<br />
r = 0 and is a zero-divisor <strong>we</strong> call it a proper zero-divisor. <br />
In this course almost all the rings <strong>we</strong> deal with will be commutative. The<br />
main exception is matrix rings.<br />
Examples 2.2.2.<br />
1. The zero-divisors in Z, Q, R, C <strong>are</strong>:<br />
Only 0, so there <strong>are</strong> no proper ones.<br />
2. The zero-divisors in Z4 <strong>are</strong>: 0,2<br />
The zero-divisors in Z6 <strong>are</strong>: 0,2,3,4<br />
The zero-divisors in Z8 <strong>are</strong>: 0,2,4,6<br />
Can you guess what the pattern is?<br />
⎛ ⎞<br />
1 1<br />
3. In Mat2(Z), ⎝ ⎠ is a left and right zero-divisor: e.g.<br />
2 2<br />
⎛ ⎞⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 1 1<br />
⎝ ⎠⎝<br />
1<br />
⎠ = 0 and<br />
2 2 −1 −1<br />
⎛ ⎞⎛<br />
⎞<br />
−2 1 1 1<br />
⎝ ⎠⎝<br />
⎠ = 0<br />
−2 1 2 2<br />
In fact any matrix with determinant 0 is a zero-divisor.<br />
Theorem 2.2.3. Zero-divisors in Zn. (See also Tutorial sheet #2.)<br />
Let n > 1 be an integer and a ∈ Zn. Then
26 Section 2. Division<br />
1. a is a unit in Zn ⇐⇒ hcf(a,n) = 1, and<br />
2. a is a zero-divisor in Zn ⇐⇒ hcf(a,n) = 1.<br />
N.B. So every element of Zn is a unit or a zero-divisor and not both.<br />
We will see that there <strong>are</strong> some rings with elements that <strong>are</strong> neither a unit<br />
or a zero-divisor, but it is impossible to be both a unit and a zero-divisor.<br />
Before proving this theorem let’s look at some examples.<br />
Example 2.2.4. Consider Z12.<br />
Can <strong>we</strong> multiply 2 by something non-zero and get 0? 6<br />
Let’s try and do it a bit more systematically.<br />
3 4<br />
4 3<br />
6 2<br />
8 3<br />
9 4<br />
10 6<br />
Example 2.2.5. n = 12,a = 8<br />
Now hcf(8,12) = 4<br />
.......... so <strong>we</strong> expect 8 to be a zero-divisor in Z12.<br />
So can <strong>we</strong> find b such that 8b ≡ 0? We write<br />
12 = 3.4<br />
8 = 2.4<br />
so 2.4.3 ≡ 0 (mod 12)<br />
i.e. 8.3 ≡ 0 (mod 12)<br />
That example was easy enough to do just by staring, but for bigger numbers<br />
this technique is much more efficient than staring.
2.2 Zero-divisors 27<br />
Example 2.2.6. n = 201, a = 63<br />
First <strong>we</strong> find hcf(63,201) e.g. by finding their prime factorisations:<br />
201 = 3.67<br />
63 = 3.3.7<br />
So hcf(63,201) = 3<br />
................ so <strong>we</strong> expect 63 to be a zero-divisor in Z201.<br />
So can <strong>we</strong> find b such that 63b ≡ 0? We have<br />
3.3.7.67 ≡ 0 (mod 201)<br />
i.e. 63.67 ≡ 0 (mod 201)<br />
Before <strong>we</strong> prove the theorem, the following result is useful.<br />
Lemma 2.2.7. “You can’t be both a zero-divisor and a unit” boring<br />
lecture?<br />
Let R be a ring and a ∈ R. Then<br />
a is a unit =⇒ a is not a zero-divisor<br />
Equivalently (using the contrapositive):<br />
a is a zero-divisor =⇒ a is not a unit.<br />
Proof. Suppose a is a unit and ar = 0. Then<br />
r = a −1 .ar<br />
= a −1 .0<br />
= 0<br />
so a is not a zero-divisor. <br />
Proof of Theorem 2.2.3.<br />
1. Done as Theorem 2.1.4.<br />
2. Write hcf(a,n) = d > 1 and seek b = 0 such that ab ≡ 0 (mod n).<br />
Now<br />
n = n<br />
a<br />
.d, a =<br />
d d .d<br />
a n<br />
d , d ∈ Z
28 Section 2. Division<br />
Put b = n<br />
. Then ab = a.n<br />
d d<br />
a<br />
= .n ≡ 0 (mod n).<br />
d<br />
since a<br />
d ∈ Z. Finally <strong>we</strong> must check b = 0. Now<br />
0 < n<br />
d<br />
< n<br />
since d > 1, so<br />
n<br />
≡ 0<br />
d<br />
(mod n).<br />
For the converse <strong>we</strong> need to show that if a is a zero-divisor then<br />
hcf(a,n) = 1.<br />
Now, if a is a zero-divisor then by Lemma 2.2.7 it cannot be a unit,<br />
so by Theorem 2.1.4 <strong>we</strong> have hcf(a,n) = 1 as required. <br />
Example 2.2.8. In Z6[x], the element 1 + 3x is neither a unit nor a<br />
zero-divisor.<br />
For 1 + 3x to be a unit <strong>we</strong> need<br />
(1 + 3x)(a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + · · · anx n ) = 1 ∈ Z6[x]<br />
Comparing coefficients, this gives us<br />
comparing constants a0 ≡ 1 (mod 6)<br />
comparing coeffs of x i 3ai−1 + ai ≡ 0 (mod 6) ∀0 < i ≤ n<br />
comparing coeffs of x n+1 3an ≡ 0 (mod 6)<br />
Now 3a0 + a1 ≡ 0 =⇒ 3 + a1 ≡ 0 =⇒ a1 ≡ 3.<br />
Similarly 3a1 + a2 ≡ 0 =⇒ 3 + a2 ≡ 0 =⇒ a2 ≡ 3.<br />
Similarly ai ≡ 3 for all 0 < i ≤ n.<br />
But also 3an ≡ 0 #.<br />
Hence 1 + 3x is not a unit.<br />
To show that 1 + 3x is not a zero-divisor, consider<br />
(1 + 3x)(a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + · · · anx n ) = 0 ∈ Z6[x]
2.2 Zero-divisors 29<br />
Comparing coefficients, this gives us<br />
comparing constants a0 ≡ 0 (mod 6)<br />
comparing coeffs of x i 3ai−1 + ai ≡ 0 (mod 6) ∀0 < i ≤ n<br />
comparing coeffs of x n+1 3an ≡ 0 (mod 6)<br />
Now 3a0 + a1 ≡ 0 =⇒ a1 ≡ 0.<br />
Similarly 3a1 + a2 ≡ 0 =⇒ a2 ≡ 0.<br />
Similarly ai ≡ 0 for all 0 < i ≤ n.<br />
Hence 1 + 3x is not a zero-divisor. <br />
Remark 2.2.9. Note that to prove r is not a zero-divisor <strong>we</strong> prove<br />
rs = 0 =⇒ s = 0.<br />
So in general <strong>we</strong> have the following picture.<br />
In Zn it happens to be like this:<br />
R<br />
units zero-divisors<br />
R<br />
units zero-divisors
30 Section 2. Division<br />
We’ll see that in a field it’s like this:<br />
units<br />
and in an integral domain it’s like this:<br />
units<br />
We can still do something like divide by r even if r is not a unit—as long as<br />
it isn’t a zero-divisor.<br />
Example 2.2.10. In Z6 suppose <strong>we</strong> <strong>are</strong> given<br />
Can <strong>we</strong> deduce<br />
No: e.g. 3.1 ≡ 3.5 but 1 ≡ 5.<br />
Ho<strong>we</strong>ver <strong>we</strong> can do 3a − 3b ≡ 0<br />
so 3(a − b) ≡ 0<br />
R<br />
R<br />
3a ≡ 3b (mod 6)<br />
a ≡ b (mod 6) ?<br />
so if 3 is not a zero-divisor <strong>we</strong> can deduce a − b ≡ 0 i.e. a ≡ b.<br />
Lemma 2.2.11. Cancellation<br />
Let R be a ring. Suppose r = 0 ∈ R is not a zero-divisor, and ra = rb.<br />
Then a = b.<br />
0<br />
0
2.3 Integral domains 31<br />
Proof. ra = rb ⇒ ra − rb = 0<br />
⇒ r(a − b) = 0<br />
⇒ a − b = 0 since r is not a zero-divisor<br />
⇒ a = b<br />
Effectively <strong>we</strong> have “cancelled” r. <br />
Remember how in Numbers and Proofs you solved things like 2x ≡ 4 (mod 6) ?<br />
—You had to start by taking the hcf of 2 and 6. Effectively, that was to see<br />
if 2 was a zero-divisor or not (although they didn’t tell you at the time).<br />
We have seen that zero-divisors <strong>are</strong> a bit annoying. In the next section,<br />
<strong>we</strong> imagine <strong>we</strong>’re in a glorious world in which there <strong>are</strong> no zero-divisors.<br />
Such a world is called an integral domain.<br />
2.3 Integral domains<br />
We have been studying various things that go a bit pear-shaped if you have<br />
zero-divisors e.g. solving all kinds of equations. If <strong>we</strong> want to exclude that<br />
possibility <strong>we</strong> go into “integral domains”.<br />
Note that from this point on, all our rings <strong>are</strong> commutative.<br />
Definition 2.3.1. An integral domain (ID) is a commutative ring with<br />
no proper zero-divisors i.e. the only zero-divisor is 0. <br />
Examples 2.3.2.<br />
1. Z is an ID. So <strong>are</strong> Q, R, C.<br />
2. Z[ √ d] ⊂ C and <strong>we</strong> will see that this means it must be an ID.<br />
3. We will see: if R is an ID then R[x] is an ID (and the converse).<br />
N.B. In an ID <strong>we</strong> can cancel by anything non-zero, since by Lemma 2.2.11<br />
<strong>we</strong> can cancel by anything that isn’t a zero-divisor.<br />
In the case of Zn it is nice and easy to tell whether or not <strong>we</strong> have an ID.
32 Section 2. Division<br />
Theorem 2.3.3. Zn is an ID ⇐⇒ n is prime.<br />
Proof. Follows from Theorem 2.2.3:<br />
Zn is ID ⇔ ∀ 1 ≤ a ≤ n − 1, a is not a zero-divisor<br />
⇔ ∀ 1 ≤ a ≤ n − 1,hcf(a,n) = 1 by Theorem 2.2.3<br />
⇔ n is prime <br />
Examples 2.3.4. So for example<br />
• Z2, Z3, Z5, Z7, Z11,... <strong>are</strong> IDs<br />
• Z4, Z6, Z8, Z9,... <strong>are</strong> not IDs.<br />
Lemma 2.3.5. “A subring of ID is ID”<br />
Let S be a subring of R.<br />
Then R is ID =⇒ S is ID.<br />
Proof.<br />
Let a = 0,b = 0 ∈ S.<br />
Then a = 0,b = 0 ∈ R so ab = 0 ∈ R<br />
Then a = 0,b = 0 ∈ R so ab = 0 ∈ S<br />
since S has the same multiplication as R. <br />
Examples 2.3.6.<br />
1. Z[ √ d] is a subring of C so is always an ID.<br />
2. Any ring R is a subring of R[x].<br />
So if R[x] is an ID then R must be an ID.<br />
In practice <strong>we</strong> often use the contrapositive.<br />
The converse of that second part is more profound, and harder to prove:<br />
Theorem 2.3.7. Let R be a ring. Then R is ID ⇐⇒ R[x] is ID.<br />
Proof.<br />
“⇐=” is by Lemma 2.3.5 since R is a subring of R[x].
2.3 Integral domains 33<br />
“=⇒”<br />
Suppose R is ID.<br />
Let f,g = 0 ∈ R[x]. We need to show fg = 0.<br />
Let deg(f) = m, deg(g) = n.<br />
Recall deg(f) = largest m s.t. coeff of x m is not 0.<br />
So write f(x) = a0 + · · · + amx m<br />
g(x) = b0 + · · · + bnx n<br />
Now am, bn = 0 =⇒ ambn = 0 since R is ID.<br />
But ambn is the coefficient of x m+n in fg.<br />
So fg = 0. <br />
Now <strong>we</strong> turn our attention to finding out what the units <strong>are</strong> in various IDs.<br />
Theorem 2.3.8. Units in polynomial rings.<br />
Let R be an ID.<br />
Then the units in R[x] <strong>are</strong> just the units in R (so in particular they <strong>are</strong> all<br />
constants).<br />
Proof. —similar to Theorem 2.3.7.<br />
Consider f,g ∈ R[x] s.t. fg = 1.<br />
As before let deg(f) = m, deg(g) = n and write<br />
so in particular am, bn = 0.<br />
f(x) = a0 + · · · + amx m<br />
g(x) = b0 + · · · + bnx n<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> know that the coefficient of x m+n in fg is ambn<br />
and this is non-zero as R is an ID.<br />
But comparing coefficients in the equation fg = 1 <strong>we</strong> must have m + n = 0,<br />
since that is the only non-zero coefficient on the RHS.<br />
But m + n = 0 =⇒ m = 0 and n = 0.
34 Section 2. Division<br />
So <strong>we</strong> know that f = a0 and g = b0, constants.<br />
Moreover <strong>we</strong> know that a0b0 = 1 as constants, i.e. they <strong>are</strong> units in R. <br />
Next <strong>we</strong> investigate units in Z[ √ d]. These <strong>are</strong> not very obvious at first sight.<br />
To help with this <strong>we</strong> introduce something called a “norm”, which is a bit<br />
like a way of measuring how “big” elements of Z[ √ d] <strong>are</strong>. Eventually <strong>we</strong>’ll<br />
show that the units <strong>are</strong> precisely those elements of norm 1, but it will take<br />
us a few more lemmas to get there.<br />
Definition 2.3.9. Norm in Z[ √ d].<br />
Let d = 1 be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer, and let r = a + b √ d ∈ Z[ √ d].<br />
We define the norm of r as<br />
N(r) = |a 2 − db 2 | = |(a + b √ d)(a − b √ d)|.<br />
This is <strong>we</strong>ll-defined by uniqueness of a and b (Proposition 1.2.7).<br />
Note that this means N(r) = ±(a + b √ d)(a − b √ d). <br />
The following properties of the norm <strong>are</strong> extremely useful.<br />
Lemma 2.3.10. Let d = 1 be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer, and r,s ∈ Z[ √ d]. Then<br />
1. N(r) = 0 ⇐⇒ r = 0<br />
2. N(rs) = N(r)N(s).<br />
Proof.<br />
1. “⇐=” is by the definition of norm.<br />
Now for “=⇒”, put r = a + b √ d and suppose N(r) = 0<br />
i.e. |a 2 − b 2 d| = 0<br />
so a 2 = b 2 d. (1)<br />
If b = 0 <strong>we</strong> have √ d = ± a<br />
∈ Q #<br />
b<br />
since d is squ<strong>are</strong>-free (Lemma 1.2.6).<br />
So b = 0, and by (1) <strong>we</strong> then get a = 0.<br />
So r = 0 as required.
2.3 Integral domains 35<br />
√ √<br />
2. We simply calculate: Put r = a1 + b1 d, s = a2 + b2 d. Then<br />
N(r)N(s) = |a 2 1 − b2 1 d|.|a2 2 − b2 2 d|<br />
= |a 2 1 a2 2 + b2 1 b2 2 d2 − a 2 1 b2 2 d − a2 2 b2 1 d|<br />
N(rs) = N (a1a2 + b1b2d) + (a1b2 + b1a2) √ d <br />
= |(a1a2 + b1b2d) 2 − (a1b2 + b1a2) 2 d|<br />
= |a 2 1 a2 2 + 2a1a2b1b2d + b 2 1 b2 2 d2 − a 2 1 b2 2 d − 2a1a2b1b2d − b 2 1 a2 2 d|<br />
= |a 2 1 a2 2 + b2 1 b2 2 d2 − a 2 1 b2 2 d − b2 1 a2 2 d|<br />
= N(r)N(s) <br />
PS That was not fun to type. boring lecture?<br />
We can now prove that the norm really does tell us which elements <strong>are</strong> units.<br />
Theorem 2.3.11. Let d = 1 be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer and r ∈ Z[ √ d]. Then<br />
Proof.<br />
“⇐=”<br />
Consider r = a + b √ d with N(r) = 1.<br />
r is a unit in Z[ √ d] ⇐⇒ N(r) = 1.<br />
Then N(r) = |(a + b √ d)(a − b √ d)| = 1<br />
so r.(a − b √ d) = ±1<br />
so either (a − b √ d) or −(a − b √ d) is an inverse for r, i.e. r is a unit.<br />
“=⇒”<br />
Conversely suppose r is a unit in R. Then<br />
N(r)N(r −1 ) = N(rr −1 ) by Lemma 2.3.10<br />
= N(1)<br />
= 1<br />
Now N(r) and N(r −1 ) <strong>are</strong> both non-negative integers so must both be 1<br />
so in particular N(r) = 1 as required.
36 Section 2. Division<br />
Examples 2.3.12. We can use this to “test” whether a given element is a<br />
unit or not:<br />
1. Consider Z[ √ 2], r = 7 + 5 √ 2. Then N(r) = |49 − 25.2| = 1<br />
so 7 + 5 √ 2 isn’t a unit / is a unit* with inverse −(7 − 5√ 2)<br />
....................<br />
2. Consider Z[ √ 3], r = 4 + 7 √ 3. Then N(r) = |16 − 49.3| = 131 = 1<br />
so 4 + 7 √ 3 isn’t a unit / is a unit* with inverse<br />
3. Consider Z[ √ 3], r = 7 + 4 √ 3. Then N(r) = |49 − 16.3| = 1<br />
so 7 + 4 √ 3 isn’t a unit / is a unit* with inverse<br />
*delete as appropriate<br />
not a unit<br />
....................<br />
7 − 4 √ 3<br />
....................<br />
Note that this does give us a way of testing if a given element is a unit, but<br />
it doesn’t give us a way of actuallly finding all the units. In fact, finding all<br />
the units is hard in general—the following theorem tells us when it’s easy<br />
and when it’s hard.<br />
Theorem 2.3.13. Units in Z[ √ d]. Let d = 1 be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer.<br />
1. If d < −1 then U(Z[ √ d]) = {1, −1}.<br />
2. If d = −1 then U(Z[ √ d]) = {1, −1,i, −i}.<br />
3. If d > 1 then U(Z[ √ d]) is infinite.<br />
Proof.<br />
1. Put d = −m, with m > 1.<br />
Then N(a + b √ d) = |a 2 − b 2 d| = a 2 + b 2 m.<br />
But m > 1 so a 2 + b 2 m = 1 ⇒ b 2 = 0 and a 2 = 1<br />
⇒ b = 0 and a = ±1<br />
dummy text
2. (Gaussian integers)<br />
N(a + bi) = |a 2 − b 2 .(−1)| = a 2 + b 2 .<br />
Now a 2 + b 2 = 1 ⇒ {a 2 = 1 and b 2 = 0} or {a 2 = 0 and b 2 = 1}<br />
37<br />
⇒ {a = ±1 and b = 0} or {a = 0 and b = ±1}<br />
⇒ r = ±1 or ± i<br />
dummy text <br />
3. We will only prove this for the case d = 3.<br />
We know r = 7 + 4 √ 3 is a unit (see Examples 2.3.12).<br />
We also know that the units <strong>are</strong> closed under multiplication<br />
(Lemma 2.1.3), so r k is a unit for all k ∈ N.<br />
Now r > 1 so<br />
i.e. the numbers r k <strong>are</strong> distinct<br />
1 < r < r 2 < r 3 < · · ·<br />
so U(Z[ √ d]) is infinite. <br />
Note that to make the proof of part (3) work for any other value of d, <strong>we</strong><br />
just have to find one unit in Z[ √ d] other than ±1.<br />
Definition 2.3.14. A ring is called a field if every non-zero element is a<br />
unit.<br />
Example 2.3.15. Q, R, C <strong>are</strong> all fields.<br />
Lemma 2.3.16. Zn is a field if and only if n is prime.<br />
Proof.<br />
An element a = 0 ∈ Zn is a unit if and only if hcf(a,n) = 1 (Theorem 2.1.4).<br />
This is true for all a = 0 ∈ Zn if and only if hcf(a,n) = 1 for all 1 < a < n<br />
i.e. if and only if n is prime. <br />
3 Factorisation<br />
Now that <strong>we</strong> know a bit about dividing, <strong>we</strong> can think about factorisation.
38 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
3.1 Unique factorisation<br />
One of the most crucial things about the integers is unique prime factorisa-<br />
tion, that is:<br />
“Every integer has a unique factorisation into a product of prime<br />
numbers.”<br />
Question: What does “unique” mean? What about these different factori-<br />
sations of 30<br />
30 = 2 × 3 × 5 = (−2) × (−3) × 5 = 5 × 3 × 2?<br />
There could be some ±1 floating around, and <strong>we</strong> could change the order of<br />
things, but that doesn’t count as genuinely different.<br />
We’ll see that <strong>we</strong> have to be even more c<strong>are</strong>ful about this in rings with many<br />
units. But first <strong>we</strong> have to make sure <strong>we</strong> know what “prime” means in an<br />
arbitrary ring. The crucial property <strong>we</strong> want is that a prime number can’t<br />
be factorised any more. This is actually called “irreducibility”.<br />
Definition 3.1.1. “Irreducible”<br />
Let R be a commutative ring and r = 0 ∈ R. Then r is irreducible in R if<br />
1. r is not a unit, and<br />
2. r cannot be written as a product of non-units, i.e.<br />
r = st =⇒ s is a unit or t is a unit.<br />
Example 3.1.2. We can check that −3 is irreducible in Z:<br />
1. −3 is not a unit because the units in Z <strong>are</strong> just<br />
1,-1<br />
................
3.1 Unique factorisation 39<br />
2. If −3 = st then the possibilities for s,t <strong>are</strong>:<br />
1,-3; -3,1; -1, 3; 3, -1<br />
....................................................................<br />
and in each case s or t is a unit.<br />
Example 3.1.3. Suppose <strong>we</strong> remove the number 2 from existence.<br />
Then the following numbers become “irreducible”:<br />
4,6,8,10,14,...<br />
and <strong>we</strong> get some non-unique factorisations, e.g.<br />
Remarks 3.1.4.<br />
24 = 6.4 = 3.8<br />
1. The irreducibles in Z <strong>are</strong> ±p where p is prime.<br />
2. The condition saying r is not a unit is like the fact that 1 is not<br />
considered to be a prime number.<br />
3. Do the irreducibles form a group? Of course not—<strong>we</strong> can’t multiply<br />
them!<br />
4. Dire warning: in Z any prime p has the following property:<br />
p|ab =⇒ p|a or p|b.<br />
This property is called being prime. This is not the same as being<br />
irreducible in general, but in Z the notions happen to coincide. This<br />
is not true in all rings!<br />
Theorem 3.1.5. Criterion for irreducibility in Z[ √ d].<br />
Let d = 1 be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer, and r ∈ Z[ √ d]. Then<br />
Proof.<br />
N(r) is prime =⇒ r is irreducible in Z[ √ d].<br />
Let r ∈ Z[ √ d] with clN(r) not prime.<br />
So certainly N(r) = 1 so r is not a unit, by Theorem 2.3.11.
40 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
Now suppose r = st. We aim to deduce that s or t must be a unit.<br />
Then N(r) = N(s)N(t) by Lemma 2.3.10.<br />
But N(r) is prime, so <strong>we</strong> must have N(s) = 1 or N(t) = 1<br />
so by Theorem 2.3.11 s or t is a unit.<br />
Hence r is irreducible as required. <br />
Note that this condition is sufficient but not necessary, that is, the con-<br />
verse of the theorem is not true. i.e.<br />
There exists a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer d and r ∈ Z[ √ d] such that r is irreducible<br />
in Z[ √ d] but N(r) is not prime.<br />
Examples 3.1.6.<br />
1. In Z[ √ −7], N(2 + √ −7) =<br />
prime<br />
so 2 + √ −7 is irreducible in Z[ √ −7].<br />
2. In Z[ √ −7] there is no element of norm 2:<br />
|4 + 7| = 11<br />
................................................. which is<br />
|a 2 + 7b 2 | = 2 =⇒ b = 0 otherwise a 2 + 7b 2 ≥ 7<br />
=⇒ a 2 = 2 # contradicts a ∈ Z<br />
This means that any element of norm 4 or 8 must be irreducible:<br />
if r has norm 4 it is certainly not a unit.<br />
Now suppose r = st, so N(r) = N(s)N(t).<br />
But there is no element of norm 2<br />
so <strong>we</strong> must have<br />
either N(s) = 1 and N(t) = 4, in which case s is a unit<br />
or N(s) = 4 and N(t) = 1, in which case t is a unit.<br />
A similar argument works for 8.<br />
3. On Tutorial sheet 5 you’ll show that in Z[ √ −11] there <strong>are</strong> no elements<br />
of norm 3 or 23, and hence an element is irreducible if it has norm<br />
3 2 , 23 2 , 3.23, 3.3.23, 3.23.23, 3 3 , 23 3
3.1 Unique factorisation 41<br />
For example N(5 + 2 √ −11) =<br />
4. In Z[ √ −7] <strong>we</strong> can factorise 11 as<br />
Now<br />
|25 + 44| = 69 = 3.23<br />
.....................................<br />
11 = (2 + √ −7)(2 − √ −7).<br />
N(2 + √ −7) = N(2 − √ −7) = 11,<br />
so neither of these factors is a unit<br />
so <strong>we</strong> have factorised 11 as a product of non-units<br />
i.e. 11 is not irreducible in Z[ √ −7].<br />
One moral of this is that a number can be irreducible in one ring but<br />
not another, so it is important to say what ring <strong>we</strong>’re working in when<br />
<strong>we</strong>’re talking about irreducibles.<br />
5. In general if N(r) = k then k is not irreducible, as in the above exam-<br />
ple.<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> need to think about what “uniqueness” means for unique factori-<br />
sations. We know that changing the order of the factors shouldn’t count<br />
as genuinely different, but here’s something else that might confuse us es-<br />
pecially if <strong>we</strong>’re in a ring with many units.<br />
We might factorise an element r as<br />
r = p.q<br />
but then given a unit u <strong>we</strong> could also put<br />
r = (pu).(u −1 q).<br />
This is cheating! This should not count as a “different” factorisation. For<br />
example in Z[i]<br />
this is (3 + 2i)(−i) × (i)(3 − 2i)<br />
13 = (3 + 2i)(3 − 2i) = (2 − 3i)(2 + 3i)<br />
We say that (3+2i) is an “associate” of (2 − 3i) because they only differ by<br />
a factor of a unit. That is, they’re not genuinely different. Likewise, (3-2i)<br />
is an “associate” of (2 + 3i).
42 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
Ho<strong>we</strong>ver the following example has genuinely different factors: check irr<br />
Definition 3.1.7. Associates<br />
6 = 2 × 3 = (1 + √ −5)(1 − √ −5)<br />
Elements s and t in a commutative ring R <strong>are</strong> said to be associates if there<br />
is a unit u such that t = us.<br />
(Note that this definition is symmetric, since t = us ⇐⇒ s = u −1 t.) <br />
Examples 3.1.8. It follows that associates <strong>are</strong> easiest to spot in rings with<br />
obvious units:<br />
1. −r is always an associate of r, as −1 is always a unit.<br />
2. In Z, the only units <strong>are</strong> ±1, so the only associates of r <strong>are</strong> ±r.<br />
This is also the case in Z[ √ d] when d < −1.<br />
3. In Z[i] the units <strong>are</strong> ±1, ±i, so the associates of a + bi <strong>are</strong><br />
−a − bi<br />
−b + ai<br />
b − ai<br />
4. In Z[ √ d] with d > 1 there <strong>are</strong> infinitely many units, so every element<br />
has infinitely many associates.<br />
5. In Z[ √ d], if s and t <strong>are</strong> associates then they have the same norm,<br />
because:<br />
t = us gives N(t) = N(u)N(s) = 1.N(s) = N(s)<br />
.....................................................................<br />
Is the converse true?<br />
No: it is possible to have the same norm but not be associates eg in<br />
Z[i] obviously 2 + 3i and 2 − 3i have the same norm, but can’t be<br />
associates as the only units <strong>are</strong> 1, −1,i, −i.
3.1 Unique factorisation 43<br />
Lemma 3.1.9. Let R be a commutative ring.<br />
If r is irreducible in R then all its associates <strong>are</strong> also irreducible in R.<br />
Proof. Let p be an associate of r, so p = ur where u is a unit.<br />
1. p cannot be a unit, since otherwise r = u −1 p would be a unit, but r is<br />
irreducible so is not a unit (by definition).<br />
2. We need to show: p = st ⇒ s or t is a unit.<br />
Now p = st means ur = st<br />
⇒ r = u −1 st = (u −1 s).t<br />
⇒ u −1 s is a unit or t is a unit (since r is irreducible)<br />
Now u −1 s is a unit ⇒ s = u.(u −1 s) is a unit.<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have s is a unit or t is a unit.<br />
Now, given any factorisation of an element s into irreducibles<br />
s = p1p2 · · · pk<br />
<strong>we</strong> could replace each pi by an associate of it, and that would be really<br />
boring. This does not count as different, just like in our example<br />
s = pq = (pu).(u −1 q).<br />
Example 3.1.10. In this example <strong>we</strong>’ll work in Z[ √ 3] and find two factori-<br />
sations of 20+7 √ 3 that look different, but <strong>are</strong> actually related by associates.<br />
That is, <strong>we</strong>’ll find irreducibles p1,p2,q1,q2 with<br />
p1p2 = q1q2 = 20 + 7 √ 3<br />
and a unit u such that q1 = p1u, q2 = u −1 p2.<br />
For the first factorisation, take p1p2 to be<br />
(1 + 2 √ 3)(2 + 3 √ 3) = 20 + 7 √ 3.<br />
We need to check that this is a factorisation into irreducibles:
44 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
• N(1 + 2 √ 3) = 1 − 4.3<br />
<br />
= 11<br />
N(1 + 2 √ 3) = ................................. ........................<br />
• N(2 + 3 √ 3) = 4 − 9.3<br />
<br />
= 23<br />
N(2 + 3 √ 3) = ................................. ........................<br />
so 1 + 2 √ 3 and 2 + 3 √ 3 <strong>are</strong> both irreducible<br />
11 and 23 <strong>are</strong> both prime (Theorem 3.1.5)<br />
because ..........................................................................................<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> pick a unit u = 7 + 4 √ 3. First <strong>we</strong> check it is a unit:<br />
N(7 + 4 √ 3) = .............1<br />
7 − 4 √ 3<br />
so 7 + 4 √ 3 is a unit, with inverse u −1 = ........................................<br />
Now consider<br />
31 + 18 √ 3<br />
q1 = p1u = (1 + 2 √ 3)(7 + 4 √ 3) = ...............................<br />
7 − 4 √ 3 −22 + 13 √ 3<br />
q2 = u −1 p2 = (...................)(2 + 3 √ 3) = ...............................<br />
20 + 7 √ 3<br />
Now check q1q2 = .............................................<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have two factorisations into irreducibles:<br />
20+7 √ 3 = (........................)(........................) = (........................)(........................)<br />
But these <strong>are</strong> not “really different” factorisations because<br />
they <strong>are</strong> related by associates<br />
......................................................................................................................<br />
We make this notion of “not really different factorisations” precise with the<br />
following definition of “equivalence” of factorisations.
3.1 Unique factorisation 45<br />
Definition 3.1.11. Equivalent factorisations<br />
Let R be a ring, r ∈ R.<br />
Let p1 · · · pn and q1 · · · qm be two factorisations of r into irreducibles.<br />
These <strong>are</strong> called equivalent if n = m and the pi’s and qi’s can be reordered<br />
so that for each i, pi and qi <strong>are</strong> associates. <br />
Definition 3.1.12. Unique factorisation domain<br />
An integral domain is called a unique factorisation domain (UFD) if<br />
1. every non-zero non-unit has a factorisation into irreducibles, and<br />
2. any two such factorisations <strong>are</strong> equivalent. <br />
Examples 3.1.13.<br />
1. Z is a UFD. This is the “fundamental theorem of arithmetic”, although<br />
personally I want to throw up every time I hear the words “fundamen-<br />
tal theorem of...”. Seriously, the fundamentality of a theorem should<br />
speak for itself, shouldn’t it?<br />
2. Q, R, C <strong>are</strong> UFD’s rather stupidly—there <strong>are</strong>n’t any non-zero non-<br />
units, so there <strong>are</strong> no elements that have to satisfy the condition.<br />
Therefore, they all do! We say the condition is “vacuously satisfied”.<br />
3. Z[ √ −5] and Z[ √ −11] <strong>are</strong> not UFDs. We’ll work through one of these<br />
examples a bit later.<br />
4. Z[i] is a UFD.<br />
5. Recall that if S ⊂ R and R is ID, then S is ID.<br />
Is the same true for UFDs? Why?<br />
No, because the irreducibles could be different—in a subring, it is likely<br />
that more things will be irreducible cf Example 3.1.3<br />
.....................................................................................................................<br />
Question: Is it going to be easier to show that something is or isn’t a UFD?<br />
To show something isn’t, <strong>we</strong> only have to exhibit one thing with non-unique<br />
factorisations. To show something is, <strong>we</strong> have to work much harder.<br />
Z[ √ −11] and Z[ √ −13] <strong>are</strong> on the homework and tutorial sheets.<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> will do Z[ √ −5].
46 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
Example 3.1.14. Z[ √ −5] is not a UFD since <strong>we</strong> have<br />
6 = 2.3 = (1 + √ −5)(1 − √ −5).<br />
We have to check that 2, 3, (1+ √ −5), (1− √ −5) <strong>are</strong> irreducible in Z[ √ −5],<br />
and <strong>are</strong> not associates. So <strong>we</strong> take norms:<br />
N(2) = 4<br />
N(3) = 9<br />
N(1 + √ −5) = N(1 − √ −5) = 1 + 5 = 6<br />
• First <strong>we</strong> show that in Z[ √ −5] there <strong>are</strong> no elements of norm 2 or 3:<br />
|a 2 + 5b 2 | = 2 =⇒ b = 0 otherwise a 2 + 5b 2 ≥ 5<br />
and similarly for norm 3.<br />
=⇒ a 2 = 2 # contradicts a ∈ Z<br />
• Next <strong>we</strong> deduce that any element of norm 4, 9 or 6 must be irreducible:<br />
If r has norm 4 it is certainly not a unit.<br />
Now suppose r = st, so N(r) = N(s)N(t).<br />
But there is no element of norm 2<br />
so <strong>we</strong> must have<br />
either N(s) = 1 and N(t) = 4, in which case s is a unit<br />
or N(s) = 4 and N(t) = 1, in which case t is a unit.<br />
A similar argument works for 9 and 6.<br />
• Next <strong>we</strong> show that these irreducibles <strong>are</strong> not associates:<br />
The units in Z[ √ −5] <strong>are</strong> just ±1, so 2 can’t be an associate of (1 ±<br />
√ −5).<br />
Also: associates have the same norm, since units have norm 1,<br />
so N(pu) = N(p).
3.2 Euclidean domains 47<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have found two non-equivalent factorisations of 6 into irreducibles in<br />
Z[ √ −5, showing that this ring is not a UFD.<br />
Example 3.1.15.<br />
Does the above example exhibit C as a non-UFD?<br />
No, because those elements <strong>are</strong> not irreducibles in C—they <strong>are</strong> units.<br />
Z[ √ −5] is a subring of C which is (vacuously) a UFD.<br />
...........................................................................<br />
In order to show that something is a UFD, it would help to know how<br />
to factorise it. In Z <strong>we</strong> have Euclid’s algorithm, and so <strong>we</strong> might ask<br />
ourselves whether <strong>we</strong> can do Euclid’s algorithm in other rings. The ans<strong>we</strong>r<br />
is: sometimes, but not always. When <strong>we</strong> can, the ring is called a Euclidean<br />
domain.<br />
3.2 Euclidean domains<br />
We usually do Euclid’s algorithm in Z≥0. How does it work?<br />
It depends on the crucial fact:<br />
∀a,b ∈ Z≥0 ∃ q,r ∈ Z≥0 s.t. a = qb + r and 0 ≤ r < b.<br />
This means that when <strong>we</strong> do the algorithm, the r’s will get smaller and<br />
smaller and will eventually have to become 0.<br />
In Numbers and Proofs you also did Euclid’s algorithm on polynomials,<br />
where in that case it was the degree of the polynomial remainder that got<br />
smaller and smaller.<br />
In general <strong>we</strong> can do Euclid’s algorithm in a ring R if there’s some way of<br />
measuring the “size” of elements, so that <strong>we</strong> can make remainders that get<br />
smaller and smaller.<br />
We’ve already seen one notion of “size” of elements of some rings:<br />
The norm in Z[ √ d].<br />
...................................................................................................
48 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
We’ll see that this does enable us to do Euclid’s algorithm on the Gaussian<br />
integers.<br />
Definition 3.2.1. Euclidean domain<br />
A Euclidean domain (ED) is an integral domain R such that there is a<br />
function<br />
such that for all a,b ∈ R \ {0}<br />
δ : R \ {0} −→ Z≥0<br />
1. ∃q,r ∈ R s.t. a = qb + r and r = 0 or δ(r) < δ(b)<br />
2. if b|a in R then δ(b) ≤ δ(a).<br />
Such a function is called a Euclidean function.<br />
recall b|a means ∃k ∈ R s.t. a = kb <br />
Examples 3.2.2.<br />
1. Z is ED with δ(a) = |a|.<br />
2. R[x] is ED with δ(f) = deg(f).<br />
3. Z[i] is ED with δ(r) = N(r) = |r| 2<br />
(remembering Z[i] ⊂ C).<br />
We won’t prove these, but <strong>we</strong>’ll look at some examples. The point is that in<br />
an ED <strong>we</strong> can use Euclid’s algorithm to find highest common factors, and<br />
do that ar + bs = h thing which is kind of fiddly and annoying but useful.<br />
Definition 3.2.3. Highest common factor<br />
Let R be an integral domain, a,b ∈ R.<br />
Then h is a highest common factor (hcf) of a and b if<br />
1. h|a and h|b ←− “it is a common factor”<br />
2. if d|a and d|b then d|h ←− “it is the highest one” <br />
Remarks 3.2.4.<br />
1. Hcf’s don’t necessarily exist if you’re not in a UFD.<br />
eg in Z[ √ −3: 4 = 2.2 = (1 + √ −3)(1 − √ −3) and (1 + √ −3).2
3.2 Euclidean domains 49<br />
2. Hcf’s <strong>are</strong>n’t unique: if h is one hcf and u is a unit, then uh is also an<br />
hcf. Ho<strong>we</strong>ver in an integral domain all hcf’s of a given pair of elements<br />
must be associates.<br />
Example 3.2.5. Hcf in R[x].<br />
We use Euclid’s algorithm to find the hcf of<br />
x 3 + 7x 2 + 14x + 8 and x 3 + 6x 2 + 11x + 6 ∈ R[x].<br />
x 3 + 7x 2 + 14x + 8 = 1.(x 3 + 6x 2 + 11x + 6) + (x 2 + 3x + 2)<br />
x 3 + 6x 2 + 11x + 6 = (x + 3)(x 2 + 3x + 2)<br />
So the hcf is x 2 + 3x + 2.<br />
Example 3.2.6. Hcf in Z[i].<br />
(This is extremely tedious and you should feel very glad that I’m not actually<br />
going to ask you to do it. This is probably the kind of thing it would be<br />
better to ask Maple to do, but I don’t believe in getting computers to do<br />
things for me—if I can’t do it myself I just do something more interesting<br />
instead! It’s possible I will get into trouble for saying that.)<br />
17+43i<br />
11+3i<br />
11+3i<br />
4+4i<br />
17+43i = 11+3i .11−3i<br />
11−3i<br />
11+3i = 4+4i .4−4i<br />
4−4i<br />
in C in Z[i] in Z[i]<br />
= 316<br />
130<br />
422 + 130i −→ 17 + 43i = (2 + 3i)(11 + 3i) + (4 + 4i)<br />
↑ ↑<br />
∼ 2.4 ∼ 3.2<br />
= 56<br />
32<br />
↑<br />
∼ 1.75<br />
So hcf is −1 − i or indeed 1 + i.<br />
Check that 1 + i really goes into both of those:<br />
and:<br />
17+43i<br />
1+i<br />
11+3i<br />
1+i<br />
17+43i = 1+i . 1+i 60<br />
1−i = 2<br />
11+3i = 1+i .1−i<br />
1−i = 7 + 4i.<br />
32 − 32i −→ 11 + 3i = (20 − i)(4 + 4i) + (−1 − i)<br />
26 + 2 i = 30 + 13i<br />
−→ 4 + 4i = −4(−1 − i)
50 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
Have you any idea how long it took to type that one example?<br />
two and a half hours.<br />
Ans<strong>we</strong>r: .................................<br />
One of the main points is to show that if <strong>we</strong> have Euclid’s algorithm then<br />
<strong>we</strong> have a UFD. In order to do this <strong>we</strong> need to know:<br />
1. In an ED, any a and b have an hcf.<br />
Moreover <strong>we</strong> have ar + bs = h for some r,s ∈ R.<br />
(The proof of this is exactly the same as in Z —<strong>we</strong> feed the numbers<br />
back into Euclid’s algorithm backwards.)<br />
2. In an ED, if p is irreducible then hcf(a,p) is 1 or p<br />
(or u or up where u is a unit).<br />
3. In an ED, if p is irreducible then<br />
i.e. “irreducible ⇒ prime”.<br />
—this follows from (1) and (2)<br />
p|ab ⇒ p|a or p|b<br />
4. In an ED, if r = ab for non-units a and b then<br />
δ(a) < δ(r)<br />
δ(b) < δ(r)<br />
strictly less—would only be equal if the other element is a unit<br />
We can then show that everything is a product of irreducibles, by contra-<br />
diction: suppose not, and take the “smallest” element that is not a product<br />
of irreducibles. In particular it is not irreducible—so it can be expressed as<br />
a product of “smaller” things. Contradiction. Boom. We then use (2) to<br />
show that the factorisation is unique.<br />
Theorem 3.2.7.<br />
Let R be a Euclidean Domain, p irreducible in R, a ∈ R.<br />
Then either 1 or p is an hcf of a and p.
3.2 Euclidean domains 51<br />
Proof.<br />
• Suppose p|a. Then p is an hcf of a and p<br />
since clearly p|a and p|p<br />
and {d|a and d|p} ⇒ d|p<br />
• Suppose p ∤ a. Then claim: 1 is an hcf of a and p.<br />
Clearly 1|a and 1|p.<br />
Now suppose d|a and d|p<br />
i.e. a = k1d and p = k2d for some k1,k2 ∈ R.<br />
But p irreducible =⇒ k2 is a unit or d is a unit.<br />
If k2 is a unit then d = k −1<br />
2 p<br />
so a = k1k −1<br />
2 p<br />
and thus p|a # so k2 is not a unit.<br />
So d must be a unit, in which case d|1<br />
hence 1 is an hcf as claimed. <br />
Theorem 3.2.8. “In an ED, irreducible implies prime”<br />
Let R be a Euclidean Domain, p irreducible in R, a,b ∈ R.<br />
Then p|ab =⇒ p|a or p|b<br />
Proof.<br />
Suppose p|ab and p ∤ a. We need to show p|b.<br />
Now, by Theorem 3.2.7 <strong>we</strong> know 1 must be an hcf of a and p.<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have ar + ps = 1 for some r,s ∈ R.<br />
Now multiplying by b gives bar + bps = b.<br />
But p|ab so p|abr + bps<br />
i.e. p|b. <br />
Definition 3.2.9. Prime<br />
Let R be a commutative ring. An element p ∈ R is called prime if<br />
p|ab =⇒ p|a or p|b.
52 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
Theorem 3.2.10.<br />
Let R be a Euclidean domain.<br />
If a = st for non-units s,t then<br />
δ(s) < δ(a)<br />
δ(t) < δ(a)<br />
Note that the definition gives us ≤ immediately, but <strong>we</strong> want strictly
3.2 Euclidean domains 53<br />
Now a cannot be irreducible, by hypothesis<br />
so <strong>we</strong> must have a = rs where r,s <strong>are</strong> non-units.<br />
But then by Theorem 3.2.10 <strong>we</strong> have<br />
δ(r) < δ(a)<br />
δ(s) < δ(a)<br />
By (1) this means r and s have factorisation into irreducibles<br />
r = r1r2 · · · rk<br />
s = s1s2 · · · sl<br />
But then a = r1r2 · · · rk.s1s2 · · · sl and is factorised. #.<br />
So every non-unit has at least one factorisation into a product of irreducibles.<br />
Next <strong>we</strong> show uniqueness of factorisations:<br />
Suppose there <strong>are</strong> non-equivalent factorisations of a.<br />
Choose the smallest n with<br />
a = p1p2 · · · pn = q1q2 · · · qm<br />
non-equivalent factorisations into irreducibles.<br />
Now pn|q1q2 · · · qm<br />
so by Theorem 3.2.8 pn must divide one of the qi.<br />
Wlog pn|qm.<br />
But qm is irreducible so <strong>we</strong> must have qm = upn for some unit u.<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> have<br />
p1p2 · · · pn−1pn = q1q2 · · · qm−1(u.pn)<br />
so p1p2 · · · pn−1 = q1q2 · · · qm−1u<br />
(We can cancel pn since R is a Euclidean domain, which means in particular<br />
it is an integral domain.)<br />
But these <strong>are</strong> both factorisations into irreducibles so must be equivalent,<br />
since n is the smallest n with non-equivalent factorisations into irreducibles.
54 Section 3. Factorisation<br />
But if these <strong>are</strong> equivalent then<br />
p1p2 · · · pn−1pn = q1q2 · · · qm−1(u.pn)<br />
must also be equivalent. #
Part II<br />
Groups<br />
4 Revision<br />
All of this section is supposedly “revision” from Groups and Symmetries. If<br />
you’re not sure about this material then you should revise it.<br />
4.1 Definitions and examples<br />
Definition 4.1.1. Group<br />
A group G is a set equipped with a binary operation . satisfying<br />
1. associativity ∀a,b,c ∈ G (ab)c = a(bc)<br />
2. identity ∃e ∈ G s.t. ∀g ∈ G g.e = g = e.g<br />
3. additive inverse ∀g ∈ G ∃g −1 ∈ G s.t. g.g −1 = g −1 .g = e<br />
Definition 4.1.2. Abelian group<br />
A group G is called Abelian if for all g,h ∈ G <strong>we</strong> have gh = hg. <br />
Definition 4.1.3. Order<br />
The order of a group G is: |G| = the number of elements of G<br />
The order of an element g ∈ G is the smallest natural number k > 0 such<br />
that g n = e.<br />
Examples 4.1.4. Permutation groups<br />
Sn is the group of permutations of n elements.<br />
55
56 Section 4. Revision<br />
|Sn| = n! HHH 1 : n, 2 : n!, 3 : n!<br />
2 , 4 : 2n, 5 : infinite<br />
This is also called the nth symmetric group.<br />
Recall that there <strong>are</strong> two different types of notation:<br />
• two-row notation ⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6<br />
⎝ ⎠<br />
2 4 5 1 3 6<br />
• disjoint cycle notation:<br />
(124)(35)<br />
This element has cycle type: 3,2<br />
Recall that every element can be written as a product of transpositions:<br />
(12)(24)(35)<br />
These <strong>are</strong> no longer necessarily disjoint.<br />
(12)(24)(35)(16)(16)<br />
Also, this isn’t unique e.g. ..............................................<br />
but all expressions for the same element will have the same parity.<br />
If it’s even, the element is called an even permutation.<br />
If it’s odd, the element is called an odd permutation.<br />
Do the even permutations form a subgroup of Sn? yes<br />
Do the odd permutations form a subgroup of Sn? no<br />
The alternating group An is the subgroup of Sn given by:<br />
the even permutations<br />
...........................................................................<br />
|An| = n!<br />
2 HHH<br />
Is Sn Abelian? No for n > 2. HHH<br />
(12)(23) = (123)<br />
(23)(12) = (132)
4.1 Definitions and examples 57<br />
Definition 4.1.5. Subgroup<br />
Let G be a group.<br />
A subgroup of G is a subset H ⊂ G such that H is a group with the same<br />
operation. <br />
Example 4.1.6. Cyclic groups<br />
The cyclic group of order n consists of elements<br />
with a n = 1.<br />
1,a,a 2 ,...a n−1<br />
Any group of order n is cyclic if it has an element of order n.<br />
Examples 4.1.7. Symmetry groups<br />
1. Dn is the group of symmetries of a regular n-gon.<br />
(n = 1,2 <strong>are</strong> slightly peculiar though.)<br />
|Dn| = 2n HHH<br />
It consists of ........... rotations and ............ reflections n and n HHH<br />
The group is generated by one rotation and one reflection.<br />
The rotations form a subgroup of Dn isomorphic to Cn.<br />
2. O2 is the group of symmetries of the circle.<br />
|O2| = ∞ HHH<br />
There <strong>are</strong> rotations rotα<br />
and reflections refα<br />
α<br />
This group can be generated from one reflection and all the rotations.<br />
α<br />
2
58 Section 4. Revision<br />
3. SO2 is the rotation group of the circle.<br />
SO2 is a subgroup of O2.<br />
4. Note that<br />
D1 ∼ = C2 ∼ = S2<br />
D3 ∼ = S3<br />
5. The smallest non-abelian group is D3 = S3.<br />
|D3| = 6 HHH<br />
Examples 4.1.8. Groups of matrices<br />
Do the n × n real matrices form a group under multiplication?<br />
No—<strong>we</strong> might not have inverses. HHH<br />
1. GLn(R) = the group of invertible real n × n matrices under multi-<br />
plication<br />
similarly <strong>we</strong> have GLn(F) for any field F.<br />
This is called the general linear group<br />
2. SLn(F) = matrices of determinant 1 with entries in a field F.<br />
This is a subgroup of GLn(F) and is called the special linear group.<br />
4.2 Basic theory<br />
Definition 4.2.1. Orders of elements<br />
Recall that the order of g ∈ G is the least n ∈ N such that g n = e if such<br />
an n exists; otherwise g has infinite order. <br />
Examples 4.2.2.<br />
1. What is the order of rot2π<br />
3<br />
What is the order of rot2π<br />
n<br />
in O2? 3 HHH<br />
in O2? n HHH<br />
What is the order of refα in O2? 2 HHH<br />
2. What is the order of a 3 in C12? 4 HHH<br />
What is the order of a 4 in C6? 3 HHH
4.2 Basic theory 59<br />
What is the order of a m in Cn?<br />
n<br />
hcf(m,n)<br />
explain!! HHH<br />
3. Every element g ∈ G generates a cyclic subgroup of G:<br />
〈g〉 = {1,g 2 ,... ,g n−1 }<br />
The order of this subgroup is the order of g.<br />
Definition 4.2.3. Cosets maltesers!!<br />
Let G be a group, a ∈ G and H a subgroup of G<br />
The left coset aH is given by<br />
aH = {ah | h ∈ H}<br />
and is a subset of elements of G (not a subgroup).<br />
The right coset Ha is given by<br />
Ha = {ha | h ∈ H}.<br />
Can <strong>we</strong> have aH = bH if a = b? yes HHH<br />
aH = bH ⇐⇒ a ∈ bH or equivalently b ∈ aH<br />
⇐⇒ ∃h ∈ H s.t. a = bh or equivalently b = ah<br />
⇐⇒ b −1 a ∈ H comp<strong>are</strong> b − a ∈ nZ for Zn<br />
For example if H = 〈a 2 〉 ⊂ C6 with C6 = {1,a,a 2 ,...a 5 } then aH is the<br />
same as<br />
a 3 H,a 5 H<br />
..........................................................................<br />
Do <strong>we</strong> have aH = Ha? In general no HHH If it’s equal for all a then it’s<br />
a normal subgroup.<br />
Example 4.2.4.<br />
Let G = S3, H = A3 ⊂ S3.<br />
How many left cosets <strong>are</strong> there? 2 HHH
60 Section 4. Revision<br />
Note:<br />
• |aH| = |H| for all a ∈ G.<br />
• Every element of G is in some coset since g ∈ gH.<br />
• a ∈ bH ⇐⇒ aH = bH.<br />
So if |G| is finite, the cosets form a partition of G into equal sized sets, which<br />
gives us Lagrange’s Theorem:<br />
Theorem 4.2.5. Lagrange<br />
For any group G and subgroup H<br />
Corollary 4.2.6.<br />
|H| | |G|.<br />
Given any g ∈ G, the order of g divides |G|<br />
since the order of g is the order of 〈g〉 ⊂ G.<br />
Corollary 4.2.7.<br />
If |G| is prime then G must be cyclic.<br />
Proof.<br />
Let |G| = p prime and let g be any non-identity element.<br />
Then by Corollary 4.2.6 <strong>we</strong> know that the order of g must divide p<br />
so must be 1 or p since p is prime.<br />
But g is not the identity, so the order of g cannot be 1<br />
so the order of g is p, showing that G is cyclic. <br />
Definition 4.2.8. index<br />
The index of H in G is |G|<br />
|H| . <br />
Definition 4.2.9. Group actions<br />
A group G acts on a (non-empty) set X if <strong>we</strong> have for each g ∈ G a function<br />
X −→ X<br />
x ↦→ g ∗ x
4.2 Basic theory 61<br />
interacting properly with the group structure, i.e.<br />
Example 4.2.10.<br />
1. e ∗ x = x for all x ∈ X<br />
2. g ∗ (h ∗ x) = gh ∗ x for all g,h ∈ G, x ∈ X <br />
D4 acts on the vertices of the squ<strong>are</strong>.<br />
D4 also acts on the edges of the squ<strong>are</strong>.<br />
Definition 4.2.11. Orbit and stabiliser<br />
Given an action of G on X as above, the orbit and stabiliser of x ∈ X <strong>are</strong><br />
given by:<br />
• orb(x) = { g ∗ x | g ∈ G } ⊂ X<br />
• stab(x) = { g ∈ G | g ∗ x = x } ⊂ G means subgroup<br />
Note that<br />
orb(x) = orb(y) ⇐⇒ x ∈ orb(y)<br />
so <strong>we</strong> get an equivalence relation ∼ on X<br />
x ∼ y ⇐⇒ they <strong>are</strong> in the same orbit.<br />
Theorem 4.2.12. Orbit-stabiliser<br />
Let G be a finite group acting on a set X. Then for any x ∈ X<br />
|orb(x)|.|stab(x)| = |G|<br />
Example 4.2.13. D4 acting on the squ<strong>are</strong><br />
Recall that D4 acts on the corners of the squ<strong>are</strong>:<br />
4<br />
Then orb(1) = {1,2,3,4} HHH<br />
stab(1) = {e,ref13} HHH<br />
So <strong>we</strong> can check the orbit-stabiliser theorem holds:<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
<br />
4.2 = 8 = |D4|<br />
......................
62 Section 4. Revision<br />
Note that there is a more delicate version of this theorem which also works<br />
for infinite groups. It involves cosets. Cosets <strong>are</strong> traditionally unpopular<br />
among students.<br />
orb(x)<br />
∼<br />
−→ cosets of stab(x)<br />
y ↦→ {g ∈ G | g ∗ x = y} “all ways of sending x to y”<br />
4.3 Homomorphisms<br />
Definition 4.3.1. Homomorphism<br />
A group homomorphism is a function<br />
such that for all x,y ∈ G<br />
θ : G −→ H<br />
θ(xy) = θ(x).θ(y)<br />
Note: it follows that θ(e) = e and θ(x −1 ) = (θ(x)) −1 . <br />
θ(x).θ(e) = θ(x) so θ(e) = e and θ(x).θ(x −1 ) = θ(e) = e<br />
Definition 4.3.2. Group isomorphism<br />
A group isomorphism θ : G −→ H is a homomorphism that is bijective.<br />
Equivalently: there exists a homomorphism φ : H −→ G such that<br />
Examples 4.3.3.<br />
φ ◦ θ = idH<br />
θ ◦ φ = idG. <br />
1. If H is a subgroup of G, the inclusion H −→ G is a homomorphism.<br />
2. Do <strong>we</strong> have a homomorphism yes HHH<br />
Z −→ Zn<br />
a ↦→ a (mod n) ?
3. Do <strong>we</strong> have a homomorphism no HHH<br />
Zn −→ Z<br />
a (mod n) ↦→ a ?<br />
No—just like in the ring case, because addition isn’t the same<br />
eg (n − 1) + 1 = 0<br />
4. How many group homomorphisms <strong>are</strong> there HHH 1, 2, 3, 4, 5:many<br />
Ans<strong>we</strong>r: one for each a ∈ Z<br />
Z<br />
θ<br />
−→ Z ?<br />
1 −→ a<br />
n ↦→ na = a + a + · · · + a or θ(n) = an<br />
There is always a group homomorphism G −→ 0 = {e}.<br />
Also, given any groups G,H there is always a trivial homomorphism<br />
5 Quotient groups<br />
G −→ H<br />
g ↦→ e<br />
We’re going to see that <strong>we</strong> can sort of multiply and divide groups under the<br />
right circumstances.<br />
5.1 Subgroups<br />
Definition 5.1.1. Subgroup<br />
H is a subgroup of a group G if it is a subset of G and a group under the<br />
same operation. Equivalently:<br />
1. for all a,b ∈ H <strong>we</strong> have ab ∈ H,<br />
2. e ∈ H, and<br />
3. for all a ∈ H <strong>we</strong> have a −1 ∈ H.<br />
We write H ⊆ G unless confusion is likely. <br />
63
64 Section 5. Quotient groups<br />
Examples 5.1.2.<br />
1. Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C under addition<br />
2. Is Zn a subgroup of Z? No, just like for rings.<br />
3. An ⊂ Sn<br />
Cn ⊆ Sn<br />
Dn ⊆ Sn<br />
Cn ⊆ Dn<br />
Dn ⊆ O2<br />
4. Is D3 ⊆ D4? No: 6 ∤ 8<br />
Is S3 ⊆ S4? Yes: always for n < m, Sn ⊂ Sm<br />
5. SLn(F) ⊆ GLn(F)<br />
6. The trivial group 0 = {e} is a subgroup of every group.<br />
5.2 Cosets<br />
Definition 5.2.1. Cosets<br />
Let H be a subgroup of G.<br />
Then the left coset aH is the set: { ah | h ∈ H }.<br />
The right coset Ha is the set: { ha | h ∈ H }. <br />
For example if H = {e,h1,h2,h3} then<br />
aH = {a,ah1,ah2,ah3}<br />
bH = {b,bh1,bh2,bh3}<br />
but now <strong>we</strong> actually multiply those elements out.
5.2 Cosets 65<br />
Example 5.2.2.<br />
Consider the cyclic group C12 with elements {e,a,a 2 ,a 3 ,... a 11 }<br />
so a 12 = a 0 = e.<br />
Let H = 〈a 4 〉<br />
so H has elements ............................................ e,a 4 ,a 8<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have the following cosets:<br />
eH = {e,a 4 ,a 8 } a 6 H = {a 6 ,a 10 ,a 2 }<br />
aH = {a,a 5 ,a 9 } a 7 H = {a 7 ,a 11 ,a 3 }<br />
a 2 H = {a 2 ,a 6 ,a 10 } a 8 H = {a 8 ,e,a 4 }<br />
a 3 H = {a 3 ,a 7 ,a 11 } a 9 H = {a 9 ,a,a 5 }<br />
a 4 H = {a 4 ,a 8 ,e } a 10 H = {a 10 ,a 2 ,a 6 }<br />
a 5 H = {a 5 ,a 9 ,a } a 11 H = {a 11 ,a 3 ,a 7 }<br />
|C12| = ...................12 |H| = ....................3<br />
So the number of distinct cosets = ................ |C12 |<br />
|H|<br />
The following cosets <strong>are</strong> the same:<br />
eH = a 4 H = a 8 H<br />
aH = a 5 H = a 9 H<br />
a 2 H = a 6 H = a 10 H<br />
a H = a 7 H = a 11 H<br />
= 4
66 Section 5. Quotient groups<br />
Example 5.2.3. Cosets in D3<br />
Recall that D3 is the symmetry group of the equilateral triangle:<br />
1<br />
a is rot anticlockwise, bi is ref through line through i (draw in dotted)<br />
We have elements: e,a,a 2 ,b1,b2,b3<br />
Note b2 = ab1<br />
b3 = a 2 b1.<br />
We have a subgroup H = {e,b1}.<br />
Now let’s find the left cosets:<br />
2<br />
eH = {e,b1}<br />
aH = {a,ab1} = {a,b2}<br />
a 2 H = {a 2 ,a 2 b1} = {a 2 ,b3}<br />
b1H = {b1,e}<br />
So the following cosets <strong>are</strong> equal:<br />
b2H = {b2,b2b1} = {b2,a}<br />
b3H = {b3,b3b1} = {b3,a 2 }<br />
3<br />
H = b1H<br />
aH = b2H<br />
a 2 H = b3H<br />
The number of distinct cosets is .............................. 3
5.2 Cosets 67<br />
Lemma 5.2.4.<br />
Let H be a subgroup of G and a ∈ G.<br />
Then the coset aH has the same number of elements as H.<br />
Proof.<br />
Certainly aH can’t have more elements that H.<br />
It can only have fe<strong>we</strong>r if ah = ah ′ for some h = h ′ ∈ H.<br />
But ah = ah ′ =⇒ h = h ′ . <br />
Lemma 5.2.5.<br />
Let H be a subgroup of G.<br />
If there is an element x ∈ G such that x ∈ aH and x ∈ bH<br />
then aH = bH.<br />
Proof.<br />
x ∈ aH so x = ah1, say.<br />
x ∈ bH so x = bh2, say.<br />
Then a = bh2h −1<br />
1 . (1)<br />
We show aH ⊆ bH: y ∈ aH =⇒ y = ah for some h ∈ H<br />
Similarly bH ⊆ aH<br />
=⇒ y = bh2h −1<br />
1 .h by (1)<br />
=⇒ y ∈ bH<br />
so aH = bH as required.
68 Section 5. Quotient groups<br />
Corollary 5.2.6. ABSOLUTELY KEY, MUST REMEMBER<br />
Let H be a subgroup of G and a,b ∈ G.<br />
Then aH = bH if and only if any one of the following equivalent conditions<br />
holds:<br />
• b ∈ aH • a ∈ bH<br />
• ∃ h ∈ H s.t. b = ah • ∃ h ∈ H s.t. a = bh<br />
• a −1 b ∈ H • b −1 a ∈ H<br />
We can then define an equivalence relation on the elements of G:<br />
a ∼ b ⇐⇒ aH = bH.<br />
Note that for right cosets it’s all the other way round:<br />
• b ∈ Ha • a ∈ Hb<br />
• ∃ h ∈ H s.t. b = ha • ∃ h ∈ H s.t. a = hb<br />
• ba −1 ∈ H • ab −1 ∈ H<br />
Example 5.2.7. Modular arithmetic bring sheet with nos<br />
Let G = Z.<br />
Put H = 4Z = { all multiples of 4 ∈ Z }<br />
= { k ∈ Z s.t. 4|k }<br />
= { 4n | n ∈ Z }<br />
= { ... , −8, −4,0,4,8,12,... }<br />
This is an additive group so the cosets <strong>are</strong> a + H.<br />
e.g. 1 + H = {... , −7, −3,1,5,9,13,...} = { k | k ≡ 1 (mod 4) }<br />
2 + H = {... , −6, −2,2,6,10,14,...} = { k | k ≡ 2 (mod 4) }<br />
3 + H = {... , −5, −1,3,7,11,14,...} = { k | k ≡ 3 (mod 4) }<br />
4 + H = H<br />
5 + H = 1 + H
5.2 Cosets 69<br />
So 1 + H = 5 + H = 9 + H = 13 + H = · · ·<br />
So a ∼ b ⇐⇒ a + H = b + H<br />
⇐⇒ b − a ∈ H<br />
⇐⇒ 4 | b − a<br />
⇐⇒ a ≡ b (mod 4)<br />
So <strong>we</strong> can achieve modular arithmetic by faffing around with cosets. Of<br />
course, that’s a bit over the top for modular arithmetic, but it shows us how<br />
<strong>we</strong> can generalise the idea of modular arithmetic to other (less obvious)<br />
groups. This is called quotient groups. In the above example <strong>we</strong> started<br />
with Z and “quotiented” (divided) by 4Z. In general <strong>we</strong> can quotient by<br />
any normal subgroup.<br />
Definition 5.2.8. Normal subgroup<br />
A subgroup H ⊆ G is a normal subgroup if<br />
equivalently: be ready to explain this<br />
∀ a ∈ G aH = Ha<br />
∀ a ∈ G, h ∈ H aha −1 ∈ H.<br />
Informally “H is stable under conjugation”.<br />
We write H G. <br />
Examples 5.2.9.<br />
1. If G is abelian then all subgroups <strong>are</strong> normal since<br />
aha −1 = aa −1 h = h ∈ H<br />
.....................................................................<br />
2. Any group G has normal subgroups 0 and G.<br />
3. An Sn (See Tutorial #7, q.1)<br />
4. Cn Dn but C2 is not. Recall from Example 5.2.3:<br />
H = {e,b1} ∼ = C2
70 Section 5. Quotient groups<br />
use b1a = b3,b1a 2 = b2<br />
eH = {e,b1} He = {e,b1}<br />
aH = {a,ab1} = {a,b2} Ha = {a,b1a} = {a,b3}<br />
a 2 H = {a 2 ,a 2 b1} = {a 2 ,b3} Ha 2 = {a 2 ,b1a 2 } = {a 2 ,b2}<br />
b1H = {b1,e} Hb1 = {b1,e}<br />
b2H = {b2,b2b1} = {b2,a} Hb2 = {b2,b1b2} = {b2,a 2 }<br />
b3H = {b3,b3b1} = {b3,a 2 } Hb3 = {b3,b1b3} = {b3,a}<br />
So the left cosets do not equal the right cosets, so H is not a normal<br />
subgroup.<br />
5. In fact if H is a subgroup of index 2 then it must be a normal sub-<br />
group. (See Tutorial #7, q.1)<br />
Later <strong>we</strong>’ll see that homomorphisms give rise to normal subgroups in an<br />
important way.<br />
Question: Which makes you feel more like a rat up a drainpipe—cosets or<br />
equivalence relations?<br />
5.3 Quotient groups<br />
Quotient groups <strong>are</strong> a really important piece of mathematics. I would say<br />
they <strong>are</strong> the most important and beautiful piece of theory in this course<br />
(though of course others might disagree).<br />
The point is that if <strong>we</strong> have a normal subgroup H G then the cosets form<br />
a group. Later <strong>we</strong>’ll see how to think of this as an equivalence relation.<br />
Definition 5.3.1. Quotient group<br />
Let H G. Then the cosets of H form a group called the quotient group<br />
G/H.
5.3 Quotient groups 71<br />
• The elements <strong>are</strong> the cosets aH.<br />
Remember g1H = g2H ⇐⇒ g −1<br />
2 g1 ∈ H.<br />
How many elements <strong>are</strong> there?<br />
• We define the group operation by<br />
• The identity element is eH = H.<br />
We have to check this makes sense i.e.<br />
|G/H| = |G|<br />
|H|<br />
(aH).(bH) = (ab)H<br />
if a1H = a2H and b1H = b2H (1)<br />
then <strong>we</strong> must have (a1b1)H = (a2b2)H. (2)<br />
Once <strong>we</strong> have checked this, the group axioms follow immediately.<br />
Now, by Corollary 5.2.6 <strong>we</strong> know that (1) means a −1<br />
2 a1 ∈ H and b −1<br />
2 b1 ∈ H.<br />
Also (2) means (a2b2) −1 (a1b1) ∈ H.<br />
Now (a2b2) −1 (a1b1) = b −1<br />
2 a−1<br />
2 .a1b1<br />
= b −1<br />
2 (a −1<br />
2 a1)<br />
<br />
∈H<br />
b2<br />
<br />
∈H<br />
. b −1<br />
2 b1<br />
<br />
∈H<br />
trick<br />
Note that this crucially depended on H being a normal subgroup. <br />
Examples 5.3.2.<br />
1. nZ = { nk | k ∈ Z }<br />
This is a normal subgroup of Z since Z is abelian.<br />
We formed the quotient group before: Z/nZ = Zn<br />
2. Sn/An ∼ = C2<br />
Dn/Cn ∼ = C2.<br />
3. R 2 /R gives us lines in R 2 draw pic
72 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
4. R 3 /R gives us lines in R 3 draw pic<br />
5. We know that 0 G for any group. So put H = 0.<br />
{a}<br />
Then for any a ∈ G the coset aH is ................................<br />
So the quotient group G/0 is G<br />
.......................................<br />
6. G/G = 0<br />
.............<br />
Here’s something else <strong>we</strong> won’t really be using, but it’s included for com-<br />
pleteness. It’ll be very important in the future.<br />
Definition 5.3.3. Product Given groups A and B <strong>we</strong> can form a new<br />
group A × B as follows.<br />
• The elements <strong>are</strong> { (a,b) | a ∈ A,b ∈ B }<br />
• Multiplication is “pointwise”: (a1,b1).(a2,b2) = (a1a2,b1b2). <br />
If it’s an additive group <strong>we</strong> have<br />
(a1,b1) + (a2,b2) = (a1 + a2,b1 + b2)<br />
—does this remind you of anything? R × R = R 2<br />
6 Conjugacy<br />
Conjugacy is a relationship bet<strong>we</strong>en elements that means they behave in<br />
similar ways.<br />
E.g. getting past someone into a seat.
6.1 Definitions 73<br />
6.1 Definitions<br />
Definition 6.1.1. Conjugate<br />
Let G be a group and a,g ∈ G.<br />
The conjugate of a by g is gag −1 . <br />
Where have you seen conjugates before?<br />
Linear: conjugate matrices, diagonalisation etc<br />
..........................................................................<br />
Examples 6.1.2.<br />
1. In an Abelian group gag −1 = a<br />
so everything is only conjugate to itself.<br />
2. In a dihedral group and O2, conjugating a rotation through α by any<br />
reflection gives rotation through −α.<br />
actually this is the defining property of dihedral groups<br />
3. In Sn, conjugates <strong>are</strong> all those elements of the same cycle type.<br />
Lemma 6.1.3.<br />
Given a,g ∈ G, the order of gag −1 equals the order of a.<br />
Proof.<br />
Suppose the order of a is n, so n is the smallest natural number such that<br />
a n = e.<br />
First <strong>we</strong> check that (gag −1 ) n = e.<br />
Now<br />
(gag −1 ) n = gag −1 .gag −1 .... .gag −1<br />
<br />
n times<br />
= ga n g −1<br />
= geg −1<br />
= e
74 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> check that n is the smallest natural number such that<br />
(gag −1 ) n = e.<br />
Suppose there is a smaller one i.e. 0 < k < n such that (gag −1 ) k = e.<br />
Then<br />
(gag −1 ) k = ga k g −1<br />
= e<br />
so a k = g −1 g<br />
So such a k cannot exist.<br />
= e # contradicts the order of a being n<br />
So the order of gag −1 is n as required. <br />
Definition 6.1.4. Conjugacy class, centraliser<br />
Let G be a group and a ∈ G.<br />
The conjugacy class of a in G is<br />
The centraliser of a in G is<br />
conj G(a) = “all those elements conjugate to a”<br />
= { gag −1 | g ∈ G }<br />
centG(a) = “all those elements that commute with a<br />
= { g ∈ G | gag −1 = a } <br />
Does this remind you anything? group actions, orbit/stabiliser
6.1 Definitions 75<br />
Theorem 6.1.5. “Conjugation is a group action”<br />
Defining<br />
g ∗ a = gag −1 ∀g ∈ G<br />
gives a group action of G on its set of elements.<br />
Then for all a ∈ G: orb(a) = conj G(a)<br />
stab(a) = centG(a)<br />
So if G is finite, by the orbit-stabiliser theorem <strong>we</strong> have<br />
|conj G(a)| . |centG(a)| = |G|.<br />
.........................................................................<br />
In particular<br />
|conj G(a)| | |G|<br />
and <strong>we</strong> can partition G into conjugacy classes. not all equal sizes<br />
Also, it follows that centG(a) is a subgroup of G.<br />
Proof.<br />
eae −1<br />
1.∀a ∈ G : e ∗ a = ...............................<br />
= a tick<br />
g ∗ (hah −1 )<br />
2.∀g,h,a ∈ G : g ∗ (h ∗ a) = ............................... substitute definition of h∗<br />
g(hah −1 )g −1<br />
= ............................... substitute definition of g∗<br />
(gh).a.(gh) −1<br />
= ............................... re-associate, and<br />
use definition of (gh) −1<br />
= (gh) ∗ a
76 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
Theorem 6.1.6. Conjugacy classes in Sn<br />
Given an element a ∈ Sn, the conjugacy class of a consists of all elements<br />
of the same cycle type as a.<br />
We won’t quite prove it, but <strong>we</strong> will show how to “do” it.<br />
Example 6.1.7.<br />
In S6 consider a = (123)(45).<br />
The conjugacy class is all elements of cycle type 3,2.<br />
(213)(36), (314)(25),...<br />
E.g. .....................................................................<br />
How many such elements <strong>are</strong> there?<br />
6.5.4<br />
3<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have |conjS6 (a)| = 120<br />
. 3 = 120<br />
6! 6!<br />
|centS6 (a)| = = = 3.2 = 6<br />
120 6.5.4<br />
In the next example <strong>we</strong>’ll actually exhibit the conjugacy.
6.1 Definitions 77<br />
Example 6.1.8. Conjugacy in S9<br />
Consider α = ( 1 9 6 3 )( 2 4 8 )( 5 7 ) ∈ S9<br />
β = ( 3 1 )( 9 2 4 7 )( 6 5 8 ) ∈ S9<br />
We claim that these <strong>are</strong> conjugate.<br />
To show this, <strong>we</strong> need to find θ ∈ S9 s.t. β = θαθ −1 .<br />
1. Line up the two permutations by re-ordering the disjoint cycles:<br />
α = 1 9 6 3 2 4 8 5 7 <br />
β =<br />
(9247)(658)(31)<br />
<br />
2. Re-order the vertical pairs of number to give a standard two-row no-<br />
tation:<br />
967534182<br />
θ =<br />
⎛<br />
⎜<br />
⎝<br />
3. Check your ans<strong>we</strong>r:<br />
i) Write θ in cycle notation:<br />
ii) Write θ −1 in cycle notation:<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
⎞<br />
⎟<br />
⎠<br />
(19264537)<br />
.........................................<br />
(73546291)<br />
.........................................<br />
iii) Calculate θαθ −1 (which should come out to be β):<br />
(19264537) . (1963)(248)(57) . (73546291)<br />
= (13)(2479)(586)<br />
= β<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have exhibited θ such that β = θαθ −1 ,<br />
showing that α and β really <strong>are</strong> conjugate.
78 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
Example 6.1.9. Conjugacy classes in D4 bring plastic squ<strong>are</strong><br />
Recall that D4 is the group of symmetries of the squ<strong>are</strong>:<br />
In D4 <strong>we</strong> have elements e,a,a 2 ,a 3 ,b1,b2,b3,b4<br />
a is rot anticlockwise, bi is ref in the line i<br />
○4<br />
We know ref.rotα.ref −1 = rot−α<br />
• We know that e is conjugate to .................... only e<br />
○3<br />
○2<br />
○1<br />
a, since rotations commute<br />
• Conjugating a by a rotation gives ..................................<br />
a −1 = a 3 by the above<br />
Conjugating a by a reflection gives .................................<br />
{a,a 3 }<br />
So the conjugacy class of a is .......................................<br />
a 2 , since rotations commute<br />
• Conjugating a 2 by a rotation gives .................................<br />
(a 2 ) −1 = a 2 by the above<br />
Conjugating a 2 by a reflection gives ................................<br />
{a 2 }<br />
So the conjugacy class of a 2 is ......................................<br />
• For b1 <strong>we</strong> calculate (noting that b −1<br />
i = bi): just use plastic squ<strong>are</strong><br />
eb1e = b1 b1b1b1 = b1<br />
ab1a −1 = b3 b2b1b2 = b3<br />
a 2 b1a −2 = b1 b3b1b3 = b1<br />
a 3 b1a −3 = b3 b4b1b4 = b3<br />
{b1,b3}<br />
So the conjugacy class of b1 is ......................................
6.2 The class equation 79<br />
{b2,b4}<br />
• It follows that the remaining conjugacy class is .....................<br />
How do <strong>we</strong> know? What sort of elements <strong>are</strong> in conjugacy classes of<br />
their own? —only those that commute with everything, and <strong>we</strong> know<br />
that reflections don’t commute with rotations.<br />
6.2 The class equation<br />
We found that in D4 the conjugacy class sizes <strong>are</strong>:<br />
1, 1, 2, 2, 2 total elements = 8<br />
We can learn a surprising amount about a group just by looking at this<br />
app<strong>are</strong>ntly stupid equation<br />
Definition 6.2.1. Class equation<br />
1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8<br />
Let G be a finite group with conjugacy classes<br />
Then the class equation for G is<br />
C1,C2,... ,Ck.<br />
|C1| + |C2| + · · · |Ck| = |G|.<br />
Note that the class equation has the following features:<br />
• 1 must appear at least once (for e)<br />
• each number must divide |G|.<br />
Example 6.2.2. Class equation for S3<br />
We know that elements of S3 <strong>are</strong> conjugate precisely if they have the same<br />
cycle type, so all <strong>we</strong> have to do to find the conjugacy class sizes is<br />
1. write down every possible cycle type in S3, and<br />
2. count how many permutations there <strong>are</strong> of each type.
80 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
So in S3 <strong>we</strong> have class equation<br />
1 + 2 + 3 = 6<br />
..........................................<br />
cycle type typical element no. of elements<br />
3 (123) 2<br />
2,1 (12) 3<br />
1,1,1 e 1<br />
Example 6.2.3. Class equation for S5 and A5<br />
See Tutorial #7 q.4<br />
Cycle types in S5:<br />
cycle type typical element # ODD EVEN<br />
5 (12345) = (12)(23)(34)(45) 5!<br />
5 24 X<br />
4,1 (1234) = (12)(23)(34) 5!<br />
5 30 X <br />
3,2 (123)(45) = (12)(23)(45) 5.4.3.2<br />
4 20 X <br />
3,1,1 (123) = (12)(23) 5.4.3<br />
3 .2.1<br />
2 20 X<br />
5.4<br />
2,2,1 (12)(34) 2 .3.2<br />
2 .1<br />
2 15 X<br />
5.4<br />
2,1,1,1 (12) 2 10 X <br />
1,1,1,1 e 1 X<br />
• The class equation for S5 is<br />
• The class equation for A5<br />
1 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 20 + 30 + 24 = 120<br />
60<br />
5! = 120 Total even = ............<br />
can’t be 1 + 15 + 20 + 24 = 60 because those numbers don’t all divide<br />
60<br />
.....................................................................
6.2 The class equation 81<br />
Example 6.2.4.<br />
Suppose |G| = 7.<br />
Then the class equation must be:<br />
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 7<br />
all the numbers must divide 7.<br />
since .....................................................................<br />
This holds for groups of order any prime p.<br />
Example 6.2.5.<br />
Suppose |G| = 8.<br />
Then the possibilities <strong>are</strong>:<br />
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1<br />
1 1 1 1 1 1 2<br />
1 1 1 1 2 2<br />
1 1 1 1 4<br />
1 1 2 2 2 ←− this one is D4<br />
1 1 2 4<br />
Question: What do those 1’s tell us? That is, what kind of element is in<br />
a conjugacy class of its own?<br />
Ans<strong>we</strong>r: An element a such that<br />
“a commutes with everything”<br />
∀g ∈ G gag −1 = a<br />
i.e. ga = ag
82 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
Definition 6.2.6. Centre<br />
Let G be a group and a ∈ G.<br />
We say a is central in G if: ∀g ∈ G ga = ag.<br />
The set of all central elements is called the centre of G:<br />
Z(G) = { a ∈ G | ∀g ∈ G ga = ag }<br />
Equivalent ways of saying a is central:<br />
∀g ∈ G, a ∈ centG(g)<br />
Examples 6.2.7.<br />
= { a ∈ G | ∀g ∈ G a ∈ centG(g) }<br />
= <br />
centG(g)<br />
g<br />
∀g ∈ G, ga = ag ∀g ∈ G, gag −1 = a<br />
centG(a) = G<br />
1. Z(D4) = { e, rotπ } —see Example 6.1.9.<br />
2. Z(D3) = { e } by studying multiplication table<br />
3. If G is abelian then Z(G) = G.<br />
4. Z(G) always contains e.<br />
Proposition 6.2.8.<br />
conj G(a) = {a}<br />
For any group G, Z(G) is a normal subgroup of G. Z(G) G<br />
Proof.<br />
• Z(G) is a subgroup of G because it is the intersection of subgroups<br />
centG(g). We can also check directly: given a,b ∈ Z(G) and g ∈ G,<br />
g.ab.g −1 = gag −1 .gbg −1 trick<br />
= ab since a,b ∈ Z(G)
6.2 The class equation 83<br />
• Now <strong>we</strong> show it is a normal subgroup.<br />
We need to show:<br />
for all a ∈ Z(G) and g ∈ G, gag −1 ∈ Z(G).<br />
.....................................................................<br />
a ∈ Z(G), since a ∈ Z(G)<br />
But gag −1 =........................................................<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have a normal subgroup as required. <br />
Note that looking at the class equation, <strong>we</strong> see Z(G) appearing in the form<br />
of all the 1’s.<br />
Examples 6.2.9. Centres and the class equation<br />
1. The class equation for D4 is<br />
1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8<br />
1<br />
<br />
+ 1<br />
<br />
+2 + 2 + 2 = 8<br />
centre<br />
These 1’s <strong>are</strong> the classes of e and rotπ.<br />
2. The class equation for S5 is:<br />
1 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 20 + 30 + 24 = 120<br />
trivial<br />
so the centre is .....................................................<br />
3. Let |G| = 8. We saw all the possible class equations in Example 6.2.5.<br />
We deduce that the centre must be non-trivial.
84 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
Proposition 6.2.10.<br />
Let G be a group of order p k where p is prime.<br />
Then Z(G) must be non-trivial.<br />
Proof.<br />
The only possible numbers in the class equation <strong>are</strong>:<br />
1 or po<strong>we</strong>rs of p, since the numbers must divide p k .<br />
...........................................................................<br />
We know <strong>we</strong> must have at least one 1, because<br />
e is in a conjugacy class by itself<br />
...........................................................................<br />
Now if <strong>we</strong> have only one 1:<br />
• the LHS of the equation will be congruent to .....1 (mod p) , whereas<br />
• the RHS is congruent to .....0 (mod p) #.<br />
So <strong>we</strong> must have more than one 1 in the class equation.<br />
This shows that the centre is non-trivial because<br />
each 1 corresponds to an element in the centre<br />
...........................................................................<br />
We can also detect other normal subgroups.<br />
Theorem 6.2.11.<br />
Let G be a group and H a subgroup.<br />
Then H is normal if and only if it is a union of conjugacy classes.<br />
We’ll prove this after looking at some examples.
6.2 The class equation 85<br />
Example 6.2.12. Normal subgroups of D4<br />
For D4 <strong>we</strong> have<br />
1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2<br />
e a 2 {a,a 3 } {b1,b3} {b2,b4}<br />
We know that the possible orders of subgroups of D4 <strong>are</strong>:<br />
1,2,4,8<br />
...........................................................................<br />
by ...................................................Theorem Lagrange’s<br />
• We know <strong>we</strong> have normal subgroups 0 and G.<br />
—and clearly these <strong>are</strong> unions of conjugacy classes<br />
• For subgroups of order 2, there is only one possible union of conjugacy<br />
classes:<br />
{e} ∪ {a 2 }, since any subgroup must contain e<br />
.....................................................................<br />
This is indeed a subgroup of D4, so is a normal subgroup.<br />
• For subgroups of order 4, <strong>we</strong> have the following possible unions of<br />
conjugacy classes:<br />
{e} ∪ {a 2 } ∪ {a,a 3 }<br />
{e} ∪ {a 2 } ∪ {b1,b3}<br />
{e} ∪ {a 2 } ∪ {b2,b4}<br />
since e must be contained in any subgroup.<br />
We can check that these <strong>are</strong> all subgroups, so must be normal sub-<br />
groups.<br />
• So the following subgroups <strong>are</strong> not normal:<br />
{e,bi} for each i<br />
.....................................................................
86 Section 6. Conjugacy<br />
Example 6.2.13. Normal subgroups of S5<br />
In S5 <strong>we</strong> know that conjugacy classes <strong>are</strong> given by<br />
elements of the same cycle type<br />
...........................................................................<br />
• Is 〈 (123) 〉 a normal subgroup?<br />
No, because for example it doesn’t contain the conjugate cycle (345).<br />
Besides, its order is 3, whereas there <strong>are</strong> 5.4.3<br />
3<br />
cycle type, so some must be missing.<br />
= 20 elements of this<br />
.....................................................................<br />
• Is 〈 (12345) 〉 a normal subgroup?<br />
No, because its order is 5 whereas there <strong>are</strong> 5!<br />
5<br />
cycle type, so some must be missing.<br />
= 24 elements of this<br />
.....................................................................<br />
Proof of Theorem 6.2.11.<br />
• Suppose H is a subgroup of G and is a union of conjugacy classes.<br />
We aim to show that H is a normal subgroup.<br />
So, given h ∈ H, g ∈ G, <strong>we</strong> need to show ghg −1 ∈ H.<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> know that conj G(h) ⊆ H<br />
so ghg −1 ∈ conj G(h) ⊆ H.<br />
So H is a normal subgroup as required.<br />
• Conversely suppose H G.<br />
Given h ∈ H <strong>we</strong> want to show conj G(h) ⊆ H.<br />
So consider x ∈ conj G(h)<br />
i.e. x = ghg −1 for some g ∈ G.<br />
But ghg −1 ∈ H since H is normal, so conj G(h) ⊆ H as required.
6.2 The class equation 87<br />
Example 6.2.14. Conjugacy in A4.<br />
Consider the conjugacy class of α = (123) in S4.<br />
β θ s.t. θαθ −1 = β θ<br />
ODD EVEN<br />
(123) e X<br />
(132) (23) X <br />
(124) (34) X <br />
(142) (243) X<br />
(134) (234) X<br />
(143) (24) X <br />
(234) (1234) X <br />
(243) (124) X<br />
This conjugacy class splits into two classes in A4:<br />
• Elements conjugate to α in S4 via an even cycle:<br />
{(123), (142), (134), (243)}<br />
.....................................................................<br />
• Elements conjugate to α in S4 via an odd cycle:<br />
{(132), (124), (143), (234)}<br />
.....................................................................<br />
Theorem 6.2.15. Conjugacy in An<br />
If there is an odd permutation θ such that θα = αθ then<br />
conj An(α) = conj Sn (α).<br />
Otherwise the conjugacy class splits in two in An.
88 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
7 Homomorphisms<br />
Recall that a group homomorphism is a function θ : G −→ H such that:<br />
∀x,y ∈ G, θ(xy) = θ(x)θ(y).<br />
...........................................................................<br />
Here G and H <strong>are</strong> of course groups.<br />
Here’s a “schematic diagram” of the group homomorphism axiom:<br />
multiply in G<br />
G H<br />
do θ<br />
x y θ(x) θ(xy) θ(y)<br />
xy<br />
Remember it follows that<br />
• θ(e) = e<br />
• θ(a −1 ) = (θ(a)) −1<br />
do θ<br />
θ(xy)<br />
Homomorphisms produce some very interesting subgroups.<br />
7.1 Kernels and images<br />
multiply in H<br />
Homomorphisms bet<strong>we</strong>en groups <strong>are</strong> much more po<strong>we</strong>rful than functions<br />
bet<strong>we</strong>en sets. They draw their po<strong>we</strong>r from the group structure of the groups<br />
in question.<br />
Definition 7.1.1. Kernel and image<br />
Let G and H be groups, and θ : G −→ H be a homomorphism.
7.1 Kernels and images 89<br />
The kernel of θ is: Kerθ = “everything that is sent to e” ⊆ G<br />
= { g ∈ G | θ(g) = e }<br />
The image of θ is: Imθ = “everything that is hit by θ” ⊆ H<br />
Lemma 7.1.2.<br />
= { θ(g) | g ∈ G }<br />
Let θ : G −→ H be a homomorphism. Then<br />
1. Kerθ is a subgroup of G.<br />
2. Imθ is a subgroup of H.<br />
= { h ∈ H | h = θ(g) for some g ∈ G }<br />
also written θ(G) <br />
Note that to show that an element of G is in Kerθ <strong>we</strong><br />
apply θ to it and check that the ans<strong>we</strong>r is e.<br />
...........................................................................<br />
To show that an element of H is in Imθ <strong>we</strong><br />
find an element of G that get sent to it by θ<br />
...........................................................................<br />
Proof.<br />
1. • e ∈ Kerθ since .......................... θ(e) = e<br />
• Given a and b ∈ Kerθ <strong>we</strong> have ab ∈ Kerθ since<br />
θ(a)θ(b)<br />
θ(ab) = ................................... by definition of group homomorphism<br />
e.e<br />
= ........................ since a,b ∈ Kerθ<br />
e<br />
= ........................ by definition of e.
90 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
• Given a ∈ Kerθ <strong>we</strong> have a −1 ∈ Kerθ since<br />
(θ(a)) −1<br />
θ(a −1 ) = ................................... by standard result for group homomorphisms<br />
e −1<br />
= ........................ since a ∈ Kerθ<br />
e<br />
= ........................ by definition of e.<br />
2. • e ∈ Imθ since ............................ θ(e) = e<br />
• Given x and y ∈ Imθ <strong>we</strong> show xy ∈ Imθ:<br />
Put x = θ(a), y = θ(b), say.<br />
Then<br />
θ(a)θ(b)<br />
xy = ................................... (substitute)<br />
θ(ab)<br />
= ........................ by definition of group homomorphism<br />
So xy ∈ Imθ as required.<br />
• Given x ∈ Imθ <strong>we</strong> show x −1 ∈ Imθ:<br />
Put x = θ(a), say.<br />
Then<br />
(θ(a)) −1<br />
x −1 = ................................... (substitution)<br />
θ(a −1 )<br />
= ........................ by standard result for group homomorphisms<br />
Example 7.1.3.<br />
So x −1 ∈ Imθ as required. <br />
Let G = GLn(R), the group of invertible real n × n matrices.<br />
Let H = R \ {0} under multiplication.<br />
We define a group homomorphism θ : G −→ H by<br />
θ(A) = detA.
7.1 Kernels and images 91<br />
This is a homomorphism since<br />
det(AB) = detA.detB<br />
...........................................................................<br />
• Kerθ = { A ∈ GLn(R) | detA = 1 }<br />
• Imθ = H<br />
= SLn(R) by definition<br />
We can always find A with detA = x eg ( x 0<br />
0 1 )<br />
Example 7.1.4.<br />
D3 acts on the vertices of an equilateral triangle giving a homomorphism<br />
D3 −→ S3.<br />
• Kerθ = {e} which symmetries fix every vertex?<br />
• Imθ = S3 which perms of the vertices can be achieved by symmetries?<br />
We will see that this shows D3 ∼ = S3.<br />
In general Dn acts on the vertices of the regular n-gon, giving a homomor-<br />
phism<br />
• Kerθ = {e}<br />
Dn −→ Sn.<br />
• Imθ = not the whole of Sn unles n = 3<br />
eg can’t switch two adjacent vertices and nothing else, except on the<br />
triangle<br />
We will see that Imθ ∼ = Dn.<br />
More generally, if G acts on a set of n things, <strong>we</strong> get a homomorphism<br />
G −→ Sn.
92 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
Example 7.1.5.<br />
Consider the following polynomials in x1,x2,x3,x4:<br />
Then as S4 permutes x1,x2,x3,x4<br />
it also permutes p1,p2,p3<br />
p1 = x1x2 + x3x4<br />
p2 = x1x3 + x2x4<br />
p3 = x1x4 + x2x3<br />
E.g. (123) : x1x2 + x3x4 p1 also p2 p3<br />
p3<br />
x2x3 + x1x4 ......... p1 p2<br />
(14)(23) : x1x2 + x3x4 p1 p2 p3<br />
This gives rise to a homomorphism<br />
x4x3 + x2x1 p1 p2 p3<br />
............................ ......... ......... .........<br />
θ : S4 −→ S3<br />
and Kerθ is “all elements of S4 that fix p1, p2, and p3”<br />
(14)(23), (12)(34), (13)(24), e<br />
= ......................................................................... <br />
N.B. There <strong>are</strong> four other elements that fix p1:<br />
(12),(34),(1324),(1423)<br />
.........................................................................<br />
but they don’t fix p2 and p3, so they <strong>are</strong>n’t in the kernel.<br />
The kernel and image <strong>are</strong> intimately related to injectivity and surjectivity.<br />
In fact, they basically <strong>are</strong> injectivity and surjectivity.
7.1 Kernels and images 93<br />
Remember what “injective” and “surjective” mean?<br />
A function f : A −→ B is<br />
f(a1) = f(a2) =⇒ a1 = a2<br />
• injective if ........................................................<br />
∀b ∈ B ∃a ∈ A s.t. f(a) = b<br />
• surjective if .......................................................<br />
If you can’t remember this then write a 5-step plan for how you’re going to<br />
remember it:<br />
1. .....................................................................<br />
2. .....................................................................<br />
3. .....................................................................<br />
4. .....................................................................<br />
5. .....................................................................<br />
Do you think I’m joking? Yes/No (delete as appropriate)<br />
Lemma 7.1.6. Let θ : G −→ H be a homomorphism. Then<br />
Proof.<br />
“ =⇒ ”<br />
Suppose θ is injective.<br />
Let g ∈ Kerθ, so θ(g) = e.<br />
We need to show g = e:<br />
Now θ(g) = e = θ(e)<br />
θ is injective ⇐⇒ Kerθ = 0 = {e}<br />
but θ is injective so this implies g = e.
94 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
“⇐=”<br />
Conversely suppose Kerθ = 0.<br />
Let g1,g2 ∈ G with θ(g1) = θ(g2). (1)<br />
We need to show g1 = g2:<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> have<br />
θ(g1) −1 .θ(g2) = θ(g −1<br />
1 ).θ(g2) standard property of homs<br />
= θ(g −1<br />
1 .g2) by definition of hom<br />
But also θ(g1) −1 .θ(g2) = e by (1)<br />
So θ(g −1<br />
1 .g2) = e<br />
i.e. g −1<br />
1 .g2 ∈ Kerθ.<br />
Thus g −1<br />
1 .g2 = e since Kerθ = {e}.<br />
So g1 = g2. <br />
Lemma 7.1.7.<br />
Let θ : G −→ H be a homomorphism. Then<br />
θ is surjective ⇐⇒ Imθ = H<br />
I’m not sure that even deserves to be called a Lemma, as it’s just the defi-<br />
nition of Im. Oh <strong>we</strong>ll, it deserves emphasis.<br />
We <strong>are</strong> going to have an amazing relationship bet<strong>we</strong>en these things:<br />
This tells us many things e.g.<br />
G Kerθ ∼ = Imθ<br />
|Imθ| = |G|<br />
|Kerθ|<br />
Moreover, it means that to understand “multiple hits” <strong>we</strong> only have to<br />
understand what gets sent to e.<br />
We’d better recall quotient groups, and also check that Kerθ is a normal<br />
subgroup, so that <strong>we</strong> can quotient by it.
7.1 Kernels and images 95<br />
Proposition 7.1.8.<br />
Let θ : G −→ H be a homomorphism.<br />
Then Kerθ is a normal subgroup of G.<br />
Proof.<br />
We already know Kerθ is a subgroup of G (Lemma 7.1.2).<br />
To show it is normal, <strong>we</strong> need to show:<br />
∀a ∈ Kerθ and g ∈ G, gag −1 ∈ Kerθ<br />
...........................................................................<br />
Now<br />
θ(g).θ(a).θ(g −1 )<br />
θ(gag −1 ) = .......................................... since θ is a homomorphism<br />
θ(g).e.θ(g −1 )<br />
= .......................................... since a ∈ Kerθ<br />
θ(g).θ(g −1 )<br />
= .......................................... by definition of e<br />
θ(g.g −1 )<br />
= ........................ since θ is a homomorphism<br />
θ(e)<br />
= ................... by definition of inverse<br />
e<br />
= ............... since θ is a homomorphism<br />
So gag −1 ∈ Kerθ as required.
96 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
7.2 Quotient groups revisited<br />
We will treat quotient groups slightly differently this time.<br />
Let H G. We define the quotient group G H<br />
• The first important thing to remember about quotient groups is: what<br />
<strong>are</strong> the elements?<br />
The elements <strong>are</strong> the cosets aH<br />
.....................................................................<br />
• The next important thing to remember is: what is the group opera-<br />
tion?<br />
How can <strong>we</strong> multiply cosets?? If you had to multiply aH and bH,<br />
what would the ans<strong>we</strong>r be in your wildest dreams?<br />
(ab)H<br />
..............................<br />
In fact <strong>we</strong> can multiply any subsets of a group:<br />
if A and B <strong>are</strong> subsets of G then<br />
AB = { ab | a ∈ A, b ∈ B }<br />
Note that some of these elements may be the same as each other, as in the<br />
next example.<br />
Example 7.2.1. Multiplication of cosets<br />
• Consider the cyclic group C12 with elements<br />
Let A = {a,a 2 ,a 3 }<br />
B = {a 4 ,a 5 ,a 6 }<br />
{e,a,a 2 ,...,a 11 }.<br />
{a 5 ,a 6 ,a 7 ,a 8 ,a 9 }<br />
Then AB =.........................................................
7.2 Quotient groups revisited 97<br />
• Now let H be the subgroup {e,a 4 ,a 8 }, and put<br />
a,a 5 ,a 9<br />
A = aH = ......................<br />
a 2 ,a 6 ,a 10<br />
B = a 2 H = ......................<br />
{a 3 ,a 7 ,a 11 }<br />
Then AB =.........................................................<br />
a 3 H<br />
So (aH).(a 2 H) is the coset ...........................<br />
This works because<br />
H C12 since C12 is abelian.<br />
.....................................................................<br />
This makes your life easier so please remember<br />
easy<br />
it:<br />
If H is a normal subgroup of G then it is to<br />
multiply cosets. You do not actually have to go round multiplying every<br />
element by every other because:<br />
(aH)(bH) = (ab)H
98 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
Example 7.2.2.<br />
Consider the group D3 with multiplication table (with the usual notation):<br />
e a a 2 b1 b2 b3<br />
e e a a 2 b1 b2 b3<br />
a a a 2 e b2 b3 b1<br />
a 2 a 2 e a b3 b1 b2<br />
b1 b3 b4 b2 e a 2 a<br />
b2 b2 b1 b3 a e a 2<br />
b3 b3 b2 b1 a 2 a e<br />
1. Let H be the not normal subgroup {e,b1}.<br />
i) The coset aH = {ae,ab1} = { a,b2 }.<br />
ii) The set (eH).(aH) has elements<br />
iii) Is this a coset of H?<br />
2. Let V be the normal subgroup {e,a,a 2 }.<br />
a<br />
ea = ...........<br />
b2<br />
eb2 = ...........<br />
b4<br />
b1a = ...........<br />
a 2<br />
b1b2 = ...........<br />
No—wrong number of elements<br />
.............................................<br />
i) The coset b1V = {b1e,b1a,b1a 2 } = { b1,b3,b2 }<br />
ii) (eV ).(b1V ) has elements<br />
eb1 = b1 ......... ab1 = b2 ......... a2b1 = b3 .........<br />
eb2 = b2 ......... ab2 = b3 ......... a2b2 = b1 .........<br />
eb3 = b3 ......... ab3 = b1 ......... a2b3 = b2 .........<br />
iii) So (eV ).(b1V ) = { b1,b2,b3 } and is the coset ......................... b1V
7.2 Quotient groups revisited 99<br />
Definition 7.2.3. Quotient group<br />
Let H G.<br />
Then the cosets of H form a group called the quotient group denoted<br />
with<br />
G H<br />
• group operation given by multiplication of cosets, so<br />
• identity given by H = eH since<br />
(aH).(bH) = (ab)H<br />
H.(aH) = (aH).H = aH<br />
• inverses given by (aH) −1 = (a −1 )H since<br />
(aH)(a −1 H) = eH = H<br />
(a −1 H)(aH) = eH = H <br />
Another way of thinking about quotient groups is by equivalence rela-<br />
tions. We use the equivalence relation<br />
x ∼ y ⇐⇒ y −1 x ∈ H.<br />
Then the equivalence classes form a group! The operation is<br />
[x].[y] = [xy]<br />
which is <strong>we</strong>ll-defined because H is normal. same proof as for when <strong>we</strong> first<br />
defined quotient groups<br />
Actually these <strong>are</strong> just like cosets in disguise:<br />
[x] = [y] ⇐⇒ xH = yH<br />
cosets equivalence relation<br />
multiplication (aH)(bH) = (ab)H [a][b] = [ab]<br />
identity eH = H [e]<br />
inverse of aH (a −1 )H [a −1 ]
100 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
Here <strong>are</strong> a couple of applications of quotient groups.<br />
Theorem 7.2.4.<br />
Let G be a group with G Z(G) cyclic.<br />
Then G is abelian.<br />
Proof.<br />
Write Z = Z(G)<br />
and pick a generator gZ of G/Z. NB g is now fixed.<br />
This means every element of G/Z is of the form (gZ) n = g n Z.<br />
Now, given an element a ∈ G it is in some coset g n Z, say<br />
i.e. a = g n z for some n ∈ N0,z ∈ Z.<br />
Now <strong>we</strong> want to show ∀a,b ∈ G, ab = ba.<br />
Put a = g m z1<br />
b = g n z2<br />
Then ab = g m z1.g n z2<br />
= g m g n z2z1 since<br />
= g n g m z2z1 since<br />
z1 ∈ Z so commutes with everything<br />
...............................................<br />
g m g n = g m+n = g n g m<br />
...............................................<br />
= g n z2.g m z1 since moving z2 this time<br />
...............................................<br />
= ba
7.2 Quotient groups revisited 101<br />
Theorem 7.2.5.<br />
If p is prime then every group of order p 2 is abelian.<br />
Note <strong>we</strong> already know that every group of order p is<br />
Proof.<br />
We aim to show Z(G) = G.<br />
cyclic<br />
.....................<br />
We use Proposition 6.2.10 which says that in a group of order p k (with p<br />
prime), the centre must be non-trivial. from class equation<br />
So Z(G) is a non-trivial subgroup of G<br />
so by Lagrange’s Theorem its order must be<br />
Suppose |Z(G)| = p. aim for a contradiction<br />
Then |G/Z(G)| = p so G/Z(G) is cyclic.<br />
So by Theorem 7.2.4 G is abelian<br />
i.e. |Z(G)| = p2<br />
............................... #<br />
p or p 2<br />
.............................<br />
So <strong>we</strong> must have |Z(G)| = p 2 i.e. G is abelian as required.
102 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
7.3 First isomorphism theorem<br />
This is the really big theorem of the course.<br />
Theorem 7.3.1. The First Isomorphism Theorem for Groups<br />
Let θ : G −→ H be a group homomorphism. Then<br />
G Kerθ ∼ = Imθ.<br />
Before <strong>we</strong> prove this, let’s think about why it’s great.<br />
If <strong>we</strong> only had a function of sets, how could <strong>we</strong> ever tell anything about<br />
anything??<br />
stuff about even covering, e pulling things in<br />
Remarks 7.3.2.<br />
Note that <strong>we</strong> have some special cases:<br />
1. If θ is injective <strong>we</strong> have Kerθ = 0<br />
so the First Isomorphism Theorem says:<br />
G ∼ = Imθ.<br />
2. If θ is surjective <strong>we</strong> have Imθ = H<br />
so the First Isomorphism Theorem says:<br />
3. So if θ is an isomorphism<br />
G Kerθ ∼ = H.<br />
the First Isomorphism Theorem says:<br />
as expected.<br />
G ∼ = H<br />
4. If <strong>we</strong> have N G then <strong>we</strong> have a homomorphism<br />
G −→ G/N<br />
whose kernel is N and image is G/N.
7.3 First isomorphism theorem 103<br />
5. As a special case of the above, given a homomorphism θ : G −→ H <strong>we</strong><br />
know <strong>we</strong> have Kerθ G so <strong>we</strong> get a homomorphism<br />
G −→ G Kerθ ∼ = Imθ<br />
whose kernel is still Kerθ, but it is now surjective.<br />
<strong>we</strong> threw away everything that wasn’t hit<br />
Example 7.3.3.<br />
Fix n ∈ N.<br />
Dn acts on the vertices of a regular n-gon as in Example 7.1.4, giving a<br />
homomorphism<br />
We know that the kernel is 0............<br />
θ : Dn −→ Sn.<br />
so by the First Isomorphism Theorem<br />
Dn 0 ∼ = Imθ = Dn<br />
.........................................<br />
Example 7.3.4.<br />
Fix n ∈ N.<br />
Define θ : O2 −→ O2 by<br />
Then<br />
rotα ↦→ rotnα<br />
refα ↦→ refnα<br />
• Imθ = O2 since <strong>we</strong> can hit any α from α<br />
n<br />
.............................................................<br />
• Kerθ = 〈rot2π 〉<br />
n<br />
∼ = Cn<br />
............................................................<br />
So by the First Isomorphism Theorem: think harder about this<br />
We can picture the cosets as<br />
O2 Cn<br />
∼= O2<br />
.........................................<br />
•<br />
•<br />
•<br />
•<br />
•<br />
•<br />
•<br />
• • • • •
104 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
Example 7.3.5.<br />
Define θ : R −→ SO2 by<br />
Then<br />
α ↦→ rotα<br />
• Imθ = SO2<br />
.............................................................<br />
• Kerθ = {0, ±2π, ±4π,...} ∼ = 〈2π〉 ∼ = Z<br />
............................................................<br />
So by the First Isomorphism Theorem:<br />
Example 7.3.6.<br />
Define θ : Dn −→ Z2 by<br />
Then<br />
α ↦→<br />
R Z ∼ = SO2<br />
..................................................<br />
⎧<br />
⎨<br />
⎩<br />
0 if α is a rotation<br />
1 if α is a reflection<br />
• Imθ = Z2<br />
.............................................................<br />
• Kerθ =<br />
the rotations i.e. Cn<br />
............................................................<br />
So by the First Isomorphism Theorem:<br />
Dn Cn<br />
∼= Z2<br />
..................................................
7.3 First isomorphism theorem 105<br />
Example 7.3.7.<br />
D6 acts on the diagonals of the regular hexagon.<br />
So <strong>we</strong> get a homomorphism θ : D6 −→ S3.<br />
Then<br />
○3<br />
○2<br />
• Kerθ = {e,rotπ}<br />
............................................................<br />
• We can deduce what the image is from the First Isomorphism Theo-<br />
rem, which says:<br />
D6 Kerθ<br />
order = 12<br />
2<br />
So Imθ has order<br />
so must be<br />
○1<br />
∼= Imθ ⊆ S3<br />
↑ ↑<br />
= 6 order = 6<br />
6<br />
....... and is a subgroup of S3,<br />
the whole thing.<br />
.................................
106 Section 7. Homomorphisms<br />
Finally here’s the proof of the First Isomorphism Theorem.<br />
This is not examinable.<br />
Proof of First Isomorphism Theorem.<br />
We exhibit a group isomorphism<br />
f : G Kerθ<br />
∼<br />
−→ Imθ.<br />
For convenience <strong>we</strong> write K = Kerθ throughout.<br />
1. We define f(aK) = θ(a) ∈ Imθ.<br />
We check that this is <strong>we</strong>ll-defined<br />
i.e. aK = bK =⇒ θ(a) = θ(b).<br />
Now aK = bK ⇐⇒ a −1 b ∈ K<br />
=⇒ θ(a −1 b) = e<br />
=⇒ θ(a −1 ).θ(b) = e<br />
=⇒ θ(a) −1 .θ(b) = e<br />
=⇒ θ(a) = θ(b).<br />
2. We show that this is a group homomorphism.<br />
i.e. f((aK)(bK)) = f(aK).f(bK).<br />
Now (aK)(bK) = (ab)K<br />
so f((aK)(bK)) = f((ab)K)<br />
= θ(ab)<br />
= θ(a).θ(b) since θ is a homomorphism<br />
= f(aK).f(bK)
7.3 First isomorphism theorem 107<br />
3. We show that f is surjective.<br />
i.e. for all y ∈ Imθ, ∃x ∈ G Kerθ s.t. f(x) = y.<br />
Now y ∈ Imθ ⇐⇒ y = θ(a) for some a ∈ G.<br />
Then putting x = aK ∈ G Kerθ <strong>we</strong> have<br />
4. Finally <strong>we</strong> show that f is injective<br />
f(x) = f(aK)<br />
= θ(a)<br />
= y.<br />
i.e. Kerf = {e} (using Lemma 7.1.6).<br />
Let x ∈ Kerf<br />
so x = aK for some a ∈ G, and f(aK) = e.<br />
Now f(aK) = θ(a) and<br />
θ(a) = e =⇒ a ∈ Kerθ<br />
which is the identity in G Kerθ .<br />
=⇒ aK = K<br />
So f is a group isomorphism as required.
108 Section 7. Homomorphisms
Part III<br />
Homework and Tutorial Questions<br />
109<br />
• Homework #n is to be done in <strong>we</strong>ek n and handed in at the lecture<br />
on Monday of <strong>we</strong>ek #(n + 1).<br />
• Tutorial #n is to be done in <strong>we</strong>ek n regardless of whether or not you<br />
have a tutorial that <strong>we</strong>ek. In each tutorial you can get help with the<br />
previous two <strong>we</strong>eks’ tutorial work (and earlier if necessary).<br />
• In non-tutorial <strong>we</strong>eks you can come to my office hours to get help<br />
with that <strong>we</strong>ek’s tutorial work.<br />
• Please make sure you read any hints given in the questions. It’s<br />
extraordinary number of times tutors get asked questions which <strong>are</strong> in<br />
fact ans<strong>we</strong>red in the hints...<br />
• You should always justify all your ans<strong>we</strong>rs. If a question says “Is 14<br />
a zero-divisor?” don’t just ans<strong>we</strong>r yes or no – say how you decided<br />
that was the ans<strong>we</strong>r. When you write out your working, include some<br />
explanation about what you did. This is good practice for exams, but<br />
is also useful for the marker so they can understand what you <strong>we</strong>re<br />
doing (and therefore be in a better position to help you if it <strong>we</strong>nt<br />
wrong). It’s also useful for you, because when you’re revising you<br />
should be going back over your homework to make sure you understand<br />
it better than you did the first time round.
110 Section 8. Homework questions<br />
8 Homework questions<br />
Homework #1<br />
This set looks long, but it isn’t actually long. There’s a lot stuff here that isn’t so much<br />
question as some explanation about why these questions <strong>are</strong> useful things for you to<br />
think about.<br />
1. On the next page is a page of statements I have copied from some Semester One<br />
exams I have marked. Imagine this is work that a student has handed in. Mark it in<br />
the way that you would like to see your homework marked. (Pen or pencil? Marks<br />
out of 10 or a letter grade? Encouragement or criticism? Helpful comments?)<br />
This exercise is partly to help you think about how you should read over your own<br />
work to see if it is correct, partly so I can see what you consider to be useful<br />
feedback on your work, and partly to make sure you won’t ever make any of the<br />
same mistakes listed here.<br />
2. This question is to jog your memory about modular arithmetic. Let n ∈ N and<br />
a ∈ Z.<br />
• Recall that n|a means ∃k ∈ Z s.t. a = kn.<br />
• Recall that “x ≡ y (mod n)” means n|(x − y).<br />
Suppose x ≡ y (mod n). Show that:<br />
i) a + x ≡ a + y (mod n), and<br />
ii) ax ≡ ay (mod n).<br />
3. This question is about attempting to work in Z6. Taking squ<strong>are</strong> roots and solving<br />
quadratic equations don’t necessarily work the way <strong>we</strong>’re expecting...<br />
i) In a ring R, x is said to be a squ<strong>are</strong> root of y when x 2 = y. Find the elements<br />
of Z6 that have squ<strong>are</strong> roots i.e. find all the elements a ∈ Z6 such that there<br />
exists x ∈ Z6 s.t. x 2 with a (mod 6)<br />
You might find it useful to use the multiplication table from the tutorial sheet.<br />
You should find that not all elements have squ<strong>are</strong> roots: there <strong>are</strong> only four<br />
that do. Are you surprised?<br />
ii) Find all solutions of x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0 in Z6. You will probably need to do it<br />
by trial and error, because our usual methods for solving quadratic equations<br />
won’t work here. Why? Note how many solutions there <strong>are</strong>. Did it surprise<br />
you?
1.<br />
1 1 1<br />
+ =<br />
a b a + b<br />
2. (a + b) n = a n + b n<br />
3. (a − b) 3 = a 3 − 3a 2 b − 3ab 2 − b 3<br />
4. 3x = 2<br />
3<br />
=⇒ x = 2<br />
−1 3<br />
n + n<br />
5. 4 = 2(n + n<br />
2<br />
−1 ) 3<br />
1 1<br />
1− − 6. e 2 = e 2<br />
7. e 3<br />
<br />
1 2 2<br />
− + = e<br />
3 9 27<br />
3<br />
<br />
1 2<br />
−<br />
3 9<br />
8. (e x + e −x ) 3 = e 3x + e −3x<br />
9. 3e x + e −3x = 0<br />
10. tanx = 1 =⇒ x = 0.785 to 3 d.p.<br />
111
Homework #2<br />
112 Section 8. Homework questions<br />
1. Match the following informal statements with their formal counterparts. Note that<br />
these <strong>are</strong> all facts that could be true in a ring R, but <strong>are</strong>n’t necessarily true about<br />
all rings.<br />
i) The additive inverse of −1 is 1.<br />
ii) The multiplicative inverse of −1 is −1.<br />
iii) 0 has no multiplicative inverse in R.<br />
iv) If x has a multiplicative inverse then so does −x.<br />
v) If x and y <strong>are</strong> in R it isn’t necessarily true that xy is non-zero.<br />
vi) Every non-zero element of R has a multiplicative inverse.<br />
A) (−1)(−1) = 1<br />
B) ∃x,y ∈ R s.t. xy = 0<br />
C) ∀x = 0 ∈ R ∃y ∈ R s.t. xy = yx = 1<br />
D) −(−1) = 1<br />
E) ∀x ∈ R, 0x = 1<br />
F) ∃y ∈ R s.t. xy = yx = 1 ⇒ ∃z ∈ R s.t. (−x)z = z(−x) = 1<br />
2. Find all the units in Z10 and fill in a multiplication table for them.<br />
3. Let R = Z[ √ 7]. Let r = 8 − 3 √ 7 and s = 8 + 3 √ 7. Compute rs and deduce that<br />
r and s <strong>are</strong> units in R. Hence solve this equation in R:<br />
(8 + 3 √ 7)x = 3<br />
This should rather remind you of the process of “rationalising the denominator”.
Homework #3<br />
113<br />
1. Match the following statements with their negations. Note that I’m trying to catch<br />
you out.<br />
i) ∀x ∈ R x.0 = 0<br />
ii) ∃x = y ∈ R s.t. xy = 0<br />
iii) x ∈ R ⇒ 1.x = x<br />
iv) ∀x = y ∈ R, xy = 0<br />
v) ∃x ∈ R s.t. 1.x = x<br />
vi) ∃x ∈ R s.t. x.0 = 0<br />
A) ∀x ∈ R, x.0 = 0<br />
B) ∃x ∈ R s.t. x.0 = 0<br />
C) x ∈ R ⇒ 1.x = x<br />
D) ∀x = y ∈ R, xy = 0<br />
E) ∃x = y ∈ R s.t. xy = 0<br />
F) ∃x ∈ R s.t. 1.x = x<br />
2. For each of the following, determine whether or not a is a unit in Zn and, if it is<br />
a unit, use Euclid’s algorithm to find its inverse.<br />
i) n = 90, a = 25<br />
ii) n = 91, a = 26<br />
iii) n = 47, a = 25<br />
Hint: if you think you’ve found the inverse for a, multiply it back with a and check<br />
that you get something that’s congruent to 1 mod n. It’s so easy to check that<br />
something really is an inverse in Zn, you should never ever get the wrong ans<strong>we</strong>r<br />
– you might get stuck and not be able to find an ans<strong>we</strong>r (<strong>we</strong> all have bad days) but<br />
you shouldn’t ever get the wrong ans<strong>we</strong>r.<br />
3. For this question you can copy the method from tutorial sheet #3.<br />
i) Show, by finding its inverse, that 2 + 3x is a unit in Z9[x].<br />
ii) Show, by finding its inverse, that 3 + 4x is a unit in Z16[x].
Homework #4<br />
114 Section 8. Homework questions<br />
1. What does “hence” mean in a maths question? eg “i) Prove this. ii) Hence do<br />
that.” By contrast, what does “hence or otherwise” mean?<br />
You might think this is a silly question, but the reason I’m asking it is that loads<br />
of people always get it wrong in exams.<br />
2. For every element a in Z24 determine whether a is a unit or a zero-divisor. If a is<br />
a unit find its inverse, and if a is a zero-divisor find b = 0 such that ab = 0. Write<br />
your ans<strong>we</strong>rs out in a table, so that it’s easier to read.<br />
3. Is 523 is a unit or a zero-divisor in Z570? If it is a unit find its inverse, and if it is<br />
a zero-divisor find b = 0 such that 523b = 0.<br />
Homework #5<br />
1. Find a unit r ∈ Z[ √ 11] such that r > 1. Hence show that the group of units of<br />
Z[ √ 11] is infinite.<br />
2. This question is about Z[ √ −13].<br />
i) Show that Z[ √ −13] has no element of norm 2 or 11.<br />
ii) Hence show that any element of Z[ √ −13] with norm 4, 22 or 121 is irreducible<br />
in Z[ √ −13].<br />
iii) Calculate the norm of (3 + √ −13).<br />
iv) Hence express 22 as a product of two irreducible factors in Z[ √ −13] in two<br />
different ways, and deduce that Z[ √ −13] is not a unique factorisation domain.<br />
Hint: copy the procedure on Example 3.1.12. You must show that your two<br />
factorisations <strong>are</strong> non-equivalent, and that all your factors <strong>are</strong> irreducible.<br />
3. If R is a unique factorisation domain and S is a subring of R, does it follow that<br />
S is a unique factorisation domain?
Homework #6<br />
115<br />
This whole sheet is revision from Groups and Symmetries, so you may need to look things<br />
up from your old notes. I know it’s hard to remember things from previous modules, so<br />
this homework is to help you jog your memory in preparation for the groups part of our<br />
course.<br />
1. Write down the whole multiplication table for D3, the group of symmetries of the<br />
equilateral triangle. Then look it up on Wikipedia to check your ans<strong>we</strong>r.<br />
2. Consider the squ<strong>are</strong> with lines of symmetry labelled 1, 2, 3 and 4 as below.<br />
○4<br />
○3<br />
Recall that D4 is the group of symmetries of the squ<strong>are</strong>, and observe that it acts<br />
on the lines 1,2,3,4.<br />
i) For each element of D4, write down the corresponding permutation of 1,2,3,4<br />
in a table like the one below. In this table, e is the identity of the group, a is<br />
rotation through π<br />
2 anti-clockwise, and bi is reflection in the line i.<br />
e<br />
a<br />
a 2<br />
a 3<br />
ii) Find all the elements of the orbit of 1.<br />
b1<br />
b2<br />
b3<br />
b4<br />
○2<br />
○1<br />
1 2 3 4<br />
iii) Find all the elements of the stabiliser of 1.
116 Section 8. Homework questions<br />
iv) Verify that this satisfies the orbit-stabiliser theorem.<br />
v) Now consider the circle with similar looking lines on it as below:<br />
○4<br />
○3<br />
Are these lines <strong>are</strong> acted on by O2 (the group of symmetries of the circle) as<br />
for the squ<strong>are</strong> above?<br />
○2<br />
○1
Homework #7<br />
117<br />
1. Recall that D3 is the group of symmetries of the equilateral triangle. Consider the<br />
equilateral triangle with corners labelled as below.<br />
○2<br />
1<br />
3<br />
○3<br />
i) For each element of D3, write down the corresponding permutation of 1,2,3<br />
in a table like the one below. In this table, e is the identity of the group, a is<br />
rotation through 2π<br />
3 anti-clockwise, and bi is reflection in the line i.<br />
ii) This defines a function<br />
e<br />
a<br />
a 2<br />
b1<br />
b2<br />
b3<br />
2<br />
○1<br />
1 2 3<br />
θ : D3 −→ S3.<br />
Show that θ is a group isomorphism. This means it is a group homomorphism<br />
that is also a bijection.<br />
2. Go through your notes from the Rings part of the course and write a list of every<br />
definition you think you will need to learn for the exam.
Homework #8<br />
118 Section 8. Homework questions<br />
1. Write down all possible cycle types in S6. For each cycle type, write down a typical<br />
permutation of that type, and calculate the number of permutations of that type.<br />
Please try to lay out your ans<strong>we</strong>rs nicely so that they’re easy to read.<br />
2. Now consider the symmetric group S9 and let<br />
Find |conjS9 (α)| and |centS9 (α)|.<br />
⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
α = ⎝ ⎠.<br />
9 4 1 8 7 5 2 6 3
Homework #9<br />
119<br />
Note that Q.2 is just like the last question on Tutorial #9, so you can follow<br />
that model ans<strong>we</strong>r through.<br />
1. i) Write down all possible cycle types in S4, and the number of elements of S4<br />
of each type.<br />
ii) Using your ans<strong>we</strong>r to part (i), write down the class equation for S4.<br />
iii) Identify the conjugacy classes consisting of even permutations. These numbers<br />
cannot give the class equation for A4. Why?<br />
iv) Recall that A4 is a normal subgroup of S4. Use the class equation for S4 to<br />
show that if there is another non-trivial normal subgroup of S4 it must have<br />
order 4.<br />
Recall: to be a normal subgroup, its order must both divide 24 and be a sum<br />
of conjugacy class sizes including one class of size 1 for the identity.<br />
v) Write down the four elements that would have to be the four elements of this<br />
group, according to the conjugacy class sizes you found in part (i). Verify that<br />
these elements do in fact form a subgroup of S4.<br />
2. Let G be a group of order 39 and suppose that the centre of G is {e}.<br />
i) Determine the class equation for G, justifying your ans<strong>we</strong>r c<strong>are</strong>fully.<br />
ii) Find the number of elements of order 3 and the number of elements of order<br />
13 in G.<br />
iii) Let h ∈ G be an element of order 13. Let H = 〈h〉, the subgroup generated<br />
by h. Use the class equation to show that H is a normal subgroup of G.<br />
iv) Show that H is the only normal subgroup of G other than the trivial group<br />
{e} and G itself.
120 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
9 Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #1<br />
1. We write Zn for the ring of integers mod n. Fill in the following multiplication<br />
tables for Z3, Z4, Z5 and Z6:<br />
× 0 1 2<br />
0<br />
1<br />
2<br />
× 0 1 2 3<br />
0<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
× 0 1 2 3 4<br />
0<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
× 0 1 2 3 4 5<br />
2. In a ring R, b is said to be a multiplicative inverse for a if ab = ba = 1. Use the<br />
tables you filled in above to find the multiplicative inverses for the elements of Z3,<br />
Z4, Z5 and Z6 if they exist.<br />
3. A field is a ring in which every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.<br />
Which of the above rings is a field? State precisely what it means for a ring not<br />
to be a field.<br />
4. An integral domain is a ring in which 1 = 0 and<br />
a = 0 and b = 0 ⇒ ab = 0.<br />
Which of the above rings is an integral domain? State precisely what it means for<br />
a ring not to be an integral domain.<br />
5. In the Countdown video <strong>we</strong> watched, the last stage of James Martin’s calculation<br />
was to divide 23,800 by 25. Carol Vorderman vaguely says out loud “Well to do<br />
that you multiply by 4...” which shows she’s using the trick that dividing by 25<br />
is the same as multiplying by 4 and dividing by 100 (both of which <strong>are</strong> probably<br />
easier to do in your head than dividing by 25 directly). Which ring axiom is she<br />
using here?<br />
6. We will define a binary operation ⊗ on Z by<br />
a ⊗ b = ab + 1.<br />
0<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
4<br />
5
121<br />
Show that this operation is not associative. Can you think of a binary operation<br />
on Z that is not commutative?<br />
7. In any ring R, <strong>we</strong> can prove using only the ring axioms that −(−1) = 1. Is the<br />
following a valid proof?<br />
∀x ∈ R, (−1)x = −x.<br />
Therefore − (−1) = (−1)(−1)<br />
but <strong>we</strong> know (−1)(−1) = 1.<br />
Observe that the result is true – but this doesn’t mean the proof is valid. Moreover<br />
observe that all the equalities valid – but this still doesn’t mean the proof is valid.<br />
What is wrong with it? Can you write a valid proof?<br />
If you found the earlier questions easy, see if you can prove that the following <strong>are</strong> true<br />
in every ring R. You should prove them directly from the ring axioms, without using<br />
any other “facts” that you know to be true, even if they seem very obvious!<br />
1. ∀x ∈ R, 0.x = 0.<br />
2. ∀x,y ∈ R, (−1)x = −x.<br />
3. ∀a,b,c ∈ R, a + b = 0 and a + c = 0 ⇒ b = c.
122 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #2<br />
1. The following is a proof that (x − y)(x + y) = x 2 − y 2 in any commutative ring.<br />
Ho<strong>we</strong>ver, the justification for each line of argument has not been included. Please<br />
fill them in. You may only use ring axioms and Lemmas from immediately after<br />
them in the notes.<br />
(x − y)(x + y) = x(x + y) + (−y)(x + y) by ...........................................(1)<br />
= (x 2 + xy) + (−y).x + (−y).y) by ...........................................(2)<br />
= x 2 + xy + ((−y).x + (−y).y <br />
= x 2 + (xy + (−y).x) + (−y).y <br />
= x 2 + (xy + (−(yx))) + (−y 2 ) <br />
= x 2 + (xy + (−(xy))) + (−y 2 ) <br />
by ...........................................(3)<br />
by ...........................................(4)<br />
by ...........................................(5)<br />
by ...........................................(6)<br />
= x 2 + (0 + (−y 2 )) by ...........................................(7)<br />
= x 2 + (−y 2 ) by ...........................................(8)<br />
= x 2 − y 2 by definition of subtraction<br />
Note that proofs should always include a justification of how each line of the argu-<br />
ment follo<strong>we</strong>d from the previous line.<br />
2. i) Write out a multiplication table for Z8.<br />
ii) Find the units in Z8. Recall that the units <strong>are</strong> those elements with a multi-<br />
plicative inverse.<br />
iii) Now write out a multiplication table just for the units in Z8. Use this to show<br />
that the units of Z8 form a multiplicative group.<br />
3. If x and y <strong>are</strong> units is x + y necessarily a unit?<br />
The previous question about the units in Z8 may help you with this.<br />
4. Let R be a commutative ring and x ∈ R. Prove that x has at most one multiplica-<br />
tive inverse, that is, if xa = 1 and xb = 1 then a = b. Just copy the proof of the<br />
result for additive inverses, but make it multiplicative instead.
123<br />
5. This question is to give you some practice with the rings Z[ √ d], which consists of<br />
all numbers of the form a + b √ d where a,b ∈ Z. We’ll look at the case d = 2.<br />
These might look a bit like polynomial rings but actually they’re a bit different.<br />
i) Let a,b ∈ Z. Calculate (a + bx)(a − bx) ∈ Z[x].<br />
ii) Let a,b ∈ Z. Calculate (a + b √ 2)(a − b √ 2) ∈ Z[ √ 2].<br />
iii) These two situations might not look very different so far. But now do it for<br />
a = 5,b = 3. What happens?<br />
iv) Can you think of some non-zero values of a and b that give (a+b √ 2)(a−b √ 2) =<br />
1?<br />
v) Can you think of some non-zero values of a and b that give (a+bx)(a−bx) = 1?<br />
vi) What’s the point I’m trying to make here??<br />
6. i) Let a,n,r,s be integers such that<br />
ar + ns = 1.<br />
Show that a and r <strong>are</strong> mutually inverse in Zn.<br />
ii) Deduce that a is a unit in Zn if and only if the highest common factor of a<br />
and n is 1.<br />
Can you remember a result from Numbers and Proofs that links the second<br />
part of this question to the first part, and thus enables you to deduce the result<br />
you’re asked for...??<br />
If you found the previous questions easy, try these:<br />
1. Let R be a ring. Show that if 1 = 0 ∈ R then x = 0 for all x ∈ R.<br />
2. Let R be a ring. Recall that R is called an integral domain if<br />
so R is not an integral domain if<br />
{ a = 0 and b = 0 } ⇒ ab = 0<br />
∃a = 0 and b = 0 s.t. ab = 0.<br />
Recall also that on the Tutorial Sheet 1 you found that Z3 and Z5 <strong>are</strong> integral<br />
domains, but Z4 and Z6 <strong>are</strong> not integral domains.<br />
Show that Zn is not an integral domain for n = 8,9,10. Can you guess what<br />
property of n determines whether or not Zn is an integral domain? Can you prove<br />
it?
124 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #3<br />
1. The following <strong>are</strong> some submitted “proofs” from homework #1. The question<br />
asked you to prove: if x ≡ y (mod n) then ax ≡ ay (mod n). Which of the<br />
following is a valid proof? What is wrong with the others?<br />
• “Proof” A:<br />
• “Proof” B<br />
ax ≡ ay (mod n) =⇒ n|ax − ay<br />
=⇒ n|a(x − y)<br />
=⇒ n|x − y<br />
=⇒ x ≡ y (mod n)<br />
x ≡ y (mod n) so multiplying both sides by a gives<br />
• “Proof” C<br />
• “Proof” D<br />
ax ≡ ay (mod n).<br />
x ≡ y (mod n) = n|x − y<br />
= n|a(x − y)<br />
= n|ax − ay<br />
x ≡ y (mod n) =⇒ n|x − y<br />
= ax ≡ ay (mod n)<br />
=⇒ x − y = kn for some k ∈ Z<br />
=⇒ ax − ay = akn<br />
=⇒ n|ax − ay<br />
=⇒ ax ≡ ay (mod n)<br />
2. i) Show that (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) ≡ x 3 − x ∈ Z6[x].<br />
ii) What <strong>are</strong> the roots of (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) in R?<br />
iii) What <strong>are</strong> the roots of x 3 − x in R?<br />
iv) What <strong>are</strong> the roots of (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) in Z6?
v) Did this surprise you? Can you see why it’s true?<br />
125<br />
To find roots you need to find values of x for which the given formula comes out<br />
to 0.<br />
3. Show (1 + 3x) is a unit in Z9[x].<br />
Hint: you need to find integers a and b such that<br />
(1 + 3x)(a + bx) ≡ 1 ∈ Z9[x].<br />
4. Here is a method for solving the quadratic equation x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0 in the reals,<br />
producing two solutions. In the homework you should have seen that there <strong>are</strong><br />
four solutions in Z6, which means that this method doesn’t work in Z6. Which<br />
step goes wrong?<br />
x 2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1)(x + 2)<br />
(x + 1)(x + 2) = 0 =⇒ x + 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0<br />
=⇒ x = −1 or x = −2<br />
5. For any integer n > 0, define φ(n) to be the number of integers coprime to n in<br />
the set<br />
{1,2,3,... ,n}.<br />
Fill in the following table. In the second column you should write all the integers<br />
bet<strong>we</strong>en 1 and n and coprime to n that you will be counting in the third column.<br />
This function φ is called Euler’s Totient Function, and is quite a useful tool. In<br />
the next few questions <strong>we</strong>’ll see that there <strong>are</strong> clever ways of calculating φ(n) other<br />
than writing down all the relevant coprime integers and counting them.
126 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
n coprime integers φ(n)<br />
1 1 1<br />
2 1 1<br />
3 1,2 2<br />
4 1,3 2<br />
5 1,2,3,4 4<br />
6<br />
7<br />
8<br />
9<br />
10<br />
11<br />
12<br />
6. Show that if p is prime, φ(p) = p − 1.<br />
7. Show that if p and q <strong>are</strong> distinct prime numbers<br />
φ(pq) = φ(p)φ(q).<br />
(Why do <strong>we</strong> need p and q to be distinct?)<br />
8. Let d > 1 be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer, i.e. its prime factorisation has no repeated<br />
factors, or equivalently for all n ∈ Z<br />
n 2 |d ⇒ n 2 = 1.<br />
i) Show that if d|a 2 then d|a. Hint: think about the prime factors of d.<br />
ii) Hence prove that √ d is irrational.<br />
Hint: Copy the proof overleaf that √ 2 is irrational, but be c<strong>are</strong>ful about where<br />
you have to use part (i).
Proof that √ 2 is irrational: by contradiction<br />
Suppose √ 2 is rational.<br />
Put √ 2 = a<br />
b<br />
i.e. hcf(a,b) = 1.<br />
Then 2 = a2<br />
b 2<br />
=⇒ 2b 2 = a 2<br />
=⇒ 2|a 2<br />
where a,b ∈ Z and the fraction is in its lo<strong>we</strong>st terms<br />
=⇒ 2|a since 2 is prime<br />
=⇒ a = 2k for some k ∈ Z<br />
=⇒ 2b 2 = (2k) 2 = 4k 2<br />
=⇒ b 2 = 2k 2<br />
=⇒ 2|b 2<br />
=⇒ 2|b since 2 is prime<br />
So 2|a and 2|b # contradicts hcf(a,b) = 1.<br />
127<br />
Hence √ 2 is irrational as required.
128 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #4<br />
1. This question is about the group of units in Zn again, but this time <strong>we</strong>’ll go a step<br />
further and analyse what the group of units actually is. This is also to jog your<br />
memory a bit about some group stuff from MAS175. “Recall” that a cyclic group<br />
is one in which there is an element a such that every other element of the group is<br />
a po<strong>we</strong>r of a. Such an a is called a generator.<br />
i) On homework #2 you found the multiplication table for the unit group of Z10.<br />
Find an element of the unit group that has order 4. Remember, the order of<br />
an element a is the smallest integer k > 0 such that a k = 1.<br />
ii) Deduce that this group is cyclic.<br />
Oh OK I’ll do it for you: a group of order n is cyclic if and only if it has an<br />
element of order n. In fact any element of order n is a generator.<br />
iii) The above was the boringly efficient way of showing that the unit group in this<br />
case was cyclic. Something a bit more fun is to rewrite the multiplication table.<br />
Take your element of order 4 – let’s call it a. Then reorder your multiplication<br />
table like this:<br />
× 1 a a 2 a 3<br />
1<br />
a<br />
a 2<br />
a 3<br />
except that you’ll put the actual numbers in, instead of a,a 2 ,a 3 . Now fill in<br />
the table, and you should see the nice swirly pattern associated with a cyclic<br />
group.<br />
iv) Now, since I practically did that whole thing for you, do the whole thing for<br />
Z9. Start by writing down the units and their multiplication table, then show<br />
that the group is cyclic, and reorder the table to get the cyclic pattern.<br />
2. For every element a in Z15 determine whether a is a unit or a zero-divisor. If a is<br />
a unit find its inverse, and if a is a zero-divisor find b = 0 such that ab = 0.<br />
Hints:
129<br />
• You could of course do this by filling in a multiplication table, but I hope<br />
you’ll agree that that would be a bit of a long and boring way to do it.<br />
• We know <strong>we</strong> can find inverses using Euclid’s algorithm, but for numbers as<br />
small as this you may find it easier to do it by trial and error/staring. Don’t<br />
forget that if you can think of b such that ab ≡ −1 then you know that<br />
a.(−b) ≡ 1. This can sometimes help.<br />
• Note that you only really need to work all this out for half of the numbers,<br />
because once you’ve done a you can immediately write down the ans<strong>we</strong>r for<br />
−a in either case, using (−a)(−b) = ab.<br />
3. For each of the following values of a, determine whether a is a unit or a zero-divisor<br />
in Z570. Again, if a is a unit find its inverse, and if a is a zero-divisor find b = 0<br />
such that ab = 0.<br />
i) a = 46 ii) a = 299 iii) a = 105<br />
4. Let d be a squ<strong>are</strong>-free integer, and consider Z[ √ d]. Given an element r = a+b √ d ∈<br />
Z[ √ d] define<br />
N(r) = |a 2 − db 2 |.<br />
This is called the norm of an element, and <strong>we</strong>’ll be seeing more of this useful gadget<br />
soon.<br />
Calculate N(r) for the following elements.<br />
i) 3 + 2 √ 2 ∈ Z[ √ 2]<br />
ii) 8 + 3 √ 7 ∈ Z[ √ 7]<br />
iii) 17 − 12 √ 2 ∈ Z[ √ 2]<br />
5. i) Show that all the above elements <strong>are</strong> units in their respective rings.<br />
ii) What point do you think I’m trying to make here?<br />
6. This question is related to Homework #2, question 3.<br />
i) Let R be a ring, and a,b ∈ R. What does a<br />
mean ?<br />
b<br />
ii) On the homework, you solved the equation<br />
(8 + 3 √ 7)x = 3.<br />
Below is a solution of the app<strong>are</strong>ntly similar equation<br />
(10 + 3 √ 7)x = 3.
130 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
This method is the one that some people used in the homework. Ho<strong>we</strong>ver<br />
here it does not give a solution in Z[ √ 7], which means that something in the<br />
solution method isn’t valid in Z[ √ 7]. What is it? Hint: part (i) of this question<br />
is supposed to be relevant. The point of this question is to get you to think a<br />
bit more about what division “is”.<br />
(10 + 3 √ 7)x = 3<br />
x =<br />
=<br />
3<br />
10 + 3 √ 7<br />
3<br />
10 + 3 √ 7 . 10 − 3√7 10 − 3 √ 7<br />
= 30 − 9√ 7<br />
37<br />
iii) Do you think question 5 sheds any light on this matter?<br />
7. Do question 2 again but for Z21.
Tutorial questions #5<br />
131<br />
1. Recall that the norm of a + b √ d ∈ Z[ √ d] is |a 2 − b 2 d|. Find the norm of each the<br />
following elements:<br />
i) (1 + 2 √ 3), (1 − 2 √ 3), (−1 + 2 √ 3), (−1 − 2 √ 3) ∈ Z[ √ 3]<br />
ii) 3 ∈ Z[ √ 2], 3 ∈ Z[ √ 3], 3 ∈ Z[ √ −7], 3 ∈ Z[ √ −11]<br />
iii) (5 + 2 √ 6), (5 − 2 √ 6), (−5 + 2 √ 6), (−5 − 2 √ 6) ∈ Z[ √ 6]<br />
iv) 3 + 2 √ 2 ∈ Z[ √ 2]<br />
v) (5 + 2 √ −11), (2 + 5 √ −11) ∈ Z[ √ −11]<br />
2. Write down three more elements with the same norm as<br />
6174952171 + 6174955132 √ 410533<br />
Those <strong>are</strong> the phone and fax numbers of the Harvard maths department, in case<br />
you <strong>we</strong>re wondering.<br />
3. Which of the elements in Question 1 <strong>are</strong> units of their respective rings? Write<br />
down 4 more units in Z[ √ 2].<br />
Remember that r is a unit iff N(r) = 1.<br />
4. Write a list of all possible norms less than 20 of elements in Z[ √ −7].<br />
Norms have to be non-negative integers, but not all non-negative integers <strong>are</strong> valid<br />
norms in all rings. This gives us important information when <strong>we</strong>’re analysing<br />
those rings, sometimes, as <strong>we</strong>’ll see later.<br />
5. An element r ∈ R is called irreducible if r is not a unit, and<br />
r = st ⇒ s is a unit or t is a unit.<br />
i) Show that if N(st) is prime then either N(s) = 1 or N(t) = 1.<br />
Hint: use N(st) = N(s)N(t)<br />
ii) What does this tell us about r if N(r) is prime?<br />
Hint: what does N(s) = 1 tell us about s?<br />
iii) Which of the elements in Question 1 can <strong>we</strong> now deduce is definitely irre-<br />
ducible?<br />
6. This question is about the converse of the above question. We now know that<br />
N(r) prime ⇒ r irreducible.
132 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
But it turns out that r can be irreducible even if N(r) is not prime, and this<br />
depends on the fact that not all integers <strong>are</strong> valid values of N(r), as <strong>we</strong> saw in<br />
question 4.<br />
i) Show that there is no element in Z[ √ −11] whose norm is 3.<br />
Hint: to get a norm of 3, <strong>we</strong>’d have to find a,b ∈ Z such that a 2 + 11b 2 = 3.<br />
Is that possible?<br />
ii) Consider s,t ∈ Z[ √ −11]. Show that if N(st) = 9 then N(s) = 1 or N(t) = 1.<br />
iii) Deduce that 3 is irreducible in Z[ √ −11] even though N(3) is not prime.<br />
iv) Is 3 irreducible in Z[ √ −3]?<br />
7. This question pushes the previous question a bit further and finds some non-unique<br />
factorisation in Z[ √ −11].<br />
i) Show that there is no element of norm 23 in Z[ √ −11].<br />
ii) Show that if N(r) = 69 then r must be irreducible.<br />
Hint: 69 = 3 × 23.<br />
iii) Show that (5+2 √ −11), (5−2 √ −11), 3, and 23 <strong>are</strong> all irreducible in Z[ √ −11].<br />
iv) Write down two different factorisations of 69 into irreducibles in Z[ √ −11].<br />
That is, find rs = r ′ s ′ = 69 where r,s,r ′ ,s ′ <strong>are</strong> all irreducible, and r ′ ,s ′<br />
cannnot be obtained from r,s by multiplying by units. This shows that<br />
Z[ √ −11] is not a UFD.<br />
To do the last part you need to remember what the units in Z[ √ −11] <strong>are</strong>.<br />
8. This question is about expressing integers as the sum of two squ<strong>are</strong>s.<br />
Consider r = (1 + 2i)(3 + 4i) = −5 + 10i ∈ Z[i]. Now N(r) = 5 2 + 10 2 = 125 but<br />
also <strong>we</strong> know that (1 + 2i)(3 − 4i) must have the same norm as r. (Why??) And<br />
(1 + 2i)(3 − 4i) = 11 + 2i<br />
so taking the norm of that, <strong>we</strong> get 11 2 + 2 2 = 125. Expressing things as the sum<br />
of two squ<strong>are</strong>s is Interesting, and look! We’ve done it in two different ways.<br />
Now you do it – consider<br />
(2 + 3i)(4 − 5i) = 23 + 2i<br />
and copy the above procedure to express 533 as a the sum of two squ<strong>are</strong>s in two<br />
different ways.
Tutorial questions #6<br />
Note that this whole sheet is revision about groups.<br />
You should bring your Groups and Symmetries notes to the tutorial.<br />
133<br />
1. This question is to jog your memory about the symmetric groups Sn. We’ll do S9.<br />
i) Write down the following permutation in disjoint cycle notation:<br />
⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
⎝ ⎠ .<br />
9 4 1 8 7 5 2 6 3<br />
ii) Write down the following permutation in two-row notation:<br />
iii) Let<br />
and<br />
(1 5 3)(2 7).<br />
⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
α = ⎝ ⎠<br />
9 4 1 8 7 5 2 6 3<br />
⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
β = ⎝ ⎠.<br />
6 3 1 2 7 4 9 5 8<br />
Calculate βα. Remember this means do α first and then β afterwards.<br />
iv) Let α = (1 5 3) and β = (2 5 1). Calculate αβ and βα, and observe that they<br />
<strong>are</strong> not equal. Permutations do not commute, so Sn is not in general abelian.<br />
v) Write (1 5 4 7)(2 9) as a product of transpositions. Remember a transposition<br />
is a permutation that just swaps two numbers eg (1 6).<br />
2. Recall that a permutation is called even if, when it is written as a product of<br />
transpositions, it turns out to have an even number of transpositions.<br />
i) Show that the even permutations form a subgroup of Sn. This is called the<br />
alternating group An.<br />
ii) Do the odd permutations form a subgroup of Sn?<br />
3. Recall that D3 is the group of symmetries of the equilateral triangle.<br />
i) Write down all the elements of D3.
134 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
ii) Pick one reflection and one non-trivial rotation in D3, and express all the<br />
non-identity elements of D3 in terms of these two.<br />
This means that these two elements “generate” the group.<br />
iii) Find six subgroups of D3. (This is all the subgroups of D3).<br />
4. This question is about cosets. Recall that given a subgroup H of a group G, for<br />
each g ∈ G the left coset gH is the set<br />
{gh : h ∈ H}.<br />
Recall also that aH = bH ⇐⇒ a −1 b ∈ H.<br />
Now consider the following subgroup of S4:<br />
H = {e,(1 2)(3 4),(1 3)(2 4),(1 4)(2 3)}<br />
i) Let a ∈ S4 be the permutation (1 2). Write down all the elements of the coset<br />
aH.<br />
ii) Show that (1 4) and (2 3) <strong>are</strong> in the same left coset of H.<br />
iii) How many different left cosets of H <strong>are</strong> there?<br />
5. A subgroup H of G is called a normal subgroup if<br />
g ∈ G and h ∈ H ⇒ g −1 hg ∈ H.<br />
i) Show that if G is abelian, all its subgroups <strong>are</strong> normal.<br />
ii) Let H be the subgroup of D3 containing just the rotations. Convince yourself<br />
that H is a normal subgroup of D3.<br />
iii) Show that An is a normal subgroup of Sn. (See question 2 for definitions.)<br />
We will later show that if H is a normal subgroup, <strong>we</strong> can make the cosets of H<br />
into a group called the quotient group. This is one of the many reasons normal<br />
subgroups <strong>are</strong> important. “Normal” doesn’t mean “ordinary” here!<br />
6. Recall that the orthogonal group O2 is the group of symmetries of the circle. The<br />
elements of this group can be expressed as<br />
rotα = rotate anticlockwise through angle α<br />
refα = reflect in line through the centre at an angle of α<br />
to the horizontal<br />
2<br />
i) Here’s another way of expressing this group. Write α for rotα, and M = ref0<br />
ie reflection in the “x-axis”. In this new notation, what is refα?
135<br />
ii) Show that O2 has a subgroup isomorphic to D3. You can do this by algebra<br />
or by geometry.<br />
iii) Write down four other subgroups of O2 other than the trivial group and the<br />
whole group.
136 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #7<br />
1. This question is about the symmetric group S3, but the analogous result is true<br />
for Sn in general.<br />
i) Write down all the elements of S3, in cycle notation. (Check you have the<br />
right number of them.)<br />
ii) Write down all the elements of S3 as products of transpositions. Hence, find<br />
the even permutations i.e. the elements of A3.<br />
iii) Find all the left cosets of A3 in S3.<br />
iv) Check that, for all α ∈ S3, αA3 = A3α. This means that A3 is a normal<br />
subgroup of S3.<br />
v) When H is a normal subgroup of G then <strong>we</strong> can make the left cosets of H<br />
into a group called the “quotient group” G/H. What is the quotient group<br />
S3/A3? Hint: what is its order?<br />
2. i) Write 4Z for the subset of Z given by<br />
{k ∈ Z s.t. 4|k}.<br />
Show that 4Z is a subgroup of Z. Remember: Z is a group under addition.<br />
ii) What <strong>are</strong> all the left cosets of 4Z in Z? Note that since Z is a group under<br />
addition, a left coset of a subgroup H will be written a + H instead of aH.<br />
iii) We can define an operation ⊕ on the cosets of H = 4Z by<br />
(a + H) ⊕ (b + H) = (a + b) + H.<br />
This makes the cosets of H into a group. In what guise have you seen this<br />
group before?<br />
3. i) Consider D6, the symmetry group of the regular hexagon. What happens if<br />
you conjugate a rotation by a reflection? That is, if a is a rotation and b is a<br />
reflection, what is bab −1 ?<br />
ii) What happens in O2, the symmetry group of the circle?<br />
4. This question is about cycle types in S5. The “cycle type” of an element α of Sn<br />
is found as follows: write α in disjoint cycle form, with the cycles in descending<br />
order of length. Then list the lengths of the cycles (including the trivial ones of<br />
length 1 at the end). For example, the element (1 3)(5 2 6) ∈ S6 can be re-written<br />
(5 2 6)(1 3)(4)
137<br />
and has cycle type (3,2,1). The element (1 6)(2 4) has cycle type (2,2,1,1).<br />
i) Find all the possible cycle types of elements in S5.<br />
ii) Which ones <strong>are</strong> odd and which ones <strong>are</strong> even? Hint: to work this out, you<br />
need to rewrite the cycles as products of tranpositions.<br />
iii) How many elements of each cycle type <strong>are</strong> there?<br />
5. Conjugate the element (1 2 3)(4 5) by the following elements. What do you notice<br />
about the resulting cycle types?<br />
i) (3 4) ii) (1 4 5) iii) (1 2 3 4)
138 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #8<br />
1. Calculate θαθ−1 ⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
where θ = ⎝ ⎠ and α = (1 9 6 3)(2 4 8)(5 7).<br />
4 1 9 6 5 2 3 7 8<br />
2. For each of the following elements α of S9, find the number of elements of S9 of<br />
the same cycle type.<br />
i) (1 2)<br />
ii) (1 2 3)<br />
iii) (1 2 3 4)<br />
iv) (1 2 3 4 5)<br />
v) (1 2 3 4)(5 6 7)<br />
vi) (1 9 6 3)(2 4 8)(5 7)<br />
vii) (1 2)(3 4)<br />
3. For each of the elements α in question 2, find |conjS9 (α)| and |centS9 (α)|. Re-<br />
member:<br />
• In Sn, the elements conjugate to an element α <strong>are</strong> those with the same cycle<br />
type.<br />
• In any finite group G, |conj G(α)|.|centG(α)| = |G|.<br />
4. Let A,B be the following matrices with entries in Z7:<br />
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞<br />
1 2<br />
A = ⎝ ⎠ ,<br />
4 4<br />
B = ⎝ ⎠ .<br />
3 4 2 6<br />
i) Find the determinant of each of these matrices, to check that A ∈ GL2(Z7)<br />
and B ∈ GL2(Z7).<br />
Recall that GL2(Z7) is the group of invertible 2 × 2 matrices with entries in<br />
Z7.<br />
ii) Show that<br />
iii) Compute the conjugate ABA −1 .<br />
A −1 ⎛ ⎞<br />
5 1<br />
= ⎝ ⎠.<br />
5 3<br />
iv) Find the order of ABA −1 and hence find the order of B.<br />
5. In this question you should use the following facts:
139<br />
• The order of each conjugacy class must divide |G|, the order of the group G.<br />
• Every element is in precisely one conjugacy class, so orders of the conjugacy<br />
classes must add up to |G|. So for a group of order 12, for example, <strong>we</strong> could<br />
have 1,3,4,4 or 1,2,3,6 or 1,2,3,3,3 but not 1,3,3,3.<br />
i) What is the order of the conjugacy class of the identity e in any group? Hint:<br />
how many elements b,g can you find such that g = beb −1 ?<br />
ii) In a group of order 6, is it possible to have three conjugacy classes of order 2?<br />
Is it possible to have two conjugacy classes of order 3? What <strong>are</strong> the possible<br />
combinations of conjugacy class orders?<br />
iii) What <strong>are</strong> the possible combinations for a group of order 8?<br />
iv) What <strong>are</strong> the possible combinations for a group of order 10?
140 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #9<br />
1. Find the following conjugates in O2:<br />
i) rotφ rotθ(rotφ) −1<br />
ii) refφ rotθ(refφ) −1<br />
iii) rotφ refθ(rotφ) −1<br />
iv) refφ refθ(refφ) −1<br />
Hint: it may help you to remember refφ = rotφ ref0.<br />
2. In each of the following either find θ ∈ S7 such that θαθ −1 = β or explain why no<br />
such θ exists:<br />
i) α = (1 3 5 2 4)(6 7), β = (1 2)(3 4 5 6 7)<br />
ii) α = (1 2)(3 4)(5 6), β = (1 2)(6 7)<br />
3. Calculate θαθ−1 ⎛<br />
⎞<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9<br />
where θ = ⎝ ⎠ and α = (1 9 6 3 5)(2 4 8).<br />
4 1 9 6 5 2 3 7 8<br />
You should be able to write this straight down, without even working out what θ −1<br />
is!<br />
4. You <strong>are</strong> given that<br />
H = {e,(1 2)(3 4),(1 3)(2 4),(1 4)(2 3)}<br />
is a normal subgroup of S4, where e is the identity element of S4. Show that the<br />
following hold in S4/H:<br />
i) the inverse of (1 2)H is (3 4)H<br />
ii) (1 2 3)H(1 3 4)H = (1 3 4)H(1 2 3)H<br />
Hint: it will help you to use the fact that the identity element in the quotient group<br />
is eH which is the coset H.<br />
5. Let G be a group of order 21 and suppose that the centre of G is {e}.<br />
i) Determine the class equation for G.<br />
ii) Find the number of elements of order 3 and the number of elements of order<br />
7 in G.<br />
Hint: let a be an element of a conjugacy class of size 3. Now a is also an<br />
element of its own centraliser, which is a subgroup of G. We know what<br />
the order of this subgroup is, therefore <strong>we</strong> can work out the order of a. Do<br />
something similar for elements in conjugacy classes of size 7.
141<br />
iii) Let h ∈ G be an element of order 7. Let H = 〈h〉, the subgroup generated by<br />
h. Use the class equation to show that H is a normal subgroup of G.<br />
iv) Show that H is the only normal subgroup of G other than the trivial group<br />
{e} and G itself.<br />
v) Can you think of some other n (other than 21) where you could use this sort<br />
of argument on a group of order n?
142 Section 9. Tutorial questions<br />
Tutorial questions #10<br />
1. Consider the cyclic group C12 with elements<br />
2. Let<br />
i) Let<br />
Are A and B subgroups?<br />
ii) What is the set AB?<br />
{e,a,a 2 ,a 3 ,a 4 ,a 5 ,a 6 ,a 7 ,a 8 ,a 9 ,a 10 ,a 11 }<br />
A = {a 2 ,a 3 ,a 4 }<br />
B = {a 3 ,a 4 ,a 5 }.<br />
iii) Let H be the subgroup {e,a 4 ,a 8 }. Write down the elements of the cosets a 2 H<br />
and a 3 H.<br />
iv) What is the set (a 2 H)(a 3 H)? First work this out by multiplying every element<br />
of a 2 H by every element of a 3 H. Then check that it is the coset you <strong>we</strong>re<br />
expecting.<br />
v) What is the quotient group C12/H?<br />
p1 = (x1 + x2)(x3 + x4)<br />
p2 = (x1 + x3)(x2 + x4)<br />
p3 = (x1 + x4)(x2 + x3).<br />
The symmetric group S4 acts on these polynomials by permuting the variables,<br />
that is, for α ∈ S4<br />
α ∗ (xi + xj)(xk + xl) = (x α(i) + x α(j))(x α(k) + x α(l)).<br />
This definition of how the symmetric group acts on the polynomials is very formal<br />
and a bit impenetrable. So in this question <strong>we</strong>’re going to sit down and fiddle<br />
around with it to see what it actually does<br />
i) The element (2 3) acts on each polynomial by switching 2 and 3, so in effect<br />
x2 becomes x3 and x3 becomes x2. Write down the result of doing this to the<br />
polynomial<br />
(x1 + x2)(x3 + x4).
143<br />
ii) What you have just done is apply the element (2 3) to the polynomial p1.<br />
Which of p1,p2,p3 was the result?<br />
iii) Now apply (2 3) to p2 and to p3 and see which polynomial results in each case.<br />
iv) This means that the element (2 3) has permuted the polynomials {p1,p2,p3}.<br />
So <strong>we</strong> have produced a permutation in S3. Which one?<br />
v) Now try it for the element (1 2)(3 4). What happens if you apply this to each<br />
of p1,p2,p3?<br />
vi) So, what permutation of S3 have you produced from (1 2)(3 4)?<br />
vii) Find all the permutations in S4 that leave p1 fixed. This is the stabiliser of<br />
p1.<br />
viii) Find all the permutations that fix each of p1, p2, p3.<br />
ix) The above method gives a homomorphism f : S4 −→ S3. What is its kernel?<br />
x) What does the First Isomorphism Theorem tell us about this situation?