Chapter 2 - Artists and Artisans.pdf

S E C T I O N 

Occupational 

Toxicology 

I

Artists and Artisans 

Occupational Description 

Artists and artisans, such as painters, sculptors, 

printmakers, potters, glassblowers, and dyers, 

are exposed to a variety of hazardous substances during their 

work. In 1992 the Bureau of Labor Statistics identified 

273,000 people working in the visual arts, 60% of whom 

were self-employed. Numerous case studies document heavy 

metal poisoning, carbon monoxide poisoning, dermatitis, 

silicosis, neuropathies, cancer, and other ailments. 

12,22,25,27,36,45,52,58,65 Several important factors may 

increase artists’ susceptibility to toxic exposures. First, education 

about prevention is inadequate in many art schools 

and relevant textbooks. 41 Second, illnesses related to art hazards 

are uncommonly encountered by most physicians. In 

addition, many of these illnesses are difficult to diagnose, in 

part because physicians are unfamiliar with the various techniques 

employed in these trades. 22,42 Third, there are numerous 

materials with constituents having undefined toxicity. 

Lastly, the labeling of many art materials is inadequate. 

Despite passage of the Labeling of Hazardous Art Materials 

Act in 1988, many products produced before that time are 

still available and may not adequately document hazards. 

Imported art material is often lacking in appropriate hazard 

warnings, and some ingredients in art materials are considered 

trade secrets by the manufacturer and are not included 

on the list of ingredients. 25,34,55 

8 

2 

▼ 

RICHARD D. SHIH 

MICHAEL R. ZARAGOZA 

ANGELA R. BABIN 

PAUL F. KOLECKI 

After the University of Washington 

moved to its present campus, a 

group of Seattle artists and architects 

held art classes in the old downtown 

university building. In 1908, they 

formed the Western Academy of the 

Beaux Arts and purchased land near 

Bellevue for an artists ’ community. 

(Courtesy of the Seattle History 

Museum.) 

Awareness of art hazards dates back to the 16th century 

with Bernardini Ramazzini, who is considered the father of 

occupational medicine. 54 Published in 1713, Ramazzini’s 

De Morbis Artificum (Disease of Workers) describes silicosis 

in stone workers and lead poisoning in potters. 

Others have postulated that many of the masters, such as 

Rubens and Renoir, suffered from heavy metal poisoning 

due to pigment exposure. 51 

Artists are exposed to hazardous substances via the 

many different media and the myriad chemicals involved 

in their work. Exposure to art hazards usually occurs in 

one of three ways: (1) through inhalation, (2) by skin contact, 

and (3) via ingestion. Eating and sleeping in the workplace 

increases the risk of ingestion. 24,25 Prolonged 

inhalation and skin exposure are common since many artisans 

work long hours without proper protection, often in 

home studios (also potentially exposing family members). 

These locations may be inadequately ventilated and probably 

lack material safety data sheets (Table 2–1). 

Information about toxicity from many of the agents 

used in this field is derived from occupational settings, 

and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration 

(OSHA) and the American Conference of Governmental 

Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) safety standards are derived 

from data in industrial settings. 5,47 Time-weighted 

averages and permissible exposure limits are not usually 

applicable to artisans, who often work more than the traditional 

five 8-hour days per week. 42 Finally, artistic

10 SECTION I / Occupational Toxicology 

TABLE 2–1 

▼ Differences in Work Environment between Industrial Work Setting and Home Art Studios 

Industrial Work Setting Home Art Studio 

Material safety data sheets available Material safety data sheets may not be available 

OSHA Hazcom protocols available Toxic ingredients may not be known 

Safety devices such as ventilation systems designed for task Safety systems such as ventilation may be inadequate and often 

homemade 

Shift schedule Erratic work schedule (2–20 hr/day) 

Personal protective equipment is often mandatory, available, and Personal protective equipment less available 

maintained 

Standard work protocols Experimentation with materials and protocols 

experimentation and innovation may create new chemicals 

or materials with new possibilities for toxicity 

(Table 2–2). 

Toxicologic Exposures 

PAINTING/DRAWING 

Potentially harmful exposures to the paint artist can occur 

through cutaneous exposure, inhalation, or ingestion. The 

artist’s habit of “pointing” the paintbrush with the lips may 

result in inadvertent ingestion. Eating, drinking, or smoking 

in the workplace can lead to accidental ingestion and 

also increases the risk of exposure. Inhalation of powdered 

pigments or spray mist may occur while air brushing or 

using spray fixations. 

Paint is made from pigments, vehicles, and binders. The 

two primary health hazards facing paint artists are exposure 

to the pigments in the paint and exposure to solvents 

used as thinners or in cleanup. 24,25,56,59 Paints can be 

water-based (watercolor, acrylic, gouache), solvent-based 

(alkyd, lacquer), or oil-based. Inorganic metal colors 

became widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries. 

Organic synthetic pigments were utilized in the early 20th 

century. Inhalation of pigments can occur if the artist 

makes his or her own paint, uses pastels or sands, or torches 

(heats) the work in a finishing process. 

The inorganic pigments have a wide range of potential 

toxicities. Lead, in the form of basic lead carbonate, lead 

antimonide, and lead chromate, is used to make a variety 

of whites and yellows. Many artists are aware of the 

hazards of lead pigments and avoid handling them in 

powder form because of the danger of inhaling the 

dust. 23,24,46 Even ready-to-use lead paints may be dangerous 

to handle, and hand washing is crucial in preventing 

transfer to the oral cavity and subsequent 

ingestion. Lead toxicity, or plumbism, is well described 

and may lead to peripheral neuropathy, hepatotoxicity, 

and hemolytic anemia, as well as reproductive abnormalities 

(see Chapter 37). 14 

Cadmium, a coloring agent in some yellow, red, and 

orange paints, can produce respiratory, dermatologic, or 

gastrointestinal symptoms with acute toxicity. 38 Inhalation 

may produce a febrile flulike syndrome, with laryngeal and 

facial edema resulting in progressive cough and dyspnea. 

With massive ingestion, pulmonary edema can occur. In 

cases of chronic exposure, genitourinary (decreased sper- 

matocyte counts, testicular necrosis, hypercalciuria with 

nephrolithiasis, and proteinuria) and neurologic (vertigo, 

headache, and shivering) symptoms have been reported, as 

well as hypochromic anemia and pathologic fractures from 

bone resorption. 8 Epidemiologic studies have suggested that 

chronic cadmium exposure may be associated with the 

development of lung cancer. 31,62 Evidence from animal and 

human studies suggests that chronic cadmium exposure 

may cause prostate and testicular cancer. 1,66 Chromate pigments 

are generally considered carcinogens of the nasal 

sinus and bronchus. 6,18,19,33,60 

The heavy metal manganese is present in blue, brown, 

and purple pigments. Toxic exposure may result in manganism, 

a disease with prominent psychiatric and neurologic 

manifestations. 17,34 The term locura manganica, 

meaning “manganese madness,” is used to describe a 

complex of psychiatric symptoms including apathy, anxiety, 

insomnia, confusion, visual hallucinations, bizarre 

behavior, emotional lability, and decreased libido. 

Neurologic manifestations may include nystagmus, disequilibrium, 

paresthesias, memory impairment, tremors, 

and lumbosacral pain. In many respects, the neurologic 

syndrome can resemble Parkinson’s disease. The most 

common respiratory complaint is dyspnea, which may 

result from pneumonitis, pneumonia, or bronchitis caused 

by inhalation toxicity. Pathologic changes in the liver have 

also been described, although clinical hepatitis rarely 

develops. 

Vermilion or vermilion mercury red pigments may be 

associated with toxicity. Symptoms include behavioral 

changes, anorexia, weakness, peripheral neuritis, tremors, 

and renal impairment. Both barium and cobalt, which are 

used as pigments, are cardiotoxic heavy metals that may 

be capable of causing cardiomyopathy under certain 

circumstances. 

Other materials in paint include vehicles, preservatives, 

binders, and solvents. Most of the vehicles and binders 

(such as drying oils, egg yolk, gums, and casein) are essentially 

nontoxic except for quicklime, which is a skin and 

lung irritant. The most common vehicle in water-based 

media is acrylic emulsion. Although relatively safe, this 

emulsion contains small amounts of ammonia and 

formaldehyde, which may irritate the eyes, nose, and throat 

if used without proper ventilation. 

Solvents are used as paint thinners and for cleanup 

of brushes and tools. Mineral spirits and turpentine 

are the most common, although a wide variety are available.

TABLE 2–2 

▼ Art Hazards 

Artists and Artisans / 2 11 

Technique Material/Process Potential Hazard 

Airbrush Pigments Lead, cadmium, manganese, cobalt, mercury, and other metals 

Batik Solvents Mineral spirits, turpentine 

Wax Fire, wax fumes 

Dyes Dyes 

Ceramics Clay dust Silica 

Glazes Silica, lead, cadmium, and other toxic metals 

Slip casting Talc, asbestiform materials 

Kiln firing Sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, fluorides, infrared radiation 

Commercial art Rubber cement n-Hexane, n-heptane, fire 

Permanent markers Xylene, propyl alcohol 

Spray adhesives n-Hexane, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, fire 

Airbrushing See airbrush 

Typography See photography 

Photostats, proofs Alkali, propyl alcohol 

Computer art Ergonomics Carpal tunnel syndrome, poorly designed work stations 

Video display Glare, extremely low frequency radiation 

Drawing Spray fixatives n-Hexane, other solvents 

Electroplating Gold, silver, other metals Cyanide salts, hydrogen cyanide, acids 

Enameling Enamels Lead, cadmium, arsenic, cobalt, and other metals 

Kiln firing Infrared radiation 

Forging Hammering Noise 

Hot forge Carbon monoxide 

Glassblowing Batch process Lead, silica, arsenic 

Furnaces Heat, infrared radiation 

Coloring Metal fumes 

Etching Hydrofluoric acid, fluoride salts 

Sandblasting Silica 

Holography Lasers Nonionizing radiation, electrical shock hazard 

Developing Bromine, pyrogallol; see also photography 

Intaglio Acid etching Hydrochloric and nitric acids, nitrogen dioxide, chlorine gas 

Solvents Alcohol, mineral spirits, kerosene 

Aquatint Rosin dust, dust explosion 

Photoetching Glycol ethers, xylene 

Jewelry Silver soldering Cadmium fumes, fluoride fluxes 

Pickling baths Acids, sulfur oxides 

Lithography Solvents Mineral spirits, isophorone, cyclohexanone, kerosene, methylene chloride, and 

other solvents 

Acids Nitric, phosphoric, hydrofluoric, hydrochloric, and other acids 

Talc Asbestiform materials 

Photolithography Dichromates 

Lost wax casting Investment Cristobalite 

Wax burnout Wax fumes, carbon monoxide 

Crucible furnace Carbon monoxide, metal fumes 

Metal pouring Metal fumes, infared radiation, molten metal 

Sandblasting Silica 

Painting Pigments Lead, cadmium, mercury, cobalt, manganese compounds, etc. 

Oil, alkyd Mineral spirits, turpentine 

Acrylic Trace amount of ammonia, formaldehyde 

Pastels Pigment dusts Lead, cadmium, and mercury compounds 

Photography Developing bath Hydroquinone, monomethyl-p-aminophenol sulfate, alkalis 

Stop bath Acetic acid 

Fixing bath Sulfur dioxide 

Intensifier Dichromates, hydrochloric acid 

Toning Selenium compounds, hydrogen sulfide, uranium nitrate, sulfur dioxide, gold salts 

Color processes Formaldehyde, solvents, color developers 

Platinum printing Platinum salts, lead, acids, oxalates 

Relief printing Solvents Mineral spirits 

Sculpture, clay See ceramics See ceramics 

Sculpture, lasers Lasers Nonionizing radiation, electrical 

Sculpture, neon Neon tubes Mercury, electrical 

Sculpture, plastics Epoxy resin Amines, diglycidyl ethers 

Polyester resin Styrene, methyl methacrylate, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide 

Polyurethane resins Isocyanates, organotin compounds, amines, mineral spirits 

Acrylic resins Methyl methacrylate, benzoyl peroxide 

Plastic fabrication Decomposition products (carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen 

cyanide) 

Sculpture, stone Marble Nuisance dust 

Soapstone Silica, talc, asbestiform materials 

Granite, sandstone Silica 

Pneumatic tools Vibration, noise 

Continues


TABLE 2–2 

▼ Art Hazards (Continued) 

Technique Material/Process Potential Hazard 

Silk screen printing Pigments Lead, cadmium, manganese, and other compounds 

Solvents Mineral spirits, toluene, xylene 

Photoemulsions Ammonium dichromate 

Stained glass Lead Lead 

Soldering Lead, zinc chloride fumes 

Weaving Loom Ergonomic problems 

Dyeing Dyes, acids, dichromates 

Welding Oxyacetylene Carbon monoxide 

Arc Ozone, nitrogen dioxide, ultraviolet and infrared radiation, electrical hazards 

Metal fumes Copper, zinc, lead, nickel, etc. 

Woodworking Machining Wood dust, noise, fire 

Glues Formaldehyde, epoxy 

Paint strippers Methylene chloride, toluene, methyl alcohol, and other solvents 

Paints and finishes Mineral spirits, toluene, turpentine, ethyl alcohol, etc. 

Preservatives Chromated copper arsenate, pentachlorophenol, creosote 

Source: McCann M: Artist Beware, 2nd ed. New York, Lyons and Buford, 1992, pp 11–13. 

In general, turpentine is the most common solvent used 

in oil painting. Odorless paint thinner or terpenoid is recommended 

as a substitute because it is less flammable and 

less toxic. Solvents are also found in sprays that are used 

to fix drawings and in spray-mounting adhesives used in 

graphic arts. These sprays contain a wide variety of 

aerosolized solvents, such as xylene, methylene chloride, 

and toluene (Table 2–3). 

Solvents may cause dermatitis with sufficient contact. 

If inhaled in high concentrations within closed and 

poorly ventilated areas, they may produce adverse 

health effects including pneumonitis, hepatitis, cardiac 

sensitization to circulating catecholamines, and peripheral 

neuropathies. Some authors contend that chronic 

exposure to solvents may be associated with symptoms 

characterized by neuropsychologic abnormalities. 30 

However, many of the studies initially addressing these 

issues were poorly controlled or otherwise flawed. The 

existence of solvent-related encephalopathy, absent overwhelming 

exposures, is not generally supported as a 

clinical entity by an evidence-based analysis of the 

medical literature. 

SCULPTURE 

Sculpting is the art of representing figures and forms threedimensionally. 

The materials used are most commonly 

stone, clay, marble, wood, and metals. Specific potential 

toxicities are associated with each material itself or with 

the technique used. 

Stone Sculpting 

Artists carve stone by chipping, grinding, and polishing. 

Traumatic injury is common and includes eye injuries due 

to flying debris, repetitive neurologic injuries, and vibration-induced 

injuries due to pneumatic or vibrational 

sanders. 30 Toxicologically, the predominant risk is inhalation 

of dusts and powders during these processes. Many 

stones such as quartz, granite, and soapstone contain large 

quantities of silica. Silicosis in this endeavor is poorly documented 

and studied but is an exposure risk (for a more 

complete discussion of silicosis, see Chapter 33). Asbestos 

may be a contaminant of stones such as soapstone and serpentine. 

The risk of asbestosis from artistic stone sculpting 

is probably so small as to be nonexistent (for a more complete 

discussion of asbestos, see Chapter 59). 

Plaster Sculpting 

Plaster sculpting involves covering an internal wire support 

with plaster of paris. The plaster of paris is made of calcium 

sulfate and may be contaminated with lime. It is 

typically obtained as a powder and mixed with water. 

During this process, the powder may damage the ophthalmologic 

and respiratory systems. Protective eye and respiratory 

equipment is recommended during the mixing 

process. Calcium sulfate is an eye irritant that can cause 

conjunctivitis. Treatment for these exposures involves 

copious irrigation with clean water. 

Respiratory exposure may cause minor upper respiratory 

tract symptoms, including cough and mucous membrane 

irritation. Lower respiratory tract effects are uncommon. 

Treatment involves cessation of exposure and supportive 

measures. 

TABLE 2–3 

▼ Past and Present Solvents Used by Artists 

Acetone Isopropyl alcohol 

Amyl acetate Methanol 

Amyl alcohol Methyl acetate 

Benzene Methyl cellosolve 

Benzine Methyl chloroform 

Butyl cellosolve Methylene chloride 

Carbon tetrachloride Methyl ethyl ketone 

Chloroform Methyl isobutyl ketone 

Cyclohexanol Mineral spirits 

Ethanol Tetrachloroethylene 

Ethyl acetate Toluene 

Gasoline Trichloroethylene 

Heptane Turpentine 

Hexane Styrene 

Isoamyl alcohol Xylene 

Isophorone

Wood Sculpting 

Wood is carved, glued, and finished with varnishes and 

sealers. Hardwoods such as the western red cedar (Thuja 

plicata), cocabolla (Dolbergia retusa), mahogany (Shoreal 

sp.), and California redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) are 

common sensitizers that may cause allergic dermatitis and 

asthma with exposure. 2 Hypersensitivity pneumonitis leading 

to fibrosis may occur on rare occasions. Chronic hardwood 

dust inhalation has been associated with nasal and 

nasal sinus adenocarcinoma. 67 

Softwoods such as pine can cause similar allergic and 

respiratory problems. These problems, however, are 

less frequent with softwood than with hardwood 

exposure. 44 

Plywood and composition board are thin sheets of wood 

or wood chips and dust joined with a formaldehydecontaining 

glue. Heating and sanding these woods may 

release the formaldehyde. Exposure may be associated 

with mucous membrane irritation and occasional allergic 

reactions if exposure levels are sufficiently high. 

A variety of glues are used to laminate and join wood. 

These include epoxy resins, cyanoacrylate, formaldehyde, 

casein, polyvinyl acetate, and contact adhesive glues. 

Finishes, including varnishes, paints, and enamels, often 

contain a variety of solvents. Exposure may occur as the 

woodworker applies the finish material. 

Wood preservatives may be used during harvesting and 

processing. Many chemicals used for this purpose are regulated 

in the United States, but fewer regulations abroad 

increase the risk of toxic exposure with imported woods. It 

is often not known (or difficult to find out) if such wood 

has been treated with preservatives. The risk of exposure 

is higher with imported woods and wood treated for outdoor 

use. Chemicals used for this purpose include 

chlorophenols, chromated copper arsenate, and creosols 

(see Chapter 5). 

Metal Sculpting 

Metal sculpting involves a number of processes with the 

potential to generate important exposures. These include 


manufacturing (metal casting, forging, and/or welding), 

surface preparation (cleaning, grinding, and polishing), and 

finishing (etching, metal coloring, and electroplating). 

Metals frequently used in this art form include iron, 

lead, bronze, brass, pewter, and aluminum. Precious metals 

such as gold, platinum, and silver are used in jewelry 

sculpting. Common methods for manufacturing metal 

include casting, forging, and welding. 

Metal casting involves the preparation of a mold, heating 

metal to liquid form, and pouring the metal into the 

mold. Molds are hollow or have a core that melts when the 

liquid metal is poured. The core is often made of wax, 

polyurethane foam, polystyrene (Styrofoam), other plastics, 

silica, or organic material. 41 When the core is heated, 

a number of combustion products may form that require 

proper ventilation. When wax is burned, by-products may 

include acrolein, chlorinated phenyls, and formaldehyde. 

The polyurethanes may produce diisocyanate, polystyrene, 

cyanide, and methylene chloride. Other potentially toxic 

inhalants that can result include carbon monoxide, aldehydes, 

ammonia, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, 

sulfur oxide, and silica. 41 

Metals heated to extremely high temperatures can produce 

dangerous fumes. Inhalation of the oxides of zinc and other 

metals (copper, nickel, iron, and sulfur) may lead to metal 

fume fever (see Chapter 37). Lead derived from bronze may 

induce lead poisoning under certain circumstances. 

The use of junk metal may be especially hazardous 

because it is frequently painted with paints containing lead, 

mercury, chromium, or cadmium that may be released during 

the heating process (see Chapter 12). 57 

Forging involves shaping metal with different tools. 

Although this process can be done without heat, hot forging 

softens the metal and makes it more malleable. 

Important exposures may occur if the fumes of the molten 

metal are inhaled. These exposures are similar to the ones 

discussed in metal casting. 

Metals are joined by soldering, brazing, and welding. 

These processes and related exposures are described in 

detail in Chapter 37. One process that is relatively rare in 

industry but common in jewelry sculpting is silver 

soldering. It is important to note that silver solder can contain 

significant amounts of cadmium. Inhalation of cadmium 

fumes has led to serious toxicity in several reported 

cases. 10,38,56 

Welding processes include oxyacetylene and arc welding. 

Important exposures that may occur during this work 

include infrared and ultraviolet radiation, unburned acetylene 

gas, nitrogen oxides of ozone, and metal fumes (see 

Chapter 38). 

After forging, the metal surface is cleaned, filed, ground, 

and polished. The cleaning process usually involves the 

use of various acids. Clinically important exposure to 

nitric, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and other acids may 

occur during this process. 

High-powered grinding wheels produce respirable metal 

dusts. Sandblasting and polishing may expose the artisan 

to high air concentrations of silica. Cases of pulmonary 

fibrosis have been reported in association with heavy exposure 

to metal dusts. 40


Metal finishing processes include chemical etching, 

painting, and electroplating. Etching involves the application 

of acids such as hydrofluoric acid. Metal painting may 

involve potential pigment exposures (previously discussed). 

Electroplating is a process in which one metal is electrically 

bound to another metal surface. Potentially dangerous 

gold and silver cyanate solutions are often used in 

this setting. Accidental cyanide toxicity has been reported 

to occur during this process. 35 Other chemical exposures 

may also exist, depending on the chemicals employed (see 


Plastics Sculpting 

Plastics sculpting involves working with plastic resins or 

working the finished plastics. Examples of material used in 

work with plastic resins include amino, phenolic, acrylic, 

epoxy, polyester, polyurethane, and silicone resins. They 

can be molded, cast, or foamed. Working finished plastics 

includes heating, bending, cutting, gluing, and other 

mechanical or chemical processes. The chemicals can 

include benzoyl peroxide, methyl methacrylate, formaldehydes, 

diglycidyl ethers, amines, vinyl toluene, styrene, 

Fiberglas, and isocyanates. (See Chapter 54 for a more 

detailed review of plastics toxicology.) 

PRINTMAKING 

Several different techniques are used in printmaking. 

Traditionally, a flat surface of wood or linoleum is carved or 

etched to create a relief image. Different inks are applied to 

the surface and transferred to paper, cloth, or other materials 

by a press. Potential exposures in this process involve the 

pigments or solvents in the ink and the solvents used during 

the cleanup process (discussed previously). 28 

The process known as intaglio is similar to standard 

printmaking techniques. Intaglio involves using a copper, 

aluminum, or zinc background surface. Nitric acid, 

hydrochloric acid, or hydrofluoric acid is used to etch an 

image onto a plate. Ink is applied to the plate, filling the 

grooves of the etched portion. Excess ink from the background 

surface is removed with various solvents. The ink 

is then transferred to paper by a high-pressure press. 

Exposures in this setting may be similar to those of relief 

printing, with the addition of acid exposure from the etching 

process. Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid are corrosive 

agents that may cause immediate skin burns. Further, in 

poorly ventilated environments, aerosolized particles may 

cause respiratory tract irritation. Treatment for these exposures 

includes irrigation of exposed sites and standard 

wound care protocols. 

Hydrofluoric acid exposure is associated with severe 

pain in exposed areas of skin. In closed spaces, high air 

concentrations of hydrofluoric acid may cause respiratory 

tract irritation and symptoms. Pain is the most prominent 

early symptom, with subsequent formation of burns. 

Treatment includes application or injection of calciumand/or 

magnesium-containing gels or fluid. 

Lithography involves the use of zinc or aluminum plates 

or stones as a background. Lithographic crayons (tuches) 

are used to draw an image on the surface. Lithographic 

etches, which typically contain dilute acids, are applied 

over this surface. A thin layer of metal or stone is removed 

by the acid except in the areas that are preserved by the 

tuches. Ink is applied to the surface and pressed onto paper 

or other material. Potential exposures in this process are 

similar to those in the intaglio process. 

In screen printing, an image is cut into a stencil screen, 

and ink is forced through the stencil to create an image. 

Both solvent- and water-based inks are commonly used. 

Solvent-based inks can contain up to 35% solvents, and 

high air concentrations may occur during this process. 

Further, solvents are often used to clean the screens. While 

pigment exposure from ink can occur, solvent exposure 

from the inks and cleaning fluids may be the primary 

exposure risk. 43,68 

CERAMICS 

Ceramics art uses clay for sculpting and pottery work. 

Virtually all of the processes used in producing a finished 

piece may have potentially important exposure. The steps 

involved in this process include selecting and preparing the 

clay, sculpting or molding the shape of the clay, firing the 

clay piece in a kiln to harden it (bisque firing), sanding and 

grinding the piece, applying glazes and colorants, and 

refiring of the piece in a kiln to fuse the glaze to the clay 

surface. 

Clay is obtained by artisans in three forms. Ready-foruse, 

prepared clay can be purchased from potteries, kilns, 

or art supply stores, as can clay in the form of powder. 

When clay is dug directly from the earth, cleaning and drying 

yield clay dust. 

The main exposure risk during this initial process comes 

from the mixing of the dry clay. Clay contains predominantly 

silicates as well as different amounts of free silica. 

It is also variably contaminated with kaolin (aluminum silicate), 

talc, and asbestos.

Inhalation of these materials may lead to medical problems. 

Bronchitis, bronchiolitis, and occupational asthma 

have been associated with ceramists. Some speculate that 

these disorders may be partly due to exposure to molds that 

grow on wet stored clay. Silicosis, asbestosis, and mesothelioma 

have been reported in association with this occupation. 

26 However, the incidence and potential risk of these 

illnesses in artisans are not well established. 15,16,21,53,63,64 

After the clay has been sculpted, it is fired in a kiln to 

harden it (bisque firing) and fired a second time to color it 

with glaze. During the firing process, various gases and 

fumes may be produced. If these gases and fumes are not 

ventilated properly, exposure may occur. Carbon monoxide 

gas from the incomplete combustion of organic material is 

produced, especially if a gas-fired kiln is employed. 

Fluorine, chlorine, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide may 

be released as the glazes are oxidized. 5,41 Exposure to 

heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, antimony, barium, and 

cadmium may occur, especially during the glazing 

process. 7,20,50 All kilns require good ventilation systems to 

prevent inhalation of these gases and fumes. Another risk 

associated with the kiln firing process is infrared radiation 

exposure to eyes. Artisans who look through kiln peepholes 

may develop cataracts given an adequate duration 

and frequency of exposure. 

After the initial firing of the clay piece (bisque firing), 

the piece is prepared for the application of glazes or colorants. 

If the piece is sanded or if grinding techniques are 

employed, clay dust exposure can again occur. 

Glazes typically contain frits, metal colorants such as 

chromium, manganese, uranium, cadmium, antimony, and 

vanadium; zinc oxide; kaolin; and free silica. 37 The frits 

are made of fine-ground glass that give the ceramic a 

glossy finish after the final kiln firing. The frits may contain 

silicon dioxide, lead, potassium, zinc, calcium, aluminum, 

boron, and other metals. 65 

Commercial glazes may come premixed or in powder 

form. Inhalation of glaze dust can occur during this mixing 

process if ventilation or protective clothing is not 

adequate. The glazes are applied either by brush or by 

spray painting. Aerosolized glaze may present a serious 


potential exposure risk if safety equipment is not used 

properly. 

Although ingestion of glazes among artisans is not 

common, this exposure associated with lead poisoning has 

been frequently reported in ceramic art programs at psychiatric 

facilities and nursing homes. 58,65 

GLASS ART 

Glassblowing 

Glassblowing produces glass products from raw materials. 

The most basic material involved is pure silica. 

Lead, silver, copper, cobalt, tin, selenium, barium, 

arsenic, manganese, zinc, and other metals are added to 

give the glass a particular color or strength. 12 These 

material mixes are called batches. Although batches are 

available premixed, many artists prefer to make their 

own particular blend. This process may pose an inhalational 

risk for silica and heavy metal if the artisan fails 

to take proper precautions. 

The batch is heated in a gas furnace until molten and 

then removed at the end of a blowpipe. During this heating 

process, gases and fumes are emitted from the raw materials 

and furnace. The exposures are similar to those of the 

kiln firing process in ceramics. Exposure risks in this setting 

include carbon monoxide and heavy metal fumes. 

Finished pieces can be sanded, ground, or abrasive blasted, 

posing the risk of inhalation of fine glass particles. Glass 

etching is often employed in this final stage, most commonly 

with hydrofluoric acid. Skin and inhalational exposure in 

this setting may cause injury. 

Emphysema in glassblowers has been described. 48 

Although not a common problem in this occupation, high 

rates of chronic coughing, wheezing, and abnormal pulmonary 

function have been reported. 12,48 The cause of 

these nonspecific respiratory findings is not clear but may 

be due to the chronic exposure to multiple inhaled materials 

involved in this art process. 12 

Stained Glass Art 

The production of stained glass requires cutting glass of 

different colors and joining the pieces together between 

metal strips. The two most common techniques, lead 

came and copper foil, use lead or copper as the adjoining 

metal. Both techniques involve substantial amounts of 

soldering. The solder most commonly used contains lead 

and tin. Cases of lead poisoning are commonly reported 

in association with this process. 9,22,39 Soldering also 

involves the use of flux agents such as zinc chloride and 

hydrochloric acid. Both are caustic agents that can cause 

burns to skin and are respiratory irritants if inhaled (see 


Glass-finishing techniques are often employed in the 

final steps of this art form. These include glass coloring, 

decorating, and etching. Glass coloring utilizes such chemicals 

as copper sulfate (contact dermatitis), antimony, silver 

nitrate (skin corrosive, respiratory tract irritant), and 

selenium dioxide (skin irritant).


Glass etching typically uses hydrofluoric acid, which 

can cause painful burns to the skin and respiratory 

irritation when inhaled. 

TEXTILE ARTS 

The predominant exposure risk in this art form is derived 

from the variety of dyes used for coloring different fabrics. 

These materials include acid, azoic, basic, direct, fiberreactive, 

mordant/natural, and vat dyes. 32,41 

Acid dyes are used for wool, silk, and nylon. They are 

made of different color-imparting chemical groups, such as 

azo or anthraquinone chemicals that are bound to a sulfonic 

acid group. The sulfonic acid portion of the molecule 

has affinity to the basic amino groups found in these fabrics. 

During the process, the dye is made more acidic with 

sulfuric, acetic, or formic acid baths to increase the dye’s 

affinity to fabric. The toxicity of the acid dyes is felt to be 

minimal, although long-term hazards have not been extensively 

studied. Exposure to the acids can cause skin and 

mucous membrane irritation and burns. 

Azoic dyes, also known as naphthol dyes, are used to 

dye cotton, rayon, linen, silk, and polyester. 41 The dyes 

consist of two compounds, a diazonium and a naphthol 

compound, that are reacted together in fiber to produce the 

desired color. Contact dermatitis and hyperpigmentation 

have been associated with the use of these dyes. 3 Little 

information is available about the long-term effects of 

these agents. 

Basic, or cationic, dyes are used for fabrics with protein 

fibers (wool and silk) and cellulose fibers mordanted with 

tannic acid. Some of these dyes may be associated with 

allergic skin reactions. Basic Orange 2 and Basic Violet 10 

are suspected carcinogens. 

Direct dyes have been used since the 1800s. Many of the 

dyes in this class were made from benzidine, an ideal agent 

that allowed bonding of the dye to a hydroxyl group in a 

cellulose molecule. Benzidine, however, is well established 

as a bladder cancer carcinogen.* 

Although most direct dyes today do not contain benzidine, 

some continue to have benzidine derivatives. 41 

Direct dyes, used for linen, rayon, and especially cotton, 

are the ones commonly sold at grocery and hardware 

stores. The chronic health effects of nonbenzidine direct 

dyes are not established. 

Fiber-reactive dyes react directly with fibers and are 

used for cotton and linen. The dye is applied in a warm 

bath over a short period of time (30 minutes). The dye is 

inactivated with water or sodium carbonate. These dyes are 

sensitizers and are associated with allergic respiratory 

problems. Sodium carbonate is a skin and mucous membrane 

irritant. 

French dyes are solvent-based dyes usually involving 

bright colors used for painting on silk. 41 Most of these 

dyes are ethyl alcohol based. 

Mordant and natural dyes are synthetic dyes or dyes 

derived from natural sources that use mordants to fix the 

*See references 3,4,7,9,11,13,15,16,20,21,28,32,39,40,43,48–50,53,61,63,64,68 

dye to fabric. These dyes are used for dyeing wool and 

leather. The mordants commonly used are potassium aluminum 

sulfate (alum), ammonia, copper sulfate (blue vitriol), 

ferrous sulfate (copperas or green vitriol), potassium 

acid tartrate (cream of tartar), potassium dichromate 

(chrome), oxalic acid, tannic acid (tannin), stannous chloride 

(tin), and urea. The adverse effects of these agents 

include allergic sensitization, skin and mucous membrane 

irritation, causticity, and possible carcinogenesis. Little 

information is available regarding the long-term risks of 

most of these agents. 

Vat dyes use air oxidation by the addition of chromic 

acid (potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid) to the dye 

bath. 32 These dyes may be mildly irritating to skin and 

mucous membranes. The acids used are caustic agents with 

a risk of severe burns. The long-term exposure risks have 

not been well studied. 

Conclusions 

The potential toxic exposures to artists and artisans are 

numerous. This chapter has examined the most common 

art forms and their associated risks. Many other art 

processes are not discussed and are beyond the scope of 

this chapter. For additional information, readers are 

referred to the Center for the Safety in the Arts, 155 Sixth 

Avenue, 14th Floor, New York, NY 10013. 

Accurate information about exposure risk and disease in 

this field is hampered by a number of important factors. Few 

studies have looked at the potential acute and chronic effects 

of the substances in the setting of an artist’s studio and work 

schedule. Multiple chemicals are often used together in art 

production, with unknown resultant effects. Government 

regulations do not adequately address the self-employed artisan. 

Diagnosis of toxicity and assessment of risk are often 

misinterpreted by physicians who are unfamiliar with the 

chemicals involved and the occupational risks. 

Despite these problems, occupational exposures in this 

field are becoming better understood. Safety and art hazards 

are becoming more common curriculum subjects in art 

schools. Understanding the specific processes employed and 

the potential exposures is helpful in making proper diagnoses 

and instituting measures to prevent further exposure. 

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