management of conflicts in business organization a study

MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTS IN BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
A STUDY OF COCA-COLA NIGERIA BOTTLING COMPANY PLC.
KANO
BY
MOHAMMED, Usman Bala
MBA/ADMIN/40164/2004/2005
(G04/BAMF7078)
BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE POST GRADUATE
SCHOOL OF AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA. IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE
DEGREE OF MASTERS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA)
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION,
FACULTY OF ADMINISTRATION,
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY, ZARIA.
OCTOBER, 2005.
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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this project is the product of my personal research
effort, to the best of my knowledge, it has never hitherto been submitted
for the award of any degree in any university or institute of learning.
Declared By: ___________________ __________________
Name of Student Signature & Date
2

CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this project titled management of conflicts in
Business Organization, a study of Coca-cola Nigerian Bottling Company
Plc. Kano by Mohammed, Usman Bala meets regulation governing the
award of the degree of masters of Business Administration (MBA) of
Ahmadu Bello University Zaria and it is therefore approved for its
contributions to knowledge and literacy presentation.
________________________ ______________ _____________
Mal. D. B Imam Signature Date
Chairman, Supervisor Committee
____________________ ____________ _____________
Dr. M.N Maiturare Signature Date
Head of Department
_____________________ ____________ _____________
External Examiner Signature Date
________________________ ______________ _____________
Dean Postgraduate School Signature Date
3

DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my father Cdr. U.S Mohammed (RTD) the
SHESHI NUPE, for his love for Western Education and for the Islamic
knowledge he impacted on his children.
4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Praise be to Allah, the cherisher and sustainer of the worlds. And may
the peace and blessings be upon the seal of the prophets Muhammad.
My gratitude goes to my family the Sheshi Nupe family whom I will
always pray for continue health, love , faith in Allah and success.
Especially for my “Great” father for his unwavering love, prayers,
kindness, advices, financial support and total believe in his children – we
love you. And you are the greatest. To my mum for her steady love and
prayers. Also to my step mums who have been a strong pillar to my
success in whatever good I do and do put me right in my wrongs–may
Allah reward you accordingly. My Sisters and Brothers, Ya-ladidi, Ya-
Jummai, Ya-Azumi, Ya-Mama, Ama, Lare, Talatu, Maimuna, Fatima,
Nurudeen, Mustapha And Najimudeen “Yekubaitum. My Nephews and
Nieces I love you.
My appreciation goes to all members and Staff of Business
Administration Department. The Head of Department Dr. M.N. Maiturare,
My Supervisor Mallam Dalhatu B. Imam for his patience and knowledge
impacted on me to see that this thesis meets the required standard. To
Mallam Bello Sabo our MBA Coordinator for a perfect Organization and
successful completion of the programme.
Abdurrahman thank you so much for your “invisible hands” your reward
is with Allah.Kabir Garba, Aminu Kabir And Mairo Mohammed my
classmate and colleagues– we are together through tick and thin. My
Barristers Eugene and Rufai– Thanks for bringing out the LAW in me.
Adaora Umunna and Rahab Noms you guys have been a true friend to
the letter. Omon and the rest of my classmates than God we sail
successfully together in this ship of knowledge. My faithful friend Amina
Aliyu -thanks for being there. Jamila Garba you are truly one wonderful
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person. Saidu Abubakar, Kippon and S.D thanks for the shelter.
Josephine T.Dauda our football rivalry continues. The Z.C Alh. W.S.Idris
may this work serve as a guiding tool for your quest for effective
leadership-thank you sir. My colleagues Mr. M.B Wasagi, Mrs. P. Fakai
Mrs. N. Bello, Mr. Ezekiel N. Jiya, etal thank God we crossed path. Our
Oga’s in RMA & FC Kd Zone may Allah give you the strength to keep the
“house” always together. Mrs. Josephine I.C. Isaac thank you for the
super typing and prints. Lastly, for all those whose names did not appear
I apologize but you are as well important.
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ABSTRACT
The topic of this research is “Management of Conflict in Business
Organization” A Study of Coca-cola (Nigeria Bottling Company Plc). The
study is designed to examine more critically, issues of management of
conflicts in Business Organization. This is because where there are two
or more people working together to attain a goal, there is bound to be
conflict.
The chapter one forms the introductory aspect of the project work. The
study also reviews the various works of different writers on the subject
matter. In the course of the research, various instruments were
employed in collecting both primary and secondary data. The data
collected were also analyzed using different methods.
Data were also subjected to rigorous analysis in order to determine the
research hypothesis objectives. The last chapter contains the summary,
conclusion and recommendations.
For an organization to survive and attain its objectives, proper conflict
resolution procedures should be put in place for efficient and full
participation of the workers. The following are recommended:
1) Managers should engage only in conflict that focuses on issues of
group goals rather than that focus on personality or selfish interest
of individuals.
2) Healthy conflict should be stimulated and employees should be
assigned higher responsibilities with a clearly defined boundary.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
i. Title page…………………………………………………………….…i
ii. Declaration…………………………………………………………….ii
iii. Certification……………………………………………………………iii
iv. Dedication……………………………………………………………..iv
v. Acknowledgement………………………………………………....v-vi
vi. Abstract……………………………………………………………….vii
vii. Table of contents………………………………………………….viii-x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Background of the study…………………………………………..1-5
1.1 Statement of the problem……………………………………………5
1.2 Objective of the study……………………………………………….5-6
1.3 Significance of the Study…………………………………………….6
1.4 Scope of the study……………………………………………………6
1.5 Limitation of the study………………………………………………..6
1.6 Research Question…………………………………………………...7
1.7 Research Hypothesis………………………………………………..7
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………....8
2.1 Management Theories, and Style……………………………….8-10
2.1.1 Traditional Viewpoint………………………………………….. .10-20
2.1.2 Behavioral Viewpoint………………………………………….. .20-23
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2.1.3 Systems Viewpoint……………………………………………...23-25
2.1.4 Contingency Viewpoint………………………………………....25-26
2.1.5 Quality Viewpoint………………………………………………..26-27
2.2 Organizations: Structures and Complexities…………………27-29
2.2.1 Organizational Structures and design budgeting…………….29-31
2.2.2 Organizations and Complicities Theory……………………….31-35
2.3 Group Development…………………………………………….35-39
2.4 The concept of Conflict………………………………………........40
2.5 Conflict Management…………………………………………...41-42
2.5.1 Conflict Management Styles……………………………………42-44
2.6 Types of Conflict in Business Organization…………………..44-47
2.7 Courses of Conflict in Organization……………………………47-48
2.8 Recognizing Healthy and Unhealthy Conflict………………...48-49
2.9 Dynamics of Conflict………………………………………… . ..49-51
2.10 A Philosophy of avoiding Conflict……………………………...51-53
2.10.1Good and Bad side of conflict………………………..………..52-53
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Sample Definition……………………………………………………54
3.1 Data Collection and Specification……………………………..54-55
3.2 Types of Data Collection…………………………………………...55
3.3 Methods of Data Analysis……………………………………….....55
3.4 Limitation of Data Collected………………………………………. 55
3.5 Profile of Nigeria Bottling Company Plc……………………....56-57
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Data Presentation and Analysis…………………………………..58
4.1 Analysis and Interpretation of Questionnaires……………....58-65
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4.2 Test of Hypothesis……………………………………………... 65-68
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Summary…………………………………………………................69
5.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………..69-71
5.2 Recommendations ……………………………………………...71-72
Questionnaire…………………………………………………....73-76
Bibliography………………………………………………..........77-79
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1.0 Background of the Study
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
A business organization is an identifiable social entity whose members
pursue multiple goals collectively. The pursuance of these goals is done
side by side with their personal goals and aspirations through their co-
ordinated activities and relationship. Hence, organizations have people,
goals that are achieved through co-ordination.
Organizations are also made up of people who occupy different levels of
the organizational pyramid known as its manpower. These people have
different culture, skills and educational background as well as different
perceptions, roles, expectations and values. Conflict in an organization
will depend on the degree with which the manpower is met with
opposition in protecting their interest, values and goals. It can therefore
be said that conflict is inevitable in an organization.
As predicted by Alvin Toffer (1970) in his book “the future shock” all
aspect of life including organization life would encounter accelerating
changes as we approach the 21 st century. Different people with varying
culture or educational background are employed and thereby making task
more independent. More co-operations are needed to achieve objectives
of the organization and this creating a fertile ground for conflict. The
successful completion of tasks within the organization depends on
whether or not the organization objectives do not conflict with the
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interest of the workers. A prominent form of conflict is one that occurs
between the labour union and the management teams, between managers
and workers and between individuals. When conflict occurs, it holds
back the operational efficiency of the organization.
Hence, when some people hear conflict the next thought is a negative
connotation like violence, destruction, aggression and the likes. To
others, the term conflict have positive connotations like development,
excitement, adventure, challenges, etc. conflict is believed to stimulate
innovations and creativity. A third set of conflict might stimulate mixed
attitudes and situational factors that may best reflect reality. These people
believe that conflicts are good and bad depending on situation
surrounding its occurrence.
Classical writers on organization such as Fayol (1916) and Taylor (1909)
view conflict as undesirable. They minimize it through selection of
employees, good incentives systems through training, detailed position
description and elaborate rules to specify the relationship among
positions.
Essentially, difference in culture, values and structural factors such as
task independents, wage administering and working conditions are major
causes of conflicts in organization. Cultural difference is more
pronounce in interpersonal conflict. The Japanese experience reveals that
a particular culture has more intrinsic merit than we are often willing to
accord in organization. What one manager or subordinate might regard as
rude and confrontational on part of employee might in fact be the
desirable qualities of rightness and sincerity. According to Johgaris
Window, exposure of self to other and soliciting feedback
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will minimize managers’ wrong perception of others. Therefore, any type
of labour relation’s practice must reflect the values and sentiments of
workers in the organization. Cautions should be taken in rejecting a
practice just because it differs from our “standard” ways of doing
things.
However, it should be noted that conflict could have benefits to
organization. It might serve as mechanism or tool for fine-tuning
organization goal hierarchy. Also conflict resolution assist in
differentiating power and authority relationship between different
organization members.
So far, it has been established that conflict is inevitable in organizations.
Indeed sometimes the healthy ones are unhealthy. With this it is now
incumbents managers fine appropriate conflict resolution procedures for
dysfunctional conflicts. Managers must develop a conceptual framework
of to encouraging and managing healthy conflicts within the
organization.
What we come to regard as “conflict” in an organization depends on our
interpretation of events. The reality of most organizations is that people
hold a multiplicity of personal objectives.
There would seem to be some truth in the claim that employees
really work for the material and psychological satisfaction they can
achieve, and that their work is therefore an instrument used towards
their own ends. In addition to this instrumental attachment to work,
interest groups form in organizations where individual interests
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coalesce. These groups seek to achieve their ends through alliances and
by following group strategies.
A number of sociologists have suggested that our attention should be
addressed to the explanation of “Order” or lack of “conflict” which is
perceived by some to be unnatural, the normal pattern being one of
disagreement, conflict and often violence. One outcome of such a view is
that “political activity” is necessary to avoid a state of anarchy. This
political activity includes the formation of alliances, the representation of
interest groups in consensus decision-making, and mechanisms for
containing and canalizing opposition.
The values of managers govern their attitudes towards workers taking
action in pursuit of claims and condition the manager’s response to
“industrial action”. Whether such action is regarded as a legitimate part
of the bargaining process will depend on a manager’s view of conflict as
threat to survival of organizations while others perceive it as inevitable
and sometimes an index for measures of the organizations health.
Therefore, as seen by Hornby (1995), conflict can be said to be a
serious disagreement, struggle, and fight arising out of differences of
opinions, wishes needs, values, and interest between and among
individuals or groups. It is a struggle between and among
individuals or groups over values and claims to scarce resources, status
symbols and power bases. In the views of Coster (1956) the objective of
the individuals or groups engaged in conflict is to neutralize, injure or
eliminate their rivals so that they can enjoy the scare resources, the
status symbols and power based. Another definition offered by Thomas
(1976) is “conflict is the process which begins when one party
perceives that the other has frustrated, or is about to frustrate, some
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concern of his”. This definition deals with the type of conflict that occurs
between individuals and in groups.
Conflict is prevalent within and between social relations such as families,
ethnic groups, social institutions and organizations, political parties and
sates. Further, it is prevalent in situations where the goals aspirations,
interests and needs of the social groups cannot be achieved
simultaneously and the value systems of such groups are the variance.
1.1 Statement of The Problem
One of the major problems that can affect any business is conflict. A lot
of people believe that conflicts are a must, which makes it inevitable. An
overview of the problem or problem definition, depicts a vivid
description of the problem envisaged or existing in an organization as
regards their management of conflict within the enterprise, and how
managers try to resolve such conflict.
Generally, the problem of conflict management exist in almost all the
private and public organizations. These problem could be among other
things, the interpersonal conflict and the intergroup conflict. This study is
to determine what management of conflicts are with their problems,
impacts and possible resolution.
1.2 Objective Of The Study
The objectives of the study is aimed to achieve the following
1) To increase organization effectiveness through effective
management of dysfunctional conflicts and encouragement and
also the management of healthy and functional conflicts.
2) To help managers identify his/her conflicts resolution styles, how
to improved on them and how to be adaptive as the situation
demands.
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3) To determine the relationship between the mangers leadership style
and his conflict resolution system.
4) To further develop the art of management.
1.3 Significance Of The Study
The researcher provides a structural approach to conflict management.
The researcher spells out ways by which organizations effectiveness can
be enhanced. It also develops manager skills and insight into the
management of continuing and recurring conflicts that cannot be
eliminated in organizations. Therefore, learning on the appropriate
conflict resolution made, manager’s time spent on attending to trivial
dispute within the organization is reduced.
Besides, this research will serve as further contribution to knowledge
generally and will be useful for scholars intending to carryout further
research work on conflict.
1.4 Scope Of The Study
The research is about conflict and it focuses on interpersonal and inter
group conflicts. The research examined the causes and cultural influence
on interpersonal and intergroup conflict. Other forms of conflict
excluding industrial conflicts was mentioned in the study. Coca-cola
Bottling Company Kano Branch has been chosen as the case study of the
thesis.
1.5 Limitation Of The Study
The cost of conducting fieldwork and research of this kind is very high.
Also, the time constraint is a limiting factor on this study.
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1.6 Research Question
The study tries to examine conflict management produces within
employees of Nigeria Bottling Company Plc and its effect on the
performance. The following questions were asked.
1) What has been the interpersonal/intergroup relationship between
/among employees?
2) What can be done to improve the relationship
3) Is there any significant relationship between healthy conflict and
organization effectiveness?
4) How can organization encourage healthy conflict and discourage
unhealthy conflicts?
1.7 Research Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant relationship between conflict management
approaches and management style.
Alternative Hypothesis
Hi: There is a significant relationship between conflict management
approaches and management style.
Null Hypothesis
Ho: The major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an
organization are personality and cultural differences.
H1. Alternative Hypothesis
The major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an organization
are not personality and cultural differences.
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2.0 Introduction
CHAPTER TWO
The essence of this chapter is to review some salient literatures that have
some degree of relevance to the subject matter under study. As a result
the views, ideas, submission, opinions and definition of renowned
authorities on the subject matter would be highlighted. To this end,
therefore, this chapter is divided into different subheading to enhance the
successful achievement of this study.
2.1 Management Theories and Style
Management development usually takes a systematic process to ensure
that an organization meets its current and future needs for effective
managers.
According to Slocum (1996) “management involves planning,
organizing, leading and controlling the people working in an organization
to achieve the organization’s goals.”
These goals give direction to the tasks and activities undertaken.
Manager in organization allocate human and material resources and
direct the operations of a department or an entire organization.
The theorists who have contributed to our understanding of management
have included practical managers as well as social scientists. The
contribution of the practical managers has been to reflect on, and theorist
about, their own experiences in management with the idea of producing a
set of principles of management applicable in a wide variety of
situations.
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In practice these theorist have applied their principles, to the structure of
organizations rather than to other aspects, such a people in organizations.
The label which has been ascribed to these, theorist is “classical or, in
some cases: scientific managers”. Their approach has been described has
been described as prescriptive i.e. suggesting what is good for an
organization.
The social scientist, by contrast, have been academics, whose starting
point has been research into human behaviour with the intention of first
describing, and subsequently predicting behaviour in organizations. The
earlier social scientist concentrated their attentions or the motivation and
behaviour of individuals and groups in the work situation. They are
particularly interested in social relationships and have been called the
human Relations movement. Their studies have looked at the various
interaction between people and their environment with the aim of first
diagnosing and subsequently predicting behaviour in given situation.
This approach has been labeled the “contingency” approach to
management.
Hence there is no generally “accepted definition of management Fayol
(1916), in his statement about management said “to man is to forecast
and plan, to organize to command, to coordinate and to control” Breech
(1957) defined it “a social process, the process consist of planning,
control coordination and motivation.”
While Koontz and O’Donnell (1976) saw it as “an operational process
initially best dissected by analyzing the managerial functions, “therefore”
the five essential managerial functions are; planning, organizing, staffing,
directing, leading, and controlling.”
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The changes made by Brech (1957) and the other two writers represent
changes of emphasis rather than principle. It has to be recognized the
above definitions are extremely broad. Basically what they are saying is
that management is a process which enables organization to achieve their
objectives by planning, organizing and controlling their resources,
including gaining the commitment of their employees. Over the last
decade, several writer have attempted to move away from this
generalized approach to a detailed, behaviour-oriented analysis of what
managers actually do in practice. The emphasis in this approach is
primarily concerned with what is a manager” rather than what is
management.
2.1.1 Traditional Viewpoint
Cole (1993) described the “classical approach to management as
primarily concerned with structure and activities of formal or official,
organization. Issues such as division of work, the establishment of
hierarchy of authority and of control were seen to be of the utmost in the
achievement of an effective organization.
The two greatest exponents of classical theories are undoubtedly. Henry
Fayol (1841-1925) and F.W Toylor (1856-1915). Between them these
two practicing managers laid the foundations of ideas about the
organization of people at work and the organization of work itself.
Fayol (1916) accepts that to “manage, is to forecast and plan to organize
to command, to coordinate to control” he sees forecasting and planning
as looking to the future ad drawing up a plan of action. Organizing is
seen in structural terms commanding is described as
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maintaining activity among the personnel. Coordinating is seen is
essentially and unifying activity.
Controlling means ensuring that things happen in accordance with
established policies and practice. It important to note that Fayol does not
see managerial activities as exclusively belonging to management. Such
activities are part and parcel of the total activities of an undertaken.
Bureaucracy Management
While Fayol (1916) and Taylor (1909) looked into the problems of
management, Max Weber (1921) developed a theory of authority
structures in which he identified a form of organization in which he gave
the name “bureaucracy he saw the distinguishing features of a
bureaucracy as “definition of roles with an hierarchy where job – holders
were appointed on merit, were subject to rules and were expected to
behave impartially.
According to Slocum (1996) “Bureaucratic management is a system that
relies on rules, a set hierarchy, a clear vision of labour and detailed rules
and procedures. He further stated that “Bureaucratic management
provides a blueprint of how an entire organization should operate. It
prescribes seven characteristic; a formal system of rules, impersonality,
division of labour, hierarchical structure, a detailed authority structure,
lifelong career commitment, and reliability. Together these
characteristics represent a formal someone rigid method of managing.”
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Taking a look at this method, setting aside for the moment all the
negative connotations the term bureaucratic has today and focusing on
the systems strengths – consistency and predictability.
Rules: Rules are formal guidelines for the behaviour of employees
while they are on the job, viewed in a positive light, rules can help
provide the discipline an organization needs if it is to reach its goals.
Adherence to rules ensures uniformity of procedures and operations
and helps maintain organizational stability, regardless of individual
manger’s or employee’s personal desire.
Impersonality: Reliance on rules leads to treating employees
impersonally. That is, all employees are evaluated according to rules
and objective data, such as sales or units produced. Although the
term impersonality can also have negative connotations.
Weber (1921) believed that this approach guaranted fairness for all
employees – an impersonal superior does not allow subjective personal
or emotional consideration to colour his or her evaluation of
subordinates.
Division of Labour: The division of labour involves dividing
duties into simpler, more specialized task. It enables the
organization to use personal and job training resources efficiently.
Managers and employees are assigned and perform duties based
on appreciation and personal expertise. Unskilled
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employees can be assigned jobs that are relatively easy to learn and
do.
Hierarchical Structure: Most organizations have a pyramid-shaped
hierarchical structure. This kind of structure ranks jobs according to
the amount authority given to each structure. Typically authority
increases at each highest level to the top of the hierarchy. Those in
lower level positions are under the control and direction of those in
higher level. According to Weber, a well defined hierarchy helps
control employee behaviour by making clean exactly where each
stands in relation to every one else in the organization.
Authority Structure: A system on rules impersonal supervision,
division of labour, and a hierarchical structure tied together by
authority structure. It determines who has the right to make decision
varying importance at different levels within the organization.
Lifelong Career Commitment: In a bureaucratic management
system employment is viewed as a lifelong career commitment. That
is both the employee and the company viewed themselves as being
committed to each other over the working life or the employee.
Traditional Japanese and Korean Organizations have hired key
workers with the expectation by both parties that a permanent
employment contract was being made. In general, lifelong career
commitment means that job security is guaranteed as long as the
employee is technically qualified and performs satisfactorily.
Entrance requirement such as level of education and experience
23

ensure that hiring is based on qualification rather than friendship or
family connections.
Rationality: The last characteristic of bureaucratic management is
rationality. Rational managers are those who use the most efficient
means possible to achieve the organization’s goal. Managers in a
bureaucratic system run the organization logically and scientifically
with all decision lending directly to achieving the organization’s
goals. When activities are goal directed, the organization uses its
financial and human resources efficiently. In addition, rationality
allows general organizational goals to be broken down into more
specific goals for each of the organization.
The expected benefits of bureaucratic management are efficiency and
consistency. A bureaucracy functions best when many routine tasks need to be
done. Then lower level employees can handle the bulk of the work by simply
following rules and procedures. The fruit of their labor should be of standard
quality and produced at the rate necessary to meet organizational goals.
Scientific Management
Slocum (1996) defined scientific management system as “a traditional
management system that focuses on individual worker machine relationship in
manufacturing plants”.
While bureaucratic management looks at broad organizational structure and
work systems. Scientific management focuses on individual worker machine
relationship in manufacturing plants.
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Taylor (1909) an American mechanical engineer believed that increase
productivity ultimately depended on finding ways to make workers more
efficient. One of Taylor’s goals was to study and defined precisely all aspects of
the worker machine relationship by using objective, scientific techniques.
Taylor (1909) analyzed work flows, supervisory techniques and workers
fatigue using time and motion studies. A time and motion study involves
identifying and measuring a worker’s physical movements when performing a
task and then analyzing the result. Movements that slow down production are
dropped. One goal of a time – and motion study is to make a job highly routine
and efficient. Eliminating wasted physical effort and specifying an exact
sequence of activities reduce the amount of time, money and effort needed to
produce a product.
Taylor (1909) thought that there was one best to perform any task. Like Weber
(1921), he concluded that an organization operated best with definite,
predictable method, logically determined and set down as rules. Taylor has
convinced that efficiency could be increased by having workers perform routine
task that didn’t require them to make decision. Performance goals expressed
quantitatively (such as number of unit produced per shift) addressed a problem
that had begin to trouble managers – how to judge whether an employee had put
in a fair day’s work.
Slocum (1996) in his work on the Evolution of management thought wrote
“scientific management advocates specialization. It holds that expertise is the
only source of authority and that a single foreman could not be expected at all
the task supervised”.
25

Each foreman particular area of specialization therefore should be made an area
of authority”. He went further to say “This solution called functional
foremanship, a division of labor that assigned eight foremen to each work area.
Four of the foreman would handle planning production scheduling, time – and
motion studies and discipline. The other four would deal with machinery
maintenance, machine speed, feeding material into the machine, production on
the shop floor and similar concerns.”
From the foregoing, what motivates workers to work their capacity is money?
The traditional individual piecework system as the basis for pay. If worker meet
a certain production standard, they are to be paid at a standard wage rate.
Workers who produce more than the standard were paid at a higher rate for all
the pieces they produce, not just for those exceeding the standard. In Taylor’s
work he assumed that workers would be economically rational, that is, they
would follow management’s order to produce more in response to financial
incentives that allow them to earn more money. He argued that managers should
use financial incentives if they were convinced that increases in productivity
would more than offset higher employee earnings.
Frank (1868-1924) and (1878-1972) made significant contributions to scientific
management. Frank used a revolutionary new tool (motion pictures) to study the
motion.
Lillian Crillbreth (1911) carried on Frank’s work, she was concerned with the
human side of industrial engineering, she championed the idea that workers
should have “standard days, scheduled rest breaks and normal lunch periods”
26

Henry Gentt (1861-1919) focused on control systems for production scheduling.
The Gentt (1918) chart is a “visual plan and progress report”. It identifies
various stages and documents accomplishment. Gentt (1918) also established
quota systems and bonuses for workers who exceed their quotas.
Taylor (1909) and other early proponents of scientists managing would applaud
the effort organizations that have successfully used their concept. These firms
make finished product faster and cheaper. Organizations are increasingly taking
for granted his idea that managers cannot expect employees to do their jobs
properly without proper skills and training. Taylor’s work has led today’s
managers to improve their employees’ selection and training processes and to
seek the best way to perform each task.
On the other hand, most proponents of scientific management misread the
human side of work. When Fredrick Taylor and Frank Gillbreth (1909)
formulated their principles and methods, they thought that workers were
motivated primarily by a desire to earn money to satisfy their economic and
physical needs. They failed to recognize that workers also have social needs and
that working conditions and job satisfaction often are more important than
money.
Today’s employees often want to participate in decision that affects their
performance. They may want to be independent and to hold jobs that give them
self-fulfillment.
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Administrative Management
In his view Slocum (1996) wrote “Administrative focuses on the manager and
basic managerial functions”.
It evolved early in this century and is most closely identified with Henri Fayol
(1841-1925) a French industrialist. He felt strongly that to be successful,
managers had only to understand the basic managerial functions “planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling and to apply certain managerial principle to
them”.
Like the traditionalist Fayol (1916) emphasized formal structure and process,
believing that they are necessary for the adequate performance of all important
tasks.
Fayol (1916) developed the following management principles and suggest that
managers receive formal training in their application
Division of labor: The more people specialize, the more efficiently they
can perform their work.
Authority: Manager has the right authority, to give orders in order to get
things done.
Discipline: Members of an organization need to respect the rules and
agreements that govern it.
Unity of Command: Each employee must receive instructions about a
particular operation from only one person in order to avoid conflicting
instruction and any confusion.
Subordination of Individual interests to the Common Good: The
interest of individual employees should not take procedure over the
interest of the entire organization.
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Remuneration: Pay for work done should be fair to both the employee
and the employer.
Centralization: Managers should retain final responsibility, but should
also give their subordinate enough authority to do their jobs properly.
Scalar Chain: A single interrupted line of authority should run rank to
rank from top management to lowest level position in the company.
Order: Material and people should be in the right place at the right time.
In particular people should be in the jobs or positions best suited for them.
Equity: Managers should both e fair and friendly to heir subordinates.
Stability and Tenure of Staff: A high rate of employee turnover is not
efficient.
Initiative: Subordinate should be given freedom to formulate and carry
out their own plans.
Spirit de Corps: Promoting team spirit in the organization a sense of
unity.
Here it is noted that manages still used many of Fayol (1916) principles
of administrative management but different managers seldom apply them
in exactly the same way. Situation vary and so too, does the application of
principles.
Overall Traditional Management three branch branches – bureaucratic,
scientific and administrative still have their proponent, are often written
about, and continue to be applied effectively. All the branches emphasize
the formal aspect of organization. Traditionalists are concerned with the
formal relations among an organization
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department, tasks, and processes. Weber, Taylor, the Gillbreths, Genth,
and Fayol replaced seat – of the parts management practices with sound
theoretical and scientific principles.
Traditional management stresses the managers’ role in a hierarchy. In
bureaucratic management the relationship between experience and
organizational level is strong. Because of their higher position and
presumed greater expertise superiors are to be obeyed by subordinates.
Administrative and scientific management emphases on logical process
and strict division of labor are based on similar reasoning.
Although traditionalist may recognize that people have feeling and are
influenced by their friends at work, their overdoing focus is one effective
and effective job performance much traditionalist thinking are still found
in some large organizations. For example Fayol’s principles are widely
used as basic management building blocks at coca-cola and other major
corporation.
2.1.2 Behavioral Viewpoint
Against the backdrop of change and reform managers were forced to
recognize that people have needs, cherish values and want respect. They
are now leading workers who did not appear to exhibit what the early
traditional management theorists had thought was rational economic
behaviour. That is, workers were not always performing up to their
physiological capabilities, as Taylor (1909) had predicted rationale
people would do.
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Nor were effective managers consistently following Fayol (1916)
fourteen principles. By exploring these inconsistencies, those who
favored a behavioral viewpoint of management gained reorganization.
Slocum (1996) explains that “the behavioral (human relation) view point
focuses on dealing more effectively with human aspect of organization. It
look at how managers do what they do, how managers lead subordinates
and communicate with them, and why manages need to change their
assumptions about people if they want to lead high-performance teams
and organizations.
In the early decades of this century, many partiers Follett (1868–1933)
made important contribution to the behavioral viewpoint of management.
She believed that management “is a flowing continuous process – not a
statistic one are that if a problem has been solved, the method used to
solve it probably generated new problems”.
She Stressed
1) Involving workers in solving problems
2) The dynamic of management rather than static principles.
Both of these ideas contrasted with the views of Weber, Taylor and
Fayol. Follett (1942) studied how managers did their jobs by observing
them at work. Based on these observations, she concluded the co-
ordination is vital to effective management. She developed four
principles of coordinator for mangers to apply.
1) Coordination is best achieved when people responsible for making
decision are in direct contact.
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2) Coordinator during the early stages of planning and project
implementation is essential.
3) Coordinator should address all the factors in a situation.
4) Coordination must worked at continuously Follett believed that the
people closest to action could make the best decision.
She argued further that it is the job of managers, at all level, to maintain
good working relationship with their subordinates one way to do this is to
involve subordinates in the decision-making process whenever they will be
affected by affected the decision. Follett also believed that manager should
find ways to help resolve interdepartmental conflict. Properly handled,
conflict can stimulate and integrate managerial and production effort. The
best way to resolve conflict is for manager to communicate directly with
each other and with employees.
In his contribution Barnard (1938) viewed organizations “as social systems
that require employees cooperation if they are to be effective” in order words
people should continuously communicate with one another. According to
Barnard (1938) manager major roles are to communicate with employee and
motive them to work hard to help achieve the organizations goals.
In his view, successful management also depends on maintaining good
relation with people outside the organization with whom managers deal
regularly. He stressed the dependence of the organization in investors,
supplies, customers and other outside interest. Barnard (1938) introduced the
idea that managers have to examine the organizations external environment
and adjust its internal structure to balance the two.
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Another of Bernard (1938) significant contribution is the acceptance theory
of authority. This theory holds that employees have free wills and thus will
choose whether or not to follow management order. They will follow orders
if they:
1) Understood what is required
2) Believe that the orders are consistent with organizations goals and
3) See positive benefit to themselves in carrying out his order.
From the above literature, the behavioral viewpoint of management goes
beyond the traditionalist mechanical view of work by assessing the importance
of group dynamics, complex human motivations and the manager’s leadership
style. It emphasizes the employee social needs and economic needs and the
influence of the organizations social environment on the quality and quality of
work produced. However these assumptions do not always hold in practice.
Improving working condition and managers’ human relations sticks will not
always increase productivity
2.1.3 Systems Viewpoint
Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) See “system as an association of
interrelated ands interdependent parts. An organization is a system with
many employees, teams department and levels that are linked to achieve
the organizations goals. It also is linked to suppliers, customers,
shareholders and regulatory agencies.
Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) explained “the systems viewpoint of
management represents an approach to solving problem by diagnosing
them within a framework of inputs, transformation processes, outputs
and feedback. The system involved may be an individual, a work group,
a department or an entire organization”.
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They went further to define “inputs as the physical human, material,
financial and information resource that enter a transformation process.
Comprises the technologies used to convert inputs into outputs. Out puts
are the original input (human physical, material, information and
financial resource) as changed by a transformation. Process. Feedback is
information about and systems status and performance”.
In system viewpoint, management’s role is to facilitate transformation
processes by planning, organizing, leading and controlling. There are two
type of system closed and open. A closed system limit it interactions with
its environment. Some production departments operate as closed systems.
An open system interacts with the external environment.
While some advocates of systems analysis were suggesting that managers
look at input transformation processes and outputs before making a
decision, other system advocates were developing techniques to aid in
managerial decision making.
Quantitative techniques have four basic characteristics.
1) The primary focus is on decision making:
The solution identifies direct actions that manager can take.
2) Alternative are based on economic criteria:
Alternative actions are presented in terms of measurable criteria,
such as costs, revenue, return on investment and tax implications.
3) Mathematical models are used:
Situation simulated and problems are analyzed by means of
mathematic models.
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4) Computers are essential: Computers are used to solve complex
mathematical models that would be too costly and time consuming
to process manually.
Looking at the systems approach, system analysis and quantitative
techniques have been used primarily to manage transformation process
and in the technical planning and decision making aspects of
management. These techniques have not yet reached the stage where they
can be used effectively to deal with the human aspect of management.
Variables representing behavioral consideration and human values are
difficult to build into a mathematical model.
Because these subjective variables must still be taken into account,
judgments about people will continue to be a vital part of managerial
decision making.
2.1.4 Contingency Viewpoint
In their book “Management” Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) wrote “The
contingency viewpoint is one of the five principal viewpoint of
management contends that different situations require different practices
and advocates, the use of the traditional, behavioral and systems
viewpoint separately or in combination to deal with various problems”.
However, this viewpoint does not give managers free hand to indulge
their personal biases and feelings. The contingency viewpoint holds that
the effectiveness of different managerial styles, guidelines, or
techniques will vary according to the situation, manages who
subscribes to this viewpoint use the concepts developed by
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traditionalist behavioralist and system analysts but go beyond them to
identify the best approach for each particular situation.
According to Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) “the essence of the
contingency viewpoint is that management practices should be consistent
with the requirement of the external environment, the technology used to
make a product or deliver a service, and the people who work for the
organization. The relative importance of each contingency variable
depends on the type of managerial problem bring considered”.
From the foregoing the contingency viewpoint of management is useful
because of its diagnostic approach which clearly departs from the one –
best way approach of the traditionalist. The contingency viewpoint
encourages managers to analyze and understand situational difference
and to choose the solution best suited to the firm, the process and the
individual in each situation.
2.1.5 Quality Viewpoint
For an organization to be successful, it must satisfy customer wants and
needs again according to Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) “the quality
viewpoint emphasizes achieving customer satisfaction through the
provision of high quality and services. The focus of quality viewpoint is
the customer, who ultimately defines quality in the market place. Quality
must be stressed throughout an organization so that it can become second
nature to every one in that organization and its suppliers.
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Training, strategic planning, product design, management information
systems, marketing and other key activities all play a role in meeting
quality goals.
Walton (1994) explored W. Edward Deming (1900 – 1993) contributions
more fully and emphasizes difference between traditional quality control
method and his quality methods. Being aware of his methods is essential
to an understanding of the quality insights. His ideas and method include
the following:
Poor quality unacceptable. Defective workmanship, product and
services are not to be tolerated.
Gather statistical evidence of quality during the process, not at the
end of the process. The earlier an error is caught, the less the cost of
correct.
Rely on a few suppliers that have historically provided quality, not
sampling inspection to determine the quality of each delivery.
Depend on training and retraining employees to use statistical
method on their jobs not on slogan, to improve quality.
Employees should feel free to report my report any conditions that
detract from quality.
2.2 Organizations: Structures and Complexities
Individuals and groups operate within the frame work of larger groups,
which are loosely described as organization. The behaviour of
individuals and groups depends on the organizational context, complexity
of their structure. The interrelationships of their component groups and
their relationship with the external environment.
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Helligriegel and Slocum (1996) defined organization as “a structured
group of people brought together to achieve certain goals that individuals
could not reach alone.”
The importance of organizational study is to consider the total
effectiveness of the system how it is controlled, is it capable of
controlling itself. The basic problem of size and complexity is something
everyone experience some or later.
Hellgriegel and Slocum (1996) also defined organizational structure “as a
formal system of working relationship that both separates and integrates
task (clarify who should do what and how efforts should be mashed).
Charging managers with increasing productivity has emphasized their
role as resources allocators. Total quality programs and downsing
requires that manager adjust organizational structure to make it more
flexible for today and into the future.
Separation of task indicates how effort should be put together. Slocum
(1996) states that organization structures helps employees work together
effectively by:
1) Assigning humans and other resources to task.
2) Clarifying employees responsibilities and how these effect should
be mesh with job description organization chart and lives of
authority.
3) Letting employees know what is expected of them through rules,
operating procedures and performance standards.
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4) Establishing procedures for collecting and evaluating information
to help manager make decision and solve problems.
2.2.1 Organizational Structures and Design
For the purpose of the study of organization structure, Hellgriegel and
Slocum (1996) listed four basic elements, these includes.
Specialization: Is the process of identifying particular tasks and
assigning them to individuals or team who have been trained to do
them functional managers usually supervise a particular
department, such as marketing accounting or human resource. First
line managers usually are charge of a specific area of work, such
as printing, medial records or data processing. Thus are parsons
can specialize in any of a number of different management jobs.
Standardization: refers to the uniform and consistent procedure
that employees one to follow in performing their jobs. Written
procedure, job description, instruction, rules and regulation are
used to standardize the routine aspect of jobs. Standards permit
manager to measure an employee’s performance against some
criteria. Job description and application forms standardize the
selection of employees.
On-the-job training programs develop standardized skills and
reinforce values important to the organization’s success. This
approach may seems mechanical, but if jobs were not
standardized, many organization could not achieve their goals.
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Coordination – Comprise the formal and information procedures
that integrate the activities performed by separate individuals,
teams, and department. In bureaucratic organization written rules
one enough to link such activities. In less structured organization,
coordination requires managerial sensitivity to companywide
problems, willingness to share responsibility, and effective
interpersonal communication.
Authority – Is basically the right to decide and act. Variously
organization distributes authority differently. In centralized
organization, top managers make decisions about what
merchandise to buy and where to locate a new store, and
communicate these decision to lower level managers.
In decentralized organization, decisions making authority is given
to lower level manager and employees working in teams. Form
often combines the two approaches by centralizing certain function
and decentralizing others.
Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) argued that an organization chart also
helps to “slow the reporting relationship of function, department,
and individual positions within an organization. On the other hand
Hellriegel and Slocum further defined organizational design as the
“process of determining the structure and authority relationship for
an entire organization as a means of implementing the strategies
and plans that embody the organization goals”.
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Organizational design is no more than the sum of managerial
decisions for implementing a strategy and ultimately achieving the
organization goals.Hence the design of the organization act both as
a harness, helping people pull together in the performance of their
diverse task and as a means of coordinating the various task in
ways that promote the attainment of the firms goals. Organizational
design invariable means about managers decisions concerning the
organization’s very nature shape and other features.
2.2.2 Organization and Complexity Theory
Justification of the significance of complexity theory for management
generally starts from a description of the pre-existing state of
management theory and practice, which stresses its unacknowledged but
self-imposed limitations, it tunnel –vision. Given that the key finding
claimed for complexity theory is the effective unknowerbility of the
future, the common assumption among managers that part of their jobs is
to decide where the organization is going, and to take decision designed
to get it there is seen as a dangerous decision. Management, afflicted by
increasing complexity and information overload, can react by becoming
quite intolerant of ambiguity. Factors, targets, organizational structures
all need to be nailed down.
The management task is seen to be the annunciation of mission, the
determination of strategy is sought as the ultimate bulwark against
anxiety, which might otherwise become overwhelming.
To summarize some of the received wisdom about how well – managed
businesses should proceed. According to Rosenhead (2004)
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“there should be a Chief Executive Officer predicting over a cohesive
management team with a vision or strategic intent supported by common
culture.
The organization should stick to its core business and competencies,
build on it strengths, adopt to the market environment and keep its eyes
focused on the Bolton line. “He further stressed that” despite the critical
hammering taken by 1970’s style long-term planning, strategic planning
will nevertheless incorporate the tasks of goals formation, environmental
analysis, strategic formulation, evaluation and implementation and
strategic control”
This kind of management theory and practice according Stacey (1993)”
bears the hallmark of the over – rationalist thinking which dominated
since the triumph t of Newton and Descartes”
The organization, like the universe, is conceptualized as a giant piece of
clockwork machinery. The letter was thought to be, in principle entirely
predictable and good management should be able to get similarly reliable
performance from the letter. Discovering by the theorist of complexity
and conflict shows that even the nature of the world does not operate this
way and this revolution of the creative discover in the universe needs to
be taken to heart by managers. The consequences as Stacey (1993)
comprehensively summarizes “are to turn much management orthodoxy
on its head, analysis loses or its primacy, contingency losses its meaning,
long-term planning becomes impossible, vision becomes illusion,
consensus and strong culture becomes dangerous and statistical
relationship becomes dubious.
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1) Lessons for Management
What lessons does complexity theory teach managers? According
to Rosenhead (2004) “These can be divided loosely into two
categories – general suggestions as to how managers approach their
jobs and more detailed prescriptions for particular tasks”.
a. General Lessons
The general lesson concern how learning can be fostered in an
organization, how they should view instability and the
(negative) consequence of a common internal culture.
The need for an emphasis on learning stems from the central
finding of this theory – that the future is in principle unknowable
for system of any complexity. If we accept that we can have no
idea of the future environment, their long term planning
becomes an irrelevance. The absence of any long term chart
makes learning crucially important.
According to Rosenhead (2004) “it is not enough for manager to
adjust their behaviour in response to feedback on the success of
their actions relative to pre-established target, they also need to
reflect on the appropriateness in the light of unfolding events of
the assumption used to set up those actions and targets”.
For an organization to seek stable equally-relationship with an
environment which is inherently predictable is bound to lead to
failure. The organization will build on it strengths, fine-tune it
adjustments and succumb to more innovative rivals. Successful
strategies, especially in the long-term do not result from fixing
an organizational intention and mobilizing around it, they
emerge from complex and continuing interaction between
people.
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Rosenhead (2004) argues” rather than try to consolidate stable
equilibrium the organization should aim to position itself in a
region of bounded instability to seek the edge of chaos/conflict
“He further states. “The organization should welcome disorder
as “partner, use instability positively”.
In this way new possible futures for the organization will
emerge, arising out of the controlled ferment of ideas which it
should try to provoke. Instead of a perfectly planned corporate
death, the released creativity leads to an organization which
continuously re-invent itself. Members of an organization in
equilibrium with its environment are locked into stable work
pattern and attitudes far from equilibrium, behabiour can be
changed more easily.
2) Specific Lessons.
There are two reasons for paying attention to the actionable
proposal for organizational structure, strategy – which it is claimed
are deduced from complexity theory. The first is that managers are
thereby provided with a subjective reality test.
Stacey (1993) makes a key distinction between ordinary and
extraordinary management. “Ordinary management is required
order to carry out day-day problem solving to achieve the
organizations established objectives. If employs a logical
analytical process involving data analysis, goal setting,
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evaluating option against goals, rational choice, implementation
through the hierarchy, monitory.”
Extraordinary management by contrast states Stacey (1993) “is
what is required if the organization is to able to transform itself in
situation of open-ended change. Here rationalistic form of
decision-making are largely in operate. Extraordinary management
requires the activation of the tacit knowledge and creativity
available within the organization”.
The above argument necessitated the encourage of informal
structure – for example workshops round particular issues or
process, with membership drawn from different business units,
functions and levels.
Stacey (1993) does not propose that ordinary management should
drive out extra-ordinary management. His case is rather that both
are needed in viable organizations and they must enable to coexist.
There is however an intrinsic tension between the two modes. If the
boundaries limiting the scope of extraordinary management’s
informal networks are drawn too right, it will wither, too loose, and
the organization will descend into anarchy, failing to deliver on its
core short-term tasks.
2.3 Group Development
The behaviour of groups has important consequences for management.
The main concern of managers about their work-group is that they
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should work cohesively in order to achieve the required result. There
intense in group behaviour is centered, therefore, on basic question such
as what factors make groups work cohesively and what factors cause
disruptions.
On the average people belong to some at work, some in the community,
some formally organized and some informal and social in nature.
Hellriegell and Slocum (1996) defined group “as two or more individual
who come into personal and meaningful contact on a continuing basis”.
In the work getting, teams comprise employees who must collaborate to
achieve team goals, which are linked with departmental divisional and
organizational goals. Relationship with the group are affected by factors
such as size, composition individual personality of groups, members and
their roles, group norms.
According to Slocum (1996). There are two types of groups within an
organization; formal and informal “A formal group consists of people
who jointly have and work towards goals that relate directly to the
achievement of the achievement of organizational goals.” Formal groups
generally perform specific task, pass along and share information, train
people, gain commitment and help make decisions. Formal groups are
organizations departments, sections task forces self managing teams,
project groups, cross-functional teams, committed and board of directors.
He further defined informal group as “a small number of individual-
usually three to twelve who jointly participate in frequently,
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otherwise interact and share sentiment for the purpose of meeting their
mutual needs. They may support, oppose or have no interest I
organizational goals, rules or higher authority and a social group on the
hand is one of the common types of informal groups within and outside
the organization.”
An organization’s design often influences the development of informal
groups. It does so by the physical layout of work space, departmental
structure and type of technology used.
Stages Of Group Development
Researchers have developed at least nine different models in an attempt
to explain how groups develop.
Hellriegel and Slocum (1990) outlined the various stages of group
development.
1) Forming Stage: A group focuses on orientation – to goals and
procedures in the forming stage. The amount of information
available and the manner in which it is presented are crucial to
group development.
Most members may be anxious about what the group and they, as
individual members are suppose to do. Testing and resolving
coordination issues between members are the principal relationship
behaviours. Task relationships often are guarded, cautious and new
committal. Understanding leadership roles and getting acquainted
with other group members facilitate development.
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2) Storming Stage: The second stage begins when competitive or
strained behaviours emerge. Initially the storming process may
involve resistance and impatient with the lack of progress. A few
dominant members may begin on agenda without regard for the
needs of other group members. Group members may challenge the
leader or they may isolate themselves from group dissensions. If
conflict spreads, frustration anger and defensive behaviour may
appear. If conflict is suppressed and not permitted to occur,
resentment and bitterness may result. This can lead to apathy or
abandonment. Although conflict resolution is often the good of
groups during the storming stage, conflict management is generally
what is achieved. In-fact conflict management is a more
appropriate goal because maintaining conflict at a manageable
level is a desirable way to encourage a group’s growth and
development.
3) Normal Stage: At the beginning of this stage, the dominant view
might be “we are in this together, like it or not. Let’s make the
most of it”. In other words they begin to develop a sense of
belonging and commitment. Task-related and role behaviour of
member increasingly are resolved through cooperation, open
communication and the acceptance of mutual influence.
4) Performing Stage: Although some groups never reach their
performance potential regardless of how long they exist by the
performing stage, members usually have come to trust and accept
each other. To accomplish tasks, diversity of viewpoints is
supported and encouraged member are willing to risk presenting
ideas without fear at being put down by the group.
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Careful listening and giving accurate feedback to others focus on
the group’s tasks and goals.
5) Adjourning Stage: The adjourning stage involves terminating task
behaviours and disengages from relationship. This stage is not
always planned and may be rather abrupt. However a planned
group conclusion after involves recognition for participation and
achievement and an opportunity for members to say personal
goodbyes. Adjournment of a group charged with a particular task
should be set for a specific time and have a recognizable ending
point.
According to Tyson and York (2000) “Relationship within the group are
affected by factors such as size, composition, individual personalities of
group members and their roles, group norms. Managers need to
understand these factors and their influence as a basis for analyzing
possible sources of unity and disunity inside the group”.
All evidence suggests that highly cohesive groups are generally more
productive than groups that are less cohesive. At the same time it maybe
wrong to assume that group cohesiveness necessarily correlates with high
level of productivity. A group may become cohesive as a reaction to and
a defence against the tactic of management of which it disapproves, or
because of perceived threats from other groups.
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2.4 The Concept of Conflict
Hornby (1995) see conflict “as a serious disagreement, struggle and fight
out of difference of opinions, wishes needs, values and interest between
and among individual or groups”.
Coser (1956) defined it as “a struggle between and among individual
group over values and claims to scarce resources, status symbols and
power bases. The objective of the individuals or group engaged in
conflict is to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals so that they can
enjoy the scarce resources, status symbol and power base”.
Himes (1980) wrote “It is surprising to read that conflict is conceived as
a purposeful struggle between collective actors who use social power to
defeat or remove opponent in order to gain status, resources and push
their values over social grouping.
In his view Anste (1991) think “conflict is prevalent within and between
social relations such as families, ethnic groups, social institutions and
organization, Political Parties and States. Further it is prevalent in
situation where goals, aspiration, interests and needs of the social groups
cannot be achieved simultaneously and the value system of such groups
are of variance.
Invariably, the social parties purposely employ their power base to fight
for their position with a view to defeat, neutralize or eliminate one
another”
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2.5 Conflict Management
Conflict management consists of intervention designed to reduce
excessive conflict or in some cases/instance, to increase insufficient
conflict. Individual and organization use various approaches to manage
conflict.
Hellriegel and Slocum (1996) “viewed that the approach used is likely to
be influenced by a person’s fundamental attitude toward conflict;
negative;
Negative Attitude
According to Hellgriegel and Slocum, to some people, the word
conflict suggests negative situation war, destruction, aggression,
violence and hostility. The traditional view of management typically
viewed conflict as being undesirable. According, conflict can be
reduced or eliminated through careful selection of people, training,
detailed job description, elaborate rules and incentive systems.
Positive Attitude
Again Hellgriegel and Slocum said that ore of the managers and
team leaders is to ensure perpetual constructive conflict. Employees
and teams with this positive attitude may view conflict situations as
exciting, intriguing and challenging.
Conflict can result in better choices and improved performance, if it
stimulate a search for the reasons behind different viewpoints and
for effective ways to resolve them.
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A positive attitude may thus lead to creativity, innovation and
change because conflict can reveal where corrective action are
needed. Those who hold a positive attitude about conflict, then,
view it as a necessary condition for achieving individual and
organizational goals.
Balanced Attitude
A balanced attitude toward conflict is relative rather than absolute. It
views organizational conflict as inevitable and at times desirable –
that many conflicts can be prevented and managed instead. Through
proper management, the negative outcome of conflict can be
reduced and its positive effect can be increased.
2.5.1 Conflict Management Styles
The Interpersonal Conflict – Management styles and the conditions under
which each may be used affective was discussed by Hellriegell and
Slocum (1996) in their book “Management”, defined interpersonal
conflict broadly as “the disagreements of incompatible interest over
goals, policies, rules, and decision and incompatible behaviors that create
anger distrust, fear, rejection of resentment”.
Everyone copes with interpersonal conflict through one or a combination
of five interpersonal conflict-management styles; avoidance, smoothing,
forcing, compromise and collaboration.
1. Avoidance Style
In their assessment Hellgriegell and Slocum defined avoidance
style involving withdrawing from conflict situations
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or remaining neutral. The individual declines to confront the
conflict employees who are unavailable for conferences delay
answering ‘problem’ memos or refuse to get involved in conflict
are using avoidance style.
2. Smoothing Style
The smoothing style as define by Hellgriegell and Slocum present
minimizing or suppressing real or perceived differences while
focusing on the other’s views of the situation individual who use
the smoothing style act as though the conflict will go away in time.
They appeal for cooperation and try to reduce tensions and stress
by offering reassurance and support for the pothers views. The
smoothing style simply encourages individuals to cover up or gloss
over their feelings.
3. Forcing Style
The forcing style involves the use of coercive and other forms of
power to dominate another person or group pressure others to
accept one’s own views of the situation. The forcing style produces
outcome that are satisfactory to only one of the parties. When
dealing with conflict between subordinates or departments forcing
managers may threaten or actually use demotion, negative
performance evaluations and other punishment in order to win.
4. Compromise Style
The comprise style involves the willingness of all parties to
concede some of their own view and focus on some of the others
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views to reach an agreement. It achieves a rough balance between
differing views.
5. Collaborative Style
The collaborative style requires a willingness to identify the
underlying causes of conflict, share information openly, and focus
on both one’s own and other concerns by searching for mutually
beneficial solutions with collaboration style, conflicts, one
recognized openly and evaluated by all concerned. Sharing,
examining and assessing the reason for the conflict should lead to
effective resolution of the conflict and acceptance of the solution
by all parties.
2.6 Types Of Conflict In Business Organization
According to Pondy (1967) Conflict can be classified mainly into three
forms, which are Distributive conflicts, structural conflict and Relation
conflict.
A. DISTRIBUTIVE CONFLICT
This is conflict of interest between employee and employer. It
entails disputes from the contract of wages employment and
working conditions.
B. STRUCTURAL CONFLICT
This relates to problem arising within the formal structure of the
organization. Structures are large size, staff heterogeneity, style of
supervision, level of staff participation in decision making and
leaderships.
54

c. HUMAN RELATION CONFLICT
This is the most common and it is characterized by a destructive
class of personalities with different views, attitudes and values.
Conflicts can further be classified to interpersonal conflict,
intergroup conflict, and intra group conflict and inter-organization
conflict.
Interpersonal Conflict
This conflict involves strain or inter-role conflict between two or
more people and if not properly managed, it can stamp the
organization attempt to goal accomplishment. Interpersonal conflict
occurs because of incompatible goals, ideas and feeling among
people. different in view and values of workers is caused partly by
culture and party organization structure and style such as
interdependence of tasks and leadership style.
CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON WORK ATTITUDES
Culture is believed by Anthropologist to be that complex whole
which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, moral, custom and any
other habits acquired by man being a member of the society. Thus,
culture is a sum total of people ways of life.
There is no doubt that in some ways, which is not yet clear that
culture holds the keys to understand workers attitude to modern
organization work.
Division between management and workers is a reminder to some
employees that organization is not theirs. Reward system of some
organization is seem as unfair when compared with reward system
55

of other sector. A man who its at the table dealing with paper all
day is paid ten times more then the man who work in the factory,
floor toiling, cutting, fixing and pursuing heavy tools.
OTHER FORMS OF CONFLICTS
A. Intra Personal Conflict
This is conflict felt within individuals or a person. Being pushed
into two or more direction at once causes it. When responsibilities
are delegated to subordinate, intra personal conflict is created due
to task loading. A subordinate in dealing with this type of conflict
should set priorities for himself who will differ from fellow
workers own.
B. Inter Group Conflict
This is conflict between two or more groups in the organization,
this could be department, sections etc. the major cause being
allocation of scarce resources. Take for instance, conflict between
research department and the purchase department. Research
department needs very urgent special instrument for research
purpose. The researcher sees the procurement procedure as
unnecessary impediment. The purchasing department or agent on
the other hand is specifically assigned responsibility of obeying
purchasing rules and regulations.
C. Intra Group Conflict
This is conflict between two or more sub-groups within a group or
among members of a group. According to Hammer and
56

organ, there are three basic types of intra group conflict. They are
role conflict, issue conflict and interaction conflict.
i) Role Conflict: This occurs in the course of carrying out
one’s assigned activities in the group or organization.
ii) Issue Conflict: Individuals values and orientation any
conflict when members of a group come together to make a
decision or solve a problem.
iii) Interaction Conflict: Being a member of a group requires
some co-operative behaviour. Hen working together,
members enjoys success or failure. It project succeeds,
individual members take credit for it an if it fails individual
members to blame one another. This creates a fertile ground
for conflict to thrive.
D. Inter Organizational Conflict
This is the type of conflict that may occur between two or more
organizations competing over scarce resources. The resources
could be customers and resources input i.e. factor of production.
2.7 Causes Of Conflict In Organization
Among the most dramatic of conflict are those that occurs within
powerful individuals in the organization. There are lots of sources of
conflicts in organization. It includes competition for scarce resources
among participants, differences in goals attitudes and values either at
intergroup level or interpersonal level. Conflict could also be between
individuals in the same group due to personality differences or role
related pressure for conformity imposed on them. Conflict may also
57

developed within an organization by individual due to a person-
unresolved anxiety and in identity crisis.
Another source of conflicts request for territorial control. Robert Ardy
(1967) in his book “The territorial imperative” stated that inhabitants are
guarding territory and that infringement on it by external body or bodies
will create conflict. Conflicts may also arise from inadequate job
definition for organizational actors. There are cases where two or more
officers perform the same function in an organization simultaneously due
to clarity of function boundaries.
Besides, leadership style used by manager in organizations is another
source of conflict. Stonner and wankel supported (1958) when they
observed that authoritarian managers arrogate or attach undue air of
importance to their functions and frequently infuriate their subordinates
and colleagues.
There are several other sources of conflict, which includes conflict that
may arise from a person’s dual role, unfair, inequitable and discretionary
reward of employee and other extraneous factors that have also resulted
into conflict in business organization.
2.8 Recognizing Healthy And Unhealthy Conflict
Distinguishing between healthy and unhealthy conflict is not an easy
task. In healthy conflict, the parties have common concern for goals of
organization. Conflicts of this sort result in frank discussion of goals and
different points of review.
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Conflict becomes unhealthy when relationship between parties
degenerates. Each party is concerned with wining the fight, whether or
not output will be good for the organization.
Another due is in healthy conflict, communication often increases, people
talk together to resolve difference while in unhealthy conflict, there may
be talks but no one is listening and overtime of communication drops off.
For conflict to be healthy, parties must genuinely be interested in
reaching a mutually acceptance solution. When quantity of
communication drops off, it is a sign of unhealthy conflicts.
S/N HEALTHY CONFLICTS UNHEALTHY CONFLICTS
1. Increase in communication Decrease in communication
2. Conflict centers on issues Conflict centre on personality
3. Common concern for goals of
the organization
4. Willingness to see each others
view point
Source Pondy (1967)
2.9 Dynamics Of Conflict
59
Selfish concern to win own view
points
Close mind to others view point
Pondy (1967) stage of conflicts explains how conflicts give rise to series
of behaviour and responses among and between parties in organization.
For instance, manager (A) perceives subordinate (B) doing something
unimportant. The (A) experience tension since (B) is working on another
thing which is different. (A) Then calls (B) and asks why (B) is working
on something not important instead of the urgent project (B) gets
annoyed at (A) and (A) also gets angry. A chain reaction of behaviour
and responses set in.

Pondy Stages Of Conflict
Pondy process model of conflict (1967) shows how conflicts arises and
the stages it passes through. He explains five (5) sequential stages called
“conflict episode” latent conflict, perceived conflicts, felt conflicts,
manifest conflicts, and aftermath conflicts.
Competition for Divergence of submit goals
LATENT CONFLICT CONFLICT AFTERMATH
(Hidden Conflict) (Result of conflict)
Drives for autonomy
Perceived Conflicts Felt Stage Manifest
(Aura of Conflicts) (Hostile feeling) (Showing Anger)
Source: Beach D.S(1980)
i) Latent Stage
This stage consist of conflict that breeds conflicts. It include
conditions like competition for scarce resources, divergence of
submit goals and drive autonomy. Each condition serves as fertile
ground for development and growth of condition in organizations
ii) Perceived Stage
This is cognitive aspect of conflict episode. Parties recognize like
hood of other party to frustrate their efforts. For instance,
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production manger hears sales manager demanding for more sales
men to increase sales target. Conflicts perceived by production
manager since both demands will have to be satisfied from
company’s limited resources.
iii) Felt Stage
Conflicts is felt and recognized after being perceived. Looking at
the above example, the vice-president calls a meeting of
department heads to discuss resources allocation, production
manger feels an impending confrontation in the encoring meeting.
iv) Manifest Stage
This is when adversary behaviour is exhibited. Manifest ranges
from apathy, aggression to strict adherence to rules. In the above
example, managers might be asked to defend need for more
personnel.
v) Conflict Aftermath
The condition that results after conflict has manifested might lead
to resolution of the conflicts or serves as the basic of recycling
episode to a further stage of latent conflict.
2.10 A Philosophy Of Avoiding Conflict
If conflicts is unavoidable why does the classical view (i.e. conflict is bad
and should be avoided at all cost) still dominate organization? Stephen P.
Robbins which state, the anti-conflict attitudes begins by birth has
suggested one possible view. As kids we are thought to be seen and not
heard and the child is not to accept the parents as decision makers who
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they must obey. This role is reinforced in school where teacher is
believed to be “Always right”. Punishment follows confrontation. He
went further by saying anti-conflict sentiments is the key stone of
religious belief as epitomized in teaching of Roman Catholic Church.
Managers and subordinates believe in the traditional view of conflict (i.e.
Classical) that it should be supposed.
However, modern scholars recognize the inevitability of conflict because
of human. Recognition is equally accorded difference in culture, as well
as organizational structure with regards to leadership style, inequitable
reward, inadequate job description etc.
2.10.1 Goods And Bad Side Of Conflict
Conflicts is adjudged to be functional in an organization. According to
Stonner and Wankel(1958), conflicts is inevitable and necessary no
matter the design for the organization in operating.
George Samuel argued that conflict is a form socialization and that a
certain amount of discord, divergence and controversy is needed to
ultimately hold the different groups together. He believes that conflicts
are to resolve divergent views and to maintain unity among conflicting
parties.
Infact, it can be deduced that a positive correlation between conflict and
organizational performance. There is optimal functional level of conflicts
where performance is at maximum. Optimal and constructive conflicts
brings solutions, encourage creativity. It can be
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inferred therefore that an organization survival is threatened when
conflict level is too low or too high. This will affect to organizations new
challenges response. Conflict also has the following advantages.
1) Better and sound ideas are pronounced.
2) People are forced to search for new ways of solving problems
3) Long standing problems surface and are dealt with
4) People are forced to clarify issues
5) Conflict stimulates innovation and creativity
Generally, conflict might breed suspicions, distract and make room for
defensive behaviour. This may lead to break down in interpersonal and
communication relationship with resultant negative effects on the
achievement of organizational goals. Conflict in industry may manifest
inform of boycott, strike, lock-out, work-to-rule, sabotage and high
labour turnover and sometimes may degenerate into violence and mass
destruction. The negative outcome of conflicts may include the
following.
Some people feel defeated and demoralized
1) A climate of enmity and hostility may develop
2) It sometimes lead to high level of labour turnover
3) Breakdown in communication between or among workers
4) A climatic of distrust and suspicious develop between the
conflicting parties.
5) Resistance to change and active war might develop where
teamwork is needed.
Therefore, for an organization of function effectively, a situation of
conflict not too low and not high is desirable.
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3.0 Sample Definition
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The Nigeria Bottling Company Plc is a manufacturing company
established in 1894 and is chosen as case study of this thesis. The head
office is situated in Lagos at Leventis Building, Iddo House.
The branch office in Kano is chosen as study for this project work. The
established populations of the study comprise of employees of the
branch. These include supervisions, middle managers and senior
managers.
Eighty questionnaires were administered using simple random sampling.
This is to ensure that every worker has an equal chance of being selected
and (65) Sixty-Five were returned. These constitute 88% of questionnaire
given out. Hence, all analysis made in this project work is based on the
number of questionnaire that were actually returned i.e. (65) Sixty-Five.
3.1 Data Collection and Specification
Primary data and secondary data are used in this study.
1) Primary Data:
a) Questionnaire:
2) Secondary Data:
These were given to the three (3) levels of management.
They are the Senior, Middle and Lower Level Management.
Secondary data used were collected from journals, magazines and
texts, annual report and accounts of the industries.
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The information were on conflicts management in a business
organization.
3.2 Types Of Data Collection
These data are information collected with aim of drawing conclusion on
population.
3.3 Method Of Data Analysis
The data will be analyzed using simple percentages to answer the
researcher’s questions where possible and chi-square(x2) will be used to
test the hypothesis of the study since there are two variables drawn from
the independent sample each of which is categorized in two ways e.g.
“yes or no”, the data is non-numerical and represented in frequencies and
they are easy to compute and interpret since no sophistication in
mathematics and statistics is required but it is sometime unusually long
and tedious to calculate.
3.4 Limitation of Data Collection
Conflicts between/among individual or groups within organizations are
not well documented, unlike conflict between management and labour
union.
In addition, people, involved in such conflict especially long time ago no
longer have a clear picture of what happen then. However, among the
recent that occurred, their participants were able to give details of causes,
effect and how it was resolved.
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3.5 Profile Of Nigerian Bottling Company Plc
Coca-Cola can be traced to Pamberton family in 1894 South Africa
where the formula was developed. The product was test where the
formula was developed. The product was marketed and it became world
soft drink due to its widely acceptance.
In 1952, A. G. Leventis & Co. entered into an agreement (Partnership)
with Coca-Cola international and the first plan in Nigeria was scheduled
to open at Oyinbo in March 1953.
Presently, it has about twenty-three plants all over the nation and its
world leading number one soft drink sold in more than 145 countries.
More than 250 million bottles of Coca-Cola are taken everyday in all
parts of the globe and it is still expanding with its plant out of which
Kano branch is one.
Principal activities includes Coca-Cola 35&50cl, fanta 35&50cl lemon
35cl, 25cl, Sprite, Ginger, Tonic, Soda water, Biter Lemon all in 30cl.
Success of Coca-Cola has brought development out of a number of sister
industries, all of which contributes, to growth of Nigerian economy.
Delta Glass Company in Ugali supplies the millions of bottles crown
factories in Ijebu-Ode and Kano manufactures the metal crown to seal
bottles. Then Benin plastics make plastic crates for carrying the bottles.
The basic ingredients for Coca-Cola are carbon, water, sugar, citric. The
same standard is maintained throughout the world. The Kano plant
employs about 340 workers with eight different depots under
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Kano. They are Azare, Sokoto, Funtua, Gusau, Katsina, Konan Dangura
and Postiskin.
Head Office of Nigeria Bottle Company Plc is at Leventis building, Iddo
House, and Lagos State.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4. 0 Data Presentation And Analysis
This chapter emphasizes the research work through presenting and
analyzing of the findings of the work with a view to arriving at logical
conclusion and worthwhile recommendations.
Sixty five questionnaires were returned out of the eighty were
administered. This constitutes 88% of administered questionnaire.
Analysis is based on finding of data extracted from the questionnaires
that were actually returned.
4.1 Analysis and Interpretation Of Questionnaires
TABLE 1
The table shows the percentage distribution of respondent by sex:
Q.6 How will you assess the interpersonal and/or inter-group relationship
existing company
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Cordial 53 81
Poor 5 7.65
Fair 7 10.77
Total 65 100
Table one show the composition of the total respondent. It shows that out
of the total respondent, 81% respondents representing 53 accept the
relationship between interpersonal and intergroup is cordial, while 7.65%
of the respondents believed that it is poor. On the other hand a total of 7
respondent are of the opinion that the relationship is fair.
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Q7. What is your view about flow of information in your company?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Effective 30 46
Fairly Effective 20 31
Poorly Effective 15 23
Total 65 100
The table shows that majority of the respondents see information flow in
the company as effective, 31 percent see it as fairly effective and 23
percent are of the opinion that it is poorly effective.
Q.8.How often does interpersonal/inter-group conflicts occur in your
organization?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Very often 5 7.6
Often 30 46
Not at all - -
Rarely occur 15 23
Total 65 100
Majority of the respondent representing 46 percent said that it occurs
most often, 7.6 percent said very often, while 23 percent said it rarely
occurs.
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Q.9 Conflict occurring in the organization often focuses on?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Issues 25 39
Personality 15 23
Concern for group goal 20 31
Selfish concern to win
own view
70
5 7.6
Total 65 100
The total number respondents who were administered on the options
above representing 39, 23, 31, and 7.6 percent agree that conflicts
occurring in the organization often focuses on issues, personality,
concern for group goal and selfish interest respectively.
Q10 What frequently causes such conflicts within organization?
This table shows percentages distribution by management cadre: -
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Personal causes 10 15.39
Reward system 5 7.65
Inadequate job
description
15 23.07
Cultural differences 20 30.77
Management style 5 7.69
Total 65 100

The above shows that personal causes 15.39%, reward system 7.6%,
inadequate job description 23.07%, cultural differences 30.77% and
Management style 7.69%
Q.11 What is the aftermath effect of such conflict in the organization?
Option No. of
71
Respondents
Percentages
Better ideas are produced 10 15.39
Lead to innovation & creativity 10 15.30
Aids effective decision making 20 30.77
All of the above 25 38.46
Others - -
Total 65 100
The table above shows that the aftermath effect of conflict result to
better ideas and leads to innovation and creativity, and this is represented
by 15.39 percent each. 30.77 percent said that the aftermath leads to
effective decision- making. On the other hand 38.46 percent chose the all
of the above option.
Q.12 what is your conflict resolution procedure?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Collaboration 15 23.07
Competition 10 15.39
Compromise 15 23.07
Accommodation 10 15.30
Avoidance 15 23.07
Total 65 100

(23.07) of respondents adopt compromise as conflict resolution
procedure, (15.30%) adopt accommodation while (23.07%) adopt
collaboration. (23.07%) and (15.39%) adopts avoidance and competition
respectively in resolving conflicts.
Q.13 when quick & urgent decision has to be taken what type of conflict
resolution do you use?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Compromise 20 30.77
Accommodation 5 7.69
Avoidance 20 30.77
Competition 10 15.39
Collaboration 10 15.39
Total 65 100
20 (30.77%) of respondents adopt compromise as conflict resolution
procedure, 5(7.69 %) adopt accommodation while 20(30.77%) adopt
collaboration. Only 10(15.39%) and 15 (15.39%) adopts avoidance and
competition respectively in resolving conflicts.
Q14. What leadership style do you use?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Laissez - fair - -
Accommodation 15 23.07
Avoidance 10 15.39
Competition 20 30.77
Collaboration 20 30.77
Total 65 100
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15(23.07%) of the respondent use accommodation as the leadership style,
10(15.39%) of the respondent use avoidance as the style of leadership.
Competition and collaboration uses 20(30.77%) as the leadership style
Q15. When quick and urgent decision has to be taken
What leadership style do you use?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Autocratic 15 23.07
Democratic 40 61.54
Laissez-fair 10 15.39
Total 65 100
15(23.07%) of respondents adopt Autocratic solution procedure, 40
(61.54%) adopt democratic style solution procedure while 10(15.39%)
adopt laissez-fair solution procedure.
Q16. Is there any relationship between your conflict resolution procedure
and management style?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Yes 49 75.38
No 16 24.62
Total 65 100
49(75.38%) of the respondent agree that there is a relationship between
conflict resolution procedure and management style why 16 (24.62%) do
not agree.
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How do you perceive this conflict resolution procedure of other
managers in relation to your personality?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Satisfactory 47 72.31
Fair 6 9.23
Unsatisfactory 12 18.46
Total 65 100
47(72.31%) of the respondent perceive conflict resolution procedure of
other managers related to their personality while 6(9.23%) and
12(18.46%) perceives it as fairly and unsatisfactory respectively.
Q19. To what extent has your company been able to cope with conflict
in work situations?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Large Extent 15 23.07
Moderate 41 63.08
Small Extent 9 13.85
Total 65 100
Source: Open field survey 2005
15(23.07%) of the respondent cope to a large extent 41(63.08%) cope to
a moderately while 9(13.85%) cope to a small extent.
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Q.20 The major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an
organization are?
Option No. of Respondents Percentages
Personality and
cultural differences
Job description and
management style
75
57 87.7
8 12.3
Total 65 100
Source: Open field survey 2005
From the above table 57 no. of respondents representing 87.7% affirmed
that personality and cultural differences are the major causes of
interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an organization while 8 no of the
respondent representing 12.3% disagree and said it is job description and
management style.
4.2 Test of Hypothesis
Hypothesis I
Null Hypothesis
Ho: There is no significant relationship between conflict management
approaches and management style.
Alternative Hypothesis
H1: There is a significant relationship between conflict management
approaches and management style.

Table 4.20: 2 by 3 Contingency Table
Responses Senior Middle Lower Total
Yes 24 16 9 49
No 8 5 3 160
Total 32 21 12 65
Source: field survey 2005
From table 4.20: Above, the observed frequency is represented by “D” and the
expected frequencies is represented by represented by “B”
“D” observed “B” Expected
24(49 x 32)/65 24.12
16(49 x 21)/65 15.83
09(49 x 12)/65 09.05
08(16 x 32)/65 07.09
05(16 x 21)/65 05.02
03(16 x 12)/65 02.95
X 2 = D – B 2
B
X 2 = (24–24.12) 2 /24.12+(16-15.83) 2 /15.83_(9-9.05) 2 /9.09+(8-7.9) 2 /7.9+(5-
5.2) 2 /5.2+(3-3.0) 2 /3
= 0.006 + 0.0018 + 0.0003 + 0.0013 + 0.0077 + 0.000 = 0.0117
The contingency table is 2 by 3, hence the degree of freedom is calculated as
follows:
(P – 1) (q – 1) = (2 – 1) (3 – 1) = 1 x 2 = 2
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The test would be computed using 5% significant to determine the critical value
of chi-square, the value of X 2 0.05 = 5.99 under 2 degree of freedom. Since
00117 < 5.991.
The alternative hypothesis is accepted
Hypothesis II
Null Hypothesis
Ho: The major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an
organization are personality and cultural differences.
H1. Alternative Hypothesis
The major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an organization
are not personality and cultural differences.
Table 12: 2 by 3 contingency table
Responses Senior Middle Lower Total
Yes 29 17 11 57
No 4 2 2 8
Total 33 19 13 65
Sources field survey 2005
Table 16 above indicated the observed frequency represented by “D”. The next
calculation will be the expected frequencies represented by “B”
“B” Observed “B” Expected
29(57 x 33)/65 28.94
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17(57 x 19)/65 16.66
11(57 x 13)/65 11.40
04(08 x 33)/65 04.06
02(08 x 33)/65 02.34
02(08 x 33)/65 01.60
X 2 =(29–28.94) 2 /28.94+(17–16.66) 2 /16.66+11-11.4) 2 /11.4+(4-4.06) 2 /4.06+(2-
2.34) 2 /2.34+2-1.6) 2 /1.6
= 0.001+0.0069+0140+0.0009+0.0494+0.1 = 0.1713.
The contingency table is 2 by 2, hence the degree of freedom is calculated as
follows: (p-1) (q-1) = (2-1) (3-1) = 1 x 2 = 2
The test would be completed suing 5% significance to determine the critical
value of chi-square, the value of X2 0.05 = 5.991 under 2 degree of freedom
since 0.1713 < 5.991.
The Alternative Hypothesis is accepted.
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5.0 Summary
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conflict is a natural phenomenon. Some conflict enhances
organizational efficiency while others may be dysfunctional and have
negative effects. Rather than avoid or ignore conflicts, managers should
learn how to manager the differences between groups or individuals
within the organization.
The nature of conflicts must be understood. Conflicts are likely to be
present between or among groups or individuals when tasks are
independents. When there is inadequate job description, when resources
must be shared and when goals are perceived incompatible, difference in
culture, information perception and values as well as leadership styles
can also cause conflict organizations.
Avoidance, competition, compromising, accommodation and
collaboration can be used to manage conflicts. The last four are the most
common conflict resolution procedures. An analysis of situational
condition provides a guidance concerning the appropriate resolution
procedures to adopt.
5.1 Conclusion
The study was able to establish that job description and leadership styles
are major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict. Job description and
leadership styles are major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict.
Minor causes comprises of personality differences, cultural differences
and reward system. Conflict in Nigeria Bottling Company focuses
mainly on issues and concern for group rather than personality or selfish
79

concern of individuals. Conflict that focuses on issues are healthy while
that of personality are selfish concern of individuals in unhealthy.
Healthy conflicts exist in Nigeria Bottling Company for effective
decision making, innovation and creativity, better idea development and
interactive work environment.
This research work was able to establish that compromise was the most
common mode of conflict resolution. The least mode of resolving
conflict is avoidance. In additional it was found that a significant
relationship exist between conflict resolution mode and leadership style.
The leadership style found in Nigeria Bottling Company is democratic
style, which goes along with compromise in resolving conflict in
organization.
The major causes of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in organization are
personality and cultural difference. This stems from the facts that
organizations are built around people. These people have different
cultures skills, educational background as well as different values,
perception, expectations and roles to perform factors mentioned above
often interfere with the way they perform their jobs, relate and perceive
others. Hence there is need to establish whether interpersonal intergroup
conflict are caused by personality or cultural differences or by other
factors such as reward system, leadership style etc. this clarification will
help to provide a focus inform of which conflict resolution procedure to
be adopted
1. Established Interpersonal/Intergroup relationship in the
organization is satisfactory.
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2. Information flow is fairly effective
3. Interpersonal/Intergroup conflict occurs at a moderate level and it
focuses on issues and concern for group goals, not on personality
or individual concern.
4. Finally, the major causes of Interpersonal/Intergroup conflict were
established to be inadequate job description and leadership style
and not personality or cultural difference.
Furthermore, during emergency both leadership style and conflict resolution
procedure used by majority of respondents are dependent on force and use of
power. We can say avoiding go along with laizzes faire leadership style
because each is appropriate when trivial issues are involved in conflict and
decision making. Finally, majority of the respondent agreed that there is a
relationship between their conflict resolution procedure and leadership style.
Finally, when quick and urgent decision is to be made, managers often
use autocratic leadership style and competition as a conflict resolution
procedure.
5.2 Recommendations
Conflict is necessary for organization to move forward. Therefore, it is
imperative that managers should develop an effective conflict
management procedure.
These guidelines are recommendations that could be followed in other to
create a desirable environment for conflict within an organization.
1) Managers should engage only in conflict that focuses on issues of
group goals rather than that focus on personality or selfish interest
of individuals.
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2) Healthy conflict should be stimulated and employees should be
assigned higher responsibilities with a clearly defined boundary.
3) Overlapping responsibilities to subordinate should be avoided.
Maintenance of free flow of information helps discourage
unhealthy conflict within organization.
4) Compromise is a “give and take” approach and parties to conflict
experience no defeat using the approach.
5) A particular mode of conflict resolution should be avoided. For
instance, an organization using compromise should switch to
competition when quick and urgent decision is needed.
6) There should always be an enabling environment where views and
ideas by both the intergroup and management are aired.
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Dear Sir/Madam,
QUESTIONNAIRE
I am a post graduate student of Masters of Business Administration, ABU Zaria,
currently carrying out a study on Management of conflicts in Business
Organization. A study of Coco-cola Nigerian Bottling Company Plc. Kano your
company is one of the samples randomly selected.
This questionnaire is designed to discover causes, effects and resolution of
interpersonal and/or group conflict within the organization.
Your co-operation in giving correct and unbiased answers to the question below
will be highly appreciated. The information will help the researcher in offering
useful suggestions on how bet conflicts could be handled in organization.
Any information given will be treated in strict confidence.
Please mark in the appropriate box or fill in where necessary.
1) What is your highest educational qualification?
a) PHD, MSC, MA
b) BSC
c) HND
d) OND
e) A Levels
2) What is your positive in the company?
a) Senior level management
b) Middle level management
c) Lower level management
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3) For how long have you being working with the firm?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
Q4. What is the mission statement of your company?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
…………
5) Length of Service: (a) Below 5years / / (b) Supervisor / /
(c) 11 – 15years / / (d) 16 – 20years / /
(e) Above 20years / /
6) How will you assess the interpersonal and or intergroup relationship
existing in your Company?
(a) Cordial / / (b) Poor / / (c) Fair / /
7) What is your view about flow of information in your Company?
(a) Effective / / (b) Fairly Effective / /
(c) Poorly Effective / /
8) How often do interpersonal/intergroup conflict occur in your
organization?
a) Very often / / (b) Often / / (c) Not at all / /
d) Rarely occur / / e) Moderately occur / /
9) Conflicts occurring in the organization often focus on:
view / /
a) Issues / / (b) Personality / /
c) Concera for group goal / / d) Selfish concern to win own
10) What frequently causes such conflicts within organization?
a) Personal Causes / / b) Reward System / /
84

c) Inadequate job description / / d) Cultural differences
/ /
e) Leadership Style / /
11. What is the aftermath effect of such conflict in the organization?
a) Better ideas are produced / /
b) Lead to innovation and creativity / /
c) Aids effective decision making / /
d) All of the above / /
e) Others / /
12. What is your conflict resolution procedure?
/
a) Collaboration / / b) Competition /
c) Compromise / / d) Accommodation / /
e) Avoidance / /
13. When quick and urgent decision has to be taken, what type of conflict
/
resolution do you use?
a) Compromise / / b) Accommodation / / c) Avoidance /
d) Competition / / e) Collaboration / /
14. What Leadership style do you use?
a) Laizsse – faire / / b) Autocratic / / c) Democratic / /
15. When quick and urgent decision has to be taken, what leadership style do
you use?
a) Autocratic / / b) Democratic / / c) Laissez faire /
/
16. Is there any relationship between your conflict resolution procedure and
management style.
(a) Yes / / b) No / /
85

17. If yes, state the relationship? e.g. Accommodation or Democratic.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
18. How do you perceive the conflict resolution procedure of other managers
in relation to your personality?
/
a) Satisfactory / / b) Fair / / c) Unsatisfactory /
19. What are the major of interpersonal/intergroup conflict in an
organization.
a) Personality & cultural differences / /
b) Job description and leadership style / /
20. To what extent has your Company been able to cope with conflict in
work situations?
a) Large Extent / / b) moderate / / c) Small
Extent / /
86

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