Cottage Industry of Monpa Tribe in Tawang District of Arunachal ...

INTRODUCTION
Arunachal Pradesh, one of
the North-East States consists of
16 states. Tawang is one of the
16 districts. It is situated at the extreme
western most corner of
Arunachal Pradesh. The district
was created on 1st October 1984
with its headquarter Tawang by bifurcated
from West Kameng district.
The district is situated in the
south-west corner of the state in
mountain ranges of eastern
Himalayas, at the height of 3500
metre above the sea level like a
beak of a bird and Sela ranges
separate this district in the East
from West Kameng district. Majestic
lofty mountains clear sparkling
lakes; exquisite Gompas and
quaint little villages give an apt
description of Arunachal Pradesh’s
FEBRUARY 2011
Cottage Industry of Monpa Tribe in
Tawang District of Arunachal Pradesh with
Special Reference to Carpet Industry
— Dr. Ram Krishna Mandal* and Ms. Sange Tsumo**
ABSTRACT
The people of Arunachal Pradesh are artistically minded and gifted with deft hands and skilled
fingers. Various arts and crafts are in their blood. Handloom and Handicraft for instance, offer wide
scope to produce a variety of artistically blended and beautifully designed clothings. Weaving is a very
common craft in Arunachal Pradesh. Magnificent carpets are woven in West Kameng, and Tawang.
Monpa is one of the 25 major. The Monpa women weave carpet, shawls, sashes, coats, a wide variety of
bags and hats. There is a steady export market for the Monpa carpet, Adi Skirts, the Mishmi bags and
shawl. The main handicraft items made in the state are masks, carpets, painted wooden vessels and
silver articles, especially by the Monpas. The carpet has a great demand in the local market by the
tourist as well as in the out side of the State.
Tawang District. Popularly known
as The Hidden Paradise or The
Land of Dawn-Lit Mountains,
Tawang district (meaning The
Land of the Blessed Horses) occupying
an area of 2,085 sq.km and
located at and altitude of 3,500
meters it is bounded by Tibet in the
North East, Bhutan in the South
West and West Kameng in the
South West. Christened by Merek
Lama in the 17th century this
heavenly district is located in the
northwest extremity of Arunachal
Pradesh and is enclosed between
the latitude 27 ° 45' N and the longitude
90° 15' E.
Small scale and cottage industries
in Arunachal Pradesh are
the largest and most potential
source of economy and also the
mainstay of economic progress of
*Associate Professor of Economics, D.N. Govt. College, Itanagar,Arunachal Pradesh
Assistant Professor in Economics, D.N. Govt. College, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh
13
the people. Almost all the major
tribes in Arunachal Pradesh use to
practice, to some extent, weaving,
the widespread house-hold industry.
Everywhere it is the exclusive
business of the women. Arunachal
Pradesh is proud of her traditional
and fantastic indigenous handicrafts
and most colourful handloom
products. In the past years, the role
conceived for the Industries Department
in Arunachal Pradesh
was one of the revival and revitalization
of the traditional handloom
and handicrafts. The notable activities
have been the establishment
of craft centres, production centres
in the board areas, extension
of sericulture programme and setting
up of small scale industrial
units.
The people of this state are

14
FEBRUARY 2011
artistically minded and gifted with
deft hands and skilled fingers.
Various arts and crafts are in their
blood. Handloom and Handicraft
for instance, offer wide scope to
produce a variety of artistically
blended and beautifully designed
clothings. Weaving is a very common
craft in Arunachal Pradesh.
Magnificent carpets are woven in
West Kameng, Tawang and in
northern Siang; while beautiful rugs
are woven in the Adi area. The
Adis are excellent in the production
of useful eye-catching handicrafts
products and textile bear
ample testimony to the rich heritage.
Their nimble fingers weave
excellent designs on the textiles
and carpets. They also cultivate
cotton in their jhum fields
alongwith other produces. Vivid
colours and exquisite patterns,
sometime abstract and at other floral;
are the hallmark of the weaving
wool, cotton and silk throughout
the territory. The Nyishi
women weave in both cotton as
well as Pudu Plant fibre to produce
blankets, skirts, lion cloths and
waist bands. They grow a large
amount of cotton especially in the
valleys of Panior and Palin. They
use natural dyes which are extracted
from jungle creepers and
certain plants such as black from
Kukhi, red from Tamin creeper
and green from Ungu plant to
colour their yarn used for borders.
The Apa Tani women also work
in wool to weave ceremonial
shawls, coats and to embroider
cotton cloth. They usually extract
red dye from manjeet and black
from Yango Leaves. The Mishmis
women have a great reputation in
weaving. They grow cotton on a
small scale in the neighbourhood
of Roing. They weave in cotton,
wool plant fibres of different kinds
especially Rhea Nivea to produce
varieties of clothes that include lion
and waist cloths, aprons, sleeveless
coats, jackets, skirts, scarves,
embroidered bodies, shawls,
sashes, bands, belts and bags. The
Khamptis and Singpho women produce
almost all the necessary
clothes both for themselves and
their men. The Tangsa women
mainly produce hand-bags, skirts
and lungis of different patterns.
Both the Singpho and Tangsa
women are experts in making ceremonial
costumes, which show
their artistry and skill in weaving.
They all produce cotton on a smallscale.
Different items made of cane
and bamboo are found among the
Apa Tanis, Hill Miris and Adis. The
famous wood carving articles
found among the Noctes and
Wanchos. In short, we find among
the tribal people a wide variety of
crafts that include weaving, painting,
pottery, smithy work, bamboo
and cane work, wood carving and
basketry. Tribal handloom of
Arunachal Pradesh are well
known and greatly priced not only
in the territory but outside the
country also. The old art are losing
in utility as the pattern of life
changes. Now due to modernization,
the traditional dress and arts
and crafts are replaced by the new
one. It is the Industry Department
which has to look after to save the
traditional arts and crafts from
extinction, otherwise ultimately it
will be vanished. Thus different
tribes have their different designs
in their hand loom and handicraft
products.
The Monpa women weave
carpet, shawls, sashes, coats, a
wide variety of bags and hats.
There is a steady export market
for the Monpa carpet, Adi Skirts,
the Mishmi bags and shawl. The
main handicraft items made in
the state are masks, carpets,
painted wooden vessels and
silver articles, especially by the
Monpas. Here the author centralized
her mind only in context of
carpet industry of the Monpa
tribe.This paper is divided into four
sections. The first section deals
with introduction focusing on the
different style of handloom and
handicraft product of different
tribes. The second section high
lights the scope and objectives,
geographical area under study, and
methodology and data source of
the study. The third section examines
the socio-economic profile
of Monpa tribe while the fourth i.e.,
the last section searches prospect
of carpet industry in socio-economic
development of Monpa
Tribe and conclusion follows.
SECTION-II
Scope and Objectives of the
Paper
In spite of its vast natural resources,
Arunachal Pradesh is industrially
backward. A number of
reasons are cited for slow growth
of industries in the State as well
as in the North-Eastern Region as
a whole. While, some of these reasons
are geographical, some others
are infrastructural and the rest
are purely political in character.

The reasons like geographical isolation,
infrastructural bottlenecks,
scarcity of capital, smaller size of
market, lack of skilled labour, etc
might be responsible for slow
growth of big or large scale industries
in the state (as well as for the
NER as a whole) to a large extent.
But, the same set of factors
can not be held accountable for the
slow growth of small scale and
cottage industries based on its traditional
handicrafts like carpet industry
of the district in particular
and in the State in general. The
region is blessed with natural
abundance of Cane and Bamboo
the basic raw materials used for
the handicrafts industry and at the
same time the highly skilled manpower
for these crafts are also
available in the region. Therefore,
there is ample scope of development
of the traditional crafts like
cane and bamboo crafts and carpet
industry of the region. These
crafts could be an engine for economic
growth of the region, if adequate
measures are taken at different
levels to boost up these
crafts.
With a view to highlight the
above fact, the study has been
carried out with the following objectives:
1. To discuss socio-economic
profile of Monpa tribe.
2. To explore the prospect of
carpet industry in socio-economic
development of
Monpa Tribe in the district in
particular and in the state in
general.
Geographical Area under
Study: The Geographical area
under study has covered Tawang
Town and its surrounding area concentrating
the mind only in Monpa
women.
Methodology and Data
Source: Data are collected mainly
from primary sources with the help
of pre-structured questionnaires
on the basis of random sampling.
Secondary data is also used where
it is felt necessary. The interview
was taken in the month of June,
2009 from only women respondents
of age group 40 or more
than 40 years. Because, the author
thought that this group would
be more stabilized in their profession
and could say whether they
would keep this crafts for their
future generation or not. The number
of respondents was 20. The
indicators are only indicative and
highly subjective at this moment,
and are not exhaustive enough.
There is need for further sharpening
them in terms of indicators.
However, these answers/ opinions
were sought at the entrepreneurial
level, probably from the owner
of the enterprise. For the study
samples were selected through
random sample technique from the
enterprises spread over the length
and breadth of the district.
SECTION-III
Socio-Economic Profile of
Monpa Tribe
The Monpas are inhabitant of
the West Kameng and Tawang districts
of Arunachal Pradesh. They
are Buddhist by religion and profess
Mahayana / Lama strict sect.
Their society is patrilocal and
patrilineal. The number of nuclear
family is common and monogamy
FEBRUARY 2011
15
is the usual form of marriage.
Their primary economy is based
on agriculture, rearing livestock
and trade. The society is governed
by a council called Mongiombare
headed by Tsorgen, but the role of
the Buddhist priest (Lama) is significant
in every sphere of their
socio-cultural life.
According to 2001census,
there were an approximate number
of 25 major tribes and 110
tribes and sub-tribes inhabited the
entire State. Monpa is one of the
major tribes of the State. The principal
inhabitants of the State of
Arunachal Pradesh from east to
west are the tribes of Wancho,
Nocte, Tangsa, Singpho, Khamti,
Mishmi, Adi, Galo, Padam,
Minyong, Pailibo, Bokar, Bori,
Memba, Khamba, Apatani, Nyishi,
Hill Miri, Nah, Tagin, Aka, Khowa
or Bugun, Miji, Sulung, Sherdukpen
and Monpa. They exhibit a distinctive
culture, customs and traditions.
These tribes are scattered over an
area of 83,743 Sq. km. in hilly terrain
of Eastern Himalayas. The
concentration of tribal population
throughout the border region
though very high is scattered in
small villages with uninhabited
habitations in higher altitudes.
The Monpas are found in the
highland regions of the West
Kameng and the Tawang districts
of the State. Their number was
38,862 as per 1991 census, and
43344 as per 2001 census. Their
main centres of habitation are in
and around the administrative
headquarters of Tawang, Dirang
and Kalaktang. Basing on the place
of living and the geographical location
of these centres, they are

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FEBRUARY 2011
often called as Tawang or Northern,
Dirang or central and
Kalaktang or Southern Monaps. In
Tibetan dialect, the name Mon and
pa signify the men of the lower
country.
The inhabitants of the
Tawang district are the Monpas
belonging to the Mahayana Sect
of Buddhism. The Monpas are divided
into three groups, viz. Dirang
or Central. Tawang or Northern
and Kalakatang or Southern, that
are named after the geographical
locations of their concentration.
The Monpas are extremely self reliant;
they constructed their own
inter village path, build their own
cane bridge, devised their own indigenous
equipments to husk or
grind rice and millets, weaving
their own cloths, ornaments & jewels,
hats, cooking vessels, weapons.
This shows the exceptional
similarities of Gandhian concept of
self-reliance in the tribal Communities
of the state.
However, there was hardly
any development. The economy
and the society at the dawn of independence
were primitive. But,
now the days are fast moving far
from culture of self-sufficiency in
this tribal soil. This district is proud
of her traditional and fantastic indigenous
handicrafts and most
colourful handloom products. They
are excellent in the production of
useful eye-catching handicrafts.
Their handicrafts products and textile
bear ample testimony to the
rich heritage. Their nimble fingers
weave excellent designs on the
textiles and carpets. The intricately
executed woodcrafts, cane and
bamboo works, black smithy,
leather working, pottery making,
paper making and weaving bear
eloquent testimony to the fine artistic
temperament and poetic
imagination of the hardworking
tribesmen of these area.
The mountainous terrain of
Tawang comprises of the snow
capped Higher Himalayan ranges
and sparsely populated plateaus
and valleys, which are drained by
the Tawangchu and Nyamyanchu
rivers. Subject to low temparture
throughout the year the higher Alpine
tracts of Tawang also experience
heavy snowfall. The name
Tawang was given by Merek
Lama in the 17th century. Tawang
Monastery popularly known as the
‘Tawang Gonpa’ is the second oldest
Monastery in Asia more than
460 years old and the largest Monastery
in the Himalayan region
constructed by Lama Lodre
Gyatso in 1681 A.D. Tawang is the
birth place of the sixth Dalai Lama,
the only Indian so far who rose to
the highest position in Gelupa sect
of Buddhism. The inhabitants of
this district are the Monpas. They
are Buddhists by faith. They follow
the Gelupa sect of Mahayana
stream of Buddhism preached by
the Tawang Monastery, the fountainhead
of faith and religion. This
district is full of Monasteries both
big and small. All efforts have been
made to make this image accurate.
However Compare InfoBase Limited
and its directors do not own
any responsibility for the correctness
or authenticity of the same.
There are 3 sub-divisions namely
Tawang, Jang and Lumla with 3
blocks as Tawang, Mukto-Thimbu
and Lumla having 9 numbers of
administrative circles as Tawang,
Kitpi, Bongkhar, Thingbu, Mukto,
Jang, Lumla, Zemithang and
Dudunghar.
The economy is primarily
agrarian with people raising potato;
maize, millets, and etc. the people
also rear yaks, sheep, pony, cows
and goats. Tourism too is an upcoming
revenue-generating sector
in the district. Besides handicrafts
are the forte of the local women
folk who practice weaving and
make incense sticks. The charming
Tawang District mesmerizes
tourists and brings home to them
the fact that heaven is a place on
earth. This paradise offers a platter
full of traditional monasteries
and nunneries that sightseers can
visit, the most famous being the
pristine Tawang Monastery or
Golden Namgyal Lhatse. Besides
the Sangestser and Pankang Teng
Tso lakes, the Sela and Geshila
Mountain pass, the Tshinbu and
Tsachu hot springs are testimonial
to the scenic beauty of Tawang.
The Jaswant Garh, Tawang War
Memorial, Manujshree Vidyapith
and Crafts Center are also worth
visiting. The monasteries primarily
offer academic facilities in Tawang
District. The orpahanages also
have their own schools. The Buddha
Culture and Education Foundation
School, Lumla (Tawang) is
reputed institute providing quality
education in the district. Tawang,
opulent in its cultural heritage and
mind-blowing natural beauty is a
bag full of treasure for those whose
wanderlust takes them to this unexplored
terrain.
The district is inhabited by
181 numbers of villages with 8294

households. The total population of
the area is 38924 from which
21846 are male and 17078 are female.
The sex ratio is 782. The
density of population is 18 per sq.
km. as per 2001 census. The distance
from district headquarter to
state capital is 580 km. The total
length of roads under APPWD is
140.759 kms., under forest is 0.650
kms. And under RWD is 114.20
kms. There is 5 numbers of suspension
bridges. In the case of telecommunication
there is one telephone
office, 6 telephone exchange,
2466 telephone connections
with 491 number of STD facilities
and has 80 PCOs with the
telephone exchange capacity of
4228 number. The total number of
banks are 5 out of that 3 are the
branches of SBI and 2 are the
branches of A.P. co-operative
Apex Bank. There is 4 Micro
Hydel Project with the capacity of
160.00 kw. And there is solar photovoltaic
programme which electrified
1 village. The district has
47.3% of literacy rate for the education
purpose there is 77 govt.
institutions (schools) and 11 Private
institutions (schools). As govt.
institutions there is 2 higher secondary,
3 secondary, 20 middle and
52 primary schools and as private
institution 2 higher secondary, 1
secondary, 3 middle and 5 primary
schools are there. This district has
23 numbers of permanently registered
village and SSI units and providing
110 number of employment
with the investment of Rs 25.20
lakhs. There is 1 industrial estate
areas of 7.08 acre. In addition to
that, there is 2 craft/weaving centres
with 40 trainees.
SECTION-IV
Prospect of Carpet Industry
in Socio-Economic Development
of Monpa Tribe in the
District in Particular and in
the State in General
The Monpas are industrious
and famous for their arts and crafts
which are unique in nature. The
man-folk are expert craftsman in
painting, wood carving and mask
making; while the women are good
in their loom and produce wide
range of carpets besides their traditional
dresses. A substantial
amount of cash has been earned
by the commercial production of
these items and thereby enable to
them to strengthen their traditional
economy.The carpet making is one
of the economically viable craft of
the Monpas. Each and every family
usually process at least one carpet
in their house. The women in
particular are proud of the carpet
they weave. Though they are busy
in the house-hold task from morning
to evening even then they find
out sometime to weave carpet for
their own use. Those who can
spare time have considered this
craft as a secondary source of income.
The carpets made by the respondents
(Monpas) may be classified
into three categories on the
basis of utilization viz (1) Khatan,
(2) Thrisu-tan, (3) Maksu-maktan.
· Khatan: This variety of carpet
is used as seat. These are
designed and named according
to the status of the person
who is to use, such as
singy-norbu, khangoon-ma
FEBRUARY 2011
17
and meesering etc.
· Singy-Norbu: Carpet with
combination of different
colours and designed with
animal figure of an imaginary
snow lion with pearl is usually
used by the rich well to
do people.
(ii) Khangoon-ma: A flower
like design called kholo
weave on yellow ground of
a carpet is meant for Lama,
who never seats on a carpet
having motifs of any animals,
birds etc.
(iii) Meesering: Carpet with a
panoramic view of Lama,
tree, deer, Bird Mountain and
a spring is portrayed with different
colours on maroon or
yellow back ground is normally
placed vertically at the
backrest of a seat arranged
for Lama.
(2) Thrisu-tan: This type of
carpet is named after motif
such as cha-sung, mupchakhaptak
tan, druk-khap-tan
and so on.
(i) Cha-sung: A figure of an
imaginary bird in flying pose
with the border of koikhuti,
zigzag design, is depicted on
the carpet.
(ii) Mupcha: The portrait of two
peacocks and a tiger is depicted
on the
Khaptak-tan: Carpet with
the border of either indulucky,
cross design or koikhuti zigzag
design.
(iii) Druk-Khaptak: It consists
of a picture of four dragons

18
FEBRUARY 2011
facing each others at the
middle with khochuri design
on the border.
(3) Maksu-maktan: The carpet
is specially designed to use
on horseback. The carpet
has two wings and looks like
a butterfly. It is called gyagamaktan,
when wings are of
irregular and wapi-maktan,
when wings are of rectangular
in shape. A rectangular
separate piece of carpet having
floral design called khasu
is a part of maksu-maktan,
placed at the middle of the
wings. The carpet is fasten
on a horseback in the honour
of Lamas and Gaon buras.
The technology of production
of crafts though look simple outward,
it is very labourous and timetaking.
Similarly, design worked
out on a carpet depicts rich heritage
of material culture of the
people as well as skillness of the
weaver. The materials require in
carpet making are coloured
woolen yam, woof, cotton twisted
yarn, cotton thread and a wooden
loom with other tools and implements.
Wool is prepared locally out
of the heirs of sheep. The hairs
(monang) are cut off by a sharp
knife, washed, dried and them
spined, if necessary applied indigenous
or synthetic dyes. The indigenous
dyes are extracted from
locally available creepers, herbs
and shrubs as described below.
(a) Yellowish colour: A plant
locally called as Tagapapa is
obtained from the forest and
its bark is dried. Later, driedbark
pieces are pounded on
stone into smaller pieces and
boiled in a pan. The wool is
then immersed in the boiling
mixture and shaken out from
time till the yellowish colour
appears in the wool.
(b) Dark red colour: Pieces
of Marchu plant are gathered
from the forest and allowed
to dry. Later on, the pieces
are pounded on stone into
smaller pieces. In some
places of the area, there is
yellowish colour soil called
surka. Small quantity of it is
mixed and boiled with some
fine pieces of Marchu. Wool
is immersed in the mixture
until all the wool is impregnated
with the distinct colour.
(c) Reddish colour: The seeds
of Gyachu / Sungkan plant
are collected from the jungle.
These are pounded on stone
into powder. Then the powder
is boiled with the wool
and shaken till the reddish
colour appears and stakes
into the wool.
(d) Red colour: The creeper
known locally as Lani is obtained
from the forest. It is
cut into small pieces and dried
properly. Later on, some
pieces of Lani is mixed with
some Surka and boiled to
yield red colour. Wool is immersed
into the mixture
colouring.
(e) Black colour: Pachang is a
kind of herbs mixed with
some Surka to yield black
colour.
Now-a-days, synthetic dye
of various colour and other materials
like woolen yarn, cotton yarn
and cotton twisted thread are purchased
from local markets together
with the tools and implements
viz. Iron hammer, wooden
hammer, scissor, iron roads, chisel,
needle, knife, coir brush, jack, etc.
The loom has two vertical wooden
beams with fixed pages at the top
and the bottom, while two horizontal
beams carry the warp threads
cotton are tied to each other. The
knotting is done by looping wool
around the warp along with a rod
which is held at right angle to the
warp. The knotting is started from
one end and finished at the other.
The loops on the rod are cutted by
gliding edge of a chisel to release
the rod, and then, a three ply
twisted wool is thrown across the
warps to fix up the loose loops of
wool. To weave design on a carpet,
desired colour wool is placed
in lieu of the ground coloured wool
in the normal course of weaving.
After completion of weaving, the
carpet is dressed by cutting unwanted
wools and finally brushed.
The carpet weaving is a traditional
craft of the Monpa
women. Any interested women
can learn the carpet weaving either
associated with expert women
or by training in the government
craft centre situated in the district
headquarters. On completion of
the training one can set up a small
scale industry as there is great
demand for these carpets. Although
the recurring and non-recurring
expenditure together the
cost of rent of the building is very
high. Yet one can earn a net profit
of Rs.5, 000.00 (Rupees five thou-

sand) or so monthly. This however,
depended on quality and design of
the carpets. There are, now a good
number of privately owned SSI
units run by the Monpa women.
These SSI units provide employment
opportunities to good number
of women folks and simultaneous
earn a sizable amount of cash by
selling out the carpets in strengthening
their economy. The 60% respondents
i.e., the carpet weavers
have taken training from the government
crafts centre at Tawang
while 40% have obtained their expertise
from their parents. It is a
fact that the design and quality of
the carpet woven by the women
who have not taken training from
the craft centre are better than
those woven by the trained women.
The carpet shop keeper and carpet
weaver told that the visitors either
national or international purchase
the carpet. So the possibility to develop
the carpet market is bright
with the development of tourism
industry. The 40% weaver told that
they would not be willing to keep
this industry for their future generation.
The reasons are many. It
needs for research. 20% of weavers
are happy and they help their
family and also for their children’s
education with their income. Standard
of living of 30% carpet weavers
have improved after adopting
this profession. The income of each
weaver per month ranges from Rs.
1000/- Rs. 5000/-.
Conclusion: The arts and crafts
of the Monpas – a Buddhist tribe
of Mahayana sect, specially the
wood carving and mask making,
scroll or thangka painting and carpet
making, have given a first hand
idea about the importance of there
crafts in their life style and also in
their socio-economic upliftment if
these are properly developed in
attractive designs / motifs and by
improving the quality of production
through setting up SSI units with
FEBRUARY 2011
expert craftsman, improvised tools
and implements and the raw materials.
In doing so, enthusiasm
from the artisans and craftsman,
financial support from the nationalized
banks and state government
departments and commercialization
in proper respective are
highly essential. All the Buddhist
community of Mahayana sect besides
the Monpas, the
Sherdukpens, the Memba and
Khambas also have these arts and
crafts. The carpets of the Monpas
have already captured a good market
in the national level and hope
that the other arts and crafts items
may also get well recognition in the
national markets through the emporium
of the National Handloom
and Handicraft Commission, and
regional and national trade fair.
Some of the textile and handicraft
items of the Arunachalees also
exhibited in International trade
fairs and received high appreciations
and acclamation.
REFERENCES
(i) Dutta, D.K. and Duarah, D.K. (2002): “Impact of Buddhist Arts and Crafts in the Economy of the Monpas
of Arunachal Pradesh” Resarun (Journal of the Directorate of Research), Vol. 28, Govt. of Arunachal
Pradesh, Dept. of Cultural Affairs, Itanagar
(ii) Mandal, R. K. (2005), “Emergence of Marketing of Handloom & Handicrafts products of A.P.” paper
presented in the Annual Conference of NEEA, Oct 2005.
(iii) Borgohain, H., “Development of Industries and Handicrafts in Siang Region” in Pandey, B.B. (ed), “Patterns
of Change and Potential for Development in Arunachal Pradesh,” Himalayan Publishers, Itanagar,
New Delhi.
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