trans boundary sundarban workshop - Integrated Coastal Zone ...

TRANS BOUNDARY 

SUNDARBAN WORKSHOP 

Organised by: 

State Project Management Unit (SPMU), ICZM Project, West Bengal 

Institute of Environmental Studies & Wetland Management (IESWM) 

WWF-India & Environment Governed Integrated Organisation (EnGIO) 

October 3 - 6, 2012 

Prepared by: 

WWF-India & Environment Governed Integrated Organisation (EnGIO) 

Submitted to: 

Institute of Environmental Studies & Wetland Management (IESWM); 

Department of Environment; Government of West Bengal

TRANS BOUNDARY SUNDARBAN WORKSHOP 

Published by 

Environment Governed Integrated Organisation (EnGIO) 

26/1 Ramesh Mitra Road, Kolkata 700025 

www.engio.in 

& 

WWF-India 

68A Jodhpur Park, Kolkata 700068 

www.wwfi ndia.org 

January 2013 

Printed by 

M/s Phildon 

3 Suresh Sarkar Road, Kolkata 700014 

2 

Organised by State Project Management Unit (SPMU), ICZM Project, West Bengal, 

Institute of Environmental Studies & Wetland Management, WWF-India & EnGIO

Contents 


Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 

Prologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 

Report on Inaugural Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 

Report on Technical Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 

A. Geomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 

Dr. Maminul Haque Sarker on ‘Geomorphology’ 

Prof. Kalyan Rudra on ‘Understanding the Fluvial Processes Operating in the Ganga Delta’ 

Prof. Pradip K. Sikdar on ‘Future Research Needs on Sustainable Ground Water Management of Sundarban’ 

B. Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 

Dr. ASM Shahidul Haque on ‘Collective Action to Reduce Climate Disaster Risks’ 

Anshuman Das on ‘Sunderban – the issues in Agriculture’ 

C. Fishery and Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 

Prof. Dewan Ali Ahsan on ‘Fisheries Sector of Sundarbans Ecosystem- A Bangladesh perspective’ 

Prof. Aniruddha Mukhopadhyay on ‘Sunderban Resources and Prospects’ 

D. Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

Dr. Soumitra Roy on ‘Public health in Sundarbans’ 

E. Disaster Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 

Mokhlesur Rahman on ‘Communities’ Observations and Disaster Perceptions in an Age of Climate Change’ 

Jude Henriques on ‘Managing Disasters in Sundarbans’ 

Kakoli Sen Sarma, ‘Disaster Management Preparedness in Indian Sundarban’ 

F. Tiger Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 

Md. Akbar Hossain and Md. Mozaharul Islam on ‘Tiger & Co-management’ 

Dr. Subrat Mukherjee on ‘Wildlife governance and confl icts’ 

G. Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 

M. Monwarul Islam, Mr. Abdul Maqueeb Majumdar and Mr. Manas Ghosh on Environment Communication 

Jayanta Basu on ‘Communicating Sundarbans, Triggering thoughts’ 

Interface Session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 

Formulation of Priority Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 

Trans-boundary Proposal Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 

Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 

Annexture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 

Presenters’ Profi les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 

Other Participants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 

Copy of Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 

Bon beyond border . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 


Institute of Environmental Studies & Wetland Management, WWF-India & EnGIO 

3


Abbreviations 

BCAS: Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies 

CCDRER: Collective action to reducing Climate Disaster Risks and Enhancing Resilience of the 

vulnerable coastal communities around the Sundarban 

CEGIS: Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services 

DRR: Disaster Risk Reduction 

EnGIO: Environment Governed Integrated Organisation 

ICZM: Integrated Coastal Zone Management 

IESWM: Institute of Environmental Studies & Wetland Management 

IISWBM: Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management, Kolkata 

IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature 

WWF-India: World Wide Fund for Nature, India 

NB: The authors have used various spellings of Sundarban, which have been kept unchanged in their presentations. 

However, in the main text and otherwise, the spelling ‘Sundarban’ has been used. 

4 



Executive Summary 

A 

two-day trans-boundary workshop cum meeting 

on conservation of the pristine ecosystem of Sundarban 

across India and Bangladesh was organised on 

board MV Paramahansa while cruising from Kolkata to 

Sundarban and back during 3-6 October 2012. Th e endeavour 

was supported by the World Bank supported 

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project 

by the Department of Environment, Government 

of West Bengal in association with non-profi ts WWF- 

India and Environment Governed Integrated Organisation 

(EnGIO). 

Th e main objective of the meeting was to cater 

the formation of a Sundarban Stakeholder Network 

consisting of independent experts, organizations, 

academic and business institutes, media and other 

relevant professional outfi ts; supplemented by relevant 

government departments/organizations. Sundarban 

Stakeholder Network proposes to play a pivotal role in 

fi nding a bouquet of trans-boundary and transformative 

solutions for conserving the unique natural heritage, and 

to usher in sustainable development in the eco-region. 

Th e meeting was attended by senior offi cials of 

the Government of People’s Republic of Bangladesh 

as well as those from Government of India apart from 

independent experts, academicians and representatives 

from non-governmental organisations as well as from 

media. 

From Bangladesh side senior offi cials from 

the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Forest 

Department, Bangladesh Television (public broadcaster) 

attended the meet apart from academicians from 

Dhaka University, and representatives from various 

other organizations of repute such as CEGIS, BCAS, 

and IUCN Bangladesh, among others. Representatives 

from premiere private audio-visual channels like ATN 

Bangla and Channel I also attended the meeting. 




From the Indian side, participants included offi cials 

from the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Ministry 

of Finance, Doordarshan, Department of Environment, 

Govt. of West Bengal, Directorate of Forests, Govt. 

of West Bengal besides academicians from Calcutta 

University, Institute of Social Welfare and Business 

Management (IISWBM) and other non-governmental 

organizations of repute such as WWF- India, CARITAS, 

EnGIO and Welthungerhilfe, among others. ATN 

Bangla, a Bengali language television channel, deputed 

a representative from its Kolkata offi ce as well. 

Th e World Bank was represented by senior offi cials 

from its offi ces in Washington DC, New Delhi, and 

Dhaka. 

Th rough 4th and 5th October’ 2012, seven 

technical sessions were held on thematic areas like 

Geomorphology, Agriculture, Fishery and Biodiversity, 

Public Health, Disaster Response, Tiger Conservation, 

and Media & Communication. Th ese sessions were 

preceded by an inaugural session where the broad 

aim and objective of the workshop was introduced by 

the panel of experts being involved directly with the 

organisation of the meeting. 

In the concluding session, a matrix was formulated 

with broad heads such as Policy, Research and 

Implementation based on the technical presentations 

and the comments/ discussions/ recommendations 

triggered by those during earlier sessions. Subsequently, 

joint concept notes on key issues as identifi ed were 

presented by trans-boundary teams being formed among 

the participants. 

All the proposed concepts were thoroughly 

reviewed and it was agreed in general that those being 

transformative and trans-boundary in nature, would 

be pursued by the Sundarban Stakeholder Network. 

It was also agreed upon that Sundarban Stakeholder 

5


Network would have a dedicated secretariat; with to be undertaken under the aegis and facilitation of 

Indian and Bangladesh chapters. Th e World Bank, Sundarban Stakeholder Network - once the two national 

in general, was supportive to the idea of a common governments concur to such an idea. 

Sundarban Stakeholders Network secretariat and A six member committee (four from Bangladesh 

expressed willingness to fi nancially support the exercise and two from India) was formed to follow up the 

– running of the secretariats in two countries and the discussed agendas; roadmap and also to maintain the 

key trans-boundary and transformative projects as momentum. 

6 

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Prologue 

Sundarban is a pristine ecosystem, located at the 

southern fringe of state of West Bengal within India 

and Bangladesh, which harbours unparalleled biodiversity. 

Th e ecosystem, considered one of the seven most 

important wetlands globally, is internationally recognised 

as one of the major climatic hotspots. 

Th e eco-region, including the human inhabited 

part of Indian Sundarban and the Sundarban Impact 

Zone in Bangladesh, has faced several hazardous events 

of natural origin in last few years. Th e events include 

series of high intensity cyclones impacting the region 

both in Bangladesh and West Bengal in India. Besides 

such high intensity weather events; the eco-region is 

also faced with other environmental deterrents – both 

climatic and non-climatic - like relative sea level rise, 

reduced fl ow of freshwater into the mangrove system, 

very high population density, indiscriminate fi shing and 

prawn seed collection, degradation of forests and net 

land loss due to erosion on the Indian side. 

Experts have always felt that a trans-boundary 

stakeholder interface – of independent experts, 

organisations, academic institutes, business institutes, 

tourism bodies, media and others supplemented by 

relevant government departments/ organisations - is of 

urgent requirement to fi nd out bouquet of sustainable 

solutions for conserving, protecting and restoring the 

Sundarban ecosystem; as many of the problems are 

common to both countries in roots and ramifi cation. 

Clearly the path to fi nd the solution lies in visualizing 

the eco-region as one bio-geographical entity. 

With this focus, a high level joint stakeholder 

initiative was organised in Kolkata in April 2010, to 

which non-profi t Environment Governed Integrated 

Organisation (EnGIO) played a pivotal role along 

with number of other civil society organisations 

from India and Bangladesh, where the then ministers 




of environment & forest from India & Bangladesh 

participated. Subsequently World Wide Fund for Nature 

(WWF-India) also catered a similar eff ort predominantly 

among the academicians and professionals. 

Subsequent to such eff ort of non-state actors to 

bring independent experts, civil society organisations, 

academicians and researchers as well as relevant 

government organisations on a common platform 

from both sides – as stated - in September 2011, 

the governments of two countries signed number 

of ‘Memorandum of Understanding’ (MoU) and 

protocols, including an MoU on conservation of the 

Sundarban and a protocol for conservation of Royal 

Bengal Tigers in the Sundarban. 

In light of the above, and to complement stated 

government action, the need to formulate and formalise 

a trans-boundary Sundarban Stakeholder Network has 

to be appreciated. It is felt that such stakeholder network 

of independent experts, organisations, academic and 

business institutes, tourism bodies, and the media - 

supplemented by relevant government departments/ 

organisations - is the need of the hour to fi nd a bouquet 

of solutions for conserving the unique natural heritage, 

and to usher in sustainable development in the ecoregion. 

Th ere is also a tremendous scope of learning from 

each other and learning jointly to address the multiple 

challenges exacerbated by global climate change. 

Th e proposed stakeholder network aims to create 

opportunities for enhanced sharing of information related 

to - but not restricted to - biodiversity, geomorphology, 

climate, freshwater fl ows, communication, public 

health, natural disasters and related social dynamics 

that can supplement conservation initiatives and 

sustainable development in the Sundarban eco-region. 

Th e network, over a period of time, targets to facilitate 

better coordinated and improved policy decisions 

7


regarding the Sundarban eco-region on both sides of the Th e approach of the meeting was to discuss the 

international border, not only to preserve the sensitive drivers of change (both anthropogenic and natural 

eco-region but also to improve the quality of life and including climate induced) in Sundarban and the 

livelihoods of the millions living in the Sundarban impacts of them on its ecosystem including the people 

delta. 

of the eco-region through the intervention of experts 

As a curtain-raiser to the formulation and across the border. Th e considered drivers included high 

operationalisation of such network, a two-day trans- intensity weather events, change in salinity, relative 

boundary meeting was organised jointly by non- sea level rise, change in rainfall regime, development 

profi ts WWF-India and EnGIO along with Institute defi cit, human interventions (historical to current and 

of Environment Studies and Wetland Management upstream to local) and tourism. Th e areas, upon which 

(IESWM), Department of Environment, Government impacts were considered, include status of countering 

of West Bengal under the aegis of its World Bank disasters, embankment, fi shery, agriculture, socio- 

supported Integrated Coastal Zone Management cultural condition/quality of life including displacement 

project during 3-6 October 2012 - on board MV and migration, livelihood, tiger and its habitat and 

Paramahamsa of Vivada Inland Waterways Ltd - while mangrove ecosystem. Communication including media 

cruising through the Indian Sundarban. 

communication was considered an important cog in 

successful operation of the network. 

8 

Organised Or Orga Organised ga gani ni n se sed d by by S SSta 

State ta tate te P PPro 

Project ro r je ject ct M 

Man Management an anag ag agem em emen en e t Un U Unit it ( (SP (SPMU), SP SPMU MU MU), ), ) I IICZ 

ICZM CZ C M Pr P Project, oj ojec ec e t, W WWes 

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EnGIO 

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Inaugural Session 

The session was moderated by Somnath Bhattacharya, 

Additional Project Director of ICZM project, 

West Bengal. Aft er a formal introduction of the 

participants, the session began with the welcome speech 

of Arijit Banerjee; Director of IESWM and Senior Environment 

Offi cer of Govt. of West Bengal, who emphasized 

on conservation of Sundarban through joint 

participation of India and Bangladesh. Banerjee underlined 

that the ecosystems cannot be divided and stressed 

on the need to make use of opportunities of learning 

from each other. He also observed the requirement to 

traverse the path of inclusive planning to upgrade the 

livelihood of people in Sundarban keeping in contention 

the aspirations and necessities of people from both 

sides of border. 

Tapas Paul, an expert from World Bank, referred 

about the past initiatives and stressed on the need to 

formalise and institutionalise the process of engagement 

between various actors from the two countries. Pal dwelt 

on the ongoing activities of World Bank in the region 

in two countries and promised to help action oriented 

programmes as emerged from the initiative. 

Herbert Acquay, Chief South Asia; World Bank 

offi ce, Washington, spelt out that Sundarban has been 

Arijit Banerjee 




a priority for the Bank and emphasised its commitment 

to support generation and dissemination of applied 

knowledge, capacity building and mobilization of 

fi nances from Bank through the vehicles of bilateral 

and multilateral processes. He specifi cally promised 

fi nancial support to the process undertaken in the 

workshop if the request for the same is routed through 

governmental channels. 

Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad, Country Representative 

for IUCN Bangladesh, called for supportive and 

supplementary actions catering to policy change for 

improving ecosystem and livelihood security as well 

as promotion of stewardship for equitable benefi t 

sharing under Forest Department’s leadership. Th e 

expert underlined the importance of civil society 

participation in the process and emphasised that 

due importance should be given on areas like socioeconomics, 

biodiversity conservation, ecological 

productivity, environmental security, good governance, 

communication, management shift and multiple use of 

natural resources. 

Sejal Worah, Director Programs – WWF-India, 

presented an overview of the projects where WWF- 

India has been working at tandem with the government 

L-R: Somnath Bhattacharya, Jayanta Basu, Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad, 

Tapas Paul, Herbert Acquay, Sejal Worah 

9


collaboratively; as proposed in the current Sundarban Network and pointed out the possible positive fallouts 

project. She harped on the present development of such an exercise. Basu dwelt on the model of the 

model as pursued in general and stressed on the need collaborative action of non-state & state actors and 

to revisit the same. On Sundarban, she emphasized on outlined the imperative importance of acting together in 

the similarity of the situation and challenges in both case of Sundarban eco-region; which has a high degree 

countries and argued for a development paradigm where of environmental stake along with development defi cit. 

developmental debts may prove manageable. 

Basu along with Banerjee and other experts present on 

Jayanta Basu, Director of Environment Governed dias released a publication called Bon beyond border; 

Integrated Organisation (EnGIO), explained at length 

the germination of the idea of Sundarban Stakeholder 

which has showcased the trans-boundary meeting. 

10 

Organised Or Orga Organised ga g ni n se sed d by b by S SSta 

State ta tate te P 

P PPro 

Project ro roje je j ct M 

Man Management an anag ag agem em e en e t Un Unit 

Unit it ( (SP (SPMU), SP SPMU MU M ), ) IICZ 

ICZM CZ C M Pr P Project, oj o ec ect, t, W WWes 

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EnGIO 

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Technical Session 

A. Geomorphology 

B. Agriculture 

C. Fishery and Biodiversity 

D. Public Health 

E. Disaster Response 

F. Tiger Conservation 

G. Communication


A. Geomorphology 

Bangladesh: 

Title: Geomorphology 

12 

Dr. Maminul Haque Sarker 

Deputy Executive Director (Development) 

Center for Environmental and Geographic Information Services 

Dr. Maminul Haque Sarker oriented his presentation 

on the change in physical processes which 

impacts the dynamics of Sundarban Delta. While the 

geological formation of the Sundarban is of comparatively 

recent origin, the hydrology of Sundarban is dominated 

by the freshwater fl ow from rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra 

and Meghna; which exhibit very high seasonal 

variation in discharge. 

He also pointed out that this estuary is an active 

delta building one and is progressing towards east. 

Delta has progressed about 50 km towards the sea and 

the net accretion was 1700 sq km during the last 60 

years. In the last two decades the net accretion in the 

Meghna Estuary area is about 12 sq km / year. Rivers 

are also continuously adjusting with the process of delta 

building and are expected to be unstable in future. 

In recent years, the Farakka Barrage, built in 1974 

on the River Ganga within India, has also aff ected 

freshwater fl ow into the Bangladesh part of the 

Sundarban. His presentation also dealt with the eff ect 

of polder in the rivers. It has been illustrated how the 

river Daud Khali has been shrinking very rapidly since 

polder was constructed in mid 1990. Polder reduces 

the tidal prism allowing sedimentation in river bed and 

the tidal pumping process brings the sediment to the 

channels in deposite prone areas. Polders, hence, cause 

large scale drainage congestions in tidal plains along the 

northern periphery of the Sundarban. Th e main source 

of sweet water into the Sundarban is the Gorai River. 

Due to upstream withdrawal of water in the Ganges 

Eff ects of coastal polders on rivers 

1. Polders in the southwest reduce the tidal prism, 

which subsequently allows the sedimentation in the 

river bed. 

2. So-called tidal pumping process, brings the sediment 

to the channels to the deposition prone areas. 

3. Polders thus cause large-scale drainage congestions 

in the tidal plains, along the northern periphery of 

the Sundarban. 

Eff ects of Reduced sweet water input 

1. Due to upstream withdrawal of water in the Ganges, 

the parent river of the Gorai and morphological 

processes at the off -take, the sweet water has been 

reduced into the Sundarban. 

2. Reduction of sweet water caused the increase the 

salinity. 

(parent river of the Gorai) and morphological processes 

at the off -take, the sweet water has been reduced in the 

Sundarban causing increase in salinity. 

Dr. Sarker concluded with the poser that “Can 

Sundarban be able to adapt those changes induced by 

human interventions in the system?” and remarked that 

a detailed study regarding the disturbances in eco system 

of Sundarbon caused by human Interventions is needed 

for planning the sustainability of Sundarban. 



India: 


Title: Understanding the Fluvial Processes Operating in the Ganga Delta 

Professor Kalyan Rudra 

Geographer and River Expert 

Member, West Bengal Pollution Control Board 

Advisor, Dept. of Environment, Govt. of West Bengal 

Professor Rudra began with a geomorphic prologue 

of Sundarban. Sundarban, the largest delta in the 

world, receives the highest sediment load globally but 

still is not growing - rather sinking - from North-apex. 

Th e Bengal Basin covers an area of 140975 sq km out of 

which sub aqueous Delta and Bengal Delta cover 23362 

sq km and 57506 sq km respectably. Th e fl ood in the 

delta is sediment dispersal mechanism and – the expert 

emphasised – that the people of rural Bengal, in general, 

welcome low intensity fl ood as it leaves behind fertile 

silt on agricultural fi eld. 

Th e expert pointed out that, quiet ironically, the 

mechanism set into place to counter the low intensity 

fl oods has actually magnifi ed the problem. Since 

early 19th century, the engineering intervention into 

the fl uvial regime of Bengal delta started with the 

construction of embankments to achieve a freedom 

from low intensity fl ood; which, in turn, has catered 

to disturb the underlying hydrological system leading 

to decaying of the rivers and constricting of the river 

mouths causing high fl oods. At present there is about 

10,500 Km long embankment which protects the 

adjoining land from low intensity fl oods but impairs 

natural sediment dispersal mechanism resulting in 

distortion of natural drainage. In addition, due to 

interception of drainage system by the roads & railways, 

the fl oodable area gets expanded causing reduction in 

food production and outbreak of vector borne diseases; 

apart from bringing direct physical and livelihood 

hardship of exposed populace. 

Clearly the so called freedom from fl ood was 

achieved at the cost of interrupted sediment dispersal 

mechanism. Th e rain could not drain into the river. Th e 

villages in Sundarban are generally two meters below 



SEDIMENT SUPPLY INTO THE DELTA 

(June 2010- May 2011) 

1. By the Ganga: 389 million tonnes. 

2. By the Chotanagpur rivers: 5 million tonnes 

3. By tidal push back from the estuary: 26 million 

tonnes. 

Professor Rudra pointed out the following 

observations: 

1. Ganga and Teesta rivers are migrating since 1787. 

2. River Brahmaputra has migrated westward. 

3. Main fl ow of Ganga is towards south east. 

4. River Damodar has migrated south east. 

5. 

Apex of delta has migrated south east. 

the high tidal mark whereas the forested islands have a 

diff erent scenario as the sedimentation has been allowed 

on them over the period of time. Th e whole dynamics 

has triggered an imbalance in the delta. 

Dr. Rudra pointed out that the approximate 

sediment supply into the delta during June 2010 & 

May 2011 was about 420 million tons shared by river 

Ganga (389 million tons), Chotonagpur Rivers (5 

million tons) & tidal push back from the estuary (26 

million tons). Th e tidal eff ect in the basin reaches up to 

Nabadwip in the north. 

Th e expert highlighted the geomorphological 

uncertainty of the delta by reminding that the course of 

the river Ganga has been constantly changing with even 

an oscillation to a scale of about 5 to 20 Km being found 

at diff erent sections. 

Rudra recognized that the coastal area shows 

considerable encroachment of the sea. Th e possible 

explanation may be lying in a range of reasons 

from subsidence of the land, silt trapping by manmade 

13


reservoirs, formation of submarine canyon in the Bay of • Increasing storm surge and tidal invasion from 

Bengal to increasing storm surge & tidal invasion from 

the sea. 

the sea, global warming and thermal expansion of sea • Global warming and thermal expansion of seawater. 

water. 

Dr. Rudra summarised that the possible explanations 

of coastal retrogradation may be listed as: 

• 

• 

• 

14 

Subsidence of the land due to autocompaction 

of the sediment. 

Silt-trapping by man made reservoirs and 

wetlands of the delta. 

Continuous fl ush of the sediments into the 

“Swatch of no ground”- the submarine canyon 

of the Bay of Bengal. 

Th e river expert concluded with the statement 

that he does not have solution to combat the above; he 

believes that we must leave meandering space for the 

rivers. He observed that its perhaps high time to start a 

detailed research as to the optimum space required for 

the river and to position the embankment accordingly. 

Organised Or Orga Organised ga g ni n se sed d by by S SSta 

State ta tate te t PPro 

Project ro roje je j ct MMan 

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Man Management, an a ag a em emen en ent, t, t W WWWF 

WWF-India WF WF-I -I -Ind nd ndia ia & 

& & E EEnG 

EnGIO 

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India: 


Title: Future Research Needs on Sustainable Ground Water Management of Sundarban 

Professor Pradip K. Sikdar 

Geologist, Department of Environment Management, 

Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management, Kolkata 

Prof. Sikdar, who mainly dealt with ground water 

of the area, has focused on the non-availability of 

sweet water in Indian part of Sundarban; bounded between 

21° 32’ & 22° 40’ North and 88° 05’ & 89° East 

and covering an area of 9629 sq km with a Population 

of 4.5 million (2001). Th e area comprises of 54 islands 

and is located on the lower plain of the Ganga Delta. 

It was pointed out that generally in the Indian Sundarban 

brackish Zone extends down to 180 meters below 

ground level and fresh ground water is only available 

beyond the point. Generally potential fresh water bearing 

aquifers occur within 180 meter to 360 meter below 

ground level. Th e recharge mouth of the lower group 

of aquifers is in Kalyani, Ranaghat, Santipur, Bongaon 

& Gaighata areas. Tarakeswar, Nalikul, Mogra, Pandua 

area serves as recharge zone of the aquifers in the east at 

greater depth. Fresh water aquifers in shallow depths are 

also observed but the storage capacity of such aquifers 

cannot sustain for a long time if water is drawn extensively. 

It was suggested that the drinking / domestic tube 

wells may be placed at a deeper level. Th e farmers may also 

be made aware and advised to judiciously use the ground 

water for irrigation as the source is limited. Ground water 

utilization structures in this area have to be constructed 

giving due consideration to the regional hydrodynamic 

and hydro chemical scenario. Th is requires scientifi c 

management & planning for utilization of ground water 

in Sundarban. As the area is prone to frequent fl ooding, 

it is necessary that drinking water tube wells should be 

constructed on raised platforms (1.5 to 2 meter above 

the highest fl ood level), especially in fl ood shelters and 

strategic locations, so that fl ood aff ected people can get 

uncontaminated water from the tube wells. However 



Objective of Future Research 

The primary objective of any research on groundwater 

system of Sundarban should be to build a framework for 

sustainable groundwater development in the Sundarban 

keeping in mind the subsurface hydro geochemical 

conditions and possible impact due to sea level rise in the 

future. 

A two-phase research can be being carried out 

First phase 

• Building the conceptual hydrogeological model of 

Sundarban 

• Understanding the subsurface geology of the area 

by drilling and constructing piezometer nests at 

diff erent depths at 5-6 locations on 4-5 N-S accessible 

lines. 

• Understand the hydro-geochemical processes of 

the aquifer system based on major and trace ion 

chemistry, isotope geochemistry water types, hydrochemical 

issues and multivariate statistical analysis 

to defi ne the interface between fresh and saline 

zones 

Second phase 

• Numerical modeling of the groundwater system to 

fi nd out the recharge areas of fresh groundwater 

under diff erent pumping scenario. 

it is recommended that water quality testing is done at 

least twice in a year. Th e paper has dealt in detail how to 

carry out the water quality measurement in fi eld. 

15


B. Agriculture 

Bangladesh: 

Title: Collective Action to Reduce Climate Disaster Risks 

16 

Dr. ASM Shahidul Haque 

Team leader, CCDRER Project 

Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies (BCAS) 

Salt water intrusion into the ground and recurrent 

droughts has caused substantial damage and loss 

to agriculture and allied sectors. Th e previous climate 

change triggered incidents were also not favourable for 

agriculture, fi shing and other natural resource-based 

livelihood practices I Sundarban. 

Dr. Haque cited the importance of having updated 

scientifi c knowledge across borders. He stressed that the 

collective actions are required to reduce climate catered 

risks and enhance resilience of the vulnerable coastal 

communities around Sundarban. He also stressed that 

introduction of salt tolerant varieties and practicing drip 

irrigation may boost the resilience of the community. 

Th e expert emphasised that the role of a good civil 

society outfi t is to pick some good examples across 

borders and replicate. Th e community will replicate the 

examples if they fi nd the practices useful and sustainable; 

opined Haque. 

Th e expert pointed out the need to undertake 

following actions to strengthen the capacity and 

resilience of a vulnerable community: 

Workshop; Training; Demonstration; Awareness; 

Alternative livelihood; Low-cost and renewable energy 

options; Promotion of agro-forestry and social forestry; 

Wider Partnership & Networking 

Dr. Haque also prioritized the climatic risks aff ecting 

crop production system as follows: 

Very severe risk: Salinity, Tidal surges, Drought, Erratic 

rainfall, Tidal fl ood, River erosion 

Recommendations: 

Adaptation in Agriculture in Bangladesh 

1. Adaptation measures in the contexts 

2. Promotion of climate resilient crops (salinity tolerant, 

submergence and drought tolerant varieties) of 

declining yields in coastal areas and 

3. Short duration and early crops 

4. Change in cropping patterns in the context of 

changes in by extremes (cyclones, tidal surge, 

seasons and weather patterns) 

5. Better farm management through new information 

dissemination, motivation and fl ood and water 

logging), 

6. Reduction of sweet water caused the increase the 

salinity. 

Severe risk: Temperature variation, Salinity, Drought, 

Short duration of winter season, Water-logging 

Moderate risk: Tidal surges, Heat fl ow, New weeds, 

Pests & diseases 

Low risk: Cold wave, Soil wetness, Fogginess 



India: 

Title: Sunderban – The issues in Agriculture 

Anshuman Das 

Regional Project Coordinator 

Integrated Farming at Welthungerhilfe 

Das expressed the concern of rising expenditure in 

cultivation and cited a common comment from 

the farmers: “Th e profi t is hardly seen. Yield can be 

more if I can be in a position to spend more”. 

Th e expert explained the characteristics of 

Sundarban agriculture and cited the impact caused at 

micro level by the blocking of number of channels to 

facilitate shrimp farming. Th e channel dynamics (infl ow 

and outfl ow of water) has been severely impacted as a 

result; claimed the expert. Low infi ltration rate and 

poorly aerated soil poses a serious problem of water 

conditions vis-à-vis agriculture during at least four 

months in Sundarban. Th e rainfall has also become 

very unpredictable nowadays and production of kharif 

crop is completely destabilised. Increasing frequency 

and intensity of storms coupled with warmer winter 

and summer are stated to be posing a serious threat to 

agriculture in Sundarban. 

Following are the characteristics of agriculture in 

Sundarban: 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 


Moderate to high salinity 

Low infi ltration and poorly aerated soil 

Disruption of natural drainage system 

Water takes long time to recede 

Water table is low, more sallow pump in recent 

years for boro paddy 

Chemical intensive farming 

Small landholding 

Poor infrastructure 

Adaptive Principles 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

Use of locally adapted plants, animals etc. reduce the 

need for high external inputs. 

Improving drainage system, mulch farming and 

cover crop will help reducing salinity. 

Mixed/relay/rotation cropping of plants with 

diff erent root depth & structure, resulting in optimal 

utilization of water & nutrient & higher resilience 

against environmental stress. 

Irrigation using surface water. 

Biological soil inputs, which enhance capacity of soil 

to store water, carbon & nutrients reducing need for 

synthetic chemicals / soil nutrients 

As per records, there has been a signifi cant increase 

in the settlement from 1226 sq km to 1666 sq km 

during the period 2001-2008, while the available 

agricultural land has been reduced from 2149 sq km to 

1691 sq km. Th is land use shift , along with the growth 

of population, implies an increasing threat to food 

security in Sundarban. Multi-storied agro-forestry is the 

need of the hour in Sundarban as stressed by the expert. 

It was suggested that the model should be adopted by 

government agencies. Projects on increasing agriculture 

resilience should integrate animal, bird, fi sh, insects, 

micro organism. Th e approaches developed should 

integrate local knowledge and DRR approaches. 

17


C. Fishery and Biodiversity 

Bangladesh: 

Title: Fisheries Sector of Sundarbans Ecosystem — A Bangladesh perspective 

18 

Prof. Dewan Ali Ahsan, PhD 

Chairman, Department of Fisheries 

University of Dhaka 

“Science knows no country and we cannot divide the ecosystem” 

reminded Prof. Dewan at the very beginning. 

Ahsan pointed out that Sundarban ecosystem, 

particularly the aquatic resources, has been increasing 

falling prey to range of pollutants such as oil spillage, 

heavy metals and agrochemicals. Increase in temperature 

and sea level rise are also seriously aff ecting the 

Sundarban ecosystem and bio-diversity. Bio-indicator 

species like Dinophysis norvegica points to moderately 

polluted water quality of the estuary. 

Brackish water and marine species are dominant in 

Sundarban. Prof. Dewan cited and explained the ecology 

of Hilsa and threats related to it. He pointed that 79% of 

the Hilsa stock is shared between India and Bangladesh. 

Owing to threats like over harvesting and climate related 

stress (delayed rainfall), the Hilsa stock is believed to 

be depleting but there have been limited studies on the 

standing stock of Hilsa and other aquatic fi sh. 

He also discussed the dynamics of eff ective 

regulation practices in Sundarban for protection of 

Hilsa and the eff ect of same on fi shermen working in 

the region. 


Sustainable fi shery management 

1. Hilsa is a highly migratory trans-boundary fi sh, so 

joint initiative (Bangladesh, India and Myanmar) is 

essential. 

2. Temporary ban of Jatka and brood Hilsa fi shing 

(during peak spawning season) should be maintained 

not only in Bangladesh but also in India to maintain 

the optimum stock. 

3. Joint action may be taken to control diseases. 

4. Stock assessment studies. 

5. Department of Fisheies: capacity building for 

strong monitoring system-Joint cell for Sundarbans 

ecosystem conservation 

6. E-fl ow concept 

7. Awareness building programme using media 

8. Gear restriction at downstream so that fi sh can easily 

migrate to upstream 

Indiscriminate collection of prawn seedlings 

(through push and drag nets) is also impacting the 

fi sheries. Any development of polder around the system 

would impact the breeding cycle of fi shes and would 

have a trailing eff ect on fi shery sector of Sundarban. 



India: 

Title: Sunderban Resources and Prospects 


Professor Aniruddha Mukhopadhyay 

Head & Associate Professor, 

Department of Environmental Science, 

University of Calcutta 

“....It is the quality of species which determines the stability 

of the ecosystem. A detailed account of the keystone species 

is required to be conducted....” was pointed out at the 

outset. 

Dr. Mukhopadhyay explained about the ecosystem 

dynamics and interplay of biodiversity groups with 

special reference to crabs. Shrimps and prawns constitute 

the most important component of fi shery in the zone. 

Th e most important crustaceans’ species are Penaeus 

mondon and Macrobrachium rosenbergi. 

Dr. Mukhopadhyay also stressed that nekton and 

benthic molluscan community and fi shery are aff ected 

due to the change in plankton community. It was also 

observed that the planktonic community is changing 

due to the change in physico-chemical variation of 

ambient aquatic phase. Th e ambient aquatic phase is 

governed by various factors like salinization, alteration 

of pH etc. 

Integrated coastal and 

marine management 

Highly ecological, 

chemical and biological 

diversity: needs 

economic valuation 

Sunderban 

Community 

Participation 

Thrust areas of research can be: 



1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

Needs in mangrove management 

Documentation 

Diversity and Stability 

Ecology 

Economic evaluation 

Behaviour/ Ethology 

Bio prospecting and 

Adaptation Studies 

Dr. Mukhopadhyay also stressed on medicinal and 

pharmaceutical interface of the mangrove resources. 

Diverse algal population can be served both as a source 

of nutrition and pharmacologically important bioactive 

molecules. 

Monitoring the impact 

of climate change 

19


D. Public Health 

Bangladesh: 

Title: Public health in Sundarbans 

20 

Dr. Soumitra Roy 

Public Health Expert 

Consultant, UNICEF 

Dr. Soumitra Roy, a public health consultant associated 

with Unicef, has given a presentation on 

the public health scenario in the Indian part of Sundarban. 

Extreme geographical barriers and abject poverty 

among most of the islanders have made the routine 

public health services inadequate and largely ineff ective. 

Roy reminded that out of the 19 blocks in Indian Sundarban, 

six are extremely inaccessible and lack even the 

basic facilities; eight are remote and severely underdeveloped 

and remaining fi ve are in main land with greater 

accessibility and somewhat better living conditions. 

People in the delta are exposed to various geoclimatic 

hazards in addition to the stress catered by 

poor infrastructure and uncertainties of livelihood. 

Chronic poverty aggravates the vulnerability to health 

risks. Roy drew a grim picture of Sundarban’s public 

heath scenario with examples cited from Gosaba and 

Patharpratima blocks, where on average one public 

health centre (PHC) is catering to the health needs of 

110,000 people, which is clearly unsustainable. 

Women and children are stated to be most vulnerable. 

Th e public health expert cited that for delivery, a woman 

has to travel on an average 8 kms consuming 4-5 hours 

of time with a huge physical strain. Th e travelling is a 

nightmare aft er dusk and anytime during the monsoon. 

Moreover in an inaccessible terrain, oft en likes 

of boats and van rickshaws are required to ferry the 

emergency patients; which adds to the risk. Naturally 

it is no surprise that the institutional delivery in 

Sundarban was about 29 % in 2007-08, way below of 

the state average of 40.1% to 43.1%. Th e expert pointed 

out that on ground the health programme like IMR, 

MMR, Geriatric care and ICDS do not exist in the area. 

Short term measures 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Training for Dais (local women helping in home 

delivery) to support ‘home delivery’ 

Improvement in quality of services through RMPs 

Strengthening of ASHA initiative of Govt. 

Advocacy with PRI to provide one hand pump 

for every 250 people and sanitary toilets with all 

families 

Strategic communication planning for home based 

diarrhoea management 

Ensuring 100% immunisation to reduce infant deaths 

related to measles (will be a part of ASHA initiative 

but Govt. to ensure service delivery) 

Increase ANC coverage to reduce maternal mortality 

Infrastructure bottleneck ranges from human resource 

to power supply. Dr Roy stated that the majority of 

PHCs and BPHCs are understaff ed, and the electricity 

supply is limited; resulting in underperformance and 

underutilization of even the existing facilities. Moreover, 

he stressed on absenteeism and unaccountability that 

hurt credibility and reliability of curative services 

off ered by the government. 

Delivering a broad picture of the public health in 

Sundarban, Dr. Roy highlighted that more than 50% 

children (0-3 years) are malnourished. He pointed 

out signifi cant number of malnourished children 

chronically suff er from diarrhea or respiratory tract 

infections or skin rash and receive partial symptomatic 

treatment mainly from local quacks. Most importantly, 

child vaccination against common dangerous infections 

is oft en aff ected due to non-availability of vaccines in 

the sub centres. In Sundarban, the rate of absolute non- 




coverage of vaccination is as high as 7% while in the 

entire West Bengal the same is about 3%. 

Long term recommendations 

Poverty and poor infrastructure compelled the 1. Advocacy with Govt. to improve institutional health 

delta people to rely on Registered Medical Practitioners services 

(RMPs) or quacks. Apart from the fact that the non 2. Advocacy with PRI to undertake greater role in public 

qualifi ed doctors provide friendly and personalized 

health sphere 

behaviors and serve on credit; they are oft en the ones 

available during emergency. Dr. Roy also informed that 

around 22% of 31210 families do not have sanitary 

3. 

4. 

Community managed communication for eff ective 

behaviour change 

Supporting communities to improve their livelihood 

system 

toilet facilities in Patharpratima block and at any given 5. Support to improve nutrition of the mother and 

point of time 5% tube wells are non-functional while child 

6% of all diseases are diarrhoea (WHO, 2006). High 6. Support to improve drinking water and sanitary 

rate of hookworm infestation contributes to anemia. 

toilet facilities 

Dr. Roy stressed to strengthen the ASHA initiative 

of Govt. and strategic communication planning for 

home based diarroea management to be initiated. Th e 

expert also insisted on the need of 100% immunization 

7. Making all stakeholders aware of climate change 

issues and its impact 

to reduce infant deaths related to measles as well as 1. Community based ground water conservation 

heightened anti natal coverage (ANC) to reduce 2. PPP model for critical curative care 

maternal mortality. 

3. Eff ective communication on preventive health 

On the broad remedial part, Dr Roy stressed on 

issues 

an array of short term and long term measures and also 4. Livelihood adaptation in sync with the climate 

suggested that the following research objectives can be 

initiated in Sundarban: 

change 



21


E. Disaster Response 

Bangladesh: 

Title: Communities’ Observations and Disaster Perceptions in an 

Age of Climate Change 

22 

M. Mokhlesur Rahman 

Center for Natural Resource Studies (CNRS), Bangladesh 

Rahman began with the basic premise that disaster 

risk and climate change are two threats to human 

well-being those reinforce – and magnify - one other. 

He asserted that the occupational groups have diff erent 

impact perceptions about climate related risks. 

Th e impacts of reduced rain, drought and salinity 

have led to convert canals/ rivers to crop lands/ fi shshrimp 

pond and cause major damage to freshwater 

fi shes.Th e expert pointed out that more oft en than not, 

the local community stands unaware about the actual 


• Ecosystem-based approach ( integrated NRM-DRR- 

CCA) with nested CBOs with eff ective networking 

and consensus building may open up conduits for 

large ecosystems like “Sundarban” management 

• Trans-boundary measures are the necessary 

conditions for success of some types of local 

adaptation (e.g. uncertainty of future upstream 

water supplies threatens stability of local adaptation, 

technology and data sharing, joint management, 

etc.) 




cause and eff ect relationship regarding the phenomena inundation had polluted agricultural lands, ponds; 

such as ‘global warming’ and ‘climate change’. In this damaged houses; killed livestock; and led to mauling 

context he referred the terms such as climate-resilience of mangroves and other plantations, freshwater fi sh , 

(transformative adaptation), embankments, drainage, shrimps. As a consequence, the shrimp faming has come 

freshwater availability, good governance, etc. 

to a halt for over two years and Chakbara now faces 

Th e expert opined that to have a sustained impact severe livelihood crisis. Rahman also observed that poor 

on the livelihoods of the people, all the stakeholders management of Sundarban fi sheries including in its 

should come in a common platform and develop three sanctuaries (non-weather stressor) has accelerated 

integrated management practices. Rahman cited two decline in fi sheries production and biodiversity. 

case studies - one on the village Fultala and other on Bangladesh researcher reminded that high level of 

the village, Chakbara – to highlight the negative impact spatial variability exists even within such small coastal 

of climate change on socio-economic conditions of area in terms of livelihoods, disaster and climate change 

exposed populace. 

issues. Hence he argued in favour of an ecosystems based 

According to Rahman, Fultala (primarily a rice approach with eff ective networking and consensus 

farming village) had experienced decline of rice, building to open up conduits for the management 

vegetables and also drop in freshwater fi sh catch mainly of large ecosystems like Sundarban. Rahman also 

due to erratic rainfalls and prolonged drought. Aft er emphasised the need of trans-boundary measures 

Aila, the misery only manifolded. Th e expert also for successfully adopting relevant local adaptations 

referred how Chakbara village, a Shrimp farming village (uncertainty of future upstream water supply threatens 

and dependent on Sundarban rivers and lower estuary stability of local adaptation), technology and data 

for livelihoods, has suff ered severely during and aft er 

Aila. He explained how the prolonged saline water 

sharing, joint management and likewise. 

Organised Or Orga Organised ga gani ni nise se s d by by S SSta 

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Project ro roje je ject ct M 

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W West es e t Be Beng Bengal, ng ngal al a , 

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WWF WWF-India WF -I -Ind I nd n ia & & E EnGIO 

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23


India: 

Title: Managing Disasters in Sundarbans 

24 

Jude Henriques 

International Disaster Management Consultant 

Caritas Germany 

Mr. Jude Henriques stressed on developing proper 

early warning system and focussed on how it can 

be communicated to the local community during disasters. 

He defi ned a “Disaster” as a serious disruption of 

the functioning of a community or a society causing 

widespread human, material, economic or environmental 

losses which exceed the ability of the aff ected community 

or society to cope with its own resources. 

He explained the disaster crunch mode which 

states that a disaster happens only when a hazard aff ects 

vulnerable people. Th is model shows that vulnerability 

(pressure), rooted in socio-economic and political 

processes, has to be addressed (released) to reduce 

the risk of disaster. Th e expert, with experience of 

working in both Indian and Bangladesh Sundarban, 

broadly stressed on involving communities to counter 

the impacts from natural disaster. He explained at 

length the vulnerability of the area from high intensity 

tropical cyclones; expected to hit and cause damage to 

Sundarban. According to several reports, such events 

only stand to increase. Th e disaster manager especially 

talked about experience of Aila which had devastated 

Components of early warning system 

1. 

2. 

3. 

Make sure that there is an early warning system 

in place understood by your communities. Early 

warnings can be delivered via radio, television, 

mobile phones, or even door-to-door notice 

Make sure that the emergency plan is working 

Ensure that people understand what they will need 

to do before and after a hurricane. (People may have 

to wait for 2-3 days after a hurricane before outside 

help arrives.) 

Indian Sundarban. He explained how some of the 

extremely severe cyclones had barely given a miss to 

Indian Sundarban apart from Aila and emphasised how 

both the community and administration presently stand 

extremely under-prepared if such a high intensity cyclone 

actually hits Indian Sundarban. Henriques focused on 

the need of better quality of information sharing as well 

as preparedness to face any disaster. However, disaster 

management consultant pointed out new age livelihood 

practices like using tin roofs instead of previously used 

thatched roofs are detrimental for cause. 

He further explained the ignorance of the 

community towards early warning that has always led 

them to be the victims of disaster. So what nations can 

do at its best to be more protected is to raise community 

awareness about high intensity storms and the risks 

associated with these storms. 



India: 


Title: Disaster Management Preparedness in Indian Sundarban 

Kakoli Sen Sarma 

Geologist and Remote Sensing specialist, SPMU, 

ICZM project of Institute of Environmental Studies & Wetland Management Kolkata 

Kolkata based Geologist stressed on the importance 

of using a well calibrated modelling of trajectory 

of oil spill and suspended pollutant in the Indian parts 

of Sundarban. Th e expert identifi ed the role of enhanced 

trade including both import and export from Kolkata 

Port Trust as a possible reason. She pointed out that in 

a complicated estuarine system as in Sundarban, tidal 

current alone is enough to drift the oil slick/ pollutant; 

maximizing threat though water current and wind normally 

stand out as key variables for modelling in marine 

environment. 

Sen Sarma reminded mangrove, both dense and 

thin, is prone to high risk followed by intertidal fl at; 



both bare and vegetated. Th e expert stressed the need on 

fi nding more vulnerable coastal habitat areas through 

GIS analysis and risk assessment & undertakes priority 

actions in such habitats. 

In order to arrest oil spill, the geologist highlighted 

the importance of disseminating knowledge and 

coordination with the respective departments 

beforehand so that impact of such disasters get buff ered. 

Like the earlier experts, she too advocated the urgent 

need of the cross boundary interaction and support to 

tackle various disasters. 

25


F. Tiger Conservation 

Bangladesh: 

Title: Tiger & Co-management-Bangladesh Forest Department 

26 

Md. Akbar Hossain and Md. Mozaharul Islam 

Forest Department, Bangladesh 

Md. Mozaharul Islam explained the tiger ecology 

in Sundarban. He also stressed the co-management 

in Sundarban and its status in Bangladesh Sundarban. 

Th e Ministry of Environment and Forest has issued 

Gazette notifi cation in this regard and approved legal 

formation of the co-management organizations. Th e 

government has also approved to provide 50 per cent of 

the revenue raised from visitor entry fee from PAs to the 

Co-management Organization (CMC). 

Based on the success of interventions in Bangladesh 

and taking account the limitation of forest conservation 

and management, the Government of Bangladesh 

(GOB) has decided to adopt the Co-management 

approach and to involve local people in the natural 

resource conservation and management through 

collaboration and active participation. Th e basis of such 

collaboration and participation would be “equitable 

sharing of benefi ts”. 


1. Behaviour study is a necessity to make appropriate 

approaches. To enrich knowledge on tiger behaviour 

more research is needed. It may open more avenues 

for tiger conservation initiatives. 

2. Joint tiger census 

3. Selection of best practices and protocols 

4. Allowing the civil society to assume ever more 

important roles and responsibilities 

Md. Akbar Hossain stressed that without 

participation of local people, it is extremely diffi cult to 

manage the Sundarban effi ciently and ensure its longterm 

sustainability. 

Th e experts pointed out the need to follow a 

common protocol in case of tiger census. 



India: 

Title: Wildlife governance and confl icts 

Dr. Subrat Mukherjee 

Field Director, Sundarban Tiger Reserve 

Dr. Mukherjee explained the protection regime 

and administrative structure of Sundarban forests. 

Government of West Bengal has been practicing 

wildlife governance in Sundarban. Th e governance includes 

intensive protection of fl ora and fauna, mitigation 

of confl icts, eco development works, ecotourism 

and research, monitoring and evaluation. 

Dr. Mukherjee explained the tiger conservation in 

Sundarban and how JFMCs ( Joint Forest Management 

Committees) has played an important role towards 

conservation. He also explained that how alternative 

livelihood programs have helped the fringe village 

community to show a positive attitude towards tiger 

conservation claiming that also not a single retaliatory 

killing in Sundarban has happened for the last 11 years. 

Dr. Mukherjee also explained the management 

practices in Sundarban to reduce confl ict both inside 

and outside forest. He also cited the diff erent research 

(radio collaring, alternative livelihood programmes etc.) 

being undertaken in Sundarban. 




Echo-Development Works 

1. Ponds 

2. Smokless Chullah 

3. Irrigation Channel (In Km.) 

4. Medical Camps 

5. Awareness and Training Camps 

6. Deep Tubewells 

7. Nursery (In Ha. = 2500 Seedlings) 

8. Fuel Wood Plantation (Ha.) 

9. Fruit Plants 

10. Brick Path (Km.) 

11. Solar Lights 

12. Solar Lanterns 

13. Micro-Planning Trainings 

14. Study Tours 

15. Community Centres 

16. Jetty 

17. Vocational Trainings. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

Research on tiger ethology and straying behaviour. 

Provision of alternative livelihood programs to 

reduce dependencies on natural resources 

Restocking of prey base 

Joint tiger census 

Selection of best practices and protocols 

Allowing the civil society to assume ever more 


Indo-Bangladesh collaborative platform 

27


G. Communication 

Bangladesh: 

M. Monwarul Islam, Deputy Director General (News and Programme) Bangladesh TV 

Abdul Maqueeb Majumdar, Director Channel I 

Manas Ghosh, Correspondent ATN Bangla 

The Bangladeshi experts have a joint session on 

various facets of environment communication in 

general and Sundarban related communication in particular. 

Mr. M. Monwarul Islam, Deputy Director General 

(News and Programme) Bangladesh TV stated that 

environment is considered extremely important area 

of communication but rued the lack of commercial 

viability. However he insisted that BTV used to carry 

environment related programme in non-prime time 

slots. He expressed hope that the stated platform 

might provide them an opportunity to share inputs on 

Sundarban related programme soft ware in especially in 

the light of MoU signed between India and Bangladesh 

for co-operative work on Doordarshan Indian (Offi cial 

audio visual channel of India) and BTV Bangladesh. 

28 

Th e representative from private media houses 

also echoed their respective commitment to showcase 

environmental programmes. Maqueeb Majumdar, 

director of Channel I, shared that Channel I has been 

telecasting programme on environment and nature 

for a long period of time despite not receiving much 

fi nancial support but insisted that the programme 

has been well received within the wider audience in 

Bangladesh. Manas Ghosh , the correspondent of ATN 

Bangla, pointed out that their channel generally gives 

reasonable importance to environment and covers 

environment and climate change related issues widely. 

Ghosh reminded that ATN Bangla has been part of the 

initiative for building the proposed platform since it 

was visualized in 2009. 



India: 


Title: Communicating Sundarban: Triggering Thoughts 

Jayanta Basu 

Environment Communications Expert 

Director, Environment Governed Integrated Organisation 

Faculty, Dept. of Env. Sciences; Dept of Journalism and Mass Communication, Calcutta University 

Basu dealt at depth regarding both social and media 

communication especially in the context to Sundarban. 

He suggested that diff erent kind of communication 

model may be attempted based on a matrix of target 

audience and target agenda. He clarifi ed while in social 

communication, the targeted broad outputs include behavioural 

changes leading to more adaptive population 

as well as enhancing the quality of life per se; in case of 

media communication, the structure should be a two way 

mode between the communicators and target population. 

As Sundarban is at the hotbed of climate change being 

recognised by international organization, media communication 

should also target national and international 

audience, he suggested. Various formats of media communication, 

local vernacular paper, channel, short audio 

visual focus imbibing with mainstream media, global 

exposure through website and portal, etc. are proposed. 

It was pointed that no story of Sundarban would be completed 

unless it covers both India and Bangladesh. 



Recommendation and resolution 

A trans-boundary Sundarban Media Platform to be 

pushed. 

Follow up on the collaboration issue with both 

India and Bangladesh nodal persons (as per the 

MoU signed between Indian and Bangladesh on 

communication television channel) 

Explore options to prepare programme software at 

trans-boundary level, based on specifi c issues like 

Status of island, Sea level rise, Migration, Fishing etc. 

Generation of local and global media communication 

path on Sundarban 

Document case studies regarding trans-boundary 

Sundarban 

A joint media platform under the aegis of Sundarban 

stakeholder network was proposed as a vehicle to leapfrog 

the issue. 

Remarks 

Th e session is a joint one and subsequently experts from both the countries interacted synergistically. Th e 

professionals reached consensus that communication is a low hanging fruit in case of trans-boundary initiative and 

would be the appropriate instrument to roll on the initiative. Possibilities of undertakings of various collaborative 

trans-boundary media initiatives were discussed. Tapas Paul, environment expert from World Bank, pointed out 

that it may be a good idea to showcase Sundarban linked popular fi lm in television with insertion of small Sundarban 

related discussion and awareness snippets in between. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

29


Interface Session 

The Interface Session has been divided into three 

parts – 

1. Based on the suggestions/ recommendations / 

observations shared based on the presentations 

made during the technical sessions, a matrix was 

formatted under three broad heads – Policy, 

Research and Implementation 

1. FORMULATION OF PRIORITY MATRIX 

30 

2. 

3. 

Based on the matrix, as prepared, formulation 

of key trans-boundary project ideas and follow 

up discussion on the ideas proposed 

Discussion in general about the way forward 

POLICY 

• Joint task force to be constituted by the governments to deal with potential threats with specifi c 

reference to 1) increasing salinity, 2) increasing cyclonic storm, 3) poaching, 4) impediments 

in the mechanism of sediment dispersal. Th e task force should meet stakeholders of both 

countries at least twice a year. 

• A mechanism for thorough exchange of knowledge on agricultural methods between India 

and Bangladesh 

• Along the line of coastal zone management, we should consider river fl ood plain 

management 

• Argue for more space for rivers 

• Educate planners about the adverse impact of putting up embankments 

• With rise in sea level can there be an initiative to advocate livelihood changes for the people 

of Sundarban? 

• Financing water harvesting structures through government programmes like National 

Employment 

• Guarantee programmes 

• Focus on strengthening the education system and include incorporation of Disaster Risk 

Management and Climate Change Adaptation in school curricula (and at Panchayat level) 

• Research fi ndings to inform policy making 

• For Sundarban, engineers, social scientists and biologists need to work in tandem 

• Review of existing policies, governance and strategies related to the Sundarban on both sides 

and its relevance (e.g. co-management) with a view to developing Integrated policy for the 

Sundarban 

• 

Decision-making systems between two countries 



RESEARCH 

Joint, synergistic and applied and innovative 


River Dynamics 

• How the space for the river should be maintained in the context of human population explosion? 

What kind of management plan should we follow? 

• If embankments are not the solution, how can we deal with the short-term immediate 

problems? 

• Social and economic costs of retreating embankments? 

• Joint numerical modelling of the BoB 

Geomorphology 

• What could be the possible alternative approaches to solving the problems posed by the 

geomorphological processes? 

• Joint research on erosion and accretion for Sundarban as one integrated whole 

• What would be the impact of extreme (storm) events on geomorphology (erosion and accretion) 

vis-a-vis gradual change by climate change, tidal and fresh water fl ow? 

• Freshwater & sediment budgets of the entire Sundarban and its impacts on the delta system (in 

light of planned infrastructure projects) 

• Studying east-west cross sections to understand relations between physical processes and 

biodiversity 

Groundwater & Salinity 

• What would a management tool to sustain deltaic fresh water aquifer be like? Would recycling of 

waste water by construction of water harvesting pits help? 

• Does groundwater contribute to lowering of salinity in inner estuary? 

• Is there any reverse gradient of saline zone being identifi ed in the delta? 

Agriculture 

• Can rain water harvesting and land levelling for sustainable agriculture be an option? 

• Research on salt-tolerant crops 

• What is the status of availability of saline-resistant rice varieties in Sundarban? 

• Is agriculture in the Sundarban still viable? What are the possible alternatives to agriculture? 

Fisheries 

• What would be the ideal mix in terms of fi sh varieties and package of practices for inland fi sheries 

in Sundarban 

• Stock assessment of economically valuable fi sh species on both sides 

• Social and ecological and goemorphological impacts of aquaculture across the Sundarban 

• Impacts of ocean acidifi cation on fi sheries 

• 

Is climate change impacting fi sh/Hilsa production and its habitat? 



31


Biodiversity & Wildlife 

• Th ere is a gradient/diff erential in biodiversity in the western and eastern parts of the delta 

especially in terms of macrofl ora, avifauna and protein biomass which needs to be recognised. 

• Assess the quantum of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers being discharged into the estuarine 

system by means of agriculture run-off and quantify the impact of the process in the creeks and 

upon aquatic life 

• Correlating deltaic/fl uvial processes to biodiversity gradient is important and the current 

knowledge gap needs to be bridged. 

• How physical changes in the coast aff ect biological resources including livelihood? 

• (Systematic monitoring of tiger populations across the delta) 

• Biodiversity inventorisation 

• Impacts of salinity on species composition 

• Wildlife diseases (particularly tigers) 

Climate Change 

• Are impacts of human interventions of the past being passed off as climate change impacts? 

• How long can local crop varieties cope with changing climate conditions? 

• Study of Climate induced migration (inter and intra country) vis-a-vis the preparedness of 

community to counter disasters 

Public health 

• Research on migration and traffi cking which have major impact on health and livelihood in 

Sundarban 

• Understanding of the health delivery system and the health seeking behaviour of the population 

living either in Sundarban or within its impact zone in India and Bangladesh 

• Impacts of climate change on vector borne diseases 

Disaster Management 

• Review eff ectiveness of EWS on both sides (including engagement and role of communities in 

disaster management) 

• What is common and what is the diff erence between Indian and Bangladesh Sundarban? 

• Validation of community knowledge through fi eld based participatory action research 

Communication 

• Formation of a Joint Media Communication Platform leading to focussed documentation. 

• Prepare programme on key issues of trans-boundary Sundarban issues related to climatic impacts, 

develpmental stress, livelihoods, infrastructure and wild life. 

32 




2. TRANS-BOUNDARY PROPOSAL CONCEPTS 

In this session, based on matrix generated, seven proposal concepts were presented and reviewed. It was 

mutually agreed upon that only the proposals, transformative and trans-boundary in nature, would be pursued by 

the Sundarban Stakeholder Network secretariat (as and when established). In all, seven proposals were presented 

encompassing agriculture, fi shery, health, tiger monitoring, geomorphology and hydrodynamics, climate migration 

and communication. Out of the list, the proposals on agricultural and public health sectors were requested to be 

refreshed in tune with the objective of the trans-boundary platform, while the other fi ve proposals were accepted in 

principal. Subsequently the proposal on public health and agriculture were duly received and added underneath. 

Th e summarized version of proposals are as follows: 

Title Sector Applications Leading Institutions 

Assessment and evaluation of 

risk and vulnerability of coastal 

fi shery resources in Sundarban 

with special reference to 

anthropogenic and climate 

change impacts 

Study of Climate induced 

migration (inter and intra 

country) vis-a-vis the preparedness 

of community to counter 

disasters 

Fishery 

Migration 

Formation of a joint media 

& 

communication platform leading 

to focussed documentation Media 

Standardization of Census 

Methodology and Systematic 

Monitoring of Tiger 

Understanding the Hydrodynamic 

and Geomorphological 

Processes of the Sundarban 

communication 

Tiger/wildlife 

Geomorphology and hydrodynamics 

Application of the study will centre around ecological and 

toxicological monitoring of Sundarban ecosystem 

Advocacy with Govt. for eff ective policy and planning on inter 

and intra country migration 

Enhancing community preparedness and resilience against 

disaster 

Help govts reviewing existing Sundarban policies and practices 

Infl uence to generate appropriate response from Govts. 

Acting as constructive pressure group 

Increase community and other stakeholder awareness 

Joint census along the border areas. 

Supplement the Actions towards the accomplishment of Protocol 

and MoU signed between two countries. 

Better Management of Tiger in the Sundarban. 

Capacity Development. 

Enhanced collaboration in forest protection and cross-boundary 

crime control. 

Analyse underlying causes of straying behaviour (repeat off enders). 

Reduce human-tiger confl ict. 

Planning and design of embankments. 

Impact assessment for any other infrastructure developmental 

projects requiring waterfront. 

Facilitate the understanding of inter-relationship between physical 

and biological processes. 

Assessing the impact of climate change on the estuarine dynamics 

. 

Developing preventive and remedial measures to disasters 

related to oil spillage and other pollutants. 

Formulation of appropriate adaptation strategies. 



Calcutta University and University 

of Dhaka 

Bangladesh Centre for Advance 

Studies 

Jadavpur University 

EnGIO 

Institute of Social Studies 

IISWBM 

IOM 

IUCN, Bangladesh 

B TV 

DD 

ATN 

Channel i 

Local small media outfi ts / groups 

Bangladesh Forest Department. 

Forest Department, West Bengal/ 

NTCA, India. 

WWF-India, IUCN Bangladesh 

CEGIS 

IWM 

IESWM 

IIT, Kharagpur 

IISWBM 

Cost / 

Period 

2 million USD / 

5 years 


2 years 


2 years 

1.5 million / 

4 years 

10 million 

USD / 

5 years 

33


3. WAY FORWARD 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

34 

Title Sector Applications Leading Institutions 

Strengthening sustainable and 

transformatory health care 

Health 

systems in trans-boundary 

Sundarban Public 

Developing trans-boundary 

network of micro climate 

information and promoting 

non/off -farm livelihood options 

for natural resource dependent 

community of Sundarban 

Agriculture and livelihood 

Commissioning trans-boundary multi-speciality fl oating hospital 

(in line with Orbis International’s Flying Eye Hospital) 

Strengthening community based public health facilities both in 

India and Bangladesh 

Establishing referral network system and innovative use of 

information and communication technology 

Strengthening capacities of RMPs and Govt. Frontline Workers 

(FLWs) 

Improving nutritional status with focus on women and children 

Create cascading network of weather & climate information 

especially for natural resource dependent community till village 

level 

Establishing multiple Agrometrological Field Units (AFU) in both 

countries to monitor weather data 

To provide assistance to livelihood services for natural resource 

dependent community 

AFUs will also to create models of alternatives economic enterprises 

based on energy solution like biogas/solar lantern making 

as well as IT enabled services 

Southern Health Improvement 

Society (SHIS) 

Calcutta Medical College and 

Hospital 

All India Institute of Hygiene and 

Public Health (AIIH&PH), Kolkata 

Jawaharlal Nehru University, New 

Delhi 

One of the Private Specialist 

Health care Institute 

One of the local NGOs 

Welthungerhilfe 

Centre for Advanced Studies & 

IUCN Bangladesh 

WWF Sunderban Projects 

Development Research Communication 

and Services Centre (DRCSC 

) in Indian part of Sunderban 

It was agreed that Sundarban Stakeholder Network would have a dedicated secretariat to start with. 

Cost / 

Period 


5 years 

USD 1 million/ 

2 years 

Presently a six member Sundarban Stakeholder Network governing body, comprising of non-state actors, has 

been formed to pursue the matter. Eventually the governing body is expected to be expanded with representation 

from various stakeholders including the two national governments. Th e members are Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad, 

M. Mokhlesur Rahman, Dr. Maminul Haque Sarker and Prof. Dewan Ali Ahsan (from Bangladesh) and Dr. A. 

Anurag Danda and Jayanta Basu (from India) with Dr. A. Anurag Danda acting as the convener. 

Th e secretariat will have wings in both countries hosted by Environment Governed Integrated Organisation 

(EnGIO), a nonprofi t involved in the trans-boundary linkage process, and IUCN Bangladesh. 

World Bank, in general, was supportive to the idea of a common Sundarban Stakeholders Network secretariat 

and expressed willingness to fi nancially support the exercise once the two national governments concur to such 

an idea. 

A detailed meeting report and a concept note for secretariat should be developed and forwarded using proper 

channels to both the national governments as well as World Bank for further action. 




Annexure 



A. Presenters’ Profi les 

B. Other Participants 

C. Copy of Presentations 

D. Bon beyond border 

35


A. Presenters’ profi les 

36 

Arijit Banerjee, IFS is Director of IESWM and Senior Environment Offi cer, Govt. of West 

Bengal. He is responsible for overall implementation, monitoring and evaluation of ICZM 

project in the state of West Bengal. 

Tapas Paul is Sr. Environmental Specialist at World Bank, who has played pivotal role in 

supporting a number of environment related projects in India including the Integrated 

Coastal Zone Management project. 

Herbert Acquay is Chief, South Asia at World Bank, Washington. Dr. Acquay received his 

Masters in Natural Resources Policy at Cornell University where he also received his PhD in 

Natural Resource Policy and Management in 1993. 

Ishtiaq Uddin Ahmad is the former Chief Conservator of Forests, Bangladesh and presently 

Country Representative of IUCN Bangladesh. 

Dr. Sejal Worah is Programme Director at World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), India. 

She has signifi cantly contributed in conservation and development sector working on 

management planning, capacity building, research and institutional development. 

Jayanta Basu is an environment communication expert, a contributor in print and audio 

visual media and attached to Th e Telegraph. He is also a faculty of Calcutta University and 

Director, Environment Governed Integrated Organisation (EnGIO). 

Dr. Somnath Bhattacharyya is the additional director of ICZM project, West Bengal and 

Senior Scientist of IESWM, Kolkata, 

Dr. Maminul Haque Sarker is the Executive Director at the Center for Environmental and 

Geographic Information Services, a graduate from University of Nottingham, UK. 




Professor Kalyan Rudra is an eminent river expert, and environmental advisor of Govt of 

West Bengal. Rudra is a former Professor of Geography and has authored many technical 

articles in national and international journals. 

Professor Pradip K. Sikdar, a hydro geologist with signifi cant experience of working in 

diverse hydro geological terrain, is attached to Department of Environment Management at 

IISWBM, Kolkata. 

Dr. ASM Shahidul Haque, Team Leader, CCDRER Project in BCAS, Bangladesh, an MBA 

from University of Dhaka with signifi cant experience in market development, value chain 

development and enterprise development. 

Anshuman Das has been working in agriculture sector. He is Regional Project Coordinator 

of Integrated Farming at Welthungerhilfe with focus on improving quality and impact of 

community based Natural Resource Management and Sustainable Development. 

Prof. Dewan Ali Ahsan is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Fisheries, Dhaka 

University and has been working on sustainable Hilsa fi sheries management. Prof. Dewan 

was a team member in the International Trans-boundary Policy prepared by IUCN. 

Prof. Aniruddha Mukhopadhyay is Head, Department of Environmental Science, Institute 

of Environmental and Atmospheric Science, University of Calcutta. 

Dr. Soumitra Roy is a public health expert with Unicef. He has wide experience in various 

developing and under developed countries across the world. 

Mr. M. Mokhlesur Rahman is Executive Director of the Centre for Natural Resources Studies 

(CNRS) in Bangladesh. He has immense experience in ecological management through 

community-based approaches. 

Jude Henriques is a disaster management expert with CARITAS. He had led the social 

mobilization and programme communication in Unicef. 



37


38 

Kakoli Sen Sarma is Project Manager, Senior Geologist and Remote Sensing Specialist in 

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Project under Department of Environment, 

Government of West Bengal. 

Md. Mozaharul Islam is Assistant Chief Conservator of Forests heading Development 

Planning Unit in Bangladesh Forest Department. 

Md. Akbar Hossain is Conservator of Forests in Bangladesh Forest Department and has vast 

experience in scientifi c conservation management and monitoring of wildlife. 

Dr. Subrat Mukherjee IFS is Chief Conservator of Forests, with vast experience in forest 

conservation. He is the Field Director, Sundarban Tiger Reserve. 

M. Monwarul Islam is Deputy Director General (News and Programme) of Bangladesh TV 

and has taken initiatives to promote environmental related programmes. 

Abdul Maqueeb Majumdar is Director of Channel I – a private channel in Bangladesh. He is 

the pioneer to broadcast fi rst Bangladeshi TV series on ‘Biodiversity and Nature’. 

Manas Ghosh is a correspondent with ATN Bangla channel in Bangladesh. 

Dr. A. Anurag Danda is Head, Climate Change Adaptation and Sundarbans Landscape at 

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), India. He has signifi cant expertise in Sustainable 

Development. 



B. Other Participants 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 


Arup Barua is photo journalist and cameraperson at ATN Bangla Channel, Kolkata. 

Bappaditya Chatterjee is an environmental communication expert and associated with EnGIO. 

Bibhash Pal is Senior Producer in Doordarshan, Kolkata. 

Debashish Prusti, IAS is with Department of Economic Aff airs, Ministry of Finance, Government of India. 

Dilip K Ray, an engineer from IIT and poverty expert, formerly held key government positions, Advisor 

EnGIO. 

Dr. Rajarshi Chakraborty is Environment Offi cer in Government of West Bengal. 

Dr. Zakir Hussain, Special Advisor to Regional Director, IUCN Asia. 

P. Vyas, Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve, Government of West Bengal. 

Ratul Saha, Coordinator- Biodiversity Conservation at World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), India. 

S. B. Mondal, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Wildlife & Chief Wildlife Warden for West Bengal. 

Sanjay Gupta, Senior Communications Specialist, South Asia Water Initiative at the World Bank. 

Shakil Ahmed Ferdausi is Senior Environment Specialist at the World Bank and posted in Bangladesh. 

Vivek Wadekar, Director, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Government of India 



39


B. Copy of Presentations 

40 

ComplementingGovernmentAction 

SpeciesConservation 

TheRoleofWWFIndia 

Sejal Worah 

HighintensityofHumanTigerConflictinthelandscapes 

HighintensityofHumanTigerConflictinthelandscapes 

India:Atransformationaldecade? 

• OftheG20countries,Indiatobeworsthitby 

climatechange 

• Indianeedstogrowbyatleast810%forthe 

next23decadestoliftmillionsoutofpoverty 

• Thedevelopmentimperativeisnotinquestion 

challengeistopromotegrowthwithoutincurring 

massiveenvironmentaldebts 

• Government,researchinstitutionsandNGOS 

needtoworktogethertodevelopand 

implementthesolutions 

IRV2020–18rhinostranslocated fromKaziranga & 

Pobitora toManas…nowbreeding! 

AlsoHumanElephantConflictinalmostalllandscapes 

AlsoHumanElephantConflictinalmostalllandscapes 



LocationofminingblocksalongtheSPcorridor 

Springsheds inSikkim inSikkim 

LIVING GANGA PROGRAM 


Phase1 

Phase2 

Empoweringcommunitiesfor 

conservationanddevelopment 

throughlocalpartnershipsin 

someoftheremotestpartsof 

India 



LeopardPresence 

TigerPresence 

JamaiRange 

DamuaRange 

41


42 

Optionsfor100%RenewableEnergyinMandla District 

Assessmentofenergy 

demandandrenewable 

energy(RE)potentialand 

draftingofaRoadmapfor 

100%REsupplyinthe 

district. 

• Outcomes 

– Currentelectricitydemand 

is4550MW 

– 100MWREpotential 

– 660Crore for100%RE 

supplyby2020 

– 60%reductionincarbon 

emissionsfrompresent 

levels 

SundarbansDeltaVision 

foreffectiveconservationandmangroverestoration 

B&I 

Current 

Future 

Current&FutureBusinessengagement 

ClimateChange 

Market 

Transformations 

Financesector 

CarbonDisclosure 

Project 

PilotFootprint 

Mapping 

ClimateSolvers 

Agriculture 

Forestry 

Sustainable 

Finance 

Lowcarbon 

growth 



Water 

ThankYou 

ThankYou 

Fisheries 

Cotton 

Sugar 

Rice 

PalmOil 

Timber 

PulpandPaper 

Aquaculture

Geomorphology 

Dr.Maminul Haque Sarker 

msarker@cegisbad.com 

October2012 


Vulnerability due to 

Natural Disasters 

Megacountrieswithpopulation>100Million 

Thelandformedbytherivers 

supportsthelifeandlivelihoodsof 

pp 

thehundredmillionsofpeople 

Bangladesh 

-the land 

of rivers 

The river systems 

have have shaped shaped much much of of 

the history, economy, 

literature and rich 

culture of the people 



Most of the ancient civilizations were 

developed on the banks of rivers 

Rivers gives us 

water for .. 

Irrigation 

Industry 

Fisheries 

Navigation 

Geomorphologicalsettingsofthe 

rivers riversinBangladesh 

in Bangladesh 

43


44 

Rakas lake Manasarowar Geomorphologicalsettings 

India 

China 

Nepal Bhutan 

Everyyeartheseriverscarry: 

onetrillionm 3 ofwater 

onebilliontonesofsediment 

Bangladesh 

Moresedimentmakestheriversmoredynamic 

Changesinsealeveloverthelast100thousandsyear 

TheGangesand 

theJamuna 

enteredthrough 

threecorridors 

1. RajmahalHillandBarind 

Tract 

2. BarindandMadhupur 

Tracts 

Deltadevelopmentprocess 

Deltaformationtriggeredthe 

initiationofmoderncivilization 

3. MadhupurandMaghalaya 

Hills 


Rajmahal 

Hill 

BarindTract 

Madhupur 

Tract 



Fisk’smodel(1944)onresponsesoftheMississippiRiverto 

thechangesinsealevel 

HistoricalChangesinRiverCourses 


Longtermshiftingoftherivercourses 



Shiftingoftherivercourses 

g 

duringlast250years 

Deltaprogradation duringthelastdecades 

DeltaBuildingand 

rivershifting 


Source:EGIS(1997) 



Shiftingoftherivercoursesinthelastcenturies 


rivershifting 


rivershifting 

45


Netaccretionwas 

1700km 2 during 

thelast60years 

Deltahas 

prograded about 

50kmtowardsthe 

sea 

46 

dn 

Effectsofsealevelrise 

Riverresponseduetodeltaprogradation 

i 

dn Sea Level 

Deltabuildingprocessisbeingcontinuing 

Riversarealsocontinuouslyadjustingwiththe 

processofdeltabuilding 

DeltaBuildingandrivershifting 

Riversarealsocontinuouslyadjustingwiththe 

processofdeltabuilding 

Sea 

VerylargesedimentinputgeneratedfromAssam1950 

earthquake,therateofnetaccretioninthelastsixdecades 

wasveryhigh 

In InthelasttwodecadesthenetaccretionintheMeghna 

the last two decades the net accretion in the Meghna 

Estuaryareaisabout12km2/y 



Thedeltaisprograding 

Inthelastcenturies,coursesoftherivershifted 

fromwesttoeast 

Coursesoftheriversarechanginginsouthwest 

directionindicatingthewestwardshiftingofthe 

activedelta 



Humaninterventionsandtheir 

consequences 

Humaninterventionsandtheirconsequences 

BWDB’sProjectsof 

Bangladesh 


FewPhotographsofdrainagecongestion 





Togrowmorefoodandimprovecommunications 

roads 

culverts 

bridges 

floodembankments 

polders poldershavebeenconstructedsince 

have been constructed since 

1960 

flowandsalinityregimeoftheriver 

systemhavebeenaltered 

Sometimescausedhugesufferingstoseveral 

people 


Drainageproblemin 

theHariRiversystem 

Millionsofpeople 

hadtosufferfrom 

drainagecongestion 

Bokor 

Khuksia 

Kadaria 

Bhaina 

Madhugram 

Effects Effectsofpoldering 

of poldering 

Bhabadah 

HariRiver 

Dakatia 

47


Polderwas 

constructedinthe 

mid1990s 

upstreamof 

Daudkhali Riverat 

Rampal,Bagerhat. 

Sincethentheriver 

hasbeenshrinking 

veryrapidly 

48 

Daudkhali bridgeatRampal inFebruary2011 

DaudkhaliRiveratRampal(neaptideinMay2010) 

Effectsofcoastalpoldersonrivers 

DaudkhaliRiveratRampal(neaptideinMay2010) 

Mongla GhasiakhaliNavigationRoute 

Effectsofcoastalpoldersonrivers Effectsofcoastalpoldersonrivers 

• Poldersinthesouthwest,reducethetidal 

prism,whichsubsequentlyallowsthe 

sedimentationintheriverbed. 

• Socalledtidalpumpingprocess,bringsthe 

sediment sedimenttothechannelstothedeposition 

to the channels to the deposition 

proneareas 

• Poldersthuscauselargescaledrainage 

congestionsinthetidalplains,alongthe 

northernperipheryoftheSunderbans 

DaudkhaliRiverinFebruary2011atlowtide 

Reductionofsweetwaterinput 



Themainsourceofsweetwaterintothe 

Sunderbans istheGorai 

Duetoupstreamwithdrawalofwaterinthe 

Ganges,theparentriveroftheGorai and 

morphologicalprocessesattheofftake,the 

sweetwaterhasbeenreducedintothe 

SSunderbans d b 

Reductionofsweetwatercausedtheincrease 

thesalinity 

Concludingremarks 

•Wearesittingonaverydynamicnaturalphysicalsystem 

•Extremenaturalevents,suchasearthquakeinfluence 

systemsignificantly 

•Human •Humaninterventionsalterthesystemveryrapidly 

interventions alter the system very rapidly 

•CanSunderbans beabletoadaptthosechangesinducedby 

humaninterventionsinthesystem? 




AnnualmaximumsalinityalongtheGoraiPussur systemhas 

beenincreasedsignificantlyduringthelastfewdecades 

49


50 

Understanding the Fluvial Processes 

Operating in the Ganga Delta 

Kalyan Rudra. 

The flood in the delta is a sediment dispersal 

mechanism. 

The off-take 

migration 



Since early 19th century, the engineering intervention into 

the fluvial regime of Bengal delta was started with the 

construction of embankment to achieve a freedom from 

flood. 

Since the roads and railways intercepted the drainage, 

there was expansion of floodable area, outbreak of 

malaria and declining food production. 




It was the beginning of a new era to control the natural 

hydrological system 

The embankment ensured protection against lowintensity 

flood but led to the decay of rivers. 

Presently 10500km long embankment ensures 

protection from low-intensity flood but impairs sediment 

dispersal. 

SEDIMENT SUPPLY INTO THE DELTA 

(June 2010- May 2011) 

• By the Ganga: 389 million tonnes. 

• By the Chotanagpur rivers: 5 million tonnes 

• By tidal push back from the estuary: 26 

million tonnes. 

Distributaries of the Ganga 

51


52 

MIGRATING APEX OF THE DELTA 

1991-2010 

Tributary Systems 

Distributary Systems 

The Tidal limit 






ACTIVE DELTA: RECLAIMED AND NON-RECLAIMED PARTS 

53


54 

The breach in embankment is a frequent event 

1764 - 67 1936 

2004 

The possible explanations of coastal retrogradation: 

1) Subsidence of the land due to autocompaction of the 

sediment. 

2) Silt-trapping by man made reservoirs and wetlands of the 

delta delta. 

3) Continuous flush of the sediments into the “Swatch of no 

ground”- the submarine canyon of the Bay of Bengal. 

4) Increasing storm surge and tidal invasion from the sea. 

5) Global warming and thermal expansion of sea-water. 




Future Research 

needs on 

Sustainable 

Groundwater 

Management of 

Sundarbans 

P. K. Sikdar, Ph.D. 

Professor 

Department of Environment Management 

Indian Institute of Social Welfare & Business 

Management, Kolkata 

GeologyofSundarbans 

• The Sundarbans is located on the 

lower deltaic plain of the on the 

composite Ganga delta and is 

covered by the Quaternary 

sediments deposited by the Ganga 

andd it its tib tributaries. t i 

• Theareaisunderlainbyathick 

pile of unconsolidated sediments 

of Quaternary and upper Tertiary 

age. 

Hydrogeology 

• Groundwater occurs under confined condition in a 

thick multi-aquifer system comprising sands of 

varying thickness overlain by a thick blanket of clay 

aquiclude. 

• The piezometric surface of the deeper fresh water 

aquifer generally lies between 2 m to 4.75 m below 

ground level. 

• The rise of the piezometric surface due to monsoonal 

recharge varies between 0.16 m and 2.54 m. 

• The Indian part of the Sundarban is bounded 

between 21º32 & 22 º 40 N 8805 & 89 º 00 E 



• Covers an area of 9629 sq km 

3370 sq.km in South 24-Parganas district 

1074.25 sq.km. in North 24-Parganas dst. 

4444 sq.km is inhabited and the rest is 

reserved forest . 

• Sundarban area comprises 13 administrative 

blocks 

• Population of more than 4.5 million (2001) 

• Has 54 islands of which Sagar island is well 

famous for annual celebration of Ganga Sagar 

Mela, lying at the southern most part of it is 

Ashram of Rishi Kapil Deb. 

Subsurface hydrogeological formations of Sundarbans 

55


56 

• Generally, in the Indian Sundarbans brackish zone extend 

down to 180 m below ground level and thereafter is underlain 

by fresh groundwater. 

• At places within 180 m below ground level lenses of fresh 

water bearing aquifers of various dimensions are present. 

• These aquifers are lenticular in shape and are of limited 

extension i bbothhhhorizontally i ll andd vertically. i ll 

• Therefore, the fresh water aquifers at shallow depths may not 

be sustainable for a long time if used extensively for all 

purposes such as drinking, domestic and irrigation. 

• Potential fresh water bearing aquifers occur within 180 m to 

360 m below ground level. 

• The lower group of aquifers is 

exposed in the Kalyani- 

Ranaghat-Santipur area in 

Nadia district and Bangaon- 

Gaighata area in North 24- 

Parganas district. 

• The rainwater infiltration in 

these areas is considerable and 

prolific recharge of 

groundwater takes place. 

• Central Ground Water Board has recorded a 

falling trend of the piezometric surface during 

the period 1977 to 1997 in a borehole of depth 

274 m at Raidighi. The rate of the fall of the 

piezometric surface is as follows: 

• January – 7.1 cm/year 

• May – 17.5 cm/year 

• August – 8.9 cm/year 

• November – 5.7 cm/year 

• The aquifers in the area occur under a thick 

blanket of clay thereby precluding the 

possibility of direct recharge from rainfall. 

• The regional groundwater flow indicates that 

the recharge area must be lying in the northeastern, 

northern and north-western sides of 

the South 24-Parganas district. 

• In the west, the Cis-Damodar 

belt similarly has extensive 

near surface sand beds of 

considerable thickness in 

Tarakeswar-Nalikul-Mogra- 

Pandua area. 

• This entire area serves as a 

zone of prolific recharge 

zone of the aquifers in the 

east at greater depth. 



Pumping test 

• Pumping tests conducted by the GSI, CGWB and SWID 

indicate that the potentiality of the aquifer to transmit water 

decreases form north to south of South 24 Parganas district in 

relation to the normal mode of sedimentation from coarse to 

fine grain. 

• The transmissivity is as high as 10000 m 2 /day at Bhangar I 

block to as low as 500 m 2 /day at Namkhana and Sagar Island. 

• The storativity value also decreases from north to south in 

conformity with the transmissivity value. 

• The hydrogeological 

features clearly 

indicate that the 

surface water system 

does not have any 

hydraulic yd au c continuity co t u ty 

with the deeper fresh 

groundwater system to 

a significant level in 

the entire deltaic 

region. 

• Considering the range of tidal fluctuation and the 

very low level of the land in respect of the river water 

level, it is possible that temporary influent nature may 

develop during high tide period. 

• During the high tide if the river water level comes 

above the water table the river water starts to 

penetrate the formations. 

• The overall hydraulic conductivity of the formations 

in the shallow level is very low due to its 

predominantly clayey nature and so the extent of 

penetration of tidal water will be very limited. 




PumpingtestatRaidighi 

• At Raidighi a pumping test was carried out in an exploratory 

well by the State Water Investigation Directorate. 

• Multiple strainers were placed in the well at a depth of 152.44 

m to 167.68 m and 176.83 m to 195.12m. The drawdown 

recorded was 10 75 m for a discharge of 0 05 m3 recorded was 10.75 m for a discharge of 0.05 m /sec (4320 

3 /sec (4320 

m3 /day) . 

• The transmissivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer are 

1106 m 2 /day and 3.12 x10 -4 respectively. 

• The values indicate that the potentiality of the aquifer is 

comparatively low and the groundwater occurs under a 

confined condition. 

• However, the upper clay bed 

contains at places silt or fine 

sand beds. 

• In some areas groundwater 

from these beds is extracted 

through dug wells and hand 

pumps for very limited 

ddomestic i purpose. 

• The water table of these zones 

seems to be either in 

equilibrium or in effluent 

relation with the river system. 

• During low tide in such areas the micro flow system 

along the river will be reversed and the groundwater 

will start to flow towards the river i. e. effluent 

condition develops. 

• So the ultimate limit of penetration of the saline river 

water to the over bank formations formations, if any any, will be 

restricted within a very short distance, say 200 m to 

500 m. 

• Thus the non-biodegradable pollutant from the 

channels and river should not be polluting the shallow 

level groundwater system to any appreciable extent. 

57


58 

Management of Groundwater 

• Generally, in South 24 Parganas district brackish zone 

extend down to 180 m below ground level and 

thereafter is underlain by fresh groundwater. 

• At places within 180 m below ground level lenses of 

fresh water bearing aquifers of various dimensions 

are present in Raidighi area. 

– at Mudipara there is a fresh water bearing aquifer at depth 

range of 113 m to 137 m below ground level, from where 

the entire water supply of the village which includes 

drinking, domestic and irrigation is taking place 

• Therefore, it is quite clear that the fresh water 

aquifers at shallow depths are variable in dimensions 

and may not be sustainable for a long time if used 

extensively for all purposes. 

• It is advisable that the drinking/domestic wells may 

be placed p at adifferentlevel, more precisely p y at a 

deeper level. 

• The farmers may be advised to judiciously use the 

groundwater for irrigation purpose since the fresh 

water they are using at present for irrigation has a 

limited resource and may become brackish if not used 

carefully. 

• During ‘Aila’ the drinking water wells were 

salinised due to incursion of saline flood water. 

• This salinity is due to flood water entering into 

the well through the mouth of the tubewell and 

not due to saline water intrusion in the aquifer aquifer. 

• This salinity is temporary in nature and can 

easily be removed by simple pumping. 

– at Jata the drinking, bathing/drinking and irrigation wells 

are present at a depth of 110 m below ground level 

– at Derhazar there are two sand lenses, the first one is at a 

depth of 107 m below ground level and the second one is at 

a depth of 150 m below ground level, of which the first one 

was tapped by irrigation wells few years back but within a 

couple of years the aquifer turned brackish and had to be 

abandoned, and 

– at Natunchak a fresh water aquifer is present at a depth 

range of 128 m to 134 m below ground level which is used 

for domestic/drinking purpose. 

• Groundwater structures in the area has to be 

constructed giving due consideration to the regional 

hydrodynamic and hydrochemical scenario. 

• Design of tubewells should be carefully done since 

the aquifers are composed of very fine to fine sand 

and groundwater is somewhat prone to corrosion and 

encrustation at places. 

• Therefore, development and utilization of 

groundwater needs scientific management and 

planning. 

• The area is subject to regular flooding during 

monsoon and safe water supplies are critical during 

times of inundation. 

• It is also likely that global climate change is occurring 

and that flooding will become more severe in the 

future. 

• Therefore, it is imperative that drinking water tube 

wells should be constructed on raised cemented 

brick platform in flood shelter or strategic location as 

emergency preparedness so that the flood distressed 

people can get water from these sources during 

flood. 



• The raised platform and the steps (made of bricks with 

cement lining) leading to the top of the platform should have 

railings to avoid any accidents while climbing up and down 

the stairs and also while collecting water from the raised 

platform. 

• The raised platform should be at least 1.5 – 2 m above the 

highest flood level recorded in the area. 

• The size of platform should be such that it can accommodate 

comfortably at least two persons (one for pumping the 

tubewell) and the head of the tubewell. 

• The platform should be provided with a good drainage 

system. 

• Measurement of Chloride 

–(500 – 3000 ppm) – Rs. 3,523/- for 100 measurements 

–(2 – 300 ppm) – Rs. 11,067/- for 400 measurements 

• Measurement of Hardness – Rs 105/- for 100 tablets 

• Iron 0.25 – 15 ppm –Rs 11,377/- for 300 tests 

• Colliform bacteria – Rs. 650 for 10 tests 

• The above items may be purchased from 

Chemical & Instruments Corporation 

55, Ezra Street (3rd Floor), Kolkata 700 001 

Contact person: Mr. Rajendra Bhansali 

Telephone: 9830046909 (M), 2235-0746 (O), 2235-2180 (O) 

Fax: 2215-7734 


Raised 

Platform 



Hand Pump 

Waste water 

Coir 

2 -4 mm 

5-20 mm 

Perforated distributors 

000000000000000000000000000000 

000000000000000000000000000000 

000000000000000000000000000000 

000000000000000000000000000000 

00000000000000000000000 

0000000000000000000000000000 

00000000000000000000000 

00000000000000000000000 

00000000000000000000000 

Gravel Filter 

Vegetable garden 

• The waste water should be disposed in such a manner so that it will not 

cause any adverse effect to the environment. 

• The waste water may be either disposed to nearby vegetable garden or pond. 

• Before the final disposal the water should be treated in filter bed (Top – coir 

followed by gravel of 2-4 mm size followed by gravel of 5-20 mm size at the 

bottom 

• For water quality surveillance it is 

recommended that water quality testing be done 

at regular intervals (at least twice in a year). 

• Field measurement 

– Measurement of pH, TDS and Conductivity 

• Eutech Singapore made meter 

– Cost – Rs 16,600/- including calibrating solution 

• Water quality measurement can be done using the DREL 2800 Complete 

Water Laboratory of HACH (Product No. 29224-00). 

• This contains instruments, meters, reagents, apparatus and accessories – all 

in convenient, rugged carrying cases. 

• The product contains a DR 2800 portable spectrophotometer along with the 

reagents and apparatus necessary to run approximately 100 tests on 20 

different parameters such as acidity, alkalinity, ammonia, bromine, calcium, 

chloride, chlorine (free and total), chromium 6+, colour, copper, hardness, 

iodine iodine, iron iron, manganese manganese, molybdenum molybdenum, nitrate nitrate, nitrite nitrite, oxygen scavengers scavengers, 

ph, phosphate, silica, sulfate, sulfide, suspended solids. 

• Cost – Rs. 3, 90,000.00 

• The item can be purchased from: 

Amalgamated Biotech 

6, Muralidhar Sen Lane 

Kolkata – 700 073 

Contact Person: Mr. Pratim Chowdhury 

Telephone - 2241 5171/4738 

Fax – 2241 0331 

59


60 

ObjectiveofFutureResearch 

• The primary objective of any research on groundwater 

system of Sundarbans should be to build a framework 

for sustainable groundwater development in the 

Sundarbans keeping in mind the subsurface 

hhydrogeochemical d h i l conditions diti andd possible ibl iimpactt ddue 

to sea level rise in the future. 

• There could be a two-phase research carried out 

• Second phase 

– Numerical modeling of the groundwater 

system to find out the recharge areas of 

fresh groundwater under different pumping 

scenario 

• First phase 

– Building the conceptual hydrogeological model 

of Sundarbans 

• Understanding the subsurface geology of the area 

by drilling and constructing piezometer nests at 

different depths at 5-6 locations on 4-5 N-S 

accessible lines lines. 

• Understand the hydrogeochemical processes of the 

aquifer system based on major and trace ion 

chemistry, isotope geochemistry water types, 

hydrochemical facies and multivariate statistical 

analysis to define the interface between fresh and 

saline zones. 



Presentation on 

COLLECTIVE ACTION TO REDUCING CLIMATE 

DISASTER RISKS AND ENHANCING RESILIENCE OF 

THE VULNERABLE COASTAL COMMUNITIES 

AROUND THE SUNDARBAN IN BANGLADESH AND 

INDIA (CCDRER) 




AROUND THE SUNDARBAN (CCDRER) 

Goals of this Presentation 

1. Provide an overview of BCAS 

2. Provide an overview of the CCDRER project 

3. Impact of CC and Agriculture on Coastal areas around 

Sundarban 







AROUND THE SUNDARBAN (CCDRER) 

TheProjectisfundedby 

TheEuropeanUnion 

BY 

ASM SHAHIDUL HAQUE 

TEAM LEADER, CCDRER PROJECT 

BANGLADESH CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES (BCAS) 

Introduction 

ProjectImplementedby 

BangladeshCentreforAdvancedStudies 

ENSURING COLLECTIVE ACTION IN REDUCING CLIMATE 

DISASTER RISKS, ENHANCING RESILIENCE AND PROVIDING 

ADAPTATION TECHNOLOGY TO THE VULNERABLE PEOPLE 

LIVING AROUND THE SUNDARBANS 

Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies(BCAS) is a leading 

research and policy p y institute in the non-governmental 

g 

sector and working as an independent, non-profit, 

non-government institute since 1986. 

BCAS is implementing CCDRER project, funded by the 

European Union (EU) in selected clusters of 

Paikgacha Upazilla of Khulna district. 

COLLECTIVE ACTION TO REDUCING CLIMATE DISASTER 

RISKS AND ENHANCING RESILIENCE OF THE 

VULNERABLE COASTAL COMMUNITIES AROUND THE 

SUNDARBAN (CCDRER) 

Features of CCDRER project 

1. The project is designed considering Sundarban as 

a whole. 

2. T This project is being implemented in Bangladesh 

and Indian part of Sundarban. 

3. Proper use of science 

4. Idea sharing (GO/LGI/NGO/local 

people/stakeholders) 

5. DRR and enhancing resiliance. 

61


62 





5. Features of CCDRER project 

Proper selection of area and beneficiaries 

6. Integration local knowledge 

7. Awareness/Adaptation/Mitigation/Livelihood 

components 

8. Community based collective action 

9. Networking and dissemination 

10. Procedure recording 





Problems of Implementing Trans Trans-boundary boundary projects 

1. Policies / rules / laws 

2. Funding process and fund transfer process 

3. Human Resource mobilization 

4. Reporting 

5. Partnership 

PROJECT AREA IN BANGLADESH 

District Upazila Cluster Villages Target 

Household 

Khulna Paikgacha 1 15-20 15 20 500 

Bagerhat Morelganj 1 15-20 15 20 500 

Satkhira Shyamnagar 1 15-20 15 20 500 

PROJECT AREA 

PROJECT AREA IN BANGLADESH 



PROJECT AREA IN INDIA 

District PS Cluster Villages Target HHs 

South 24 Parganas Patharpratima 1 10 600 

South 24 Parganas Basanti 1 12 300 

North 24 Parganas Sandeshkhali 1 17 300 

North 24 Parganas Hingalganj 1 7 300 

Total 1500 

Based on Sundarban impact 

zone 

Low Low impact impact zone (>10 ( 0 km) 

Medium impact zone (5 (5-10 10 km) 

High impact zone (0 (0-5 5 km) 

-Reconnaissance Reconnaissance study 

-Census study 

-Baseline survey 

-PVA 

Site selection 

Methodology 

These studies and surveys were designed to collect 

information to assess present status of the target 

beneficiary in terms of climate related disaster risks, 

their adaptation capabilities and dependencies on 

Sundarban. 


Based on Salinity Level 

Low salinity 

Medium salinity 

High salinity 



Project Area In India 

Site selection 

TARGET BENEFICIARY GROUPS 

Target groups Needs and constraints 

Small and marginal Saline water intrusion reduced the scope of the 

farmers 

agricultural activities within the vicinity vicinity. They 

Fishermen are not aware about the climate change risks 

vulnerabilities 

vulnerabilities. They need to grow crops for their 

food security security. Saline tolerant crops are required 

to demonstrate. 

demonstrate 

fish 

The cyclone and tidal surge frequently damage 

fry/crab collectors their resources and reduce the scope of their 

livelihood livelihood. 

Honey/fuel wood 

They are exploiting the resource of the 

collectors 

Sundarban for their livelihood. livelihood They need to 

rehabilitate to reduce the natural forest forest. 

Landless Community They have poor access to livelihood and 

migrating to urban slums for searching of their 

livelihood livelihood. 

63


64 

SUMMARY ACTIONS 

1.Propersiteselectionandbeneficiaryselection 

2.ClimatechangeadaptationForum(Socialmobilizationandestablishing 

communitylinks) 

3.Vulnerabilityandriskassessment(PVA) 

4.Developmentofstrategyandactionplans 

5.StrengtheningCapacityandResilienceofthevulnerablecommunity 

Workshop 

Training 

Demonstration 

Awarenessbuilding 

Alternativelivelihood 

Lowcostandrenewableenergyoptions 

Promotionofagroforestryandsocialforestry 

WiderPartnershipandNetworking 

Monitoringandevaluation 

COASTAL AGRICULTURE AROUND THE SUNDARBAN 

IN BANGLADESH 

BANGLADESH 

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON COASTAL AGRICULTURE 

(INCLUDING AREAS AROUND SUNDARBAN 

Major problems 

1. Tidal surges, g Tidal flood and Salinity 

2. Water-logging and Drainage Congestion 

3. Drought, erratic rainfall & salinity 

EXPECTED RESULTS 

Understandingandawarenessraisedaboutclimatechangeimpactsand 

disasterrisksatcommunityandactorslevels 

Greaterengagementofactorsandcommunitylinksstrengthenedwith 

actorsandstakeholdersincludingLGIanddevelopmentactors 

Communitycapacitytoaddressclimatechangeandclimatedisastersis 

built 

Resilienceinhuman,socialandnaturalsystemsisbuiltingeneral; 

ClimatechangeadaptationandDRRaremainstreamedintolocaland 

regionaldevelopment,povertyalleviation,agriculture,fisheries,foodand 

watersecurity,livelihoodsandconservationefforts 

Energyefficiency,renewableandenergysecuritypromoted 

NaturalresourcesconservationandcommunitybasedNRMestablished 

givingDRR,adaptationandmitigation(carbonsinking)benefits 

Localandregionalnetworkandpartnershipstrengthened 

COASTAL BELT OF BANGLADESH AND SUNDARBAN 

Identifying/ prioritizing the climatic risk facts 

affecting crop production system 

Very severe risk Severe risk Moderate 

risk 

Low risk 

Salinity, Tidal surges, Temperature Tidal surges, Cold wave, 

Drought, Erratic variation, Salinity, Heat flow, Soil wetness, 

rainfall, ifllTid Tidall fl flood, d DDrought, h Sh Short NNew weeds, d FFogginess i 

river erosion duration of winter pests & 

season, 

loggingwater- 

diseases 



Recommendations 

1. Construction of Embankment for Controlling Tidal 

surges, Tidal flood and Salinity 

2. Re-excavation of canal for Removing Drainage 

Congestion g and Creating g Irrigation g Facilities in Water- 

logged Areas 

3. Promoting Drought & Salt Tolerant Crop Varieties 

4. Promoting Innovating Farming Practices in Vulnerable 

Areas 

a) Zero Tillage Practice 

b) Sorjan System of Cropping 

c) Promoting salt tolerant crop varieties 

ADAPTATION TECHNOLOGY FOR 

AGRICULTURE 

Vulnerable Situation Agricultural Technological Interventions: 

Suggested crops/Crop Varieties 

Drought and Salinity Rice: BR-42, 43 (drought tolerant), BR-47, BR-49, BR- 

54, BINA-7,8 (salt tolerant) 

Vegetables: HYV Water Gourd, Bitter Gourd, Cowpea, 

Cucumber, Red amaranth, Jhinga, Indian spinach. 

Potato/Sweet Potato: Cardinal, Diamont, Sweet Potato- 

8,9, & Local varieties 

Pulse crops: Mung-1,2,3,4,5,6, BARI Khesari-6, BINA 

Mung-3, Local Khesari, 

Wheat: Shourab, Gourab, Prodip 

Oil seed crops: Sharisa-15 

Water- 

Submergence 

logging/ Rice: Bri Dhan-44, Bri Dhan-51,52, 

Tidal surges/Tidal flood BR-51, BR-52 

INNOVATIVE PRACTICES FOR ADAPTATION 

IN AGRICULTURE 

Vulnerable Areas Suggested Innovative Practices 

Tidal surges/Tidal flood Sorjan System of Cropping: Cultivate year round 

vegetables, fruits and Spices on Raised beds and cultivate 

fish in ditches during wet season. 

Raised Pit System: Cultivate creeper vegetables on Trellis 

around the raised Pits formed by water hyacinth hyacinth. 

Utilizations of Pond edges/Gher areas: Cultivate year 

round vegetables, spices & fruits on pond edges or Gher 

areas profitably. 

Soil wetness/Clay soil Zero Tillage Practices: Cultivate Potato/Pulses/ Oil seeds 

areas/Late harvest of crops including vegetables under zero tillage practice 

T.Aman 

Dry Seeding Practice: Rice may be cultivated in char lands 

and wet soils using sprouted rice seeds. 




Adaptation in Agriculture in Bangladesh 

Adaptation measures in the contexts 

Promotion of climate resilient crops (salinity tolerant, submergence and 

drought tolerant varieties) of declining yields in coastal areas and 

Short duration and early crops 

Change in cropping patterns in the context of changes in by extremes 

(cyclones, tidal surge, seasons and weather patterns) 

Better farm management through new information dissemination, 

motivation i i and d fl flood d and d water llogging), i ) technological h l i l iinnovation i 

Disaster risk management and improving R&D in agriculture 

INNOVATIVE PRACTICES FOR ADAPTATION 

IN AGRICULTURE 

Vulnerable Areas Suggested Innovative Practices 

Drought and Salinity Rice: Irrigate with Sweet water, 

Pulses & Oil Seeds: Use of Compost 

Vegetables: Use of compost/poultry manure. 

Potato/Sweet Potato: Use of compost/poultry manure 

Pulse crops: Use off Compost/Poultry / l manure 

Wheat: Use of Compost/Poultry manure 

Oil seed crops: Use of Compost/Poultry manure 

Water- logging/ Sorjan System of Cropping: Cultivate year round 

Submergence 

vegetables, fruits and Spices on Raised beds and cultivate 

fish in ditches during wet season. 

Raised Pit System: Cultivate creeper vegetables on Trellis 

around the raised Pits formed by water hyacinth. 

Utilizations of Pond edges/Gher areas: Cultivate year 

round vegetables, spices & fruits on pond edges or Gher 

areas profitably. 

Adaptive Agriculture 

Floating bed agriculture Home stead garden on raised plinth 

65


66 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

Sunderban – theissuesin 

Agriculture g 

Anshuman Das 

SomeTrends 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

May 

Jun 

Jul 

AAug 

Sep 

Oct 

Characteristics 

• Moderatetohighsalinity 

• Lowinfiltrationandpoorlyaeratedsoil 

• Naturaldrainagesystemdisrupted 

• Water Watertakeslongtimetorecede 

takes long time to recede 

• Watertableislow,moresallowpumpinrecent 

yearsforBoro paddy 

• Chemicalintensivefarming 

• Smalllandholding 

• Poorinfrastructure 

450 

400 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 



2500 

2000 

1500 

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 

Avg8yrs 

Avglong 

TheannualaveragerainfalloftheSundarbans is1625mm.During 

19902000boththehigherandlowerrainfallvaluesaremorethan 

theyearlyaverage. 

1000 

500 

0 

TRF 

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

Theeconomiccostduetothisinthelast20yearsis 

estimatedtoincludepropertydamageworthRupees 

1,035million. 

Thereisasignificantincreaseinthesettlement 

from1226km2to1666km,whiletheavailable 

agricultural agriculturallandhasreducedfrom2149kmto1691km 

land has reduced from 2149 km to 1691 km 

duringtheperiod20012008.Thisconversion,along 

withthegrowthofpopulationimpliesanincreasing 

threattofoodsecurityinISD. 

Thestudyalsofoundasmallincreaseintheaquaculture 

farms(particularlyinNorth24Parganas)from603km 

to649km. 

TRF

Commentsfromfarmers 

• Very unpredictable rainfall, kharif crop is completely destabilized. 

• Winters and summers have become warmer in the last 4~5 

years. 

• Intermediary seasons have changed – spring has now 

disappeared and autumn is shorter. 

• Storms are increasing in frequency and intensity. 

• Cloud cover days have increased, that’s why Infestation of pests 

& diseases like ‘Blast’, etc. has been increased. 

• The expenditure rises in cultivation but the income is not up to 

the expectations. “The profit is hardly seen. Yield can be more if I 

can be in a position to expend more” . 

• The introduction of shallow of 15-20 ft. deep is the cause of 

collapsing of land and crack in the land. 

SomeAdaptivePrinciples 

• Use of locally adapted plants, animals etc. reduce the need for 

high external inputs. 

• Improving drainage system, mulch farming and cover crop will 

help reducing salinity. 

• Mixed/relay/rotation cropping of plants with different root depth & 

structure, resulting in optimal utilization of water & nutrient & 

higher resilience against environmental stress. 

• Multi-storey agro-forestry extend growing season . 

• Irrigation using surface water. 

• Biological soil inputs, which enhance capacity of soil to store 

water, carbon & nutrients reducing need for synthetic chemicals / 

soil nutrients. 

• Integration of animal, bird, fish, insects, micro organism etc. that 

reduce over dependency and increase resilience. 

• Consider more integrated approach with DRR, infrastructure and 

livelihood in general; also integrate local knowledge. 




Commentsfromfarmers 

• A southern wind is destroying the panicle of rice during their 

initiation stage. The flowering stage of paddy cultivation is not 

uniform. 

• The frequency of lightning, thunderbolt is increasing. 

• The fruit yield of new trees is better but in case of older trees, 

there has been a low lo yield ield for the last 33-4 4 yrs. rs 

• The fish species are also becoming extinct and the production 

is low. 

• Some crops like Chilli, are completely gone. 

• Salinity is very high, now it is visible in most of the soil. 

• Many of them lost land due to erosion or becoming 

uncultivable due to salinity. 

Thanks 

67


68 

Prof. Dewan Ali Ahsan Ahsan, , PhD 

Chairman 

Department of Fisheries 

University of Dhaka 

Description of sundarbans 

The Sundarbans are the world's largest halophytic mangrove forests 

and one of the most biologically productive of all natural 

ecosystems. 

lie across the outer deltas of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna 

rivers 

At 10,000 sq.km, it forms the largest estuarine mangrove forest in 

the world 

The adjacent World Heritage sites in India and Bangladesh cover just 

over a quarter of the area. 

It exemplifies the ecological processes of monsoon rain flooding, 

delta formation, tidal influence and plant colonisation 

has a wide range of rare fauna, including the Bengal tiger, estuarine 

crocodile and many fish, reptiles and birds. 

CLIMATE 

The climate is humid sub-tropical, tempered by the 

sea 

Temperatures 32°C during the monsoon and a 

maximum around 43°C 43 C in March 

Rainfall is heavy and the humidity averages 70-80% 

due to the nearness of the Bay of Bengal 

The mean annual rainfall is about 2000mm 

80% of the rain falls during the monsoon between 

mid-June and October, 

LAND TENURE 

Owned by the Government of Bangladesh. 

Management is by the National Forest 

Department. 

AREAS 

139,500 ha. The total area of both World 

Heritage sites is 272,510 ha. 

Bangladesh: 

Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary 71,502 ha 

Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary 36,790 ha 

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary 31,227 ha 

The West and adjoining South Sanctuaries adjoin 

the Indian National Park. 

ALTITUDE 

Sea level to 3m at most, 



They contribute to the stabilization of the shoreline and prevention of 

shore erosion 

The mangrove detritus is consumed by the juveniles of a variety of 

bivalves, shrimps and fishes 

Mangroves provide shelter and serve as breeding grounds for a wide 

variety of aquatic species. 

Mangrove provide nesting sites for many shore birds, lizards, turtles 

other animals. 

Natural wall 

A rare species of shark,the Ganges river shark Glyphis 

gangeticus swims the estuaries 

Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) 

Mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) 

Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) 

Water monitor lizards (Varanus salvator) 

Aq Aquatic atic mammals include incl de 

Ganges river dolphin Platanista gangetica (EN) 

Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphin Sousa chinensis 

This ecosystem has become vulnerable to 

pollution such as oil spillage, heavy metals, and 

agrochemicals 

Bio-indicator species like Dinophysis norvegica 

points to moderately polluted water quality of 

the estuary 




Nursery ground for 90% of aquatic species of the coast 

400 fish species with 20 shrimp, 8 lobster and 7 crab species 

Over 110 commercial species of fish 

Brackish water and marine species are dominant, freshwater species 

being found only in the Baleswar River on the eastern edge 

Some commercial sp 

T. ilisha 

Pompus argenteus 

Herpodon nehereus 

Polynemous sp 

P monodon 

Overfishing 

Destructive fishing 

Embankment 

Indiscriminate PL collection ( 

push and drag nets) 

By-catch 

Increase in temperature and sea level rise will seriously 

affect the Sundarbans 'ecosystem and bio-diversity 

Shifting phytoplankton biodiversity of sunderbans 

The rise in sea level and availability of less fresh water 

particularly during winter when rainfall will be less will 

cause inland intrusion of saline water. 

69


70 

Salinity 

 

Sunderbans is the transitional zone between 

freshwater supplied by rivers and saline water 

pushed h d bby th the BBay of f BBengal. l 

Many fish species and other crustaceans utilize 

fresh water for spawning and juvenile feeding. 

The Hilsa needs less salinity to lay eggs. 

Ocean Acidification 

Have impact on biodiversity. 

Calcifying organisms such as corals and shell forming organisms 

are the most likelyy to be affected. 

An increase in the dissolved CO2 levels, decrease in pH could 

also have an effect on the gas exchange process of aquatic 

species 

Might disturb migration of Hilsha 

although more realistic studies are needed. 

Issues of conflict in Fisheries sector 

1. Demographic change (a sharp influx of new-comers 

perhaps driven by declining economic or ecological wellbeing 

in other sectors); 

2. Natural resources competition (increased dependence 

upon the natural resource can heighten competition for 

space p and resources); ); 

3. Developmental pressures (as government policy switches 

from livelihood protection to food production, TRM) 

4. Structural injustices (changes in legislation that deny or 

severely restrict access to a resource by dependent groups in 

society) 

Diseases in Hatchery and gher 

Antibiotic s and pesticides 

Rainfall problem 

Quality seed and feed. 

Sustainable fishery management : 

Forest Area 

Affected by 

cyclone SIDR 

If possible mosquito net production should be banned 

DoF capacity building for strong monitoring system 

Stakeholders involvement in policy making and implementing 

procedure 

Awareness building programme ( MEDIA) 

Gear restriction at down stream so that fish can easily migrate 

to upstream 



Sustainable fishery management (contd): 

Hilsa is a highly migratory trans-boundary fish ,so joint 

initiative ( Bangladesh, India and Myanmar) is essential. 

Temporary ban of Jatka and brood hilsha fishing (during 

peak spawning season) should be maintain not only in 

Bangladesh but also in India to maintain the optimum stock 

Joint action may be taken to control diseases 

Stock assessment 

Joint cell for sundarbans ecosystem conservation 

We can divide the country , 

restrict the people 

We cannot divide the 

ecosystem 

Sundarbans is an unique 

ecosystem and Bangladesh – 

India initiative is essential 




More attentions need to be taken for this 

fishery livelihoods 

Alternative Alternative livelihood 

E-flow concept 

Science knows no country 

It is for humanity 

It is the torch to illuminate the 

world 

71


72 

Sunderban: 

Glimpses 

from 

History 

Sunderban: 

Resources and Prospects 

Dr. Aniruddha Mukhopadhyay 

Head & Associate Professor, 

Department of Environmental Science, 

University of Calcutta 

The Sunderban Forest covers 

an area of 9630 Km 2 out of 

which 4266 Km 2 is Mangrove 

forest. 

Due to its beauty and richness 

of wildlife, it was recognized 

as Biosphere Reserve and 

was declared a World Natural 

Heritage Site by UNESCO. 

In 1495, Bipradas in his poem 

mentioned about Chand 

Saudagar’s journey from 

Burdwan to Sunderban… 

Ain-i-Akbari (1582) in Mughal 

period reported the riverine 

revenue collection from 

Satgaon which is now in 

Sunderban. 

Sunderban: the unique 

ecosystem 

The Sunderban (21° 30 to 22 ° 40 N, 88 ° 05 to 89 ° 55 E) 

is the largest estuarine mangrove forest in the world 

spanning about 350 km in width located in West Bengal 

(India) and Bangladesh. 

Indian Sunderban is a part of the largest prograding Ganges 

delta formed at the estuarine phase of the Hugli-Matla river 

systems 

Within this geographical area, forests cover nearly 10,000 

sq km, of which about 6,000 sq km are in Bangladesh. 

Indian Sunderban: Few facts 

Out of total 102 islands, 

54 are habitable. 

Population 

approximately pp y 45 lakhs. 

Climate 

Relatively high temperature and humidity (>80 %) 

throughout the year, and well distributed rainfall 

during the monsoon season. 

Average annual maximum temperature is around 

35°C. The summer extends from middle of March to 

middle of June and winter from December to 

February . 

Average annual rainfall is 1920 mm. 



Biodiversity 

Sunderbans with rich floral and faunal diversity, 

forms a productive and protective margin for 

coastal West Bengal and Bangladesh. 

Very unique and rich ecological diversity 

comprising : – 334 species of plants, 49 species of 

mammals, 400 species of fish, 320 species of birds, 

53 species of reptiles, 11 amphibian species; along 

with numerous invertebrates, phytoplankton, fungi, 

bacteria, zooplankton, benthic invertebrates, 

molluscs. 

Few representative phytoplankton taxa in 

Sunderban estuary 

a) Bacteriastrum sp 

b) Coscinodiscus sp 

c) Chaetocero 

curvesetus 

d) Bacteriastrum 

hyalinum 

e) Closterium 

f) Asteronella 

g) ) GGrammatophora t h 

marina 

h) Nitzschia sp 

i)Navicula penata 

j) Gyrosigma baticum 

k) Anabaena 

l) Asterionellopsis 

gracilis 

m) Dinophysis norvegica 

n) Polykrikos schwartzil 

(Ref: Manna et. al., 2010) 

Algal Biodiversity 

Botrychia, Catenella and Caloglossa form a turfy 

covering on mangrove tree trunks and 

pneumatophores. 

At a lower level on the same trees trees, species of 

Caloglossa occur along with Chaetomorpha and 

Rhizoclonium. 

Species of Lyngbya, Oscillatoria and Microcoleus 

are common on pneumatophores and on the mud 

(Mandal and Naskar, 1994). 

(Ref:Gopal and Chauhan, 2006) 




Phytoplanktons 

Major sink of atmospheric CO 2 

Constitute the foundation of 

marine and estuarine food web 

Efficient adsorption of 

nutrients 

Bio-indicator of climate 

change 

Algal Biodiversity 

P 

H 

Y 

T 

O 

P 

L 

A 

N 

K 

T 

O 

N 

•Highly diverse algal flora ranging from the 

freshwater to marine environments, though very 

detailed study has not been conducted yet. 

•Naskar et al. (2004), listed 150 species including 

15 species of Rhodophyceae and 2 species of 

Phaeophyceae. 

•From different short term patchy studies, 

presence of Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, 

Diatoms, Rhodophyceae , Phaeophyceae and 

Chrysophyceae are reported. 


Microbial biodiversity 

Sunderban Mangrove ecosystem ideally situated at the 

inter-phase between the terrestrial and marine 

environment supports a rich and diverse group of 

microorganisms. 

Actinomycetes 

Bacteria 

(Ref: Das et. al.,2006) 

Fungi 

Breakdown of 

organic matter 

Mineral cycle 

73


74 

Invertebrates 

Ref:(Chaudhuri and Choudhury, 1994). 

Few common fish 

species 

Harpodon nehereus 

Trichiurus savala 

Setipinna sp. 

Pampus sp. 

Sardinella sp. 

Salar sp. p 

Pangasius pangasius 

Lates calcarifer 

Hilsa (Tenualosa) ilisha 

Pomadasys hasta 

Polynemus sp. 

Coilia sp. 

Periopthalmus sp. 

Boleopthalmus sp. 

Faunal Biodiversity 

Crustaceans (240 species) 

Insects (201 species) 

• Odonates and dipterans are dominant 

Molluscs (143 aspecies) 

Annelids (78 species) 

Nematodes (68 species) 

Protozoans (104 species) 

Reptiles and Amphibians 

Among various turtles and tortoises, 

six species are nearly extinct or 

threatened. 

Of the four marine turtles, the Olive 

ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), 

though endangered, is the most 

abundant. 

The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is 

rare due to excessive fishing, while 

the loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and 

hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) 

are not common.(Hussain and 

Acharya, 1994). 

The river terrapin (Batagur baska) 

and three of the 14 species of lizards 

and monitors are also endangered. 


Faunal Biodiversity 

FISH 

The fish fauna of the Bangladesh Sunderban includes 53 

pelagic and 124 demersal species (Sarker,1989; Rainboth, 

1991). Of these, over 120 species have been recorded in 

commercial i l catches th (S (Seidensticker id ti k andd HHai, i 1983) 1983). Th The IIndian di 

Sunderban supports a similar number of species (165 species; 

Sanyal, 1999) 

Presence of a number of ornamental fish resources in Indian 

Sunderbans. (Mandal et. al.,2012) 

Reptiles and Amphibians 

Among snakes, the Family Boidae 

is the largest followed by 

Hydrophidae Elapidae, 

Typhlopidae and Viperidae. 

Noteworthy species are the King 

Cobra (Ophiophagus Hannah), 

Indian spectacled cobra (Naja 

naja) j ) and d IIndian di python th (P (Python th 

molurus). 

Banded krait (Bungarus 

fasciatus), Common krait 

((Bungarus caeruleus) Russells 

Viper (Daboia russelii) 

Estuarine Crocodiles(Crocodilus 

porosus) are also very common. 



Birds 

Several species of kingfishers (including 

brown-winged and stork-billed 

kingfishers, Pelargopsis amauropterus 

and P. capensis, respectively) and the 

magnificent white-bellied sea-eagle 

(Haliaeetus leucogaster)are quite 

common, as are many herons, egrets, 

storks, sandpipers, whimbrels, curlews 

and other waders. 

There are also many species of gulls and 

terns, especially along the coast and the 

larger waterways. 



Birds 


Species 

Flowering Plants 105 

Algae 150 

Lichens 32 

The large spatial and 

temporal variability in 

hydrological regimes (both 

freshwater inflows and the 

tides), topography and 

texture of the substratum, 

the salinity, and their 

interactions, result in very 

high habitat heterogeneity 

in the mangrove 

ecosystems, and thereby 

ensure an equally diverse 

biodiversity. 

The greyheaded fish eagle 

(Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus) and 

Pallas’s fish-eagle (Haliaeetus 

leucoryphus) are quite rare. 


Apart from the species particularly 

associated with the sea and 

wetlands, there are woodpeckers, 

barbets, shrikes, drongos, mynahs, 

minivets, babblers and many 

others(Salter, 1984), along with a 

number of migratory birds. 

Floral Biodiversity 

Mangrove Biodiversity 

In India part if 

Sunderban, the total 

vascular flora (including 

mangrove associates) is 

estimated at 100 species 

representing ti 34 ffamilies ili 

and 57 genera, 

comprises of 30 species 

of trees, 32 shrubs, and 

the rest are herbs, 

grasses, sedges and 

ferns. 

True Mangrove species = 26 

Mangrove associates = 29 

Back mangrove species= 29 



Mammalian Biodiversity 

Among 40 species the only primate 

is the rhesus macaque (Macaca 

mulatta) which still occurs in good 

numbers, but its population is 

declining gradually. 

As per 2004 census, the tiger 

population in Indian Sunderban is 

around 274. 

Spotted deer (Cervus axis) and 

wild boar (Sus scrofa) occur in 

large numbers. 

Besides three species of otters, 

there are wild cats (Felis 

bengalensis, F. chaus and F. 

viverrina) and the Ganges River 

Dolphin (Platanista gangetica). 

Forest Types 

Tidal Swamp Forests 

Saline Water Type Mixed Forests 

Brackish Water Type Mixed Forests 

Palm Swamp Type Forests 

Mangrove Biodiversity 

In general, the northern boundary and new depositions are 

characterized by Baen (Avicennia marina, A. alba, A. 

officinalis) flanked by foreshore grassland of Porteresia 

coarctata (Dhani grass). 

Baen is gradually replaced by Genwa (Excoecaria 

agallocha) and then Goran (Ceriops spp.). 

The southern and eastern associates include Garjan j 

(Rhizophora spp.), Kankra (Bruguiera spp.), and few 

patches of Sundari (Heritiera fomes ). 

Hental (Phoenix paludosa) forest exists in relatively high 

land and compact soil. 

Dhundul (Xylocarpus granatum), Passur (Xylocarpus 

mekongensis) and Nypa fruticans (Golpata) palm swamps 

are extremely limited. 

75


76 

Food chain in the mangrove ecosystem in 

Sunderbans 

(Ref: Banerjee, 1998) 

Factors affecting biodiversity in mangroves 

Threatened fauna of Sunderbans: 

Reptilia 

Crocodylus porosus (Estuarine 

Crocodile) 

Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive 

Ridley Turtle) 

Batagur baska (Batagur Turtle) 

Lissemys punctata (Indian 

Flapshelled p Turtle) ) 

Trionyx gangeticus (Indian 

Softshelled Turtle) 

Kachuga tecta (Indian Tent 

Turtle) 

Varanus bengalensis (Common 

Indian Monitor) 

Varanus salvator (Water 

Monitor) 

Python morulus (Indian Rock 

Python) 

(Ref: Gopal and Chauhan, 2006) 


Threats to biodiversity 

Climate change: Temperature is showing an 

increasing trend, as well as precipitation 

Variability in the climatic parameters has been 

increased 

Growing human population: Consequently 

overexploitation of both timber and fauna, and 

conversion of the cleared land to agriculture and 

aquaculture. 

Hydrological factors 

Man-animal conflict 

Pollution from agrochemicals, industrial wastes 


Mammalia 

Panthera tigris tigris (Royal 

Bengal Tiger) 

Felis bengalensis (Leopard Cat) 

Felis viverrina (Fishing Cat) 

Platanista gangetica(Gangetic 

Dolphin) 

Orcaela brevirostris (Irrawady 

Dolphin) 

Neophocaena phocaenoides (Little 

Indian Porpoise) 


Aves 

Ardea goliath (Great Goliath 

Heron) 

Pelecanus phillippensis (Dalmatian 

Pelican) 

Leptotilos duius (Lesser Adjutant 

Stork) 





Effect of Climate change on Sunderban 

biodiversity 

Relationship between climate change and 

hydro-meteorology 

GHG increase 

Increase in 

radiative forcings 

Increase in 

temperature 

Changes in 

precipitation & ET 

Changes in soil 

moisture 

Changes in soil 

groundwater 

(Ref: Mukherjee, 2010) 

Snow and Ice melt 

Sea level rise 

Changes in drought 

Changes in 

run-off 


Changes in 

river flow 

Storm surge 

Salinity intrusion 

Backwater effect 

by tidal flow 

Changes in 

flood 



Effect of Climate change on Planktons 

Salinization of land 

Alteration of pH 

Increased salinity of 

water bodies 

Increase in 

temperature 

Invasion of 

Stenohaline species 

Physio-chemical 

variation of ambient 

aquatic phase 

Change in Plankton 

community 

Nekton and benthic molluscan 

community and fishery affected 

Climate change effect 

Sea level rise : 1990-2000: 3.14mm/ year 

Sea level rise : 2000-2009: 17.8mm/ year 

Net land loss: 2000-2009: 65 sq. km. 

26% increase of high to very high intensity cyclones: 1881-2001 

(Ref: WWF) 

77


78 

Changing Pattern in Distribution of Sundri 

and Gewa from 1992 to 2001 

Sea level 

rise (cm) 

(baseline is 

year 2000 ) 

Impact on tigers 

(In Bangladesh region) 

High tiger 

abundance 

habitat 

(km 2 ) 

Medium 

tiger 

abundance 

habitat 

(km 2 ) 

Low tiger 

abundance 

habitat 

(km 2 ) 


Total tiger 

habitat 

(km 2 ) 

0 574 1,445 2,155 4,175 

4 574 1,442 2,153 4,169 

8 551 1,352 2,117 4,021 

12 527 1,229 1,941 3,697 

16 458 1,011 1,477 2,946 

20 309 622 840 1,771 

24 142 236 296 674 

28 37 74 48 159 


Services of the resources from Sunderban 

widely used for survival and well-being 

Provisioning 

Services 

• Food, timber, 

fiber 

•Building 

materials 

• Pharmaceutical 

compounds 

Regulating 

Services 

• Regulation of 

climate & 

natural 

hazards 

• Regulation of 

water quality 

• Fixation of 

atmospheric 

carbon 

Cultural 

Services 

• Recreational, 

aesthetic, 

spiritual p 

benefits 

•Coastal 

tourism 

Supporting 

services 

•Soil formation 

• Photosynthesis 

• Nutrient 

cycling 

• Commercial 

fisheries 

Changing Pattern in Distribution of Goran and 

Gewa from 1992 to 2001 


Bio prospecting: Use of ‘Mother Nature’ 

Exploration, extraction 

and screening 

Indigenous and 

folklore knowledge for 

commercially valuable 

resources 

Highly significant for 

pharmaceutical and 

medicinal fields 

Boost up the economic 

scenario 

Direct use 

Food 

Fodder 

Timber 

Firewood 

Charcoal 

Fisheries 

Medicines 

Biocides 

Construction materials 

Mangroves 

sssss Sunderban: 

Endless resources 

Shows highly ecological, 

chemical and biological 

diversity starting from 

microorganisms to highly 

evolved vertebrates, thus 

proving us huge resources. 

Provides both goods( foods 

and raw materials) and 

diverse services . 

Indirect use 

Shoreline/riverbanks 

protection 

Flood and flow control 

Habitat 

Prevention of saline 

water intrusion 

Phytoremediation 

Maintenance of 

biodiversity 

Nutrient retention 



Medicinal use of some mangroves 

Ethno medicinal knowledge 

Acnthus ilicifolius 

Aegiceras corniculatum 

Avicennia alba 

Avicennia marina 

Avicennia officinalis 

Bruguiera gymnorhiza 

Ceriops tagal 

Excoecaria agallocha 

(Ref: Bandaranayake, 1998) 


aphrodisiac, asthma, blood purifier, (Fr), 

diabetes, diuretic, dyspepsia, hepatitis, 

leprosy(Fr, L, R) neuralgia, paralysis, 

ringworms, rheumatism, skin diseases, 

snake bites,stomach pains, (B, Fr, L). 

asthma, diabetes, rheumatism, (L,B) 

antifertililty, skin diseases, tumors, ulcers, 

(Resin) (Resin). 

rheumatism, small pox, ulcers, (St). 

aphrodisiac, diuretic, hepatitis, (Fr, L), 

leprosy, (B). 

eye diseases, (Fr). 

stops hemorrhages, (B). 

epilepsy, (L, Sap), conjunctivitis, dermatitis, 

haematuria, leprosy, (L, Sap, St), 

purgative,(L, sap), toothache, (Sap). 

Chemical use of mangroves: 

The bark of various mangrove species is used in 

tannin production. 

Ceriops decandra is a major source of tannin 

while the barks of other species such as Bruguiera 

gymnorrhiza and Xylocarpus granatum also have 

a high tannin content. 

Xylocarpus granatum fruits are also used in 

tanning. 

(Ref: Rahaman,2000) 

Microbial uses 

Naturally occurring petroleum degrading aerobic bacteria . 

Bioactive metabolite from the selected fungal isolates and 

their antimicrobial activity (Radhakrishnan et. Al.,2011) 

Cyanobacteria isolated from the intertidal soil of Sunderbans 

exhibits antimicrobial compunds (Pramanik and 

mukherjee,2011) 

Marine actinomycetes constitute an important and potential 

source of novel bioactive compounds (Colwell et. Al.,1992) 

The first document on antibiotic-producing marine bacteria was 

by Rosenfeld and Zobell62. Since then, there are several 

reports of antibiotic-producing marine bacteria.(Burgess et. 

Al., 1999) 



Medicinal use of some mangroves 

Ethno medicinal knowledge 

Heritiera littoralis 

Nypa fruiticans 

Rhizophora p apiculata p 

Sonneratia caseolaris 

Xylocarpus granatum 

(Ref: Bandaranayake, 1998) 

Class of 

Chemical 

diarrhea (St). 

asthma, diabetes, leprosy, 

rheumatism, snake bite, (L, Fr). 

antiemetic, antiseptic, diarrhea, 

hhaemostatic, i (B) (B), hhepatitis, i i (B (B, Fl Fl, 

Fr, L), stops bleeding, typhoid, 

(B). 

bleeding, hemorrhages, piles, sprain 

poultices, (Fr). 

cholera, fever, malaria, (B). 

Several novel compounds :useful for 

medicinal and agricultural purposes 

Compound Source biological 

activity 

Benzoquinones O-methylembelin Aegiceras 

corniculatum 

toxic to fish, 

toxic to the 

fungi pythium 

ultimum 

Napthoforans Avicennia marina phytoalexins 

Diterpenes Gibberellin A3 

Gibberellin A7 

Diterpenes Gibberellin A4 

Gibberellin A9 

Bruguiera gymnorhiza plant growth 

hormones 

Rhizophora mucronata plant growth 

hormones 

Alkaloids Benzoxazolin-2-one Acanthus illicifolius Antitumor 

activity 

( Ref: Miles et. al., 1999) 

Combating salinity increase 

Presence of different 

Halophilic and 

Halotolerant species. 

Combating climate 

change: Resurgence of 

local salt tolerant rice 

strains specially in postaila 

scenario. 

Few salt tolerant rice 

strains in Sunderbans: 

Dudheswar 

Matla 

Karpur dhuli 

Patnai 23 

Vaidheli 

79


80 

Potential Bio-active compounds and Secondary metabolites: 

Medicinal and pharmaceutical interface 

Several marine researches reported about various Bio-active 

compounds and metabolites from Sponges, Cnidarians, Molluscs. 

Since 1970 about 18000 marine natural products have been 

isolated, of which 25% are from algae, 33% from sponges, 18% 

from Cnidarians and 24% from other marine organisms like 

ascidians, molluscs, echinoderms, bryozoans (Bhakuni and Rawat, 

2005) 

These are the most virgin areas of research in sunderban which 

will surely explore some magnificent results with a new dimension 

in drug discovery. 

Many of them can be used as a Bio indicator of pollution and 

climate change. 

(Ref: Sarkar, 2011) 



Various fish species are used to extract oils rich in 

omega-3-fatty acids as well as toxins used for 

different purposes. 

Diverse algal population can be served both as a 

source of nutrition and pharmacologically 

important bioactive molecules. 

Fisheries along with a new dimension in sea food 

The Sunderban supports very rich estuarine and 

coastal marine fisheries. It is the most 

important non-forestry product of the forest. 

The shallow water, creeks, small and big rivers 

crossing mangrove forests supports many species 

of fish. 

SSome species i such h as Hil Hilsha h ilisha ili h are 

exclusively marine but travel through estuaries 

to the upstream areas for breeding and then 

return to the sea. 

Shrimps and prawns constitute the most 

important fishery of the zone. The most 

important crustaceans’ species are Penaeus 

mondon and Macrobarachium rosenbergi. 



Opens sodium 

channels in cell 

membrane 

(Ref: Sarkar, 2011) 

Produces Ciguatoxin 

Marine Algae 

Dianoflagellates 

Affecting mainly 

neuronal, cardiac and 

gastrointestinal tissues 

300 times more toxic 

than Tetradotoxin 

produced by Pufferfish 

Antioxidant 

against pesticide 

toxicity 

Fisheries: An economic overview 

Crustaceans account for the largest 

proportion of animal biomass, with an 

estimated annual harvest of 40 million 

kilograms of fiddler crabs and 100 million 

kilograms of mud crabs besides a 

considerable harvest of shrimps, prawns 

and lobsters. 

Marine aquarium trade is rapidly 

expanding and there is a growing demand 

for tropical ornamental fishes in the 

international market. 

Honey and bee wax 

Although honey and bees-wax are universal non-forest 

products, in the Sunderbans, these are included in the nonwood 

forest products and treated with particular 

importance with respect to their market and food value. 

•Aegiceras corniculatum and 

Ceriops decandra, these two 

species are favored by the honeybee 

Apis dorsata. 

•Honey made from Aegiceras is of 

high quality and has a distinctive 

flavor. 



Sunderban 

Mangrove 

Ecosystem: 

Thrust Areas 

Thank 

You 

• Documentation 


• Diversity and Stability 

• Ecology 

• Behaviour/ Ethology 

• Bioprospecting and Adaptation 

Studies 

Integrated coastal 

and marine 

management 



Summary 

Highly ecological, 

chemical and 

biological 

diversity: needs 

economic 

valuation 

Sunderban 

Community 

participation 

Monitoring the 

impact of climate 

change 

81


82 

PUBLIC HEALTH IN SUNDARBANS 

Issues and way forward 

Soumitra Roy 

soumitra20@gmail.com 

Consisting of 102 islands on the Indian side, of which 

46 are forested and the rest variably inhabited. 

The Sundarban delta is home of about 4 million 

people. 

HEALTH SCENARIO 

84% patients received treatment from qualified or non 

qualified doctors. The remaining 16% did not, mostly 

because of poverty. 

77% ‘poorest of the poor’ patients chose not to seek 

treatment compared to 47 % of the average income 

families. 

Excessive dependence on unqualified RMPs/Quacks is 

directly related to non-availability of quality services (and 

at affordable price) and geographical barriers. 

At least 65% patients are treated by untrained rural 

practitioners (State average is around 53%). 

Source: Sabuj Sangha (2012), study of 2 blocks, Patharpratima and Gosaba 

EXISTING SCENARIO 

There are 19 Blocks in Sundarban. 

6 (Gosaba, Hingalgunj, Patharpratima, 

Sandeshkhali II, Namkhana, Kultali) are 

extremely inaccessible and lack even the most 

basic facilities. 

8 (Sagar, Jaynagar II, Canning II, Basanti, 

Minakhan, Kakdwip, Mathurapur II, 

Sandeshkhali I) are remote and severely 

underdeveloped. 

Remaining 5 (Hasnabad, Canning I, Joynagar I, 

Mathurapur I and Haroa) are in main land with 

greater accessibility and somewhat better living 

conditions. 

Inhabitants face challenges of geo-climatic hazards, 

poor infrastructure facilities and uncertainties of 

livelihood leading to chronic poverty – all these 

contribute to increased vulnerability to health 

risks. 

HEALTH FACILITIES 

There are 838 Sub Centers (SCs) in the region. 

16% (134) are non-functional 

In Gosaba and Patharpratima Blocks on an average1 

PHC is catering to the health needs of 110,000 people. 



ISSUES WITH GOVT. HEALTH SERVICES 

HR and service delivery issues in higher facilities 

The majority of PHCs and BPHCs are understaffed 

Limited electricity supply 

Poorly managed 

Resulting in underperformance and underutilization of 

existing facilities. 

Absenteeism and unaccountability cripples credibility and 

reliability of curative services offered by Govt. 

HEALTH INDICATORS 

Institutional deliveries situation in Sundarbans – 

WB (1996 to 2006) – from 40.1% to 43.1% 

WB – Rural (2007-08) ( ) – 43.2% 

North 24 Parganas (2007-08) – 43.4% 

South 24 Parganas (2007-08) – 36.4% 

Sundarbans (2007-08) – 29% 

IMR ?? 

MMR ?? 

Geriatric care?? 

ICDS ?? 

WHO ARE PROVIDING THE HEALTH SERVICES? 

People depend on RMPs / Quacks, but why? 

They are available within 1 km from any household in 

the Sundarbans. 

They are readily available at any time for home visits, 

‘chamber’ consultancy, medicines, ‘indoor’ treatment 

(diarrhea, ( , dehydration, y , abortions, , abscess drainage, g , 

etc). 

Most of the service is rendered on credit, and the entire 

family pays for the whole service once or twice a year. 

They are well connected to laboratories/investigation 

centers, as well as with Nursing Homes, in distant 

towns. 

They accompany patients to higher treatment centers, 

when needed. 

RMPs/quacks represent a ‘friendly neighborhood’. 


MOST VULNERABLE GROUPS 



Women and children are particularly vulnerable. 

For delivery a woman is to go thought 

Average travel of 8 Kms 

Inaccessible terrain - needs boats, van rickshaws etc. 

4 – 5 hours time 

Physical strain. 

The travel is a nightmare after dusk, and anytime during 

the monsoons. 

More than 50% children (0-3 years) are 

malnourished. 

Colostrums feeding from within one hour of childbirth 

is practiced by 45% mothers. 

Exclusive Breast Feeding for first 6 months is 

practiced by only 35% mothers. 

Significant number of malnourished children 

chronically h i ll suffer ff from f diarrhea di h or respiratory i t tract t t 

infections or skin rash and receive partial 

symptomatic treatment mainly from local quacks. 

Child vaccination against common dangerous 

infections is not yet ‘universal’ subject to availability 

of vacancies in the Sub Centers. 

In Sundarbans, the rate of absolute noncoverage 

is as high as 7% (WB 3%). 

WASH ISSUES 

22% of 31210 families do not have sanitary toilet 

facilities in Patharpratima Block 

At any given point of time 5% tube wells are nonfunctional 

6% of all diseases are diarrhoea (WHO, (WHO 2006) 

High rate of hookworm infestation – a major 

contributor to anemia 

Poor menstrual hygiene practices 

83


84 

WAY FORWARD 

Multi pronged strategy needed 

Quick fix Vs. Long term interventions 

Trans boundary initiative 

LONG-TERM 

Advocacy with Govt. to improve institutional health 

services 

Advocacy with PRI to undertake greater role in public 

health sphere 

Community y managed g communication for effective 

behaviour change 

Supporting communities to improve their livelihood 

system 

Support to improve nutrition of the mother and child 

Support to improve drinking water and sanitary toilet 

facilities 

Making all stakeholders aware of climate change issues 

and its impact 

Thank you 

IMMEDIATE 

Training for Dais to support ‘home delivery’ 

Improvement in quality of services through RMPs 

Strengthening of ASHA initiative of Govt. 

Advocacy with PRI to provide 1 hand pump for every 

250 people l and d sanitary i toilets il with i h all ll families f ili 

Strategic communication planning for home based 

diarrhoea management 

Ensuring 100% immunisation to reduce infant deaths 

related to measles (will be a part of ASHA initiative 

but Govt. to ensure service delivery) 

Increase ANC coverage to reduce maternal mortality 

RESEARCH 

Community based ground water conservation 

PPP model for critical curative care 

Effective communication on preventive health issues 

Livelihood adaptation in sync with the climate change 



Communities’ObservationsandDisasterPerceptionsinan 

AgeofClimateChange:ACaseStudyfromtwoCoastal 

Villages,Shaymnagar,Satkhira,Bangladesh 

M. Mokhlesur Rahman 

Center for Natural Resource Studies (CNRS), 

Bangladesh 

CNRS, House 19/B, Road 16, Block-B, Banani, Dhaka, 

Bangladesh 

mokhles_cnrs@yahoo.com 

TransboundaryMeetingonSundarbans 

3-6 October 2012 

Kolkata, India 

Local environmental changes: Fultala village 

Before 1980 – all village canals were wide and retained much freshwater. 

Canals and beels for freshwater fish, rice and veg. High local fish 

availability, wide CPR bases 

(Rainfall pattern relatively predictable seasonally, crop farming 

synchronized with local weather) 

1981 to 2009 –some rice paddies converted to shrimp ghers, public 

roadside borrow pits and canals grabbed and converted to shrimp farms, 

fish ponds, croplands and settlements. CPR base reduced and lost 

(Last 10 years - erratic rainfall, prolognd droughts, difficult for 

farmers to plan, frequent crop loss/damage) 

Post Aila (2009)- salinisation of ponds/ beels/ croplands impacted fish, 

shrimps, crop, veg. production on the western side of the village 

(Decline in rice and veg. production, loss of trees and drop in 

freshwater fish and other biota – soil saline, low rains, salinity not 

washed out) 

Community views on weather 

No specific awareness of CC; main reference is to weather 

and Understanding varies by occupation, political status, 

gender… 

Fishers: Increased cyclones/ rough sea weather (disrupt 

fishing efforts- loss of income), cyclone induced siltation 

(degrades fish habitats, fish stock shifted), drought (affect fish 

migration and breeding –less fish) 

Rice farmers: Increased drought (crop damage), erratic 

rainfall (crop damage), salinity (crop loss), lack of freshwater 

(hampers boro rice farming) 

Shrimp farmers: high temperature & drought (increased 

salinity -kills whitefish), heavy rains/ flooding (farmed shrimp 

escaped, gher ecology degraded and high mortality of stocked 

shrimps) 




Where are the Study villages? 

Village 2: Chakbara 

Village 1: Fultala 

Village 1: 

• Mainland, less exposed to hazards 

Village 2: 

• Rice farming is major livelihoods 

• Island like setting, more exposed to 

• Less dependence on Sundarbans 

hazards 

• Poor subsists on wage laboring, 

• Shrimp farming village 

earth cutting, seasonal fishing, van 

• Heavily dependent on Sundarbans, 

pulling, out migration 

rivers and lower estuary for 

• Less affected by S the u Cyclone n d e r Aila b a n s 

livelihoods 

• Severely affected by the Cyclone 

Aila 

To Bay of Bengal 

Local environmental changes: Chakbara village 

Before 1990 

• Only aman rice farmed, freshwater fish in low lying beels open for 

all (CPRs) 

• Rice farming, fishing and Sundarbans resources - livelihood basis 

for all 

During 1990 - 2009 

• Salt water shrimp farming covered entire village lands replaced rice 

farming and freshwater fish and loss of CPR bases 

• Better off shrimp farmers grabbed lands, weakened dykes, dyke 

failure, overuse of NRs, changes in local social-ecological systems 

After Cyclone Aila -2009 

• Prolonged saline water inundation polluted lands , ponds, ghers 

damaged houses, killed livestock, trees, freshwater fish , shrimps 

• Shrimp farming disrupted and stopped for over 2 years, no 

cultivation - further pressure on NR base - severe humanitarian crises 

Community views on weather 

Women: drought (more irrigation, less shrimp PL), 

salinity (pollution of freshwater ponds – need more time to 

fetch water), intense heavy rainfall (less demand of shrimp 

PL) Cyclone Aila (live on embankment, loss of mollusks, 

loss of varieties of wild food items), 

Honey collectors: cyclone killed bees, increased drought 

led to less flowering and thus less honey 

Fish /shrimp traders : heavy rainfall /cyclones damaged 

fish/ shrimp ghers - lead to poor landing ; prolonged 

drought lead to less catch from Sundarbans – less fish 

landing ; warmer weather, need more ice – higher costs – 

less income 

85


How do local people express their views? 

• No clear reference to CC. More combination of weather and 

non-weather stressors. Examples: 

• Reduced rains, drought and salinity cause declining freshwater 

fish (part-weather stressor) - but illegal grabbing and 

converting canals/ rivers to crop lands/ fish-shrimp ponds (non 

–weather th stressor t ) )cause major j damage d to t freshwater f h t fish fi h 

• Erratic rains, prolonged drought and salinity hamper rice 

production (weather stressor) - while lack of freshwater due to 

conversion of canals/ rivers (non weather stressor) cause 

further impacts on rice farming 

• Reduced rains, increased temperature (weather stressor) affect 

fish biology, lead to declining fisheries - but poor management 

of Sundarbans fisheries including its 3 sanctuaries (nonweather 

stressor) accelerate decline in fisheries production and 

biodiversity 

Perceived seasonal changes 

Seasons Temper Rainfall Visibility Communities’ Remarks 

ature 

of the 

Summer (mid 

, 

Higher temp. low, erratic rains, high 

Apr – mid Jun) variability, high visibility, extended 

Monsoon (mid 

, 

Warmer, late, reduced, intense/ erratic 

Jun-mid Jun mid Aug) 

rains, annual variability, low visibility 

Autumn (mid 

, 

Higher temp, warmer, increased/ 

Aug-mid Oct) erratic rains, very low visibility 

Dewey (mid 

, 

Higher temp., warmer than before, 

Oct-mid Dec) rainfall erratic, very low visibility 

Winter (mid Warmer , short/intense cold spells, 

Dec-mid Feb 

reduced rains, visible, shortened 

Spring (mid Higher temp, reduced rains, very low 

Feb- mid Apr) 

visibility of the season 

= Increased (high); = Increased (low), = Decreased (high); = Decreased (low), 

= erratic pattern 

86 

MultiplicityofCCrelateddisastersonfisheries 

Year CC threats Impacts 

2007 - November - Super cyclone Sidr Over 80% fish/shrimp ghers damaged and fishing 

operations disrupted 

2008 - September - Abnormally high tide/ Breached and overtopped coastal dykes and damaged 

coastal flooding many fish./shrimp ponds/ghers 

2009 - May - Cyclone Aila with high Damaged 80-100% fish/shrimp ponds/ ghers and affected 

surge water 

fishing operations 

2009 - August g - Intense rain-based 

flooding 

Flooded many y fish/shrimp p pponds/ghers g 

2009 - October - Post monsoon drought Heat stress affected shrimps 

2010 - April-June - Pre monsoon drought High temperature affected pond/ gher ecology, heat stress 

affected stocked shrimps 

2011 - August - Intense heavy rainbased 

flooding for 2 

weeks 

2012 - January - Severe cold spell with 

dense fogs (10 days) 

Over 80% ponds/ghers flooded and fish /shrimps escaped 

and died due to sudden fluctuations of pond/gher ecology 

Affected gher ecology, increase disease susceptibility of 

shrimp/fish, inhibit fish/shrimps growth, high PL mortality, 

loss of some dyke crops 

How do local people express their views (Contd.)? 

• Cyclone-borne siltation degraded fish habitats in upper 

Sundarbans (weather stressor)- while widespread use of 

harmful gears downstream (non-weather stressor) 

affected fish migration and spawning causing more 

damage to Sundarbans fisheries 

• Dyke failure, saline water inundation caused by cyclone/ 

storm surges/ high tides (part-weather stressor) – but 

poor maintenance (non-weather stressor) weakened 

dykes 

• Dyke failure and saline water inundation due to cyclone 

s/surges caused instant damage to resources (partweather 

stressor) – but more than one year to fix dykes 

(non-weather stressor) resulting in more damage owing 

to prolonged exposure to hazards 

Climaterelatedstressorsthhataffectthelivelihoodsof 

differentoccupationalgrouups(pairwiseranking) 

Affect wider 

communities 

Sh Shortage t of f 

freshwater 

Lack of drinking 

water 

Diseases, incur 

treatment costs 

Rice farmers 

Women (farming) 

Shrimp farmers 

Shrimp/ rice farmers 

Sea going fishers 

Women (PL catch) 

River/ forest fishers 

Honey collector/ 

Mowali 

Crab collectors 

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Increased temperature 

Intense rainfall/ flooding 

Cyclone/ storm surge 

Increased soil/ water salinity 

Prolonged drought 

Frequent rough sea conditions 

Increased water level in high tides 

Affect crop 

farmers 

Higher salinity 

in ghers/fields 

Affect crop 

farming 

Low or no yield 

of crops 

Reduced monsoon 

rains/ drier 

monsoon 

Affect shrimp 

farmers 

Affect fishers/ 

crab/shrimp 

PL collectors 

Affect Honey 

collectors 

(mowalies) 

Hi Higher h salinity li it iin LLow fi fish h migration i i FFewer flowers fl 

ghers 

and spawning in trees 

Higher mortality of 

white fish in ghers 

Increased risks, 

Low profits 

Low income 

/high poverty 

Less availability 

of fish, crabs, PL 

Poor catch and 

low biodiversity 

Fewer bees and 

fewer hives 

Less honey 

production 

Impact of reduced rains on lives and livelihoods of coastal communities (Source: FGD 

with fishers, farmers, shrimp farmers, mowalies, Shamanagar, Satkhira) 



• AfewvillagersmentionglobalwarmingandCCbut 

notawarewhatitis–causesandconsequences 

• Previousdevelopmentimpactshavecomplicated 

howtomakeCCimpactassessment 

• Therearehighspatialvariabilityevenwithinsmall 

coastal coastalareawithregardtolivelihoods,disasterand 

area with regard to livelihoods disaster and 

CCissues 

• Climateresilience(transformativeadaptation) 

meansbetterhomes,embankments,drainage, 

freshwateravailability,goodgovernance,etc. 

• Villagersconsideredadaptivemeasuresasmeans 

tocopewithimmediateandseasonalwater 

shortages,salinity,flooding,cyclonesandthelike 

ratherthanaspotentialpackagesofmeasuresto 

dealwithlongertermchangesinclimate 


Concluding Remarks 

Thanks from the climate hotspot- Munshigonj, 

Shaymnagar, Satkhira, Bangladesh 



• Ecosystemsbasedapproach(integratedNRM 

DRRCCA)withnestedCBOswitheffective 

networkingandconsensusbuildingmayopenup 

conduitsforlargeecosystemslike“Sundarbans” 

management 

• There TherearesomegoodNRM,DRRandCCA 

are some good NRM DRR and CCA 

initiativesinBangladesh(FD,DoF,DAE,DoE, 

CDMP,NGOs)butaresporadicanddisconnected 

• Transboundarymeasuresareanecessary 

conditionforsuccessofsometypesoflocal 

adaptation(e.g.uncertaintyoffutureupstream 

watersuppliesthreatensstabilityoflocal 

adaptation,technologyanddatasharing,joint 

management,etc.) 

Concluding remarks 

87


88 

ManagingDisastersinSundarbans 

JudeHenriques 

International InternationalConsultant Consultant 

CaritasGermany 

Sundarbans 

4 October 2012 

Disaster Crunch Model 

Disaster = Hazard x 

SuperCyclonicStorm 

IndiaMeteorologicalDepartment 

TropicalCycloneIntensityScale 

Vulnerabilityy 

Capacity 

Category Sustainedwinds 

>120 knots 

VerySevere 

64–119 knots 

CyclonicStorm 

SSevereCyclonic C l i 48–63 8 63 kknots 

Storm 

34–47 knots 

CyclonicStorm 

DeepDepression 

Depression 

28–33 knots 

27 knots 

>222 km/h 

118–221 km/h 

88–117 km/h 

62–87 km/h 

52–61 km/h 

51 km/h 

Events,HazardsandDisasters 

• Event: Anaturalevent,whethergeological,climatological,etc.,is 

simplyanaturaloccurrence 

• Floods,cyclones,earthquakes,tsunamis,landslidesetcarepartof 

thenaturalworldwelivein.Theiroccurrenceisinevitable.These 

eventscanwreakhavoconthenaturalenvironment. 

• Hazard:Isanaturaleventthathasthepotentialtocausedangerto 

humanlifeorproperty. 

• Disaster: Aseriousdisruption ofthefunctioningofacommunity 

orasocietycausingwidespread human,material,economicor 

environmentallosses whichexceedtheabilityoftheaffected 

communityorsocietytocopeusingitsownresources. 

• Disasterresultsfrom: 

• thecombinationofhazards, 

• conditionsofvulnerabilityand 

• insufficientcapacityormeasurestoreducethepotentialnegative 

consequencesofrisk. 

Tropicalcyclonescanproduce: 

– extremelypowerfulwinds 

– torrentialrain, 

– highwavesand 

– damagingstormsurges. 

Cyclones 

NorthIndianOcean– Namesofcyclones 

Contributing 

Nations 

List1 List2 List3 List4 List5 List6 List7 List8 

Bangladesh Onil Ogni Nisha Giri Helen Chapala Ockhi Fani 

India Agni Akash Bijli Jal Leher Megh Sagar Vayu 

Maldives Hibaru Gonu Aila Keila Madi Roanu Makunu Hikaa 

Myanmar Pyarr Yemyin Phyan Thane Nanauk Kyant Daye Kyarr 

Oman Baaz Sidr Ward Mujan Hudhud Nada Luban Maha 

Pakistan Fanoos Nargis Laila Nilam Nilofar Vardah Titli Bulbul 

SriLanka Mala Rashmi Bandu Mahasen Priya Asiri Gigum Soba 

Thailand Mukda KhaiMuk Phet Phailin Komen Mora Phethai Amphan 

Eyewallofthe 

cyclone 

Theeyewallhas 

cloudsrangingfrom 

10to15kmin 

height.Theseclouds 

swirlroundtheeye 

ofthecyclone. 

Tornadolikevortices 

ofextremewinds 

canalsobe 

associatedwiththe 

eyewall. 



Theformationofaneyeisalmostalwaysan 

indicationofincreasingtropicalcyclone 

strength. 

Theeyeisaregionofmostlycalmweather 

withthelowestamountofatmospheric 

pressure.Intheeye,theweatherisclear 

withlightwinds noclouds,norainand 

somesunshine. 

Do not be misled by the eye of the cyclone: 

•Due to the lowest amount of air pressure in the eye, it 

produces clear weather with light wind, no clouds, no rain and 

some sunshine. 

•These signs in the eye may indicate that the 

storm is over. 

•This is only y the middle of the storm as the eye y is 

located in the centre of the storm. 

•Depending on the speed of the movement of the 

cyclone, the eye may pass over in 1 to 2 hours. 

•After the eye has passed over, the cyclone will 

continue with violent winds blowing from the 

opposite direction. 


According to Mr Manoranjan Das, one of the 

villagers of Brajabhallav village in Pather 

Pratima block, South 24 Parganas district, 

West Bengal, India, the cyclone started at 

around 8 a.m. in the morning and lasted till 

11.30 a.m. By then the embankment had 

already been broken and water had come into 

the village. 

At around 11.30 a.m. the cyclonic winds 

stopped and there was calm and peace again. 

Suddenly, after about two hours, high speed 

cyclonic l i winds i d started t t d again i at t a very high hi h 

speed and this time we noticed that they came 

from the opposite direction from the winds 

which came in the morning. 

We were not expecting the cyclone to recur 

again and we were once again caught 

unawares. The storm continued, with the wind 

and rain lashing the village from the opposite 

direction and this lasted till 7 p.m. in the 

evening. 



The eye wall contains the storm's 

strongest winds and heaviest rainfall. 

These conditions are in stark contrast to the eye 

of the cyclone. 

In the top part of the eye wall the winds blow in 

one direction. In the bottom part of the eye wall, 

the winds blow in the reverse direction. 

Note: After the eye passes, and the 

other side of the cyclone hits, the wind 

blows with equal strength but in the 

opposite direction. 

Cyclone‘AILA’madelandfall 

inSouth24Parganas 

district,WestBengal,India, 

ataround12.00noonon25 

May2009withtheeye 

passingovermanyblocksof 

thisdistrictandthis 

informationwasnotmade 

knowntothepeopleliving 

intheseareas. 

Placeoflandfall. 

FinalpathofcycloneSIDR 

89


90 

ChangeindirectionsofcycloneSIDR 

• CycloneinitiallyexpectedtohitOrissa. 

• SubsequentlypredictedtohitWestBengal,India(Sagar 

IslandandKolkata) 

• ThenpredictedtohitareasneartheWestBengal/ 

Bangladeshborder 

• FinallyhitBangladesh 

Implications: 

• Alltheseareasneedbettercoordinationandsharingof 

information 

• Allneedtobepreparedasonedoesnotknowthe 

changethatmayoccuratthelastminute. 

ImpactofcycloneAILA 

ImpactofcycloneAILA ImpactofcycloneAILA 

ImpactofcycloneAILA Largeopenlandsforshrimpcultivation.No 

treesatall 



Housesnowhavegalvanisedtinroofsinsteadoftheearlierthatched 

roofs.Thisisthenewdevelopmenttakingplace.Withhighspeed 

cyclonicwinds,thesesheetscanbecomeverylethalflyingobjects. 

Shrimpcultivation– developmentordestructionforthelocal 

populations?Growthatwhatandwhosecosts?Whatfueldo 

theyuseandwheredotheygetiffrom? 

Thealreadyerodedembankmentseasilybreachwiththetidalsurgeand 

salinewatersthenaffectthecultivableland,livelihoods,drinkingwater 

etcofthepeople 




Shrimpcultivationisnowquitewidespread.Insomeareas, 

theembankmentshavebeencuttoallowsalinewaterinto 

theareas…Whataboutthelongtermdamagetothe 

environment?Whosuffersfromtheselongtermdamages? 

ManyembankmentshavebeenconstructedbyGovt 

andINGOsinthepast…butwhatabouttheir 

maintenance?Doesthecommunity‘own’theseassets? 

91


92 

Largest delta in the world 

Indian Sundarban includes both the non-forest area of 5400 sq km, and 

forested part of 4230sq km. 

Declared as Reserve forest 

World Heritage site by IUCN in 1985. 

Three islands namely Sajnekhali, Lothian and Halliday have been declared 

as Wildlife Sanctuaries by MOEF, Govt. of India. 

Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1989. 

Sundarban is the only Mangrove tiger land in the world covering nearly 

60% of the total mangrove of India with highest biodiversity. 

Tidal range amplifies from Mouth to Head part 

Beside Saptamukhi, all inner estuaries are reclaimed in its 

headward part 

No upstream discharge in inner estuaries 

Current ranges from 1 to 1.4 -1.5 mt/sec at .4D level 

This estuarine system stretches from Hooghly in the western part to 

Raimangal, the easternmost arm of the system in India. 

LLocated dmainly i l iinthe h Ub Urban catchment h off 5400 sq kkm. 

Tidal length is about 120- 140 km in case of inner estuaries. 

Tidal fluctuation varies from 5 – 6 mt w.r.t Mean water level 

during measured period (30 days duration) 

Near mouth and along narrow channel current is maximum. 

Depth wise Current variation is within ± 10 cm/sec w.r.t to 

average speed (leaving bottom and surface current due to bed 

friction and wind ) 

Datum of tidal measurement is not at per with Hooghly river 

system 

Along with marine source erosion at mouth supplies sediment to 

roll in estuary ------ Severe erosion at mouth ----Intense 

deposition at head. 



Trajectory of Oil spill and suspended pollutant modeling in 

the Indian parts of Sundarban with high biodiversity. 

Finding out more vulnerable coastal habitat through GIS 

analysis 

Risk assessment and priority setting of each habitats 

Dissemination of knowledge and coordination with the 

respective departments beforehand 


DEPLOYME 

NT DATE 

04.01.2012 04.01.2012 05.01.2012 05.01.2012 05.01.2012 05.01.2012 

RETRIEVAL 

DATE 

08.02.2012 08.02.2012 09.02.2012 09.02.2012 09.02.2012 09.02.2012 

TIME 2.12 pm 5.17 pm 9.15 am 12.28 pm 2.13 pm 6.12 pm 

POINT ID 1 2 3 4 5 6 

LATITUDE 22003.4233’N 22002.6523’N 21051.9105’N 21042.2250’N 21038.3957’N 21037.6588’N LONGITUD 

E 

88044.6645’E 88038.5584’E 88039.5310’E 88041.7290’E 88041.6172’E 88036.4944’E LOCATION BALI KAIKHALI AJMALMARI DALHOUSIE 

(ARABHANGA 

) 

MATLA EAST MATLA WEST 

DEPTH 11.0 m 14.01 m 14.6 m 19.6 m 10.5 m 12.8 m 

TIDE 

GAUGE 

TYPE & 

NO. 

CURRENT 

METER 

TYPE & 

NO. 

BOAT'S 

NAME 

NAME OF 

BOAT'S 

MEN 

33786 

(DIRECTIONAL) 

34890 

(NON- 

DIRECTIONAL) 

AANDERA- 546 AANDERA- 

545 

F.B. 

CHANDMANI 

JULHAS MOLLA 

34891 

(NON- 

DIRECTIONAL) 

VALEPORT- 

31656 

F.B. FIRUJA F.B. MAYER 

ASHIRBAD 

FARID MOLLA CHORAP 

SARDAR 

- 34899 

(DIRECTIONAL) 

RDCP 

AANDERA 

F.B. MAYER 

ASHIRBAD 

KACHENI 

LASKAR 

33803 

(NON- 

DIRECTIONAL) 

- VALEPORT- 31655 

F.B. MA ACHIA 

F.B. SONAR 

BANGLA 

RAICHI ALI 

GHARAMI KAMAL SARDAR 

IWAI Route through Indian parts of Sundarban to 

Bangladesh 



U aAnd V components 

(cm/sec)_Pirkhali 

150 U and V … 

100 

50 

0 

-80 -30 20 70 

-50 

-100 

-150 

93


94 

U and V component at 

Kaikhali 

-70 

120 

90 

60 

30 

0 

-20 -30 

-60 

-90 

-120 

30 80 

CONTROLLING FACTORS OF 

OIL SPILL/ POLLUTANT DISPERSION 

Wind Rose diagram showing the Current 

Direction at Kaikhali 

Wind Rose diagram showing the 

Current Direction at Bali 



Commodity 2009-2010 ( In Lakh Tonnes) 2010-2011 ( In Lakh Tonnes) 

Import Export Total Import Export Total 

POL Crude 46.94 0 46.94 44.08 0 44.08 

POL Product 31.82 12.59 44.41 43.76 17.64 61.40 

LPG 8.94 0 8.94 11.14 0 11.14 

Total Handling of More Harmful Oil & Oil Products 100.29 116.62 

Vegetable Oil 14.62 0 14.62 16.57 0 16.57 

Coal Tar Pitch 0 0.11 0.11 0.22 0.15 0.37 

Total Handling of Less Harmful Oil & Oil Products 14.73 16.94 

1 2 3 4 

Location 

Kaikhali 

Herobhanga 

Netidhopani 

Matla Mouth 

(coordinates in 

UTM) 

(669320.980,2438376.963) (676879.8176,2431316.571) (676879.8176,2431316.571) (672079.896,2397210.768) 

Spill duration 3 hrs-with wind forcing 3 hrs-with wind forcing 3 hrs-with wind forcing 3 hrs-with wind forcing 

Simulation 

duration 

Output grid 

resolution 

6 days 5 days 5 days 5 days 

250 m 250 m 250 m 250 m 

Individual 

simulation period 05th January to 11 th January 05 th January to 09 th January 05 th January to 09 th January 05 th January to 09 th January 




1 2 3 4 

Location 

Kaikhali 

Herobhanga 


UTM) 

(669320.980,2438376.96 

3) 

(676879.8176,2431316.57 

1) 

Netidhopani 

(676879.8176,2431316.57 

1) 

Matla Mouth 

(672079.896,2397210.768) 

Spill duration 6 hrs-with wind forcing 6 hrs-with wind forcing 6 hrs- with wind forcing 6 hrs- with wind forcing 

Simulation 

duration 

Output grid 

resolution 

Individual 

simulation period 05th January to 11th January 

6 days 5 days 5 days 5 days 

250 m 250 m 250 m 250 m 

05 th January to 09 th 

January 

05 th January to 09 th January 05 th January to 09 th January 

1 2 3 4 

Location 

Kaikhali 

Herobhanga 

Netidhopani 

Matla Mouth 


UTM) 

(669320.980,2438376.96 

3) 

(676879.8176,2431316.57 

1) 

(676879.8176,2431316.57 

1) 

(672079.896,2397210.76 

8) 

Spill duration 3 hrs-without wind forcing 6 hrs-without wind forcing 6 hrs-without wind forcing 6 hrs-without wind forcing 

Simulation duration 6 days 5 days 5 days 5 days 

Output grid 

resolution 

Individual 

simulation period 

250 m 250 m 250 m 250 m 

05 th January to 11 th 

January 

05 th January to 09 th January 05 th January to 09 th January 05 th January to 09 th 

January 

95


96 

Coastal 

Habitats 

Dense 

mangrove 

forest 

Sparse 

mangrove 

forest 

Sensitivit 

y For Oil 

Pollution 

(1-10) 

Weight 

(30%) 

Values 

cultural 

and 

social 

(10) 

Weight 

(10%) 

Scientifi 

c Value 

(1-10) 

Weight 

(20%) 

Environment 

al 

importance 

(10) Weight 

(30%) 

Economic 

considerations 

(10) Weight 

(10%) 

9 8 8 10 8 8.9 

7 8 8 9 8 8 

Estuary 6 3 3 4 4 4.3 

Intertidal 

Mudflats 

Vegetated 

mudflat 

4 3 4 7 2 4.6 

6 4 4 6 4 5.2 

Total Relative 

Response of 

Sensitivity 

(a)=(wi*si)(%) 

Risk Index Order Priority 

26.18 26 18 32 32.84 84 

3 26.7 

% 

% 

23.53 

% 

12.65 

% 

13.53 

% 

15.29 

% 

3 24 

2 8.6 

2 9.2 

2 10.4 

Sand flat 3 3 2 4 2 3 8.82% 1 3 3.66 C 

29.30 

% 

10.50 

% 

11.23 

% 

12.70 

% 

Thank Thankyou 

you 

A 

A 

B 

B 

B 

1) A well calibrated HD model is essential for trajectory modelling. 

2) Water Current and wind play major role for the modelling in every 

marine environment but in some parts of this complicated estuarine 

system tidal current alone is enough to drift oil slick/ pollutant. 

3) Mangrove both dense and sparse is under high risk followed by intertidal 

flat both bare and vegetated 

4) Modelling provides impacts of such consequences on resources and 

delineate the path 

5) Quick steps can be taken to control its spread. 

6) Beforehand measures can reduce the impact of such disasters in this 

ecosystem 

7) Cross boundary interaction and support is essential to tackle such 

situations 



Tiger 

Md. Mozaharul Islam 

Forest Department 

Dhaka, Bangladesh 

Introduction 


Tiger is an important wildlife 

species which is being 

threatened for centuries. 

Conservationist, wildlife biologists, researchers are trying to 

arrest its diminishing trend through different approaches. 

Governments of tiger range countries along with international 

agencies taking different initiatives to overcome the ordeals. 

Study of behavior of tiger is one of the corner stone to 

consider for such initiatives. 

Tiger Habitat: 

Tigers are tolerant of a variety of environmental conditions, 

the only apparent requisites for their survival being some 

form of plant cover, a water supply, and sufficient prey. 

Tigers are found in tropical Asia in humid rain forest, wet 

evergreen and semi semi-evergreen evergreen forests, forests mangrove swamps, swamps 

moist thorn and dry deciduous 

forests, thick grass, bamboo 

thickets, savannahs and 

shrub land. 

Tiger occur up to altitudes of 

2000 to 3000 m. 



Outline of this Presentation 

• Introduction 

• About Tigers 

• Tiger Habitat 

• Reproduction and Afterwards 

• Tiger Behaviour 

• Conclusion 

About Tigers 

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest species of Felidae. 

Ground colour is reddish orange to reddish ochre, with dark 

stripes that are generally vertical. Under parts are white or 

whitish. The body structure corresponds to the general form of 

Felidae. Tigers are muscular, with powerful forequarters, and 

especially in male, with a relatively large head. Total length of 

adults d lt generally ll ranges bbetween t 2200 andd 3000 mm; ffemales l 

are somewhat smaller. The length of tail usually does not 

exceed one half of the head-and-body length. 

Teeth of tiger are 

exceptionally stout. 

Canines are long and 

slightly curved; they are 

the longest among living 

felids. 

Tigers are essentially solitary, except for the short mating 

season and the time when the young are dependent on 

their mother. 

The sizes of the territory and home range vary depending 

on the type of habitat, density of prey, arid on the sex and 

age of the animal. 

The size of territory of Bengal tigers usually varies from 

200 to 1000 sq km, but areas as small as 16.5 sq km and 

as large as 9252 sq km have been ascertained. 

Within its territory, a tiger has one or more dens or lairs, 

placed in dense cover among rocks or shrubs, a cave, a 

hollow tree or a cavity under a fallen tree. 

Tigers return more or less regularly to their lairs. 

97


Reproduction and Afterwards: 

A tigress becomes in to heat at any time of the year; it is most 

frequent, from about the end of November to the first half of 

April. 

A tigress becomes in to heat at intervals of 3 to 9 weeks, and 

is receptive for about 3 to 6 days. Gestation averages 

between 104 to 106 days, 

The usual number of cubs is two or three and typically varies 

from one to four. Cubs are born at an interval of 20 to 40 minutes 

Families are disintegrated, usually two, but sometimes even 

three or four years after the preceding young. 

Length of head and body of new born tiger varies from about 

315 to 400 mm, and that of tail from 130 to 160 mm. The fur is 

thick and wooly, and of the same colour pattern as in the adult, 

but is somewhat lighter coloured. 

Tiger Behaviour 

In general gait, both legs of one side move together or 

almost so. Jumping ability is well developed. Tigers usually 

do not climb trees, although there are several reports of their 

climbing abilities. 

Tiger likes water and can swim very well, easily crossing 

rivers and streams as wide as 6 to 8 km, exceptionally p y even 

29 km. 

Tigers are lone hunters, mainly preying 

upon larger mammals. hunting primarily 

at night when the ungulates are most 

active. When moving through its 

territory, a tiger regularly uses certain 

routs or beats. Tigers, searching for 

prey, move considerable distance; in 

Indiatheymaycover16to30kmina 

night. 

98 

Tigers have priority rights to its own meat supply, even 

in the presence of a larger and stronger animal. 

While mating, tigers are always very excited and noisy. 

Copulation lasts 15 to 20 seconds, at the most. In the 

wild, tiger and tigress stay together for about 5 to 7 days. 

At the age of 2 to 3 years young tigers attain the general colour 

of adults. 

The eyes and ears of newborn cubs are closed; they open 6 to 

14 and 9 to 11 days respectively, after birth. The eruption of 

milk teeth starts at about 2 to 3 weeks and is finished at about 6 

to 8 weeks. 

Tigers are excellent hunters and killers, yet for each 

successful kill some 10 to 20 unsuccessful attempts are 

made. 

Some special features of behavior are displayed by 

man-eating tigers. They kill mainly by day. 

Tigers are able to change their habits according to those 

of their prey. 

A man-eater generally tries to surprise its victim from one 

side or rare and kill it by a bite through the throat or nape. 

A characteristic h t i ti ffeature t off behavior b h i of f man-eating ti tiger ti is i 

that they operate over a very large area. 

Tigers probably become maneaters 

because they cannot 

capture and kill their normal prey. 

This may be because a tiger 

becomes crippled by a shot-wound 

or by deep suppurating wounds 

caused by porcupine 

because of old age. 

quills, 



Conclusion 

It is already decided both mentally and on action to 

conserve tiger population of the world. 

Behavior study is a necessity to make appropriate 

approaches. To enrich knowledge on tiger behavior 

more research is needed needed. It may open more 

avenues for tiger conservation initiatives. 


Thank you 



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100 

The Co-management: 

Co management: 

• A situation in which two or more social 

actors negotiate, define and guarantee amongst 

themselves a a fair fair sharing sharing of of the the management 

management 

functions, entitlements and responsibilities for a 

given territory, area or set of natural resources. 

Co-Management continued 

Legal Basis 

The Ministry of Environment and Forest 

has issued Gazette notification in this 

regard and approved legal formation of 

the co-management organizations. The 

government has also approved to provide 

50% of the revenue raised from visitor 

entry fee from PAs to the Co-management 

OOrganization i ti (CMC) (CMC). 

Co-Management Organization 

(CMO) 

• Co-management Council . (called CMC-Council) 

and 

• Co-management Committee (called CMC- 

Committee). 

• The first one is the General Body for policy 

development and the second one is the Executive 

Body for implementing activities. 

Main Co-Management Co Management Values and 

Principles 

Recognising different different values, values, interests interests and and 

concerns 

• Recognising 

concerns involved in managing a territory, area 

or set of natural resources, both outside the local 

communities and within them. 

• Seeking transparency 

transparency and equity equity in natural 

resource management 

• Allowing the civil civil society society to assume ever more 


Previous Experience 

Co-Management 

Nishorgo Support Project (NSP) in 

fforest t areas(2003-08) (2003 08) 

Management of Aquatic Ecosystem 

through Community Husbandry 

(MACH) in wetlands (1998-05) 

. 

Present Status of Co Co-Management Management in the Sundarbans: 

• Started April 2009 through IPAC Project in Khulna 

• 4 Committee have been formed in 4 Ranges 

• The CMCs of Chandpai and Sarankhola Ranges developed the 

ADP for 2010 2010-11 11 and implementing the activities using 

the IPAC project fund. 

• ADP includes AIGA support, drinking water support, and 

training in NRM. 

• CMC recently got LDF from USAID 

Co Co-Management Management Adoption by 

Bangladesh Government 

Based on the success of MACH and NSP and taking 

account the limitation of forest conservation and 

management, the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) has 

d decided id d to adopt d the h Co Co-management C management approach h and d to 

involve local people in the natural resource conservation 

and management through collaboration and active 

participation. The basis of such collaboration and 

participation would be "equitable sharing of benefits". 



Co Co-Management Management Organization: 

(1) Co Co-management management Council (called CMC- CMC 

Council) Council and 

(2) Co Co-management management Committee ( (called called 

CMC CMC-Committee Committee). . 

The first one is the General Body for policy 

development and the second one is the 

Executive Body for implementing activities. 

Major Terms of Reference (TOR) of the Council: 

a) review and approval of the Annual Development Plan 

(ADP). 

b) Monitoring and evaluation of the adopted activities 

and guidance. g 

c) act as the guardian in implementing the co- 

management activities. 

d) sit together at least two times in a year. 

e) formed through election and its tenure is 4 years. 

Major Terms of Reference (TOR) of the Committee: 

a) Preparation of Annual Development Plan (ADP) for each 

year and get approval by the Council for implementation. 

b) Implementation of the ADP of the Protected Area 

approved by the council. 

c) Select people from local area to perform the activities for the 

implementation of ADP. 

d) ) Ensure equitable q distribution of goods g and services to the 

stakeholders. 

e) Assist to the Forest Department in selecting participants in 

buffer zone plantation. 

f) Assist to the Forest Department in protecting the forest 

resources by forming Community Patrolling Group (CPG) 

from the members of Peoples Forum. 

g) Keep records of all incomes (comes from any sources) and 

expenditures. 




Member Eligible for the Council 

65 members (maximum) in the Council and at least 15 of 

them are female. The members of the council comprises 

of Assistant Conservator of Forest (ACF), beat/ Station 

Officer, adjacent Range Officer, people from civil 

society, y, local government g & administration, , law 

enforcement departments, local people, indigenous 

community, resource user institution/representative of 

the Peoples Forum, member of the Community 

Patrolling Group (CPG). 

Peoples Forum (PF). 

Member Eligible for the Co-management Co management Committee 

• 29 and at least 5 of them are female. 

• Others members come from different Govt. 

organizations, i ti elected l tdrepresentatives tti anddifferent ddifft resource users group. 

Achievements of CMOs 

4 CMOs have been formed formed- one for 

each Range 

About 31,000 sundarban dependent 

families have been identified within 5 

km from the periphery of sundarbans 

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102 

Some AIG activities have been 

provided for the dependent people 

Some common facilities have been 

developed for the local people 

Different types of trainings have been 

given to the dependent people 

Constraint for Co-management Co management in Sundarbans: 

6) A huge number of people are dependent on the resources 

of Sundarbans and the numbers are increasing day by day 

7) Scope and options of large scale AIGs 

8) There is lack of coordination among the NGOs 

9) Li Literacy rate of f the h people l is i very low. l 

10) The health, education, family planning and drinking 

water facilities are low. 

11) High rate of birth and child mortality. 

12) Modality of spending 50% of revenue earned from 

Sundarbans yet to finalize 


• NGOs, projects and GO working in the 10km 

• The CMC should be provided with the 50% of the 

income from minor forest produces including fish 

resources of the entire Sundarbans 

• Quick arrangement of paying the 50% money 

• More investment from GO, NGO and projects on 

livelihood and AIGA should be initiated 

• Modality should be developed 

Constraint for Co-management Co management in Sundarbans: 

1) Co-management Co management council/committee will be formed with the 

people living in and around the protected areas. 

2) Co-management only in PAs 

3) 50% revenue income will go to CMC’s. 

4) Presently the CMC's working area is 5km in the landscape. 

5) CMC will be formed Range-based. 


• Amendment of the Co-management Co management Gazette 

• The whole Sundarbans (PA and Buffer zone) 

should be brought under co co-management. 

management. 

• At least least 10km 10km landscape landscape area area should be be brought 

brought 

under the working area of Co Co-management. 

management. 

• The number of Co-management Co management organization 

should be two or more in one range. 

Conclusion: 

1) The proper conservation of Sundarbans can earn 

money in two ways of carbon credit sale and 

tourism. 

2) Without participation of local people, it is 

extremely ydifficult to manage g the Sundarbans 

efficiently and ensuring long-term sustainability 

3) Co-management application for Sundarbans will 

be solved, an effective co-management practice 

will be established 



THE HUMAN HUMAN-TIGER TIGER 

INTERFACE 

CIVIL BLOCKS 

• BLOCKs – 29 

• GRAM PANCHAYATs – 312 

• TOTAL AREA – 8165.05 SQ KM 

• POPULATION DENSITY – 846 / SQ KM 

• TOTAL FRINGE POPULATION – 4.2 MILLION 

• MAJOR OCCUPATION – 

WILDLIFE GOVERNANCE & 

MITIGATION OF CONFLICTS 

AGRICULTURE AND FISHING 

FOREST BLOCKS 

TOTAL MANGROVE R.F. – 4265 SQ.KMS. 

SUNDARBAN TIGER RESERVE – 2585 SQ.KMS 

S. 24 PGS FOREST DIVISION – 1680 SQ.KMS 

PROTECTED AREAS 

AREA OF SUNDARBAN N.P. – 1330 SQ.KMS 

AREA OF SWLS – 362 SQ.KMS 

AREA OF LOTHIAN WLS – 38 SQ.KMS 

AREA OF HALIDAY WLS – 6 SQ.KMS 


DR SUBRAT MUKHERJEE, IFS 

FIELD DIRECTOR 

SUNDARBAN TIGER RESERVE 

SOUTH 24 PGS DIST 

WEST BENGAL, INDIA 

WILDLIFE GOVERNANCE 

SUNDARBANS 

• INTENSIVE PROTECTION OF FLORA & FAUNA 

• MITIGATION OF CONFLICTS 

• ECODEVELOPMENT WORKS 

• ECO ECO-TOURISM TOURISM 

• RESEARCH, MONITORING & EVALUATION 

INDIAN 

SUNDARBANS 

(4265 SQ KM approx) 

STR 

(2585 SQ KM) 

SOUTH 

24 PGS NP OF STR = WHS 

(1680 SQ KM) (1330 SQ KM) 

BUFFER AREA 

ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF SBR 

DIRECTOR SBR ( CCF RANK) 

JT. DIRECTOR 

( CF RANK) 

DFO/S.24 PGS DIVN 

DFO/N.24 PGS. DIVN 

( DCF RANK) 

DIVN TERRITORIAL 

RANGE 



FIELD DIRECTOR 

( CF RANK) 

DFD/SUNDARBAN 

TIGER RESERVE 

( DCF RANK) 

ADFOs ( ACF RANK) 

FOREST RANGERS AND DEPUTY RANGERS 

AND FRONTLINE STAFF 

BEAT 

STR 4 17 

S.24 PGS 8 23 

N.24 PGS 5 12 

BANGLADESH 

SUNDARBANS 

(6000 SQ KM approx) 

S 24 

PG 

DIVN 

N24 

PG 

DIVN 

Target Population 

There are seven CD ( out of 19 in total ) Blocks harbouring 51 

FPCs and 14 EDCs comprising of 46 proximal villages (out 

of 65 in total ) accounting for over 210302 people (outof3.5 

million in total as per 2001 census and projected as 4.2 

million in total in 2011 ) – who make particularly high demand 

of the ecosystem and thus form the basic target population. population 

STR has a very small interface 

whereas 

24 Parganas (S) Division 

has large interface 

S 

T 

R 

PPopulationgrowthcurveinSundarbanBiosphereReserve l ti th i S d b Bi h R 

2015 

2010 

2005 

2000 

1995 

1990 

1985 

1980 

1975 

1970 

1965 

Y e a r 

1 2 3 4 

4.5 

4 

3.5 

3 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

1 

0.5 

0 

P o p u la tio n (in m illio n ) 

Year 

Population(inmillion) 

103


‘ALP’ TO REDUCE DEPENDENCE ON 

FOREST – WHY SO IMPORTANT ??? 

April – June 

July – October October 

Nov – March 

• bcoz all seasonal occupations are 

forest dependent EXCEPT 

AGRICULTURE FROM APRIL-JUNE 

APRIL JUNE 

104 

0.5 14 

0.5 

5 

60 

OCCUPATION REGIME 

80 

0.5 


0.5 9 

70 

30 


0.5 

0.5 9 

20 

AGRICULTURE 

FISHING 

BUSINESS 

SERVICE 

HONEY COLLECTION 

AGRICULTURE 

FISHING 

BUSINESS 

SERVICE 

LABOURS 

AGRICULTURE 

FISHING 

BUSINESS 

SERVICE 

TOURISM 

INPUT PER INDIVIDUAL 

YEAR FUNDING(IN INR) IPI(IN $) 

1998-99 4400016.00 10.44 

1999-00 2965000.00 7.04 

2000-01 4592930.00 10.90 

2001-02 2706397.00 6.42 

2002-03 3685781.00 8.75 

2003-04 6275000.00 14.89 

2004-05 7855000.00 18.65 

2005-06 4154000.00 9.86 

2006-07 2200000.00 5.22 

2007-08 8200000.00 19.47 

2008-09 12800000.00 20.21 

2009-10 14600000.00 21.22 

2010-11 16700000.00 23.67 

HUMAN – TIGER CONFLICTS 

CLASSIFIED 

CONFLICT INSIDE FOREST 

DUE TO BIOTIC INTERFERENCE CAUSED 

BY FISHERMEN, HONEY COLLECTORS, 

WOOD COLLECTORS ETC 

CONFLICT OUTSIDE FOREST 

WHEN TIGER STRAYS IN A VILLAGE AND 

KILLS/INJURES LIVESTOCK AND HUMAN 

BEINGS 

ECODEVELOPMENT WORKS 

& TRUST BUILDING ACTIVITIES 

S. .N. ECO-DEVELOPMENT WORKS QUANTUM 

1 Ponds 83 

2 Smokeless Chullah 13900 

3 Irrigation Channel (In Km.) 70 

4 Medical Camps 142 

5 Awareness & Training Camps 73 

6 Deep Tube Wells 107 

7 Nursery ( In Ha. = 2500 Seedlings) 725 

8 Fuel wood Plantation (Ha.) ( ) 1145 

9 Fruit Plants 62000 

10 Brick Path (Km.) 73 

11 Solar Lights 165 

12 Solar Lanterns 610 

13 Micro-Planning Trainings 19 

14 Study Tours 21 

15 Community Centers 17 

16 Jetty 61 

17 Vocational Trainings 27 

Joint Forest management has won the trust of people to a reasonably 

good level and needs to be consolidated 

HUMAN-TIGER CONFLICT IN THE 

UNDIVIDED SUNDERBANS 

YEAR No. of Men Carried 

Away 

No. of Tigers Killed 

1881-82 161 3 

1883-84 168 8 

1907-08 120 9 

1911-12 112 61 

1914-15 79 36 

1915-16 60 33 

Source: A.C. Gupta, West Bengal Forests (Centenary Commemoration Volume,1964) 

• A REWARD OF RS 200/- WAS ANNOUNCED FOR EACH TIGER KILL IN 

1910 AND CONTINUED TILL INDEPENDENCE 

• TILL POST INDEPENDENCE, TIGER WAS CONSIDERED AS ‘PEST’ 

•TEMPORARY STRAYING 

TIGER STARYING - CLASSIFIED 

STRAY TO THE VILLAGE AND RETURN TO JUNGLE OF ITS OWN 

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS – DRIVING / TRAPPING 

•PERMANENT STRAYING 

ENTRY DEEP INSIDE VILLAGE AND LOSS OF DIRECTION , 

MANAGEMENT OPTIONS - TRANQUILIZATION, TRANSLOCATION AND RELEASE 



MAJOR CAUSES OF TIGER STARYING 

• TERRITORIAL FIGHT 

• BREEDING / LITTERING TIME 

• INTERMINGLED FOREST AND VILLAGE 

• IN SEARCH OF EASY PREY 

• INJURY AND OLD AGE 

MITIGATION METHODS 

2 ND GENERATION MANAGEMENT [ 1988(NFP) – 2001 ] 

EMPHASIS ON REDUCING STRAYING 

• USE OF GORAN ( (Ceriops Ceriops) - GEWA ( (Excoecaria 

Excoecaria) ) CHITTA FENCING ALONG FRINGE 

• INITIATION OF TRAINED TRANQUILIZATION SQUAD 

• INTRODUCTION OF NYLON NET FENCING 

EMPHASIS ON REDUCING NUMBER OF PEOPLE ENTRY 

• ECODEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN VILLAGES 

• EMPHASIS ON FARM BASED ACTIVITIES FROM FOREST ACTIVITIES 

• COUPE OPERATION STOPPED 

• NUMBER OF HONEY COLLECTORS REDUCED 

GORAN CHITA FENCING AGRICULTURE INPUT TRANQUILIZATION 

3 RD GENERATION MANAGEMENT [ 2002 – TILL DATE (REASONING,ANALYSIS) ] 

STATUS OF CONFLICT 

• 2 STRAYED TIGER WERE KILLED BY PEOPLE (2001) 

• HUMAN DEATHS REDUCED 

• STRAYING REDUCED 


• USE OF NYLON NET FENCING ( 48 KM OUT OF 65 KM INTERFACE ) 

• REDUCED REACTION TIME 

• 6 EQUIPPED EQUIPPED ‘TSCF’ 

• LARGE SCALE ECODEVELOPMENT WORKS 

• HRD & CAPACITY BUILDING 

METAL RUNNER 

‘TSCF’ WITH TIGER GUARD 

8-10 10 FT 


NYLON NET FENCE ALONG FOREST 

MESH – 4”X4” 



1 ST GENERATION MANAGEMENT [ 1973(PT DECLARATION) – 1988(NFP) ] 

STATUS 

• PEOPLE KILLED – MAINLY FISHERMEN, HONEY COLLECTORS, COUPE 

OPERATORS 

• TIGERS KILLED – BY POACHERS, RETALIATORY KILLING 

• TOTAL STRAYING CASES – 303 NOS 


• USE OF MASKS 

• USE OF ELECTRIC DUMMIES 

• EXCAVATION OF SWEET WATER PONDS 

USE OF MASK ELECTRIC DUMMY SWEET WATER POND 

2 ND GENERATION MANAGEMENT [ 1988(NFP) – 2001 ] 

STATUS OF CONFLICT 

• TOTAL TIGER STRAYING CASES – 280 

• HUMAN DEATH REDUCED 

Total N um be 

50 

40 

30 

e r No. 

20 

10 

0 

32 

25 

21 

14 

9 

Persons Killed by Tiger in Sunderban Tiger Reserve since 1985-86 

43 

38 

34 

31 

5 

4 3 

5 

13 

15 

12 

14 

8 

2 

2 

0 0 

1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 

(A) EARLIER THE STRAYED OUT 

CAPTURED TIGER WAS 

RELEASED ‘ON ON LAND’ TILL 

2001 

(B) NOW THE TIGER IS BEING 

RELEASED FROM ‘BOAT’ BOAT’ 

Year 

(A) ( (A) ( ) 

(B) 

6 

7 

105


REASEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 

• CRITICAL EVALUATION OF ‘ALP’ FOR 

FUTURE PLANING OF PARTICIPATORY 

FOREST MANAGEMENT - AN ‘IUCN-MFF’ 

SMALL GRANT PROJECT 

• EAR EAR-TAGGING TAGGING AND MICROCHIPPING – 

TILL DATE 2 FEMALES AND 2MALES MALES TIGER 

HAVE BEEN EAR EAR-TAGGED TAGGED AND 

MICROCHIPPED TO STUDY THEIR STRAYING 

BEHAVIOUR - ON ONLY Y ONE ONE FEMA FEMALE FEMA E SHOWED 

SHOWED 

SUCH REPEATED STRAYING TENDENCY 

REASEARCH & DEVELOPMENT 

• TREATMENT OF INJURED TIGER – 

TILL DATE 3MALE MALE TIGERS AND 1FEMALE FEMALE TIGER HAVE BEEN FOUND STRAYING DUE 

HUNTING INCAPABILITY AND THEY WERE TREATED AT KOLKATA ZOO AND 2(TWO) (TWO) 

OF THEM TRANSLOCATED BACK TO THE WILD 

13.03.2009 13 13.03.2009 03 2009 22.07.2009 

22 22.07.2009 07 2009 

• BEHAVIOURAL STUDY – 

STUDIES HAVE SHOWN THAT SUNDARBAN TIGERS ARE LESS IN BODY 

WEIGHT &SMALLER SMALLER IN SIZE COMPARED TO MAIN LAND TIGERS 

106 

ANIMAL SEX DATE ACTUAL 

LENGTH (Cm.) NECK CHEST 

SHOULDER 

WEIGHT 

Nose Head 

Tail 

Total GIRTH 

GIRTH 

HEIGHT 

tip to 

to length 

(cm.) 

(cm.) 

(cm.) 

Head 

Anus 

Tiger Male 22.05.10 97 kg 32.5 137 83 252.5 53 89 89 

Tiger Male 22.05.10 115 kg 35 133 84 252.0 56 92 94 

Tiger Female 27.06.10 72 kg 30 127 82 239.0 48 87 67 

Tiger Male 22.10.10 98 kg 33 148 80 261 57 89 94 

PROPOSED 

INDO – BANGLA 

COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMS 

• TRANSFER OF GOOD MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 

• SHARING OF INTELLIGENCE INFORMATION 

1ST CAPTUTE 

(30TH JUNE’09) 

1ST RELEASE 

(3RD JULY’09) 

CAPTURE 

& RELOCATION 

OF A SAME TIGRESS 

(WLWB/0001) 

2ND CAPTUTE 

(31ST JULY’09) 

2ND RELEASE 

(2ND AUGUST’09) 

DULIBHASANI-3 

PIRKHALI-1 

THE WAY AHEAD 



JHILLA-1 

BAGMARA-7 

• RESEARCH ON TIGER ETHOLOGY & STRAYING BEHAVIOUR 

• PROVISION OF ‘ALP’ TO REDUCE DEPENDENCY ON NATURAL RESOURCES 

• COVERING THE ENTIRE 68 KM FRINGE BY NYLON NET FENCING 

• RESTOCKING OF PREY BASE 

• CONSTRUCTION OF RELOCATION CENTER FOR TIGER AT JHARKHALI 

• INSTALLATION OF SOLAR LIGHT ALONG THE FRINGE EMBANKMENT 

• COMMUNITY PATROLLING ON VOLUNTARY BASIS 

• AWARENESS GENERATION & OUTREACH PROGRAM

Communicating Sundarbans : 

triggering thoughts 

JAYANTA BASU 

Environment Communications Expert 

Director, , Environment Governed Integrated g Organisation 

g 

Guest Faculty, Dept. of Env. Sciences; 

Dept of Journalism and Mass Communication , 

Calcutta University 

Environment correspondent, the Telegraph, ABP 

4 Oct., 2012; transboundary meeting in 

Sundarbans 

Nexus of queries generated model 

•what – whom – how 

• There will be different sets of 

combinations – accordingly models 

are to be developed 

Social communication 

• How – 

agents – non profits/ panchayates/ micro 

and macro govt machinaries – in 

partnership 

Methods – ipc/ fgd etc – peer group 

interface – photographic and audiovisual 

aids may be better mediums of 

communication 




Basic questions 

1.What to communicate 

22.Whom Wh tto communicate i t 

3.How to communicate 


• What – social communication – about 

any driver/ force which affects the life, 

kivelihood and lifestyle of population – 

agriculture / fishery/ apiculure ; 

metreological / climate change impacts 

• Whom – stakeholders – govt machinary 

(official); civil society, target population, 

commercial entities 


• Possible Outputs 

Behaviour change leading to more prepare / 

responsive society 

Significant change in quality of life 

107


108 

Media communicaion 

• What – media communication – two-way 

– communicating the target populace and 

being communicated by them 

• Whom – opinion p makers – social leaders / 

researchers and academicians/ 

government administration – local, district, 

state and central, international community, 

people within sundarbans, people outside 

sundarbans but within influence zone of 

its effect, other population groups 

Media communication 

• Possible Outputs 

• More aware/ informed and responsive local 

society 

• More responsible and better activated 

administration 

• Taking the lab to land 

• Strenthening social mobilisation 

Transboundary – specific proposal 

• A joined television programme series – as 

per the MOU signed between India and 

Bangladesh on communication – may be 

planned on specific topics – 

Media communication 

• How – generating new product or imbibing 

with existing products - local vernacular 

papers / local channels/ short audio visual 

focus / mainstream papers/ mainstream 

channels/ website or portal/ 

documentaries – showcasing case 

studies/ discussions/ interface etc 

Transboundary effect 

• No story of sundarbans will complete 

unless it covers both Indian and 

Bangladesh – physically, 

conceptually, t ll ttechnically h i ll – wildlife ildlif and d 

human elementwise 

Transboundary – specific proposal 

Series 

islands/ agriculture /sea level rise/ 

- tropical cyclone/ forest / mangrove/ 

- water regime/ human condition / 

- infrastructure/ communication/ health/ 

- education/ migration/ fishery 

… major drivers of change 






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110 






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