THE CASES

THE CASES
NOMINATIVE
The nominative case is used for the SUBJECT of the sentence. Remember that everything that
agrees with the subject must also be nominative, particularly adjectives, wherever they occur
in the sentence.
The man that I saw yesterday in the street was very old.
Homo quem in via heri vidi erat vetissimus.
The nominative is also used for the COMPLEMENT of the subject, that is, any word that states
what the subject is.
Marcus is a writer. Marcus est scriptor.
The young man became a senator. Iuvenis factus est senator.
ACCUSATIVE
There are ten main uses of the accusative case, as follows:
1 DIRECT OBJECT OF THE VERB:
The boy loved the girl. Puer puellam amabat.
The emperor wrote a book. Imperator librum scripsit.
2. VERBS OF NAMING, TEACHING, HIDING AND ASKING
These verbs have TWO objects in the accusative case:
They called the senator a fool. Senatorem appelabant asinum.
I taught the boy litterature. Puerum litteras docui.
I hid the book from the girl. Puellam celavi librum.
The consul asked Cicero for the keys. Consul Ciceronem claves poposcit.
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3. ACCUSATIVE OF EXCLAMATION
This should not be confused with the vocative used to exclaim a name, or with an interjection.
However, most exclamations are found in the accusative:
Alas! I am undone! Eheu, me perditum!
How wretched I am! O me miserum!
4. ACCUSATIVE OF THE EXTENT OF SPACE
When measurements are given showing the amount of space that is taken up, the
measurement is expressed in the accusative:
Cæsar pitched his camp three miles from the border.
Cæsar castra tria milia passuum a finibus posuit.
The wall is many feet high.
Murus multos pedes altus est.
5. ACCUSATIVE OF THE EXTENT OF TIME
The amount of time taken to accomplish anything, or the amount of time something lasts, is
expressed in the accusative:
He lived in Rome for many years.
Romæ multos annos habitabat.
Romulus reigned for 37 years.
Romulus septem et triginta annos regnavit.
This is also used to express age :
6. MOTION TOWARDS
two years old duos annos natus
The goal of motion is in the accusative, usually with the preposition AD or IN, when the
English has the sense of TO or INTO :
He went to the garden.
In hortum ivit.
The consul entered the senate.
Consul in senatum ingressus est.
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Often AD has the sense of “up to”:
The army marched up to the walls of the city.
Exercitus ad muros urbis profectus est.
With names of towns there is NO preposition, however (this also includes small islands, rus
and domus):
We all went to Rome.
7. COGNATE ACCUSATIVE
Omnes Romam ivimus.
I’ll go to the country: you go home.
Ego rus ibo, vos domum ite.
Some intransitive verbs can have an object when it is formed from the same root as the verb
itself (as in English) – e.g., “to live a life” or “to run a race”.
He lived a good life.
Bonam vitam vixit.
8. ACCUSATIVE AFTER CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS
The following prepositions are followed by a noun or pronoun in the accusative:
ad to adversum/s towards
ante before apud among/at the house of
circa around circum around
circiter about (number) cis this side of
citra this side of contra against
erga towards (person) extra outside
infra below inter between / among
intra within iuxta next to
ob because of penes in the power of
per through pone behind
post after præter beyond
prope near propter on account of
secundum according to supra above
trans across ultra beyond
in into (movement) sub under (movement)
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GENITIVE
The genitive case is that of the possessor (rendered in English either by use of the possessive
case – i.e., S with apostrophe – or by the use of ‘of’).
1. GENITIVE OF POSSESSION
2. PARTITIVE GENITIVE
This is used to show part of a whole:
The boy’s book Pueri liber
The boys’ books Puerorum libri
The end of the road Finis viæ
more food plus cibi
a huge pile of books ingens acervus librorum
enough money satis pecuniæ
3. QUALITY EXPRESSED WITH AN ADJECTIVE
He is a man of great authority Homo est magnæ auctoritatis
Cicero was a man of old fashioned sternness Cicero vir erat priscæ severitatis
4. PREDICATIVE GENITIVE
This usually shows some characteristic or quality of a person or a class of persons:
It is characteristic of boys to play Puerorum est ludere
It is the duty of all men to protect their country Omnium hominum est patriam servare
Your letter was of great importance to me Tua epistula maximi ponderis mihi erat
5. WITH SUPERLATIVES
We usually use the preposition “in” in English after a superlative. In Latin the genitive is
required instead:
the biggest house in the street maxima domus viæ
Rome is the greatest of all cities Roma maxima omnium urbium est
the most difficult part of the book pars libri maximæ difficultatis
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6. WITH ‘CAUSA’ & ‘GRATIA’
These words mean ‘for the sake of’ or ‘because of’:
for the sake of love amoris causa
for the sake of an example (i.e., “e.g.”) exempli gratia
for the sake of building a house causa ædificandi domum
7. AFTER CERTAIN ADJECTIVES
sciens knowing inscius not knowing
cupidus eager particeps sharing
avidus greedy peritus skilled
tenax holding firmly memor mindful
immemor unmindful plenus full
not knowing my future inscius futuræ meæ
eager for a profit beneficii avidus
skilled in medicine medicinæ peritus
forgetting the danger immemor periculi
8. WITH VERBS OF REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING
memini & obliviscor
the king remembered his friends rex amicorum meminerat
we must not forget our work laboris oblivisci non debemus
9. WITH VERBS OF ACCUSATION, CONDEMNATION AND ACQUITTING
the person accused is in the accusative: what he is accused of is in the genitive
the slave was accused of many crimes multorum scelerum servus criminatus est
he was acquitted of robbery latrocinii reus est
9. GENITIVE OF VALUE
used with verbs of valuing, buying and selling
magni (for a large amount) – parvi (for a small price) – nihili (for nothing) – flocci (worthless)
he sold the books for a very low price libros minimi vendidit
the judge cares nothing for the state iudex rempublicam flocci non facit
NB definite price is expressed by the ablative case
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10. WITH PRONOUNS
satis (enough) – nimis (too much) – plus (more) – parum (not enough) – aliquid (some)
1 INDIRECT OBJECT
enough bread satis panis
not enough wine parum vini
too much money nimis pecuniae
dative
This is the person/thing, etc., to whom the object is given, said, etc.
The Romans gave peace to the world Romani pacem mundo dederunt
2 AFTER CERTAIN VERBS
Some verbs have a dative rather than an accusative object. There is a little rhyme to
help remember these:
* in the sense of ‘be keen on’ as well
Examples of these:
Envy, spare, believe, assist,
Study*, hurt, obey, resist,
Indulge, persuade, pardon – add to these
Favour, be angry with, and please.
invideo – invidere – invidi – invisum envy
cur mihi invides? why do you envy me?
parco – parcere – peperci – parsum spare
hostibus pepercit he spared the enemy
credo – credere – credidi – creditum believe
tibi simper credo I always believe you
subvenio – subvenire – subveni – subventum assist
succurro – succurrere – succurri – succursum assist
suis amicis subvenit he assisted his friends
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studeo – studere – studui study – be keen on
litteris studebat he studied literature
noceo – nocere – nocui to hurt, harm
cruri suo nocuit he hurt his leg
pareo – parere – parui to obey
legibus parendum est one must obey the laws
resisto – resistere – restiti to resist
hostibus restiterunt they resisted the enemy
indulgeo – indulgere – indulsi to indulge, grant, allow
servo suo pecuniam indulsit he granted his servant the money
suadeo – suadere – suasi – suasum to persuade
regi suasit se honestum esse he persuaded the king that he was honest
ignosco – ignoscere – ignovi – ignotum to pardon
amico ignovit he pardoned his friend
faveo – favere – favi – fautum to favour
si tibi dei favent if the gods favour you
irascor – irasci – iratus sum to be angry with
magistro iratus est he was angry with his teacher
placeo – placere – placui to please
haec mihi placuerunt these things pleased me
impero – imperare – imperavi – imperatum to command
militibus imperavit ut proficiscerent he ordered the soldiers to set out
nubo – nubere – nupsi – nuptum to marry (of a woman only)
suo sobrino nupsit she married her cousin
desum – deesse – defui to be lacking
pecunia mihi deerat I had no money
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3 VERBS OF HINDERING AND HELPING
particularly those beginning with ad – ob – præ – sub
he obstructed the enemy hostibus obstitit
4 DATIVE OF POSSESSION
This is similar to the dative of advantage/disadvantage
this book is mine hic liber mihi est
5 DATIVE OF ADVANTAGE
When anyone is advantaged or disadvantaged by the action of the verb (usually with
the sense of ‘for’)
He did the work for his father laborem patri suo fecit
The journey was hard for the Gauls Gallis iter durum erat
6 DATIVE WITH IMPERSONAL VERBS
Impersonal verbs such as libet (it is pleasing) and licet (it is allowed):
what pleases me the most quod mihi maxime libet
I am allowed to read the book mihi librum legere licet
7 PREDICATIVE DATIVE (ALSO DATIVE OF PURPOSE)
A number of nouns, usually abstract in meaning, are put in the dative to show what a
person or thing serves as or results in. The most common are exitio (destruction), usui
(use or purpose), auxilio (help, assistance), curae (worry)
8 DATIVE OF AGENT
this book will be of great use to me hic liber mihi magno usui erit
they had sent cavalry to help Caesar equitatum auxilio Caesari miserant
This is normally used with a gerund or gerundive, but can also be found in other
circumstances. When there is any ambiguity, the ablative is used instead:
this was to be carried out by us hoc erat agendum nobis
these things were to be said by you hæc erant dicenda tibi
the matter has been provided for by me res provisa est mihi
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9 DATIVE OF SEPARATION
Where a verb of separation is used with the English sense “from”, the person or thing
from whom the separation takes place is put in the dative:
Take this terror away from me! hunc terrorem mihi eripe!
The Senate has taken nothing from you nihil tibi senatus detraxit
10 DATIVE OF REFERENCE
Used in some questions where there is an advantage expressed to the speaker:
Where can I get a book? unde mihi liber?
11 DATIVE OF DIRECTION
This is only used in poetry for the place towards which there is motion (normally ad is
used with the accusative):
A shout goes up to heaven (Virgil) it clamor caelo
12 IMPERSONAL PASSIVE WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Intransitive verbs cannot have an object and therefore cannot become passive.
However, an impersonal passive is often found, used with the dative of what would
have been the subject of the active verb:
13 ETHICAL DATIVE
I was commanded mihi imperatum est
you are pardoned tibi parcitur
This is used in the pronoun in familiar language to call attention or mark interest:
Tell me, what is Celsus up to? (Horace) quid mihi Celsus agit?
14 DATIVE WITH ACCUSATIVE
Three verbs have an accusative direct object and a dative of the second noun:
antepono (to prefer) – minor (to threaten) – præficio (to put in charge)
he prefers war to peace bellum paci anteponit
he threatened me with death mortem mihi minatus est
I put you in charge of the army te exercitui præficio
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14 ADJECTIVES THAT TAKE THE DATIVE
gratus pleasing to liber mihi gratus erat
the book is pleasing to me (I like the book)
facilis easy for hæc opera ei facilia erant (and difficilis)
these tasks were easier for him
similis like puer patri similis est (and dissimilis)
the boy is like his father
vicinus neighbouring hæc tribus Romanis vicina est
this tribe is a neighbour of the Romans
inimicus unfriendly towards senator sociis inimicus erat
the senator was unfriendly towards his allies
aptus fit for hæc verba aptiora sunt sapientibus
these words are more fit/apt for wise men
carus dear to familia mihi cara est
my family is dear to me
idoneus suitable for castris idoneum est locum
the place is suitable for a camp
utilis useful hic liber utilis studentibus est
this book is useful to the students
infestus hostile towards Pœni Romanis infesti erant
the Carthaginians were hostile towards the Romans
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ablative
The ablative case has more uses than any of the others. Generally, it is used after many
prepositions, often with the sense of “away” – ab, ex, for example. In the plural it looks exactly
the same as the dative.
1 ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION
This is used with verbs such as solvo (to free from) and libero (to free from)
timore solutus est he was freed from fear
2 ABLATIVE OF ORIGIN
states from whom anyone is descended
Cæsar deis natus est Cæsar was descended from the gods
3 ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON
comparisons are often rendered by quam, but the ablative is often used instead
os maius est cane the bone is bigger than the dog
4 ABLATIVE OF ASSOCIATION
this is used with verbs and adjectives expressing plenty, fullness or possession
villa lacte melleque abundat the farm abounds in milk and honey
munere iuvenem donat he presents the young man with a gift
5 ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION
found with an adjective, usually expressing the sense of the English with or of
senex promissa barba an old man with a long beard
vir summa audacia a man of supreme boldness
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6 ABLATIVE OF RESPECT OR SPECIFICATION
used to express a limitation or a specification of the verb or noun – worthy (dignus)
also has an ablative of respect
natu maior older
vir ingenio maximus a man mighty in genius
femina laude digna a woman worthy of praise
hæ civitates lingua differunt these states differ in language
7 ABLATIVE OF MANNER
this is an adverbial use of the ablative, which expressed how something is done
summa celeritate cucurrerunt they ran with the greatest speed
silentio sedebant they sat in silence
8 ABLATIVE OF INSTRUMENT OR AGENT
expresses the thing with which an action is performed (with a person, a or ab is used)
scuto servatus est he was saved by his shield
dente lupus petit the wolf attacks with his teeth
se iaculis defenderunt they defended themselves with javelins
9 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE
expresses the reason why something occurs
fame mortuus est he died of hunger
10 ABLATIVE OF MEASURE (OF DIFFERENCE)
This shows the amount by which something is different
multo maior quam soror est he is much bigger than his sister
luna paulo minor quam sol est the moon is a little smaller than the sun
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11 ABLATIVE AFTER CERTAIN VERBS
A small number of verbs are followed by the ablative
potior – potiri – potitus sum to gain possession of
Romani maribus potiti sunt the Romans gained possession of the seas
utor – uti – usus sum to use (sometimes to possess)
armis uti sunt they used weapons
fungor – fungi – functus sum to perform / carry out
munere ædilicio fungebatur he carried out the office of an ædile
fruor – frui – fructus sum to enjoy, have the benefit of, take delight in
voluptate fructi sunt they enjoyed pleasure
nitor – niti – nisus (nixus) sum to rely on, lean on, strive
consilio alicuius nitor debes you must rely on other people’s advice
egeo – egere – egui – egitum to need, lack
careo – carere – carui – caritum to need, lack
auctoritate egebat he lacked authority
vescor – vesci to feed on
carne ferina vescebantur they fed on the flesh of wild animals
12 ABLATIVE OF PRICE
This is used with verbs and adjectives of buying and selling and gives a specific price
(cf. genitive of price for non-specific amounts)
hoc mihi uno talento stetit this cost me one talent
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13 ABLATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
the following adjectives are followed by a noun or pronoun in the ablative:
dignus – indignus worthy of – unworthy of
laude digna est hæc res this matter is worthy of praise
liber free from
tandem liber cura sum at last I am free from care
vacuus empty
castra militibus vacua erant the camp was empty of soldiers
fretus relying on
amicis fretus … relying on his friends …
præditus endowed with / furnished with
exercitus armis præditus erat the army was furnished with weapons
plenus full of
domus clamore erat plena the house was full of noise
contentus pleased with
exitu contentus sum I am pleased with the outcome
opus est to need
opus est mihi pecunia I need money
14 ABLATIVE OF EXACT TIME
A time expression in the ablative shows the exact time at which something occurred
(as opposed to the accusative of the length of time).
Cicerone consule when Cicero was consul
hieme in the winter
solis occasu at sunset
tertia hora at the third hour
illo tempore at that time
noctu by night
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It also shows the time within which something occurs
biduo within two days
tribus horis within three hours
id duobus diebus confecit he finished it in two days
15 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE
This is also known as the “ablative of attendant circumstances”. It is common in Latin
because of the lack of active past participles (only the past participles of deponent
verbs are active in meaning). Therefore, one cannot say in Latin “Having murdered the
king, the rebels took power”. Instead, one has to say “The king having been murdered,
the rebels took power”. In this case, the participial phrase is not a grammatical part of
the sentence, and so it is placed in the ablative case. Where deponent verbs are
concerned, the past participle is used just as in English.
rege interfecto, populus gavisus est
the king having been killed, the people rejoiced.
epistula scripta, egressus est
the letter having been written, he went out.
libro lecto, patri gratias egit
when he had read the book, he thanked his father
castris captis, Cæsar milites interfecit
when he had captured the camp, Cæsar killed the soldiers
16 IDIOMATIC ABLATIVE
There are certain idiomatic expressions of comparison in which the ablative is used:
OPINIONE celerius opinione faster than one would think
SPE serius spe omnium later than they all hoped
SOLITO celerius solito faster than usual
ÆQUO gravius æquo more serious than was right
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locative
The locative case is found only in names of towns and small islands, along with a small
number of other words. In form, it corresponds to the genitive if the name is singular, and to
the ablative if the name is plural. It always has the sense of “at” or “in” a named place.
SINGULAR PLURAL
Romæ in Rome Athenis in Athens
Mileti in Miletus Gadibus at Cadiz
The other locative words are as follows:
humi (humus) in the ground
ruri (rus) in the country
domi (domus) at home
belli (bellum) in war
militiæ (militia) in warfare
cordi (cor) at heart
In a few cases, the locative is also used to express exact time (normally the ablative is used):
luci (lux) in daylight
vesperi (vesper) in the evening
Added to these uses, mention should be made of the accusative and ablative of names of
towns and small islands: “to” and “from” (in and ab) are omitted:
Romam to Rome Roma from Rome
domum (to) home domo (from) home
vocative
The vocative case, used to call or address a person (and sometimes a thing), is found only in
the 2 nd declension. In all other declensions it is the same as the nominative case.
Words ending in us have their vocative in E
Words ending in ius have their vocative in I
Greek names ending in eus have EU
amice! friend!
fili! son!
Antoni! Antonius!
Pompei! Pompeius!
Orpheu! Orpheus!
Very often the exclamatory O is prefaced to a word in the vocative: O fili mi!
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the grammar
of
sentences
We now come to how words in sentences interact with one another – that is, what we call
“constructions” or “syntax”.
1. direct questions
When there is no interrogative word, the enclitic particle NE is added to the end of the first word.
Has your mother come home? Materne domum revenit?
If the answer expected is “yes”, NONNE is placed at the beginning:
You have finished your work, haven’t you? Nonne laborem confecisti?
Surely you’ve finished your work?
If the answer expected is “no”, NUM is placed at the beginning:
You haven’t seen my book, have you? Num librum meum vidisti?
Surely you haven’t seen my book?
In other cases, direct questions have an interrogative word at the beginning. The most common
interrogative words are:
quis – quid pronoun who – what?
qui – quæ – quod adjective which – what?
quantus-a-um how big?
qualis what kind of?
quot how many?
quotiens how often, how many times?
quando when?
ubi where, when?
unde where from?
quo where to?
cur why?
quare why?
quomodo how?
quam diu how long?
uter-utra-utrum which (of two)?
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The verb after these interrogative words is in the INDICATIVE in direct questions.
Examples:
Who did that? Quis illud fecit?
What did you say? Quid dicisti?
Which book did you read? Quem librum legisti?
How big was the elephant? Quantus erat elephantus?
What kind of word is that? Quale verbum est illud?
How often did she sing? Quotiens canebat?
How many soldiers did you see? Quot milites vidisti?
When will he arrive? Quando [ubi] veniet?
Where did you get that book from? Unde illum librum adeptus es?
Where are you going tomorrow? Quo cras ibis?
Why did you complain? Cur [quare] questus es?
How did he make it? Quomodo id fecit?
How long did they stay? Quamdiu manserunt?
Which of the two books did you sell? Utrum librum vendidis?
Alternative questions are introduced by either UTRUM … AN / ANNON
or –NE … AN / ANNON:
Is she singing or shouting? Utrum canet an clamat?
Canetne an clamat?
Are you coming or not? Utrum venis annon?
Venisne annon?
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2. relative clauses
A relative pronoun (qv in part 1) introduces a clause describing a noun or pronoun in the
main clause (called the ‘antecedent’). It has the same gender and number as the antecedent,
but takes the case required by its own clause.
Examples:
NOMINATIVE
The senator who wrote this Senator qui hoc scripsit
The girl who was playing Puella quæ ludebat
The war which occurred in Italy Bellum quod in Italia accidit
ACCUSATIVE
The book that I’m reading Liber quem lego
The girl I saw Puella quam vidi
The girls I asked Puellæ quas rogavi
The body they found Corpus quod invenerunt
GENITIVE
The writer whose book I read Scriptor cuius librum legi
The woman whose son was rich Femina cuius filius erat dives
The soldiers whose weapons were bright Milites quorum arma erant clara
DATIVE
The boy he gave the book to Puer cui librum dedit
The boys he gave the books to Pueri quibus libros dedit
ABLATIVE
The house in which we found the money Domus in qua pecuniam invenimus
The towns from which they escaped Oppida e quibus evaserunt
If CUM (meaning ‘with’) is used with a relative pronoun, it is placed on the end of it:
The soldiers I am walking with Milites quibuscum ambulo
The senator he went to Rome with Senator quocum Romam ivit
The following expressions are common:
is qui the man who / he who is qui hunc librum scripsit
ea quæ the woman who / she who ea quæ canebat
id quod that which / what id quod dixi
ei qui the men who ei quos vidi
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3. comparison
There are two ways of translating THAN after a comparative (adjective or adverb):
[1] QUAM (meaning ‘than’):
His horse is taller than mine Equus suus altior quam meus est
The man’s legs are longer than the boy’s Crures hominis longiores quam pueri sunt
[2] Using the ablative:
The bone is bigger than the dog Os maius cane est
The slave is bolder than the master Servus audacior domino est
4. deliberative questions
These are the kind of questions that are asked in English using an interrogative word and the
verb ‘to be’, such as “What am I to do?”, “What is to be done?”, “How can I do that?” In Latin
these questions always have a verb in the subjunctive:
Examples:
What was I to reply? Quid responderem?
How was he to get to Rome? Quomodo Romam iret?
What am I to do? Quid faciam?
We are not to get angry. Non irascamur
How many times are we to repeat this? Quotiens hoc iteremus?
What sort of book am I to read? Qualem librum legam?
Which dog am I to choose? Quem canem eligam?
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5. wishes
Wishes can be made for the present time, as well as for the future. We can also wish that
something had happened in the past. These are all expressed with subjunctive verbs in Latin:
PRESENT - IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE
We use the imperfect subjunctive in English as well to express a present wish: “I wish I had
enough money to buy that!” It is the same in Latin (sometimes with the word utinam at the
beginning):
I wish I had enough money! (Utinam) satis pecuniæ haberem!
If only you were here! (Utinam) adesses!
FUTURE - PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
Once again, English also uses the present subjunctive to express a wish for the future:
God save the Queen! Deus reginam servet!
May the king reign for ever! Rex in æternum reget!
PAST - PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE
We use the pluperfect in English too for these wishes:
I wish I’d never seen it! (Utinam) id numquam vidissem
If only you hadn’t said that! Ne illud dixisses
I wish he’d spoken to me yesterday (Utinam) mihi heri locutus esset
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This is here for your reference only!
Every Roman month had three special days –
6. dates
the Kalends (always on the first of the month),
the Nones on the 5 th ,
the Ides on the 13 th .
However, in March, May, July and October, the Nones fell on the 7 th and the Ides on the 15 th .
Remember that Julius Cæsar was murdered on the Ides of March!
The three special days were taken as points in each month from which the other days were
counted backwards – that is, they always said that a day was so many days before the special
day. Thus the 30 th May would be “the third day before the Kalends of June” – “ante diem
tertium Kalendas Iunias”. And the 1 st of June would be “Kalendis Iuniis” – each special day
was put in the ablative. The dates were also abbreviated: 30 th May would become “a.d.III
Kal.Iun.” The day before a special day was “pridie” – so the 30 th April would be “pridie Idus
Martias”.
All this was complicated even further by the fact that months (as at present) had different
numbers of days and leap years occurred every four years. The names of the months (which
were adjectives) were as follows:
January ianuarius
February februarius
March martius
April aprilis
May maius
June iunius
July iulius (named after Julius Cæsar – earlier it was quintilis)
August augustus (named after Augustus – earlier it was sextilis)
September september
October october
November november
December december
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7. prolative infinitive
A prolative infinitive is one which directly follows another verb. In English there are two types: those
that follow verbs after ‘to’ (e.g., “He wanted to see”) and those which follow modal verbs without the
use of ‘to’ (e.g., “He will see”). In Latin there is a list of verbs after which the infinitive is used:
POSSUM posse potui to be able/can
He was able to read the book Librum legere potuit
I can’t find my money Pecuniam meam invenire non possum
DEBEO debere debui debitum ought / must
We ought to write to the senator ad senatorem scribere debemus
VIDEOR videri visus sum to seem
He seems to be hurrying festinare videtur
They seemed to be trying conari videbantur
VOLO/NOLO/MALO wish – want/not wish/prefer
He wanted to see the queen reginam videre voluit
They didn’t want to work laborare nolebant
We prefer to write letters epistulas scribere malumus
CONOR conari conatus sum try
We tried to catch the thief furem capere conati sumus
DOCEO docere docui doctum teach
They taught the children to read liberos legere docuerunt
DISCO discere didici learn
We learnt to speak Latin latine loqui didicimus
COGO cogere coegi coactum compel
He compelled them to confess eos confiteri coegit
SINO sinere sivi situm to allow
We allowed them to enter eos intrare sivimus
DESINO desinere destiti to cease / stop
The boys stopped shouting pueri clamare destiterunt
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INCIPIO incipere incepi inceptum begin
The soldiers began to be afraid milites timere inceperunt
CŒPI cœpisse (defective) to begin
They began to run out of the town ex oppido currere cœperant
STATUO statuere statui statutum to decide / determine
CONSTITUO constituere constitui constitutum
We decided to ask the magistrate prætorem rogare constituimus
CUPIO cupere cupivi cupitum to desire
Cæsar desired to see the consul Cæsar consulem videre cupiebat
SOLEO solere solitus sum to be used to/ accustomed to
I’m not used to working with my hands manibus laborare non soleo
AUDEO audere ausus sum to dare
Did Cicero dare to insult Antony? Antonione insultare ausus est Cicero?
The passive of all verbs of thinking and saying also takes a prolative infinitive, for example:
Cæsar is said to have seen a ghost Cæsar lemures vidisse dicitur
He is thought to be a praetor prætor esse putatur
8. nominative infinitive
English nouns ending in ING are usually translated in Latin by the gerund. However, if the
noun is the subject of the sentence, it is translated by the Latin infinitive. This is nearly always
with the verb ESSE in some form. The same can happen in English too, for example: “singing is
better than shouting” can be expressed “to sing is better than to shout”. This infinitive,
working as a noun, is always neuter (thus any adjective will be neuter as well).
Playing is more pleasant than working Ludere est iucundius quam laborare
It was difficult to understand his words Difficile erat intellegere verba sua
It’s easy to believe his innocence Facile est credere innocentiæ suæ
Working is praying Laborare est orare
It was sad to hear about his death Triste erat de sua morte audire
Writing letters is a pleasant task Scribere epistulas est opus gratum
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9. predicative dative
These are nouns in the dative case when they act as the predicate 1 of the verb ‘to be’. See the
section on the dative case for a full explanation. The following are the most common:
auxilio esse (sometimes with mittere or venire) to be a help to
he was a help to his father auxilio patri erat
præsidio esse (sometimes with mittere or venire) to be a protection to
the walls are a protection to the city mœnia præsidio urbi sunt
subsidio esse (sometimes with mittere or venire) to be a support to
the soldiers came to support the general milites subsidio duci venerunt
bono esse to be an advantage to
the delay was an advantage to Cæsar mora Cæsari bono fuit
usui esse to be useful to
the book will be useful to my sister liber usui sorori meæ erit
saluti esse to be a means of safety to
the camp was a means of safety for the soldiers castra saluti erant militibus
honori esse to be an honour to
your praise was an honour to me laus tua honori mihi erat
oneri esse to be a burden to
the baggage was a burden to the horses impedimenta oneri erant equis
curæ esse to be a care to
her son was a care to the old woman filius curæ erat vetulæ
dedecori esse to be a disgrace to
your book is a disgrace to you liber dedecori tibi est
dolori esse to be a grief to
her daughter’s fate was a grief to her mother fatum filiæ dolori fuit matri
impedimento esse to be a hindrance to
his big feet are a hindrance to him magni pedes impedimento ei sunt
1 the predicate of a verb is everything apart from the subject and the verb itself.
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ludibrio esse to be a laughing-stock to
I am a laughing-stock to my enemies ludibrio sum inimicis meis
odio esse to be hateful to
this work is hateful to me hoc opus odio mihi est
ornamento esse to be an ornament to
the church will be an ornament to the city ecclesia ornamento urbi erit
argumento esse to be a proof to
the evidence was proof to the judge testimonium argumento fuit iudici
exitio esse to be disastrous to
the bad weather was disastrous to the flowers intemperiæ exitio fuerunt floribus
detrimento esse to be a disadvantage
the defeat is a great disadvantage to them clades magno detrimento eis est
admirationi esse to be a wonder to
the victory is a wonder to everyone victoria admirationi omnibus est
exemplo esse to be an example to
her work is an example to her friends labor exemplo amicis suis est
receptui canere to sound a retreat
they sounded the retreat at the sixth hour sexta hora receptui cecinerunt
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10. participial phrases
For the formation of the three types of participle, please see the section on adjectives and
participles.
The present participle corresponds to the English adjective ending in ING, and refers to
what is going on at the same time as the main verb.
The past participle corresponds to the English past participle (the adjectival part of the verb
placed after ‘has’ or ‘have’). When two indicative verbs in the same sentence have the same
subject and object, the first is made into a past participle agreeing with the object:
e.g. They killed the pig and ate it Porcum necatum ederunt
The future participle has the sense of ‘about to do something’. It does not exist in English.
PRESENT PARTICIPLES
While riding in her carriage, the queen read a book In curru vehens regina librum legebat
That is a loving gesture Hoc est gestus amans
When writing letters people tell the truth Epistulas scribentes, vera dicunt
His father found him watching the soldiers Pater eum milites spectantem invenit
PAST PARTICIPLES
They read the letter and gave it to their mother Matri epistulam lectam dederunt
Having been acquitted, the prisoner was freed Captivus absolutus liberatus est
The conquered tribes were enslaved Tribus victæ in servitutem redactæ sunt
Saying these words, he walked out Hæc locutus, discessit
The slave caught the horse and led it home Servus equum captum domum duxit
FUTURE PARTICIPLES
As I was about to go home, I saw the thief Domum iturus furem vidi
On the point of setting out we were stopped Profecturi inhibiti sumus
On the point of sleep, the boy remembered his book Dormiturus puer libri meminerat
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11. accusative & infinitive
This is the construction of indirect statement. All verbs of thinking and saying are followed by
it. The subject of the clause is placed in the accusative, and the verb is an infinitive. The tense
of the infinitive depends on the tense of the original statement. For example, verbs of hoping,
promising, swearing and threatening will need a future infinitive (to translate the English
“would”).
‘He said he was ready.’ actual words : ‘I am ready’ therefore present infinitive
‘He said he would go.’ actual words : ‘I shall go’ therefore future infinitive
‘He said he had done it.’ actual words : ‘I have done it’ therefore perfect infinitive
If the verb to say is negative, Latin uses the verb to deny instead.
‘He said that he would never do it’ becomes ‘He denied that he would ever do it.’
negavit se id umquam facturum esse
Here are examples of all six infinitives used after dixit:
PRESENT ACTIVE
He said he was ready Dixit se paratum esse
He said his brother was ready Dixit fratrem paratum esse
PRESENT PASSIVE
He said he was being praised Dixit se laudari
PERFECT ACTIVE
He said he had seen the king Dixit se regem vidisse
PERFECT PASSIVE
He said he had been praised Dixit se laudatum esse
FUTURE ACTIVE
He said he would see the king Dixit se regem visurum esse
FUTURE PASSIVE
He said he would be praised Dixit se laudatum iri
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If ‘he/she/it’ is the subject of the accusative and infinitive construction, and it refers to the
same person as the main clause, it is translated as se. If it is someone else, it is translated as
eum / eam / id. For example:
He said that he (himself) would come dixit se venturum esse
He said that he (someone else) would come dixit eum venturum esse
One important exception to the use of the accusative & infinitive is the IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
use of verbs of saying, thinking or seeming. When these are passive they must have their
subject changed to a personal one. For example:
It seems that the king has arrived becomes The king seems to have arrived
Rex venisse videtur
It is said that he is lazy becomes He is said to be lazy
ignavus dicitur
It was thought that the king was ill becomes The king was thought to be ill
Regem morbum esse putabatur
The most common verbs that are followed by an accusative & infinitive construction are
listed below:
puto – putare – putavi – putatum to think
existimo – existimare – existimavi – existimatum to think
reor – reri – ratus sum to think
credo – credere – credidi – creditum to believe
pro certo habeo to be sure
sentio – sentire – sensi – sensum to notice
intellego – intellegere – intellixi – intellectum to understand
animadverto – animadvertere – animadverti to notice
cognosco – cognoscere – cognovi – cognotum to learn/ find out
scio – scire – scivi – scitum to know
nescio – nescire – nescivi – nescitum not to know
audio – audire – audivi – auditum to hear
dico – dicere – dixi – dictum to say
nego – negare – negavi – negatum to deny / say … not
memoro – memorare – memoravi – memoratum to mention
nuntio – nuntiare – nuntiavi – nuntiatum to announce
refero – referre – retuli – relatum to announce
narro – narrare – narravi – narratum to tell / relate
clamo – clamare – clamavi – clamatum to shout
simulo – simulare – simulavi – simulatum to pretend
respondeo – respondere – respondi – responsum to reply
affirmo – affirmare – affirmavi – affirmatum to affirm / declare
certiorem facere to inform
ferunt they say
inter omnes constat it is agreed
promitto – promittere – promise – promissum to promise
polliceor – polliceri – pollicitus sum to promise
spero – sperare – speravi – speratum to hope
iuro – iurare – iuravi – iuratum to swear
minor – minari – minatus sum to threaten
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12. passive of intransitive verbs
Normally verbs which take a dative object (see section on use of the dative case, in which
they are listed) cannot be put into the passive. However, they can be used impersonally, that
is, with ‘it’ as the subject.
Also, verbs which are intransitive (i.e., verbs that don’t have an object) are used impersonally
in the passive when we are not told who carried out the action.
Here are some examples of the passive impersonal use of verbs that take the dative:
The slave was pardoned becomes It was pardoned to the slave
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parsum est servo
The queen will not be obeyed becomes It will not be obeyed to the queen
reginæ non parebitur
The enemy was resisted becomes It was resisted to the enemy
hostibus resistebatur
He will never be believed become s It will never be believed to him
Numquam ei credetur
And here are some examples of intransitive verbs used impersonally in the passive:
A battle was fought becomes It was fought
pugnatum est
They arrived at 3 o’clock becomes It was arrived at 3 o’clock
ventum est tertia hora
It will be announced tomorrow becomes It will be announced tomorrow
nuntiabitur cras

13. impersonal verbs general use
These are verbs which would be impersonal in English (taking ‘it’ as their subject). They are
divided into seven groups depending on the cases that they take.
GROUP 1 ACCUSATIVE & GENITIVE
These verbs of feeling take the accusative of the person who feels and the genitive of the reason
for their feeling. They can also take an infinitive:
miseret it evokes pity perfect = miseruit
I pity the slaves me miseret servorum
piget it annoys perfect = piguit
the delay annoyed Cæsar Cæsarem piguit moræ
pænitet it repents perfect = pænituit
the man repented of his sins Hominem pænituit peccatorum
tædet it tires perfect = tæduit
we are tired of work nos tædet laboris
pudet it shames perfect = puduit
I am ashamed of my speech me pudet orationis
I am ashamed to say it me pudet hoc dicere
GROUP 2 ACCUSATIVE & INFINITIVE
oportet it is necessary (must) perfect = oportuit
I must depart oportet me discedere
We had to come oportuit nos venire
decet it is right/proper perfect = decuit
it is right for us to praise the gods decet nos deos laudare
dedecit it is not right / it is improper perfect = dedecuit
it is improper for you to lie dedecit te mentiri
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GROUP 3 GENITIVE AND INFINITIVE
interest it is important perfect = interfuit
refert it is important
it is important for Cæsar to respond interest Cæsaris respondere
it is important to his friends for him to reply refert amicorum eum respondere
GROUP 4 ABLATIVE FEMININE SINGULAR OF PRONOUN & INFINITIVE
These are the same two verbs, but when used with a pronoun instead of a noun the ablative
feminine singular of the possessive adjective is used:
interest it is important
it is important to me that he should come interest mea eum venire
GROUP 5 DATIVE AND INFINITIVE
licet it is allowed perfect = licuit
we are allowed to see the judge licet nobis iudicem videre
we were allowed to see the judge licuit nobis iudicem videre
libet it is pleasing perfect = libuit
we are pleased to see you libet nobis te videre
placet it seems right perfect = placuit
I am pleased to see my friend placet mihi amicum meum videre
it seemed right to Cæsar to come placuit Cæsari venire
GROUP 6 UT & SUBJUNCTIVE
accidit it happens perfect = accidit
the master happened to be at home accidit ut dominus domi esset
evenit it happens perfect = evenit
it happens that I’m not ready evenit ut non sim paratus
fieri potest it’s possible perfect = fieri potuit
it’s possible that he has come fieri potest ut venerit
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GROUP 7 ABSOLUTE EXPRESSIONS
pluit it’s raining perfect = pluit
tonat it’s thundering perfect = tonuit
ningit it’s snowing perfect = ninxit
14. conditional clauses
These are the clauses dependent on the conjunction “if”. Just as in English, Latin has open
conditions which take an indicative verb, and subjunctive conditions, which deal with
hypotheses. The correct grammatical terminology is that the main clause is called the
protasis and the “if” clause is the apodosis.
There are six types of condition, as follows:
1. CONDITION THAT MAY HAVE BEEN FULFILLED IN THE PAST
[a] on one occasion both protasis and apodosis are perfect indicative:
if you believed this, you were wrong si hoc credidisti, erravis
[b] as a regular occurrence both protasis and apodosis are imperfect indicative:
if you believed this, you were wrong si hoc credebas, errabas
2. CONDITION THAT MAY BE FULFILLED IN THE PRESENT
both protasis and apodosis are present indicative
if you believe this (now) you are wrong si hoc credis, eras
3. CONDITION THAT MAY BE FULFILLED IN THE FUTURE
apodosis is future-perfect indicative and protasis is future indicative
if you believe this (in the future) you will be wrong si hoc credideris, errabis
4. CONDITION THAT MAY BE FULFILLED IN A VAGUE FUTURE
both apodosis and protasis are present subjunctive
if you were to believe this, you would be wrong si hoc credas, erres
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5. CONDITION THAT IS NOT FULFILLED IN THE PRESENT
both apodosis and protasis are imperfect subjunctive
if you believed this (now) you would be wrong si hoc crederes, errares
6. CONDITION THAT WAS NOT FULFILLED IN THE PAST
both apodosis and protasis are pluperfect subjunctive
if you had believed this, you would have been wrong si hoc credidisses, erravisses
7. MIXTURE OF PAST AND PRESENT CONDITION
the apodosis is pluperfect and protasis imperfect subjunctive
if I had asked, you would be here now si rogavissem, hic nunc adesseres
“unless” or “if not” is expressed by NISI:
if he hadn’t asked, I wouldn’t have replied nisi rogavisset, non respondissem
“whether … or ….” is seu … seu...
whether we are rich or poor, we are happy seu dives seu pauperes sumus læti
15. temporal clauses
These are time clauses, introduced by conjunctions of time:
postquam after (often split into two parts)
antequam before (often split into two parts)
priusquam before (often split into two parts)
ubi when
ut when
quotiens whenever
simulac as soon as
simulatque as soon as
cum primum as soon as
donec until
quoad until
dum (while) and cum (when) will be dealt with later as they have special uses.
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All these conjunctions are followed by a verb in the indicative, except on the following two
occasions:
[1] when the clause is part of oratio obliqua (indirect speech)
He said he would worship the gods after the temple had been built
dixit se deos veneraturum esse postquam templum æedificatum esset
[2] when the time clause really expresses purpose (usually with ‘could’ or ‘should’)
the mouse escaped before the cat could catch it
mus ante evasit quam felis eum caperet
The use of indicative tenses after postquam, simulac, ubi and ut differs slightly from the
English. English uses the pluperfect (“He went out after he had finished the work”) but Latin
uses the perfect:
He went out after he had finished the work
Egressus est postquam opus confecit
However, the tense is the same as English if the exact time is stated:
After he had worked for two hours he had a rest
Postquam duas horas laboraverat, quievit
After antequam and priusquam the tenses differ from English as follows:
for the English present and future, Latin uses the present; the perfect is used for the past:
I shall finish it before you arrive
hoc conficiam priusquam advenis
but after a negative the temporal clause will be in the future-perfect:
I shall not finish it before you arrive
hoc non conficiam priusquam veneris
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16. cum
Cum as a conjunction (do not confuse it with the preposition meaning ‘with’) can mean
“when”, “whenever”, “since” and “although”. In each case its usage is different.
1 WHEN
The rule is that if the verb in the cum clause is in a primary sequence, the mood is
indicative, whereas if it is in a historic sequence the mood is subjunctive:
[a] primary
when you see her, give her the letter
cum eam videris, da ei epistulam
when they arrive I will give them the book
cum venerint eis librum dabo
[b] historic
when he arrived in Rome he saw the pope
cum Romam venisset papam vidit
when the farmer had killed the pig he sold the meat
cum agricola porcum necavisset, carnem vendidit
[c] inverted cum
when the idea of time is really in the main clause (in a historic sequence) then cum
takes the indicative instead of the subjunctive. For example, in “The sun was setting
when he saw her” the idea of time is in the main clause – that is, he saw her when the
sun was setting:
The sun was setting when he saw her
sol occidebat cum eam vidit
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2 WHENEVER
The tenses here are very different from English: when whenever refers to present
time, Latin uses the perfect tense; when it refers to future time, Latin uses the futureperfect,
and when it refers to past time, Latin uses the pluperfect. For example:
present: whenever I see him I rejoice! cum eum vidi, gaudeo
future: whenever I see him I shall rejoice! cum eum videro, gaudebo
past: whenever I saw him I rejoiced! cum eum videram, gaudebam
3 ALTHOUGH & SINCE
With this meaning, cum always takes the subjunctive:
Although the enemy was stronger, Cæsar resisted them
Cum hostes fortiores essent, Cæsar eis restitit
Since this is easy for you, you can finish it
Cum hoc tibi facile sit, conficere potes
18. dum
Dum can mean while, as long as and until. Its compound dummodo means provided that.
1 WHILE
In this case, dum is always followed by the PRESENT indicative:
While she was working, she saw soldiers approaching
Dum laborat, milites appropinquantes vidit
While he was preparing the bread, the oven caught fire
Dum panem parat, furnus arsit
2 WHILE / AS LONG AS
“While” really has two meanings: one (as above) concerning an action which another
action interrupts, and the second concerning two actions that continue
simultaneously. In this latter case, dum has the same indicative tense as in English:
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3 UNTIL
My mother stayed here while she was ill
Mea mater hic mansit dum ægrotabat
While the men worked the women chatted
Dum homines laborabant, mulieres garriebant
Dum meaning “until” has the normal tenses of a temporal clause. The only exception is
that if the main clause is negative antequam or priusquam are used instead.
Stay in the temple until I arrive
Mane in templo dum venero
He waited outside until his father came
Foris mansit dum pater venit
but Don’t go away until the work is finished
Noli discedere priusquam labor confectus erit
4 DUMMODO – PROVIDED THAT
This takes the subjunctive and the same tense as in English (and ne is used for the
negative):
Provided that you work hard, you will become rich
Dummodo maxime labores, dives fies
Provided you don’t shout, the lion will not attack you
Dummodo ne clames, leo te non aggredietur
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19. gerund & gerundive
For the formation of the gerund and gerundive, see the section on verbs.
A GERUND is a noun formed from a verb and used in all cases except the nominative (when
an infinitive is used instead). It is always neuter and singular. It has the same uses as the
English gerund (verbal noun) ending in ING. Because they are verbal, gerunds can take
objects and direct objects.
[1] with the ACCUSATIVE
for the purpose of writing books ad libros scribendum
for seeing the queen ad reginam videndum
This use, as you can see, shows purpose, as does the next:
[2] with the GENITIVE
for the sake of writing books causa libros scribendi
for seeing the queen causa reginam videndi
[3] with the DATIVE
they enjoy writing books libros scribendo student
[4] with the ABLATIVE
by writing books libros scribendo
A GERUNDIVE is an adjective formed in exactly the same way as a gerund, and belongs to
Type 1 adjectives (like longus). It can be used in all cases where the verb it comes from is
transitive (i.e., takes an object). So in each of the examples above, a gerundive could have
been used also:
[1] with the ACCUSATIVE
for writing books ie, for books being written ad libros scribendos
[2] with the GENITIVE
for the sake of seeing the queen ie, for the sake of the queen being seen causa reginæ videndæ
[3] with the DATIVE
they enjoy writing books ie, they enjoy books being written scribendis libris student
[4] with the ABLATIVE
by writing books ie. by books being written scribendis libris
NB If the use of the genitive would require two genitive plurals, the gerund is used instead:
not causa librorum scribendorum, but causa scribendi libros.
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20. gerundive of obligation
To express obligation, the GERUNDIVE is used with any tense of the verb TO BE. This is done
in two ways, depending on whether the verb is transitive (takes an object) or not. Obligation
is expressed in English with must, have to, ought to.
1 TRANSITIVE VERBS
Where English has “must”, etc., Latin has the gerundive with the sense “to be done” – thus
all gerundives of transitive verbs can mean “to be …..” e.g.,
We must write the book becomes the book is to-be-written by us
They ought to see the queen becomes the queen is to-be-seen by them.
The sense of “by” is rendered by the agent in the dative.
the farmer has to find his cow becomes the cow is to-be-found by the farmer
vacca est invenienda agricolæ
she was to do the work becomes the work was to-be-done by her
labor erat faciendus illi
the soldier ought to have seen the enemy becomes the enemy was to-be-seen by the soldier
2 INTRANSITIVE VERBS
hostes erant videndi militi
In this case, the gerundive is neuter (with the sense of “it” in English). Thus, “We must
obey the laws” becomes “It is to-be-obeyed to the laws by us” – note than when there is a
dative already, the agent goes into the ablative:
we must obey the laws becomes it is to-be-obeyed to the laws by us
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parendum legibus a nobis est
they should hurry becomes it is to-be-hurried by them
festinandum eis est
we had to go becomes it was to-be-gone by us
eundum nobis erat
the slave is to be forgiven becomes it is to-be-forgiven to the slave
ignoscendum est servo
she ought to marry her friend becomes it is to-be-married to her friend by her
nubendum amico ab illa est

The supine is found in two forms:
[1] in UM
[2] in U
1 SUPINE IN ‘UM’
21. supine
This is used to express purpose (just like ut and the subjunctive), but only if [a] the purpose
verb is not negative or passive (in which case another form of purpose construction is used)
and [b] after verbs of going, coming and sending. For example:
We went to Rome to see the pope
Romam ivimus papam visum
He came to my house to borrow a book
Domum meam venit librum apportatum
The general sent the soldier to find the enemy
Dux militem misit hostes inventum
2 SUPINE IN ‘U’
When in English we use an infinitive to explain an adjective (using “it + to be + adjective +
infinitive) , Latin uses a supine in U instead:
His song was pleasant to hear carmen gratum erat auditu
The bag is heavy to carry saccus gravis est portatu
wonderful to relate mirabile dictu
The book was very easy to understand liber facillimus erat intellectu
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22. purpose constructions
The main ways to express purpose in Latin (see each one explained individually elsewhere)
are as follows:
1 ‘UT’ OR ‘QUI’ WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE
He sent the slave to find the book servum misit ut librum inveniret
2 SUPINE IN ‘UM’
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servum misit qui librum inveniret
He sent the slave to find the book servum misit librum inventum
3 GERUND OR GERUNDIVE
He sent the slave to find the book servum misit ad librum inveniendum
23. final clauses
servum misit causa libri inveniendi
A final clause is a clause of purpose. (See previous §22 for other ways that purpose is
expressed.)
These clauses begin with ut, a relative pronoun, quo when comparative, ne when negative:
Because of the use of NE for negative purpose (“lest” or “in order than not”), words that
would be negative in English become positive in Latin after NE, so that …
so that no one becomes lest anyone ne quis
so that nothing becomes lest anything ne quid
so that never becomes lest ever ne umquam
so that nowhere becomes lest somewhere ne usquam
The verb in final clauses is always subjunctive.
1 UT AND NE
He hurried to the town to buy food
in urbem festinavit ut cibum emeret
We went to Rome to see the pope
Romam ivimus ut papam videremus
They work to earn money
laborant ut pecuniam capiant

2 RELATIVE PRONOUN
He hid so that no one could find him
Se celavit ne quis eum inveniret
They said nothing so that they could never be blamed
Nihil dicebant ne umquam culparentur
ut is replaced with an appropriate relative pronoun when the subject of the final clause
is the same as the object of the main clause:
Cæsar send a soldier to find the general
Cæsar militem misit qui ducem inveniret
3 QUO WITH COMPARATIVE
quo is used if there is a comparative (adjective or adverb) in the final clause:
4 SO THAT … AND NOT
He ran to get to the city more quickly
Cucurrit quo celerius in urbem veniret
He learnt the words to speak the language more easily
Verba didicit quo facilius linguam loqueretur
A double purpose, whose second part is negative, is expressed by ut and neve (or neu):
He sent the soldier to fight and not to rest
militem misit ut pugnaret neve quiesceret
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24. consecutive clauses
These are clauses of result. Like final clauses, their verb is always in the subjunctive.
However, when they are negative, they do not take ne – they have ut non instead. Words that
introduce consecutive clauses are as follows:
so that (with the result that) ut
so that not ut non
so big that tantus ut
of such a kind that talis ut
so (+ adjective/adverb) tam … ut
in such a way that ita ut
to such an extent that adeo ut
so many that tot ut
so often that totiens ut
so that no one ut nemo
The tense of the subjunctive is usually the same as English, but for the past tense the
imperfect is normally used, that is, unless the result is quick.
Examples:
The soldier was so brave that he received a reward
Miles tam fortis erat ut præmium acciperet
The storm is so great that we cannot stay outside
Tempestas tanta est ut foris manere non possimus
The book was of such a kind that everyone wanted it
Liber talis erat ut omnes eum vellent
He worked in such a way that his master praised him
Laboravit ita ut magister eum laudaret
They tried to such an extent that in the end they succeeded
Conati adeo sunt ut tandem florerent
There were so many cows that we had too much milk.
Tot vaccæ erant ut nimis lactis haberemus
The slave stole so often that his master punished him severely
Servus totiens furatus est ut dominus eum graviter puniverit
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There are two kinds:
25. indirect commands
[1] verbs that take an accusative and infinitive
[2] verbs that take ut and the subjunctive
An indirect command is found after verbs of ordering, asking, warning, advising and
encouraging.
1 TAKING AN ACCUSATIVE & INFINITIVE
iubeo – iubere – iussi – iussum to command
veto – vetare – vetui – vetitum to forbid
He told the soldier to kill the slave
militem iussit servum interficere
He forbade the soldier to kill the slave
militem vetuit servum interficere
2 TAKING ‘UT’ AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE
peto – petere – petivi – petitum to ask
rogo – rogare – rogavi – rogatum
precor – precari – precatus sum
He asked the soldier to kill the slave
ab milite petivit ut servum interficeret
militem rogavit ut servum interficeret
militem precatus est ut servum interficeret
oro – orare – oratus sum to beg
He begged the gods to answer his question
deos oravit ut quæstioni suæ responderent
flagito – flagitare – flagitavi – flagitatum to demand
postulo – postulare – postulavi – postulatum
posco – poscere – poposci
He demanded that the soldier should kill the slave
postulavit ut miles servum interficeret
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hortor – hortari – hortatus sum to encourage
admoneo – admonere – admonui – admonitum
He encouraged the soldiers to fight well
milites hortatus est ut bene pugnarent
impero – imperare – imperavi – imperatum to order, command
He ordered the soldier to kill the slave
militi imperavit ut servum interficeret
moneo – monere – monui to advise, warn
suadeo – suadere – suasi – suasum (takes the dative)
He advised the soldiers not to fight
milites monuit ne pugnarent
persuadeo – persuadere – persuasi – persuasum (takes dative) to persuade
he persuaded the enemy not to besiege the town
persuasit hostibus ne urbem oppugnarent
NB Verbs of warning and persuading can be used in two senses:
[1] as an indirect command: “I warned you not to do it”
Te monui ne id faceres
[2] as an indirect statement: “I warned you that he had arrived”.
Te monui eum advenisse
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26. indirect questions
Indirect questions are reports of questions, usually following verbs of saying and thinking,
such as ask, tell, know. The questions are introduced by if, whether, or an interrogative word
such as where or why or when.
Verbs in indirect questions are always in the subjunctive – they also sometimes require a very
rare tense: the future subjunctive. There are two future subjunctives: the primary and the
historic, formed as follows:
primary future participle + sim, sis, sit, simus, sitis, sint
historic future participle + essem, esses, esset, essemus, essetis, essent
Note: if and whether in single questions are translated by NUM; double questions (whether…
or) require UTRUM … AN / ANNON
Examples:
I don’t understand what you said non intellego quod dixeris
I know whom you gave it to scio cui id dedideris
he asked where the slaves were going rogavit quo servi irent
He doesn’t know if his brother is ready nescit num frater paratus sit
We asked why they did it rogavimus quare hoc facerent
I don’t know where the slave was Nescio ubi servus esset
Do you know when he is returning? Scisne quando venturus sit?
I don’t know whether he’s rich or poor Nescio utrum dives an pauper sit
Did you find out what he said? Cognovistine quod diceret?
He told me when he would be ready Mihi dixit cuando paratus esset
He wants to know why you were crying Vult scire quare fleres
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27. verbs of fearing
As in English, verbs of fearing can be followed either by an infinitive or by a ‘that’ clause,
which in Latin begins with ne even though the verb is positive.
The main verbs of fearing are as follows:
timeo timere timui
metuo metuere metui
vereor vereri veritus sum
Also found is periculum est, which means “there is a risk”
Examples with infinitive:
The boy is afraid to go out Puer timet egredi
The girl was afraid to speak Puella metuit loqui
We were afraid to fight pugnare verebamur
Examples with NE (ne non is used for the negative) :
He was afraid that his father would see him
Timebat ne pater eum videret
I was afraid that they weren’t coming
Metui ne non venirent
We were afraid of being punished
Veriti sumus ne puniremur
The English present participle FEARING is translated by the Latin past participle veritus. This
takes ne and the subjunctive in historic sequence:
Fearing that the soldier was about to kill him, the slave ran away
Veritus ne miles eum interfacturum esset, servus fugit
When the clause after vereor is negative, ut is often used instead of ne non:
I was afraid that I would not receive the money
Veritus sum ut pecuniam acciperem
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28. relative and subjunctive
Clauses where qui, quæ, quod are used instead of ut, apart from occurring in final clauses, also
occur on five other occasions, as follows:
1 AFTER ‘EST’ AND ‘SUNT’ MEANING ‘THERE IS’, ‘THERE ARE’
There are some who believe in the gods Sunt qui in deos credant
There is one that loves animals Est qui animalia amet
2 TO SHOW THE RESULT OF A CHARACTERISTIC
She is not the sort of girl to do that Non ea est quæ illud faciat
3 AFTER ‘IDONEUS’, ‘DIGNUS’, ‘INDIGNUS’
The king was not suitable to lead an army rex non idoneus erat qui exercitum duceret
They are not worthy to be praised Non sunt digni qui laudentur
They are unworthy of receiving the reward Sunt indigni qui præmium accipiant
4 TO REFER TO PRONOUNS IN THE MAIN CLAUSE
aliquis, quis, nemo, nullus, nihil, unus and solus in the main clause have a relative
pronoun in the subjunctive clause:
They have no one to help them Neminem habent qui eos adiuvet
He has nothing to eat Nihil habet quod edat
There is no one who writes me letters Nemo est qui ad me epistulas scribat
He had someone to talk to Aliquem habebat cui loqueretur
It’s the only book I want Solum librum est quem velim
5 TO EXPRESS “TOO … TO”
This is the use with a comparative adjective followed by quam and the relative:
We were too tired to work fessiores eramus quam qui laboremus
The donkey was too old to carry burdens asinus veterior erat quam qui onera ferret
She is too fat to use that seat obesior est quam quæ hac sede utatur
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29. quin & quominus
Quin and quominus are the relatives used after verbs of preventing and hindering.
QUOMINUS can be used after any of these verbs.
QUIN is used if the main verb is negative, or contains words such as “scarcely” (aegre) or
“hardly” (vix). Quin is also used after expressions of doubt, and expressions of possibility
when both clauses are negative.
quin and quominus are also used in certain idiomatic expressions.
1 VERBS OF HINDERING AND PREVENTING:
to forbid interdico – interdicere – interdixi – interdicum (takes the dative as well)
to prevent deterreo – deterrere – deterrui – deteritum
to refuse recuso – recusare – recusavi – recusatum
to restrain retineo – retinere – retinui – retentum
to hinder impedio – impedire – impedivi – impeditum
to hinder obsto – obstare – obsteti – obstatum (takes the dative as well)
2 USING ‘QUIN’
I prevented him from killing the slave
Eum deterrui quominus servum interficeret
We forbade him to enter the temple
Ei interdiximus quominus in templum ingreditur
He restrained him from fighting
Eum retinuit quominus pugnaret
They hindered her from speaking
Ei obsteterunt quominus loqueretur
Nothing prevented me from acting
Nihil me deterrebat quin agerem
They could hardly restrain him from fighting
Eum vix retinebant quin pugnaret
There is no doubt that they are slaves
Non dubium est quin hi servi sint
It is impossible that they have conquered
Non potest fieri quin vicerint
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3 IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
[a] There is nobody who … not; everybody nemo est quin
There is no one who doesn’t know how to read
Nemo est quin legere sciat
Everybody knows how to read
Nemo est quin legere sciat
[b] to be “nearly” haud multum abest quin
We were nearly killed
Haud multum aberat quin interficeremur
They nearly fell ill
Haud multum aberat quin aegrotaverint
[c] to take every opportunity nihil prætermittere quin
We take every opportunity to read your book
Nihil prætermittimus quin tuum librum legamus
He took every opportunity to punish the slave
Nihil prætermisit quin servum puniret
[d] I can’t help non possum facere quin
I can’t help laughing
Non possum facere quin rideam
They can’t help boasting
Non possunt facere quin glorientur
[d] It is due to [me/you] that … not per [me/te] stat quominus …
It is due to me that you were not killed
Per me stat quominus servareris
It is due to your father that you are not rich
Per patrem stat quominus dives sis
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30. causal clauses
These are clauses of REASON, introduced by conjunctions such as “because”, “since”.
because - quod & quia (when the verb is subjunctive only QUOD is used)
cum (followed by the subjunctive)
since - quoniam
The general rule is that causal clauses have an indicative verb and take the same tense as in
English. For example:
He didn’t work because he was lazy non laboravit quia ignavus erat
non laboravit quod ignavus erat
Since he was tired, he decided to sleep quoniam fessus erat, dormire statuit
The exceptions are as follows:
[1] when the reason is not fact, but alleged, the verb is in the subjunctive:
he didn’t go to the theatre because apparently he had no money
in theatrum non ivit quod pecuniam non haberet
[2] a “not … but …” reason takes the subjunctive:
I have married this woman not because I like her but because she is rich
hanc uxorem duxi non quod illam amem sed quod dives est
[3] when CUM is used for ‘because’ the verb is always subjunctive:
he didn’t work because he was lazy
non laboravit cum ignavus esset
[4] when the causal clause occurs in oratio obliqua the verb is always subjunctive:
he said that because he was tired he had decided to sleep
dixit se quod fessus esset dormire statuisse
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31. concessive clauses
These are clauses introduced by conjunctions such as “although”, “however …” or “even if”.
ALTHOUGH quamquam with the indicative
quamvis with the subjunctive
licet with the subjunctive
cum with the subjunctive
1 QUAMQUAM
Quamquam states a fact, so the verb is always indicative:
although he is rich, he is mean quamquam dives est, turpis est
although we had eaten, we were hungry quamquam ederamus, esurientes eramus
2 QUAMVIS & LICET
3 CUM
These express a possibility rather than a fact, which explains their subjunctive verb
although I may not want to, I will come quamvis nollem, veniam
however tired he was, he always worked quamvis fessus esset, semper laborabat
This always takes the subjunctive, whether it states a fact or a possibility
Although he is rich, he is mean cum dives sit, turpis est
4 EVEN IF
This is translated by etiamsi, etsi, or tametsi. Because of the si part of the conjunction, it
always conforms to the rules for CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (qv).
Even if he beats the slave, he will work etsi servum percusserit, laborabit
Even if he had been tired he would have worked etsi fessus fuisset, laboravisset
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32. comparative clauses
The mood of the verb in comparative clauses depends on whether the comparison is a fact, when the
indicative is used, or an imaginary comparison (“as if”), when the subjunctive is used.
1 FACTUAL COMPARISON
The most common comparative words and phrases are as follows:
idem ac the same as (idem declines)
our house is the same as their house nostra domus eadem ac eorum domus
alius ac different from (alius declines)
her book is different from ours sua liber alius est ac noster
her flowers are different from her mother’s suæ flores aliæ sunt ac matris
aliter ac differently from
he works differently from his brother laborat aliter ac frater
æque ac as much as
she cries as much as her baby flet æque ac infans sua
perinde ac exactly as
he wrote the letter exactly as I dictated epistulam scripsit perinde ac dictavi
sicut just as
he came at 3 o’clock just as he said tertia hora venit sicut dixit
tam … quam … as … as …
the bag is as heavy as the boy saccus tam gravis quam puer est
totiens … quotiens … as often as
he writes as often as I write scribit totiens quotiens scribo
tot … quot … as many as
there were as many boys as girls in the temple tot pueri quot puellæ in templo erant
tantus … quantus … as big as
the bone is as big as the dog os tantum est quantum canis
talis … quails … such as
such books as I have read tales libri quales legi
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2 IMAGINARY COMPARISON
This construction requires a verb in the subjunctive:
for example:
as if tamquam si – velut si – quasi
he ran as if he were in danger of death
cucurrit velut si in periculo mortis esset
he trembled as if he had seen a ghost
tremebat quasi lemures vidisset
3 PROPORTIONAL COMPARATIVE
This translates the English “the more … the more …”
The construction is quo + comparative + eo + comparative
The more he he sees his wife, the more he loves her
quo plus uxorem vidit, eo plus illam amat
33. infinitive of indignant exclamation
This is an exclamatory figure that Romans used to express how indignant they felt. We have a
similar construction in English, though we use the present infinitive to express it, often
preceded by and. You may well meet the construction, both with the present infinitive and the
perfect, especially in the works of Cicero.
And to think that he really said that!
putavisse eum illud dixisse!
I be vanquished and abandon my plan?!
mene incepto desistere victam?
(from Vergil)
To think that such a man could have said such things!
Talem hominem talia dixisse!
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34. figures of speech
aganectesis exclamation resulting from deep indignation
alliteration the repetition of consonant sounds:
the furrow followed free (Coleridge).
anacœnosis asking the audience to agree
anaphora the repetition of a word or part of speech in a succession of
positions.
anastrophe reversal of the normal order of words in order to emphasise
a word or idea (verb at beginning and subject at end)
anticlimax the decline from an exalted tone or idea.
antithesis the forceful expression of contrasting ideas (adj. antithetical).
also syncrisis
anthypophora asking a rhetorical question then answering it oneself.
apophasis emphasis by means of negation:
apostrophe [1] addressing an object as though it were a person
[2] addressing an absent or dead person as though present.
assonance the repetition of vowel sounds
asyndeton the omission of conjunctions for effect
bathos descent into the unexalted or absurd; stronger than anticlimax.
chiasmus a crossing of terms, named after the Greek character chi (χ) in which the
elements of the first part are reversed in the second
clausula the downward cadence of closing words in Cicero’s sentences.
climax an arrangement of ideas or words so that each is more impressive than the
previous; from the Greek κλιμαξ - ladder.
conduplicatio repetition of a single word in a series of clauses
consonance a variety of alliteration in which the same consonants are
repeated with different vowels: ship/shop.
deesis an appeal to the gods (“O di immortales!”)
diazeugma one subject governing several verbs
dysphemism the opposite of euphemism (qv)
dissonance the arrangement of unharmonious or unpleasant sounds in
order to gain an effect (tongue-twisters often fall into this
category)
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ecphonesis emotional exclamation (‘O tempora! O mores!)
erotema another term for a rhetorical question
hendiadys joining two constituents grammatically rather than subordinating one to the
other:
homoioptoton repetition of similar endings in adjacent words or words in a parallel position
homoiteleuton similar: series of parallel words with the same ending.
hypallage usually known as transferred epithet—the use of an adjective to describe a
noun other than the one it strictly refers to.
hyperbaton similar to anastrophe (qv) in that it consists of placing words out of their
normal order.
hyperbole exaggeration for emphasis or effect.
isocolon a series of parallel elements of equal length (see tricolon)
litotes the opposite of hyperbole: understatement for emphasis or effect.
metaphor the description of something in the terms of something else; the two parts of
the metaphor are the tenor (i.e. the thing described) and the vehicle (i.e. the
noun used for comparison);
metastasis denying, then turning opponent’s argument back on him
onomatopœia the formation of words from sounds which resemble those
made by the object
oxymoron a short, condensed paradox
paradox an apparent self-contradiction which contains a truth reconciling the two
elements:
.
pathopœia speech designed to affect the audience emotionally
polyptoton repetition of the same word in different cases/tenses in the same sentence
polysyndeton the repetition of conjunctions for an effect, usually of climax. The word comes
from the Greek prefix πολυ - many, and συνδητοσ - joined together.
sibilance the repetition of hissing sounds (s, sh, z, etc.) often to obtain an onomatopœic
effect. Romans thought a series of S sounds very ugly.
sigmatism another term for sibilance (qv), from the Greek letter S (sigma - Σ)
simile an explicit comparison, using comparative words such as like or as.
syncrisis antithesis between two subjects expressed in parallel clauses
syllepsis the relation of one word to more than one other word in the sentence, when it
should properly apply only to one
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stichomythia a rapid, witty exchange of words between two people: στιχη – a line of verse,
and μυθος - a speech or fable.
tautology a form of repetition in which the same idea is expressed in different terms.
tmesis separation of a word or phrase by the insertion of another, common in
passionate or abusive language, from the Greek τεμνηιν- cut.
tricolon three parallel elements (often verbs) of equal length
(‘Veni, vidi, vici’)
zeugma a grammatically incorrect syllepsis (qv).
prozeugma one verb controls two or more objects.
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