The Influence of the Emperor Cult on the - Abilene Christian University

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56 RESTORATION QUARTERLY Before exploring how <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Revelation can be illuminated by socialhistorical research, we will first examine <strong>the</strong> data for <strong>the</strong> emperor cult in <strong>the</strong> cities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Apocalypse and <strong>the</strong>n detail what can be said about <strong>the</strong> actual practices in <strong>the</strong> emperor cult. According to S. R. F. Price, evidence exists for <strong>the</strong> emperor cult during or before <strong>the</strong> reign <strong>of</strong> Domitian in four <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> seven cites mentioned in Revelation 2–3 (viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, and 3 Laodicea). This section presents and evaluates <strong>the</strong> evidence for this claim. Ephesus In many respects, <strong>the</strong> evidence regarding Ephesus provides <strong>the</strong> best point <strong>of</strong> departure. <strong>The</strong> sources are varied, from archeological and epigraphic evidence to literary texts. In addition, up to five temples are represented. <strong>The</strong> temple <strong>of</strong> Roma and Julius Caesar is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> few temples attested by literary evidence. Dio Cassius (fl. ca. A.D. 200) describes <strong>the</strong> honors Octavian granted Julius Caesar and Roma in 29 B.C.: Caesar (i.e., Octavian), meanwhile, besides attending to <strong>the</strong> general business, gave permission for <strong>the</strong> dedication <strong>of</strong> sacred precincts () in Ephesus and in Nicaea to Rome [i.e., Roma] and to Caesar, his fa<strong>the</strong>r, whom he named <strong>the</strong> hero Julius. <strong>The</strong>se cities had at that time attained chief place in Asia and in Bithynia respectively. He commanded that <strong>the</strong> Romans resident in <strong>the</strong>se cities should pay honour to <strong>the</strong>se two divinities (’ . . . ); but he permitted <strong>the</strong> aliens, whom he styled Hellenes, to consecrate precincts () to himself, <strong>the</strong> Asians to have <strong>the</strong>irs in Pergamum and <strong>the</strong> Bithynians <strong>the</strong>irs in Nicomedia. This practice, beginning under him, has been continued under o<strong>the</strong>r emperors, not only in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hellenic nations but also in that <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, in so far as <strong>the</strong>y are subject to <strong>the</strong> Romans. For in <strong>the</strong> capital itself and in Italy generally no emperor, however worthy <strong>of</strong> renown he has been, has dared to do this; still, even <strong>the</strong>re various divine honours are bestowed ( ) after <strong>the</strong>ir death upon such emperors as have ruled uprightly, and, in fact, shrines are built to <strong>the</strong>m ( ). 4 A number <strong>of</strong> salient details require discussion. First, one notices <strong>the</strong> mention <strong>of</strong> “sacred precincts” to Roma and Julius Caesar in Ephesus. <strong>The</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se “sacred precincts” is supported by archeological data: “This podium, formerly known as <strong>the</strong> state altar, has now been identified as a podium with two small prostyle temples built by Augustus in 29 B.C. for <strong>the</strong> Divus Iulius and Dea Roma; it was destroyed in <strong>the</strong> fourth century A.D.” 5 3 S. R. F. Price, Rituals and Power: <strong>The</strong> Roman Imperial <strong>Cult</strong> in Asia Minor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), 252–64. 4 Dio Cassius, Roman History, 51.20.6–8 (E. Cary, LCL 6.56–59). 5 V. Mitsopoulou-Leon, “Ephesos,” Princeton Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> Classical Sites, 307. For <strong>the</strong> location <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> temple area, see #9 on <strong>the</strong> map between 760 and 761 (for discussion, see 815–16) in “Ephesos vom Beginn der römischen Herrschaft in Kleinasien bis zum Ende der Principatszeit” (Dieter Knibbe and Wilhelm Alzinger, ANRW 2.7.2).
CUKROWSKI/INFLUENCE OF THE EMPEROR CULT 57 Second, Octavian consecrates “precincts to himself” in Pergamum and Nicomedia, a practice that “has been continued under o<strong>the</strong>r emperors.” However, Dio indicates that such a practice has not occurred “in <strong>the</strong> capital itself and in Italy generally.” This information suggests that <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> multiple imperial temples in Asia Minor is likely. Third, Dio’s testimony also informs us that <strong>the</strong> bestowal <strong>of</strong> “divine honours” came from Rome (i.e., <strong>the</strong> Senate) and occurred after <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> emperor. <strong>The</strong> reliability <strong>of</strong> all this information from Dio is ano<strong>the</strong>r question. Although Dio is variously regarded 6 as a historian, <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> temple to Roma and Julius Caesar in Ephesus seems relatively certain, given <strong>the</strong> dual attestation (literary and archaeological) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> evidence. <strong>The</strong> second temple associated with Ephesus is <strong>the</strong> temple <strong>of</strong> Augustus at <strong>the</strong> Artemision. An inscription in <strong>the</strong> British Museum (#522) records “<strong>the</strong> rebuilding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peribolos <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Artemision by order <strong>of</strong> Augustus, B.C. 6.” 7 <strong>The</strong> <strong>Emperor</strong>, Caesar, Son <strong>of</strong> God, Augustus; (in) <strong>the</strong> 12th consulate, <strong>the</strong> 18th tribunate power; from <strong>the</strong> revenues <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> god was provided to build a wall for <strong>the</strong> temple and <strong>the</strong> Sebasteion; in <strong>the</strong> proconsulship <strong>of</strong> Gaius Asinius Gallus, in <strong>the</strong> care <strong>of</strong> Sextus Lartidius, ambassador [trans. mine]. A debate exists whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> Artemision and <strong>the</strong> Sebasteion shared <strong>the</strong> same 8 precincts. Whatever <strong>the</strong> case, <strong>the</strong> inscription describes <strong>the</strong> building <strong>of</strong> a wall that served both <strong>the</strong> Artemision and <strong>the</strong> Sebasteion. More importantly, <strong>the</strong> inscription provides evidence <strong>of</strong> an imperial temple for Augustus while he was still alive. 6 In OCD (s. v. “Dio Cassius,” 345), Alexander McDonald writes, “Unreliable about republican institutions and conditions, from Caesar onwards he used his constitutional experience, at first colouring events with his ideas <strong>of</strong> imperial absolutism, but later handling his material with full knowledge.” A similar sentiment is echoed by H. Koester, “<strong>The</strong> value and reliability <strong>of</strong> this work (Dio’s Roman History) is debated. Dio Cassius was largely dependent upon Latin annalists, inserted numerous long speeches, and showed independent judgment only in <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong> his own period” (History, <strong>Cult</strong>ure, and Religion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hellenistic Age, [Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982], 350). 7 <strong>The</strong> Collection <strong>of</strong> Ancient Greek Inscriptions in <strong>the</strong> British Museum, Part 3— Section 2, Ephesos (ed. E. L. Hicks; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1890), 177. 8 A. D. Nock argues, “it should be remembered that two distinct , or precincts, can have a common wall and make a sacred enclosure like <strong>the</strong> Acropolis <strong>of</strong> A<strong>the</strong>ns. This is not temple-sharing” (Essays on Religion and <strong>the</strong> Ancient World [ed. Zeph Stewart; Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972], 225). According to Price (Rituals, 254), Jobst (“Zur Lokalisierung des Sebasteion-Augusteum in Ephesos,” Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abteilung Istanbul 30 [1980]: 241–60) argues that <strong>the</strong> Sebasteion was not in <strong>the</strong> Artemision because <strong>the</strong> inscription was not found <strong>the</strong>re.
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