Predictors of Resilience in Maltreated and Nonmaltreated Latino ...

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environmental factors, child maltreatment promotes maladaptive functioning in Latino children. In this sample, twice as many maltreated Latino children as nonmaltreated Latino children were functioning maladaptively. Because resilience was determined by scores of adaptive functioning only at one point in time, future studies should focus on evaluating Latino children’s resilience longitudinally. In terms of identifying factors that would explain individual differences in resilient functioning among both maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children, analyses revealed that maltreated Latino children were rated as significantly more conflicted in relationships with an adult counselor than were nonmaltreated Latino children and evinced higher levels of ego-undercontrol; conversely, nonmaltreated Latino children evidenced higher egoresiliency and higher receptive vocabulary and were rated as having more open communication, more warmth, and demonstrating a more positive relationship with their head camp counselor. Thus, the nonmaltreated Latino children displayed higher levels of the interpersonal relationship factors previously associated with higher resilient functioning than did the maltreated Latino children (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997). For both maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children, analyses of personal resource variables revealed that higher ego-resiliency and moderate ego-overcontrol were associated with higher resilient functioning. Being female also was associated with higher resilient functioning. Contrary to the findings in previous literature (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997), the effects of ego-resiliency and ego-control did not relate differentially in predicting resilience for maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children; thus, only partial support for our second hypothesis was found. Ego-resiliency was found to be the strongest predictor of resilient functioning for this sample, and consequently, the child’s ability to modify his or her own characteristic level of ego-control, in order to accommodate and sustain possible stressors in the environment as they arise, was an adaptive resource (J. Block, 1982). For the children in this sample, high ego-resiliency may have helped them to overcome the many environmental hardships they experienced and, thus, fostered resilient functioning. The significant quadratic main effect for ego-control found in this study suggests that there is an optimal amount of ego-control that both maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children should exhibit for higher resilient functioning. For Latino children, resilient functioning was found to decrease significantly as scores of ego-undercontrol increased; that is, Latino children who had difficulty regulating behavioral, affective, and cognitive expressions of impulse had worse outcomes. Likewise, Latino children who were extremely overcontrolled, and excessively inhibited in emotional and behavioral expressiveness, also had fewer areas of resilient functioning. For the Latino children in this sample, a moderate amount of ego-overcontrol was found to be the most adaptive. Our findings are similar to those of prior investigations in showing that demonstrating more ego-overcontrol, or the ability to adopt more reserved and controlled ways of interacting with others, may help maltreated children function successfully and cope with their adverse home environments (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997; Cicchetti et al., 1993). However, in this study, both maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children were found to benefit from moderate ego-overcontrol; thus, the ability to exhibit greater ego-control may also be important for nonmaltreated Latino children. Previous findings have suggested that in other samples of PREDICTORS OF RESILIENCE IN LATINO CHILDREN 347 maltreated and nonmaltreated children, ego-overcontrol has been an important predictor of resilience in maltreated children only (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997; Cicchetti et al., 1993). Because Latino children may be at an even greater risk for maladaptive outcomes than children of more mainstream cultures, there may be a greater tendency for both resilient maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children to exhibit moderate amounts of behavioral and emotional expressiveness. As described by J. H. Block and Block (1980), some Q-sort items that characterize features of children with a resilient overcontrolling type of personality organization include “compliant,” “calm/relaxed,” and “empathic.” Similarly, in the Latino culture, characteristics such as respect and control of emotions (de Rios, 2001; Durrett, O’Bryant, & Pennebaker, 1975; Simoni & Perez, 1995) are often valued by many Latino parents. Thus, certain value systems may inculcate modulation of expressiveness through expectations for respect and fostering of restraint, and these features appear to be valuable for promoting resilience in nonmaltreated as well as maltreated Latino children. In addition, in terms of interpersonal relationship factors that predict resilient functioning in Latino children, the main effects of having a positive relationship with the head camp counselor and of being rated as less conflicted, warmer, and being less closed/ troubled were also significant in predicting adaptive functioning. The fact that these interpersonal variables were significantly associated with higher functioning supports the notion that interpersonal factors play a role in overcoming environmental hardships. However, not all of these factors were found to relate to resilient functioning differentially for maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children. As indicated above, the interactions of maltreatment status with the relationship variables of “closed/troubled” and “open communication” were significant, lending partial support to our second and third hypotheses. Analyses revealed that, as in previous investigations of resilience (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997), the relations between these interpersonal relationship features and resilient functioning were stronger for nonmaltreated Latino children. That is, although relationship features do promote higher resilient functioning in maltreated Latino children than in nonmaltreated Latino children, the deleterious effects of maltreatment may lessen the relative effectiveness of relationship features in promoting positive outcomes. Maltreated children may not be able to make use of relationships with adults in order to succeed and surmount environmental hardships as well as nonmaltreated children may. Thus, for maltreated Latino children, internal strengths such as ego-resiliency and ego-overcontrol may be more essential than relationship features in predicting resilience. In terms of gender differences, being female was associated with higher levels of resilient functioning in Latino children. However, none of the linear interactions of gender with any of the predictor variables was significant, suggesting that the predictors of resilience did not differ for Latino girls and boys. Caution should be taken when interpreting the role of gender in predicting resilience because there were small numbers of girls in both the maltreated group and the nonmaltreated comparison group. Thus, we recommend that future investigators not only increase their sample size to include more Latina girls but also that they continue to explore possible gender differences that may exist in the development of resilient functioning in Latino children. Because strong gender roles and cultural ideals such as machismo and marianismo exist in the Latino culture, they may promote differences in resilient functioning between Latino girls and boys. For Latino boys growing up
348 in an environment that adheres to ideals of machismo, maltreatment experiences may promote feelings of shame and frustration around not being able to defend oneself or one’s family, thus leading to increased aggression and increased externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Likewise, many Latina girls who are socialized to be self-sacrificing and obedient may develop the ability to better cope with environmental adversities and avoid conflict. Because it remains unclear, for example, how certain Latino traditions, beliefs, and attitudes may promote resilient functioning in both maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children, future studies need to incorporate models of development that investigate the importance of culture and its role in predicting resilience. Future investigations should use an emic (culture-specific) (García Coll, Akerman, & Cicchetti, 2000; Shweder et al., 1998) approach by obtaining measures that target specific cultural factors, in order to examine patterns of adaptation and maladaptation, and predictors of resilience within Latino culture. One such paradigm, proposed by García Coll et al. (1996), recognizes the importance of developing theory that would take into account many of the cultural characteristics unique to minority cultures. This perspective has been lacking in most existing models of child development. García Coll and her colleagues proposed a social stratification model for studying developmental pathways in minority children. Several constructs proposed in this model were of particular relevance to this study and may have contributed to how developmental processes operated to promote resilience in Latino children. For example, social position variables (e.g., race, social class, ethnicity, gender), family (e.g., structure and roles, family values), and developmental competencies (e.g., cognitive, social, emotional) may differentially influence what factors facilitate resilience. Future research on resilience should be guided by models sensitive to the effects of culture on developmental processes and to culture’s unique contributions to how successful adaptation is achieved in the face of adversity. Despite important findings in this study, several limitations must be addressed. First, contrary to past research in child maltreatment, receptive vocabulary, which is indirectly related to intellectual functioning, was not found to be a predictor of resilience for either maltreated or nonmaltreated Latino children in this investigation. This is not to suggest that for Latino children receptive vocabulary is not related to resilient outcomes. Instead, one explanation may be that the PPVT–R may not have been a valid measure of receptive vocabulary for Latino children because of language differences and acculturation issues. In this study, scores for both maltreated and nonmaltreated Latino children were generally below average (84% achieved a score of less than 100). This limited range of scores may provide an explanation as to why the PPVT–R was not related to the resilient functioning composite. However, it is important to note that the PPVT–R scores for the Latino children in this sample were comparable to those of the other children attending the summer day camp. Therefore, the low scores may not be due to cultural factors but instead may be more associated with the demographic characteristics of this group. Thus, future investigations should use measures of receptive vocabulary and intellectual functioning that have proven validity for Latino populations. Second, measures of acculturation were not obtained in this study, nor were specific Latino subgroups identified (e.g., Puerto Rican, Mexican American, Cuban, Dominican). Because there are many different traditions and value systems within the Latino FLORES, CICCHETTI, AND ROGOSCH culture, it is important to measure acculturation and to recognize the diversity within specific groups of Latinos in future investigations. Third, because of the sample size and the high comorbidity of maltreatment subtypes, the potential differential effects of physical neglect, emotional maltreatment, physical abuse, and sexual abuse among Latino children could not be rigorously investigated. Future investigations should use a much larger sample of maltreated Latino children in order to perform further subtype analyses. Finally, self-system processes were not evaluated in this study. Processes such as self-esteem, self-confidence, self-reliance, and social self-efficacy have been indicated as protective factors in reducing behavior problems among maltreated children (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1997; Kim & Cicchetti, 2003) and may predict resilience in maltreated children. In other minority cultures, it has been found that the presence of a positive ethnic identity is associated with the development of an integrated self-system and increased self-esteem (Spencer, Dupree, & Hartmann, 1997; Spencer, Fegley, & Harpalani, 2003). For Latino children who are able to establish a positive ethnic identity, these self-system processes may be of particular importance. Thus, future studies need to examine the influence of such processes on adaptive and maladaptive development in Latino children. Definitive intervention implications await additional research on pathways to adaptive and maladaptive functioning in Latino children. Because certain aspects of relationship features differed as predictors of resilient functioning in nonmaltreated and maltreated Latino children, one clinical implication that should be considered is the development and fostering of relationships with persons outside of the nuclear family for maltreated Latino children. Relationship features may not have been as effective in predicting resilience in maltreated Latino children because, unlike many nonmaltreated Latino children, maltreated Latino children may not have experienced a positive relationship within their families and may find it more difficult to relate to, or to rely on, others. Thus, future work with this population should focus on promoting resilience in maltreated Latino children through the development of supportive relationships with adults and peers outside of the immediate family system. Finally, because ego-resiliency was found to be the strongest predictor of resilient functioning in high-risk Latino children, and may be essential to the development of resilience in maltreated Latino children (J. Block, 1993), future interventions should focus on how to enhance the development of ego-resiliency in both nonmaltreated and maltreated Latino children. Although the Latino population is rapidly increasing, our current understanding of pathways to resilience in high-risk Latino children has not shown commensurate progress. In fact, this investigation is among the first to advance our knowledge of the deleterious effects of child maltreatment on Latino children and to elucidate some of the predictors of resilient adaptation in these youngsters. The important findings emanating from this investigation highlight the need to conduct additional work on the predictors of resilient functioning in maltreated Latino children. As our knowledge base expands, our ability to design and implement the preventive interventions necessary to promote resilience in this high-risk population of children will be greatly enhanced. References Aber, J. L., & Allen, J. P. (1987). The effects of maltreatment on young children’s socioemotional development: An attachment theory perspective. Developmental Psychology, 23, 406–414.
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