Enormity of Emotional Labour and its Significance in the ... - Icmis.net

International Conference on Technology and Business Management March 18-20, 2013
Enormity of Emotional Labour and its Significance in the Modern Service
Economy
Reena Alias
reenajoelprince@yahoo.com
Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin
As the nature of global economies is increasingly transforming from manufacturing to service, organizational
participants are coping with new challenges. In order to capture the realities of work in the modern economy
which marks a paradigm shift in customer service, organizations are striving hard, to face those challenges
which often involve complex processes of emotion management in the workplace. This paper attempts to shed
new and valuable light on the vastness of Emotional labour, an intrinsic part of any workplace, and if
unnoticed, though subtle, may generate life-altering effects on physical and emotional health of any
organization.
Key Words: Emotional Labour, Service, work place
1. Introduction
“All learning has an emotional base”
-- Plato
The entrance of emotion into considerations of work and organisations has occurred along side other significant
developments concerning the growth in the service economy and growing competition among the service
providers. Emotions and emotion management are become a prominent feature of organizational life. Emotions
in the workplace always play a large role in how an entire organization communicates within itself and to the
outside world.
The initial shift in the economy involved a move to customer service (including industries such
as retailing, restaurants and the travel industry) , leading to scholarly consideration of the way emotional
communication is used in the service of customers and in the advancement of organizational goals. An
inevitable effect of the shift from manufacturing to service sector is more people interaction. As more jobs
involve interacting with people rather than machines, the ability to manage one's feelings and present a positive
image to customers or clients becomes one of the defining characteristics of a competent employee.
2. Trend of the service economy
Over recent decades, world has witnessed a significant shift of employment from agriculture and manufacturing
industries to the services sector. This shift has seen an increase in face-to-face and voice-to-voice interactions in
such occupations, along with the development and establishment of new role requirements increasingly
connected with work in the 21st Century. Service is becoming a greater part of nations’ economies, with higher
levels of international and national tourism and increasing competition (see Bergesen & Sonnett, 2001).
The thousands of individual service encounters make up the service and determine the quality of the service as
perceived by customers. It is well understood from the classical dimensions of service quality – tangibles,
assurance, empathy, reliability and adaptability – several are dependent on or at least influenced by the
emotions. . The fact is that, unlike hardware or software quality, service quality has a large emotional element.
From a customer services representative in a call centre to a teacher or manager, the emotional demands of
any job have increased. Emotional empathy is the modern day equivalent of the muscle power that was essential
to manual labour. Today the trend of service economy is all about the ability to strike up a rapport with another
human being. Employers believe customers will stay loyal when they are given personalised service in a mass
consumer market driven technology. The standards are exacting: Employees are instructed to provide service
with personalised 'naturalness', spontaneity and warmth - qualities which they must provide consistently.
With the growth of a service-based economy, and increased people interaction, more and more people are
called on to create a publicly observable and desirable emotional display as a part of a job role, which is labeled
as emotional labour. The performance of emotional labour involves the display of organisationally desired
emotion, such as friendliness, by customer service workers in their interactions with customers or clients. It is
significant that as the skill with which emotional labour is performed impacts on perceptions of service quality.
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3. Emotional labour
Emotions matter in the workplace, because like it or not they are part of every workplace and they affect the
way we think and act. A leader may try to ignore, suppress or sidestep emotions in the work – especially the
hard nosed aspects where reason and objectivity are vital. Yet they will still be there because they are part of
what makes people tick. All too often, when managers deal with people’s concerns they tackle the surface
problems and symptoms yet fail to identify, acknowledge and deal with the underlying emotional needs.
Emotions of a leader are contagious, having a demonstrated impact on the mood of those around them.
Emotional suppression involves trying to mask how you truly feel. Many service-orientated staff are encouraged
to put on a ‘happy face’ at work. Similarly many leaders try to put on a brave or neutral face, even when faced
with adversity. Unfortunately emotional suppression does not work and it can also have undesirable
consequences such as burnout, job turnover and other issues.
Arlie Hochschild created the term 'emotional labor' in 1983 to describe the things that service workers do that
goes beyond physical or mental duties. Showing a genuine concern for customers' needs, smiling, and making
positive eye contact are all critical to a customer's perception of service quality. These types of activities, when
they're essential to worker performance, are emotional labor.
The term "emotional labor" was first defined by the sociologist Arlie Hochschild. In a seminar work, The
Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling, Hochschild defines emotional labor as “the management
of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display”, which is sold for a wage and therefore has
exchange value. Emotional labor occurs when workers are paid, in part, to manage and control their emotions.
According to Hochschild, jobs involving emotional labor are defined as those that:
a. Require face-to-face or voice-to-voice contact with the public;
b. Require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person;
c. Allow the employees to exercise a degree of control over their emotional activities.
3.1 Forms of Emotional Labour
Hochschild proposes that emotions may be controlled or self induced or suppressed as part of the labour
process, hence she identified two forms of emotional labour: ‘surface acting’ and ‘deep acting’.In surface acting,
we feel in one way but do not show the true underlying feeling whereas in deep acting we actually try to change
our current feeling to match the desired feeling.
3.2 Emotional regulation through surface and deep acting
The regulation of emotional expressions and feelings as part of the paid work role has been coined as emotional
labour (EL) (Hochschild, 1983). EL is necessitated when expected workplace emotions cannot be naturally felt
or displayed, and is routinely performed using surface acting (SA) and deep acting (DA) (Hochschild, 1983). SA
involves the management of observable expressions. SA can include faking emotions not actually felt, along
with suppressing and hiding felt emotion that would be inappropriate to display. For example, a customer
service representative may hide feelings of anger from a rude or demanding customer and instead paste on a
smile to ensure a smooth workplace interaction. Hochschild commented that "in surface acting, we deceive
others about what we really feel but we do not deceive ourselves" (p.33).
Deep Acting, on the other hand, is the intra psychic process of attempting to experience or alter feelings so
that expected emotional displays may naturally follow. Deep Acting may be performed by actively exhorting
feeling, wherein an individual cognitively attempts to evoke or suppress an emotion. For example, flight
attendants were trained to cognitively reappraise disorderly adult passengers as children so as not to become
infuriated with their seemingly infantile behaviour (Hochschild, 1983).
4. Importance of Emotional Labour in Service jobs
“Customer courtesy begins and ends with you… Under no circumstances should a customer ever wonder if you
are having a bad day. Your troubles should be masked with a smile. Tension can be seen and received
negatively resulting in an unhappy dining experience, or what is called frustrated food… Once an unhappy
customer walks out the door, they are gone forever!”. A paradox in the service encounter, neatly summarised by
Hochschild (1983:192) says, ‘‘The more the heart is managed, the more we value the unmanaged heart’’.
Most of the research into emotional labour has been concerned with employees working at the organizationcustomer
interface the service industry. Highly service-oriented employees do emotional labour is clearly
evident from studies of flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983), police officers (Stenross and Kleinman, 1989) and
medical students (Smith and Kleinman, 1989).
A review of the literature (e.g. Bowen and Schneider, 1988; Bowen et al., 1990; Brown et al., 1991) suggests
that the concept of emotional labour has particular relevance to service encounters because:
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Front-line service personnel are situated at the organization-customer interface and therefore represent
the organization to its customer;
Service transactions often involve face-to-face interactions between service agents and customer;
There is uncertainty created by customer participation in the service encounter, such encounters often
have a dynamic and emergent quality; and
The services rendered during an encounter are relatively intangible, making it difficult for customers to
evaluate service quality (ashforth and humphrey, 1993).
The concept of ‘emotional labour’ is an important contribution to an understanding
of every­day organizational life. It has been proved that workplace emotions have impact on behaviour and
decision making on the job. Similarly, the role of emotion in group dynamics has long been recognized.
Indeed, as Wharton and Erickson (1993) point out “employers’ efforts to shape workers’ emotions and
emotional displays have become an important focus of organization research” (p. 457). This shaping or control
can be formalized as a written set of rules (as in McDonald’s or Disneyland), less formalized as in protocol or
expectations or even loosely bound up with the culture of the organization.
5. Emotional labour and Organisations
The commonly held view is that emotion has no place in organizational contexts, but it has been proved that
emotional management is an important aspect of organizational life. Competencies in emotional and crosscultural
management are crucial for organizations to understand how to serve and to retain a customer base that
is much more diverse and demanding than in years past.
Organisations are notorious for their attempts at controlling emotions, especially the display and expression of
emotions. In many service oriented jobs, employees are explicitly taught to suppress their feelings and to put on
a happy face to create a value in the mind of the customer. Understanding the customer’s frustration, anger or
anxiety and showing caring in the face during bad customer behaviour requires particular effort when the
service provider might not feel like being nice. This effort is emotional labour. Emotional labour is where
emotions are actually used as part of our work, and staff are required to often demonstrate or express emotional
states which may differ from how they are actually feeling. Examples of roles where emotional labour is used
are healthcare (medicine, nursing, midwifery), customer services, call centres, retail, indeed many service
industries and many roles which are too numerous to mention here. Emotional labour is not only a feature at the
organization-customer interface, but increasingly is becoming characteristic of ordinary interactions within the
organization
Emotional labor can be particularly challenging when it becomes a need to hide your real emotions, and
continue to 'smile and nod your head,' even when receiving negative or critical feedback.
Earlier emotional labour was seen in service-oriented professions and is particularly noticeable in call centers,
retail stores, and the hospitality industry. but service excellence is now a key driver of success in most
organizations, so elements of emotional labor are present in almost all workplaces. It's important to understand
the impact of emotional labor, and how it affects workers
Companies often place a great deal of strategic importance on service orientation, not only to external
customers but to colleagues and internal clients as well. While emotional labor is applicable to many areas of
business, the consequences are probably greatest in traditional service roles. However, in an increasingly
service-oriented marketplace, it's important to understand how emotional labor affects workers, and what
organizations can do to support and manage any issues.
Organisations and occupational bodies have formulated ‘display rules, which serve as the standard for the
appropriate expression of workplace emotions. Display rules vary, depending the difference in the occupational
categories. For example, retail workers must appear cheerful and friendly during customer interactions to
enhance service quality and encourage repeat business, while detectives and police officers often express anger
to gain compliance and even obtain confessions from criminals. Others, such as judges, are expected to display
emotional neutrality so as not to influence the outcome of a trial, whereas medical practitioners are required to
remain neutral to ensure professional objectivity. However, conforming to display rules, regardless of
circumstances or discrepant internal feelings, is easier said than done.
Expectations and protocol often dictate the type, range and intensity of emotions that are to be displayed at
work and employees are expected to conform to these display rules even if they conflict with inner feeling. In
such cases the individual has to work at suppressing genuine emotions or expressing fake emotions; such work
is termed “emotional labour” and can have both functional and dysfunctional effects on the individual and
organization
In past, emotional labor demands and display rules were viewed as a characteristics of particular occupations,
such as restaurant workers, cashiers, hospital workers, bill collectors, counselors, secretaries, and nurses.
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However, display rules have been conceptualized not only as role requirements of particular occupational
groups, but also as interpersonal job demands, which are shared by many kinds of occupations
6. Emotional labour and various occupations
In The Managed Heart, Hoshchild shows how the flight attendant is trained to manage fear at turbulence and
anger at cranky or abusive passengers, a bill collector is trained to restrict compassion or liking for debtors. As
the number of service jobs grows, so too does the amount of emotional labor.
While many jobs can be stressful and even emotionally draining at times, it is in personal service occupations
that emotional labour becomes a routine demand made on workers in the normal course of their day. Among
other samples, such as sales representatives and debt collectors, Hochschild's research gave most attention to
airline flight attendants employed by a private carrier with a reputation for high quality service while seen by
many as an interesting and even glamorous career; it also qualifies as one which can make heavy demands in
terms of emotional labour. The flight attendant, for example, must make passengers feel safe and well cared for
in a pleasant environment, almost like guests in his or her own home. At the same time, they must repress their
own feelings of anger or fear induced by difficult passengers or dangerous in-flight incidents. Unlike workers in
other jobs, the flight attendant is expected to be as friendly, composed and alert at the end of a 16-hour shift as
at the beginning. They are required to present a positive image of the airline, and even its home country, to large
groups of people in a confined space who are able to observe any sign of annoyance or insincerity.
In the early organizational literature on emotional labor in service settings, the work of Rafaeli and Sutton was
prominent and they focused on emotional labor in service settings, across a variety of service jobs, and showed
that customer reactions and organizational outcomes, particularly sales, were indeed affected by how employees
express their feelings. Positive attitudes expressed by employees can create favorable impressions in customers’
minds, and negative attitudes can similarly engender unfavorable impressions (Pugh, 2001; Schneider,
Parkington, & Buxton, 1980). When employees are seen by customers to be rude, or they behave
inappropriately towards customers, an organization may lose in many ways. Not only may a direct sale be lost,
but also future revenue from both the offended customer as well as everyone he/she convinces to avoid
patronage. Further, while we know that positive outcomes are often associated with positive expression of
emotion by employees (Pugh, 2001), the full effects of positive and genuine emotional expression by employees
can have far-ranging beneficial effects for their employer.
Pugh (2001) found that displays of positive emotions by bank employees were related to displays of positive
affect by customers, and that these displays impacted positively on their evaluations of overall service quality.
Teaching is a profession that involves a high level of emotional labour. This includes such behaviours as
surface acting (displaying an emotion that is not actually felt), deep acting (the activity undertaken to actually
feel a required emotion), and suppression of emotion .Teachers are expected to perform emotional labour in
order to achieve the dual outcomes of customer (i.e., student satisfaction, and profit for the management)Studies
revealed that managing the emotional demands of teaching requires considerable effort. Teachers who perform
more emotional labour tend to be more emotionally exhausted and less satisfied with their teaching career - they
also experience more conflict between their work and home lives. The emotional demands of teaching also
attracts wide research and it is been found that it can even threaten teachers’ health, job satisfaction, work-life
balance wellbeing and relationships with pupils.
Increasingly, the role of the Information Technology department within organisations is seen as a service role.
At the heart of IT services is the service encounter, the point where the customer and the IT service employee
interact, whether over a phone at the help desk, in the office at the desktop, or in a corridor. This service role for
information technology moves the focus to customers since delivering a service is about meeting customers’
needs. The thousands of individual service encounters make up the service and determine the quality of the
service as perceived by customers. The rapid rise of the service sector, particularly the call centre industry has
made the study of emotional labour increasingly important. The In a lot of IT industry, for example in call
centres, most of the service interactions are voice to voice between two individuals. Regular complaints and the
anger of frustrated members of the public can leave call centre staff emotionally drained and less able to respond
appropriately to customer calls. call handlers voice is analysed for pace, volume and timbre to ensure the right
`mood'. Emotional labour is particularly required in jobs in call centres where irate or rude customers are
frequently encountered.. High levels of turnover and absenteeism in the industry invites special attention
because of the relationship between the emotional demands (emotional labour) of call centre work and job
satisfaction
Nursing and health care is one big minefield in the emotional labour stakes. For a nurse who sees herself as
a caring ,compassionate person, taking a few moments to console a patient in distress represents not a burden
but makes her job more meaningful. Inorder to show compassion, care and warmth , nurses have to suppress
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their true emotions which may lead to stress. A nurse working in a hospital, is expected to express positive
emotions towards patients, such as warmth and compassion
Emotional labour, the projection of certain emotions during the context of a job performance, is an important
source of competitive advantage in many service industries including tourism. Tourism is however a very
distinct industry with few boundaries between those who are paid to give emotional labour and those who are
expected to give it voluntarily.
Only a limited range of emotional expression tends to be socially acceptable in the workplace for lawyers and
while performing emotional labour, they should appear cool and emotionless to clients.
Another area where emotional labour is prevalent is highly globalised service work of cruise shipping - an
industry that demands hard labour, physical and emotional, from a labour force.
Brinner (1995a) extends the argument for considering emotional labour in non-service communications
further. Employees in jobs which appear to contain no emotional labour may still be rewarded for displays of
emotion. For example, a proportion of highly successful employees in many occupations appear to achieve this
success “almost solely as a consequence of this skill in impression management and self-presentation” (Brinner,
1995). Certainly in an interview situation, display of enthusiasm and excitement are often positively rewarded
with the offer of a job.
Flight attendants are expected to feel cheerful and friendly, continue to smile as the plane crashes, funeral
directors are expected to feel sombre and reserved and nurses are expected to feel empathetic and supportive.
So among the workers performing emotional labour, other than flight attendants, bill collectors, funeral
directors, doctors, nurses etc, there include musicians also who perform even as the ship sinks and ride operators
at an amusement park,
7. Implications of Emotional labour
"Service with a smile, especially when mandated by the company, may be pleasing to the customer, but at the
same time emotionally and physically stressful for the employee, especially if forced or insincere," says Dr.
Alicia A. Grandey, assistant professor of industrial and organizational psychology at Penn State.
"Many clerical and service jobs are already stressful, because they are low wage and low status, with employees
having little or no control over their workplace conditions. Maintaining professionally positive expressions for
the customer requires a kind of work termed `emotional labor' by some psychologists. Emotional labor may
create significant stress, which has mental and physical costs," Grandey notes.
It would seem inevitable that workers in these prescribed roles will not genuinely feel the emotion that they
are expected to display all the time. To some degree or other, conflict will exist between what the individual
really feels and the emotion they are expected to display. It has been argued (e.g. by Hochschild, 1979; 1983)
that attempting to conform to those expectations causes certain “pernicious psychological effects” (Ashforth and
Humphrey, 1993, p. 89).
High emotional labour within organizations, caused by organizational control of emotions, can lead to
suppressing disagreements, eliminating employee voice and reduction in upward information flow (Putnam and
Mumby, 1993). Norms for emotional control can also affect co-worker relationships. In particular, suppression
of feelings during interactions with colleagues may result in altered relational perceptions and changed
communication patterns (Putnam and Mumby, 1993)
There is evidence that emotion labor may lead to employee's emotional exhaustion and burnout over time, and
may also reduce employee's job satisfaction. That is, higher degree of using emotion regulation on the job is
related to higher levels of employees' emotional exhaustion, and lower levels of employees' job satisfaction. The
emotional dimensions of service employees, often leads to incredible stress, which can result in their leaving the
profession.
Studies indicate that emotional labor jobs require the worker to produce an emotional state in another person.
For example, flight attendants are encouraged to create good cheer in passengers and bill collectors promote
anxiety in debtors. Research on emotional contagion has shown that exposure to an individual expressing
positive or negative emotions can produce a corresponding change in the emotional state of the observer.
Accordingly, a recent study reveals that employees' display of positive emotions is indeed positively related to
customers' positive affect. Positive affective display in service interactions, such as smiling and conveying
friendliness, are positively associated with important customer outcomes, such as intention to return, intention to
recommend a store to others, and perception of overall service quality.
Both surface acting as well as deep acting has been linked to performance burnout and job turnover. Jobs that
are particularly prone to burnout are those where you have to be relentlessly positive, so the caring professions
like medicine, nursing, social work and teaching, (where there is a large amount of personal interaction that
requires deep personal attention and concern) require a huge amount of emotional labour. Results revealed that
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the emotional labor strategy of surface acting led to increases in subsequent strain, while deep acting led to
increase in job performance. Inhibition of emotions leads to various illness including high blood pressure, heart
disease and cancer. The practice of emotional labor in an unsupportive work environment produces work-related
stress, which has a wide range of potentially serious health effects. Faking emotions or surface acting always
leads to burnout. Providing friendly service to customer may be taxing to employee’s health. Emotional
dissonance always leads to stress, turnover ,absenteeism, and low morale .
It has been understood that how multifaceted and important are the emotional dimensions of caring were to
issues such as staff retention, job satisfaction, patient satisfaction, professional development and service delivery
(Mazhindu 2003). So, it is becoming increasingly clear that successful management of emotional labor by
employees plays a critical role in the process of customer retention, recovery, and delight.
8. Conclusion
Emotional labour is an intrinsic part of managing, teaching researching and nursing. Our emotions make us
human, and this affects our learning experiences and the experience of our service users. Ensuring support
through the tough times as well as the good times is one way to ensure the young generation remember how to
become good managers, researchers, teachers, and nurses in the future..
Emotional labor is a subtle but serious occupational hazard that is likely to spread rapidly as the global service
economy continues to grow. Emotional labor requires more than just acting friendly and being helpful to
customers; the worker must manage his or her emotions to create a company-dictated experience for customers.
The product of emotional labour is often a change in the state of mind or feeling within another person, most
often a client or a customer. First, increased emotional labour is associated with higher levels of workplace
stress (Adkins and Lury, 1999), with its associated negative impacts on employee health and well-being.To
prevent emotional exhaustion of service employees the development of interventions to promote healthbeneficial
emotional labor is necessary. This can be achieved by fostering deep acting, which reduces emotional
exhaustion over longer periods of time. Emotional labour which involves deep acting is rather like method
acting. We make a conscious effort to help annoying users because avoiding the negative feelings is good for us
and we remain in a better emotional state. Problems in service encounters may arise from faulty communication
or biased interpretation of each others behaviour. Questioning our thinking concerning a service relationship or
situation will lead to a reappraisal of the situation and will ease emotional labour. Emotions at work are an
important part of company life. Help people understand their reactions to emotional labor, and develop policies
and procedures to reduce the negative impact of emotional labor. These are ways to improve overall
performance and worker satisfaction.
Organisation Culture influences not only what people think, say and do but also what they feel. In addition to
culture change, the increasing move towards internal markets within large organizations means that more
employees will have to treat employees in other sections and departments as customers or clients rather than coworkers
and hence be subjected to more emotion display rules (and, arguably, emotional labour). Attitudes to
work and a willingness and ability to handle the emotional aspects of work are components of competence
easily overlooked in the design of training programmes, particularly those concerned with procedural skills. It
may be that training alone is an insufficient response to such a complex issue and that ongoing support,
monitoring and advice, needs to be formalized within a continuous development scheme. A system of workplace
mentoring or the "buddy system" favoured by some manufacturing industries could prove useful in this regard.
Though many employers do not acknowledge the existence of emotional labor, it is a real occupational hazard
that may generate life-altering effects on physical and emotional health. In many senses, the debate around
emotional labour has moved on from Hochschild’s initial premises and continues to shed new and valuable light
on a once hidden aspect of service work.
9. Scope for further research
A number of challenges await those conducting research in this domain, some of which are theoretical while
others are measurement related. Despite these challenges, the potential for a significant contribution to
Emotional labour can be a powerful integrative concept that brings together these, as well as other, fruitful areas
of study. The implications of commodification for the interface between employee, ‘end user’ and organisation
is a further area of inquiry which can throw light on some of the moral and ethical considerations around such
work. Further research into emotions at work will shape future education, management and research strategies
in keeping emotional labour at the forefront of any service jobs.
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