Understanding Your Y-DNA Results Contents - Genebase

Contents 

GTB-DYR, VERSION 2.4, LAST UPDATED MAY 15, 2012 Downloading Y-DNA Results 

DNA Ancestry Project 

Understanding Your Y-DNA Results 

A. Y-DNA Background page 2 

B. Downloading and printing your personal Y-DNA certificate page 5 

C. DNA Haplogroups (Y-DNA) page 8 

D. Indigenous DNA (Y-DNA) page 11 

E. DNA Reunion (Y-DNA) page 14 

F. DNA Archaeology (Y-DNA) page 18 

G. Frequently Asked Questions page 21 

H. Glossary page 25 

Appendix 1: Summary of Y-DNA Haplogroups page 30 

© 2012 DNA Ancestry Project | support@genebase.com 1

A. Y-DNA Background 


Genetic Genealogy is a new and exciting way to supplement your ancestry research. While genetic genealogy is a powerful tool, it 

is important to understand both the benefits and limitations of DNA testing. The current industry recognized standards for DNA 

ancestry testing are mtDNA testing for tracing Maternal ancestry and Y-DNA testing for tracing Paternal ancestry. This 

Guidebook provides instructions for using your Y-DNA test results to investigate your PATERNAL ancestry. 

Y-DNA Basics 

Your Y-DNA is passed down to you directly from your Paternal ancestors (father to son inheritance pattern). 

Only males have Y-DNA, so only males can take the Y-DNA test. Females wishing to trace their own Paternal ancestry must test 

the Y-DNA of a male relative, such as a brother, male cousin, nephew, uncle, etc. on their direct Paternal line. The patrilineal 

inheritance pattern of Y-DNA means that your Y-DNA profile is unique to your Paternal lineage and shared by all people who 

descended from the same patrilineal ancestral lineage as you. Testing your Y-DNA allows you to trace your direct Paternal 

ancestry (your father’s, father’s, father’s…. Paternal line). 

What is Y-DNA? 

Father carries Y-DNA which 

holds information about his 

Paternal lineage. 

Son inherits Y-DNA from his 

father and passes his father’s Y- 

DNA to all future male 

descendents. 

Y-DNA is DNA that is found in the Y-Chromosome. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The 23rd pair are the X and Y 

chromosomes which determine a person’s gender. Males have one Y-Chromosome and one X-Chromosome (XY) and females 

have two X-Chromosomes (XX) and no Y-Chromosome. Because females do not have a Y-Chromosome, females cannot take the 

Y-DNA test. Y-DNA is passed down strictly from father to son. 

X 

X and Y Chromosomes 

Daughter does NOT inherit Y- 

DNA from father because 

females do not have Y-DNA. 

Females also cannot pass Y- 

DNA down to the next generation 

of males. 


Tracing Paternal ancestry with Y-DNA 


Genetic markers are present in the Y-Chromosome which carry valuable information about a person’s Paternal ancestry. Two 

different types of genetic markers found in the Y-DNA are commonly used to trace Paternal ancestry: STR markers and SNP 

markers. 

STR (stands for “short tandem repeat”) - STR markers have a very fast mutation rate (approximately one mutation every 20 

generations) so STR testing can be used to search for recent family links (within dozens of generations). 

SNP (stands for “single nucleotide polymorphism”) - SNP markers have a very slow mutation rate (approximately one mutation 

every few thousand years) so SNP testing can be used to confirm your Y-DNA Haplogroup. Haplogroups pertain to “deep” 

ancestry (ancient ancestry from thousands of years ago). 

Genealogists usually begin by taking the Y-DNA STR test. The Y-DNA STR test is the most versatile test because it will allow one 

to look for long lost relatives, find matches to indigenous populations, and also provides a prediction on deep ancestry (Haplogroup 

prediction). Once the Y-DNA STR test has been completed, genealogists may wish to further confirm their Haplogroup using 

Backbone SNP testing and even further refine their Haplogroup using Subclade SNP testing. 

What are Y-DNA Haplogroups and Subclades? 

Y-DNA studies have shown all people living today can be traced back to a common Paternal ancestor who lived in Africa 

approximately 60,000 to 100,000 years ago. Over time, many different ancient family groups “Haplogroups” eventually journeyed 

out of Africa and populated the rest of the world. Y-DNA Haplogroups (labeled A to T) are associated with unique ancient 

migration routes out of Africa which led to different regions of the world (the Maternal line equivalent is the “mtDNA Haplogroup”). 

Once you find out which Y-DNA Haplogroup you belong to, you can find out which general region of the world your Paternal 

ancestors came from. Please note that Haplogroups are NOT country specific. There are no Haplogroups which are found in only 

one country and not a neighboring country. Y-DNA Haplogroups can be further classified into finer sub-branches called 

“Subclades”. Knowing your Subclade can often provide further geographical localization of your ancestry if published research on 

the geographical distribution of the Subclade is available. 

Region/Population Major Y-DNA Haplogroups found in regions/populations 

specified 

Native Americans C, Q 

Oceanic and Aboriginal Australians C, K, M, N, S, 

East Asian C, D, N, O, Q, 

South Asian (i.e. India) C, H, L, 

Europe and Middle East I, J, R, T, 

Diverse F, G, P, 

African A, B, E, 

The Y-DNA testing process 

Refer to Appendix 1 – 

Summary of Y-DNA 

Haplogroups on page 30 of 

this manual for details of 

each Y-DNA Haplogroup. 

Your DNA is collected using mouth swabs called “buccal swabs” which are rubbed gently inside your mouth against your cheek to 

collect loose skin cells called “buccal cells”. Your buccal cells are an abundant source of DNA. 

When your DNA sample arrives at the lab, DNA testing begins immediately. First, your buccal cells are removed from the swab. 

Next, your DNA is extracted from the buccal cells and purified for DNA testing. 

How soon do I have to send the samples back for testing? Your DNA kit has no expiry date, so you can collect your DNA sample any time 

after receiving your kit. After collecting your DNA sample, send it back to the laboratory for testing as soon as possible. If you cannot send your 

samples right away, don’t worry because once your swabs are dry, your DNA sample is extremely stable and can be stored for months at room 

temperature. 

Do I need to collect another sample if I order more tests? The laboratory will test the samples that you have remaining on file from your 

previous test. If more DNA is required, we will notify you and send you a recollection kit. The only upgrade test type which always requires more 

DNA is the mtDNA Full Sequencing Test. The mtDNA Full Sequencing Test requires a large amount of DNA so a recollection is always 

required when this upgrade test type is ordered. 


4 types of Y-DNA tests are available: 


Y-DNA Test Type Prerequisite Purpose Description 

Y-DNA STR Tests 

(required) 

Y-DNA Backbone 

SNP Test 

(optional) 

Y-DNA Subclade 

SNP Test 

(optional, only 

available for selected 

Haplogroups) 

Y-DNA Stand Alone 

SNP Test 

(optional, only 

available for selected 

Subclades) 

none To be used in DNA 

Reunion, Indigenous 

DNA and DNA 

Archaeology search 

applications. Can 

also predict your Y- 

DNA Haplogroup. 

Y-DNA STR Test, 

minimum 20 STR 

markers 

Y-DNA Backbone 

SNP Test or a 

“strong” Haplogroup 

prediction strength 

from the Y-DNA 

STR test 

Y-DNA Subclade 

SNP Test 

To confirm your Y- 

DNA Haplogroup 

To confirm your Y- 

DNA Subclade 

To further refine 

your Y-DNA 

Subclade 

This test is the starting point for Paternal ancestry research. This test will 

allow you to search for Paternal line relatives, look for matches to 

indigenous populations and also allows you to predict which Y-DNA 

Haplogroup you most likely belong to. There are several options for STR 

testing including 20 markers, 44 markers, 67 markers, and 91 markers. As 

long as you have at least 20 markers, you will be able to use most of the 

search and analysis features. Testing more than 20 markers is 

recommended for those individuals who have found matches in DNA 

Reunion and wish to fine tune their comparison with matching individuals to 

narrow down the TMRCA (time to most recent common ancestor). Testing 

more Y-DNA STR marker will not improve your Y-DNA Haplogroup 

prediction. If you are interested in confirming your Y-DNA Haplogroup, you 

must take the Y-DNA Backbone SNP test. For beginners, we recommend 

testing 20 or 44 markers, and then getting more markers once you find 

matches and wish to narrow down the matches. 

The Y-DNA Backbone SNP test analyzes a selection of SNP markers 

within your Y-Chromosome in order to conclusively confirm which Y-DNA 

Haplogroup you belong to. 

This test is only recommended if your predicted Y-DNA Haplogroup based 

on Y-DNA STR testing is “weak” or “medium”. If you have a “strong” 

prediction for your Y-DNA Haplogroup based on STR testing, you can skip 

the Y-DNA Backbone SNP test and go directly to the Y-DNA Subclade test. 

When the Y-DNA Haplogroup prediction strength is “strong”, the predicted 

Y-DNA Haplogroup is unlikely to change, so the Y-DNA Backbone SNP 

test is optional. 

The Y-DNA Subclade SNP test analyzes a selection of SNP markers within 

the Y-Chromosome in order to confirm your Y-DNA Subclade. 

Subclade testing is currently only available for the following Y-DNA 

Haplogroups: E, G, I, J, L, O, Q, R. 

Over time, new SNPs are discovered and the Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree will 

continue to expand and become more detailed as new discoveries are 

made. If a new SNP is discovered in your branch of the Y-DNA tree, the 

new SNP will automatically be offered to you for purchase as a “Stand 

Alone SNP” test. This allows you to continue to refine your results over 

time as new discoveries are made. As new Y-DNA SNPs are discovered 

that are relevant to you, the test will automatically appear as an option on 

your account. 

Tip: It is recommended that you begin by testing only your Y-DNA STR markers (20 markers minimum). Once you receive your results and 

have had a chance to better understand how genetic genealogy works and have become more familiar with DNA Ancestry Project features, you 

can decide whether additional testing is required in your particular case. All of the features in the DNA Ancestry Project are fully accessible with 

Y-DNA STR markers. 20 to 44 markers are more than sufficient in most cases. Testing more Y-DNA STR markers is recommended if you have 

found matches in DNA Reunion and wish to further fine tune the TMRCA (time to most recent common ancestor) calculation. Please remember 

that testing more Y-DNA STR markers will not confirm your Y-DNA Haplogroup. If your Y-DNA Haplogroup prediction strength is weak or 

medium, you can take the Y-DNA Backbone SNP test to confirm your Y-DNA Haplogroup. The Y-DNA Backbone SNP and Y-DNA Subclade 

SNP tests are optional and only intended for those individuals who wish to confirm their Y-DNA Haplogroup or determine their Y-DNA Subclade. 



B. Downloading and printing your personal Y-DNA certificate 

When your Y-DNA test has been completed, you will be notified by email. 

You can download and print your personal Y-DNA certificate directly from your account and then make use of the search and 

analysis features on the system to view your Haplogroup, find matches, compare with indigenous populations and compare against 

famous people in history. 

Important! You will only be notified by email if you have registered your email to your account. If you have not yet registered your email to your 

account, go to www.genebase.com and login using the ID# and password provided in your DNA testing kit and the system will automatically 

prompt you to enter your email. If the system does not prompt you to enter your email, it means that your email is already registered. To view 

or change your email, login to your account, then click “Settings” at the top of the page, then click “Contact Email”. 

Step 1: Download and print your personal Y-DNA certificate 

The first step is to download and print a copy of your personal Y-DNA certificate for your records. Your personal Y-DNA certificate 

contains your unique Y-DNA genetic code, also known as your “genetic profile”. 

To download and print your personal Y-DNA results certificate, follow these steps: 

1. Go to www.genebase.com and login using the username and password provided in your testing kit. If you have already 

logged in previously and registered your email and reset your password, then login using your email and password. 

Enter your username or email and 

password, then click “Login”. Your 

username and password are printed 

in the instruction manual that came 

with your DNA testing kit. 

First time logging in? If this is the first time that you have logged in, you will be prompted to enter your email and select a new password. 

This step is optional, so if you don’t have an email, you can skip this step. However, as long as you do not have an email registered to your 

account, you will be prompted to enter your email each time you login. Please note that the email is the unique identifier for an account so you 

cannot use the same email for more than one account. If you have multiple accounts for different members of your family, you will need to use 

a different email address for each account, or else you can choose not to enter an email for some of your accounts. 

2. Click “My Tests” to view your own tests and click “My Family’s Tests” to view the tests that your family members have 

taken. Click “View Results” to view the results for each test. 

Click “My Tests” to view a 

complete list of all of your own 

tests. Click “My Family’s Tests” 

to view a complete list of all 

tests your family members 

have taken. If the test has been completed, 

you will see a “View Results” link 

next to the completed test. 



Multiple family accounts? If you had ordered DNA tests for other family members and their accounts do not appear in the “My Family’s 

Tests” tab, it means that their accounts are not linked to your family tree. Contact us at support@genebase.com and let us know the name and 

order ID# of your relatives’ DNA tests and we will help you to link their accounts into your family tree. Once your accounts are linked into the 

same family tree, you will be able to view the results of your family members’ tests directly from your own account and trace multiple lines in 

your family tree. 

3. Next, click “Print Certificate”. 

4. Your Y-DNA certificate will show you your unique Y-DNA profile. Your Y-DNA profile is unique to you and your Paternal 

lineage and contains the unique genetic code for your Paternal ancestry. Your Paternal ancestors and all people who 

descended from the same Paternal line as you have exactly the same Y-DNA profile as you. 

Step 2: Tracing your Paternal Ancestry with Y-DNA 

Click “Print Certificate” 

to download the test 

certificate. 

Print: Click here to 

print a copy of your 

personal Y-DNA 

certificate for your 

records. 

Name: The name of 

the person tested. 

STR Marker Table: A 

table listing your 

unique Y-DNA profile 

results (your marker 

values for each STR 

marker tested) 

Understanding your Y-DNA STR certificate: Your certificate lists each Y-DNA STR marker that was tested in your Y-DNA. The number on 

the right of each STR marker is your unique allele value for that marker. The unique pattern of values for all of the Y-DNA STR markers tested 

is called your Y-DNA STR Profile. Your Y-DNA STR Profile is unique to your Paternal ancestry. All males who have descended from the same 

Paternal lineage as you will have exactly the same or very similar Y-DNA STR profile as you, and that is how Y-DNA can conclusively confirm 

whether someone is related to you on your direct Paternal line. 



Once your Y-DNA test has been completed, you can use your Y-DNA markers to research your Paternal ancestry and discover 

matches to your family lineage. You can connect with potential matches, build your family tree, and record your family history so 

that you can preserve your family history and share your findings with family, friends and future generations. 

Get Started - Genetic genealogy search and analysis tools for your Y-DNA markers: 

1. DNA Haplogroups 

Find out which Y-DNA Haplogroup you belong to. Y-DNA Haplogroups are ancient Paternal family groups. Once you know which 

Y-DNA Haplogroup you belong to, you will know the general region of the world your Paternal ancestors came from, and the path 

they took to reach their ancestral homeland. 

2. Indigenous DNA 

Compare your Y-DNA markers to indigenous populations from around the world to find out which indigenous populations are most 

similar to your Y-DNA type. 

3. DNA Reunion 

All people who descended from the same Paternal ancestor as you will have exactly the same Y-DNA profile as you. Use your Y- 

DNA marker profile to search the DNA Reunion database to find potential family links on the Paternal side of your family. 

4. DNA Archaeology 

Compare your Y-DNA markers to famous people in history to see if you share a common ancestor. 

The next few sections of this manual will provide you with step-by-step instructions for each of the 4 search and analysis features 

above. 

Multiple family accounts? As long as the accounts for different people in your family are linked into your family tree, you will be able to see their 

results directly from your own account. If you need help linking different family member accounts into your family tree, please contact us at 

support@genebase.com for assistance. 


C. DNA Haplogroups (Y-DNA) 

What are Y-DNA Haplogroups? 


DNA studies have shown that all people living today can trace their ancestry back to common roots in Africa approximately 150,000 

years ago. Over time, man eventually journeyed out of Africa, and in many waves of migrations which spanned tens of thousands 

of years, eventually populated the rest of the world. During these ancient journeys, small mutations called “SNPs” occurred 

randomly in their Y-DNA. Each SNP acts as a “time-and-date stamp” which allows us to understand the approximate time and 

location in the journey our ancestors were when the SNP first occurred. Once a SNP occurs, it is passed down to all future 

generations and serves as a marker which allows us to approximate where our ancestors were in specific timepoints every few 

thousand years along the ancient migration out of Africa. Today, our Y-DNA and mtDNA contain a rich collection of SNP markers, 

passed down to us from our ancient ancestors over thousands of years. 

Using SNPs found in our Y-DNA, all people living today can be plotted onto a Paternal tree of mankind called the “Y-DNA 

Phylogenetic Tree”. The main branches of the tree are called “Y-DNA Haplogroups”. The finer sub-branches of the tree are called 

“Y-DNA Subclades”. 

By testing the STR markers in your Y-DNA, you can predict which Y-DNA Haplogroup you descended from. By further testing 

SNPs in your Y-DNA, you will be able to conclusively confirm your Y-DNA Haplogroup. 

Y-DNA Haplogroups are associated with different regions of the world. 

The following chart shows the Y-DNA Haplogroups found in each region. 

Region/Population Major Y-DNA Haplogroups found in regions/population 

specified 


Oceanic and Aboriginal Australians C, K, M, N, S, 






What you will find out 

The DNA Haplogroups section allows you to use your Y-DNA STR results to predict which ancient Paternal family group “Y-DNA 

Haplogroup” you belong to. Y-DNA Haplogroups are associated with specific migration paths leading to specific regions of the 

world, so once you know which Y-DNA Haplogroup you belong to, you will know the general geographic location of the world your 

Paternal ancestors came from, i.e. Asia, Europe, Americas (Native American), Africa, Middle East, Australia, etc. 

Requirements 




this manual for details of 

each Y-DNA Haplogroup. 

-‐ To view your predicted Y-DNA Haplogroup, you must have your Y-DNA STR results (at least 20 STR markers). 

-‐ To view your confirmed Y-DNA Haplogroup, you must have your Y-DNA Backbone SNP results (or a “strong” prediction 

based on your Y-DNA STR results). 

-‐ To view your confirmed Y-DNA Subclade, you must have your Y-DNA SNP Subclade results. 



To view your Y-DNA Haplogroup or Subclade, follow these steps: 

1. Login to your account at www.genebase.com. 

2. Click “DNA Haplogroups” tab at the top of the page. 

3. Click “Y-DNA Haplogroups” tab. 

4. Next, click “View” 

Important! If other members 

of your family have tested, 

their names will appear in the 

“Select a family member” 

dropdown list. If they do not 

appear in this list, it means 

that their account has not yet 

been connected to your family 

tree. Contact us at 

support@genebase.com for 

assistance linking your 

accounts together. 

Click “DNA Haplogroups”. 

Enter your username or email 

and password, then click “Login”. 

Click “Y-DNA Haplogroups” tab. 

If more than one person in your 

family has been tested, select 

whether you wish to view your own 

Y-DNA Haplogroup or the Y-DNA 

Haplogroup of another member of 

your family. 

If you have also taken the Y-DNA 

SNP Subclade test you will have the 

option of viewing Haplogroup or 

Subclade. 



5. If you had only tested your Y-DNA STR markers, your predicted Y-DNA Haplogroup will appear on the right side of the 

page. If you have also taken the Y-DNA SNP Backbone test, your confirmed Y-DNA Haplogroup will appear on the right 

side of the page. If you had take the Y-DNA SNP Subclade test, your confirmed Y-DNA Subclade will appear on the right 

side of the page if you are viewing your Subclade results. 

Generate Report: Click here to 

print a summary report of your Y- 

DNA Haplogroup results for your 

records and for sharing with 

family and friends. 

Description: Click here to view 

what is currently known today 

about the distribution of your Y- 

DNA Haplogroup. 

Timeline: A timeline is shown 

which illustrates the genetic path 

taken by your ancestors. The 

letters in the timeline represents 

the parent Haplogroups from 

which you descended from in the 

order that it occurred. The 

numbers under the letters show 

the genetic markers which are 

found in those Haplogroups. 

Migration map: The migration 

map shows the approximate 

migration path your ancestors 

took and the approximate region 

of the world that they settled. 

Origin: Furthest known male 

ancestor, also known as “Y- 

Chromosomal Adam”. All 

people living today descended 

from this man. 

Haplogroup: Main branches 

of Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree. 

Subclade: Further subbranches 

of Y-DNA 

Phylogenetic tree. 

Further Studies: Click here to 

see whether there are further 

tests available to refine your 

Haplogroup or Subclade. 

Predicted Y-DNA 

Haplogroup: After taking your 

Y-DNA STR test, your Y-DNA 

Haplogroup is predicted by 

comparing your Y-DNA STR 

markers to the Y-DNA STR 

marker results of individuals 

who have already taken both 

the STR test and the SNP 

Backbone test and have 

already confirmed their Y-DNA 

Haplogroup. The closest 

matching Haplogroup is shown 

here and a prediction strength 

is provided. The only way to 

conclusively determine your Y- 

DNA Haplogroup by taking the 

Y-DNA SNP Backbone test. 

Y-DNA Phylogenetic Tree: Click here to view your placement in the Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree of 

mankind. This tree shows how all known Y-DNA Haplogroups are interconnected with each other. It 

also shows you exactly where you fit into the Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree of mankind. 

Genetic Markers: The 

genetic markers found in each 

Haplogroup and Subclade are 

listed. 


D. Indigenous DNA (Y-DNA) 


The Indigenous DNA feature is a unique search engine that allows you to compare your Y-DNA STR marker profile to the Y-DNA 

profile of published indigenous populations from around the world to see which populations most closely match your Y-DNA 

type. Scientists are racing against time to collect and test the DNA of the remaining indigenous population groups living today. 

Their studies and data are published in peer reviewed scientific journals. This feature allows you to search through the published 

articles to find out which published population most closely matches your Y-DNA STR profile. 

-‐ To use the Y-DNA comparison feature, you must have at least 20 or more Y-DNA STR markers tested. 

5. Click on each journal to 

download the article or to read the 

abstract. 

4. The search engine ranks the 

articles in the order of most similar 

to least similar to your DNA type. 

1. Scientists around the world test 

indigenous populations. 

3. You personal DNA profile is 

used to search for articles which 

contain data that most closely 

match your DNA type. 

Note: This search feature uses only Y-DNA STR markers. Y-DNA SNP markers are not used for this search feature. 

2. The data for each indigenous 

population is published and 

archived in peer reviewed articles in 

scientific journals. 



To compare against indigenous populations, follow these steps: 


2. Click “Indigenous DNA” tab at the top of the page. 

3. Next, click “Compare Y-DNA” tab. 

4. Next, click “Search” 

Click “Indigenous DNA” 


and password, then click “Login” 

Click “Compare Y-DNA” tab 



whose Y-DNA you wish to use to 

search. 

Select the minimum number of 

markers to be used for 

comparison. A lower number 

will result in comparison to a 

larger pool of populations while 

a higher number results in a 

more stringent search. The 

default setting is “6”. 

Important! If other members of your family have tested, their names will appear in the “Select a family member” dropdown list. If they do 

not appear in this list, it means that their account has not yet been connected to your family tree. Contact us at support@genebase.com 

for assistance in linking your accounts together. 



5. Next, click “Run Analysis” next to the population set that you wish to search. 

Population sets: 

The system presents 

all possible 

population sets that 

you can search using 

your STR markers. 

6. The populations are ranked in the order of most similar to least similar to your Y-DNA type. 

Download Article in PDF: A 

PDF symbol means that the 

scientific journal that this 

population was published in has 

a publicly accessible full text 

copy that you can download for 

free. Click to download and print 

the journal. 

View Abstract: If no PDF 

symbol is shown, it means that 

the article that this population 

was published in is not open to 

the public. Click on the link to 

read the abstract for the journal. 

Most similar ranked at top of list 

Least similar ranked at bottom of 

list 

Click “Run Analysis” for 

the population set that 

you wish to search. 

Relative Match Index: RMI 

stands for “relative match index”. 

It is a measure of how similar a 

population is to you in ranking 

relative to other populations in 

the list. 



E. DNA Reunion (Y-DNA) 

The DNA Reunion section allows you to search the database using your Y-DNA profile to find long lost family members in your 

Paternal lineage and discover potential links to your family tree. 

Requirements 

-‐ To use DNA Reunion, you must have at least 20 or more Y-DNA STR markers. 

-‐ This search feature only uses Y-DNA STR markers. Y-DNA SNP markers are not used for this search. 

Y-DNA matches 

When you search the DNA Reunion database, you are looking for other individuals who may share a common Paternal ancestor 

as yourself based on similarities in your Y-DNA STR profile. If your Y-DNA STR profile is very different from another person, it 

proves that you do not share the same Paternal lineage. 

Son #1: John Smith 

DOB: 1830 

same Y-DNA STR 

profile as David Smith 

Brothers 

Y-DNA is passed down 

from father to son. Only 

males have Y-DNA so only 

sons can pass the Y-DNA 

down to the next 

generation. 

Common Paternal Ancestor 

Son #2: David Smith 

DOB: 1835 

same Y-DNA STR 

profile as John Smith 

Reconnecting family using Y-DNA: These individuals can be re-connected through Y-DNA STR testing because they share a common Paternal 

ancestor and will have exactly the same or very similar Y-DNA profile. 



To search for matches to your Paternal lineage, follow these steps: 


2. Click “DNA Reunion” tab at the top of the page. 

Click “DNA Reunion” 

3. Click “Y-DNA Match” tab. 

4. Next, click “Find Matches” 

Important! If other 

members of your family 

have tested, their names 

will appear in the “Select a 

family member” dropdown 

list. If they do not appear in 

this list, it means that their 

account has not yet been 

connected to your family 

tree. Contact us at 

support@genebase.com 

for assistance in linking 

your accounts together. 

Select the genetic distance. A 

genetic distance of “0” represents a 

perfect match. The lower the genetic 

distance, the more stringent the 

search. 



Click “Y-DNA Match” tab 



whether you wish to search 

using your own Y-DNA or the Y- 

DNA of another member of your 

family. 

Select the minimum number 

of markers to be used for 

comparison. A lower number 

will allow you to compare to a 

larger pool of people 

(increasing the chances of 

finding a match) while a 

higher number results in a 

more stringent search. The 

default setting is “6”. 


Map: Click here to view 

where your matches are 

currently located 

Name of 

matching 

individual: Click 

here to view the 

profile page of 

the matching 

individual. 


5. Below is an example of the Y-DNA search results screen. All people in the database who are a close match to your Y- 

DNA profile will be listed. 

Ethnicity: Click here 

to sort your matches 

by ethnicity 

List: Click here 

to sort your 

matches in a list 

view 

TMRCA: Click this button to 

calculate how many generations 

ago you and the matching 

individual shared a common 

Paternal ancestor. 

Genetic Distance: 

Genetic distance refers to 

the number of 

mismatches between your 

DNA and the DNA of the 

person you are comparing 

against. A genetic 

distance of “0” is a perfect 

match. 

Compare markers: Click this 

button to compare your markers 

against the matching individual. 

Matching Markers: 

Matching markers refers to 

the number of STR markers 

that are matching versus 

the total number of STR 

markers compared between 

two individuals. 

Contact matches: Click this 

button to contact the matching 

individual. A pop-up window 

will appear which allows you 

to write an internal message 

to the matching individual. 

The more STR markers compared, the more stringent the comparison. Please remember that the number of markers compared depends on the 

number of markers you have tested versus the number of markers the other individual has tested. For example, if you had tested 91 markers, but 

the person that you are comparing against only tested 20 markers so far, then the maximum number of markers that can be compared is 20 

markers, until the other individual tests more markers. 


How are matches ranked? 


Matches are ranked based on TMRCA (time to most recent common ancestor) 

Contacting matches 

You can contact your matches to see if you can identify the common link in your family tree. To follow are 4 tips for steps you 

should take to optimize your profile before contacting your matches: 

Tip #1. Complete your Profile Page: Ensure that your profile 

page provides sufficient information about yourself so that your match 

can view your profile and understand a little bit about you and your 

research objectives before deciding to respond. 

Tip #3. Adjust your Privacy Settings: Ensure that your 

privacy setting allows at least basic information about yourself to be 

displayed. If you are concerned about privacy, set your tree to “my 

family and friends”, then invite your matches to be friends so that they 

can view your family tree. 

Tip #2. Build your Family Tree: Add as much as you know 

about your ancestors as possible to your family tree. The main goal 

of contacting matches is to share and compare your family trees and 

identify where you may have shared the common ancestor. 

Tip #4. Prepare an Informative Message: When writing a 

message, try to be as specific and detailed as possible. Provide 

information regarding why you are contacting them, and also include a 

little bit of history about what you are trying to research and what you 

are hoping to establish from the contact. If you have little or no profile 

information and write a generic and non-informative message, it is 

likely that the recipient will not respond to you. 

- Introduce who you are 

- Explain what you are trying to find out 

- Describe what you know about your Maternal ancestry 

- Encourage your match to have a look at your profile page and your 

family tree and see if any common links can be identified. 


F. DNA Archaeology (Y-DNA) 


The DNA Archaeology section allows you to compare your Y-DNA profile to famous people in history. Scientists are uncovering the 

Y-DNA profile of famous people in history using one of several methods, as summarized in the chart below. As the DNA types of 

more famous individuals are uncovered, they will be added to this section, so check back occasionally. 

DNA is collected 

directly from famous 

individual. 

How is the DNA profile of the famous person obtained? 

Is famous person living? 

Yes No 

Yes 

Forensic collection of DNA from remains of 

deceased individual. Example: The remains of 

Luke the Evangelist, the patron saint of 

physicians and surgeons were tested to obtain 

his mtDNA type. 

Yes 

Is the relative living? 

DNA is collected from known living relative. 

Example: A blood sample was collected from 

Prince Philip to obtain Queen Victoria’s mtDNA 

type. 

Yes 

DNA is collected from remains of deceased 

relative. Example:: The body of Tsar Nicholas 

Romanov’s brother was exhumed to obtain the 

DNA type of the Romanovs. 

DNA is collected from biological material of 

deceased relative. Example: Hair samples 

from rosary beads from Marie Antoinette’s sisters 

were tested to obtain her mtDNA type. 

Are the remains of the famous 

individual available for testing? 

Yes No 

No 

Is there a known relative of 

the famous individual? 

Are the remains of the deceased 

relative available for testing? 

Is there biological material available 

from the deceased relative? 

Yes 

No 

No 

Is there biological material available from 

the famous individual? i.e. hair, blood, etc. 

DNA is collected from biological material 

from deceased individual. Example: Hair 

samples from Marie Antoinette stored in a 

document was tested to obtain her mtDNA type. 

Can DNA type be 

inferred? 

Infer from sudden 

changes in DNA 

type of a population. 

Example: Mongolian 

DNA is present in a 

small percentage of 

people in Europe. 

The Mongolian DNA 

type was introduced 

to Europe around the 

time that Genghis 

Khan invaded 

Europe. By 

inference, we can 

assume that the 

Mongolian DNA type 

that we detect today 

belonged to Genghis 

Khan and his troops). 

© 2012 DNA Ancestry Project | support@genebase.com 18 

No 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Cannot trace this 

individual.


To compare against famous people in history, follow these steps: 


2. Click “DNA Archaeology” tab at the top of the page. 

3. Next, click “Read” to read more about the person you wish to compare against. 

4. Next, click “Discover your relation” to compare against the person 



Click “DNA Archaeology” 

Click “Read” 

Click “Discover your relation 

to…” 


5. Next, click “Select”. 

Important! If other members of 

your family have tested, their 

names will appear in this list. If 

they do not appear in this list, it 

means that their account has 

not yet been connected to your 

family tree. Contact us at 

support@genebase.com for 

assistance in linking your 

accounts together. 




which family member’s Y-DNA 

you wish to compare. 

Click “Select” 

6. Your Y-DNA profile will be compared to the person and an analysis is provided regarding whether you are a match. 

Your Y-DNA Profile: Your Y- 

DNA Profile is shown here. 

Match Results: Analysis 

summary, indicating whether you 

are matching the individual 

compared. 

Direct Y-DNA Comparison: 

Direct comparison of your Y- 

DNA markers versus the Y-DNA 

markers of the famous person. 

Famous Person’s Y-DNA 

Profile: The Y-DNA Profile of 

the person you are comparing 

against is shown here. 


G. Frequently Asked Questions: 

Am I Native American? 


Y-DNA testing will allow you to find out if you are Native American on your direct Paternal line and mtDNA DNA testing will allow 

you to find out if you are Native American on your direct Maternal line. 

If you are Native American on your Paternal lineage, your Y-DNA test results will show that you belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup Q. 

If your Y-DNA Haplogroup is NOT Q, it means that you are NOT Native American on your direct Paternal lineage. 

If you are Native American on your Maternal lineage, your mtDNA test results will show that you belong to one of the known 

mtDNA Haplogroups that are found in Asians and Native Americans. Native Americans belong to mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, D 

and X. Cherokees belong mainly to groups B and C. If your mtDNA Haplogroup is NOT one of known Native American 

Haplogroups listed above, it means that you are NOT Native American on your direct Maternal lineage. 

Please remember that your Y-DNA traces your Paternal line (father's father's father's.... line) and your mtDNA traces your Maternal 

line (mother's mother's mother's.... line). If your native ancestry is on a different line, such as your mother's father's line, you will not 

be able to trace that line using your own DNA. To find out who needs to be tested to trace different lines, we recommend using the 

Family Tree tool. The Family Tree tool has a built in calculator which shows you who needs to be tested to trace different lines in 

your family. 

Am I Jewish? 

Both males and females can test their mtDNA to investigate their Maternal ancestry (mother's mother’s mother’s.... Maternal 

lineage). While there is no such thing as a "Jewish" gene which is found only in Jews, there are certain Haplogroups that are more 

strongly associated with individuals of Jewish descent. 

The mtDNA Haplogroups most commonly found in Ashkenazi Jews are K (31.9%), H (20.4%), N (10.1%), J (8.1%), HV (5.8%), U 

(5.8%) and T (4.8%).. 

Males can test their Y-DNA to trace their Paternal lineage, but females wishing to trace their Paternal lineage must test the Y-DNA 

of a male family member such as a brother, father, or another male relative on the Paternal lineage. Much like mtDNA, there is no 

Jewish Y-DNA type which is only found in Jews. However, there are Y-DNA Haplogroups which are commonly found in individuals 

of Jewish descent. 

The most common Y-DNA Haplogroups found in Jews are J (38%), E (20.4%), R1b (30.7%), G (9.7%), R1a (7.5%). 

Together, Y-DNA Haplogroups J and E make up almost 60% of all Jews. In particular, Y-DNA Haplogroup J1 is strongly associated 

with Cohanim Jews. The Cohanim modal haplotype, which is strongly associated with Cohanim ancestry is as follows: 

DYS393 = 12 

DYS390 = 23 

DYS19 = 14 

DYS391 = 10 

DYS388 = 16 

DYS392 = 11 

The "Cohanim Modal Haplotype” is found in 45% to 70% of Cohanim Jews. 

Am I African? Doesn’t everyone come from Africa? 

DNA studies have shown that everyone originated from Africa over 150,000 years ago, but not all families stayed in Africa. Even 

though everyone originated from Africa, many ancient family groups “Haplogroups” migrated out of Africa to populate different parts 

of the world. The DNA test will tell you which Haplogroup you belong to. Your Haplogroup is associated with a specific region of 

the world, and not necessarily Africa. The only people who stayed in Africa are Africans, and Africans belong to Haplogroups that 

are found mainly in Africa. 

Refer to the following mtDNA and Y-DNA Haplogroup table to view a summary of the major mtDNA Haplogroups found in different 

regions of the world. 


mtDNA Haplogroups: 


Region Major mtDNA Haplogroups found in region specified 

Native Americans A, B, C, D, X 

Oceanic and Aboriginal 

Australians 

P, Q, R, S 

East Asian A, B, C, D, E, F, G, M, Y, Z 

South Asian (i.e. India) G, M, R, W 

Europe and Middle East H, HV, HV0, I, J, JT, K, R0, T, U, V, W, X 

African L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, L6 

Y-DNA Haplogroups: 

Region/Population Major Y-DNA Haplogroups found in regions/populations 

specified 


Oceanic and Aboriginal 

C, K, M, N, S, 

Australians 






How can I find out about % ancestry? 

Due to the manner in which Y-DNA and mtDNA are inherited, they can only trace the direct Paternal line or the direct Maternal line 

and cannot provide percentage of mixed ancestry from other lines. 

The only marker that is inherited from multiple lines is Autosomal DNA. The % ethnicity test that some people refer to is done using 

the Autosomal DNA test. While we provide Autosomal DNA testing, we do not recommend using it for mixed ancestry as the 

purpose of Autosomal DNA is for relationship testing and it is not recognized for the purpose of ancestry testing in the scientific 

community. Some genealogists enter their Autosomal DNA results into a program called Omnipop to examine percentage of mixed 

ancestry, i.e. the % ethnicity that some people refer to. The following link may be helpful if you are interested in reading more about 

mixed ancestry with Autosomal DNA: 

http://www.genebase.com/tutorial/item.php?tuId=33 

The link above provides a link to download the Omnipop program for free. To use the Omnipop program, enter your Autosomal DNA 

results into the program and it will automatically calculate percentages. 

Can DNA ancestry testing tell me a date or specific city? 

No. That is impossible. No DNA test can do that. There are no DNA markers that are specific to an exact date or city. 

Can DNA tell me a specific country or race? 

DNA testing can predict or confirm which “Haplogroup” you belong to. Due to admixture, there are no DNA types which are 

exclusive to only one country. However, there are DNA types which are found in greater frequency in a certain country. Once you 

find out which Haplogroup you belong to, you can find out which countries have the highest concentration of people of your genetic 

type. 

Can DNA give me names? 




this manual for details of each 

Y-DNA Haplogroup. 

No. DNA can be used to search for the people who are close matches to you and let you know their surnames, but it cannot give 

you a name. 



Will it tell me the general region of the world my ancestors came from? 

Yes. When you test your mtDNA , you will find out which Haplogroup you belong to. Different Haplogroups are found specifically in 

different regions of the world. Refer to Appendix 1 of this manual for details. 

Which line will Y-DNA trace? 

Paternal line (father’s, father’s, father’s….. line). 

Which line will mtDNA trace? 

Maternal line (mother’s, mother’s, mother’s….. Maternal line). 

Which line will Y-DNA trace? 

Paternal line (father’s, father’s, father’s….. Paternal line). 

Will it tell me if I am Native American? 

Yes, Native Americans belong to Y-DNA Haplogroup Q on their Paternal line, and one of 5 possible mtDNA Haplogroups: A, B, C, 

D, and X on their Maternal line. If you are Native American on your direct Paternal or Maternal lineages, your Y-DNA and mtDNA 

test will show that you belong to one of the Native American Haplogroups. If your results show a Haplogroup that is not one of the 

possible Native American Haplogroups, it means that you are not Native American on your direct Paternal or Maternal lineage. 

Will it tell me if I have Jewish Ancestry? 

It will show you if you belong to a Haplogroup which is found in high frequencies in Jews. While there is no such thing as a "Jewish" 

gene, there are certain Haplogroups that are more strongly associated with individuals of Jewish descent. 

Both males and females can test their mtDNA to investigate their Maternal ancestry (mother's mother's mother's.... lineage). The 

mtDNA Haplogroups most commonly found in Ashkenazi Jews are K (31.9%), H (20.4%), N (10.1%), J (8.1%), HV (5.8%), U (5.8%) 

and T (4.8%). 

Males can test their Y-DNA to trace their Paternal lineage, but females wishing to trace their Paternal lineage must test the Y-DNA 

of a male family member such as a brother, father, or another male relative on the Paternal lineage. Much like mtDNA, there is no 

such thing as a Jewish Y-DNA type which is only found in Jews. However, there are Y-DNA Haplogroups which are commonly 

found in individuals of Jewish descent. The most common Y-DNA Haplogroups found in Jews are J (38%), E (20.4%), R1b (30.7%), 

G (9.7%), R1a (7.5%), Q (5.2%). 

Together, Y-DNA Haplogroups J and E make up almost 60% of all Jews. In particular, Haplogroup J1 is strongly associated with 

Cohanim Jews. The Cohanim modal haplotype, which is strongly associated with Cohanim ancestry is as follows: 

DYS393 = 12 

DYS390 = 23 

DYS19 = 14 

DYS391 = 10 

DYS388 = 16 

DYS392 = 11 

While Haplogroups can often be used to exclude or not exclude Jewish ancestry, Y-DNA STRs can also be helpful. The "Cohanim 

Modal Haplotype" shown above is found in 45 to 70% of Cohanim Jews. 


Surprises or lack of surprises with results? 

Examples of some common types of questions: 


I am European but my test results show that I am Native American/Asian, why? 

I know I am European and the test shows that I am European, I didn’t learn anything I didn’t already know. 

I am African American but my results show that I am South Asian, why? 

Family legend indicates that I am Native American but my results indicate European, why? 

DNA testing will give you the truth about your ancestry. For some, it will confirm what you already know or suspect. For others, it 

will bring completely surprising and shocking results that contradict what was previously known, and yet for others, it will confirm or 

reject family legends. The laboratory has absolutely no control over what your results will be, but it can guarantee that the test will 

show you what you really are, regardless of whether the results are a surprise, shock, disappointment, or confirmation. 


H. Glossary 


Allele: The alternative forms of a genetic marker at a single locus. In the Y-DNA, each allele is the numeric result for each STR 

marker tested. Each STR marker is a single locus. 

Anthropology: The study of humanity, including the origins, physical and cultural development, biological characteristics, and 

social customs and beliefs of humankind. 

Atlantic Modal Haplotype: A Y-DNA STR haplotype found frequently in male individuals from western Europe: DYS19 = 14, 

DYS388 = 12, DYS390 = 24, DYS391 = 11, DYS392 = 13, DYS393 = 13. 

Autosomal DNA: A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome, normally appearing in pairs in somatic cells. Humans have 23 

pairs of chromosomes: 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (X and Y sex chromosomes). The X 

chromosome and Y chromosome are not autosomes. 

Backbone SNP Test: A SNP test which specifically examines the SNP markers required to confirm an individual's Y-DNA or 

mtDNA Haplogroup. 

Base: An important component of DNA consisting of a purine linked by hydrogen bonds to a pyrimidine. The bases found in DNA 

are A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine). 

Base Pair (bp): The pair of bases, consisting of a purine linked by hydrogen bonds to a pyrimidine that connects the 

complementary strands of DNA or of hybrid molecules joining DNA and RNA. The base pairs in DNA are A (adenine) which pairs 

with T (thymine) , and G (guanine) which pairs with C (cytosine). 

Branch: In reference to the SNP Y-DNA and mtDNA Phylogenetic tree, a branch is the point of divergence in the tree. For 

example, R1 and R2 are branches of R. R1a and R1b are further "sub-branches" of R1. 

Carrier: An individual who carries a DNA marker of interest. 

Chromosome: The threadlike linear strand of DNA and its associated proteins. Carries the genes and functions in the transmission 

of hereditary information. Humans have 22 pairs of chromosomes plus the sex chromosome (X and Y). Found in the nucleus of the 

cell. 

Clade: Also known as a Haplogroup. In relation to genetic genealogy, refers to the grouping of humans traced to common 

ancestors detected through shared SNP markers in the mtDNA and Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree. 

Coding Region: The region of mtDNA which is functional and codes for protein. SNP markers are not as abundant in the Coding 

region compared to the Control region but markers found here are often critical for mtDNA Haplogroup and Subclade determination. 

CODIS (Combined DNA Index System): CODIS is a distributed database system for documenting and comparing genetic profiles. 

CODIS specifies the following 13 autosomal DNA loci as a standard: (D3S1358, vWA, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D18S51, D5S818, 

D13S317, D7S820, D16S539, THO1, TPOX, CSF1PO). We test all CODIS loci and also 2 additional loci (D2S1338 and D19S433), 

resulting in a more informative result than using the CODIS loci alone. 

Cohen Modal Haplotype: A Y-DNA STR haplotype found frequently in male individuals of Jewish Cohanim descent: DYS393 = 12, 

DYS390 = 23, DYS19 = 14, DYS391 = 10, DYS385a = 13, DYS385b = 15, DYS426 = 11,, DYS388 = 16, DYS439 = 12, DYS389I = 

13, DYS389II = 30, DYS392 = 11. 

Confirmed Haplogroup: A mtDNA or Y-DNA Haplogroup designation for an individual which has been confirmed through SNP 

backbone testing. 

Control Region: A region of the mtDNA which does not code for functional proteins. Contains the HVR1 and HVR2 regions which 

are abundant in SNP markers which are useful for Maternal ancestral analysis. 

CPI (Combined Paternity Index): The CPI is calculated by multiplying the PI values for each independent locus and is the total 

paternity index for the loci examined. A CPI of 0 corresponds to a 0% probability of paternity (paternity exclusion) whereas a CPI of 

>1000 corresponds to a probability of paternity of >99.9% (paternity inclusion). 

CRS (Cambridge Reference Sequence): The first human mtDNA ever fully sequenced and published. All mtDNA sequences are 

compared against the CRS and any differences from CRS are noted as positive (mutations). 

Cytoplasm: The part of the cell enclosed within the cell membrane and contains organelles such as mitochondria and the nucleus 

of the cell. 



D-Loop: A non-functional region of the mtDNA which contains the HVR1 and HVR2 region; This region contains an abundance of 

SNP markers which are important for Maternal ancestral analysis. 

Deep Ancestry: A study of the ancestry over a time frame of tens of thousands of years to our common roots in Africa. Tested 

using SNP markers for mtDNA and Y-DNA Haplogroup and Subclade determination. 

Deletion: When referring to SNPs, a deletion refers to the remove of one or more than one nucleotides (A, C, T, or G) from a 

defined location in the DNA. 

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The molecule that carries the genetic information of all living organisms. In human, DNA is found in 

two locations: as chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell and in mtDNA in the mitochondrial of the cell. 

DNA Fingerprint: The data obtained from a DNA test, represented by numbers. The genetic profile of an individual does not vary 

with the age or tissue type of that individual. The genetic profile can therefore be used in forensic investigations to determine if two 

samples are derived from the same person. Note that identical twins will share identical genetic profiles. 

DYS, DYF, DYZ: The prefix found in the naming method for many Y-DNA STR markers, usually followed by numbers. D stands for 

DNA and Y stands for Y-Chromosome. 

Gene: A segment of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an 

organism by directing the formation of a protein. Genes undergo mutation when their DNA sequence change. 

Genetic Distance: When referring to Y-DNA STR markers, genetic distance refers to the total net difference between the markers 

compared. 

Genetic Event: A detectable change (mutation) in the DNA which is passed down to further generations. SNP mutations are 

considered genetic events and mark the branches of the Phylogenetic tree. 

Genetic Genealogy: The use of DNA testing to help individuals to trace their ancestry. 

Grandparentage Index: A statistical likelihood ratio representing a comparison of the probability that the individuals are related 

versus the probability that the individuals are unrelated. A kinship index is calculated for each locus and is used to calculate the 

Combined Grandparentage Index. 

Haplogroup: Also known as a Clade. In relation to genetic genealogy, refers to the grouping of humans traced to common 

ancestors detected through shared SNP markers in the mtDNA and Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree. Named by alphanumeric labels, 

such as R1a, I1b, etc. 

Haplotype: The combination of alleles at multiple loci that are on the same chromosome. In Y-DNA, refers to the combined results 

of all of the Y-DNA STR markers that are tested. 

Heteroplasmy: The presence of a mixture of more than one type of mtDNA and an individual's cytoplasm. 

Human Genome Project: A global research project aimed to determine the DNA sequence of the entire human genome. Official 

HGP information page. 

HVR1 Region: Locations 16,000 to 16,579 of the mtDNA Hypervariable Region (D-Loop); Contains abundant SNP markers which 

are informative for Maternal ancestral testing. 

HVR2 Region: Locations 1 to 400 of the mtDNA Hypervariable Region (D-Loop). Contains abundant SNP markers which are 

informative for Maternal ancestral testing. 

Hypervariable Region (HVR-1, HVR-2): Specific regions of the mtDNA that do not code for protein. In humans, the HVR region 

typically contains a large number of mutations which can be used to derive ancestry. The entire mtDNA is 16,569 base pairs in 

length. The HVR1 region is found within base pairs 16001 to 16569, and the HVR2 region is found between base pairs 1 to 574. 

Testing the HVR1 and HVR2 regions of the mtDNA is usually the starting point for ancestral studies. 

Indigenous DNA: The DNA type of individuals from populations or ethnic groups who have historically inhabited a geographical 

region. 

Indigenous DNA Database: A database consisting of DNA types from indigenous populations. Data in such database is not the 

same as the data from participants as participants in the project are not considered indigenous peoples. Only data from peer 

reviewed journals are included in the indigenous DNA database. 



Insertion: When referring to SNPs, an insertion refers to the addition of one or more than one nucleotide (A, C, T, or G) in a defined 

region of the DNA. 

Kinship Index: A statistical likelihood ratio representing a comparison of the probability that individuals are related versus the 

probability that the individuals are unrelated. A kinship index is calculated for each locus and is used to calculate the Combined 

Kinship Index. 

Locus (plural Loci): A fixed position on a chromosome. In Y-DNA, each STR marker is tested is a locus and the numeric result 

obtained for each STR marker is an allele, and the combined results of all of the alleles tested on the Y-DNA is called the haplotype 

(not to be confused with Haplogroup). 

Marker: A detectable genetic mutation type that can be measured through DNA testing. STR and SNP markers are commonly 

tested on the Y-DNA and SNP markers are detected on the mtDNA. 

Match Probability: The probability of a random match of a genetic profile within a population. For example, a match probability of 

1:10 (i.e., 0.1) indicates that there is a 0.1 (i.e., 10%) chance of a random match in the population, whereas a match probability of 

1:100 (i.e., 0.01) indicates that there is only a 0.01 (i.e., 1%) chance of a random match in the population. A 1:100 match probability 

is therefore a better indication that two samples are derived from the same individual than a match probability of 1:10. 

Matching Markers: When comparing Y-DNA STR markers between two or more individuals, matching markers refers to the 

number of STR markers that have identical allele values versus the total number of overlapping markers compared. 

Maternal Lineage: The direct Maternal line i.e. mother's, mother's, mother's.... line. This line can be traced by testing an 

individual's mtDNA since mtDNA is passed down from mother to child. 

Meiosis: A type of cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg) which have a haploid chromosome number (23 single 

unpaired chromosomes instead of 23 pairs of chromosomes). 

Microsatellite Repeats: Also known as STR (Short tandem repeats). Short stretches of DNA usually 2 to 4 base pairs in length 

that repeat over and over again and the number of repeats can differ between different individuals or families. 

Minimal Haplotype: In reference to the DNA Clans indigenous DNA database, minimum haplotype refers to the STR profiles that 

have been tested in common for a group of populations. 

Mitochondria: An energy producing organelle which is found in the cytoplasm of our cells. Contains mtDNA. 

Mitosis: Cell division in which the resulting cells maintain the same number of chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes). 

Modal Haplotype: A haplotype which has been identified to occur at high frequencies in a particular population and is thus strongly 

associated with people from that population group. Examples include the Atlantic Modal Haplotype and Cohen Modal Haplotype. 

Motif: A defined DNA sequence. In genetic genealogy, a motif refers to the sequence in the Y-DNA that is counted as a repeat 

when assigning allele numbers. The motif is especially important for individuals wishing to compare Y-DNA STR markers between 

different laboratories. If the motif and counting method used by a laboratory is openly published, comparison is permitted between 

different labs. 

MRCA (Most Recent Common Ancestor): The most recent ancestor from which the individuals compared descended. 

mtDNA: The type of DNA found in mitochondria in the cytoplasm of cells. Passed down from mother to child along the Maternal 

line. Contains markers for tracing Maternal ancestry. 

mtDNA Tests: Genetic tests which examine the DNA sequence in mtDNA either through sequencing or SNP analysis. 

Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence. Examples of mutation types important in genetic genealogy include changes at a single 

base pair called "SNP" mutation or changes in the number of short repeats called "STR" mutation. 

Negative SNP Marker: When referring to mtDNA, refers to single locations in the mtDNA which are the same as CRS. If someone 

is negative for 16223, that means that at location 16223 of the mtDNA, their marker is the same as CRS. When referring to Y-DNA, 

refers to SNP markers which the same as the ancestral type. 

NIST (National Institute of Standards and Testing): Federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce with the mission to 

promote U.S. innovation and industrial competitiveness by advancing measurement science, standards, and technology. NIST 

maintains STRBase and standards for Y-DNA STR markers. 

Nomenclature: Rules used for forming names for genetic markers. 



Nucleotide: The basic structural unit of DNA and RNA consisting of a deoxyribose or ribose sugar, joined with a purine (A or G) or 

pyrimidine (T or C) base and a phosphate group. When linked together, the chain of nucleotides form the DNA strand. 

Nucleus: A membrane enclosed structure found in the central region of the cell which contains most of the cell's DNA 

(chromosomes). 

Organelle: Membrane bound compartments within the cell that have specific functions such as the mitochondria. 

Overlapping Markers: Markers which you have tested which someone else have also tested. When comparing two or more 

individuals, overlapping markers are compared. 

Paternal Lineage: The direct Paternal line i.e. father's, father's, father's.... line. This line can be traced by testing an individual's Y- 

DNA since Y-DNA is passed down from father to son. 

Paternity Index (PI): A likelihood ratio representing a comparison of the probability that the alleged father is the biological father 

versus the probability that a random man in the population is the biological father. A PI is calculated for each locus and is used to 

calculate the combined paternity index and probability of paternity. 

Phylogenetic Tree: A tree which shows evolutionary relationships between organisms that have a common ancestor. In human 

ancestry, the Y-DNA Phylogenetic tree is constructed based on SNP markers in the Y-DNA and the mtDNA Phylogenetic tree is 

constructed based on SNP markers in the mtDNA and shows how all humans descended from common Paternal and Maternal 

ancestors respectively. 

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Technique for amplifying specific regions of DNA by multiple cycles of DNA polymerization. 

PCR is the method used by the DNA laboratory to amplify specific loci for analysis, and is capable of producing a genetic profile 

from very small amounts of sample. 

Polymorphism: The genetic variation between individuals or populations. 

Population Genetics: The study of differences in genetic material between different populations. 

Positive SNP marker: When referring to mtDNA, refers to single locations in the mtDNA which differs from CRS. If someone is 

positive for 16223, that means that at location 16223 of the mtDNA, their marker differs from CRS. When referring to Y-DNA, refers 

to SNP markers which are not the ancestral type. 

Power of Exclusion (PE): The ability of an assay to discriminate between a real match and a non-match. 

Predicted Haplogroup: In reference to Y-DNA, a Y-DNA Haplogroup that is predicted through Y-DNA STR testing but not yet 

confirmed through Y-DNA SNP backbone testing. In reference to mtDNA, a mtDNA Haplogroup that is predicted through HVR1 

and/or HVR2 testing but has not yet been confirmed by testing the Coding Region through mtDNA SNP backbone testing. 

Prior Probability: This is a value ranging from 0 (impossible) to 1 (absolute certainty). A prior probability value of 0.5 is commonly 

used. 

Probability of Paternity: A statistical percentage based upon the combined paternity index and prior probability, describing the 

probability that the alleged father is the biological father of the child. A 0% probability of paternity indicates a paternity exclusion and 

a probability of paternity of 99.9% or greater is indicative of a paternity inclusion. 

RMI (Relative Match Index): A measure of how closely your Y-DNA STR haplotype matches those of defined population groups as 

compared to all other population groups in the comparison. For example, a RMI of 100 means that you are 100 times more likely to 

belong to that population set as compared to the rest of the populations. 

Sequencing: A laboratory process to read an entire length of DNA, usually up to 500 base pairs at a time. mtDNA HVR1, HVR2 

and Coding Region Full Sequencing are tested using Sequencing technology. 

Sibling Index: A statistical likelihood ratio representing a comparison of the probability that the individuals are related as siblings 

(full or half) versus the probability that the individuals are unrelated. A sibling index is calculated for each locus and is used to 

calculate the Combined Sibling Index. 

SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism): A change (mutation) in the DNA sequence involving a single nucleotide (A, C, T, or G). 

SNP Test Panel: A specially selected panel of SNP markers designed for a specific purpose. Examples of SNP test panels include 

the mtDNA and Y-DNA Backbone SNP Panels to confirm an individual's Haplogroup and the Subclade SNP Test Panels, designed 

to provide further resolution by determining the Subclade once the Haplogroup has been confirmed. 



Somatic: The cells of the body with the exception of the reproductive cells (gametes). Examples of somatic cells are blood cells and 

buccal cells. 

STR (Short Tandem Repeat): Short stretches of DNA usually 2 to 6 base pairs in length that repeat over and over again and 

the number of repeats can differ between different individuals or families; Also known as Microsatellite Repeats. 

Sub-branch: Refers to the further branching of a main branch in the Y-DNA or mtDNA Phylogenetic tree into. For example, E1 and 

E2 are sub-branches of Y-DNA Haplogroup E. E1a and E1b are sub-branches of E1. Also see Subclade. 

Subclade: Refers to the sub-classification of Clades (Haplogroups) in the Y-DNA or mtDNA Phylogenetic tree into further subbranches; 

For example, E1 and E2 are Subclades of Y-DNA Haplogroup E; E1a and E1b are Subclades of E1. 

Subclade SNP Test Panel: A specially selected panel of SNP markers which allows and individuals who have confirmed their 

Haplogroup to gain further resolution by further deriving their Subclade. Each Haplogroup has its own designated Subclade test 

panel. 

Substitution: When referring to SNPs, a substitution is a single change in which the nucleotide (A, C, T, or G) is replaced with a 

different nucleotide. 

TMRCA (Time to Most Recent Common Ancestor): A measure of how long ago two or more individuals compared shared a 

common ancestor. 

X Chromosome: One of the two sex determining chromosomes, it's counterpart is the Y Chromosome. Females have two X 

Chromosomes (XX) and males have one X Chromosome and one Y Chromosome (XY). 

Y Chromosome: One of the two sex determining chromosomes, it's counterpart is the X Chromosome. Females have two X 

Chromosomes (XX) and males have one X Chromosome and one Y Chromosome (XY). The Y Chromosome is passed down from 

father to son along the Paternal lineage. Also known as Y-DNA. 

Y-DNA Test: Genetic tests which examine STR markers or SNP markers in the Y Chromosome. 



Appendix 1 - Summary of Y-DNA Haplogroups 

Haplogroup Time and Place 

Emerged 

A 

The man who founded Y- 

Defining SNP DNA Haplogroup A lived 

mutation: approx 75,000 to 100,000 

M91 

years ago in Africa. 

Haplogroup A is one of 

the deepest and most 

ancient branches of the 

Y-chromosomal family 

tree. 

B 

Defining SNP 

mutations: 

M60, M181 

C 

Defining SNP 

mutations: 

M130, M216, 

P184, P255, 

P260 

D 

Defining 

mutation: 

M174 


DNA Haplogroup B was 

born approx 60,000 to 

75,000 years ago in East 

Africa. 


DNA Haplogroup C was 


75,000 years ago in the 

Middle East. 


DNA Haplogroup D was 


75,000 years ago in Asia. 

Region descendents found Ancestors 

Region(s) found: Y-DNA Haplogroup A is mainly found in the 

Southern Nile region and Southern Africa. The highest frequency of 

Y-DNA Haplogroup A is found in A2 (M6) – Khoisan peoples. the 

Khoisan of Southern Africa. It is also found at lower frequencies in 

other areas of Africa including Morocco, Egypt and Cameroon. 

Subclades: 

A1 (P108) - Moroccan Berbers 

A2 (M6) – Khoisan peoples. 

A3 (M32) – Rarely found today. Eastern and Southern Africa. 

A3b1 (M51) - Most frequently found in Khoisan peoples, also found in 

lower frequencies amongst Bantu peoples of Southern Africa. 

A3b2 (M13) – East Africa and Northern Cameroon. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup B can 

be found in sub-Saharan Africa, including Southern Sudan (Hausa), 

Central Sudan (Nuba) and Madagascar. 

Subclades: 

B1 (M236/M288) – Bamileke from southern Cameroon 

B1a (M146) – Mossi from Burkina Faso, Mali 

B2 (M182) – Mbuti from Democratic Republic of the Congo, Bakola 

from Southern Cameroon, Dama from Namibia, Biaka from Central 

African Republic, India. 

B2a (M150) – Mbuti from Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tupuri 

from Northern Cameroon, Luo from Kenya, Dogon from Mali, Baka 

from Central African Republic and Kikuyu and Kamba from Kenya. 

B2b (M112, M192) – Pygmy from Central Africa, Juu in Southern 

Africa, Hadzabe in East Africa. 

Region(s) found: Haplogroup C descendents followed a coastal 

migration out of Africa along the Southern Asian coastline into and 

eventually settled in areas along the coastal pathway in Southeast 

Asia, Australia, up the Asian Coast and in the Americas. Today, 

descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup C can be found in India, 

Southeast Asia, Polynesians, Australian aborigines, Mongolians, 

Kazakhs, Koreans, Manchurians, and Na-Dene peoples of the 

northwest Pacific coast of America. 

Native American ancestry: Na-Dene peoples of the northwest 

Pacific coast of America. 

Subclades: 

C1 – Japanese and Ryukyuan populations of Japan 

C2 – Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia 

C3 – Mongolia, Russian Far East and Na-Dene (Native Americans) 

C4 – Indigenous Australians 

C5 – South and Central Asia 

C6 – New Guinea 

Famous ancestors: Genghis Khan 

Region(s) found: Like Haplogroup C, descendents of Haplogroup D 

also followed a coastal migration out of Africa along the Southern 

Asian coastline into then upwards along the coast to populate East 

Asia. Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup D can be found in 

Tibet, the Japanese Archipelago and the Andaman Islands. It is also 

found in low frequencies in Central Asia and Northern East Asia. It is 

not found in India or the Americas. 

Subclades: 

D1 – Tibeto-Burman populations of Southwestern China 

D2 – Ainu, Japanese and Ryukyuans 

D3 – Tibet, Tajikistan, Central Asia 


The man who 

founded Y- 

DNA 

Haplogroup A 

is a direct 

descendent 

of Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam 

(MRCA, most 

recent 

common 

ancestor). 

Descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from DE 

which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

E The man who founded Y- Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup E are Descended


Emerged 

Defining SNP DNA Haplogroup E was 

mutations: born approx 50,000 to 

M40, M96 55,000 years ago in East 

Africa or Asia. 

F 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M89 

G 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M201 

H 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M69 

I 

Defining SNP 

mutations: 

M170, M258, 

P19, P38, 


DNA Haplogroup F was 

born approx 48,000 years 

ago in South Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup G was 


20,000 years ago in 

Middle East or Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup H was 



South Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup I was 



Eurasia. 



found predominantly in Africa and are associated with an identified 

Subclade of E as listed below. 

Subclades: 

E1a (M33) – West Africa, highest frequencies found in Malians. 

E1b1a – Primary Subclade of E in West Africans. This is the most 

widespread Y-Haplogroup in Africa. 

E1b1b – Most common E Subclade amongst East Africans (Maasai, 

Somalis, Ethiopians, Eritreans) and North Africans (Sudanese, 

Egyptians, Berbers and Arabs). Also found Near East. 

E2 (M75) – Highest frequencies in South African and Kenyan Bantus. 

E2a (M41) – Populations of the Great Lakes and Upper Nile regions of 

Central-East Africa. Highest frequency in Alur from DRC. 

E2b (M54) – Highest frequency in Xhosa from South Africa. 

E2b1a (M200) – Mbuti from the Democratic Republic of the Congo 

Region(s) found: Y-DNA Haplogroup F is an ancient Haplogroup. 

His descendents include most of the Haplogroups found in the world 

today (G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T). 

Most descendents of Haplogroup F belong to a Haplogroup that is 

downstream of F. The paragroup F* is extremely rare and can be 

found today in very low frequencies in India, Southwestern China, 

Malay Archipelago, Korea and the Middle East. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup G have 

a wide geographical distribution. Subclade determination will provide 

more defined geographical distribution information. 

Subclades of G: 

G1 (M385 or M342) – Iran and its neighboring countries to the west, 

Ashkenazi Jews and Kazakhs 

G2 (P287) – no distribution data 

G2a (P15) – no distribution data. Found in medieval remains in 75h 

century high status tomb in Ergolding, Bavaria, Germany. 

G2a1 (P16) – Caucasus mountains )North Ossetians in the mid 

northern Caucasus area of Russia). 

G2a2 (M286) – Rare. Some association with British Isles and Turkish. 

G2a3 (L30, S126, U8) – Rare. Some association with Germany. 

G2a3a (M406) – Turkey and coastal areas of the eastern 

Mediterranean. 

G2a3b1 (P303, S135) – Europe west of the Black Sea and Russia. 

India. 

G2a3b2 (L177) – Irish, English 

G2c (M377) – Ashkenazi Jews 

Famous ancestors: Joseph Stalin, King Louis XVI of France 

Jewish ancestry: G1, G2 and G2c are found in Ashkenazi Jews. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of mtDNA Haplogroup H can 

be found in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Pakistan). It is 

also found in the Romani people. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup I can 

be found scattered throughout Europe, with highest frequencies in 

Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

Subclades of I: 

I* (M170) – Middle East and Caucasus 


from DE 

which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from IJ which 

descended 

from F which 

descended



Emerged 


P212, U179 I1 (M253) – Scandinavia and Northwest Europe. Highest frequency in from CF 

Norway, Southwestern Sweden and Denmark. Also found in high which 

frequencies in Finland. 

descended 

I2 (M438) – Armenia, Georgia and Turkey 

from BT 

I2a (P37.2) – no distribution data 

which 

I2a1 (L158, L159, M26) –Highest frequency in Sardinia. 

descended 

I2a2 (L178, M423) – Southeastern Europe. Highest frequency in from Y- 

Western Balkans (Dalmatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Also found Chromosoma 

in north-eastern Italians. 

I2a2a (L69.2) – Balkan (Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia). Also 

in Moldavia and Romania. 

I2a2b (L161) – Rare. Some association with British Isles. 

I2b (M436) – Scandinavia and Northwest Europe 

I2b1 (M223) – Northwest Europe. Highest frequencies in Lower 

Saxony in Central Germany. 

I2b1a(M284) – Found in low frequencies in British Isles. 

I2b2 (L38) – Upper Rhine and British Isles. 

l Adam. 

J 

The man who founded Y- Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup J can Descended 

Defining SNP DNA Haplogroup J was be found in highest concentration in the Southwestern Arabian from IJ which 

mutations: born approx 30,000 years Peninsula. 

descended 

12f21, M304, ago in the Near 

Subclades: 

from F which 

P209, S6, East/Arabian Peninsula. J1 (M267) – Most frequent in Arabian Peninsula. 

descended 

S34, S35 

J2 – Most frequent in Fertile Crescent and throughout the 

from CF 

Mediterranean, Balkan Peninsula, and the Iberian Peninsula. 

which 

Jewish ancestry: J1 is found in 20% of Ashkenazi Jews and is descended 

associated with the Kohanim line. J2 is found in 24% of Ashkenazi from BT 

Jews and 29% of Sephardic Jews. J2 includes the Cohen Modal which 

Haplotype. 

descended 

Famous ancestors: Matt Lauer 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

K 

The man who founded Y- Region(s) found: Today, Haplogroup K is found in Oceania and Descended 

Defining NP DNA Haplogroup K was Australian Aboriginals and also at very low frequencies in South Asia from F which 

mutations: born approx 40,000 years and the Malay Archipelago. Haplogroup K is the founder of 

descended 

M9, P128, ago in Asia. 

Haplogroups L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, and T. 

from CF 

P131, P132 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

L 

The man who founded Y- Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup L can Descended 

Defining SNP DNA Haplogroup L was be found in highest frequencies in South Asia (India, Pakistan, from K which 

mutations: born approx 25,000 to Levant). 

descended 

M11, M20, 30,000 years ago in Asia. Subclades: 

from F which 

M22, M61, 

L1 (M76) – India and Sri Lanka and Baloch. Also found in Pakistan, descended 

M185, M295 

southern Iran and Arabia. 

from CF 

L2 (M317) – Low frequency in Central Asia, Southwest Asia and which 

Southern Europe. 

descended 

L3 (M357) – Burusho and Pashtuns. Also found in Pakistan, Georgia, from BT 

Northern Iran, India, the UAE and Saudi Arabia. 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

M 

The man who founded Y- Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup M can Descended 

Defining SNP DNA Haplogroup M was be found in highest frequencies in Western New Guinea. 

from K which 

mutation: born approx 10,000 to Subclades: 

descended 

P256 30,000 years ago in Asia. M1 (M4) – Highest frequencies in New Guinea and Melanesia. Lower from F which 

frequencies also found in Indonesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. descended 



Emerged 

N 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M231 

O 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M175 

P 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M45 


DNA Haplogroup N was 


20,000 years ago in East 

Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup O was 




DNA Haplogroup P was 





M1a (P34) – Western New Guinea. Also found in lower frequencies in 

Papua New Guinea. 

M1b (P87) – Papua New Guinea 

M1b1 (M104) – Bismarck Archipelago and Bougainville Island. Also 

found in lower frequencies in New Guinea, Fiji, Tonga, East Futuna 

and Samoa. 

M2 (M353) – Fiji and East Futuna 

M2a (M177) - Papua New Guinea 

M3 (P117) – Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Futuna. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup N can 

be found in highest frequencies in Western New Guinea. 

Subclades: 

N1 (M231) – Highest frequency in Yizu of Butuo County, Sichuan 

Province in Southwestern China. 

N1a (M128) – Found in low frequency in Manchu, Sibe, Manchurian, 

Evenks, Koreans, Northern Han Chinese, Buyei and some Turkic 

peoples of Central Asia. 

N1b (P43) – Northern Samoyedic peoples. Also found in lower 

frequencies in Uralic, Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic and Siberian Yupiks 

peoples. 

N1c (M46, P105) – Siberia, highest frequency in Yakuts. 

N1c1 (M178, P298) – Northern Europe (Finns, Latvians, and 

Lithuanians). 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup O can 

be found in highest frequencies in East and Southeast Asia. 

Subclades: 

O* (M231) – Highest frequency in Yizu of Butuo County, Schuan 

Province in Southwestern China. 

O1 (MSY2.2) – Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Vietnam, Indonesia, 

Philippines, Southern China, Taiwan). 

O1a (M119) – Austronesians, southern Chinese and Kradai peoples 

O2 (M268) – Austroasiatic peoples of India, Bangladesh and 

Southeast Asia, Koreans, Japanese and southern Tungusic peoples in 

China. 

O2a (M95) – Highest frequency in Austro-Asiatic, Kradai, Malays, 

Indonesians, and Malagasy. Lower frequencies in other parts of Asia. 

O2a1 (M88) – Highest frequency in Hani, She, Tai, Cambodians, and 

Vietnamese. Lower frequencies in Qiang, Yi, Hlai, Miao, Yao, 

Taiwanese aborigines and Han Chinese. 

O2a1a (PK4) – Low frequency in Pashtuns, Tharus and tribals of 

Andhra Pradesh 

O2b (M176) – Highest frequency in Koreans. 

O2b1 (47z) – Japanese and Ryukyuans, lower frequencies in 

Indonesians, Koreans, Manchus, Thais, and Vietnamese. 

O3 (M46, P105) – Siberia, highest frequency in Yakuts. 

O3a3c (M134) – Sino-Tibetan peoples. Also lower frequencies in East 

and Southeast Asia. 

O3a3b (M7) – Highest frequencies in Daxi and Hmong-Mien peoples. 

Moderate frequencies in Han Chinese. 

O3a3c (M134) – Sino-Tibetan. 

Region(s) found: Today, the paragroup P* is found in south Asia. 

Haplogroup P is the founder of Haplogroups Q and R. 


from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from NO 

which 

descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from NO 

which 

descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT


Emerged 

Q 

Defining SNP 

mutation; 

M242 

R 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M207 

R1 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M173 

R1a 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

L62 

R1b 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M343 


DNA Haplogroup Q was 



Central Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup R was 


40,000 years ago in Asia 

or the Middle East. 


DNA Haplogroup R1 was 

born approx 25,000 years 

ago in Asia or the Near 

East. 


DNA Haplogroup R1a 

was born approx 15,000 

to 20,000 years ago in 

South Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup R1b 

was born approx 15,000 

to 20,000 years ago in 



Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup Q are 

widely distributed. Its highest frequency is in Native Americans but it 

is also found in low frequencies in many regions of the world. 

Subclade analysis will provide further geographical refinement. 

Native American ancestry: Y-DNA Haplogroup Q is the 

predominant Haplogroup in Native Americans. It is found in 94% of 

Indigenous peoples of South America, 25 to 50% of Na-Dene 

speakers, and 46% of North American Eskimo Aleuts. 

Subclades: 

Q1a (MEH2) – 

Q1a1 (M120) – East Asia (Han Chinese, Dungans, Japanese, 

Koreans, Tibetans) 

Q1a2 (M25) – Iran and Lebanon 

Q1a3 (M346) – Native Americans. Low frequency in Europe, South 

Asia and West Asia. 

Q1a3a (L53) – 

Q1a3a1 (M3) – Native Americans. Pakistan, Aaudi Arabia, United 

Arab Emirates, India, Tibet. 

Q1a3a1a (M19) – Native Americans of South America (Ticuna and 

Wayuu) 

Q1a3b (M323) – West Asia. Also detected in Yemenite Jews. 

Q1b (M378) – Widely distributed in Europe, South Asia, West Asia. 

Also found in Jews (Ashkenazim, Mizrachi, and Sephardi). 

Q1b1(L245) – Ashkenazi Jews 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup R can 

be found throughout West Eurasia. Haplogroup R is the founder of 

Haplogroups R1 and R2. 

Paragroup R* - An individual belongs to the R* paragroup if he does 

not have any of the markers for any of the Subclades of R. R* is rare 

and to date has only been found in a small percentage of individuals 

from Northern Pakistan and Western India. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup R1 can 

be found in high frequencies throughout Europe and Western Eurasia. 

Descendents of R1 include R1a and R1b. 

Paragroup R1* - An individual belongs to the R1* paragroup if he 

does not have any of the markers for any of the Subclades of R1. R1* 

is rare and to date has only been found in a small percentage of 

individuals from Turkey, Pakistan, India and Iran. 

Region(s) found: Today, Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a can be found in 

Eastern Europe, India, and parts of Central Asia. 

Region(s) found: Today, Y-DNA Haplogroup R1b can be found in 

highest frequency in Western Europe. 


which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from P which 

descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from P which 

descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from R 

Descended 

from R1 

Descended 

from R


Emerged 

Central Asia. 

R2 


Defining SNP DNA Haplogroup R2 was 

mutation: born approx 25,000 years 

M479 ago in Asia or the Near 

East. 

S 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M230 

T 

Defining SNP 

mutation: 

M70 


DNA Haplogroup S was 



Southeast Asia. 


DNA Haplogroup T was 


30,000 years ago in the 

Middle East. 



Region(s) found: Today, Y-DNA Haplogroup R2 can be found in 

Southeast Asia, South Asia (India) and Oceania. 

Paragroup R2* - An individual belongs to the R2* paragroup if he 

does not have any of the markers for any of the Subclades of R2. R2* 

is found at highest frequencies in North Pakistan and South 

Caucasus. 

Subclades: 

R2a (L266, M124, P249, and P267) – South Asia and South Central 

Asia. Mostly found in Indian sub-continent, arriving during the second 

wave of human migration into India. 

Region(s) found: Today, descendents of Y-DNA Haplogroup S can 

be found in Papua New Guinea. It can also be found at lower 

frequencies in Indonesia and Melanesia. 

Region(s) found: Today, Y-DNA Haplogroup T is found in 

Southeastern Europe, the Middle East and Caucasus, Northeastern 

Africa and South Asia (India). 

Famous ancestors: Thomas Jefferson 


Descended 

from R 

Descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam. 

Descended 

from K which 

descended 

from F which 

descended 

from CF 

which 

descended 

from BT 

which 

descended 

from Y- 

Chromosoma 

l Adam.

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