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memorizing the verbs of the wrong Indian language in order to convert a people, already
possessing land, whose vision for endless centuries had turned inward? ''1~ Far from being a
fish in a sea of people, as revolutionary warriors advocated, he was a fish out of water. He
paid with his life for geographic ignorance.
AI~IALYFI CAL IEC H l~l I Q U ~
Geographic factors become fully significant politically and militarily only when related to
probable effects on friendly and enemy courses of action and assigned missions (attack,
defend, delay, withdraw, and so on) during nuclear, conventional, and unconventional
conflicts as well as operations other than war typified by shows of force, humanitarian
assistance, disaster relief, peacekeeping, search and rescue, counternarcotics, and
counterterrorism. Analyses also vary with forces available (combat and support, land, sea,
air, amphibious, and space). Countless questions require answers, as the following samples
illustrate:
• What offensive strategies and tactics would be most advisable in terrain that favors
defenders?
• How far and fast would radioactive fallout from a 2-kiloton nuclear surface burst drift
and how wide an area would it afflict?
• Do land forms and vegetation in adjacent countries conceal sanctuaries into which
enemy forces retreat to recuperate, then return to the fray?
• What area would be submerged for how long if bombers destroyed a large dam on
the River Styx?
• Would sea states, tides, and currents help or hinder combat swimmers and their
delivery vehicles?
• Will fog preclude proposed use of night vision devices, battlefield illumination, lasers,
and thermal sights?
• How much heavy traffic will the only major highway bear between rear area bases
and the combat zone?
• What colors and symbols should psychological operations leaflets avoid because
superstitious recipients consider them unlucky?
• Is the water table too high or the soil too friable for troops to dig foxholes?
• Will starving refugees welcome U.S. Meals-Ready-to-Eat or will some contents offend
cultural beliefs?
A convenient framework for area analyses fortunately is available. Mnemonic devices
line up war fighting factors to form the acronym COCOA:
Critical Terrain
Obstacles
Cover and Concealment
Observation and Fields of Fire
Avenues of Approach
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OVERVI EW