ses training resource kit - Government Skills Australia

SES 

TRAINING RESOURCE KIT 

Rescue Operations 

Version 1

CONTENTS 

Section 4.1 Rescue operations.......................................................... 301 

Qualified and appropriate personnel ..........................................................302 

Section 4.2 At the scene ................................................................. 305 

Scene assessment.................................................................................305 

Gaining access to the scene ....................................................................306 

Initial assessment.................................................................................307 

Surface search for casualties ...................................................................307 

Incident Marking Systems........................................................................309 

Marking systems...................................................................................309 

Other Markings ....................................................................................318 

Identification structural damage...............................................................318 

Structural collapse patterns ....................................................................321 

Secondary collapse ...............................................................................328 

Common methods of building construction...................................................329 

Structural damage ................................................................................330 

Section 4.3 Casualty Handling .......................................................... 337 

Moving casualties .................................................................................337 

Classification of Casualties......................................................................342 

Loading a stretcher...............................................................................345 

Casualty handling techniques using no equipment ..........................................349 

Mixed teams and special stretcher combinations ...........................................355 

Moving Stretchers.................................................................................358 

Moving stretchers in tight spaces ..............................................................359 

Moving stretchers over a gap ...................................................................360 

Section 4.4 Operational Debrief........................................................ 365 

Operational debriefing...........................................................................365 

Progressive Learning and Assessment Record Form – Rescue Operations................373

Section 4.1 Rescue operations 

As a member of a rescue team, you may be asked to: 

• provide access to, support and remove trapped persons 

• undertake body recovery 

• provide support to other services, authorities or specialist teams on request. 

There are no set rules for tackling every rescue task. However, a rescue is 

generally faster and more effective if it follows stages. Below is an example of 

five stages for a structural collapse rescue. 

Table 1 Stages of structural rescue operation 

Stage 1 Clear surface 

casualties 

Stage 2 Rescue lightly 

trapped/easily 

accessed 

Stage 3 Explore likely 

survival points 

Stage 4 Selected debris 

removal 

Stage 5: Total debris 

clearance 

The first task is to clear surface casualties – those who are 

not trapped and are clean of any obstruction or hazard. 

Ambulance or first aid personnel normally care for 

casualties, but you may be asked to help. 

The next task is to rescue those who are lightly trapped 

and/or search lightly damaged buildings. 

The third stage is to search likely survival points where 

people may have taken shelter or refuge and where they 

may be trapped, either injured or uninjured. 

When casualties are found the rescue team will often have 

to remove debris to get to them. The amount of debris 

moved depends on: 

• the location of the casualty 

• the nature of their injuries (if known) 

• the layout of the building or structure 

• the way in which the building or structure has 

collapsed. 

The final stage of a structure collapse rescue will be to 

methodically strip the site. This stage may be completed 

by demolition contractors, rather than emergency services. 

© Commonwealth of Australia (Version 1) 301

WORDS CAN VARY 

BUT RESCUE PROCESS 

REMAINS 

ESSENTIALLY THE 

SAME 

Another set of words to describe the rescue 

stages is based on the acronym 

REPEAT: 

Reconnaissance and survey 

Elimination of utilities 

Primary surface search and rescue 

Exploration of voids and spaces 

Access by selected debris removal 

Termination by general debris removal 

As you can see, the stages are essentially the same 

as the stages mentioned in the example above. 

If you are dealing with a structural collapse and missing persons, you will be faced 

with decisions based on what you see, smell, touch and hear. Combine this with 

limited access and the possibility of foul weather or night operations and any 

rescue may look like an enormous task. Good planning and a systematic approach 

will break a seemingly impossible problem into manageable pieces. 

When one or more rescue teams combine to work at one incident, there has to be 

a standardised way to: 

• identify work site hazards 

• identify the different teams and what they have done 

• map landmarks with common symbols. 

Once mapping and marking has been established you can systematically remove 

casualties in a sensible order by locating, accessing, stabilising and transporting 

them to a designated area. 

Qualified and appropriate personnel 

In any rescue operation, there may be three groups of workers that might be able 

to assist. These are: 

302 © Commonwealth of Australia (Version 1)

Survivors 

The first group to commence rescue work at a site are usually those survivors who 

are able to help. They can potentially do a lot of good but there is always a 

danger with inexperienced people doing rescue work. 

Sometimes these people are the only hope of survival for many victims but they 

could also make injuries worse. They may also get in the way of the trained 

rescue teams. 

Untrained personnel 

The second ‘wave’ of rescue workers are people who have witnessed the event or 

are nearby who may be drawn to the site by curiosity or a desire to help. There 

may be an advantage in them being less emotionally involved. However, there is 

still the danger of them making the situation worse. Unfortunately, many of this 

second group are just curious and can disrupt a rescue team’s work. They should 

be moved to a place where they will not get in the way or add to the excitement 

or anxiety of the rescue. 

Trained personnel 

The last group to arrive at the scene are usually the trained personnel: the rescue 

members, the police, and ambulance or other emergency services personnel. It 

takes time for various emergency services to be mobilised and arrive at the scene. 

The more quickly they arrive, the quicker trained rescue personnel can manage 

the rescue. Well-trained rescue teams know what to do. They know how to use 

the available resources and how to direct untrained people to assist in the best 

way possible. 


Self check 

Having completed this section, are you able to: 

Understand what you may be asked to do as a member of a rescue team? 

Identify and describe rescue stages: REPEAT? 

If you have answered NO to any of these questions, ask your trainer for help. 


Section 4.2 At the scene 

Rescue scenes and operations that SES members may be involved in include: 

• rescue from the roof of a house during floods 

• rescue lightly trapped surface casualties as a result of a earthquake, 

cyclone, accident or building collapse 

• rescue from a vehicle accident 

• rescue from heights or depths eg cliffs, caves, confined spaces. 

Some of the rescues identified above require specialist training which is beyond 

the scope of this course. 

Scene assessment 

For further information consult with your Trainer. 

Scene assessment which could be termed reconnaissance, is primarily the team 

leader’s responsibility. However, each member of a rescue team should be trained 

in rescue reconnaissance, as the team leader will always need your help. 

A scene reconnaissance is a systematic information-seeking process where the 

information may be gathered on route to, and on arrival at, the scene. It is used 

to develop a picture of the task/s and to assist in determining a course of action. 

The type of information sought may include the following: 

• any hazards at the scene, eg fallen power lines, downed trees 

• access to the scene, road blocks etc 

• the extent and type of damage 

• availability of occupants/owner/landlord for permission to enter 

• estimates of resources required at the scene 


• estimates of time required to complete tasks. 

During a scene assessment you need to get an accurate assessment of: 

• the number and location of casualties 

• hazards that might endanger rescuers or survivors 

• the extent and type of damage 

• ways to gain access to the casualties or tasks 

• available resources, both personnel and equipment 

• how long the task would take with available resources. 

Gaining access to the scene 

Access to the scene needs to be undertaken in a safe manner which does not 

compromise the safety of those at the scene initially, SES members or members of 

the public. Information on access to the scene may be provided through the Team 

Leader. 

At larger incident scenes there are three (3) zones allocated: 

• hot zone: the immediate area of the incident and operation 

• warm zone: the stage area for equipment and personnel for enter to the Hot 

Zone 

• cold zone: the area outside of the Hot and Warm Zones, which is safe for 

others at an incident. 

Access to the Hot Zone is generally through one designated entry point and only for 

personnel directly involved with the incident. Control of entry to the Hot Zone is 

through designated personnel on scene who log in and out accordingly. 

Personnel who are involved in or preparing for operations in the Hot Zone are able 

to access the Warm Zone. Those personnel who are staged (waiting to undertake 

tasks or be tasked) will have access to the Warm Zone through a marshal. 

The Cold Zone is where rest breaks are taken, media liaison areas and other 

functions which contribute to operations. 


The Hot and Warm Zones may be cordoned off as decided by the Incident 

Controller. 

Initial assessment 

Normally the rescue team would set up the equipment while the Team Leader 

would carry out a detailed reconnaissance, preferably with another person. 

However, it is essential that every member of a team be trained in scene 

assessment as the Team Leader may be responsible for a number of tasks. 

Deployed personnel must be capable of carrying out an effective scene assessment 

and reporting accurate observations back to the Team Leader. 

At and around the scene, all sources of information should be used by the team 

members undertaking the assessment. These sources may include, but not be 

limited to, the following: 

• police 

• neighbours 

• owners/occupiers 

• relatives of the owners/occupiers 

• passers by. 

Team members should remember that some witnesses may be traumatised by what 

they have seen and must be approached and questioned with consideration. Any 

verbal information must be written down; do not rely on memory, particularly in 

such a stressful situation. 

Surface search for casualties 

Calling and Listening Procedures 

If casualties are conscious a 'calling and listening period' may locate them. The 

Officer In Charge (OIC) positions teams along the fringe of the debris near the 

position where casualties are thought to be trapped. They lie on the debris and if 

possible get their heads close to openings that go down into the debris. The OIC 

calls for silence on the site and if necessary asks the Police to ensure that silence 

is maintained, while the calling lasts. Each team member in turn is instructed to 

call, using terms such as 


• "rescue team working overhead, can you hear me?" 

• all listen intently for any answering sound from a trapped casualty and if a 

reply or knocking sound is heard each rescuer indicates with an outstretched 

arm in the direction from which they think the sound originated 

• the OIC, observing the various bearings given by team members, should be 

able to estimate the position of the casualty with a good degree of accuracy 

• if there is no reply to the rescuers a good tactic is to try knocking on objects 

such as steel beams that go deep into the debris. This sound may reach the 

casualty even though the calls have failed to do so, and they in turn may be 

able to knock in reply 

• when contact has been established, the rescuer must question the casualty (if 

they are able to speak). The questions should be confined to ones aimed at 

receiving information that will help the OIC in forming a strategic plan for the 

extrication 

• the nature of the casualty's injuries, for instance, is often significant in this 

regard. How are they trapped? Are there any openings in the walls in their 

vicinity? This latter question is of great importance. A lane cleared through 

the debris in a straight line towards the casualty, for instance, may bring the 

rescuers up against a blank wall. Such a clearance should be aimed at doors 

or windows or other openings formed in the walls by the collapse 

• once communication of this kind has been established with a person it should, 

as far as it is possible, be maintained for the following reasons: 

• help maintain the casualty’s morale, it helps them to withstand 

whatever pain and discomfort they may be suffering and may even give 

them sufficient hope to keep them alive 

• it helps rescuers to work in the right direction - sometimes a difficult 

matter in the dark 

• the victims, if sufficiently conscious, may be able to give warning of any 

displacement or movement in the debris likely to cause them further 

injury, or give information of any other casualties who may be located 

nearby. 

NOTE 

Conversation with a trapped person must 

always be of a reassuring nature. 


Incident Marking Systems 

The International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) developed an 

internationally agreed system for marking collapsed structures. 

The system normally uses building plans and street maps, but if these are not 

available it can be used with sketch maps of the building, which also identify and 

label landmarks. 

To use the system, you need to establish the building’s orientation, and name the 

sides and internal sectors of the building. Internal plans (if available) make this 

task much easier. 

Marking systems 

Three systems of marking are used at rescue incidents. 

These marking systems are for: 

• site indication 

• structure assessment 

• victim location. 

Site Identification Marking System 

Upon arrival at a structure collapse scene, each structure involved must be 

identified and the incident scene secured. 

Structural identification and securing the scene involves: 

• assigning geographical areas and numbers of each structure 

• numbering the sides of each structure 

• identifying and marking individual sections within each structure 

• designating hot, warm and cold zones for incident operations. 

Once this is achieved, the site identification marking system is used to mark, 

record and communicate this information to all personnel. 


The site identification marking system is particularly useful to the incident 

controller. It is an operational briefing tool as well as a tool to ensure that all 

structures involved in the collapse are systematically assessed, hazards are 

controlled and surface search and rescue operations are conducted safely and 

effectively. 

The address side of the structure is defined as SIDE 1. Each other side of the 

structure is numbered clockwise from SIDE 1. 

Marking structures in a multiple structure collapse area 

It is important to clearly identify each separate structure within a geographic area. 

The primary method of identification is the existing street name and building 

number. 

Smith St 

900 902 904 906 

Bowen St 

North 

Figure 1 Identify multiple collapsed structures by street name and number 

If previously existing street numbers have been obliterated, attempt to re- 

establish the numbering system based upon one or more structures that still 

display an existing number. Clearly mark the fronts of structures with the assigned 

number using ‘international orange’ spray paint. Also indicate the boundary 

frontage of individual structures using the spray paint or barrier tape. 

Structure assessment marking system 

Structure assessment marking systems tell a brief story of who did what in a 

damaged structure. The markings of the first team are placed on the outside of 

the structure, close to the entry point. 

310 © Commonwealth of Australia (Version 1) 

Brown St

Building sectors 

If a second team enters the building they should put their own marks next to the 

original markings. No team should ever amend existing marks. If it is necessary to 

review the original marks, a separate set must be placed next to the original. 

Preliminary identification 

The interior of the structure is divided into sectors. Each sector is identified 

alphabetically, starting with ‘A’ at the intersection of SIDE 1 and SIDE 2. The 

central core, where all four sectors meet, is always Sector E. 

Multi-story structures should have each floor clearly identified. If not clearly 

discernible, the floors should be numbered as seen from outside. The ground level 

floor is designated FLOOR LEVEL 1. Moving upward the next floor is FLOOR LEVEL 

2, and so on. The first floor below ground level is called BASEMENT 1, the second 

BASEMENT 2, and so on. 

Marking a single collapsed structure 

All sides of each individual structure involved in a collapse should be numbered, 

starting with side one on the street address side of the structure and working 

clockwise around each structure. 

Side 2 

B 

Side 3 

© Commonwealth of Australia (Version 1) 311 

E 

C 

A D 

Side 1 

Smith St 

Side 4

Figure 2 Numbered sides of a collapsed structure 

Each structure’s interior should be divided into quadrants. Identify the quadrants 

alphabetically and in a clockwise manner starting from the area where side one 

and side two perimeters meet. 

The central core where all four quadrants meet is designated as quadrant E. 

Quadrants do not have to be symmetrical and can be altered to suit the needs of 

the incident. 

Marking structures without street addresses 

Collapsed structures with no street address, such as bridges and flyovers, can be 

divided into manageable sections along their lengths. The size of sectors will be 

based on the incident and geography of the area. 

Collapsed Bridge 

Sector A Sector B Sector C Sector D 

Figure 3 Marking collapsed structures without street addresses 

Structural Assessment and Search Marking System 

The structural assessment and search marking system is used to indicate hazard 

information (for example structure requires shoring/rats found); number of people 

found alive and removed; number of people found dead and removed; number of 

people unaccounted for; and the location of other victims. The team members, or 

an advance reconnaissance team, place signs adjacent to the safe entry point of 

the structure prior to the deployment of rescue operations. 

Use this marking system also, where appropriate, inside the structure adjacent to 

rooms, hallways and stairwells. Team members must be aware of secondary 

entrances, which will be signed alike. Any entries not signed in the appropriate 

manner should be considered unsafe and dangerous, and should not be used. 


Update information as subsequent assessments are made. Write new information 

either below the previous entry or draw a completely new marking box. 

Structural assessment and search marking box 

The structural assessment and search marking system consists of a square box (1 m 

x 1 m) drawn using ‘international orange’ paint (tape or crayon may be used to 

minimise damage). 

1 metre 

1 metre 

Figure 4 Marking box symbol 

Display the relevant information on the outside and inside of the box as follows: 

1. Top of square: hazard information (for example, structure requires 

shoring/snakes found) 

2. Left side of square: number of people found alive and removed 

3. Right side of square: number of people found dead and removed 

4. Bottom of square: number of people unaccounted for and the 

location of other victims 

5. Inside the square: G (Go) indicates the structure is safe to enter; NG 

(No Go) indicates the structure is not safe for entry; the name of 

the Rescue team; the time and date the USAR team entered the 


structure; and the time and date the USAR team exited the 

structure. 

Figure 5 Structural assessment and search marking information 

NOTE 

The finished marking system is circled. This 

does not mean that all victims have been 

removed from the structure, it simply indicates 

that that team has finished its assigned task. 

Figure 6 Completed structure marking box 


Victim Marking 

A key part of the initial search is to locate any victims. Debris in the area may 

completely cover or obstruct the location of known or potential victims. Search 

teams mark victim locations whenever a known or potential victim is located and 

not immediately removed. 

During the search function, it is necessary to identify the location of any known or 

potential victim. The amount and type of debris in the area may completely cover 

or obstruct the location of the known or potential victim. The victim location 

markings are made by the Search Team or other individuals conducting search and 

rescue operations whenever a known or potential victim is located and not 

immediately removed. 

The victim location marking system is used to clearly mark the potential and 

confirmed locations of victims in the structure collapse area and to indicate 

whether they are alive or dead. Markings are made with a high visibility paint, 

chalk or crayon. 

Place markings as near as practical to a victim and identify the direction and 

distance to the victim’s location. If victims can communicate, ask them if they 

know of any other victims and where they are or were located. Apply markings to 

represent the following information: 

a. potential victim(s) 

b. victim location 

c. confirmed victim(s) 

d. extricated live victim(s) 

e. extrication of live victims only 

f. all victims extricated. 

A large "V" is drawn near the location of the known or potential victim. The letter 

“L” with a number will denote the number of live victims. The letter “D” with a 

number will denote the number of dead victims. 


Draw an arrow beside the "V" when the location of a victim has been confirmed 

either visually, vocally or hearing specific sounds, which would indicate a high 

probability of a victim. This may be done when the victim is initially located or 

may need to be done later after some debris removal or use of specialized search 

equipment. A canine alert will initially receive the "V" without an arrow to 

indicate a potential victim. 

If a rescue team is only tasked with the extrication of live casualties then a circle 

would be drawn around the "V" and a line drawn through the “L” part of the code 

when the last live victim has been extricated from that location. Only when all 

victims (live and dead) have been extricated from the site would a horizontal line 

be drawn through the “V”, lines drawn through both the “L” and “D” parts of the 

code and a circle re-drawn around the “V” to indicate all victims have been 

removed from the site. 

Potential Victim Location 

Confirmed Victim Location 

(# OF LIVE VICTIMS) L — 1 

(# OF DEAD VICTIMS) D — 2 


Extricated Live Victims 

(# OF LIVE VICTIMS EXTRICATED) L — 1 

(# OF DEAD VICTIMS) D — 2 

Extrication of Live Victims only and team moved on 

All Victims Extricated 

L — 1 

D — 2 

L — 1 

D — 2 


Other Markings 

General cordon markings (cordon banners, flagging, etc) are to be used for small 

defined area. They can be enlarged to include other non-buildings (ie bridge, 

dangerous zones, NBC, security, etc). Large areas may require 

barricades/fences/patrol/etc. 

Facility: 

Figure 8 Marking indicating Operational Work Zone & Hazard Zone 

Iconic flags, banners, balloons, etc (must identify team identity, team medical 

facility, team CP). 

Vehicle: 

Vehicles must be marked with team name and function (flag, magnetic sign, etc). 

Team and function: 

Response team identity (country and team name) by uniform, patch, etc. 

Identification structural damage 

SES members attend incident where structures, building or homes have been 

damaged. To ensure that the appropriate operational activities are undertaken 

and safety of all at an operation, SES personnel need to be aware of the following. 


Wall Damage 

The walls and ceilings of a building can be damaged by: 

• the impact of flying debris 

• falling trees or branches 

• the force of wind and water 

• earthquake. 

Regardless of the cause of damage, a few simple guidelines are appropriate for all 

operations and teams. 

Lightly constructed walls are more prone to damage than those of double brick, 

block or stone, but this tends to be offset by the fact that lightly-built walls are 

generally easier to repair. 

In instances where a wall has been penetrated or so badly damaged that the 

integrity of the structure has been affected, the immediate area should be 

cordoned off as a “no go” zone and advice sought by the owners from a building 

engineer. 

Where damaged tilt-up panels are involved, it should be remembered that these 

are one piece and can be 15 metres or more in height. Any “no go” zones must 

take height into account, generally 1.5 times the height of the wall. 

Where a small section of wall is suspected to be damaged, it may be possible to 

shore up the wall to prevent further damage and to ensure the safety of 

operational team members while other work is carried out. This shoring should be 

of a temporary nature, designed to meet immediate needs. 

Shoring is designed to prevent further movement, not force the section of wall or 

ceiling back into place. If this is attempted, further damage may occur. The most 

important aspect of shoring is that it can do the job and is secure. If there are any 

doubts about the damaged area or the shoring, the area should be designated as a 

“no go” zone. 


Ceiling Damage 

Damage to ceilings is very similar to wall damage, in that it is usually caused by 

flying debris, the collapse of the roof and, most commonly, by water/wind damage 

following roof damage. The first priority is to repair the roof damage and then, if 

possible, stabilise the ceiling to make the building habitable. This may not always 

be possible due to the danger from falling material and electrical hazards; 

extreme care should be taken when entering an area where the ceiling appears 

damaged. 

Sometimes the damage to a ceiling may not be obvious except for water marks and 

bulging. This may indicate that the ceiling space is full of water and is ready to 

collapse. In this situation, holes will need to be made in the ceiling to test this 

theory, and to drain the water away. As with all repairs, the owner must be 

informed of any plans to carry out such actions. 

Another issue with ceiling collapse is the habit of some drug growers to put pots or 

trays filled with soil into the roof space, which adds to the weight of an already 

damaged ceiling. Occupiers in this situation may not tell rescue teams what is in 

the roof space so members need to be aware of the possibility. 

Different (or Altered) elevation 

Ceilings and walls can become reoriented when structures collapse, stacking them 

together and often offsetting the "pancake" effect with the debris forming voids 

that make room identification very difficult. For example, surfaces that were once 

ceiling and walls can now appear to be floor. As rescuers move into voids to 

search, the surface on which they are working cannot be guaranteed as being 

stable. As the search proceeds debris will continue to settle and further altered 

levels may be encountered throughout the structure. 

Interview locals to ascertain who lives in which room and obtain information 

about: 

• who lives in which rooms or apartments 

• what colours are the ceilings, walls and floors 

• what furniture and internal items are in the rooms 

• what is the potential for occupancy and what hazards are likely. 


Before stepping onto surfaces, first probe for false floors and differences in 

elevation. Keep in mind that after a building collapse the orientation of floors 

may be altered. 

An oxygen deficient atmosphere, flooding and toxic or flammable environments 

might be encountered by rescuers as they descend below the debris. Atmospheric 

monitoring and the elimination of ignition sources are essential. Adequate lighting 

and ventilation is necessary and as rescuers move deeper below the surface the 

greater the requirement for shoring. 

NOTE 

Structural collapse patterns 

In the World Trade centre bombing a Fire 

fighter fell four floors from basement level 2 to 

basement level 6 as he stepped through a 

doorway. 

There are different possible structural collapse patterns involved when structures 

are damaged. The type of structural collapse patterns will be based on a number 

of factors and it is important that you are able to recognise these in the event that 

you and your team are called out to assist with an operation which includes 

structural collapse. Types of structural collapse include: 

• curtain fall wall collapse 

• inward / outward collapse 

• lean over collapse 

• lean to floor collapse 

• angle wall collapse 

• pancake floor collapse 

• secondary collapse / other building 

• inverted, " A " or tent collapse 

• " V " collapse 

• cantilever collapse 

• progressive collapse. 


The majority of these structural collapse patterns are based on research and 

experience following earthquakes. 

Rescue operations which involve personnel to enter structural collapses to search 

for and retrieve trapped persons require specialist skills and appropriately 

qualified and experienced members to effectively manage and undertake these 

operations. 

It must be stressed that other collapse patterns and a combination of theses 

collapse patterns may occur. For example, building collapse following an 

explosion is dependent on a large number of factors that may or may not be 

predictable. 

CHECK THE 

NEWSPAPERS 

CHECK THE WEB 

It may be helpful to refer to photographs of 

actual collapse patterns that have recently 

occurred following natural and man made 

disasters. 

Compare and contrast the photographs you find 

with the images and diagram on the next few 

pages. 


Curtain fall wall collapse 

A wall made of bricks or blocks falls like a curtain, ie drops straight downward. 

Inwards / Outward collapse 

A wall made of bricks or blocks falls with the top portion of the wall falling inwards 

and the bottom portion of the walls falls outwards. 


Lean over collapse 

A building collapses to one side. 

Lean to Floor collapse 

A floor above ground level becomes dislodged from one side of the structure and 

falls to the level below. 


90◦ Angle wall collapse 

A wall made of masonry, bricks or blocks collapses at a 90 degree angle covering 

the ground with the wall for a distance of the height of the wall. 

Pancake floor collapse 

A floor or ceiling falls flat downwards. 

SECONDARY 

COLLAPSE / OTHER 

BUILDING 

The building you are working in/on; or another 

building next door collapses causing additional 

rescue and scene of operations problems. The 

type of collapse following a secondary collapse 

may be any of the eleven described, or a 

combination of patterns. 


"V" Collapse 

The floor or ceiling gives way in the centre and falls to the floor below. 

Inverted, "A" or Tent Collapse 

Resulting in the opposite of the "V" type collapse pattern. 


Cantilever Collapse 

A piece of floor, ceiling or wall falls landing on a stationary structure and leaving a 

large segment hanging over an open area. 

Progressive Collapse 

There is an initial failure of a single primary support member. A chain reaction of 

failures continues in a downward movement. 


Secondary collapse 

There are a number of indications of the potential for a secondary collapse at a 

search and rescue structural collapse incident. The three most common signs that 

are likely to be observed are: 

• movement in the structure 

• visual alertness 

• hearing alertness. 

Movement in the Structure 

• movement in any floor, ceiling and roof 

• movement of ornamental shop fronts 

• movement of unsupported or non-load bearing walls 

• movement of structural beams 

• columns and walls out of plumb 

• ceiling sagging. 

Visual Alertness 

• fire consuming location where sprinkler tank is housed 

• uneven surface, heavy signs on a section or the whole of the roof 

• cracks appearing in the exterior walls 

• sagging or bulging walls / chandelier shaking or swaying 

• large fire which has been unsuppressed for more than 20 mins involving 2 or 

more floors 

• walls showing smoke or water seeping through. 

Visual clues 

• uneven surface, heavy signs on section or whole of the roof 

• cracks appearing in the exterior walls 


• sagging or bulging wall or cantilever shaking or swaying 

• large fire which has been unsuppressed for more than 20 minutes involving 

two or more floors 

• smoke or water coming through walls. 

Hearing Alertness 

• creaking and groaning types of noises coming from the building/structural 

elements 

• interior explosions, rumbling noises, hissing sounds, electrical arcing 

• strong winds 

• safety warning signals from personnel working on scene. 

Audible clues 

• creaking and groaning noises coming from the building or structural elements 

• interior explosions, rumbling noises, hissing sounds, electrical arcing 

• strong winds. 

Common methods of building construction 

There are seven common methods of construction for buildings. The references to 

these methods of construction are common throughout Australia: 

• timber 

• light frame (ordinary construction/brick veneer) 

• besser block 

• reinforced masonry 

• un-reinforced masonry 

• concrete tilt-up 

• reinforced concrete and steel construction. 


Structural damage 

These construction types will all react differently when subjected to forces that 

lead to a structural collapse. The following descriptions will give you some idea 

of what to expect, but there may be large variations due to any combination of 

factors, but most importantly, the cause of the structural collapse will have the 

largest bearing upon how the building reacts. 

Timber 

eg normal suburban house 

• masonry chimneys can crack and collapse into or out from the structure 

• chimneys can separate from the walls 

• house sliding off foundation 

• racking of walls (out of plumb) 

• displaced walls 

• openings can become out of shape (rectangular to parallelograms) 

• masonry veneers can fall off the walls 

• offset structure separate from the main structure. 

Risks 

There is an extreme risk from fire in these structures due to the abundance of 

fuel. Due to their relatively lightweight and small size few people are seldom 

comprehensively entrapped within timber residential collapsed structure. 

Light Frame (Ordinary Construction) 

eg larger residential properties 

• masonry chimneys can crack and collapse into or out from the structure 

• chimneys can separate from the walls 

• house sliding off foundation 

• racking of walls (out of plumb) 

• displaced walls 


• openings can become out of shape (rectangular to parallelograms) 

• masonry veneers can fall off the walls 

• offset structure separate from the main structure. 

Risks 

As with timber construction, there is an extreme risk from fire in these structures 

however the risk of entrapment in a light frame construction is increased following 

a collapsed structure. 

Reinforced Masonry 

eg older style office blocks and residential buildings 

• columns break at intersections with floor beams 

• inadequate reinforcement bar and ties do not confine the concrete when 

subjected to high shear and tension stresses 

• short columns in the exterior walls get high shear and tension stresses 

directed into them by surrounding massive concrete 

• bending and punching sheer failure at intersections of a slab (waffle) and 

columns 

• un-reinforced masonry infill has been known to fall off and often become 

displaced from surrounding frames 

• weak concrete and poor construction can make all the above conditions worse 

and has been known to lead to larger collapse. 

Un-reinforced Masonry 

eg some older style office blocks 

Un-reinforced masonry infill has been known to fall off and often become 

displaced from its surrounding frames. 

• parapets and full walls fall off buildings due to inadequate anchors 

• multi-thickness walls may spilt and collapse or break at openings 

• mortar is often weak and made with too much lime content 

• mortar can also be made too strong, causing the masonry to fail 


• walls that are more heavily loaded by roof and floors have been known to 

perform better than walls that are parallel to the framing, since the load of 

the floor tends to compress the bricks together thus increasing the " Bond " 

effect 

• roof / floors may collapse if there are no interior wall supports and if the 

earthquake has a long enough duration 

• voids are usually formed by wood floors in familiar patterns of "V", lean to and 

pancake formations 

• broken bricks often line the streets where these building are located and 

people can become trapped on the pavements or in their parked or passing 

vehicles. 

Concrete Tilt-up 

eg most new warehouses with large floor areas 

• walls separate from wood floors/roof causing at least local collapse of the 

floor/roof, possible general collapse of walls and floor/roof 

• suspended wall panels become dislodged and fall off the building 

• walls may have short, weak columns between window openings that fail due 

to inadequate shear strength 

• large buildings that are "T" or "L", or other non-rectangular shape in design can 

have failures at their intersecting joints 

• if tilt up construction has been subjected to fire, extreme caution is required, 

as it has a tendency to collapse. 

Reinforced Concrete and Steel Construction 

eg most major new commercial buildings in town centres and cities 

• parapets and full walls fall off building due to inadequate anchors 

• multi-thickness walls may split and collapse or break at openings 

• mortar is often weak and made with too much lime content 

• walls that are more heavily loaded by roof and floors have been known to 

perform better than walls that are parallel to the framing, since the load of 

the floor tends to compress the bricks together thus increasing the " Bond " 

effect 


• roof / floors may collapse if there are no interior wall supports and if the 

earthquake has a long enough duration 

• voids are usually formed by wood floors in familiar patterns of "V", lean to and 

pancake formations 

• broken bricks often line the streets where these building are located and 

people can become trapped on the pavements or in their parked or passing 

vehicles. 

You can learn much about how a building is constructed from the Building Code of 

Australia. 

BUILDING 

CONSTRUCTION AND 

STRUCTURAL 

COLLAPSE 

The method of construction has a major impact 

on how a building might collapse, regardless of 

the cause of the collapse. 


Activity 1 Identifying structural collapse pattern 

Identify the construction of the building you are currently in (based on 

the seven classifications listed previously) and what possible collapse 

patterns could occur in the advent of structural collapse 

Question 1 

What is the construction of the building you are currently in? 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

Question 2 

What possible collapse patterns could occur in your building should a structural 

collapse occur? 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 


Self Check 


Explain what is a scene assessment/reconnaissance 

Identify the types of information sought during a scene 

assessment/reconnaissance 

Understand what are Hot, Warm and Cold Zones 

Describe surface search procedures 

Describe and use Marking Systems including Victim Marking 

Identify different types of structural damage 

Identify different structural collapse patterns 

Recognise signs of secondary collapse 

If you have answered NO to any of these questions, ask your trainer for help. 



Section 4.3 Casualty Handling 

Now that the initial scene assessment has been completed, you will have to start 

moving and managing casualties. Casualty management includes providing first 

aid, moving people to a safe place for further medical aid or to have their details 

recorded. How you move a casualty will depend on where they are and how they 

are injured. 

Before moving any casualty, you need to carefully assess their injuries using 

DRABCD, their condition and possible entrapment, ensuring they are not entrapped 

or tangled in some unseen object. You may need to carry casualties across piles of 

debris and uneven ground to safety. Some casualties may be seriously injured or 

unconscious. 

Although it is important to get people out quickly, you must remember that safety 

and proper handling will help prevent further injury. 

Moving casualties 

Rescues will be conducted under almost every conceivable adverse condition. The 

method used for casualty removal will depend on the location of the casualties. 

Casualties may need to be lowered from the upper floors of buildings, hoisted from 

below through holes in the floors, or removed by a combination of those 

techniques. Where casualties are handled by rescue personnel, care must be 

taken to ensure that further aggravation of injuries does not occur. 

All rescuers must be aware that the casualty is paramount even when immediate 

evacuation from a hazardous environment is necessary. A careful assessment 

must be made of the casualty’s injuries, condition and possible entrapment and 

a final check must be made to ensure that the casualty is actually ready to move 

and is not caught or entangled in some unseen object. 

RESCUERS MUST BE 

WELL TRAINED 

The importance of first aid training cannot be 

overstated. 

All rescuers must be trained to a reasonable 

qualification level of First Aid and Life Support 

in order to be able to handle casualties’ safely 

and effectively. 


After removal, many casualties will have to be carried over piles of debris and 

uneven ground before being handed over to the ambulance service or first aid 

station. Whilst speed of removal is important, it must be consistent with safety 

and proper handling to prevent further injury. 

The method used will depend on the immediate situation, the condition of 

casualties, type of injury and available equipment. 

The transportation of casualties over long distances is a very tiring task and 

requires fit personnel. 

There is a variety of techniques used for moving casualties using either single 

members or SES teams. 

Types of stretchers 

The three most commonly used categories of stretchers are: 

• folding or pole stretcher 

• basket stretcher 

• wrap around stretcher. 

Figure 7 Example of a folding stretcher 

Figure 8 Example of a basket stretcher 


Figure 9 The Sked stretcher: an example of a wrap around stretcher 

Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the three categories of stretchers 

Stretcher Advantages Disadvantages 

Folding • low cost 

• easily stored 

• light and portable. 

Basket 

Wrap around 

• strength and rigidity 

• ease of handling and rope 

attachment 

• ease of securing casualty. 

• conforms with body 

• ideal for confined spaces 

• ease of securing casualty. 

• lack of rigidity 

• poor spinal immobilisation 

• possibility of collapse during 

operations; difficulty in 

securing casualty. 

• awkward in confined 

spaces. 

• some styles do not 

provide full spinal 

immobilisation. 

Each SES Unit has access to stretchers. Talk to the person who is 

responsible for your training in your Unit and discuss which types are 

available at your Unit and their use. 


Extrication Devices and Backboards/Spineboards 

Extrication devices and backboards/spineboards assist when removing casualties 

from situations and maintaining spinal alignment. Backboards/spineboards provide 

a firm supportive surface and provide a safe method of moving casualties with 

suspected spinal damage by securing the casualty with straps and head restraints. 

Extrication devices are used in conjunction with backboards/spineboards and 

stretchers and are not patient transport devices. Extrication devices, when 

applied correctly, provide a higher level of spinal support. 

USE CORRECTLY 

Figure 10 Backboard/spineboard 

Figure 11 Extrication Device (Ferno KED) 

The importance of correct use of extrication 

devices and backboards/spineboards cannot be 

overstated when assisting casualties with 

suspected spinal damage. 


List 

Stretchers 

Improvised 

Stretchers 

Extrication 

Device 

Backboard/ 

Spineboard 

Activity 2 Stretchers and extrication equipment 

Talk to your Trainer, identify and discuss the types of stretchers, 

extrication devices and backboards/spineboards your Unit has 

available. List the types available and the methods for their use. 

Types available and how to use 


Classification of Casualties 

International practice - triage card tags 

Standard international practice is that the casualties are tagged with a triage card 

identifying them as 

RED TAG 

TOP PRIORITY 

ORANGE TAG 

2 ND PRIORITY 

GREEN TAG 

WALKING WOUNDED 

WHITE TAG 

Life threatening situation. 

• airway obstruction 

• breathing difficulties 

• chest pain (possible cardiac history). 

Serious but not yet life threatening 

• uncontrolled bleeding 

• major fractures. 

Needs to see a doctor but is not urgent 

• minor fractures 

• cuts that require stitches. 

Deceased 

(label with a no breathing and no pulse black 

border). 


NOTE 

Walking Injured 

Although the SES does not carry the 

tags, it is important for you to understand 

the tagging system when you are working 

with other agencies. This system provides 

a guideline for deciding in what order you 

are going to manage the casualties. 

The term, ‘Walking Injured’, is self-explanatory but the following are examples of 

some types of causalities who should not be allowed to walk if; 

• there is a marked degree of shock 

• there is the slightest risk of internal injuries 

• they have bled or are bleeding from an artery, even a small wound 

• they have head wounds even though they may appear to be slight. 

Slightly Injured Casualties 

These are casualties whose injuries require that they must be evacuated for 

further treatment, but the nature of the injury does not necessitate the use of a 

stretcher allowing evacuation to be effected by other means. Two examples of 

slightly-injured casualties are; 

• cases of serious shock 

• those with an injury to a lower limb unless it is only a slight flesh wound. 

Seriously Injured Casualties 

These are casualties who will require hospital treatment. A few examples of 

seriously-injured causalities are as follows; 

• all cases of internal haemorrhage; open wounds of the chest; shattered limbs, 

grossly lacerated and crushed limbs, wounds of the stomach, open 

complicated fractures of the skull, spine, pelvis and thigh, injuries involving 

the eye, injuries involving the lower jaw and control of the tongue 


• cases in which further shock is likely to develop, as with persons trapped for 

long periods under debris or exposed to cold and wet, in fact all but those 

with trivial injuries or who are merely shaken, frightened or faint, not 

forgetting that very small external wounds may well be associated with 

damage beneath the surface 

• all diabetic patients who may be injured or who are suddenly taken ill. 

CAREFUL CASUALTY 

CHECKING 

Serious injuries will not always provide highly 

visible signs. 

Careful casualty checks must be carried out. 

The importance of first aid training cannot be 

over-emphasised! 

You may be required to treat and rescue casualties who are not seriously injured in 

order to reach more seriously injured persons. Where hazards present a risk to 

casualties being treated, follow the principle of ‘remove the casualty from the risk 

or remove the risk from the casualty’. 

Once you understand the basic principles of how to handle a casualty and what 

degree of injuries to expect, you can then look at the type of stretcher to use (if 

needed). Where possible, you should place seriously injured casualties on a 

stretcher. However, sometimes you may need to remove the casualty quickly or 

no stretchers are available. All single-rescuer techniques involve the risk of injury 

to the rescuer, so two-rescuer techniques are preferred. 


Loading a stretcher 

Loading a stretcher is an important part of casualty handling. Using the correct 

methods is important for the safety and protection of both the casualty and the 

rescuers. 

CHECK CASUALTY IS 

FREE BEFORE LIFTING 

Four-rescuer method 

Make final checks by hand to ensure 

that a casualty is free of any 

entanglements or hooks before lifting. 

When four rescuers are loading a stretcher and where spinal injuries are not 

suspected you can use the following method: 

Make up the stretcher and place it near the casualty’s head or feet. 

• the team leader details three others to kneel on one side of the casualty, with 

the casualty lying flat on their back. Each rescuer kneels on the knee nearest 

the casualty’s feet, with the knee up that is closest to the casualty’s head 

• the team leader kneels near the casualty’s hip on the opposite side to the 

three others and gently rolls the casualty towards themself 

• the other three place their hands and arms under the casualty and the team 

leader lowers the casualty back onto their arms. Make sure the casualty’s 

head is supported 

• the team leader gives the order: ‘Prepare to lift’ 

• if no one shouts ‘Stop’, the team leader gives the order to ‘Lift’ and all four 

rescuers lift the casualty up 

• if necessary, the rescuers briefly support the casualty on their knees 

• the team leader then places the stretcher under the casualty 

• final orders are ‘Prepare to lower’, followed by ‘Lower’ 


• the three rescuers, helped by the team leader, lower the casualty on to the 

stretcher. 

Figure 12 Four rescuer lift 

Clothing lift (three rescuers) 

When the casualty’s injuries are not too severe but time is critical, or only three 

rescuers are available, you can use a clothing lift. 

Method 

• blanket a stretcher and place it close to the casualty 

• if the casualty is unconscious, tie their hands together with triangular bandage 

or similar materials 

• roll the casualty’s clothes together along the centre of the body. Make sure 

you support the head and neck of the casualty at all times 

• three rescuers are positioned on the opposite side of the casualty to the 

stretcher 

• normal commands are given and the casualty is gently placed on the 

stretcher. 

Figure 13 Clothing lift 


Blanketing the stretcher 

Blanketing the stretcher: 

• makes the casualty more comfortable 

• keeps the casualty warm 

• helps to immobilise any fractures, that may have been sustained. 

You may need to use one or two blankets, depending on the weather and available 

blankets. You can use cotton bed sheets in very warm weather. 

Single-blanket method 

Lay one blanket diagonally across the stretcher with the corner of the blanket in 

the centre of the top of the stretcher. Leave about 150 mm overlapping. Place the 

casualty on the blanket so that their head is level with the top of the canvas. Fold 

over and tuck in the lower half of the blanket around the casualty’s feet and 

between their ankles to prevent chafing. Fold over the upper half of the blanket 

and tuck it in over the casualty. 

Figure 14 Single Blanket method 

Double-blanket method 

• lay a blanket lengthways across the stretcher, level with the head end. Have 

one quarter of the blanket extending over one side of the stretcher and one 

half on the other 

• place the second blanket with its centre in the middle of the stretcher and its 

end about 400mm from the top. Fold the sides into the centre and out at the 

foot 


• place the casualty on the stretcher so their head is level with the top of the 

canvas 

• place the centre of the second blanket between the ankles of the casualty (to 

prevent chafing), then cross the end points of the blanket over their legs and 

tuck the points in. If possible, tuck these points between the knees and 

ankles to prevent chafing 

• take the short side of the first blanket over the body of the casualty and if 

possible, tuck it in 

• tuck the long side of the first blanket on the opposite side of the stretcher, 

and fold the blanket for head support (unless there is a spinal injury) 

• be sure to fold in the tips of the blanket so the casualty’s face is not covered. 

Figure 15 Double-blanket method 

If you are operating in a wet or contaminated area, it is advisable to concertina 

the ends of the first blanket down the sides of the stretcher before the second 

blanket is placed in position. 

Side position blanketing 

The blanket is used: 

• to provide warmth, comfort and immobilisation 

• as padding to keep the casualty in the side position. 

Method 

Roll the blanket end to end and position it on the stretcher. The rolled portion is 

used to pad the casualty’s back. 

Place a second blanket on the stretcher in a similar manner with the rolled portion 

on the opposite side. Fold the blanket over the casualty and tuck it under the first 

roll. 


Blanketing a basket stretcher 

Basket stretchers are blanketed in the same way as folding stretchers. 

Alternatively, to maintain body heat, you may: 

• transfer the casualty into a sleeping bag in the stretcher, as long as you are 

still able to attend to injuries 

• lay two folded blankets under the casualty for insulation. 

Loading a stretcher is an important part of handling casualties. It is essential to 

use correct methods to: 

• ensure the wellbeing of the casualty 

• prevent aggravation of injuries. 

SECURE CASUALTIES 

It is important to ensure that casualties are 

secured in the stretcher at all times when 

moving over uneven ground. 

Do NOT secure casualties when moving over 

water. 

Casualty handling techniques using no equipment 

Single-rescuer human crutch 

For a single rescuer to function effectively as a human crutch, the casualty must 

be: 

• conscious 

• able to help the rescuer. 


Figure 16 Single rescuer human crutch 

With one hand, you should hold the casualty’s wrist over your shoulder and with 

the other hand, firmly grip the clothes at the waist or hip on the far side of the 

body. Keep the injured side of the casualty closest to you. 

WARNING 

Pick-a-back carry (for a small person) 

All single rescuer techniques involve risk of 

injury for the rescuer. Rescuers need to take 

appropriate safety precautions to minimise 

risks. 

The pick-a-back carry is an effective method for smaller casualties. The casualty 

must be conscious. When they have been loaded, make sure they are supported 

well up on your hips with the body literally draped across your back. 

If the casualty is incorrectly positioned: 

• it will throw you off balance 

• the casualty is likely to fall 

• you are likely to hurt yourself or the casualty. 

If you use this method: 

• always consider the weight of the casualty 

• take appropriate safety precautions to make sure you don’t injure your back. 


Figure 17 Pick-a-back carry 

WARNING 

Helping a casualty down a ladder 

Only use this technique if you are 

confident you can carry the weight of the 

casualty. Take appropriate safety 

precautions to minimise any risks of injury 

to both yourself and the casualty. 

Always take care when you are helping a person down a ladder, even if the person 

is conscious or uninjured. Many people are unused to heights and may freeze up or 

lose their hold. 

• approach the casualty on the ladder. Reassure and calm them before 

attempting the rescue. Keep talking to the casualty throughout the operation 

• take your position, one rung below the casualty, with arms around the 

casualty’s body and grasping the rungs 

• keep in step with the casualty, letting them set the pace 

• keep your knees close together. In this way you ensure support if the 

casualty loses hold or becomes unconscious 

• if the casualty becomes unconscious, let them slip down until their crotch 

rests on your knee 

• repeat this procedure for each step down the ladder. Then you can lower 

the casualty to the ground. 


Figure 18 Help a casualty down a ladder 

DO NOT OVERLOAD 

THE LADDER 

Two-rescuer human crutch 

Do not overload the ladder. 

Check the safe working load before attempting 

this technique. 

The maximum load rating for portable ladders 

is specified as 120kg, and this must be 

considered in the operational use of ladders. 

However it pays to check the manufacturers’ 

specifications as some ladders may differ 

depending on the manufacturer. This is 

generally indicated on the side of a ladder. 

The two-rescuer human crutch is similar to the one rescuer human crutch, except 

that the casualty is supported on both sides. 

Method 

Cross the arms of the rescuers over the casualty’s back and grasp the clothing on 

the opposite sides of the body. 

Figure 19 Two rescuer human crutch 


Two-handed seat 

Use the two-handed seat to deal with a casualty who has to be carried. 

Method 

Two rescuers kneel on either side of the casualty and get them into a sitting 

position. Both rescuers place an arm under the casualty’s knee and link up with 

the hand to wrist grip. The rescuers cross their free arms over the casualty’s back, 

where they get a firm grip on the clothing. The team leader gives the normal 

orders for lifting and lowering. 

Figure 20 Two handed seat 

Three-handed seat 

Use the three-handed seat to give the casualty good support while being 

reasonably comfortable for the rescuers. This method has the added advantage 

that one rescuer has a spare hand. The casualty must be conscious as neither 

rescuer can support their back. 

Method 

One rescuer grasps their left wrist with their right hand. The second rescuer 

places their hand and wrist to form a seat. If the casualty is capable of standing 

for a short period, place the seat under the buttocks. If not, the rescuers must 

first place their hands under the casualty’s knees then join up. 

Figure 21 Three handed seat 


Four-handed seat 

This method provides a comfortable seat for the casualty and places a minimum 

strain on the rescuers. However, as shown in the figure below, the casualty must 

be conscious and able to hold on. 

Method 

In the four-handed seat method, each rescuer grasps their own left wrist and the 

hands are joined up. 

Figure 22 Four handed seat 

Fore and aft lift and carry 

This method is suitable when two rescuers are handling an unconscious casualty. 

In the fore and aft method, the casualty’s wrists are tied together. 

Method 

The first rescuer stoops at the rear of the casualty. The first rescuer then reaches 

under the casualty’s arms and grips the casualty’s wrists. The second rescuer 

stoops between the casualty’s legs, grasping them underneath the knees. The 

standard lift orders are given and the casualty is lifted to the carrying position. 

The advantage of this method is that the rescuer supporting the casualty’s feet can 

have a free hand, which can be used to open doors, clear debris, etc. 


Figure 23 Fore and aft lift/carry 

Figure 24 Fore and aft lift/carry 

KEEP AIRWAYS OPEN 

WHEN CARRYING 

UNCONSCIOUS 

CASUALTY 

An unconscious casualty should always be 

carried in the recovery position and/or in a 

position which ensures that their airway is open 

and protected. 

Mixed teams and special stretcher combinations 

Blanket-lift method (four or six rescuers) 

The blanket lift is an effective way to load a casualty onto a stretcher or move a 

casualty in a confined space. 

Method 

• prepare a stretcher using one blanket only 

• roll a blanket lengthwise to the centre line and lay the rolled section along 

the side of the casualty (casualty flat on back) 

• the team leader is at the casualty’s head or left shoulder 

• the team leader directs two (or three) rescuers to kneel on each side of the 

casualty. The rescuers on one side eases the casualty away from them and 

pushes the rolled section of the blanket well under the casualty 


• with the rolled-up section of the blanket now under the centre of the 

casualty, ease the casualty over in the opposite direction and unroll the 

blanket. The casualty should now be lying flat on two layers of blanket 

• roll up the sides of the blanket close to the casualty’s body to provide 

handgrips for the bearers 

• on the order from the team leader, lift the casualty waist high and carry them 

to the stretcher 

• on the order from the team leader, lower the casualty onto the stretcher 

• then complete the blanketing using one blanket and leaving the lifting blanket 

in position. 

You can also use this blanket carry as an improvised stretcher for carrying over 

moderate distances. 

Figure 25 Blanket lift 

NOTE 

Webbing bands/tape lift (five rescuers) 

You can safely transport casualties with 

suspected spinal injuries by this method, as 

long as you use correct spine immobilisation 

and pay particular attention to the head and 

neck 

In some cases you may need to transport a casualty some distance to a place 

where a stretcher can be loaded. Webbing bands can greatly help this operation. 


Method 

• place the bands/tape in position by pushing the long steel handle under the 

natural body hollows 

Figure 26 Placing the webbing band 

• seesaw the bands/tape into the required position, under the buttocks and 

shoulders 

• when the bands/tape are correctly positioned, centre the handles of each 

band above the middle of the casualty 

• five rescuers then take up their positions. 

Figure 27 Webbing band lift/carry 


Moving Stretchers 

Moving a stretcher over uneven ground 

Moving stretchers across a collapse site is difficult and potentially hazardous to the 

rescuers carrying the stretcher and the casualty being moved in the stretcher. Carry 

a stretcher, wherever possible, in the horizontal position or slightly ‘head high’ 

although when moving over heavy debris or uneven ground this may prove to be 

difficult. 

Reduce risks to both casualty and rescuers to a minimum by adopting safety 

procedures: 

Method 

• the team leader positions three rescuers on each side of the stretcher where 

they have firm footing 

• on the order ‘Prepare to lift’, the rescuers kneel down and grasp the 

stretcher. The team leader checks that everyone is ready 

• the team leader gives the order ‘Lift’ and the stretcher is raised to waist 

height 

• the next order will be ‘Prepare to pass’. If any member of the team is not 

ready, they should inform the team leader by saying ‘Stop’ 

• on the command ‘Pass’, the stretcher is passed until four rescuers are holding 

it, leaving two spares at one end to support it. Nobody should move their feet 

during the pass. The two spares then climb carefully around the stretcher and 

take up position at the other end of it 

• the process is repeated until the stretcher arrives on clear, solid ground. 


Figure 28 Stretcher passing – six rescuers 

When four rescuers are used, the operation is carried out in a similar manner. 

KEEP THE STRETCHER 

HORIZONTAL 

ON UNEVEN GROUND 

YOU MAY NEED SIX 

RESCUERS 

Moving stretchers in tight spaces 

Always keep stretchers as close to horizontal as 

possible, with the casualty’s head slightly 

elevated. 

• if you are going uphill, the casualty’s head 

must be above their feet 

• wherever possible, carry the casualty feet 

first. 

To move a heavy casualty over difficult debris 

conditions for more than 10 to 15 m, you will 

probably need six rescuers. 

In tight spaces you can stand the stretcher on end to move it around sharp corners. 

Where the height is insufficient, you can strike a balance between the vertical and 

horizontal position. 

Method 

• carry the casualty feet first as far as the middle of the right-angle bend 

• place the foot of the stretcher on the ground and lift the head as high as the 

situation will permit 

• work the stretcher around the bend, one rescuer easing the foot end and the 

other the head 

• avoid tipping the stretcher on its side. Wrap around style stretchers are 

specifically designed for tight spaces. 


Moving stretchers over a gap 

A large gap can be overcome by laying an extension ladder across it and, if 

possible, placing a decking of boards over the rungs. Shorter gaps, such as in 

floors, can be patched using timber from the site or a short ladder. Smaller gaps 

can be traversed in a similar way to that described for moving over debris. 

HAZARDS/RISKS/ 

SAFETY 

Danger 

You should assess the scene and check for 

danger to: 

• yourself (don’t become another casualty) 

• others 

• the casualty – remove the danger from the 

casualty or the casualty from the danger. 


Activity 3 Using Stretchers 

Talk to your Trainer, identify and discuss some of the types of 

stretchers available in your Unit, including improvised stretchers. 

Prepare, load and lash a selection of stretcher types that you have 

available in your Unit, including improvised stretchers. 

List 

Stretcher type Preparation, loading, lashing notes Trainer initial 

when 

successfully 

demonstrated 


Self Check 


Identify types of stretchers and extrication devices available at your Unit 

Demonstrate the use of available stretchers and the appropriate methods for 

their use 

Move casualties safety 

Ensure your own and other rescuers safety when moving casualties 

If you have answered NO to any of these questions, ask your trainer for help 



Section 4.4 Operational Debrief 

Operational debriefing 

No matter how simple or complex any operation or activity may be, it cannot be 

concluded until a debrief has been conducted. 

Debriefs will normally be conducted by those responsible for the overall 

management of the rescue operation. 

The purpose of the debrief is to find out what worked and what didn’t regarding 

all aspects of the operation. This includes: 

• the rescue plan 

• the equipment and backup resources used 

• how the various teams went about their tasks 

• the coordination and leadership of the operation. 

This process is very important. Through debriefings, emergency services have the 

important opportunity to learn how to do their jobs more effectively next time. 

You should not feel threatened or shy about contributing in a debriefing session. 

Your feedback and views might provide a very important insight for the emergency 

services organisation. 

As part of the Rescue Team, you will have plenty of opportunities to practise 

debriefing. Every time you are part of a training exercise, you will be expected to 

participate in a debrief after the exercise. From time to time, you may also be 

expected to run a debrief. 

DEBRIEFING IS ABOUT 

LEARNING 

It is NOT the time to blame and criticise 

others. 


Debrief of an incident 

A debrief of an incident is most effective if held as soon after the operation as 

practical, so that the facts will still be fresh in the minds of those involved. 

A debrief should include everything that was done from the time the call was 

received, until you stood down and returned to your headquarters. 

If you do not do anything with recommendations that come out of the debriefing 

session, it was a waste of time having a debriefing session. 

You must share any information you have that may contribute to improving safety 

for Members. 

AS WELL AS 

DEBRIEFING SESSIONS 

• provide information informally in 

discussions with the Unit 

Manager/Controller or OHS delegate 

• keep notes and submit them. 


Self Check 


Understand what is a debrief 

Participate in a debrief 

If you have answered NO to any of these questions, ask your trainer for help 


Underpinning knowledge questions 

Listed below are a number of questions which need to be completed 

correctly before you undertake the practical assessment. 

Question 1 

Explain which casualty handling technique you would use for the following and 

why. 

Casualty Which technique would you use. 

Describe 

Walking Injured 

Slightly Injured 

Seriously Injured 

Unconscious 

Why you would use 


Question 2 

Outline the procedure for disaster victim identification. 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

Question 3 

What are the three marking systems commonly used at a rescue incident? 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

Question 4 

What symbol would be used by a rescue team to identify an area where they had 

found one live victim, 3 dead victims and were currently working in the area? 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

Question 5 

Below is an outline of a building in which the middle of the ceiling has partially 

collapsed. Mark the diagram to include sides, quadrants and zones 


Heathcliffe Rd 


Question 6 

Outline some of the environmental hazards you are likely to encounter at a rescue 

scene and explain some of the safety precautions you would use 

Environmental Hazard 

Safety Precautions 


Progressive Learning and Assessment Record Form – Rescue 

Operations 

This form summarises the outcomes of learning and assessment activities 

contained in this section and enables progression to the next section. The form is 

to be completed by the person responsible for training/assessment and verified as 

correct. 

Name: ............................................................................................. 

Section 4.2: Activity 1 



Underpinning knowledge questions 

Completed all Self Checks and asked questions to clarify 

understanding 

Feedback to member 

Description Date Initial of 

Trainer/ 

Assessor 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

...................................................................................................... 

I___________________________ confirm that I have completed and understood all 

the above activities / items. 

Signature of Learner ________________________________ ___Date: / / 

I___________________________ confirm that I have covered and explained the 

above activities / items with the above mentioned Learner. 

Signature of Assessor ________________________________ _____ Date: / /

ses training resource kit - Government Skills Australia

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