Guide to Common Birds - West Virginia University

Introduction
About 300 different species of birds have been found in West Virginia. Of this number, 234 are known to
occur in the state almost every year, although species of birds present in the state depends in part on the season.
For instance, there are 99 summer residents, 55 migrants or occasional winter residents, 7 winter residents, and
73 species that are present throughout the year. Differences in elevation and resulting changes in vegetation also
influence to some extent the kinds of birds found in the state. For example, some birds such as the hermit
thrush, winter wren, and black-throated blue warbler are known to nest only in the higher elevation Allegheny
mountain area of the state. Other birds such as the Carolina wren, northern mockingbird, and white-eyed vireo
occur statewide except in the higher elevation mountain area. Approximately one half of West Virginia's nesting
songbirds are considered forest species, not surprising considering that about 75 percent of West Virginia is
forested. An understanding of habitat needs is important in knowing where and when species of birds can be
found.
Changes in land use patterns both in West Virginia and elsewhere in the world also affect bird distribution.
For instance, many birds nesting in the northern latitudes winter in tropical countries south of the United States.
West Virginia species wintering in the tropics include the ruby-throated hummingbird, wood thrush, broadwinged
hawk and many species of warblers, tanagers, swallows, and flycatchers. Destruction of tropical forests
at current rapid rates may adversely affect numbers of bird species occurring in North America and West
Virginia. Habitat preservation for birds is of concern on a global scale.
The purpose of this publication is to provide those interested in learning about West Virginia birds with a
guide to the identification of some of the state's more common and interesting species. Readers interested in
more information on birds beyond the scope of this work should consult the reference materials listed in the
back of this book.
Publication of this guide is a cooperative effort between West Virginia University Extension Service and the
Non-game Program, West Virginia Department of Natural Resources. It is hoped this work will contribute to
the understanding and preservation of one of West Virginia's most attractive wildlife resources.
Norma Jean Venable
West Virginia University Extension Service
Kathleen Carothers Leo
Nongame Wildlife Program
West Virginia Department of Natural Resources
i

Acknowledgments
Support and encouragement for this series on West Virginia natural resources: Edmond B. Collins, Division
Leader, Agriculture, Forestry, and Community Development.
Appreciation is expressed to George Breiding for technical review of the manuscript and for many helpful
suggestions, and to William Wylie for reviewing the manuscript.
Reprinted 1989
ii

Loons
Gaviidae
Loons make up a small group of water birds (only 4 species worldwide) that is somewhat different from other
bird groups. They are large, handsome birds with sleek torpedo-shaped bodies, stout necks, pointed, dagger-like
bills, and short tails. Sexes look alike, except that females are usually smaller. Feet are webbed. Their legs are
set so far back on their bodies that walking on land is awkward and difficult. The narrow, tapering wings are
placed well back on the body and have the least wing surface in proportion to their weight of any flying bird, so
loons may spatter along the water surface up to a quarter mile before getting airborne. In flight, they have a
characteristic "hump-backed" appearance, with head and neck drooping.
Air speed may be up to 60 miles per hour. Loons have bones that are solid and heavy where other birds have
bones that are lightweight and pneumatic (filled with air spaces). Loons can expel air from their bodies,
enabling them to sink below the water surface with hardly a ripple. They can dive to a depth of 240 feet;
underwater dives usually last a minute. The birds dive for food, which consists mostly of fish. Loons seldom
come ashore except for nesting, which is in the arctic tundra, Greenland, and Iceland. Loons are vocal during
the breeding season and have a variety of yodels, tremolos, and wails that are used in courtship. The mournful
call notes and uninhibited laughter are living symbols of the northern wilderness. Loons are long-lived, to at
least 23 years, and are migratory, wintering on coasts and larger lakes. Two species occur in West Virginia.*
Common Loon 28-36 inches long
Gavia lmmer
In breeding plumage, this large bird has a black head and a heavy, black
bill, which may be held horizontally or tilted slightly upward. The back is
black and white checked, neck has a white collar, and under parts are white. In West Virginia, the common loon
is usually seen in duller winter plumage: black-gray crown, nape, and back, shading into whitish cheek, throat,
and under parts. Bill is pale, with a line on the upper mandible. (The illustration shows bird in winter plumage.)
Uncommon to common spring and fall migrant, and rare winter visitant, common loons migrate throughout the
state but prefer larger bodies of water such as Cheat Lake in Monongalia County. They can also be seen-and
heard-on the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers. Fall migration is September to October, and in spring, April to May.
Occasionally loons may be seen in late June.
* For names of bird species in a family that occur in West Virginia, refer to WEST VIRGINIA BIRDS by George
A. Hall. Species pictured in this publication are in the same order as they are listed in Hall.
1

Grebes
Podicipeclidae
Grebes are diving and swimming birds resembling ducks, but grebes have pointed bills, no visible tail, and
usually ride higher, corklike in the water. Feet are lobed and partially webbed. Sexes are similar in color.
As with loons, grebes have trouble taking off from water. Flight is weak, with rapid beating of small wings.
There is a dip in the neck visible when flying. Rather than fly, grebes often dive to escape danger. Well adapted
to life on water, grebes feed, sleep, and court on water. While not as deep divers as loons are, grebes feed on
small fishes and aquatic life. Downy chicks are carried on adults' backs, and adults will dive with young aboard.
Grebes have the unusual habit of eating their own feathers. They are generally quiet, but have a variety of
whistles, calls, and croaks, usually heard around the nest. Six species of grebes occur in North America, from
Texas to Alaska; 3 species can be seen in West Virginia.
Pied-billed Grebe 12-15 inches long
Podilymbus podiceps
Most widespread of the American grebes, this bird is small, stocky, and
short-necked. Adults in summer are dull brown overall, with white undertail
coverts, black throat, and narrow white-eye ring. There is a black ring
around the whitish, short, thick bill. In winter, birds retain dull brown
plumage, but there is no ring around the bill, and the throat is pale. (The illustration shows grebe in winter
plumage.) They eat fish, including carp and minnows, aquatic insects, tadpoles, and some aquatic plants. The
greatest numbers are found on lakes and rivers, but also on farm and beaver ponds. The nest is built by both
sexes of rushes and sedges and is attached to brush or grass, usually over water. Its call, which sounds like "kulkuk-cow-cow-cowp-cowp
" can be heard during nesting season, but birds are usually quiet at other times of year,
Pied-billed grebes are common to abundant migrants throughout the state and may be found on most bodies of
water. Birds may be solitary, or in flocks. Some spend the winter, and a few may spend the summer. Reports of
nests are rare but there are a few scattered breeding records.
2

Herons
Ardeidae
Members of this family, which include herons, bitterns, and egrets, are medium to large size wading birds with
long necks and spear-like bills. Toes are long and slender, and not webbed. Sexes are outwardly similar. Flight
pattern is usually a steady, slow flapping. Herons are noted for powder down feathers; most birds have them,
but these feathers are highly developed in herons. The breakdown of the feather results in a fine waxy powder
that gives a filmy appearance to the heron's plumage. Herons have 2 or 3 pairs of powder down patches. Herons
may use this powder to remove fish oil and preen their feathers. Herons eat fish, frogs, insects and other aquatic
life. Prey is usually grasped by the mandibles and swallowed whole; undigested parts of food are regurgitated as
pellets. Herons are often mistaken for cranes. However, herons fly with their necks folded in an S-shape, while
cranes fly with necks extended. Cranes are migrants only occasionally seen in West Virginia. About 9 species
of herons occur in the state.
American Bittern 23-27 inches long
Botaurus tentiginosus
This stocky heron is brown-streaked, with a black stripe on the neck. Under
parts are streaked with brown and buff, with white throat, pointed bill, and
yellow eyes. In flight, outer wings show blackish. This heron is usually
solitary, and more often found on the ground, unlike other herons, which are
more often found in trees. During the day, the bittern often hides by freezing
motionless, with bill pointed up and body contracted to resemble an old
stick. This bird is most active at dusk and at night. The bitterns' loud gutteral
notes sound like "pump or lunk." Notes may carry half a mile as bird gulps
air and forces it from the distended esophagus, which is an anatomical
specialization. This heron eats frogs, fish, snakes, diving beetles, and
dragonflies. Elusive and secretive, American bitterns stay concealed in
marsh vegetation and are hard to see. Uncommon migrant and uncommon
summer and winter residents, bitterns have been found in most marsh areas
of the state, and are numerous in Canaan Valley.
3

Great Blue Heron about 4 feet tall
Ardea herodias
The largest and most widespread heron in North America, this
lean, long-legged bird has a wingspan up to 7 feet. Overall color
is blue-gray. Adult has a white head, with the sides of crown and
nape black, and short plumes on back of the head. Neck is light
gray or cinnamon, and there is a whitish ventral stripe. The large
bill is yellowish, and the legs are dark. Usually silent, these birds
do utter low croaks. Found around shores of lakes, ponds, and
streams, it fishes by night and by day, but is most active around
dawn and dusk. It often stands motionless in the water waiting to
strike prey, which consists of fishes, frogs, aquatic insects, and
also shrews and mice. The nest is a flimsy platform of sticks,
which may be on the ground or in a tree. Sometimes a colony
made up of dozens of nests may be in the top of the same tree.
This heron can be a fairly common spring, summer and fall
visitant, local winter visitant, or casual summer resident. They
may occur throughout the state on major streams or on small
bodies of water, and can be seen flying overhead, away from
water. They may over-winter in West Virginia in places where
water does not freeze. Actual nest records from the state are few,
as there are few suitable nesting sites.
Little Blue Heron 25-29 inches long
Egretta caerulea
This slender medium-sized heron has a wingspan to 41 inches
and is slate blue with maroon head and neck. Bill is bluish with
black tip, and legs and feet are dark. Immature birds are unique.
Plumage is snow white, and the bill is blue, tipped with black.
These herons eat fish, frogs, aquatic insects, and grasshoppers
and beetles. In West Virginia they are most common around farm
ponds. Usually silent, they may utter croaking sounds. They are
occasional summer visitants; nesting occurs from Illinois to
Texas and the Gulf Coast.
4

Green-backed (Green) Heron 18-22 inches long
Butorides striatus
This widespread dark-looking heron is about the size of a crow, and has a
wingspan to 26 inches. The name is somewhat misleading, as the adults
have a blue-gray back and wings, and may appear more blue than green.
Head and neck are chestnut, with a white streak down the throat and under
parts. Bill is dark. Orange-yellow legs are conspicuous, especially in flight.
Young have streaked under parts. Green-backed herons are found in a
variety of wet places-swamps, wet woodlands, along rivers, streams,
lakeshores, and ponds. They feed on carp, minnows, water bugs, beetles,
leeches, and also mice. Call is a loud series of "kuks," also "skeow." Nest is
a structure of sticks built in woods or marsh, found on a tussock of weeds,
or in a tree. These birds may nest singly or in colonies. Incubation is done
by both sexes. A fairly common migrant, fairly common summer resident, and occasional winter visitant, this
heron may nest in most counties.
Black-crowned Night Heron 23-28 inches long
Nyclicorax nycticorax
This heron is stocky, with a thick bill and short legs, and wingspan up to
45 inches. The adult has a black cap and black back contrasting with pale
gray or whitish under parts and gray wings. Eyes are red, and legs are
yellowish. There are 2 or 3 narrow plumes at the back of the head.
Immature is brown and spotted. Appropriately named, this heron feeds at
dusk and at night. During the day it may sit hunched and inactive in a tree
roost. Call is "quark," most often heard at dusk. It eats fish and tadpoles
and may eat algae and succulent plants. This bird is a good swimmer.
Night herons are uncommon to fairly common migrants, occasional
summer visitants, and rare winter visitors. A few may nest in the state.
5

Duck Family
Anatidae
This family includes ducks, geese, and swans. Sizes range from teals, which weigh less than a pound, to the
largest of all waterfowl, the trumpeter swan, which weighs over 30 pounds. These are aquatic swimming birds
with 3 webbed front toes and a 4th small, un-webbed toe. The bill has a hook at tip of the upper mandible. In
feeding, the thick tongue is pressed against the palate to squeeze out water through the edges of the bill, leaving
solid food in the mouth. Sexes may or may not have similar coloration. Many species of ducks occur in West
Virginia.
Swans and Geese
Anserinae (Subfamily)
Tundra (Whistling) Swan 47-58 inches long
Cygnus columbianus
This is the most widespread North American swan. Nesting is in the
Arctic, and wintering grounds include the Mid-Atlantic States. Adults are white, with black legs and feet;
wingspan is 6 to 7 feet. Bill is black, often with a small yellow spot near the base of the bill, but this spot may
be lacking or hard to see. The neck is held straight up. (The mute swan, introduced to North America in the 19th
century, has a curved neck and orange or pink bill with a black knob at the base.) The call is distinctive-a
whistling, musical laughter, or long whoops. Tundra swans eat mostly aquatic plants, including grasses and
sedges. Rare to common migrants, they may be locally abundant and can be seen flying or resting on lakes in
northeastern West Virginia. Large flocks have also occurred on Cheat Lake.
6

Canada Goose 25-45 inches long
Branta canadensis
The Canada goose is the most widespread and familiar North American goose, but there are at least 11
subspecies that vary considerably in size. The smallest forms live in the Arctic. All these geese are basically
alike in color pattern and have a long black neck and black head with large white cheek patches that meet under
the throat. The body is brown-gray with a pale to dark breast and under parts. Tail, bill, and feet are black.
Voice is a deep musical honking. Nests are usually built on the ground near water.
Geese will also nest on muskrat houses and in tubs filled with
straw.
Geese are some of the earliest spring migrants; flocks fly in
typical V formation. Geese may winter wherever water remains
unfrozen. Family bonds are strong with parents and young
staying together almost a year. They migrate together in fall in
flocks containing family units.
Geese feed mostly in early morning and late afternoon,
consuming grass, cattails, clover, and grain, with a preference for
corn.
In West Virginia the Canada goose is a common migrant and an introduced summer and permanent resident.
There is no evidence to indicate geese were ever resident in West Virginia before their introduction by the
Department of Natural Resources in the 1950s.
7

Ducks
Anatinae (Subfarnily)
Dabbling Ducks
The following are known as dabbling ducks or puddle ducks, and are usually found in shallow water. Dabblers
feed by tipping tail-up to reach aquatic plants, seeds, and crustaceans. Because of this feeding behavior, they
often die of lead poisoning from ingested lead shot. Dabblers spring directly into flight from the water. The
speculum, which is a small patch of iridescent or metallic-colored feathers visible in the secondary feathers of
each wing, is characteristic of this group of ducks. In most male North American ducks the adult plumage is
replaced at the end of the breeding season (May or June) by a dull basic or eclipse plumage for about 2 months,
and males resemble females. This basic plumage is replaced in early fall or winter by the breeding plumage.
Both male and female ducks molt their flight feathers all at once and during this time are unable to fly.
Wood Duck 17-20 inches long
Aix sponsa
The elegant wood duck drake is perhaps the most beautiful duck in North America. Male has a dark iridescent
head, "slicked-back" crest, and orange-red eyes, The head is striped with white and the bill is a variegated
pattern of red, yellow, black, and white, with white throat, burgundy breast and neck, and dark wings. Female is
dull-colored, but she has the' dark head crest and white-eye patch. Both sexes have a square, dark tail; bill points
downward.
Female's call is a loud squealing "whoo-eek", while the male has a
high-pitched call. These woodland ducks have sharp claws and often
perch on snags and branches. Wood ducks nest in hollow trees or
pileated woodpecker holes that may be up to a mile away from water.
They also nest in wood duck nest boxes made for them. Hatchlings use
their sharp claws to climb to the opening of the nest-cavity, that may
be up to 50 feet above ground, and then leap out as the female calls
them.
Most of their diet consists of plants such as duckweeds, seeds, tubers, beechnuts, grapes, and berries. They
especially like nuts and acorns of forest trees.
Wood ducks nest throughout West Virginia and may occur in every county, nesting around wooded swamps,
ponds, and rivers. In summer they are usually found in pairs or small flocks; during migration they may form
large flocks. Wood ducks were over-hunted but have been protected and have now returned to most of their
former range. A few wood ducks may winter in the southern part of the state.
8

American Black Duck 21-25 inches long
Anas rubripes
A wary, quick and alert duck, the black duck is sooty black-brown, with a dusky appearance, although paler on
face and fore-neck. Sexes are similar in color, but male's bill is yellowish, female's is dull green with black
mottling. Feet are brown to red. In flight, the white wing linings contrast with the otherwise dark plumage.
Speculum is purple, bordered with black, and may have white trailing
edges. The male utters a low croak while the female has a loud quack.
Nesting pairs favor woodland lakes and streams, creeks, ponds, and
swamps. Black and mallard hybrids are becoming increasingly common and
may be replacing American black ducks.
Nest is usually on the ground and made of grasses and leaves. Sometimes
the nest is over water on a stump, and sometimes it is far from water. Diet is
similar to that of mallards - seeds, grasses, pondweeds, aquatic insects, and frogs - and in fall, berries, grain, and
acorns.
A common migrant, uncommon local summer resident, and common winter visitant, the black duck nests
sparingly in beaver ponds in Canaan Valley and winters along the major streams in the state.
Mallard 20-28 inches long
Anas platyrhynchos
Possibly the most abundant wild duck in the northern hemisphere,
the mallard is ancestor of many breeds of domestic duck. Their
metallic-green head and neck, yellow bill, narrow white collar, and
chestnut breast identify males. Black central tail feathers curl up. The
female is mottled brown, with orange bill splotched with black, and
orange feet. Both male and female have a blue speculum bordered on
each side with conspicuous white feathers. Wing linings are white. The female utters the familiar quack, while
the male's call is "yeeb, yeeb," or low "kwek." Mallards are found in shallows on ponds, rivers, lakes, and
sloughs. Their diet is varied and includes wheat, corn, barley, other grain, aquatic plants, pondweeds, seeds,
aquatic insects, tadpoles, fish and fish eggs. Their nest is usually on the ground among grasses and reeds,
sometimes far from water. Mallards hybridize with other duck species. In West Virginia, it is a common
migrant, summer resident, and common local winter resident.
9

Blue-winged Teal 14-16 inches long
Anas discors
This is a small marsh duck. The male has a body color of mottled
pink-brown, with a white crescent on the face in front of the
eyes, and a gray head. There is a large blue patch on each
forewing (usually not visible when bird is on the water), and a
white patch on the flank. Female is mottled brown, with a blue
patch on each forewing. Males retain eclipse plumage late in the
year and may resemble females. Both sexes have a long, bright
green speculum. The female utters a weak quack, and the male
has a high- pitched lisping "tseel."
The nest is concealed in tall grasses, often on dry ground, not far from water. Habitat is small ponds, marsh,
sluggish creeks, and grassy sloughs. About 70 percent of diet consists of seeds of sedges, pondweeds, grasses,
and also rice, corn, and aquatic insects.
A common migrant, occasional summer resident and winter resident, the blue-winged teal begins fall migration
earlier than other waterfowl and may be seen migrating through West Virginia in August.
The Green-winged teal (Anas crecca), at 12 to 16 inches long, is the smallest dabbler. The male is a compact
gray duck with a brown head and green head patch. When swimming, the vertical white mark in front of wing is
noticeable. Female is brown. Both sexes have a green speculum. Green-winged teals are common migrants,
sometimes summer residents, and winter visitants.
10

Diving Ducks
These ducks are often found on deeper water than puddle ducks. Legs are set far back and wide apart, which
facilitates diving, but makes walking on land awkward. The hind toe has a paddle-like flap. Diving ducks
require a running start on water for take-off. Some diving ducks do not have a brightly colored speculum, and
plumage is often black and white. Nesting from the northern United States to Alaska, diving ducks are mostly
seen in West Virginia as migrants and winter visitants.
Redhead 18-23 inches long
Aythya americana
Male is gray, with a round, red-brown head and black chest. Its speculum or wing stripe is also gray. The bill is
blue or slate with a narrow white ring bordering a black tip. The
iris or eye is yellow (not red as it is in the canvasback). Females
and males in eclipse plumage are brown overall, females with a
buff patch at the base of the bill. Food consists mostly of plants
such as pondweeds, wild celery, grasses, and some insects.
Redheads are common to very common migrants. They travel
throughout the state and may be found on farm ponds. Hundreds
can occur on the Ohio and Kanawha rivers and Cheat Lake, often associating with other species of ducks,
especially lesser scaup.
Ring-necked Duck 15-18 inches long
Aythya collaris
The male has a noticeably peaked dark crown, and a bold white
ring near tip of the gray bill. There is a vertical white mark
before the wings. A brownish ring separates breast and neck,
seen only in good light. Female is brown with a dark crown and
a white ring around the eye, and may have a pale line extending
back from eye, and a ring on the bill. In flight, this duck shows a
gray wing stripe.
Ring-necked ducks are common to very common migrants, and occasional winter visitants. Migrants tend to
remain several weeks in favored spots. They migrate throughout the state, but the largest numbers are found in
Monongalia and Preston counties. Habitat is forested ponds, marshes, swamps, and bogs. This bird can dive to
40 feet. Usually silent, the male can utter a wheezy whistle, and the female a harsh "cherr. " Eighty percent of
their diet consists of plant food, including sedge and grass seeds, grasses, rootstocks, and some aquatic insects.
11

Lesser Scaup 15-19 inches long
Aythya affinas
The male has a blackish head, which may be glossed
with purple, a black chest and rump, gray back, and
white abdomen. Bill is pale blue with black tip; this
species is also called a bluebill. Its eyes are yellow.
Female is brownish all over, with a white abdomen,
and in winter she has white facial patches at the base
of a blue bill. Expert divers, scaups consume both
plant and animal food.
The lesser scaup is the most common diving duck to migrate through the state. The greatest numbers are seen
on large bodies of water. A few scaup may winter throughout the state and it is possible some may breed here.
Greater scaup resemble lesser, but are not seen as often.
Common Goldeneye 16-20 inches long
Bucephala clangula
Male has a dark, green glossed head with a
conspicuous round white spot between the golden
eyes and bill. The white under parts and white on
back and wings make goldeneyes appear a whitish
looking duck, except for the dark head. Female is
gray with a white collar and dark brown head. Both
sexes have a large conspicuous white wing patch
visible in flight. The vibrant whistling of the wings
can be heard from a long distance, thus another name for this duck is whistler. The male has a harsh nasal note;
female has a harsh quack.
Food consists of aquatic insects, snails, seeds, and aquatic vegetation. Goldeneyes are very common migrants
and winter visitants in some parts of the state, wintering on the Ohio, Monongahela, Shenandoah, and Potomac
rivers.
12

Bufflehead 13-151/2 inches long
Bucephala albeola
The large-headed, small-bodied profile of this duck is distinctive. Adult males have iridescent dark heads with a
broad, triangular white patch on the back of the head. Under parts are white, with black back and rump. Female
is brown and gray, and has a dark crown, head and neck, with an oval white cheek patch on each side of the
head. In flight, males show a white patch across the wings while the females have white patches only on the
inner secondaries. Male has a squeaky whistle or low note and the female has a hoarse croak.
Buffleheads eat mainly small freshwater aquatic insects. Uncommon to very common migrants and winter
visitants, these ducks are most common in the northeastern part of the state. These attractive ducks may occur
on ponds and streams, but are most common on large bodies of water.
13

Mergansers
Mergansers have long thin, toothed or serrated bills which help these divers catch and hold fish and other
aquatic life. They usually fly fast and low over the water in single file.
Hooded Merganser 16-19 inches long
Lophodytes cucullatus
This duck's small thin bill and crested head make it distinctive.
Male has a black-bordered, fan-shaped white crest, which he
may raise or lower, and a black head, neck, back, and tail.
Breast is white with 2 black bars on each side, flanks are brown,
and wings have a white patch. Females are dark with graybrown
heads and prominent rust-orange or tawny crests. Males
in courtship display utter a froglike "crrrooo, " females utter a
hoarse "gab." Their diet includes fish, crustaceans, and aquatic insects.
Hooded mergansers are uncommon to fairly common migrants, uncommon winter visitants, and casual summer
residents. They probably migrate throughout the state, but are most common in the Monongalia-Preston County
area. Unlike other mergansers, they may occur on small lakes and streams as well as on larger bodies of water,
resulting in wider distribution.
Common Merganser 22-27 inches long
Mergus merganser
Largest of the mergansers, adult males have a smooth, blackish
head that looks iridescent green at close range. The red bill is long
and straight, with a serrated upper mandible. Back is black, with
long white body. In flight, this merganser appears white.
Female is gray, with a brown-red head and neck, and more
noticeable crest. Bill is also red. The brown upper neck and white
lower neck are sharply divided, and the white chin is defined
against a brown head Female utters a harsh "karr" and the male utters harsh croaks. Diet consists of fish,
leeches, worms, aquatic insects, and aquatic plants.
Uncommon migrant and winter visitant, common mergansers winter on the Ohio, Potomac, and Shenandoah
rivers.
Red-breasted mergansers (Margus serrator), 19-26 inches long, are also migrants and casual winter visitants.
The male has a glossy dark crested head, red eyes, and salmon-pink breast with heavy streaking. Female has a
gray body and cinnamon brown head. They are uncommon to fairly common migrants.
14

Ruddy Duck 15-16 inches long
Oxyura jamaicensis
Ruddy ducks are stiff-tailed ducks-the long, stiff tail feathers serve as a rudder. This chunky, thick-necked duck
has a large head and broad bill and the long tail is often cocked up. In summer (April to August) the male is
rusty red with white cheeks, black cap, and a large blue bill. In winter plumage, he is gray with white cheeks
and dull blue or gray bill. (The illustration shows bird in winter plumage.) Female is gray, and resembles the
male in winter plumage, but its cheek bares a dark line. These ducks cannot walk on land. Usually silent, they
sometimes utter low nasal sounds. Diet consists primarily of plant food such as sedge seeds, and some larvae.
Ruddy ducks are common migrants and casual winter visitants. They usually occur on larger lakes and streams,
but are sometimes found on small ponds.
15

Vultures
Cathartidae
These scavengers are large, dark birds with long broad wings that make them exceptionally adept at soaring. No
member of this family is capable of actual vocalization, although they can hiss. Unlike their close relatives,
hawks and eagles, vultures don't have head feathers; the skin of the head is usually rough and may be black, red,
yellow, or orange. Two species occur in the state.
Turkey Vulture 26-32 inches long
Cathartes aura
Often called a "buzzard," this large blackish raptor has
an impressive 6-foot wingspan, a naked, small- looking
red head, and long tail. It is hard to see the red head,
however, even at close range. Immature birds have gray
heads. Males and females look alike. In flight,
overhead, pale flight feathers contrast with the bird's
dark plumage. The long upswept wings are held in a Vshape,
called a dihedral. Often the bird files with the
primaries separated. These characteristics, and the fact
that the bird sways and tilts in flight, distinguish turkey
vultures from other soaring birds of prey. Vultures feed
on carrion almost entirely. The birds have no voice, but they may hiss or grunt. At night, vultures roost in trees.
Nesting occurs in several counties, although turkey vulture populations have declined for a number of years.
Eggs are laid on the bare floors of caves, on rocks and cliffs, in hollow stumps, and on the ground in shrubbery.
Eggs are dull white, sometimes mottled with brown, and incubation is by both sexes.
Vultures are common summer residents, and local winter visitants. Flocks of vultures are common at autumn
hawk-watching stations, with the main migration occurring in October to November.
Black vultures (Coragyps atratus) are local summer and winter residents, but the range for black vultures is
more southern. This vulture is black with a gray head. White wing patches at the base of the primaries are
conspicuous in flight. The black vulture is chunkier and stubbier than the turkey vulture. There are nesting
records from a few counties.
16

Hawks and Eagles
Accipitridae
Hawks and eagles are diurnal (active in daytime) birds of prey. They have powerful bills with a curved, sharply
tipped upper beak for tearing flesh. At the base of the bill there is a membranous growth called the cere, which
is often brightly colored. Powerful talons help capture prey. Sexes are similar in appearance, but females are
larger. About 13 species of birds of prey, including falcons, occur in West Virginia. There are several different
kinds of hawks, differing in physical characteristics, such as shape of wings and tail, and type of prey
consumed.
Osprey 22-25 inches long
Pandion hailaetus (Subfamily Pandionidae)
Ospreys are brown-black above and white below.
The head is white with a prominent dark eye stripe.
Males are usually all white below while females have
dark streaking on the neck. Immature birds are similar
to adults, but have more extensive streaking below.
Ospreys can be identified by their white under parts
and the noticeable gull-like crook in the long, narrow
wings, along with the dark conspicuous wrist patches.
Ospreys are vocal; call is a series of loud cries, "kip,
kip, kip, kiweek. "Ospreys are almost exclusively fish
eaters, and plunge feet first into water to snatch prey.
Their large bulky stick nests are often built in trees, but
they will nest on platforms, including telephone poles
and a variety of man-made structures.
Ospreys are fairly common migrants throughout the state, and occasional summer residents, but there are few
nesting records. These birds are currently part of a reintroduction project conducted by the West Virginia
Department of Natural Resources Non-game Wildlife Program.
17

Bald Eagle 34-43 inches long, wingspan 6-71/2 feet
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Its snow-white head and tail distinguish our national bird, the adult bald eagle. The body is light to chocolate
brown, while the bill, eyes, and feet are bright yellow. Sexes look alike. Immature birds range from brownblack
to tan, with white spots on the wing linings and flight feathers. The bill is black. The head and tail become
white at 4 or 5 years old. Call is a series of harsh, squeaky metallic screams.
In gliding or soaring, bald eagles hold their wings
flat, not tilted upward as do vultures. Bald eagles
feed on fish, also muskrats, squirrels, rabbits, and
carrion. Bald eagles once ranged throughout North
America but suffered population decline as a result
of chemical pesticides, loss of habitat, and illegal
shooting. In West Virginia they are rare to casual
visitants in all seasons, and casual summer residents.
The first known nest for the state was in Hardy
County in 1981.
The northern harrier or marsh hawk (Circus
cyaneus) is a slim, long-tailed, long-winged hawk,
17-24 inches long. Male and female are different in
color, but both have a conspicuous white rump patch
that is an excellent field identification mark. Male is
pale gray. Female is larger, mostly brown, and light
buff below. The immature bird has a chestnut breast.
Habitat is mostly marshes and fields. Harriers nest
sparingly in mountain bogs. Nest is on the ground,
unlike other hawks. Harriers fly close to the ground, with wings often held in a V-shape, searching for mice,
rats, and insects. A migrant, local summer resident, and local winter visitant, northern harriers are found in
Canaan Valley.
18

Accipiters
Accipiters are woodland hawks with long tails and short, rounded wings. Flight pattern is a few quick wing
beats and a glide.
Cooper's Hawk male 15-17½ inches long,
Accipiter cooperii female 17-19½ inches long
Adult has a blackish head, yellow or red eyes, and blue-gray
upper parts. Breast is white and the belly is cross-barred with
reddish colored feathers. The tail is usually rounded and
crossed by 4 or more grayish bars. Immature birds have brown
streaks on the belly. Call is a rapid "kek, kek, kek." Habitat is
primarily mixed woodlands. Nest is a platform of sticks and
bark, 10 to 60 feet above ground. Sometimes a crow's nest may
be used. Incubation is mostly by the female. When hunting in
woodlands, these hawks fly swift and low, catching prey with
their talons. This bird has been known as the chicken hawk.
Prey consists of small mammals and birds including starlings,
doves, woodpeckers, and also fish and chipmunks.
Cooper's hawks are rare to uncommon permanent residents,
fairly common fall migrants, and occasional winter visitants.
They occur throughout the state and are widely distributed if
there are woods for nesting.
Another accipiter is the sharp-shinned hawk
(Accipiter striatus), which is similar to the larger Cooper's
hawk. The sharp-shinned hawk is around 10-14 inches long.
The adult has blue-gray upper parts, while the under parts are
white barred with red-brown. Legs are bright yellow. The tail is square at the end or notched (Cooper's hawk
has a rounded tail). This shy, secretive woodland hawk prefers large remote woods and eats mostly small birds,
some mice, and insects.
The sharp-shinned hawk is an uncommon permanent resident, but probably occurs in every county. It is also a
common fall migrant, and may be seen at any month of the year.
19

Buteos
Buteos are large stocky hawks with broad wings and wide round tails. They soar high in wide circles.
Broad-winged Hawk 13-19 inches long
Butea platypterus
Smallest of American buteos, about crow size, broad-
wings may be the most common and widely distributed
hawk in West Virginia. Adults are chunky, with dark
brown upper parts, and under parts barred with brownred.
Underside of wings is silver-white with black tips.
The tail has conspicuous bands, usually 3 black and 2
white, about equally wide. Call is a high-pitched, shrill
"pweee."
Habitat is hardwood forests or mixed conifers,
hardwoods around lakes, streams, and swamps. Nest is
usually near water, to about 21 inches in diameter, 20 or
more feet above ground. Prey includes toads, frogs,
snakes, chipmunks, small mammals and birds, beetles,
worms, and ants.
Broad-wings require sizeable woodlots with mature
trees for nesting and adequate hunting territory.
Therefore population density depends on availability of
suitable habitat. There are nesting records from several
counties. These hawks are common summer residents,
common spring migrants, and very common fall
migrants; counts of 1,000 per day are recorded. They
are also casual winter visitants.
20

Red-tailed Hawk 19-25 inches long
Buteo jamaicensis
This familiar hawk has dark brown upper parts and brown eyes, and is white below, with brown streaks on the
lower neck and a broad band of dark streaking across a white belly. There is considerable variation in this
hawk's plumage, and the band around the belly may not be present. The upper side of the tail is reddish red.
When this large bird turns in flight, the red tail is an excellent field mark. Immature birds have dark gray tails.
When coming in for a landing or if perched in a tree, the red-tail's white breast is often a helpful identifying
mark. Call is a shrill "keeer, "often delivered when soaring.
Habitat of this hawk is open country, woods, and mountains.
The nest is large, sometimes up to 3 feet across, and is built of
sticks and twigs often 70 or more feet up in oaks, pines, and
other trees. These hawks are thought to mate for life. Prey
includes mice, rats, rabbits, shrews, skunks, small birds,
snakes, beetles, and fish. The red-tailed hawk is important as a
natural control on rodent and insect populations.
Red-tails breed throughout the state, but are most numerous in
lowlands and farming areas where there are trees for nesting
and habitat for prey species.
Red-tails winter in the state in small numbers and are
frequently seen during migration. Unfortunately they have
suffered a population decline from indiscriminant shooting.
Red-shouldered hawks (Buteo lineatus) are 17 to 24 inches
long, and are also seen in West Virginia. Adults have a brown
back and are barred with red, brown, and white from throat to
tail. There is a reddish patch on each shoulder that is not
always visible. The tail has heavy, dark bands. In flight, or
seen from above, the wings appear two-toned, and a
translucent patch or "window" may be seen at the base of the
primaries. Habitat is wooded river bottoms, remote areas, and
farming country. The red-shouldered hawk is an uncommon
migrant, fairly common summer resident, occasional winter
visitant, and permanent resident. There are nesting records
from several counties.
21

Falcons
Falconidae
Falcons resemble hawks and have hooked bills and taloned feet. Falcons' bills are also notched. The wings are
usually long and pointed. Falcons are noted for their swooping power dives; peregrine falcons can reach speeds
of 200 miles per hour. Falcons are birds of open areas.
American Kestrel 9-12inches long
Falco sparverius
Also called the sparrow hawk, this is the smallest
and most common North American falcon. Adult
has a short neck, and the small head has a black and
white pattern, with dark vertical whisker-like marks
on each side. Wings are slender and pointed, and the
tail is reddish with a black band. This falcon is
unusual in that the sexes have different plumage.
Male has blue-gray wings, while the female has
brown wings, and bars on the tail. Call is a rapid
"killy, killy." Sometimes hard to recognize, kestrels
frequently perch on telephone wires, and have the
habit of flicking their tails.
Kestrels favor open habitat, and can be found in
farm country and woodland borders. They fly with
rapid wing beats and short glides, sometimes
hovering in midair with rapidly beating wings.
Kestrels eat insects, bats, mice, birds, and frogs.
They are uncommon to common permanent
residents, and probably occur throughout the state.
This small falcon is also a fall migrant.
22

Pheasant, Grouse, Quail
Phasianidae
This is a large group of birds with stocky bodies and thick, short legs. They often have bare skin or ornamental
feathering around the head or neck, and the wings are short and broad. Included in this family are partridges,
ptarmigans, prairie chickens, and turkeys. Grouse have fully or partly feathered legs, which quail do not. Many
species, including ring-necked pheasants, have been introduced into North America. In West Virginia,
pheasants are uncommon local residents.
Ruffed Grouse 15-19 inches long
Bonasa umbellus
Ruffed grouse get their name from the dark ruffs or
feather tufts on the sides of their necks. Body color is
mottled, ranging from gray to brown. There are 2
color phases, red and gray, that are most apparent in
the tail color, which may range from chestnut-red to
silver-gray. Reddish grouse are more common in the
southern part of their range. The fan-shaped tail is
multi-banded with a wide, dark band near the tip.
Ruffed grouse are known for "drumming," produced
when the male, in order to announce his territory and
attract a female, stands on a log or perch, and snaps
his wings forward. This sound is most often heard in
the spring, but can be heard at any time in any season.
The birds give an alarm call which sounds like "quit,
quit." Ruffed grouse are found in mixed brushy
woodlands. Flushed birds burst into flight with a roar
of wings.
Diet consists of insects, wild berries, apples, grapes, seeds of hemlock and maple, and plants and weeds. Nest is
a slight hollow scraped in leaves by the hen, lined with feathers and weeds, often at the base of a tree or log.
Incubation is by the female for about 24 days. When the chicks are about 12 days old, they can fly and roost in
trees. Young disperse at about 3 months of age. Ruffed grouse are popular game birds, but do suffer population
fluctuations. They occur throughout the state in suitable habitat (much forestland has matured beyond the stage
that makes it optimum grouse habitat) but are fairly common permanent residents.
23

Wild Turkey 36-48 inches long
Meleagris gallopavo
The largest native North American upland game bird, with wingspan of 4 to 5 feet, the male has a dark,
iridescent brown body with white on the flight feathers. The head is bare, blue and pink, with red wattles on the
throat and fore-neck. Tail is rust-colored. Males also have a spur up to 11/4 inches long on each leg, and a
blackish breast tuft that may be up to 12 inches long in older males. Females and immature birds are smaller
and less iridescent than the males, and may not have a breast tuft. The male gobbles, and the female emit a soft
cluck. Habitat is mature woodland.
Turkeys scratch on the ground for seeds, nuts, and acorns, but they will also eat grass, buds, corn, and insects.
Nest is a leaf-lined depression in the ground. Ten to twelve eggs are laid at intervals of 15-18 days, and
incubation is by the female. Turkeys were common in West Virginia but due to loss of habitat and over-hunting
disappeared from the state in the 1920s. In the 1940s, live-trapped wild birds were introduced into the state by
the Department of Natural Resources. Turkeys are now fairly common permanent residents.
24

Northern Bobwhite 10 inches long
Colinus virginianus
Adult bobwhites are reddish brown above, with irregular chestnut streaks on their sides. The breast is white, and
the belly is mottled with black. The male has a white
throat and a white line from the beak to the side of the
neck. Female is similar but has a black and buff face
pattern. These quails are found in open woodland and
around farms with hedges and brushy fields. Their
familiar song is a clear "bobwhite" given by the male
from spring to fall; at all seasons bobwhites may utter
a catlike sound. During the summer males may call
from a low perch, but otherwise these are ground
birds. They feed in the early morning and before
sunset, staying in sheltered spots for midday rests.
Basic food is grass seeds, acorns, grains, and green
plants and fruit such as strawberries. They also eat
animal matter including grasshoppers, flies, and
mosquitoes. They come to feeding stations for seed
and grain. When frightened, they usually will run for
cover before flushing with a whir of wings, and flying
low. For most of the year, they remain in flocks.
The nest is in a shallow depression on the ground,
arched over with grasses, with a small opening
concealed by brush. Incubation is by both sexes;
young can fly when under 2 weeks old. The northern
bobwhite is a fairly common resident in West Virginia,
but recent cold winters have almost eliminated
bobwhites from most of northern West Virginia. The
largest populations probably occur in farmland in the
Eastern panhandle and in the lower Kanawha-Ohio
valleys.
25

Rails
Rallidae
Rails are marsh birds with short rounded wings and long legs and toes. Many have compressed bodies and small
tails. They often escape danger by running or swimming rather than flying; they fly with rapid wing-beats.
Included in this family are gallinules, coots, and moorhens. About 5 species occur in the state, although rails are
not common here.
Virginia Rail 9 inches long
Rallus limicola
This is a small rail with a long bill. Cheeks are blue-gray, and
wings and under parts are chestnut. Flanks are strongly barred
with black and white. Their call is a metallic "ti-dick " This
secretive rail is found in freshwater marshes and wetlands, and
probes with its bill in the mud for food that consists of worms,
insects, snails, and small fish. Its nest is built of cattails and
grasses well concealed in marsh vegetation in drier areas over
water.
In West Virginia this rail is an occasional migrant, uncommon
summer resident, and uncommon winter resident. The Virginia
rail probably migrates throughout the state, and there are nest
records from several counties.
American Coot 13-16 inches long
Fulica americana
The adult has a black head and neck, and the body is slate black.
Outer feathers of under tail coverts are white. The white bill has
a red ring near the tip, and a red swelling at the edge of the white
frontal shield can be seen at close range. Toes are lobed. Coots
feed on aquatic plants, small fish, and aquatic insects. They bob
their heads when swimming, a noticeable characteristic, perhaps
related to the lobed toes which cause jerky movements and head
bobbing. Call is a "kuk, kuk, kuk. " Coots are found in wetlands.
Their nest is a platform of cattails and grasses, about 14 inches across, which floats on water attached to
standing plants.
Coots are common to abundant migrants, occasional summer residents, and casual winter visitants. They are
found in the greatest numbers on larger rivers, and there are several nest records.
26

Plovers
Charadrildae
Plovers are plump shorebirds with large heads and eyes and short necks. They occur around wet places as well
as grasslands and meadows.
Killdeer 9-11 inches long
Charadrius vociferus
Adult killdeers have 2 dark breast bands that are distinctive. The bright reddish-orange rump is visible in flight.
The bill is dark, while the forehead is white with a dark crown. Eye-ring is bright red. The sexes are outwardly
alike. Conspicuous and noisy, the call "kill-dee" is repeated many times. Flight is in a wavering, erratic manner.
Killdeers are found in all kinds of open habitats: pastures, lawns, and fields, often close to water. Food is almost
all insects, including beetles, ants, and ticks.
Nest is in the open, usually on bare gravel, and sometimes on rooftops. Adults protect eggs and young by luring
intruders away with a distraction display, usually a "broken wing" act. Common spring and fall migrant and
summer resident, killdeer probably nest in all counties and are also uncommon to fairly common winter
residents.
27

Sandpipers
Scolopacidae
This large family is comprised of wading and upland birds. Most members of this family, which includes
yellowlegs, curlews, and godwits, have long slender legs and feed by probing soft mud with their bills. Several
species occur in the state, but many are migrants.
Spotted Sandpiper 7-8 inches long
Actitis macularia
This bird can be found where there is water, from forest pools
or streams to lakes. It is gray-brown above, and in flight has a
conspicuous white wing stripe. White of under parts extends
onto the shoulder. Adults in breeding plumage have large round
spots on the white breast. In winter plumage adults and
immature birds lack spots. Call is a shrill piping. Spotted
sandpipers, as they feed, teeter back and forth, tipping up their
tails with almost every step, a trait that makes this bird easy to
recognize. Flight is stiff, with rapid fluttering wing-beats. This
bird easily catches flying insects, and eats cutworms, beetles,
grubs, and small fish. The nest is in a hollow or depression in
the ground, and may be lined with grasses.
Spotted sandpipers migrate throughout the state and can be found along streams and farm ponds. The species
may nest in every county, but populations have suffered due to pollution from acid mine drainage.
Common Snipe 10½-11½ inches long
Gallinago gallinago
Snipes are secretive birds of marshes, bogs, and wet places. The
snipe has a long straight bill, which is about 2½ inches long. A
brown bird, it has stripes that run lengthwise down the head,
streaked breast and barred flanks, whitish belly, and orange tail
with black bars and white tip. Snipes prefer somewhat wetter
areas than woodcocks, such as wet pastures and meadows. They
can swim and dive, and feed mostly at evening. Food includes
houseflies, water bugs, earthworms, frogs, and seeds of sedges.
Snipes (either sex) perform a territorial flight over their nesting
ground by diving through the air with tail feathers spread. Air
vibrates the 2 outer tail feathers, producing a whistling sound
that can be heard for half a mile. Flight occurs at twilight or
morning, and on moonlit nights. Nest is in a scrape on the ground. The nest site is usually dry even if the
surrounding area is wet. Snipes are fairly common spring and fall migrants and occasional local winter
residents. Snipes nest in small numbers in Canaan Valley and other mountain bogs.
28

American Woodcock 10-12 inches long
Scolopax minor
Quite different from other shorebirds, woodcocks are chunky game birds with short necks and legs and very
long bills, about 2½ inches in length. The woodcock can be distinguished from the common snipe in that the
head stripes run across the crown rather than lengthwise. The upper parts are mottled with rust, black, brown,
and gray, making the bird difficult to see an the ground. Sexes are outwardly similar but females tend to be
larger. Woodcocks are mostly active from dusk to dark, on moonlit nights, and on cloudy days. Habitat is where
soil is moist, such as in damp woods, often in alder thickets along streams and bogs, where the birds feed on
earthworms, insects, and larvae.
This species is remarkable for the courtship flight of the male. In spring, the male leaps from a "singing site,"
and rises to about 300 feet, wings whistling, then zigzags to the ground, singing. When on the ground it utters a
nasal "peent" note. The nest is in a depression on the ground, usually near the singing site in swampy woods or
underbrush.
Woodcocks probably nest throughout the state and are fairly common spring and fall migrants. Large
concentrations of woodcocks can be found around mountain bogs such as Canaan Valley.
29

Gulls
Laridae
This family includes gulls, terns, and skimmers. These birds are graceful, adept flyers known for their agile
flight. They have long pointed wings and webbed feet. Several species occur in the state; all are visitants or
migrants.
Ring-billed Gull 18-20 inches long
Larus delawarensis
Adult has a pale gray back with a white head and under parts. The yellow bill with a black ring is distinctive.
Legs are yellow or yellow-green. Wing tips are black with prominent white spots. Immature birds are washed
with brown. Ring-bills are commonly found far inland at urban ponds-and occasionally in restaurant parking
lots. These gulls can be very common migrants and winter visitants and are the gulls most often seen in West
Virginia.
Herring gulls (Larus argentatus) resemble ring-bills but are larger - up to 26 inches - and have a yellow bill
with an orange spot. They are more common on the Ohio and Kanawha rivers.
30

Doves
Columbidae
Pigeons and doves are average-sized birds with short necks and small heads. Doves are slender; pigeons are
considered stockier. Two dove species occur in the state: the one described below and the rock dove, which is
the common and familiar pigeon of urban areas.
Mourning Dove 11-13 inches long
Zenaida macroura
Classified as a game bird by the Federal government, the
mourning dove has the widest distribution of any North
American game bird. The adult is gray-brown with a small head
and bill. Long, pointed wings give it a streamlined shape. The
tail is long and tapered. Wings are blackish at tips, with
indistinct black spots. On each side of the head there is a black
spot that can be seen at close range. Call is a mournful “whoo,
whoo, whoo.” The mourning dove flies swiftly, with a musical
whistling of the wings.
Common in many habitats, it is found in farm fields and open
woods in urban and rural areas. Primarily a seedeater, it
consumes large numbers of weed seeds. The nest is a platform
of loose sticks in a tree, on the ground, on roofs, or on top of
the nests of other birds such as cardinals, robins, and blue jays.
Common migrant, common summer resident, and local winter
resident, the mourning dove nests in every county at all
elevations in suitable habitat.
31

Cuckoos
Cuculidae
Cuckoos are slender birds with long tails. North American cuckoos are shy birds difficult to see in dense
foliage. Usually heard more than seen, they occasionally utter a “kuk kuk" note. They are called rain crows
because their calls are thought to forecast rain. Two species occur in the state.
Black-billed Cuckoo 11-12 inches long
Coccyzus erythropthalmus
This cuckoo is brown above and white below. The bill is slightly
curved downward, and all black. Adults have a red eye-ring. The
long tail has white spots that are not as distinct as the yellowbilled
cuckoo. Sexes are outwardly similar. The call is "cu, cu,
cu." This cuckoo's diet consists of tent and other caterpillars, hairy
caterpillars, beetles, ants, wasps, flies, and fruits such as grapes.
The nest is of twigs, built in dense thickets or small trees. Often
this bird lays eggs in the nests of catbirds, wood thrushes, and
yellow warblers. It is a fairly common migrant and uncommon to
fairly common summer resident, and it may occur in small
numbers in most counties.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo 11-13 inches long
Coccyzus americanus
The yellow-billed cuckoo is gray-brown above and white below, and has a
rufous color on the wings. Long black under tail surface has 6 large white spots
like thumbprints visible from below. Bill is curved downwards and the lower
mandible is yellow, while the upper mandible is black. Sexes are outwardly
alike. Call is a series of “kuks" ending in a slow “cowk-cowk." Their habitat is in
dense tangles of undergrowth or brushy roadside thickets by streams. Diet is
similar to the black-billed, including tent caterpillars. The nest, built on a
horizontal limb of a small tree or bush, is flat and flimsy, constructed of short
twigs and lined with grass, moss, or rags. Incubation is by both sexes. Unlike
the black-billed cuckoo, the female rarely lays eggs in other birds' nests. It is a
fairly common migrant and fairly common summer resident, probably nesting in
every county in wooded areas, but it is not found in dense mature forests.
32

Owls
Strigidae
Owls are nocturnal (night) raptors with hooked bills and sharp talons, cryptically (concealing) colored in
patterns of brown, buff, and gray. Body feathers are soft, and the leading edges of flight feathers are saw-
toothed, permitting silent flight. Sexes are similar in appearance, but females are larger. Eight species occur in
West Virginia, although some species are rare and local.
Eastern Screech Owl 7-10 inches long
Otus asio
This small owl has noticeable ear tufts, yellow eyes, and feathered
toes. Screech owls can be either gray or cinnamon-red. The red
phase is rufous above with narrow black streaks, and the under
parts are white with dark streaks and crossbar markings. Wings
are reddish-brown with 2 rows of white spots and white bars on
the primaries. The gray phase has gray- brown upper parts with
streaks, streaked white under parts, and 2 conspicuous lines of
white spots on the wings. Call is a high-pitched trill, or whinny,
with a pronounced waver. Screech owls occur in a variety of
habitats, including open woods, forests, farms, and residential
areas. They nest in tree cavities or specially constructed nest
boxes. They will nest close to human dwellings. Nesting activities
begin in February to March. The parents feed young birds until
they are 5 to 6 weeks old. Food consists of mice, beetles,
cockroaches, spiders, shrews, and pigeons. Screech owls tend to
be permanent residents throughout the state.
Great Horned Owl 18-25 inches long
Bubo virginianus
This is the most powerful and aggressive North
American owl. Horned owls are large, with wingspan to 60 inches, and have
prominent widely spaced ear tufts, yellow eyes, a conspicuous white throat,
barred buff under parts, and dark gray-brown upper parts. The call is a low
“boo, boo, boo " Males and females have different pitches. They will also
utter screams. These owls are generally found in woodland, but can occur in
city parks and suburbs. Nest is usually in a hollow tree, or in the nests of
hawks, crows, or squirrels. Courtship begins as early as January. Prey
includes rabbits, skunks, snakes, insects, mice, and rats. Horned owls are
permanent residents and probably occur statewide at all elevations.
33

Barred Owl 17-24 inches long
Strix varia
The barred owl is a bigheaded bird with no ear tufts. Its eyes are brown. Plumage is usually gray-brown mixed
with buff-white, with vertical streaks on belly and transverse barring on neck and upper breast. A vocal species,
barred owls have an 8-note hoot that sounds like “who cooks for you, who cooks for you- ah." They prefer
wooded swamps and deep forests, but can be found in wooded suburban areas. They nest in a hollow tree, but
they will appropriate a hawk or squirrel nest. Although large, with wingspan to 50 inches, barred owls have
weaker talons than great horned owls and usually hunt smaller prey such as frogs, crayfish, small mammals, and
birds- including screech owls. Barred owls are year-round residents.
34

Nighthawks and Nightjars
Caprimulgidae
These are nocturnal and crepuscular (evening) insect-eating birds, named for their unusual voices. They have
cryptically colored plumage, often with white patches on wings, tail, or throat. Wings and tail are long, and feet
are small and weak. Large mouths enable them to capture flying insects. Nighthawks lack rictal (soft part of
bird's bill toward back of the mouth) bristles that characterize nightjars such as the whippoorwill. When seen in
flight, nighthawks resemble small hawks. Three species occur in West Virginia: the two described below, and
the chuck-will's-widow, known to occur in several widely scattered areas in the state.
Common Nighthawk 8½-10 inches long
Chordeiles minor
The upper parts are blackish, mottled with gray and brown. Under parts are
white, barred with black-gray. There is a white patch close to the bend in the
wings, which is noticeable in flight, and a conspicuous white throat patch. In
females, the throat patch and wing patch appear buff-colored. Wings are long
and pointed and the tail is long. Frequently seen over towns and suburbs in the
evening, common nighthawks occur in many places-cities, forests, and
meadows. They feed primarily at evening and night, sweeping insects
(including moths, beetles, flies, and mosquitoes) out of the air into their large
mouths. Call is nasal and buzzy, resembling a loud "beerp.” They build no
nest, but lay eggs on gravel, roofs, and in gardens. The male feeds the
incubating female and helps feed young. Common spring migrant, summer resident, and abundant fall migrant,
flocks numbering in hundreds are common. They breed throughout the state, but locally.
Whip-poor-will 9-10 inches long
Caprimulgus vociferus
This cryptically colored bird is gray-brown with black spots and
streaks and a black chin. The male has a narrow white throat
patch and prominent white outer tail feathers, while the female
has a buff throat patch and no white in the tail. The
whippoorwill is nocturnal, roosting by day on the ground or on a
limb. It feeds on flying insects and moths captured on the wing.
Call is an unmistakable “whip-poor-will,” repeated often. They sing most prominently at dusk and dawn.
Preferred habitat is un-grazed farm woodlots. They do not build a nest; eggs are laid on the open floor of the
woods. This species is a summer resident. Whip-poor-wills have decreased since the 1950s and are missing
from areas where they were once common.
35

Swifts
Apodidae
Swifts are agile, fast-flying birds with compact bodies. Their long, pointed, "high-speed" wings curve
backwards like scimitars. Wing beats are rapid and stiff. These birds are capable of the swiftest flight among
small birds. Legs are small and weak. Most species are gregarious (social) and are seen in flocks. One species
occurs in West Virginia.
Chimney Swift 5¼ inches long
Chaetura pelagica
This is a uniformly blackish bird, short-bodied, with no apparent tail (unless spread), and with long, narrow,
curved wings. These birds fly with hurried, bat-like wing strokes, and are almost always seen flying. They utter
sharp chippering notes and are usually seen in flocks over towns, woodlands, or water. They catch insects in
flight. Nest may be in a hollow tree, but more often it is in a chimney, barn, or silo. The nest is cemented
together and attached to the surface with glutinous saliva. After the nesting period, the swift's large salivary
glands shrink, leaving cheek pouches into which flying insects can be packed. Members of this family construct
the famed edible nests used for bird nest soup. Also called "chimney sweeps," these birds are abundant migrants
and common summer residents, nesting throughout the state.
36

Hummingbirds
Trachilidae
The hummingbird family is the largest of the non-passerine birds (non-songbirds) with over 300 species
worldwide. This unique family includes one of the smallest birds in the world-the bee-sized, 2¼-inch Cuban bee
hummingbird. Hummers are noted for their dazzling iridescent colors and ability to fly up, down, backward, and
sideways. They move their wings from their shoulders, giving wings free movement; other birds move wings
from shoulder, elbow, and wrist. Hummers' tongues are tubular at the tip and also brush-tipped, for getting at
nectar. Hummers can endure cold weather by becoming dormant, but many migrate long distances. Because of
their small size, hummers have the highest metabolism of any warm- blooded vertebrate (except shrews) and
must feed most of the day to remain alive. Sixteen species of hummingbird breed in the United States, but only
the ruby-throated nests east of the Rockies.
Ruby-throated Hummingbird 3½ inches long
Archilochus colubris
Both sexes are metallic green above and gray below. Adult male
has a throat patch that flashes ruby-red, or may appear black.
Male has a deeply forked tail that is green in the center. Female
has a white throat and her tail is more rounded. Ruby-throats can
be detected by the hum of their wings (the wings can beat 75
times per second, resulting in flight speeds of up to 60 miles per
hour), and by their rapid, squeaky, chipping notes. The male has
a courtship flight during which his wings make a loud buzz.
Food is flower nectar from plants. Hummers are attracted to red
tubular flowers, especially columbine, bee balm, and
honeysuckle. They will eat many insects and pick insects from
spiders' webs.
Preferred habitat is wooded areas with open land and blooming
flowers, and suburbs. Their walnut-sized nests are built in trees,
5 to 20 feet above ground, and are made of soft down from
milkweed, thistles, ferns, and oak leaves held in place with
spider webs. The female may return each year to the same place to nest. Two eggs are usually laid and
sometimes 3 broods a season are raised. Hummers are common migrants and common summer residents and
probably nest in every county.
37

Kingfishers
Alcedinidae
Kingfishers have short necks and large heads, sometimes with a crest. Their bills are long and usually sharply
pointed, in order to catch fish and aquatic insects. Feet are small, and 2 of the front toes are joined-a family
characteristic. For nesting, kingfishers dig burrows in banks. There are over 90 species worldwide, only 3 of
which occur in North America, and only 1 in West Virginia.
Belted Kingfisher 12-14 inches long
Caryle alcyon
These birds are usually seen near water. Long bill, bluegray
head, and conspicuous chest are distinctive. Both
sexes are blue-gray above with a white collar and a broad
band of blue-gray across the breast, with white below.
Unlike most North American birds, the female kingfisher
is more colorful than the male, having a chestnut band
across the belly. Wing beats are irregular in pace, giving a
distinctive flight style. Voice is a peculiar loud rattling
call. Habitat is wherever there is water - ponds, brooks,
mountain streams, and rivers. Kingfishers eat small fish,
small frogs, and snakes, disgorging pellets of fish bones
and scales. Their nest is a burrow 3-7 feet long, excavated
horizontally in a creek bank of sand, clay, or gravel. It may
take the birds, digging with feet and bill, up to 3 weeks to
excavate the chamber. They may also nest in a hollow tree.
Kingfishers are fairly common migrants and winter and
summer residents. Populations have declined as streams
have become too polluted to maintain aquatic life,
although due to efforts to restore many of the state's
waterways, their numbers are increasing.
38

Woodpeckers
Picidae
Woodpeckers are well adapted to life on tree trunks and branches. Using their strong toes to cling to bark, they
prop themselves up with their strong pointed tail feathers. The straight, hard bills are used as chisels to hammer
into trees. Nostrils are often covered with bristle-like feathers that may help to protect them from wood dust.
Thick skull and special bill muscles help absorb the shock of pounding. Tongues are very long, and protrude to
long lengths when feeding. The barbed tip of the tongue is bordered with bristles and coated with saliva, so the
bird can use its sticky tongue to catch insects or as a brush for licking sap from trees. Woodpeckers drum on
resonant wood to announce territory and attract mates. Their flight pattern is undulating.
Red-headed Woodpecker 7½-8½ inches long
Melanerpes erythrocephalus
At one time more widespread in the state than currently, this handsome bird has a
red head; white breast, belly, and rump; and blackish wings with large white
patches on the secondaries. Males and females look alike, but young birds have a
brownish head. Their call is a loud “kweer.” Preferred habitat is an open grove of
oak woods, but also woodland edges, parks, or stands of dead trees without much
under-story cover. Red-headed woodpeckers will pursue other woodpeckers, catch
insects from trees and posts, and store nuts and acorns for the winter. They also
eat fruit and come to feeders for suet and sunflower seeds. Populations will
fluctuate and disappear completely for some years, only to reappear. They nest in
holes in trees, dead stumps, poles, and fence posts. In West Virginia, this
woodpecker is an uncommon local permanent resident, uncommon migrant, and
uncommon winter visitant.
Red-bellied Woodpecker 9-10 inches long
Melanerpes carolinus
This common, noisy woodpecker has a black and
white barred back, gray face, and gray under parts. The red belly patch varies in
size and intensity of color and is often difficult to see. Rump is white. In the male,
the entire top of the head is bright red, while the female has a red nape and gray
crown. Young birds have a brown head. There is a small white patch on the
primaries. This bird is vocal and has many calls, including “churr" and ”ta-wick "
Both sexes drum. They prefer wooded bottomlands with groves of large trees.
Diet includes larvae, ants, beetles, grasshoppers, berries, grapes, and cherries.
Both sexes excavate the nest hole, which is usually in a dead or soft-wooded tree.
The round entrance hole is usually about 2 inches in diameter, with a 10- to 12inch
deep cavity. Incubation is by both sexes. They are fairly common permanent
residents.
39

Yellow-bellied Sapsucker 7-8 inches long
Sphyrapicus varius
This bird's plumage is variable. In general, adults have a bright
red forehead, 2 white lengthwise stripes across the face, a black
bib across the upper breast, and a long white stripe down each
wing. Upper parts are barred with black and white, and center
of the belly is yellowish. Male has a red throat, while the
female's throat is white. Calls are varied, including a low nasal
mew and a “ceh-en" alarm note. Both sexes drum. The pattern
is distinctive, consisting of several rapid taps followed by
slower ones. Mostly in winter and spring, yellow-bellied
sapsuckers drill a regular pattern of holes in trees, from which
the birds extract sap with their long, brush-tipped tongues. They
also feed on insects attracted to the sap. Diet includes ants,
wasps, moths, beetles, fruit, and berries. At feeders, they will
eat suet and grape jelly. Preferred habitat is deciduous forest.
They may start several nest holes in a soft-wooded tree before
deciding on a final one. Nest hole, excavated mostly by the
male, is about 1½ inch in diameter. Incubation is by both sexes,
and both parents feed the young.
Uncommon to fairly common migrant, uncommon winter
visitant, and rare local summer resident, sapsuckers have been
decreasing in population. They once occurred in greatest
numbers at middle elevations, but now there are nesting records
from higher elevation areas, including Randolph and
Pocahontas counties.
40

Downy Woodpecker 6-7 inches long
Picoides pubescens
These familiar woodpeckers are patterned black and white. They have a black cap,
black eye stripe, and small black moustache. Eyebrow is white. Under parts are graywhite,
with a back is white, and wings are black barred with white. Males have a red
patch on the nape, but females do not. Outer tail feathers generally have bars that
appear as spots when the bird is in climbing position. Call note is a weak “pik" and a
series of “ki ki" notes. Both sexes give a territorial drum that resembles a long roll.
They also drum to attract mates. Habitat is varied, including forests, woodlands,
gardens, and urban and suburban areas. Downies cling to tree branches to dig out
grubs, insect eggs, borers, and aphids. They also eat spiders, acorns, sap, and berries,
and come to feeders for suet, cornbread, and peanut butter. In fall, downies dig fresh
holes in dead trees for winter roosting places.
Both sexes excavate the nest cavity, which is usually drilled in a dead snag.
Incubation is by both sexes. Adults feed insects to their young and carry fecal sacs
away. They are a fairly common to common-permanent resident, nesting in every
county.
The hairy woodpecker (Picoldes villosus) is similar to the downy, but is larger, 7½
to 9½ inches, with a longer bill (about as long as head), while the downy's bill is shorter than the head, and the
hairy woodpecker has white outer tail feathers. The hairy has a loud "peek" call note, prefers larger trees than
the downy, and is shier. A fairly common permanent resident, it probably nests in every county.
41

Northern (Common) Flicker 11-14 inches long
Colaptes auratus
Northern flickers have barred black and brown backs, buff-white with black spotted
under parts, and a broad black necklace. The eastern species (formerly called yellowshafted
flicker) has gray from forehead to nape, with a red nape band, and tan face and
throat. Wing linings are yellow and flash golden in flight. Males have a black
moustache. A white rump patch on both sexes is distinctive and can be seen from a
distance, quick help in identifying these birds. Territorial call is a loud series of “wik,
wik, wik" notes; conflict call is “wick-a, wick-a. "Unlike many woodpeckers, northern
flickers are basically ground- feeding birds with a preference for ants. They also eat
grubs, beetles, and wild fruits such as blueberries and hackberries. Habitat is varied,
including woods, parks, and suburban areas. The male plays a main role in selecting the
nest site, which is often in the trunk of a dead tree, or a previous nest site may be used.
Both male and female excavate the cavity. Excavating or refurbishing a cavity may take
2 weeks. Incubation is by both sexes. Young are fed by regurgitation, the adults
inserting their bills into those of the nestlings. Flickers are fairly common migrants and
summer and winter residents, nesting in every county. Starlings will often appropriate
nest holes, which may limit flicker populations.
Pileated Woodpecker 16-19 inches long
Dryocopus pileatus
Also called Indian hen, this crow-sized bird is black overall, with a few white marks
on the sides, and a large flame-red crest. Eyes are cream colored and there is a black
eye line. Female has a black moustache, while male's is red. Bill is dark. Large size,
heavy undulating flight, and broad white wing linings-very visible when the bird
flies-easily identify this woodpecker. Calls are variable, and some are very loud. This
bird also drums. Pileateds prefer forested areas where there are enough mature trees
for nesting and foraging. They enter roosting holes at night. About 75 percent of their
diet is animal food, such as ants and grubs. They also eat fruit of dogwood and poison
ivy, and they will visit feeders for suet. The nest, excavated by both sexes, is often in
a dead tree. Incubation is also by both sexes but more by the male. Young are hatched
naked with eyes closed. Uncommon to fairly common permanent residents, they
probably occur in every county.
42

Tyrant Flycatchers
Tyrannidae
These birds are called flycatchers because of their ability to catch flying insects right out of the air, and tyrant
because some members of this group are aggressive, chasing birds much larger than themselves. This is a large
family with over 400 species worldwide, 39 of which occur in North America. Flycatchers have large heads,
and flattened bills, and many have bristles at the base of the bill. Many also have a distinct crest, although they
are often plainly colored with brown, gray, or olive green, and are difficult to distinguish. Sexes are usually
outwardly similar. About 10 species occur in West Virginia. Some, such as the olive-sided flycatcher, are rare
and local. Others, such as the Empidonax group (acadian, willow, and alder flycatchers) resemble each other
and can best be distinguished by song and habitat. The acadian flycatcher is a common to abundant summer
resident and occurs throughout the state, except at higher elevations. It prefers forest habitats, and its song is an
explosive "poet-seet."
Eastern Phoebe 6½-7 inches long
Sayornis phoebe
This rather nondescript species is gray-black above, with head,
wings, and tail slightly darker than back, and under parts pale
buff-white. Young birds have wing bars (bars on adults are not
distinct) and pale yellow under parts. Phoebes are early spring
migrants and may arrive in March, leaving as late as November.
They are easily identified by their distinctive "fee- bee, fee-bee"
call, repeated over and over. Their other noticeable trait is the
habit of flicking the tail up and down and sideways when
perched. Preferred habitat is woodlands with streams, farmyards,
and wooded country roads. They eat beetles, flies, moths, ticks,
and crickets. Nests may be built on rock ledges, but now are
more often on man-made structures such as barn rafters, eaves,
bridges, or windows. Nest is a cup of mud and moss, and new
nests may be built on top of old ones. These birds may raise 2 to
3 broods a season. Nesting probably occurs in all counties.
Phoebes are common spring and fall migrants, common summer
residents, and occasional winter visitants.
The eastern wood pewee (Contopus virens) resembles the
phoebe, but has 2 narrow white wing bars. It occurs in woodlands throughout the state. The song, usually heard
at dawn and dusk, is “pee-a-wee."
43

Great Crested Flycatcher 8-9 inches long
Myiarchus crinitus
This flycatcher is olive-brown above, with a pale gray breast and throat,
conspicuous yellow belly, long rufous tail, whitish wing bars, and cinnamon
color in the wings. It will raise its crown feathers while looking for food or in
encounters with other birds. Although a rather common species in its habitat-
wooded areas, clearings, and orchards-it is more often heard than seen, and
can be located by its characteristic loud, far-reaching call of “wheeep."
The male establishes territory in woodland, and may fight with other males in
aerial combat. Its diet consists of many insects, including houseflies,
mosquitoes, moths, and grasshoppers. It also eats fruit, grapes, and
pokeberries. It prefers to nest in natural cavities or abandoned woodpecker
holes. If the cavity is too deep, the bird will fill it with leaves. The nest is
cuplike, built of leaves and grass and such items as cast-off snakeskin,
feathers, and cellophane. A fairly common summer resident, this flycatcher
probably nests in every county.
Eastern Kingbird 8-9 inches long
Tyrannus tyrannus
This bird is easily distinguished with its dark slate-gray head and back,
indistinct white wing bars, and white breast. There is a red crown patch that is
seldom visible. However, the broad white band at the end of the tail is very
conspicuous. This common bird is noisy and aggressive, and will attack
vultures. It frequents open environments where there are perches-roadsides,
edges of woods, and pastures- and often perches on wires. It utters highpitched
notes. Kingbirds eat more than 200 kinds of insects, catching them on
the wing, plucking them from the ground, and scooping them from the water.
They also eat fruit. Nest is bulky, about 5 inches in diameter, usually placed
well out on a horizontal tree limb, or sometimes in the rain gutter of a house,
in a hollow tree, or on a fence post. Kingbirds are fairly common summer
residents, occurring throughout the state in open country, and also common
migrants.
44

Larks
Alaudidae
Larks are brown or gray birds usually found in relatively open country. Larks have elongated hind toes and
walk or run rather than hop. The skylark, noted for its exquisite song, is a European species belonging to this
family. One species occurs in the state.
Horned Lark 7-8 inches long
Eremophila alpestris
The horned lark has an overall brown appearance, with a yellow
face that is patterned with bold black moustaches, and a black
line across the forehead. The horns, or small black feather tufts
on the crown, are hard to see except up close. There is a black
bar across the upper chest, a black tail with white outer tail
feathers, and white under parts. Female is duller, with no black
on the crown. A ground bird, it is found in open places. Habitat
is fields, golf courses, airports, and other grassy places. The
song is a high- pitched jumble of trinkling notes, and the flight
song is “wee-pit." As a courtship display, the lark flies to 800
feet high, then drops with wings closed. Diet consists of weed
seeds, grain, and ants and other insects. The female in a hollow
on the bare ground builds nest. Incubation is by the female. There may be 2 broods. Larks occur throughout the
state wherever there are large open fields. They are uncommon to fairly common permanent residents, fairly
common winter residents-when they may congregate in large flocks-and migrants,
45

Swallows
Hirundinidae
Swallows are well adapted to aerial life, being slender and sleek with long pointed wings. In flight, they hold
their mouths open to scoop flying insects out of the air. Swallows have facial bristles (swifts do not) and perch
more often than swifts. Outer tail feathers are very long in some species. Call consists of twitters, squeaks, and
chatters. Six species occur in the state. Northern rough-winged swallows probably occur in every county, with
nests located on bridge abutments and rocky banks, usually near water. Bank and cliff swallows are very
common migrants and occasional summer residents.
Purple Martin 7-8¼ inches long
Progne subis
The male is uniformly blue-black, appearing black at a distance,
and the tail is moderately forked. Females and immature birds are
dull purplish blue above, with grayish under parts. Martins prefer
grassy river valleys, lakeshores, marshes, meadows, or cut-over
woods. In flight, they flap and sail, with a circular flight pattern.
Food is mainly insects such as ants, beetles, dragonflies, moths,
and mosquitoes. Song is liquid and rich and call note is “tyu"
often given in flight. Nest is in a natural tree cavity, but these
birds will use martin houses. Up to 270 pairs have been reported
in one house. Both sexes construct the nest, which is composed of
mud, twigs, and feathers.
Purple martins are common spring and fall migrants, locally
common summer residents, and probably nest in colonies in every
county. They begin to congregate July to August for southward
migration. Purple martins are also subject to die-offs during bad
weather in May and June.
Tree Swallow 5-6 inches long
Tachycineta bicolor
The adult male is blue-black or green-black above, and pure white
below. Adult female is duller, almost brown, and immature birds
are brownish above. Wings are triangular and the tail is notched.
Usually tree swallows forage around water, snatching bees, flies,
ants, and other insects from the air. During the night they roost in
shrubs. In colder weather, they will eat seeds and berries. Voice is
a liquid twittering “klweet." Nest, made of grasses and lined with
feathers, is in a natural tree cavity, abandoned woodpecker hole,
bird box, or eaves. It is a fairly common spring migrant,
uncommon local summer resident, and uncommon fall migrant.
46

Barn Swallow 5¾-7¾ inches long
Hirundo rustics
This familiar swallow is our only swallow with a deeply forked
tail. Male is a metallic blue-black above, with rust-colored under
parts and a chestnut throat. There are white spots in the tail.
Females are usually duller, but not always. Barn swallows will fly
over ploughed fields, meadows, and marshes to catch
grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, and moths. They drink and bathe
by skimming the water. Flight is swift without much gliding.
These birds are excellent flyers and swoop back and forth. Call is
a series of clear notes interspersed with a harsh, twittering rattle.
Nest is a cup of mud or clay pellets, lined with feathers or
horsehair, and plastered against a horizontal or vertical surface.
The barn swallow may nest in colonies. Common migrant and
common summer resident, and the most common swallow in the
state, it probably nests in every county. They begin to flock in
July and August and depart south through September.
47

Crows and Jays
Corvidae
This family contains such active and noisy birds as crows, jays, magpies, and Clark's nutcracker, a western
species. The crow family seems to possess the highest intelligence among birds. They can be taught to count,
and can mimic the human voice and the sounds of other birds and animals. In the crow family nostrils are
usually covered with tufts of feathers. There are bristles around the mouth, and sexes are outwardly similar.
Four species occur in the state.
Blue Jay 11-12½ inches long
Cyanocitta cristata
The blue jay is unmistakable with its prominent blue crest, black
necklace, blue back and long blue tail, white spots on wings, and
white under parts. It has a wide variety of calls, from cries to
lisping notes, and can imitate the shrieks of hawks. It is
omnivorous and eats vegetable matter such as acorns, blueberries,
currants, and cherries, as well as insects such as caterpillars
(including those of the gypsy moth), beetles, and spiders. It will
visit feeders for suet and peanuts. Blue jays will often build a
false nest first, then build a real nest of twigs, which is bulky, 7 to
8 inches in diameter, and lined with moss, string, or paper. Adults
will defend nest and young. These birds may live to 15 years of
age. A fairly common permanent resident and common spring
and fall migrant, they have become more widespread in the state
over the last 20 years.
American Crow 17-21 inches long
Corvus brachyrhynchos
This highly adaptable and familiar bird is black with metallic violet gloss
on the body. The tail is squared and legs are black. Adults have brown
eyes, while immature crow have blue. Albinos also occur. The crow's
fondness for corn as well as songbird eggs does not add to its popularity.
However, crows eat insects, spiders, and millipedes, which makes them of
economic benefit in insect control. They also scavenge on carrion and
garbage, regurgitating pellets containing indigestible bones and seeds.
Their nest in trees is well built of branches and twigs. Eggs are blue-green,
although some are reddish. In captivity they may live to over 20 years.
Crows are common summer residents, spring and fall migrants, and locally
common winter residents.
48

Common Raven 21-27 inches long
Corvus corax
This large ebony bird of the wilderness has a glossy sheen to its plumage, a large black arched bill, and large
nostrils hidden by bristly tufts of feathers, shaggy throat feathers, and long central tail feathers. In flight, it is
distinguished from the crow by its large size and wedge-shaped tail. Its flight pattern is also different: crows
flap, while ravens alternately flap and soar, Ravens can hover as do kestrels, or rise and circle as do hawks.
They have an impressive courtship flight, tumbling over and over in the air. Ravens will mate for life. Largely
scavengers, they feed on carrion, but will eat insects and berries, and will drop shellfish from aloft to break the
shell. Their voice is hoarse, with croaking notes, and they have many different calls. Ravens nest on cliffs or in
conifers. The nest is bulky, built of branches, and is 2 to 3 feet across, 4 feet high, and lined with deer hair,
sheep's wool, grass, and lichens. Incubation is by the female, and the male feeds the female on the nest. Both
parents feed the young. Ravens are found in higher elevation wilderness areas, such as Canaan Valley, and areas
where there are cliff faces, such as Coopers Rock State Forest. Ravens are uncommon to fairly common local
permanent residents.
49

Titmice
Paridae
Titmice (meaning "small birds") are usually less than 6 inches long with soft, fluffy, usually grayish plumage,
and head crest. Active, friendly, and curious birds, all are cavity-nesting. In winter titmice and chickadees roam
woods in small family groups, and may join nuthatches and kinglets, all of which have been referred to as
snowbirds. Sexes are outwardly similar. Three species occur regularly in the state.
Black-capped Chickadee 4¾-5¾ inches long
Parus atricapillus
A black cap, black bib, and white cheeks easily identify the chickadee. It is gray above, whitish below, and rust
or buff on the sides and flanks. The call note is “chickadee dee" and the song is "fee- bee." The chickadee's
habitat is mixed hardwood coniferous forests or
residential areas; some birds can become very tame.
They forage for caterpillars, insect eggs, beetles, ants,
aphids, and scale insects, and will also eat fruit and
conifer seeds. Chickadees will visit feeders for
sunflower seeds or a peanut butter-cornmeal mixture.
This bird breeds primarily in the Allegheny mountain
region and higher elevations. Nest records do occur
from lower elevation areas, however. The pair in
rotten tree branches or stumps digs the nest, or it may
be in an abandoned woodpecker hole or bird box.
Incubation is by both parents. If disturbed, the
incubating bird may utter a loud hiss. Chickadees can
reach 12 years of age. They are common local
permanent residents and sometimes-common local
fall migrants and winter visitants.
The Carolina chickadee (Parus carolinensis) is similar in appearance to the black-capped, but smaller, about
4½ inches long. The “chickadee" call is higher than that of the black-capped, and the song is “fee-bee, fee-bay. "
The 2 species have been known to hybridize. Carolina chickadees are fairly common permanent residents, but
may be more numerous in winter. They are a more southern non-migratory species than the black-capped,
which nests as far north as Alaska.
50

Tufted Titmouse 5-6 inches long
Parus bicolor
This familiar bird is gray above and white below,
with rusty flanks, pointed and prominent crest, and
large dark eyes. Titmice live in deciduous woodlands,
city parks, and residential areas. A pair will mate for
life. The loud and distinctive whistle sounds like
“peter, peter, peter." Both sexes sing. Diet is varied
and includes caterpillars, beetles, larvae, cockroach
eggs, blackberries, cherries, acorns, and beechnuts.
Titmice will hold nuts under their feet on a branch
and open them with blows of the bill. They come to
feeders for suet and bread and will store sunflower
seed in the ground or crevices. They nest in natural
cavities, such as in fence posts, and take hairs from
live opossums, woodchucks, and people, for nesting
material. Both parents feed the young. Sometimes
there are 2 broods a season, and the first brood of
young may help care for the second. Common
permanent residents, titmice occur throughout the
state.
51

Nuthatches
Sittidae
Nuthatches are small birds under 7 inches long. They have short tails and legs, with toes so long that the birds
can walk straight down tree trunks, foraging for food in crevices missed by "up climbers" such as woodpeckers.
Vocalizations consist of nasal or piping notes. Sexes are usually outwardly similar. There are 2 species in the
state.
Red-breasted Nuthatch 4½-4¾ inches long
Sitta canadensis
As the name implies, this nuthatch is buff or red-brown below. Upper parts
are blue-gray, with a black cap, white stripe above the eyes, and a black eye
line. The female is duller in color. Its habitat is mature spruce forests or
mixed spruce hardwoods. In West Virginia the red-breasted nuthatch is
often found in higher mountain areas. It moves quickly over tree bark or
winds its way about conifer needles. The song is high-pitched, and the call
is a nasal “ank.” Diet consists of conifer seeds, beetles, caterpillars, and
insect eggs. This bird will come to feeders for suet and nuts. It will wedge
food into crevices and break it open with the bill. The nest is in a tree
cavity or bird box, and the occupants may smear pitch from conifers around
the entrance. Incubation is by both sexes. This nuthatch is a fairly common
local summer resident, occasional migrant, and sometimes winter visitant.
White-breasted Nuthatch 5-6inches long
Sitta carolinensis
The white-breasted nuthatch has a blue-gray back and a black cap and nape
that contrast with the white sides of the face and chest, tawny flanks, and
white patches on each side of the stubby tail. It can be found around forests,
farms, towns, or parks, often on a tree trunk moving head downward. The
call is a nasal “yank." Usually nuthatches roost at night in holes of trees.
Easily tamed, they can be handfed peanuts and sunflower seeds. They also
eat beechnuts, acorns, moths, tent caterpillars, and other insects. They nest in
tree cavities or utilize bird boxes. The nest is constructed of bark, cow hair,
and sometimes wool. Incubation is by both sexes. They are uncommon to
fairly common permanent residents, occurring throughout the state.
52

Creepers
Certhiidae
Creepers are small birds (under 7 inches) that cling to vertical surfaces of trees and use their stiff tails to prop
themselves up. Their down curved bills are used for probing, and they often feed by spiraling up tree trunks,
then flying to the ground and spiraling up again. There are only 6 species worldwide, one of which is North
American.
Brown Creeper 5-5¾ inches long
Certhia americana
The brown creeper is identified by a thin, down curved bill, brown upper parts streaked
with gray-white, whitish under parts, and buff on the flanks and under tail coverts.
These woodland birds require dead or dying trees with loose bark for nesting. Their
song is high and thin; the common note is a high tinkling "seep." Creepers eat beetles,
aphids, scale insects, and moths, and come to feeders for a suet- peanut butter-cornbread
mixture. The nest is in tree cavities or under the bark of dead tree trunks, and is
crescent-shaped, made of mosses and twigs and lined with feathers, Creepers are fairly
common local summer residents, spring and fall migrants and occasional winter
visitants.
53

Wrens
Trogiodytidae
Most wrens are quick and active birds with sharp pointed bills that are usually slightly down curved. They often
carry their tails cocked over their backs. Sexes are similar in appearance, and in some species both sexes sing
throughout the year. Male wrens usually build several nests and some wrens are polygamous. Six species occur
in West Virginia but some are rare and local.
Carolina Wren 5¼-6 inches long
Thryothorus ludovicianus
The largest eastern wren, this bird is rich red-brown above, with a white
chin, buff under parts, and a conspicuous white eye-stripe. The male may
sing throughout the year, the loud song resembling "tea- kettle, teakettle."
This bird will also scold and call. Carolina wrens can be found in
undergrowth near water, swamps, woodpiles, and around houses. Their food
includes beetles, moths, cockroaches, spiders, and some berries and seeds.
They will come to feeders. Nest is of grasses and mosses, found in tree
cavities, pails, old clothes, mailboxes, and rafters.
This bird is a fairly common to common-permanent resident, occurring
throughout the state but not in spruce forests. Carolina wrens are especially
susceptible to winter mortality due to bad weather, particularly in northern
West Virginia where the species is near the northern limits of its range.
House Wren 4½-5¼ inches long
Troglodytes aedon
These aggressive little wrens have dull gray-brown upper parts
and narrow black bars on wings and tail. A migratory species,
they often return to the previous nesting territory, males usually
arriving before females. The song is a series of loud, clear,
bubbling notes. Diet is almost entirely of insects. These wrens
prefer woods, wood edges, yards, or parks, where the female
chooses one of several nests the male has built. Nests may be
found in an interesting variety of crevices such as teapots, boots,
weather vanes, holes in walls, and even cow skulls. Uncommon
to common summer residents, house wrens probably nest in
every county, but numbers vary.
54

Old World Warblers
Sylviinae (Muscicapidae includes old world warblers and thrushes)
Old world warblers are a large family, and worldwide there are almost 400 species, represented in America by
gnatcatchers and kinglets. Both are small, slander birds with long, thin, pointed bills. Gnatcatchers forage
among tree leaves hunting for insects, and have high-pitched trills. They are very active, and frequently flip
their tails. Kinglets are among the smallest North American birds and will also search through trees for insects.
Three species occur in West Virginia.
Golden-crowned Kinglet 3½-4 inches long
Regulus satrapa
This short-tailed bird is olive green above with 2 whitish wing
bars and whitish under parts. Male has an orange crown, while
the female has a yellow crown. In both sexes the crown is
bordered with black. They exhibit the habit of flicking their
wings when hopping from twig to twig, which along with the
high-pitched “zee, zee, zee" notes is sometimes more useful for
identification than the bright crown. Friendly birds, they may
enter open cabins. Their diet is mostly insects and insect eggs.
Nest, built of mosses and lichens, is globular with a top entrance
and normally located 30 to 60 feet up in a conifer. This bird is a
fairly common spring and fall migrant, common local summer
resident, and occasional winter visitant. At present, it is considered a higher elevation breeding bird.
The ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus calendula) resembles the golden-crowned but has a bold whitish eye-ring
and scarlet crown patch. In West Virginia it is a fairly common migrant.
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher 4-5 inches long
Polioptila caerulea
This is a slender bird with a blue-gray back, whitish under parts, and a long
black tail with noticeable white outer tail feathers. The male in spring has a
black forehead stripe and black stripe over the eyes. This intensely active
bird is easily identified by a high, thin, buzzy call emitted as it flits about
among tree leaves. It eats gnats, beetles, flies, ants, insect eggs and larvae.
Found around wooded areas, these birds nest in trees, usually around 25 feet
up. Nest is cup-like, lined with feathers and hair and fastened to a branch by
spider's silk. Incubation is by both sexes. Gnatcatchers are common spring
migrants and fairly common summer residents. They are present in summer
throughout the state but are scarce at higher elevations.
55

Thrushes
Turdidae (Subfamily)
This well-known family has many species noted for their melodious songs. Seven species occur in the state.
Some, such as the gray-cheeked thrush, are seen during migration, while others, including the veery, Swainson's
thrush, and the hermit thrush, occur during the summer at higher elevations.
Eastern Bluebird 6-7 inches long
Sialia sialis
The male is bright blue above, with blue wings and tail. Throat, breast and
flanks are reddish, and belly and under tail coverts are white. Females are
somewhat similar but not as bright, and have a more brownish back.
Young are grayish, with a speckled breast. Bluebirds often perch on wires
and fences in open areas and have a hunched, almost beady-eyed
appearance. They live in open places such as fields and gardens. Their call
is a soft, distinctive warble. Bluebirds eat mainly insects, including
crickets, beetles, centipedes, but also fruits such as wild grapes and juniper
berries. They will visit feeders for mealworms and a peanut buttercornmeal
mixture. Mostly the female in a tree cavity, fencepost, or
bluebird box builds nest, made of dried grass and twigs lined with hair and
feathers. Putting up bluebird nest boxes may help increase bluebird populations, as starlings compete with
bluebirds for nest sites and are usually dominant over them. Bluebirds are occasional migrants, uncommon to
common summer residents, and fairly common winter residents. The birds may sing as early as February. They
occur throughout the state but populations are probably lower than they once were, as bluebirds are subject to
kills during hard winters.
Wood Thrush 7½-8½ inches long
Hylocichia mustelina
This songster has a cinnamon brown back, russet head, grayish
cheeks, and a narrow eye-ring. White breast, sides, and flanks
have large round or oval black spots. Sexes look alike. The
wood thrush lives in cool, damp forests and has adapted to
living in parks and gardens. The song is a flutelike 3-syliable
“ee-o-lay, " and the call note is “pit, pit. " When alarmed this
bird raises its head feathers like a crest. Feeding mostly on the
ground, it eats beetles, ants, and flies, also fruit such as
blackberries and elderberries. The nest is of dead leaves and
moss, 6 to 50 feet up in a tree, and may have paper or cloth built
into the nest. Incubation is by the female, with usually 2 broods
per year. The wood thrush is a common spring and fall migrant,
and common summer resident, probably nesting in all counties, although it seems to prefer heavy forest cover.
56

American Robin 9-11 inches long
Turdus migratorius
Brick red breast, dark gray back, and white spectacles quickly identify this familiar bird. Males have black
heads and tails, while females are duller. Young have speckled breasts. Originally a forest species, and still a
woodland bird, robins have adapted well to suburban and city life. They eat earthworms, beetles, weevils,
termites, cutworms, and in winter bayberries, mistletoe berries, and other fruit. Robins may find worms by
sight, cocking their heads to one side to see. Song is a “cheer, cheer, cheer-up " Nest is a deep cup of mud and
grasses, found from the ground to treetops, and on roofs and porches. Incubation is mostly by the female, with
usually 2 broods per year, and sometimes 3. Common at all times of the year, robins nest throughout the state at
all elevations. Large flocks of robins seen here in the winter may be migrants from further north or birds that
summer in the state.
57

Mockingbirds and Thrashers
Mimidae (Mimic Thrushes)
This group of birds is well known for their loud and complex vocalizations, and some are skillful mimics of
other birds. Most have long tails, with gray or brown plumage, and are found in low dense vegetation. They
build bulky nests near the ground. Sexes generally look alike. There are 3 species in the state.
Gray Catbird 8-9 inches long
Dumetella carolinensis
The only bird that is plain slate gray, the catbird has rusty under tail
coverts and a black cap and black tail. Named for its catlike scolding call,
it has a variety of phrases, some sweet, some harsh, and also a low
whisper song." In the autumn, it may sing at night. The catbird can
imitate calls of jays, songbirds, tree frogs, and the squawk of a hen. These
birds live in thickets, forest edges, and gardens. Diet includes insects,
crickets, Japanese beetles, caterpillars, and berries. They will come to
feeders for cheese, crackers, and raisins. The nest is a ragged mass of sticks, and the cup may be lined with
horsehair or rootlets. The eggs are a glossy, dark blue-green, and adults may raise 2 broods per season.
Common summer resident, and sometimes early winter visitants, they nest in all counties at all elevations.
Northern Mockingbird 9-11 inches long
Mimus polyglottos
Famous as a mimic and for its rapturous singing, this bird is soft gray above
and light gray below, with white wing bars. The long blackish tail has white
outer tail feathers. White wing patches at the base of the primaries, visible
in flight, easily identify the mockingbird. They live around shrubbery, open
woods, hedges, and gardens. Expert singers, mockingbirds repeat each
phrase several times before beginning the next one, and sing throughout the
year, often on moonlit nights. They have at least 39 song variations and 50
call notes, and can imitate barking dogs and piano notes. Diet includes
grasshoppers, weevils, beetles, and other insects.
This bird often raises its wings, perhaps to flush prey. It also eats fruits of
greenbrier, red cedar, poison ivy, and pokeberry, and will come to feeders
for suet and bread. Nest, built of twigs, leaves, paper, and string, is lined
with grasses. Constructed by both sexes, it may be 1 to 50 feet up in a tree
or bush. The mockingbird has increased its range in West Virginia since the
1960s, and occurs throughout the state as an uncommon to common
permanent resident. It is more common in winter in the northern parts of the state.
58

Brown Thrasher 10½-12 inches long
Toxostoma rufum
This thrasher has a fox-red back, wings, tail, and crown, with 2 white wing bars, and whitish under parts that are
heavily streaked with brown. Its tail is long and its black bill is down curved. It lives in thickets, second-growth
woods, roadsides, and gardens. The song is a series of short musical phrases, more musical than the catbird's,
and each phrase is usually in pairs. The brown thrasher forages on the ground for food, using its bill to dig for
beetles, grubs, wireworms, and cutworms. It also eats holly berries, blueberries, corn, and wheat. The nest may
be on the ground, and consists of several layers of twigs. Incubation is by both sexes and there may be 2 broods
per year. A fairly common summer resident and rare winter resident, brown thrashers probably nest in every
county.
59

Waxwings
Bombycillidae
Worldwide, there are only 3 species. Waxwings have fawn to brown-hued soft, silky plumage (in fact, the Latin
name means silky-tailed), with prominent crests. Sexes look alike. The name refers to the red, wax-like
substance that forms on tips of adults' secondary feathers. The function of this substance is not known.
Waxwings are nomadic and do not defend territory (except the nest), typically feeding in large flocks. Two
species occur in the state, cedar and Bohemian waxwings; the latter are rare in West Virginia.
Cedar Waxwing 6½-8 inches long
Bombycilla cedrorum
From a distance, adult appears as a sleek brown bird with a conspicuous crest, but at closer range the black
mask, yellow band at the end of the tail, and red waxy tips on the secondaries are evident. Waxwings tend to
remain in flocks most of the year and can be found in a variety of habitats-woods, parks, and suburban areaswhere
they seek their favorite berries, including mountain ash, firethorn, and mulberries. They also eat beetles,
caterpillars, and other insects. Call is a high-pitched, lisping “ssee, ssee. " Waxwings may nest at various times,
but usually in late summer. The nest of twigs and weeds may be found 6 to 50 feet up in a tree.
Waxwings may nest in colonies, and sometimes have 2 broods a season. Since they are nomadic, their
distribution and occurrence can be hard to predict. They may be uncommon to abundant, and their presence or
absence may be related to the food supply.
60

Shrikes
Laniidae
Shrikes are the only predatory songbirds in that they prey on vertebrate animals, including mice and other small
rodents, birds, snakes, and lizards. They also consume many insects, such as grasshoppers, crickets, and
dragonflies. Shrikes impale prey not immediately consumed head-up on a thorn or barbed wire fence, or they
may wedge prey in a fork of a branch. They seem to remember where quarry is stored, and return to consume it
even after a week or more. Two species occur in the state, the loggerhead and northern; neither is common but
the northern shrike is especially rare.
Loggerhead Shrike 8-10 inches long
Lanius ludovicianus
This shrike has a gray cap and back, black wings
with white patch, a black mask through the eyes, and
is whitish below. Head is large, and the short, hooked
bill appears black. Slim black tail has white outer tail
feathers. In flight, the shrike shows white wing
patches. It is found mainly in open country,
meadows, pastures, and thickets. Usually silent, it
has a “zoo-ort" phrase. Up to one-third of its diet is
mice and birds, and the rest is made up of insects and
reptiles. Nest is a bulky cup of twigs, lined with
string and feathers, found 5 to 15 feet up in a bush or
tree. Incubation is by one or both sexes, and they
may have 2 broods a season. This shrike is an
uncommon local summer resident and uncommon
winter resident. It is most numerous in open valleys in the eastern part of the state.
61

Starlings
Sturnidae
This group of Old World birds has II 1 species worldwide, 2 of which have been introduced into North
America. Sturnids are usually robust, stocky, and gregarious birds.
European Starling 7½-8½ inches long
Sturnus vulgaris
Introduced from Europe less than a century ago, this
adaptable species is a threat to other cavity-nesting
birds such as bluebirds and flickers. Starlings are
stubby, chunky blackish birds with long pointed bill,
triangular wings, and short, squaretail. In fall and
winter, plumage is speckled with white or tan; in
spring the lighter feather tips wear away, leaving
glossy plumage. The bill of the male also turns yellow
at this time, but is dark for the rest of the year.
Starlings are excellent mimics, imitating killdeer and
flickers. They are also good aerialists, and flocks can
maneuver with perfect precision. Starlings are
considered of economic benefit because of their insect diet that includes Japanese beetles, grasshoppers, and
spiders. They also eat garbage, fruit, weed seeds, and grain. They nest in cavities. Incubation is by both sexes,
sometimes with 3 broods a season. Abundant permanent residents, starlings occur throughout the state.
62

Vireos
Vireonidae
Vireos are small songbirds, 4 to 7 inches long, usually plain green or gray above (vireo denotes green), with the
nostrils and part of the forehead covered with bristle-like feathers. Sexes are outwardly similar and unlike
warblers, they have no seasonal changes in plumage. Vireos somewhat resemble warblers, but have heavier
bills. They eat mostly insects and berries. A vireo's nest is a distinctive cup of woven twigs and plant materials
usually built in the fork of a branch. Six species occur in the state. The solitary vireo nests primarily at higher
elevations. Yellow-throated and warbling vireos may nest throughout the state but are not always common; the
Philadelphia vireo is a migrant.
White-eyed Vireo 4½-5½ inches long
Vireo griseus
This vireo is olive green above and whitish below, with yellow on the
forehead and sides. Identification marks are the white iris (all other vireos
have dark eyes, and no yellow on forehead) and 2 white wing bars. Loud
emphatic song is “chick-a-per weebo chick," repeated over and over. This
bird is also a good mimic and can imitate the robin, catbird, song sparrow,
and others. Found in thickets, brambles, and heavy undergrowth, it is most
often located by song. It hunts through undergrowth for insects and spiders,
and also eats fruit of dogwood, wild grape, and wax myrtle. Nest is a deep
cup built in the fork of a twig, 1 to 8 feet above the ground. Incubation is by
both sexes. Often they are hosts for the brown-headed cowbird. Uncommon to common summer residents, these
vireos are more numerous in the southwestern part of the state, and are not found in the high mountains. They
are expanding their range.
Red-eyed Vireo 5½-6½ inches long
Vireo olivaceus
This common vireo has olive to greenish upper parts and
whitish under parts, and can be identified by a black-bordered
white eye-stripe and ruby red eyes. Immature birds have brown
eyes and no wing bars. Song is a continuous series of robin-like
phrases, and alarm note is a harsh “wheree " The red-eyed vireo
is noted for singing through hot summer days. It is found in
woodlands, open woods, parks, and orchards. It eats mostly
insects, such as caterpillars, moths, and webworms, and also
fruit of spicebush, dogwood, and sassafras. Nest is a thin-walled
cup, built in a fork of a twig, 2 to 60 feet up. It is made of strips
of bark, grasses, and spider silk. Incubation is by the female. Cowbirds frequently lay their eggs in red-eyed
vireo nests. This vireo is a common to abundant summer resident and, except for some species such as starlings,
may be the most numerous breeding birds in West Virginia, nesting in every county.
63

Wood Warblers
Parulinae (Subfamily)*
Wood warblers are small active insectivorous birds with small thin bills. Some species are gray or olive, while
others are brilliantly patterned with yellow, orange, red, black, and white. In temperate regions, most species are
sexually dimorphic-that is, male and female have differently colored plumage. Many wood warblers assume a
dull winter plumage different from spring plumage. These warblers can be difficult to identify. Identification of
warblers is based on presence or absence of wing bars, eye-rings, tail spots, behavior, and songs. Warblers have
a wide array of songs and calls; some are sweet and musical and some are not. Warblers in colder climates tend
to be highly migratory, wintering about 8 months in such places as Central and South America and the West
Indies. Blackpoll warblers migrate from Canada to Venezuela. Some species of warblers, such as the deepwoods-dwelling
hooded and worm-eating warblers seem to be declining due to habitat destruction in tropical
forests. About 56 species of warblers occur in North America. Thirty-eight species have been recorded in West
Virginia, and there are nest records for 29.
Blue-winged Warbler 4-5 inches long
Vermivora pinus
An inhabitant of overgrown pastures and brushy hillsides, adults
have a bright yellow head, breast, and under parts, olive-green
upper parts, narrow black line through the eyes, and blue-gray
wings with 2 white wing bars. This warbler stays fairly close to
the ground, but male often sings from a tree perch. Song is
unbird-like, sounding buzzy like an insect's, with the first note
higher in pitch. Song is an unmistakable “bee-buzz, bee-buz."
Diet consists of beetles, ants, and caterpillars. Nest, made of
bark, dead leaves, and grasses, is close to or on the ground, built
in blackberry or other bushes. The blue-winged warbler is an
uncommon spring migrant, fairly common to common-local
summer resident, and rare fall migrant. It arrives in late April.
Principal breeding area is in the Ohio Valley, but it is found in
brushy woodland in suitable habitat elsewhere. It departs southward early, and is not often reported after late
June.
The golden-winged warbler (Varmivora chrysoptera) is about 5 inches long. Male has a yellow crown, black
mask from the base of the bill to the cheeks, a black patch from chin to breast, gray back, and bright yellow on
the wings. Voice is also buzzy, like the blue-winged warbler. The first buzzy note is followed by 3 more on a
lower pitch, “bee bz bz bz.” This warbler is found in brushy clearings, and is fairly common throughout the state
as a breeding bird, but is replaced in the Ohio Valley by the blue- winged. These species also hybridize. Crosses
are known as Brewster's warbler and Lawrence's warbler, and can be found where the breeding ranges of the 2
species overlap, including Kanawha, Wetzel, Marion, and Monongalia counties.
*Wood warblers and several other bird groups, including cardinals, tanagers, new world sparrows, and new
world blackbirds, are now considered part of a large family named Emberizidae. Many species occur in West
Virginia.
64

Tennessee Warbler 4½-5 inches long
Vermivora paregrina
Unlike many other warblers, the Tennessee warbler is quite drab. Adult
male has a grayish head that contrasts with unmarked dark greenish
upper parts. There is a whitish eyebrow stripe, and under parts are white.
Female is similar, but under parts may be slightly yellowish.
The Tennessee warbler is a northern species breeding from Michigan to
Labrador and wintering from Mexico to South America. It is seen in
West Virginia only during migration. It is, however, a common and at
times abundant spring and fall migrant, and can be seen in suburban,
urban, or forest situations where there are tall trees. Feeding high up in
tree foliage, the bird's color makes it hard to see, but the staccato 2- or 3part
song, increasing in speed toward the end and then repeated, helps to identify it. This bird occurs May to
June and September into November, and is found throughout the state, although it is not common in the Eastern
Panhandle.
Northern Parula 4¼-4¾ inches long
Parula americana
This is one of the smallest warblers. The male in spring is blue-gray above,
with a greenish yellow patch on the back, yellow throat and chest, white
belly, and 2 white wing bars. He has a band of black and rufous orange on
the upper chest. Females are duller and lack the chest band. Both sexes
have a broken white eye-ring. Song is a distinctive buzz that goes up and
ends abruptly on a lower note of “zzzzeeurp. " As a migrant, the northern
parula is found in treetops, but for nesting grounds it prefers humid
woodlands and mixed hardwoods and hemlocks. It creeps along branches,
often with the head hanging down, eating beetles, fly larvae, caterpillars,
and spiders. It nests in trees, usually in hollowed-out Usnea (Old Man's
Beard) lichen, or, lacking that, in tangles of debris, "witches broom," or
similar habitats. An uncommon to common summer resident, it may nest in every county except those in the
northern panhandle.
65

Yellow Warbler 4½-5¼ inches long
Dendroica petechia
This most widespread of all North American wood warblers is
the only bird that appears all yellow at a distance. Breeding
male is sunny yellow below, with chestnut breast stripes (only
visible close up), yellow-green upper parts, and darker wings
and tail. Females are duller, with chestnut breast stripes faint or
lacking. This bird favors stream and river borders, willows,
alders, thickets, shrubbery, and residential areas. It is easily
identified by its bright yellow color and musical sweet song,
“tseet-tseet tseet-sitta-sitta-see." Diet includes gypsy moth
larvae, bark beetles, moths, aphids, and weevils. Nest is usually
from 2 to 8 feet up in a tree, or higher, and is a cup of
interwoven plant down, grasses, mosses, fur, and lichen. If a
cowbird lays its eggs in this nest, the yellow warbler may build
another layer over the cowbird eggs, and lay a new set of eggs on top. A common to abundant summer resident,
the yellow warbler is the most common and widespread West Virginia warbler and nests in every county. It
arrives in mid-April, and the main fall migration occurs in early August.
The prairie warbler (Dendroica discolor) is also mostly yellow and is a fairly common to common-summer
resident found in dense brush and scrubby places in all parts of the state. The male has bright yellow under
parts, with streaks on the sides, and yellow-green upper parts. Females are duller. This species can be identified
by its habit of bobbing or flicking its tail, and also by its distinctive song. This consists of 5 to 16 notes that
ascend the chromatic scale (go up the scale in half notes). Prairie warblers disappear from scrubby areas as
these places develop into woodland. Their diet consists of spiders and insects. The nest, usually low to the
ground and attached to bushes and briars, is a compact cup of plant down, bark, and fine grasses. The female,
who may construct several nest fragments before finishing a completed nest, builds it.
66

Magnolia Warbler 4½-5 inches long
Dendroica magnolia
A handsome and colorful warbler, the male in breeding plumage has a gray
crown, black on side of the head, black back, white wing bars, and bright
yellow under parts with black streaks. This bird has a habit of fanning its tail
to display the white tail band and bright yellow rump. (The yellow-rumped
warbler has a white throat and white under parts.) Females, immature
warblers, and fall adults are duller. Magnolia warblers tend to forage for
aphids, weevils, bark beetles, flies, and larvae near the centers of trees,
which make the birds hard to see. Song is a rising “wee-o-wee-o-wee-chy. "
Nest is of loose twigs and grasses, often located on conifer branches, 1 to 35
feet up. This warbler is a fairly common spring and fall migrant and a fairly
common to abundant local summer resident. As a breeding bird in West Virginia, it is found in the Allegheny
Mountains in second- growth stages of northern spruce-hardwood forests.
Black-throated Blue Warbler 4½-5½ inches long
Dendroica caerulescens
Males are distinguished by the gray-blue crown and upper parts, black
face, throat, and flanks, white wing patch, and white under parts. Female
retains a white wing patch, but is olive green above and olive-yellow
below, with a white-eye strip. Its preferred habitat, rhododendron thickets
and the dense under story of hardwood forests, makes this bird hard to see.
However, its distinctive and husky song, “zur, zur, zur, zree, zree " quickly
identifies it. This bird eats moths, flies, aphids, tent caterpillars, seeds and
fruits. Nest is made from birch bark strips, ferns, and leaves, lined with
such materials as moss and skunk fur. It is built close to the ground in
dense rhododendron, hemlock, or firs. Female broods the young, but both
parents feed nestlings. It is a rare to fairly common spring and fall migrant,
and fairly common local summer resident. As a breeding species in West Virginia, it occurs mostly in the
Allegheny Mountains.
The black-throated green warbler (Dendroica virens) is also found in the Allegheny Mountains and in other
areas throughout the state where there are mixed conifers and hardwoods. Its distinctive song is husky like that
of the black-throated blue, but sounds more like "zoo-zee-zoo-zee-zee." Male has a yellow face, lack throat and
breast, yellow-green upper parts, and white wing bars. Females have less black below.
67

Yellow-rumped (Myrtle) Warbler 5-6 inches long
Dendroica coronata
These are the most numerous warblers in the eastern United States. The
breeding adult male has blue-gray upper parts that are streaked with black,
a black chest, 2 white wing bars, white under parts and throat, and yellow
patches on the crown, sides, and rump. The yellow rump patch is
especially conspicuous. Females and adults in winter have the same pattern
but are duller, in shades of gray-brown. One of the first warblers to head
north in spring, these birds move in waves through tree tops, brushy
places, gardens, and hedges. They may feed on the ground, eating beetles,
aphids, flies, insects, and fruit, and will come to feeders for suet and peanut butter. The song during migration is
a musical trill, described as disorganized warbling. Nest is built of conifer twigs and grasses, usually on
branches of conifers. In West Virginia it is a common to very common spring and fall migrant, a rare and local
summer resident at higher elevations, and uncommon winter resident.
Black and White Warbler 4½-5½ inches long
Mniotilta varia
The adult male is brightly striped all over with black and white,
with a white stripe over and under the eyes, 2 white wing bars,
and a white throat. Females resemble males but are duller. This
warbler creeps around tree trunks and branches like a nuthatch,
feeding on insects, larvae, flies, beetles, and woodborers. Among
the first warblers to migrate north, and often seen before spring
foliage is out, this species prefers damp woodlands and mixed
forests. It can be identified by its song, which is a high, thin
“wee-see, wee-see." Nest, usually on the ground in a depression
at the base of a tree, stump, or log, is built of dry leaves and
grass lined with finer grass or horsehair. This bird is an
uncommon to common spring migrant, summer resident, and
uncommon fall migrant. It arrives in April and may nest in every county, but numbers vary. It prefers mature
forest with closed canopy and a cover of dead leaves for nest building.
68

American Redstart 4½-5¾ inches long
Setophaga ruticilla
The adult male has a glossy black head, back, and breast, with
orange patches on the wings and tail. The female is a different
color, with olive-gray upper parts, whitish under parts, and
orange-yellow sides. Male does not acquire adult plumage until
the second year. Redstarts often fan their tails and droop their
wings. They have a shrill, strident voice, and their most frequent
song has 5 or 6 notes with the accent on the last 2 syllables.
They prefer open, mixed woods. They eat borers, caterpillars,
and cankerworms, sometimes leaping into the air to catch
insects, Nest is of plant down and grasses, decorated with
lichens and sometimes lined with feathers or a deserted vireo's
nest may be used. A common spring and fall migrant, the
redstart probably nests in every county in the state.
Ovenbird 5½-6½ inches long
Selurus aurocapillus
The male and female ovenbird looks alike, being olive- brown
above and white below. Throat, breast and sides are streaked
black, and there is an orange- brown black-edged stripe over
the crown and white eye-ring. Legs are pink. This bird
resembles a small thrush, and is usually seen walking on the
forest floor, but is heard more often than it is seen. The loud
song sounds like “teach-er teach-er teach-er," rapidly repeated.
Ground feeders, ovenbirds walk or run rather than hop, and
will turn over leaves seeking weevils, beetles, snails, and slugs. They also eat seeds and fruits. The nest is in a
depression on the forest floor. It is built of grasses, mosses, leaves, and hair, and is arched, oven-like, with the
opening in the front. The ovenbird is a common summer resident, nesting in every county, often abundant
where there are extensive mature forests.
69

Louisiana Waterthrush 5¾-6¼ inches long
Seiurus motacilla
Waterthrushes often walk along the water's edge and
characteristically teeter up and down as do spotted
sandpipers. The male and female look alike with a
brown back, brown head, white throat, and white
under parts streaked with brown. There is a
noticeable white eyebrow stripe. Waterthrushes are
found near sluggish or rapidly flowing water,
walking and running over stones. Their song has
ringing, sweet notes, with 3 slurred whistles
followed by a jumble of twittering notes. They eat
dragonflies, beetles, snails, and minnows. The nest is
built of leaves, rootlets, and twigs, located in a
stream bank under roots or in a rock crevice.
Frequently it is a host to cowbirds. A fairly common summer resident, the Louisiana waterthrush probably nests
in every county. It arrives as early as March, but leaves the state after the young are fledged, in late July.
The northern waterthrush (Selurus noveboracensis) resembles the Louisiana but has a smaller bill, buff eye
stripe, often yellow under parts, and usually spots on the throat. These 2 waterthrushes may be found in the
same location. The northern waterthrush arrives later in spring than the Louisiana, usually in mid- May. During
migration they may appear in most counties, occurring near streams in heavily wooded areas, but during
summer they can be found at higher elevations.
70

Kentucky Warbler 5-5¼ inches long
Oporornis formosus
The Kentucky warbler has olive-green upper parts, bright yellow under
parts, yellow spectacles, black crown, and black sideburns. Female is
similar but has gray on the crown and smaller sideburns. Its preferred
habitat is densely wooded ravines and bottomlands with well-developed
ground cover and brush. A ground-inhabiting species, the Kentucky
warbler spends most of its time on the forest floor but may sing from
lower-tree limbs. Song is emphatic, loud, and ringing, consisting of 2syllable
notes repeated several times: “turdle, turdle, chur-roe, chur-ree,
tor-ry, tor-ry. " Diet consists of grubs, plant lice, caterpillars, and insect
larvae. The nest is a cup of grasses and plant fibers built on a bulky
foundation of dead leaves, often placed a little above ground level in brush, tufts of grass, or the fork of a small
sapling. If deer or livestock overgraze a brushy area and remove ground cover, unfavorable habitat for
Kentucky warblers results. In West Virginia these birds are fairly common to common-summer residents in the
western part of the state, but are less common in the eastern part,
Common Yellowthroat 4½-5½ inches long
Geothlypis trichas
The breeding male is olive-green above, with buff flanks,
conspicuous bright yellow throat and breast, and a distinctive
black mask that is present throughout the year. The mask
extends from the bill over the eyes and down the neck where it
is bordered by a gray patch. The adult female lacks this mask,
but does have a yellow throat. One of the most abundant of all
warblers, the yellowthroat prefers damp brushy places, bogs,
and weedy fields, overgrown hillsides, and clearings. Song,
which sounds like “witchity, witchity, witchity, " is a
distinguishing characteristic. Diet consists of grubs, moths,
flies, and aphids. The nest of dead leaves and sedges is lined
with grasses and hairs. Large and bulky, it is on the ground or attached to plants such as skunk cabbage and
brier. A common spring and fall migrant and common summer resident, the yellowthroat breeds throughout the
state at all elevations in brushy habitat.
71

Hooded Warbler 5-5¾ inches long
Wilsonia citrina
The male in breeding plumage has a spectacular black hood
enclosing a bright yellow face and forehead. Upper parts are
olive-green, and under parts bright yellow. Females are similar
but lack the distinctive hood. Hooded warblers in all plumages
lack wing bars, but do have large black eyes and white tail spots.
The song is variable, a loud and emphatic “weeta, weeta, weetee-o.
" Its ringing song often locates this warbler, a woodland
bird found in the under-story. It may rise to snap insects out of
the air and eats beetles, flies, and aphids. The nest is made of
dead leaves and plant fibers, bound with spider's silk and usually
is about 5 feet up in a fork of a tree or in a bush. A fairly
common to common-summer resident, it migrates throughout
the state, but is more common as a breeding bird in the western
part of the state.
Yellow-breasted Chat 6½-7½ inches long
Icteria virens
This is the largest North American warbler. It acts and sounds like
a member of the mockingbird family, and unlike many warblers,
sexes are similar in appearance. The yellow-breasted chat is stoutbodied
and long-tailed, with an olive-green back, bright yellow
chin, throat, and breast, and white spectacles and dark lores. Bill is
dark and heavy. This elusive bird is found in dense thickets and
heavy undergrowth, but can be seen flying from bush to bush.
Very vocal, as its name suggests, the chat has a medley of strange
sounds, some harsh and some musical, and it may sing at night.
An insect eater, it consumes grasshoppers, beetles, bees, tent
caterpillars, and also fruit. Nest is cup-shaped, built of leaves and
grape vine bark and lined with fine grasses. The chat may nest in groups, from ground level to about 8 feet up in
bushes or briers. It is a common spring migrant, uncommon fall migrant, and common to very common summer
resident, probably nesting in every county.
72

Tanagers
Thraupinae (Subfamily)
Worldwide there are over 230 species of tanagers, but only 4 normally reach North America, Many tanagers are
brilliantly colored, but in general are secretive and arboreal and thus difficult to see. Two species occur
regularly in West Virginia.
Summer Tanager 7-7¾ inches long
Piranga rubra
Male is overall rose-red, while the female has a yellowish face and under
parts, greenish wings and back, and may have some red feathers. In both
sexes, the large bills are pale in breeding season, but darker for the rest of the
year. A somewhat solitary bird, the summer tanager is found in wooded
areas and open woods, usually concealed in tree foliage. The song is robinlike,
but more hurried. Diet consists of bees and wasps, weevils, cicadas, and
small fruits. The nest, built out on a limb up to 35 feet above the ground, is a
shallow cup of weed stems and grass. This bird is a fairly common local
summer resident in the southern part of the state, but it is absent from the
higher elevations.
Scarlet Tanager 6½-7½ inches long
Piranga olicacea
The unmistakable male is bright scarlet with shiny black wings and
tail and a heavy, conical bill. Female has greenish upper parts,
yellowish under parts, and dark wings. A molting male has yellowish
feathers on the head and under parts and only a few red feathers.
Found in forested areas, the scarlet tanager frequently sings from
treetops with a robin-like song. It will forage for insects in treetops, in
shrubs, and on the ground, consuming aphids, gypsy moth caterpillars,
snails, slugs, and also fruit. It will visit feeders for peanut butter and
bread. The saucer- shaped nest is loosely built of twigs and rootlets,
usually situated well out on a limb, to a height of about 75 feet. A
fairly common to common-summer resident, this bird is found
throughout the state in forested areas.
73

Cardinals
Cardinalinae (Subfamily)
All species in this group are sexually dimorphic, meaning that males and females have different colored
plumage. Males are brightly colored and females are more muted or dull colored. Birds in this group also have
conical bills.
Northern Cardinal 7½-9 inches long
Cardinalis cardinalis
The adult male is unmistakable with his brilliant scarlet color,
red crest which he can raise or lower, and black patch of feathers
at the base of his large thick red bill. Female has a pink bill,
olive-gray upper parts, and a reddish tinge on wings, tail, face,
and crest. This noted songbird has a repertoire of at least 28
songs, and sings throughout the year. The female also sings, and
sometimes the pair may sing together. The male is territorial and
fights other males, often attacking his own image reflected in
windows. Cardinals are found in towns, residential areas, and
places where there are thickets and bushy cover. They eat many
kinds of beetles, aphids, cutworms, and slugs, weed seeds, corn,
oats, and maple sap from trees drilled by sapsuckers. They will
come to feeders for sunflower seeds. Nest is bowl- shaped, made
of twigs, bark, and paper, usually found in tangles of brush, and
often several feet above ground. Cardinals may have 2 to 4 broods a year; the male caring for the young while
the female incubates eggs of the next brood. Common to very common permanent residents, they occur
throughout the state, except at very high elevations.
74

Rose-breasted Grosbeak 7-8½ inches long
Pheucticus ludovicianus
A handsome grosbeak, the breeding male has a glossy black
head, throat, and neck, and a brilliant rose-red triangular bib
down to the center of the belly. Under parts and rump are white,
wing linings are rose-red, and black wings have white patches.
Female is brownish with a gray-white eye stripe and
2 white wing bars on brown wings. Both sexes have a heavy,
arched, pale bill. The male is a fluent songster, the song being
clear, rich, and robin-like, though more rapid. The call note is a
distinctive high squeaking “ink, eek” The male has the unusual
habit of singing while he is on the nest incubating eggs. Rosebreasted
grosbeaks often have 2 broods per season, and the
female may build another nest while the male feeds the first
fledglings. This bird lives in second-growth woods, dense shrubs
and trees, borders of swamps and streams, gardens, and parks. It
forages in trees for moths, caterpillars, fruit, and seeds. The nest
is made of twigs and straw, usually located in thickets or small
trees. This grosbeak is a fairly common spring and fall migrant
and fairly common local summer resident, but as a breeding bird
in West Virginia it is found only in the Allegheny Mountains and some places in the Northern Panhandle.
Blue Grosbeak 6-7½ inches long
Guiraca caerulea
The male is a deep blue and has 2 rusty wing bars, while female
is brown with buff wing bars. Bill is very large and conical. A
frequenter of shrubby areas, farmlands and roadsides, the blue
grosbeak is sometimes mistaken for the more common indigo
bunting. Blue grosbeaks frequently perch on wires and may sing
for long periods from a favorite perch. Song is sweet and
melodious. Flight is undulating. This bird forages on the ground
and in shrubs for cutworms, caterpillars, grasshoppers, and
seeds. Nest, constructed of interwoven grasses, weeds, and
leaves, and is usually located near the ground in vines, bushes,
or pine trees. A southern species, the blue grosbeak is an
occasional migrant and an uncommon summer resident in the
Eastern Panhandle and southern part of the state.
75

Indigo Bunting 5½ inches long
Passerina cyanea
Male is bright, brilliant blue, with somewhat darker wing and
tail feathers. At a distance he may appear dark. Females are
gray-brown. Bill is short and conical. The male sings a
persistent, strident high- pitched song throughout the hottest
days of summer until late August, perhaps to continue to
announce territory. Buntings may have 2 broods a season. They
inhabit forest edges, roadsides, and open woods, and are
frequently seen feeding in roadside situations. Diet includes
beetles, mosquitoes, aphids, seeds of asters, thistles, dandelions,
and also fruits. The nest is well woven of grass, bark, and
sometimes snakeskin, lined with hair or cotton. It can be found
in a bush or small tree, up to 15 feet above the ground. A
common to very common summer resident, the indigo bunting
probably nests in every county.
76

Sparrows
Emberizinae (Subfamily)
This large and diverse family of birds includes towhees, juncos, sparrows, longspurs, and buntings. Towhees are
long-tailed birds found in dense underbrush. Sparrows are small brownish birds, ground feeders that frequent
grassy areas; many species of sparrow occur in West Virginia. Adult juncos have mostly solid colors, pale bills,
and dark tails. Longspurs are ground dwellers; breeding males have brightly patterned plumage, but are duller in
winter. A long nail or claw on the hind toes accounts for the name. The Lapland longspur is a casual late winter
visitant in West Virginia. Buntings, usually colored black, white, buff, and brown, are gregarious in the nonbreeding
season; small flocks of snow buntings occur in winter in the Eastern Panhandle and other locations.
Rufous-sided Towhee 7-8¾ inches long
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Male has a black head, throat, and back; rusty sides; white belly; and a
long round tail with white patches along the edge. The eyes are usually
(but not always) red. Female has a similar pattern, but head, throat, and
breast are brown. These birds are found in brushy clearings, fields,
overgrown pastures, and second-growth forests. Song is a very distinct
“drink- your-tee. " The towhee can also be heard noisily rummaging on
the ground among dead leaves for beetles, ants, insects, caterpillars,
snakes, and weed seeds. It also eats fruit. Nest is on the ground, under
brush, or sometimes in a tree. It is made of twigs, leaves, and even string.
The towhee is often a host for cowbird eggs. A very common summer
resident, it occurs throughout the state at all elevations, but is a winter
resident in the southern part of the state and may be a permanent
resident.
American Tree Sparrow 5½-6½ inches long
Spizella arborea
Its chestnut crown, 2 white wing bars, and a dark breast spot
easily recognize this sparrow, that spends the summer in northern
Canada to Alaska, on the pure gray under parts. The upper
mandible is dark, while the lower is yellow. Sexes look alike. In
West Virginia, this sparrow is a fairly common winter visitant,
usually found in flocks in bushy places, gardens, and yards. A
hardy bird, it can stand sub-zero temperatures. It eats seeds of
weeds and grasses and will come to feeders for seeds.
77

Chipping Sparrow 5-5¾ inches long
Spizella passerina
Its rufous cap, set off by prominent white eyebrow line and black eyeliner,
easily recognizes the adult chipping sparrow. The under parts are gray, and
the back is brown with black stripes. Immature birds lack the rufous crown.
Song is a distinctive chipping rattle, all on one pitch, and sometimes heard
at night. Chipping sparrows are found around forest clearings, meadows,
gardens, and orchards. They consume quantities of grass, clover, and
dandelion seeds, as well as insects. The nest is built of grasses and weeds,
lined with hair. It is found on the limb of a tree, usually low, and rarely on
the ground. Male feeds the female while she incubates the eggs. Unlike the
young of other passerines, immature chipping sparrows may retain juvenile
plumage throughout the fall migration. This bird is a common summer
resident and occasional winter visitant, nesting throughout the state at all elevations.
Field Sparrow 5-6 inches long
Spizella pusilla
The best way to identify an adult field sparrow is by the pink bill.
Other characteristics include a rust- orange crown (not as bright as
chipping sparrow's), rusty upper parts, buff eye-ring, solid gray under
parts, and 2 faint wing bars. Sexes look alike. Young have thin
streaks on under parts. Field sparrows are found in fields, overgrown
pastures, and brushy woods. Their song is sweet and clear- “seee,
seea, seee, wee wee wee" and they may sing at night. They forage on
the ground for flies, grasshoppers, caterpillars, beetles, and grass and
weed seeds. The nest built of coarse dead grasses and lined with
rootlets, is located on the ground or in a bush. Two or 3 broods a year
may be raised. This sparrow is a common summer resident and fairly
common local winter visitant, especially in the southern part of the
state. It probably nests in every county where there is suitable habitat.
78

Song Sparrow 5-7 inches long
Melospiza melodia
This is one of the most familiar of the North American birds. Adults
generally have brown upper parts and tail, with black and gray streaks,
and heavily streaked whitish under parts with a central dark spot on the
breast. Fall and winter birds may be buff below, and young birds may lack
the central spot. The song consists of clear notes-"sweet sweet sweet,"followed
by a trill, and persistently repeated. In flight, these birds may
pump their tails up and down. They prefer areas with brushy cover near
streams, frequenting yards, gardens and second-growth woods. They eat
beetles, cutworms, flies, ants, weed seeds, grain, and fruit. Incubation is
by the female, and 3 broods a year may be raised. Most early nests are on
the ground, while later nests tend to be hidden several feet up in grasses or
cattails. A common permanent resident and also common migrant, the
song sparrow nests in every county at all elevations.
White-throated Sparrow 6-7 inches long
Zonotrichia albicollis
This is a gray-breasted sparrow with a prominent white throat patch
and yellow lores (area between the bill and eye). Birds are
polymorphic (having more than one color form). The head stripes
may be black and white, or brown and tan. Breast is gray. Winter
birds may be duller, and immature birds may lack the yellow lores
and the white throat patch. The song is a plaintive whistle that sounds
like "old sam peabody, peverly, peverly” These sparrows eat insects,
weed seeds, and fruit, and visit feeders for seed and grain. They nest
from the Yukon to Pennsylvania. In West Virginia they are common spring and fall migrants and very common
winter residents, found in brushy fields, gardens, and woods. There are a few scattered nest records.
79

Dark-eyed Junco 5-6½ inches long
(Slate-colored Junco)
Junco hyemalis
Male is overall slate gray, with a conspicuous whitish-pink bill, white belly, and white outer tail feathers that
show in flight. He may have a black hood. Females have similar color patterns, but are more brownish.
Immature birds may have fine streaks on the breast. Also known as the snowbird, the junco lives in woods and
clearings and during winter may frequent gardens and parks. Song is a loose trill, and scold note is “tack."
These birds feed mostly on the ground, scratching among leaves for insects in the summer, and in the snow for
berries and weed seeds in the winter. They nest on the ground in brush and small trees near edges of coniferous
and hardwood forests. The nest is a deep cup of mosses, grasses, and twigs. Juncos are common to abundant
spring and fall migrants, local summer residents, and winter visitants. As non-migrating breeding birds, they are
found at higher elevations in West Virginia, but may move too more sheltered areas in winter. Winter visitants
occur throughout the state.
80

Blackbirds and Orioles
Icterinae (Subfamily)
This large subfamily of birds includes bobolinks, meadowlarks, cowbirds, and orioles. Many members of this
group occur in West Virginia.
Bobolink 6-8 inches long
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
The bobolink has a conical bill, and its tail feathers are stiff and pointed like
a woodpecker's. The breeding male is black overall, with a prominent buff-
yellow patch on the nape of the neck. Lower back, rump, upper tail coverts,
and scapulars are gray- white. Adult females are quite different with dark
brown streaked upper parts and buff-white under parts. Males in their
winter plumage resemble females. Song sounds like “bobolink" and has a
banjo-like quality. Summer diet consists of beetles, caterpillars,
grasshoppers, and weed seeds. The nest, made of coarse grass and weed
stems, is hidden in grass. The male helps feed and care for the young.
Common spring and local fall migrants, bobolinks migrate throughout the
state, usually frequenting open meadows and grassy hilltops. They nest
locally in West Virginia, especially in Preston, Hancock, and Brooke
counties, and can often be seen in summer in meadows around Sinks of
Gandy (Randolph County). They winter in Brazil and Argentina.
Red-winged Blackbird 7-9½ inches long
Agelaius phoeniceus
In this well-known species, the male (after the second year) is a shining
black except for the bright wing patch bordered with buff-white. When the
bird is perched, the red patch may be hidden, with only the buff border
visible. Female has dark brown upper parts and streaked under parts.
Immature males are brown streaked, with an orange-red shoulder patch. The
familiar song is “conk-ka-ree. " Red-winged blackbirds live in marshes,
sloughs, and wet areas. Except in nesting season, they may travel in
enormous flocks of as many as 15 million birds. They often travel with
grackles, starlings, and cowbirds. Three-quarters of their diet is vegetable
matter, but they also eat insects and fruit and come to feeders for bread and birdseed. A very common summer
resident, they nest throughout the state, and are locally abundant winter residents. In fall after nesting,
blackbirds collect in large flocks and may be a nuisance in cornfields.
81

Eastern Meadowlark 8-10 inches long
Sturnella magna
This bird of open country has a long pointed bill and cryptically colored
buff-brown and black upper parts, which make the bird difficult to see
when it is on the ground. It frequently sings from utility poles and fence
posts, where the bright yellow breast marked with a bold black V is very
prominent. On the ground and in flight, it shows white outer tail feathers.
Sexes look alike. Song is a series of 2 to 8 loud, plaintive, whistled notes,
usually slurred and descending in pitch. About three quarters of the diet is
insects- beetles, crickets, cutworms; the rest consists of grain, weed
seeds, and carrion. Nest is on the ground, built of grasses against a clump
of weeds, with the entrance on one side. Males may have more than one
mate. The female may have 2 broods per season. A common summer and
winter resident, the eastern meadowlark may be a permanent resident, and occurs in summer throughout the
state in grassy areas.
Common Grackle 11-13½ inches long
Quiscalus quiscula
This familiar bird of parks, residential areas, woods, streams, and farms
appears to have black plumage from a distance, but in bright sunlight, males
have a glossy purplish head, neck, and breast. Females are smaller and
duller in color than males. Adult birds have yellow eyes. Young are sootybrown,
with dark eyes. Common grackles are distinguished from other birds
by their long, somewhat spoon-shaped tails. Voice is a loud “tchuck. "
Social birds, grackles often mix with other blackbirds, forming large noisy
groups. Grackles eat earthworms, Japanese and June beetles, grubs, ants,
flies, crayfish, minnows, eggs and young of small birds, mice, seeds, and
fruit. They nest singly, or in colonies. Bulky nests are made of twigs and
grasses and lined with feathers and paper, and nest can be found in trees, shrubs, and old buildings. Common to
abundant summer residents, grackles are found throughout the state, and are locally abundant winter residents.
They were uncommon in some parts of West Virginia until the 1960s.
82

Brown-headed Cowbird 6-8 inches long
Molothrus ater
The male is a glossy black with a coffee-brown head, and the female has
overall gray-brown plumage. Bills are conical and tails are short. During
feeding tails are held up higher than those of other blackbirds. Song is a
distinctive, bubbly “glug glug, glee. "Often found with blackbirds around
cattle cowbirds eat insects, seeds of dandelion and ragweed, and some fruit.
No pair bonds are formed, but cowbirds perform courtship displays. During
breeding season, the female cowbird waits near the nest of some other
species, such as warbler, vireo, oriole, or tanager. When the host bird leaves
its nest, the cowbird deposits her eggs there. She usually deposits 1 egg per nest, possibly up to 12 eggs per
season. This parasitic habit has reduced populations of host birds, because the female cowbird may remove and
destroy their eggs after depositing her own, and cowbird nestlings may force out host nestlings. Catbirds and
robins, however, have been known to throw out cowbird eggs. In late summer, fledged cowbirds join flocks of
their own species. Common summer residents, they probably breed in every county, and some winter in
southern West Virginia.
Northern Oriole 7-8 inches long
(Baltimore Oriole)
Icterus galbula
The distinctive male has a black head and back, orange under
parts and rump, black wings with a white wing bar, and an
orange and black tail. The female varies in color, but usually has
olive-brown upper parts, yellow-brown under parts and 2 white
wing bars. Immature males have splotchy black hoods and dull
orange under parts. These orioles are found in open deciduous
woods and orchards. They search trees and shrubbery for
caterpillars, beetles, ants, and other insects. They will also eat
fruit, probe flowers for nectar, and visit feeders for suet, fruit,
and peanut butter. The song is a series of rich, flute-like notes.
The nest is a hanging pouch, 5 to 6 inches deep, suspended by the rim from a drooping tree branch, usually
about 30 feet up. It is woven of plant materials, hair, and string, and lined with wool and hair. A fairly common
to common-summer resident, the northern oriole probably occurs in every county where there is open farmland.
It is an occasional winter resident.
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Finches
Fringillidae
In general, finches have conical bills that are adapted for cracking seeds. In most species males and females
have different plumage. This family includes the common redpoll and pine siskin, irregular visitants in West
Virginia.
Purple Finch 5½-6 inches long
Carpodacus purpureus
The male has a raspberry head, throat, and breast, with a whitish lower belly. The back is streaked brown and
suffused with red. The tail is notched. Female is brown, with
white streaked under parts and whitish eyebrow. Song consists
of rich, bubbly notes on various pitches. These finches are
usually seen in small flocks among treetops in coniferous
forests and other ornamental conifers, such as Norway spruce,
along roads in parks. Their diet is mostly seeds of weeds and
grasses, but they will also eat fruit, beetles, and the buds of
birches and maples. They will visit feeders for sunflower and
thistle seeds. Preferred nesting is in conifers, especially
spruces. The nest is built of grasses and twigs, from 6 to 50 feet
above the ground. A common spring and fall migrant, and
fairly common local summer resident, the purple finch is
sometimes a common winter resident.
The house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus), 5 to 5½ inches long, resembles the purple finch. The male has a
bright red crown, breast and rump (though the red is brighter than the raspberry of the purple finch), and striped
flanks that are lacking in the purple finch. Female is sparrow-like, gray-brown above and striped below. The
song is higher than that of the purple finch. Diet includes seeds and food scraps. The house finch nests in
cavities in trees and buildings, in bird boxes, or in shrubs. It is an uncommon to common local permanent
resident, and uncommon winter visitant. These birds were first reported in the state in the early 1970s, and now
occur throughout the state, most commonly in suburban areas, small towns, and park-like areas.
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White-winged Crossbill 6-6¾ inches long
Loxia leucoptera
A colorful winter finch, the adult male is bright pink with black
wings and tail and conspicuous white wing bars. Female has
white wing bars, but otherwise has olive-gray plumage with
dark streaks. Crossbills live in coniferous forests and eat seeds
from cones. The name crossbill refers to the unique crossed bill
structure which helps the birds open cones by a sideways
movement of the lower mandible, over which the upper
mandible crosses. This structure can only be seen at close
range. Call note is “wink, wink, wink." This bird summers in
Alaska and the northern United States. In West Virginia it is
sometimes a common winter visitant, most often seen in
hemlock groves.
American Goldfinch 4½-5½ inches long
Carduelis tristis
The male in spring and summer has a bright lemon- yellow back and under
parts, black forehead and cap, black wings with white wing bars, black tail,
and a white rump that is conspicuous in flight. The female has a similar
pattern, but duller. In fall and winter plumage, these birds are much more
muted, with olive-brown back, yellowish head, and black wings with buff
wing bars. The song is a canary-like twitter with a sweet quality; the male
often sings in flight. Both sexes live in flocks most of the year and can be
seen bobbing along in undulating flight, often uttering call notes.
Goldfinches are found along streams, rivers with willows, in woods, and
open brushy areas. These birds like seeds of thistles, conifers, asters,
burdock, and dandelion; they will come to feeders for sunflower seeds. The
nest, tightly woven and lined with down, can be found in hedges and trees,
usually 1 to 30 feet up. Young are fed on seeds regurgitated by adults into the mouths of the nestlings. Nesting
is late, in July or August. A common spring and fall migrant, common summer resident, and uncommon to
common winter resident, the goldfinch may be a permanent resident in some counties. Goldfinches nest
throughout the state, at all elevations.
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Evening Grosbeak 7-8½ inches long
Coccothraustes vespertina
Evening grosbeaks are stocky, gregarious birds with short tails
and enormous bills. The male has unmistakably large conical
chalky-yellow bill, black wings with large conspicuous white
wing patch, yellow forehead, belly, and rump, and brown
foreparts. Female is grayish, with a large yellowish bill and
large white wing patch. The call note is a loud "cheep." These
birds nest from Canada to New England and winter to the
southern states. Not reported in West Virginia until the 1940s
they may now be found anywhere in the state during winter
months. Flocks may number from a dozen to a hundred birds.
Evening grosbeaks will come to feeders to gobble up
sunflower seeds.
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Weaver Finches
Ploceidae
This large group of birds from Africa, Eurasia, and Tasmania contains over 200 species. They are called
weavers because some weave highly complex nests with their bills. Two species, the European tree sparrow,
and the house sparrow, have been introduced in North America. Neither species is noted for nest building.
House (English) Sparrow 5½-6¼ inches long
Passer domesticus
The first known report of this bird in West Virginia
was in Jefferson County in 1866; by 1890 the
English sparrow was present throughout the state.
The breeding male has a black bill, black throat and
upper breast, gray crown, streaked back, and white
wing bar. Male in winter plumage has a yellowish
bill and black confined to the chin. Females and
young are light brown with light bills. Albinos are
commonly reported. Voice is not musical, and there
is no distinctive song, but in captivity these birds
have been taught to imitate canaries. They eat
Japanese beetles, grasshoppers, flies, weed seeds,
grain, and garbage. They nest in bird boxes and tree
cavities and may produce 2 or 3 broods a year.
English sparrows are abundant permanent residents.
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