PIANC E-Magazine

146
DECEMBER
2012
DECEMBRE
A Theoretical Approach for the Notional Permeability Factor P
Improving the Competitiveness of the Spanish Port System
by Optimising the Cargo Handling Service
A Simulation Case Study for a Commercial Hub Port Planning in
Particular Reference to Berths Length and Anchorage Capacity
ON COURSE
PIANC E-Magazine
An Analysis of Vessel Behaviour Based on AIS Data
The Locks of the Seine-Scheldt Project:Introducing the Concept of Life Cycle Cost
The New Guidelines for the Design of Water Sports Facilities
Research on Climate Change Impacts on the Transportation System of the European Union
News from the Navigation Community
The World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure
Association Mondiale pour les infrastructures de Transport Maritimes et Fluviales
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC’S PLATINUM PARTNERS
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC
ON COURSE
PIANC E-Magazine
146
DECEMBER
2012
DECEMBRE
Responsible Editor / Editeur responsable :
Mr. Louis VAN SCHEL
Boulevard du Roi Albert II 20, B 3
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ISBN: 978-2-87223-170-6 EAN: 9782872231706
All copyrights reserved © Tous droits de reproduction réservés
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Message of the President
H.D. Jumelet, A Theoretical Approach for the
Notional Permeability Factor P
José Luis Almazan Garate, Pilar Parra Serano,
Improving the Competitiveness of the Spanish Port
System by Optimising the Cargo Handling Service
M. R. A. Khalifa, A Simulation Case Study for a Commercial
Hub Port Planning in Particular
Reference to Berths Length and Anchorage Capacity
T.M. De Boer, W. Daamen, An Analysis of Vessel
Behaviour Based on AIS Data
Ellen Maes, The Locks of the Seine-Scheldt Project:
Introducing the Concept of Life Cycle Cost
Gabriele Peschken, The New Guidelines for the
Design of Water Sports Facilities
Juha Schweighofer, Research on Climate Change
Impacts on the Transportation System of the European
Union
News from the navigation community
E-MAGAZINE N° 146 - 2012
Cover picture:
Chamber of a lock for pleasure craft
Photo de couverture:
Chambre d’écluse pour un bateau de plaisance.
3
4
7
19
33
45
65
73
81
87
TABLE DES MATIERES
Message du Président
H.D. Jumelet, Approche théorique du facteur P
de perméabilité notionnelle
José Luis Almazan Garate, Pilar Parra Serano,
Améliorer la compétitivité du système portuaire
espagnol en optimisant le service
de manutention
M. R. A. Khalifa, Une étude de cas par
simulations pour l’aménagement d’une plate-form
portuaire commerciale avec attention particulière à
la longueur des quais et aux capacités d’ancrage
T.M. De Boer, W. Daamen, Une analyse du
comportement des navires basée sur les
données AIS
Ellen Maes, Les écluses du projet Seine-Escaut:
Introduction du concept de coût du cycle de vie
Gabriele Peschken, Le nouveau guide de
conception des installations de sports nautiques
Juha Schweighofer, Etude des impacts des
changements climatiques sur le système de
transport dans l’Union européenne
Des nouvelles du monde de la navigation
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

MESSAGE OF THE PRESIDENT
Dear colleagues and friends of PIANC,
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 4
First of all, on behalf of PIANC HQ and management, I wish you and your
loved ones a very happy and successful New Year!
Our Association kept on a very good pace, being very active in the past
months. PIANC will continue to increase its infl uence all along the coming year since we strongly believe that
navigation is steadily improving in a sustainable way and that our common networking efforts will prove to be
effi cient and intensive.
First, we had a very exciting time in Chennai, at the end of February for the 8th meeting of the PIANC-COPE-
DEC Conference, where the Indian Minister of Shipping, His Excellency Shri Vastan delivered a vast speech
about the expected growth of Indian ports. Stemming from more than 30 different countries, this Conference
was very well organised and managed by Professor Sundar, Head of the Institute of Technology of Madras.
Together with CoCom, this Conference proved that our efforts to spread PIANC in new emerging countries
is improving. Just after this Conference, CoCom proposed in its meeting to choose target countries in order
to derive some method to expand our membership. This idea was taken over and worked out in ExCom so
that we are now able to test the proposed method in one particular country, being Colombia, where a specifi c
seminar will be organised before the end of this year.
At the World Water Forum in Marseille, in March, we also had the opportunity to present PIANC at an international
large-scale meeting. A PIANC side-event took place, where the Honorable Ms Jo-Ellen Darcy,
President of PIANC USA, and Mr Yutaka Sunohara, Vice-President and President of PIANC Japan were able
to present some of their home countries experience. We also found it useful to strengthen our relation with
CCNR in order to join our forces with this Sister Association, in order to expand partnership and networking
between international river basin authorities, which will yield to a specifi c event at the next PIANC-SMART
Rivers Conference 2013 in Liège, Belgium and Maastricht, The Netherlands.
At the end of May, we all have been very strongly impressed by the exceptional sense of organisation and
hospitality, as well as the very high level of professionalism of our Spanish Section. Together with the Port of
Valencia and Puertos del Estado, the AGA and the Second PIANC Mediterranean Days of Coastal and Port
Engineering were organised.
Last but not least, we had specifi c new events in the past months in different parts of the world: in November
our Iranian Section hosted the International Conference on Coasts, Ports and Marine Sciences (ICOPMAS),
which proved the vitality of our Iranian Section. Of course, many of us attended the Dredging Days, organised
at the end of October by PIANC USA in San Diego or joined the French Conference on Large Sustainable
Waterborne Infrastructure in Paris mid-November.
A census of the largest worldwide waterborne infrastructure projects both at a global level and in each individual
member country was started. Many National Sections replied positively to this census and a database
with the relevant information will be set up. This will give us the opportunity to show to what extent PIANC
guidelines and recommendations are and were taken into account when designing and realising these projects.
As usual, you will also fi nd very good articles in this e-Magazine and I wish you all a very pleasant reading.
Sincerely yours,
Geoffroy Caude,
President of PIANC

MESSAGE DU PRéSIDENT
Chers collègues et amis de PIANC,
Tout d’abord, de la part du secrétariat général et de la direction de PIANC, je souhaite une bonne année à vous
et vos chers!
Notre association n’est pas restée inactive pendant les derniers mois. PIANC continuera à augmenter son influence
dans l’année qui suit, étant donné que nous sommes convaincus que la navigation est en train de s’améliorer
toujours plus d’une manière durable et que nos efforts communs de travail en réseau s’avéreront efficaces et intensifs.
Tout d’abord, nous avons passé une semaine intéressante à Chennai à la fin du mois de février lors de la 8ème
conférence PIANC-COPEDEC où le ministre indien de la navigation, Son Excellence Shri Vastan a prononcé un
discours très développé relatif à la croissance attendue des ports indiens. Avec la participation effective de plus
de 30 pays différents, cette conférence était très bien organisée par le Professeur Sundar, directeur de l’Institut de
Technologie de Madras. Avec CoCom, cette conférence a montré que nos efforts pour faire connaître PIANC dans
de nouveaux pays émergents s’améliorent. Juste après cette conférence, CoCom a proposé lors de sa réunion
de répondre à notre initiative de sélectionner des pays-cibles afin de concevoir une certaine méthode pour faire
croître notre affiliation. Cette idée a été adoptée et élaborée par ExCom, de sorte qu’à l’heure actuelle nous pouvons
tester la méthode proposée par CoCom dans un pays en particulier, celui de la Colombie, où un séminaire
spécifique sera organisé avant la fin de cette année.
Lors du Forum Mondial de l’Eau à Marseille, au mois de mars, nous avons aussi eu l’opportunité de présenter
PIANC pendant une réunion internationale à grande échelle. Un événement parallèle était consacré à PIANC, où
l’Honorable Madame Jo-Ellen Darcy, président de PIANC Etats-Unis et Monsieur Yutaka Sunohara, vice-président
de PIANC et président de PIANC Japon, avaient l’opportunité de présenter quelques-unes des expériences
de leurs pays respectifs. Il nous paraissait aussi utile de renforcer notre relation avec la Commission Centrale
pour la Navigation sur le Rhin, afin de concentrer nos efforts avec cette association sœur, et de faire grandir notre
coopération et notre fonctionnement en réseau avec des autorités internationales de bassin, ce qui donnera lieu
à un événement spécifique lors de la prochaine conférence PIANC-SMART Rivers 2013 organisée à Liège, en
Belgique et à Maastricht, aux Pays-Bas.
A la fin du mois de mai, nous étions tous fort impressionnés par l’organisation et l’hospitalité exceptionnelles, ainsi
que par le niveau très haut de professionnalisme de notre section espagnole. Avec le Port de Valence et Puertos
del Estado elle a organisé l’AGA et la 2ème édition des Journées Méditerranéennes d’Ingénierie Côtière et Portuaire
de PIANC.
Finalement, de nouveaux événements spécifiques ont eu lieu dans de différentes parties du monde: en novembre,
notre section iranienne organisait la Conférence sur les Sciences Côtières, Portuaires et Marines (ICOPMAS), ce
qui a montré la vitalité de notre section iranienne. Bien sûr, beaucoup d’entre nous avons assisté aux Journées
de Dragage, organisées à la fin du mois d’octobre par PIANC Etats-Unis à San Diego ou avons été présents à la
Conférence française sur les Grands Aménagements Hydrauliques à Paris mi-novembre.
Un inventaire des projets d’infrastructure mondiaux les plus importants, tant sur le plan mondial que dans chaque
pays membre individuel, a démarré. Beaucoup de sections nationales ont réagi de manière positive à cet inventaire
et une base de données avec de l’information pertinente sera établie. Ceci nous montrera jusqu’à quel point
les directives et les recommandations de PIANC sont et ont été prises en considération lors de la conception et
la réalisation de ces projets.
Comme d’habitude, vous trouverez de bons articles dans ce magazine électronique et je vous en souhaite une
agréable lecture.
Bien à vous,
Geoffroy Caude,
Président de PIANC
5
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 6

WINNING ARTICLE OF THE PIANC DPWA 2012
A THEORETICAL APPROACH
FOR THE NOTIONAL PERMEABILITY FACTOR P
KEY WORDS
notional permeability, run-up reduction coeffi cient
and volume exchange model
MOTS-CLEFS
perméabilité notionnelle, coeffi cient de réduction
du run-up et modèle d’échange de volumes
1. INTRODUCTION
The interaction of a wave with rubble mound
breakwater results in a complex fl ow, which is both
nonlinear and turbulent, which results in a complex
process. It is in present time not possible to
give an accurate description of the wave-structure
interac-tion during this complex process of wave
dissipation. Therefore, the design of such structures
is often based on empirical relationships,
scale tests in research laboratories and a synthesis
of knowledge from different disciplines.
for plunging waves (1.1)
for surging waves (1.2)
Besides the signifi cant wave height (H s ), damage
level (S), relative mass density (Δ), Iribarren num-
7
by
Eng. H.D. JUMELET
De Vries & van de Wiel Kust- en Oeverwerken,
Schiedam
The Netherlands,
E-mail: Jumelet.Daan@vw-deme.nl
ber (x), number of waves (N) and the slope steepness
(α), the stability is strongly related to the
notional permeability factor (P). The value of this
factor is based on curve fi tting results of the test
program of Van der Meer (1988). This test program
includes three structure types. For that reason,
the notional permeability is only defi ned for
three structure types, a fourth (P=0.4) has been
assumed. The notional permeability coeffi cient
has no physical meaning, but was introduced to
ensure that the permeability of the structure is
taken into account.
Fig.1.1: Notional permeability P according
to Van der Meer (1988)
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Caused by the absence of a physical description
it is not possible to determine the notional permeability
factor for different types of structure. In
practice this leads to ambiguities in determination
of the value of this factor, this results in an overdesigned
size of the D n50 . Figure 1.2 shows the influence
of this factor on the D n50 of the armour layer.
Fig.1.2: Example of the influence of notional
permeability factor P on the D n50 for plunging and surging
waves
By means of these considerations it is clear that
the influence of the core permeability on armour
layer stability is of both academic and practical
importance. The aim of this study is to investigate
whether more physical background can be given
to the influence of core permeability on the armour
layer stability. A more physical background in this
field can result in a more precise choice of the notional
permeability coefficient P in the calculation
of the breakwater design. Since the permeability
of the structure primarily affects the physical process
in the case when the wave does not break,
this study only considered surging waves.
2. BACKGROUND LITERATURE
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
2.1 General
In the past Van der Meer (1988) has tried to give
the notional permeability coefficient a physical
background using the model HADEER. This
model can calculate the discharge dissipation in
the core. With the use of the ODIFLOCS-model
of Van Gent (1995) the same principle predictions
are also tried by De Heij (2001). He considered
the discharge, extreme velocities and U 2% . However,
these methods are not very accurate.
8
This study has the aim to develop a practical application
for determining the notional permeability.
Therefore, not only numerical approaches are
considered, but also analytical options have been
investigated. For developing a notional permeability
approach it is necessary to have insight in
the wave-structure interaction process. With a description
of this process it is possible to determine
the influence of core permeability on the external
process.
Earlier studies have shown that a detailed description
of the full wave-structure interaction is
complex. For that reason, the full wave-structure
interaction is divided into two separate processes.
The first process can be described as the external
water flow in and on the armour layer that is influenced
by the presence of the structure. The other
process is defined as the internal water movement.
The internal water movement, in this study,
is defined as the water movement that takes place
in the construction (filter and core) for an imposed
external water movement. In the next two paragraphs
these two processes will be discussed. At
first both processes are considered to be independent
of each other, meaning an impermeable
structure slope has been assumed. The last paragraph
of this chapter describes some methods to
couple both processes. Moreover, a model has
been chosen which will be elaborated further. This
choice depends mainly on whether the model can
be developed analytically.
2.2 External Process
The external process can be described in several
ways. The first way is a velocity description of the
wave on the structure slope. Analytical approaches
are the method of Hughes et al. (1995) and the
energy balance by Van der Meer (1990). These
approaches are very conservative and therefore
not useful. In the last decades a lot of numerical
velocity approaches have been introduced. These
models are based on the shallow water equations,
Boussinesq equations or the Navier Stokes equations.
Disadvantage of these models is the time it
takes time to develop a useful and accurate operational
model.
Another way to describe the external process is
a description of the water elevation. This description
can be used as a volume change approach

instead of the velocity approach mentioned above.
An analytical method based on the solution of the
classical shallow water equations is given in Carrier
and Greenspan (1958). A nonlinear solution
for the classical shallow water equations, which
describes the wave characteristics on a slope, is
obtained by Li (2000). Another external wedge
approach is introduced by Hughes (2004). This
method assumes a triangular wave run-up and the
run-up area can be calculated with the following
equation:
Area (2.1)
The only unknown variable in this method is the
angle q. This variable is the angle between still
water level and run-up water surface (which is assumed
to be a straight line).
Fig. 2.1: Triangular wedge approach based on the
theory of Hughes (2004)
The last way to describe the external process is by
using an energy consideration. This can be done
by separating the energy of the incoming wave in
case of a wave-structure interaction in two different
components: (1) dissipation on the slope, and
(2) the residual wave energy (reflective wave). The
total energy of a wave can be expressed as sum
of the kinetic energy density E k and the potential
energy density E p :
(2.2)
With help of a reflective wave approach the energy
dissipation on the slope can be calculated.
2.3 Internal Process
Due to the complexity of the internal process it
is difficult to give an accurate description of this
process. A straightforward way is to describe the
water flow through a porous medium. It has been
assumed that the flow in the structures, studied
in this research, is a ‘fully’ turbulent or a ‘Forchheimer’
flow. Therefore, Darcy is not valid. The
gradient (or the resistance over covered length)
of this water flow through a porous medium of
coarse granular material can be reasonable well
expressed by a term that is linear with the flow
velocity (a • u) and a term that is quadratic with
the flow velocity (b • IuIu) . Where and are both
dimensional coefficients. Such a relation was proposed
by Forchheimer (1901).
9
(2.3)
Van Gent (1995): “The first term can be seen as
the laminar contribution and the second term can
be seen as the contribution of turbulence. For
turbulent porous media flow, and in the transition
between laminar and turbulent flow, this equation
can be used.” The friction coefficients a (s/m) and
b (s 2 /m 2 ) are dimensional and contain several parameters.
Laminar term: (2.4)
Turbulent term: (2.5)
The Forchheimer equation (Eq. 2.3) is valid for a
stationary flow. However, the porous flow in the
core of a rubble breakwater is usually not permanent,
as a result of the dynamic wave effect. The
water flow speeds up and slows down in alternating
directions within a full wave period. In the case
of non-continuous flow in a grainy porous medium
the inertia must be taken into account. Therefore,
Polub-arinova-Kochina (1952) (from Van Gent
(1995)) added a time-dependent term. This type
of formula for unsteady porous flow is referred to
as the extended Forchheimer equation:
(2.6)
Where c is the inertia term (m 2 /s), which takes the
added mass into account. The expression for the
inertia term is:
Inertia term: (2.7)
According to the results in the study of Van Gent
(1995), the influence of the turbulent term is the
highest and is in the order of 90 %.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

2.4 Coupling of the Internal and
External Process
The possibilities to describe the internal process
accurately are limited; therefore, the way of coupling
is determined by the internal process. The
previous sections clearly indicate that a link between
the two processes can be realised in two
ways. The first way is to link an internal and external
velocity approach. The second way is to
couple the internal and external water elevation
by using a volume exchange princi-ple.
An analytical way to couple the external and internal
velocity approach is in present time not available.
In order to link the external and internal velocity
approaches, a numerical model is needed.
Considering the practical design formulae by Van
der Meer (1988) a numerical modification is not
the ideal solution. Also, a few recently released
articles show the work intensiveness and their disadvantages.
Therefore, this research tries to find
an analytical way. For review of numerical modelling
before the year 1992 is referred to the paper
of Hall and Hettiarachchi (1992). The latest review
is given by Lin (2008). In this book a reference is
made to numerous widely used packages.
With this consideration only a volume exchange
approach, by coupling the internal and external
water elevation, remains. The analytical approach
of Hughes (2004) can be used as an external water
description. With the use of a similar internal
water level fluctuations model, the internal and external
waterline can be coupled. The main problem
is that the method of Hughes (2004) still contains
an unknown variable (angle θ). The next chapter
deals with this problem and gives a derivation of
the coupling between the external and internal
water level fluctuations.
3. ANALYTICAL MODEL
3.1 Deriving a Run-Up Volume Approach
This model used the principle of a triangular wave
run-up shape introduced by Hughes (2004). As
mentioned before in the theory of Hughes (2004)
an un-known variable (angle θ between still water
level and run-up water surface) is included,
thus this description is not directly applicable. A
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
10
more complete description is achieved by linking
the run-up wedge approach of Hughes (2004) to
the wave kinematics in front of the structure. The
basic principle behind the ‘new’ run-up volume
description is that the incoming ‘sinus’ wave crest
has the same volume as the run-up volume. If the
incoming wave is assumed as a sine wave, the
crest volume (half of the wave length) can then be
described as follows (see Figure 3.1):
(3.1)
With a triangular wedge approach the total wave
run-up volume can be expressed as:
(3.2)
In this approach it is assumed that no energy losses
due to bottom friction (foreshore and structure
slope) and viscous effects on the free surface will
occur. With this assumption it can be stated that
the energy of the incoming wave crest is equal to
the total energy of the run-up volume. In the previous
chapter is given that the total wave energy
density of an incident wave can be expressed as
sum of the kinetic energy density E k and the potential
energy density E p . For a half wavelength,
the expression of the total energy is:
(3.3)
When the wave reaches the maximum run-up position,
the potential energy reaches a maximum.
The kinetic energy at this position is very small.
This small amount of energy may be associated
with the mild reflected wave from the slope or the
small and negligible water particle velocity associated
with the run-up tongue. This small amount of
kinetic energy will be neglected here. With these
assumptions the energy of the wave run-up triangle
is:
(3.4)
Using the equations and assumption from above
the unknown d and R u can be calculated, which
leads to the following expressions:
(3.5)
(3.6)

Fig. 3.1: Schematisation of the wave run-up model
for a frictionless slope
With the use of these equations the run-up volume
(eq. 3.2) can now be expressed as:
(3.2)
According to this theory the run-up for non-breaking
waves is only related to the wave height.
This theory is confirmed by the following quote
of Hughes (2004): “Run-up data for non-breaking
waves that surge up steeper slopes does not correlate
as well to the Iribarren number, and instead
run-up appears in this case to be directly related
to wave height.”
Reliability test
The assumption that the run-up volume has a triangular
shape will lead to an underestimation of
the actual run-up in case of non-breaking waves
because non-breaking waves will have more
concave shaped sea surface elevation (see also
Hughes (2004)). However, it is expected that the
simplifications used in the ‘new’ run-up wedge
approach are not very unrealistic. By testing the
reliability an indication of the inaccuracy can be
given. This is done by comparing this approach
with the run-up approach described in the CUR/
CIRIA (2007). However, it should be remembered
that also this approach is based on a simplification
of the reality. This approach can be expressed as:
(3.7)
For this reliability test the coefficients of Allsop et
al. (1985), described in the CUR/CIRIA (2007),
are used (which do not include safety margins): A
= -0.21 and B = 3.39. In this example the Iribarren
breaker parameter is between 3.5 and 6 and the
significante wave height H s is 5. This leads to the
following results:
11
Run-up according to Allsop et al. (1985):
Run-up according to the ‘new’ run-up wedge approach:
Without drawing conclusions, this comparison
does show that the run-up using the ‘new’ run-up
wedge approach gives a realistic value. It can be
concluded that this external volume approach is
a realistic basis for the exchange volume model,
described in the next section.
3.2 Deriving the Volume Exchange Model
In this study the permeability of the structure is expressed
as a reduction of the external wave run-up
volume. This reduction is caused by the inflowing
water volume V b that prevails during the maximum
wave run-up. The volumes of water in and on the
structure can be divided into three volumes: the
run-up volume V Ru , the reduced run-up volume
V Ru,r and the volume in the body of the structure
V b . In formula form this is:
(3.8)
With the assumption that the internal water volume
has also a triangular shape, the total internal
water volume for a smooth vertical transition can
be calculated with the following formula (see figure
3.2), where n is the porosity:
(3.9)
Fig. 3.2: Schematisation of the volume inflow for a
homogeneous structure
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Initially, the slope roughness is not included. This
term can easily be taken into account, by multiplying
the run-up (R u ) with a roughness reduction
factor. In this study this friction factor has an
assumed value of 0.75; this value is based on
Van der Meer (2002). Further research should be
done to be able to express the porosity and roughness
separately. The reduced run-up due to slope
roughness can be described as follows:
(3.10)
Also for determination of the run-up volume (3.2)
and the reduced run-up volume (3.8) this friction
factor should be included. This leads to the following
equations:
(3.11)
(3.12)
The only unknown variable in the exchange volume
method (Eq. 3.12) is the internal water level
gradient (I) required for calculating the body volume
V b . A determination of this gradient will be
described in the next section.
3.3 Internal Water Level Gradient
for a Vertical Transition
In this study the internal water volume is determined,
for a given maximum wave run-up, on the
basis of a previously estimated internal water gradient.
With a previously estimated gradient the
(internal) velocity in a porous medium can be determined.
Initially, only the turbulent term (b • IuIu)
is taken into account. The turbulent friction term b
can be expressed with Eq. 2.5. As already mentioned
the influence of the tur-bulent term is in the
order of 90 %. It is also assumed that the porosity
has one value only (core and filter layer(s)). In
a later case these two assumptions can still be
refined. The volume inflow (in the same period)
should be equal to the water volume that the gradient
‘prescribes’. If this is not the case, the gradient
should be modified until both volumes are the
same (iteration).
When only the turbulent term is taken into account,
the flow velocity in the porous medium can
be expressed as the relation between the water
level gradient and turbulent term:
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 12
(3.13)
For determining the volume inflow a sinusoidal
wave run-up is considered with a maximum wave
run-up height in a time span of one quarter of the
wave period (g inf = 0,25). This time span is based
on test results of Muttray (2001). The period represents
the up-rush time of the wave run-up from
SWL till the maximum wave run-up height. The
volume inflow for a rough sloped transition can
now be expressed as:
(3.14)
To determine the occurring water level gradient
(I), the volume inflow should be equal to the water
vol-ume that the gradient prescribed. Therefore,
the following equation must be satisfied.
(3.15)
3.4 Internal Water Level Gradient for a
Sloped and Multi-Layered Transition
For a sloped transition, the volume inflow remains
in principal the same. However, for a sloped
transition the waterline hangs under the sloped
transition, wherefore the water inflow is limited.
In such case it is difficult to determine the water
inflow, because the water flow is not exactly horizontal
(landwards) but mainly downwards. Van
Gent (1994): “The downward vertical velocity of
the phreatic surface has a maximum. This is the
result of the equilibrium of gravity and friction. If
this maximum would be exceeded, the gradient
in the pressures would be larger than one. This
means that the water would flow quicker than the
free seepage velocity which is not possible.” The
maximum gradient for the vertical velocity is one.
A non-horizontal inflow means that the flow velocities
cannot be calculated on the same principle as
for a vertical transition (Eq. 3.15): the water level
gradients should be limited to a maximum value
corresponding to the geometric properties of the
structure (slope angle α, porosity and D n50 ). If the
gradient from the water level iteration surpasses
this maximum predefined gradient value, then this
maximum value should be used in the calculation

of the volume inflow. The gradient iteration for a
rough sloped transition can be expressed similarly
as for a vertical transition but with a different distance:
(3.16)
For a homogeneous structure it is assumed that
the above method works well. However, in case of
a layered structure, this method is no longer applicable
as the water levels in the different layers will
be subject to phase differences. By assuming the
predefined maximum gradient is the same as the
maximum gradient for vertical velocity (I ≤ 1), the
inflowing body volume for a layered structure can
be determined. The imposed run-up in the core is
assumed to be 50 % of the maximum external runup
(g Ru = 0,5 ). This assumption is based on Muttray
(2001), in which it is assumed that the seaward
gradient is not affected by the landward gradient.
For an illustration of this volume exchange model
see figure 4.3.
Fig. 3.3: Schematisation of the volume inflow for a
double layered sloped structure
Note: The body volume consists only of the water
volume in filter and core, because the notional
permeability coefficient reflects the influence of
the core (and filter) permeability and not the permeability
of the complete structure.
3.5 Determination of the Run-Up Reduction
Fac-tor
With an iteration of the internal water level gradient
it is possible to calculate the total internal
water volume for an imposed wave run-up. It is
assumed that the wave run-up triangle for permeable
structure slopes is proportional to the wave
run-up triangle for impermeable slopes. The re-
duced run-up is then the volume ratio of the two
run-up wedges multiplied by the run-up for a rough
impermeable slope:
13
(3.17)
However, this reduced volume (V Ru,r ) will be smaller
in reality, because the incoming volume is determined
for a run-up height with only a reduction
for the slope friction. In reality, inflow will only take
place over a run-up height that is reduced by friction
and permeability. By a new iteration of the water
level gradient (Eq. 3.15) using the corrected
R u,r instead of the original R u,f (Eq. 3.16), the inflowing
volume is determined for a reduced run-up
with slope friction and permeability included.
By introducing the so-called run-up reduction factor
the influence of the structure permeability on
the external run-up process is given. This reduction
factor is the relation between the run-up according
to the ‘new’ run-up wedge approach and
the reduced run-up according to the exchange
volume approach. The run-up reduction coefficient
can be expressed as:
(3.18)
4. DETERMINING THE INFLUENCE
OF THE CORE PERMEABILITY
WITH THE EXCHANGE
VOLUME MODEL
4.1 General
With the exchange volume model a description of
the influence of the permeability on the run-up process
can be given. This run-up process is strongly
correlated to the destabilisation process of the
armour units. As already mentioned this stabilisation
process is empirical expressed in the stability
formulae of Van der Meer (1988). With the correlation
it is possible to use the volume exchange
model for a determination of the notional permeability
factor. It should be noted that the notional
permeability coefficient does not describe the permeability
of the structure, but expresses the correlation
of the permeability of the structure with the
stability of the armour layer units.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

A link between the exchange volume model and
the notional permeability coefficient is achieved
by determining for all four notional permeability
factors the run-up reduction factor. Sensitivities in
this provision are the value of the turbulent friction
term (b) and thus the porosity (n), D n50 and the
shape factor of the granular medium (β) for determining
the internal water level gradient.
To couple the exchange volume model with the
notional permeability coefficient P correctly it is
important to use the normative variables on basis
of the tested variables by Van der Meer (1988).
The ratios between the layers for different structures
are given in Figure 1.1, in which the notional
permeability is defined.
Table 1: Filter laws, grading values and porosity
values of the four defined layer composition
by Van der Meer (1988)
Note: The porosity values (blue) are based on values
of prototype breakwater in Zeebrugge (reference
Troch (2000)), the grading values (red) are
assumed values and the other values (black) are
taken from the tested structures by Van der Meer
(1988).
The porosity of the concerned layers is based on
a prototype breakwater built in Zeebrugge (reference
Troch (2000)). The grading values for the
tested structures are given in Van der Meer (1988).
For the non-tested structure type (P=0.4) an assumption
is made for the grading values. Since
this structure type is a typical practical example,
were the core is mostly built of quarry run, a large
grading is selected. This results in a low porosity.
Table 1 shows an overview of the concerning
values.
By assuming a fixed shape factor of β = 3.6 and
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
14
the above values it is possible to determine for
each in-dividual layer the turbulent friction term b
by using Eq. 2.5. Using an iteration of the internal
water level gradient the volume inflow and thus
the run-up reduction coefficient for the four structure
types can be calculated. First, this is done for
a vertical transition.
Note: In reality, the turbulent friction term is not
fixed and should in principle be treated as instantaneous
values, see Van Gent (1993).
4.2 Example Calculation
The run-up volume V ru can be calculated with
Equation 3.2. The internal water level gradients
for each layer can be iterated with Equation 3.15.
The water level gradient depends on the imposed
water level and geometric properties of each layer
(porosity and D n50 ). With the use of the calculated
water level gradients the body volume can be calculated
and therewith the reduced run-up volume
(Eq. 3.12). With the reduced run-up volume the reduced
run-up and run-up reduction coefficient can
be calculated (resp. Eq. 3.16 and Eq. 3.23).
With these equations and the geometric properties
in Table 1 the volume exchange model can
be applied for the defined ‘notional permeability
structures’. This is done by calculating for a given
wave steepness s the run-up reduction coefficient
for each structure type.
Table 4.1: Values of for values of P and various
waves conditions [Jumelet, 2010]
Regression analyses [Verhagen et al., 2011] shows
the following relationship:
(4.1)
Note: The body volume consists only of the water
volume in filter and core, because the notional

permeability coefficient reflects the influence of
the core (and filter) permeability and not the permeability
of the complete structure.
In Vilaplana (2010) is shown that a fit factor β of
4.2 in the friction coefficient b, see equation 2.5,
lead on average to a good relation between the
suggested values of Van der Meer (1988). See
figure 4.2.
Fig. 4.1: Computed values of P with eq. 9 compared
with the suggested value of P for this condition by
Van der Meer (P=0.5) for a variation coefficient β = 4.2.
5. FURTHER RESEARCH
After the introduction of the volume exchange
model by Jumelet (2010), further research is done
to improve the model.
Weak points in the VE-model of Jumelet (2010)
are the assumptions regarding the value of γ f and
γ Ru . Therefore, further research has been carried
out in order to separate the influence of friction and
infiltration on the total run-up on a breakwater.
From the test results in Van Broekhoven (2011)
followed that the reduction factor γRu was a function
of the Iribarren number:
(5.1)
The tests also showed that the infiltration period
is somewhat shorter than assumed in eq. (3.14).
The experiments showed that:
γ inf ≈ 0.15.
In the test results of Van Broekhoven (2011) also
a difference was observed between the calculated
run-up at the core and the observed run-up at
the core. Therefore, an empirical correction factor
was introduced:
15
(5.2)
The reduced core run-up in the adjusted volume
exchange model is now given by:
The run-up reduction coefficient becomes:
(5.3)
(5.4)
To calculated V Ru,c equation (3.11) can be used,
using R u,c instead of R u,f . The imposed run-up at
the breakwater core can be calculated with the following
equation:
(5.5)
On the basis of these improvements of the VEmodel,
Verhagen et al. (2011) introduces by using
regression analysis the following relationship:
(5.6)
6. CONCLUSION
From this research follows that the volume exchange
model can be used to provide a physical
background of the notional permeability coefficient,
contributing to a more accurate value determination
of this coefficient. By using equation
(5.6) the notional permeability factor can be calculated
for structures that are not defined by Van
der Meer (1988).
The actual used values for the existing notional
permeability coefficient P are questionable and
therefore in this study it is pretended that the exchange
model currently can be used as a physical
background of the notional permeability coefficient,
but eventually must lead to a separate
permeability description.
Furthermore, the description of the notional permeability
values (Figure 1.1) implies that the
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

permeability of the structure depends only on the
geometric properties of the breakwater. This study
shows that the permeability of the structure also
depends on the hydraulic parameters (Hs and
T0). This explains also the dual permeability notation
in the stability formula of Van der Meer (1988)
for surging waves.
7. REFERENCES
Carrier, G.F. and Greenspan, H.P. (1958): “Water
waves on finite amplitude on a sloping beach”,
Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol.4, 97-109, Pierre
Hall, Harvard University.
CIRIA, CUR, CETMEF (2007): “The rock manual,
The use of rock in hydraulic engineering”, C683
CIRIA, London.
Hall, K.R. and Hettiarachchi, S. (1992): “Mathematical
modeling of interaction with rubble mound
breakwaters, Coastal structures and breakwaters”,
Thomas Telford, London, pp.123-147.
Heij, J. de (2001): “The influence of structural
permeability on armour stability of rubble mound
breakwaters”, MSc-thesis, Delft University of
Tech-nology, Delft, The Netherlands.
Hughes, S.A. and Fowler, J.E. (1995): “Estimating
wave-induced kinematics at sloping structures”, J.
of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
ASCE, vol. 121, no. 4, p. 209-215.
Li, Y. (2000): “Tsunamis: non-breaking and breaking
solitary wave run-up”, Q Report No. KH-R-60-
,W. M. Keck Laboratory of Hydraulics and Water
Resources, California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, Cali-fornia.
Lin, P. (2008): “Numerical modeling of water
waves”, London, England.
Muttray, M. (2000): “Wellenbewegung in einem
geschütteten Wellenbrecher“, Ph.D.-Thesis, Technical
University Braunschweig, Braunschweig,
Germany.
Troch, P. (2000): “Experimentele studie en numerieke
modellering van golfinteractie met stortsteen-golfbrekers”,
Proefschrift, Gent University,
Gent, Belgium.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
16
Van der Meer, J.W. (1988): “Rock slopes and gravel
beaches under Wave attack”, Ph.D.-Thesis, Delft
University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.
Van der Meer, J.W. (1990): “Measurement and
computation of wave induced velocities on smooth
slope”, proceedings 22nd ICCE, Delft, p. 191-204.
Van der Meer, J.W. (2002): “Invloedsfactoren voor
de ruwheid van toplagen bij golfoploop en overslag”,
bijlage bij het Technisch Rapport Golfoploop
en Golfoverslag bij dijken, Rijkswaterstaat, Dienst
Weg- en Waterbouwkunde, publicatienummer
DWW-2002-112.
Van Gent, M.R.A. (1993): “Stationary And Oscillatory
Flow Through Coarse Porous Media”,
Communications on hydraulic and geotechnical
engineering, Report No. 93-9. Delft University of
Technology, Delft.
Van Gent, M.R.A., Tönjes, P., Petit, H.A.H. and
Van den Bosch, P. (1994): “Wave action on and
in permeable coastal structures”. In: Proceedings
24th International Conference on Coastal Engineering,
Kobe, Japan, Vol.2, pp.1739-1753.
Van Gent, M.R.A. (1995): “Wave interaction with
permeable coastal structures”, Ph.D.-Thesis TU
Delft, Nederland. ISBN 90-407-1182-8.
Van Broekhoven, P.J.M. (2011): “The influence of
armour layer and core permeability on the wave runup”,
MSc thesis, Delft University of Technology.
Verhagen, H.J., Jumelet, H.D., Vilaplana Domingo,
A.M. and Van Broekhoven, P.J.M. (2011): “Method
to quantify the notional permeability”.
Vilaplana Domingo, A.M. (2010): “Evaluation of
the volume-exchange model with Van der Meer laboratory
test results”, Additonal MSc thesis, Delft
University of Technology.
8. NOTATION
a 1. Amplitude of incident regular wave [m]
2. Porous friction coefficient in the
Forchheimer equation [s/m]
A Fitting coefficients in the run-up formula [-]

Turbulent friction coefficients in the
Forchheimer equation [s 2 /m 2 ]
B Fitting coefficients in the run-up formula [-]
c Dimensionless friction coefficients in
the Forchheimer equation [m 2 /s]
C r Run-up reduction coefficient (R u,r /R u,f ) [-]
C rg Run-up reduction coefficient (R u,c /R u,imp ) [-]
d Base of the run-up triangle [m]
E i Energy of the incoming wave [J]
E k Kinetic energy [J]
E p Potential energy [J]
g Gravitational acceleration [m/s 2 ]
H s Significant wave height, H s = H 1/3
[m]
I Hydraulic gradient [-]
k Wave number, k = 2π/L [m-1]
L 0 Deep water wave length, L 0 = gT 2 /2π [m]
N Number of waves in the Van der Meer
formula [-]
P Notional permeability factor [-]
R u Run-up level, relative to SWL [m]
R u,imp Imposed run-up at the breakwater core,
relative to SWL [m]
R u2% run-up, run-up level exceeded by only
2 % of run-up tongues [m]
s 1. Slope(gradient), 1/tana [-]
2. Wave steepness, s = H/L [-]
S Damage level in the Van der Meer formula [-]
T Wave period [s]
U 2% Average of the highest or lowest 2 % of
velocities on the slope [s]
17
V i Volume that flows into the structure [m 3 ]
V Rd Volume of the run-down [m 3 ]
V Ru Volume of the run-up [m 3 ]
W ABC Weight of water per unit crest width in area
ABC []
a 1. Angle of slope of breakwater [°]
2. Shape factor in the friction coefficient a
in the Forchheimer equation [-]
b Shape factor in the friction coefficient b
in the Forchheimer equation [-]
g Shape factor in the friction coefficient c
in the Forchheimer equation [-]
g cr correction factor for observed/calculated
run-up at the core [-]
g f Run-up reduction coefficient (R u,c /R u,s ) [-]
g inf Reduction for the time the water is infiltrating
into the core [-]
g ru Run-up reduction coefficient for infiltration
(R u,c /R u,f ) [-]
q Unknown angle between still water level and
run-up water surface [°]
x Iribarren number [-]
w Angular frequency (2π/T) [s -1 ]
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

This article describes a theoretical approach for
a physical description of the notional permeability
factor P in the stability formulas of Van der Meer
(1988). Caused by the empirical character of
these stability formulae a physical description is
not available for the notional permeability factor.
In practice this leads to ambiguities in determination
of the value of this factor. To give this factor
a physical description a volume exchange model
was introduced to express the effect of core permeability
on the external wave run-up process. This
volume exchange model couples the external with
the internal process. The external process is described
by a wave run-up model. In this model the
Cet article décrit une approche théorique pour la
description physique du facteur P de perméabilité
notionnelle dans les formules de stabilité de Van der
Meer (1988). En raison du caractère empirique de
ces formules de stabilité, une description physique
n’existe de ce facteur de perméabilité notionnelle.
En pratique, cela conduit à des ambiguïtés dans
la détermination de la valeur de ce facteur. Afin
de donner une description physique à ce facteur,
un modèle d’échange de volumes a été introduit
pour décrire l’effet de la perméabilité du noyau
de la digue sur le phénomène de run-up sur la
carapace de l’ouvrage. Ce modèle d’échange de
volumes couple les processus externe et interne.
Le processus externe est décrit par un modèle
de run-up. Dans ce dernier, le calcul de run-up
Dieser Artikel beschreibt einen theoretischen
Ansatz für eine physikalische Beschreibung des
fiktiven Durchlässigkeitsfaktors P in den Stabilitätsformeln
von Van der Meer (1988). Bedingt durch
den empirischen Charakter dieser Stabilitätsformeln
gibt es keine physikalische Beschreibung
für den fiktiven Durchlässigkeitsfaktor. In der
Praxis führt das zu Unklarheiten bei der Festlegung
des Wertes für diesen Faktor. Um diesen
Faktor physikalisch zu erfassen, wurde ein Volumenaustauschmodell
eingeführt, um so den Effekt
der Durchlässigkeit von Dichtkernen auf äußere
Wellenauflaufprozesse darzustellen. Dieses Volumenaustauschmodell
verbindet die externen mit
den internen Prozessen. Der externe Prozess
wird durch ein Wellenauflaufmodell beschrieben.
SUMMARY
RéSUMé
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 18
wave run-up wedge approach of Hughes (2004)
is linked to the wave kine-matics in front of the
structure. The internal process is described by the
‘Forchheimer’ equation for the water flow through
a porous medium. In this study it is stated that the
notional permeability factor P is highly related to
this volume exchange model. With this correlation
it is possible to choose a value of the notional
permeability factor that is based on a physical
description. Besides the volume exchange model
shows that the P-factor is not only related to the
structural parameters, as stated by Van der Meer
(1988), but also on the hydraulic parameters.
calé sur l’approche de Hughes (2004) est lié à la
cinématique des vagues au droit de l’ouvrage.
Le processus interne est décrit par l’équation de
‘Forchheimer’ pour l’écoulement d’eau à travers
un milieu poreux. Dans cette étude, il est établi
que la notion de facteur de perméabilité notionnelle
dépend fortement du modèle d’échange de
volumes. Grâce à cette corrélation, il est possible
de choisir une valeur du facteur de perméabilité
notionnelle qui se base sur une description physique.
D’ailleurs, le modèle d’échange de volumes
montre que le facteur P n’est pas seulement relié
aux caractéristiques de la structure, comme proposé
par Van der Meer (1988), mais aussi relié
aux paramètres hydrauliques.
In diesem Modell wird der Wellenauflauf-Keil-
Ansatz von Hughes (2004) mit der Wellenkinematik
vor dem Bauwerk verbunden. Der interne
Prozess wird durch die ‘Forchheimer’-Gleichung
für die Durchströmung eines porösen Mediums
be-schrieben. In dieser Studie wird festgestellt,
dass der fiktive Durchlässigkeitsfaktor P eng mit
diesem Volumenaustauschmodell verbunden ist.
Durch diese Korrelation ist es möglich, einen Wert
für den fiktiven Durchlässigkeitsfaktor P zu wählen,
der auf einer physikalischen Beschreibung beruht.
Außerdem zeigt das Volumenaustauschmodell,
dass der P-Faktor nicht nur in Beziehung zu den
Parametern des Bauwerks steht, wie von Van der
Meer (1988) angenommen, sondern auch zu den
hydraulischen Parametern.

IMPROVING THE COMPETITIVENESS
OF THE SPANISH PORT SYSTEM BY OPTIMISING
THE CARGO HANDLING SERVICE
JOSÉ LUIS ALMAZÁN GÁRATE
Prof. PhD. Civil Engineering &
Economist,
Director of the Research Group on
Maritime and Port Engineering at the
Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
E-mail: joseluis.almazan@upm.es
Port services, cargo handling, stevedore
KEY WORDS
MOTS-CLEFS
Service portuaire, manutention, manutentionnaire
INTRODUCTION
Maritime transport, responsible for channelling 90
% of international trade fl ows, is organised around
ports. These vital platforms for the development of
the economy compete against each other to maximise
the traffi c they attract to their facilities.
Spanish ports constitute a central axis in the development
of international maritime transport and
a logistical platform for the whole of southern Europe.
Over 7,900 kilometres of coastline and a
strategic geographical position make the country
an area of particular interest due to its port establishments.
The activity of the Spanish Port System,
with a turnover in excess of € 1 billion, represents
20 % of the GDP, specifi cally of the transport sector,
contributing 1.1 % to the national GDP and
generating 145,000 direct and indirect jobs.
Given the current economic climate, competition
between ports has never been greater and only
those which are capable of adapting to new requirements
and provide quality port services, reliably
and at a competitive price will be able to
by
19
maintain their traffi c.
PILAR PARRA SERRANO
Civil Engineer,
COO Melilla Authority Port
Avd. Marina Española, 4
E-mail: mpparra@puertodemelilla.es
The revision of the Law on Ports and the Merchant
Navy (1) highlights the effi ciency and competitiveness
of Spanish ports through the promotion of
competition as one of its main objectives. It recommends
that ports should cover the expenses
arising for the client both directly, port charges,
and indirectly, costs of port and trading services.
Therefore, the need therefore arises to optimise
the conditions in which port services are provided,
assessing their impact on the competitiveness
of the Spanish Port System and on each of the
agents which form part of the global chain of maritime
transport.
1. SERVICES RENDERED IN PORTS
The revised text of the Law on State Ports and the
Merchant Navy classifi es the services rendered
in ports into four types: general, port, trading and
maritime aids to navigation; and for each one it
gives details for the regime of service provision.
The law includes new mechanisms for the supervision
of conditions of provision and the competitiveness
of these services, creating two bodies for
this end. On the one hand, a Permanent Observatory
of the Port Services Market, as part of State
Ports and on the other, within the Shipping and
Ports Council, a Port Services Committee, formed
by service users and organisations in the sector,
to be consulted by the Port Authorities over conditions
of service provision, in particular charges.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

2. IMPACT ON EACH OF THE
AGENTS IN THE VALUE CHAIN.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1. Public Administration
Port services shall be provided by private initiative.
However, the public administration, which
is responsible for the service provision, the Port
Authority, shall verify the viability of the proposal,
thereby guaranteeing the success of the venture
and adequate coverage of the service and, therefore,
the continuity of the service provision.
To gauge the opinion of the Ports Authorities about
the port services sector, we conducted a research
project and analysis using the Delphi method,
consulting how port services affect the competitiveness
of a port and the transparency of these
services. The results obtained confirm that there
is a common viewpoint among the Port Authorities
(90 % of port directors of Spanish ports of public
interest) about the importance of port services
in the competitiveness of the port and the lack of
transparency in the sector of service providers,
particularly in relation to the cargo handling service,
which is the most critical (86 %) and where
there is greatest opacity (76 %). The most important
aspects are considered the cost and reliability
of the provision.
The following section presents a strategic analysis
of the port sector using Porter’s Five Forces
model which will enable us to find out the profitability
of the sector and the trends of the current
system.
Porter’s Five Forces Model
Porter’s analysis (2) is an elaborate strategic model
used worldwide to analyse the profitability of an
industry. The following figure shows the five forces
Table 1: Layout of Porter’s Five Forces Model
Source: M. Porter, “Competitive Strategy”
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 20
that, together, determine the level of competitiveness
of a specific sector.
Classifying forces this way allows a better analysis
of the setting of the company or industry to which
it belongs and, this way, on the basis of this analysis,
makes it possible to design strategies to make
the most of opportunities and withstand threats.
Applying this methodology to determine the attractiveness
of the Spanish port system we can
point out that it was initially an enormously attractive
sector due to its strong barriers to entry
(port public domain and large investment required
for the construction of its infrastructures), its limited
rivalry (practical non-existence of alternative
forms of transport) and due to achieving control
over part of the logistics chain, all of which placed
it in a position of strength over suppliers and clients.
However, measures adopted recently have
reduced the attractiveness and competitiveness
of Spanish ports, amongst which we should highlight
the following:
• The growing power of port services providers,
in particular the cargo handling service, represents
one of the main critical elements, not just
due to its high costs but also to its ability to paralyse
ports.
• The growing process of decentralisation in the
management of Spanish ports of public interest
as a result of decisions taken due to current
political circumstances is providing port clients
with increasing power at the expense of state
interests. Thus, each autonomous region with
a majority on the board of directors of the state
ports located within their regions which have
full management autonomy are competing with
those of other autonomous regions to supply infrastructures
and are all attempting to rob traffic
from one another leading to a drop in revenue
for these ports. The consequence is an unnecessary
overcapacity in Spanish ports which

also does little to generate client loyalty, because
the lack of private investment which only
becomes profitable over time means that there
are no exit barriers.
2.2. Impact on the Price of Products
The following table shows how the cost of port
services affects the end consumer, through its repercussion
on the price of the listed merchandise.
We selected a basket of basic products in Spanish
homes and then quantified the cost of charges
arising from the provision of port services in a typical
Spanish port on the product’s retail price.
The main conclusions that can be drawn from this
are as follows:
Table 2: Relative shipping costs in relation to retail price
Source: Own production
1. Food products bear shipping costs which represent
a mean of 7.54 % of their retail price.
Within the group, mineral water stands out with
23 % of its retail price due to shipping charges,
in contrast for other products such as articles
of clothing and footwear it represents 0.04 %
of the retail price, and for medicines 0.09 %.
2. The charges for the provision of port services
accounts for approximately 0.5 % on average
of the final retail price of the products.
21
2.3. Companies Supplying Port Services
For the purposes of this study, we investigated
and collected information about the main companies
which supply port services in Spain. We then
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

analysed this information and studied the trend of
development of activity, with the following conclusions:
* Structure of the sector
The sector is highly concentrated with a small
number of large business groups which provide
several types of port services. In parallel, there
are many small companies which specialise in
one type of service.
Most of the companies analysed present a high
degree of diversification towards other activities
related to maritime freight transport. Thus, the
sector features large shipping groups, such as
Bergé Marítima, Boluda, Dávila, Ership, Maersk,
MSC and Suardíaz.
As for the capital ownership of the service companies,
most of the shareholding is in Spanish
hands, although some foreign operators are
present such as Maersk Group (Denmark), MSC
Group (Switzerland) or TPS Tarragona Port Services
(Australia).
* Competitive forces and trends
The current economic situation is accelerating
the process of business concentration, with some
companies being bought up, such as Marítima
Candina Group being taken over by Bergé Marítima
Group. In addition, the cessation of business
activity by some shipping groups, such as the
Contenemar and Odiel groups, has led to the cessation
of operations of some of their subsidiary
companies which provided stevedore services
and the cessation of activity of some of the terminals
in which they participated.
It is to be expected that some of the main operators
will continue intensifying their policies of internationalisation.
This is the case of Grup Marítim
TCB which runs a terminal in Izmir (Turkey) and
which will run the terminals it is building in the port
of Hiep Phuoc (Vietnam) and Ennore (India).
2.4. Shipping Companies and Businesses
which Operate Terminals
We can assure, specifically for the case of mari-
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 22
time transport, that for the shipping company the
choice of one port over another depends mainly
on the overall costs of the maritime transport, with
the convergence of other factors of a much greater
specific weight than the direct costs of the port,
with the geostrategical location of the port considered
being particularly significant.
According to the conclusions of the UNCTAD report
(3) over port-to-port transport (perhaps we
should say Logistical Platform to Logistical Platform)
in transoceanic routes with medium-sized
ships and assumed subsequently by authors such
as Jansson & Shneerson (4), the costs derived
from the turnaround time the ship remains in the
ports of origin and destination of the cargo represent
approximately two thirds of the freight charge
(including the charges and fees for the provision
of the port and trade services), while the remaining
third corresponds to navigation costs.
The breakdown of these costs, according to the
well-known rule of thirds, would correspond to two
thirds owing to time waiting and solely the remaining
third accounting for charges paid, of which in
turn two thirds would be for the handling of the
cargo and the other third for charges and fees.
In short, the following conclusions can be
reached:
• The cost of the use of port installations is relatively
low when compared to the overall cost of
cargo transport overseas, so that it would never
be a decisive factor for the shipowner when
selecting ports of call. The strategic location of
the port is the main characteristic taken into account,
to reduce navigation times. In turn, the
costs associated to the turnaround time of the
ship in port are more determining for the shipowner
than the actual port charges or fees.
• For the owner of the cargo, who, apart from having
to meet all the costs deriving from the transport
of his cargo overseas, also has to meet all
land-based ones, making port expenses even
less significant.
• Within port expenses, which are determining for
the operator of the terminal, and according to
the studies of Prof. Almazán (5), the main components
come from the handling of the cargo
(65 %) and the time taken to do so. This indi-

cates that the reduction of costs for handling a
ship’s cargo is the option that offers greatest possibilities
for economies.
3. ECONOMIC-FINANCIAL
ANALYSIS OF STEVEDORE
COMPANIES
Table 3: Economic-financial ratios
Source: Own production
23
3.1. Problem Characterisation
Having corroborated that the cargo handling port
service is responsible for the greatest share of the
costs for the passage of cargo through a port and
that this is a sector of great opacity, where the Port
Authorities responsible for regulating the service
do not have the mechanisms to know the market,
we have conducted an economic-financial analy-
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

sis of the companies that provide cargo handling
services in Spain.
This analysis will allow us to predict the reliability
of the company, when issuing licenses and estimate
their profitability, knowing who has greater
guarantees of success and therefore a greater
likelihood of maintaining the service throughout
the period covered by the license, besides facilitating
the fixing of maximum charges depending
on the results of the companies. In addition to this,
two types of companies have been modelled:
1. The standard company, obtained on the basis
of mean accountancy values of the ratios obtained
for each of the companies selected for
our sample.
2. The best company, obtained on the basis of
the best values obtained from the economicfinancial
point of view. This will be the best
company at a theoretical level from the business
point of view, but not necessarily for the
Administration. If the companies tend towards
this model, it would be necessary to revise the
maximum charges to improve the competitiveness
of service costs.
The following companies were selected for the
above-mentioned operations: Cargas y Descargas
Velasco, A. Perez y Cía, Tarragona Port Services.
Euroports Ibérica, Estibadora Algeposa,
Cantabriasil, Perez Torres, Mertramar, Ceferino
Nogueira, Maritima Dávila, Grup Maritim TCB and
Vasco Gallega de Consignaciones.
3.2. Standardisation of the Accounting
Structure and Obtaining of Economic-
Financial Ratios
o Balance sheet:
Table 4: Balance sheet
Source: Own production
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 24
We gathered economic-financial information of the
selected companies which provide cargo handling
port services in Spain. To do so, we referred to the
annual accounts that companies have to present
to the Commercial Register and gathered all the
information available about the company and its
environment issued by the company itself or third
parties. We standardised the profit and loss accounts
and the balance sheets to be able to analyse
all the information.
We calculated the selected economic-financial
indicators and the best and standard values obtained
are those shown in Table 3 on the previous
page.
3.3. Modelling of the Standard Company
In the design of the model company we can distinguish
between the company of best values and
the standard company, thereby having a reliable
business management model supported by the
experience of the companies who perform their
operations successfully in Spain. But it also provides
a tool for analysing possible deviations in
relation to both ‘best’ and ‘standard’ situations,
not just when approving maximum charges and
issuing licenses, but also enabling adequate
monitoring of management during the exploitation
phase.
To obtain the accounting structure of the model
companies, we simplified the balance sheet and
the profit and loss account, as shown in the following
tables.

o Profit and loss account:
From the best and standard values of the economic-financial
ratios of the companies selected
we have calculated balance sheets and profit and
loss accounts expressed for sales equal to 100
and as a function of them. This structure makes it
possible to compare the balance sheets and profit
Table 5: Profit and loss account
Source: Own production
Table 6: Obtaining the economic-financial structure
Source: Own production
Table 7: Balance sheet of the ‘best’ company
Source: Own production
and loss accounts forecast in the applications for
licenses and observe deviation to anticipate the
probability of success of the companies in question,
something which we believe could be of great
assistance both to the Public Administration and
to the private companies in the sector.
25
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

4. MEASURES TO OPTIMISE THE
CARGO HANDLING SERVICE
4.1. Introduction
As we mentioned earlier, the reduction in a ship’s
turnaround time has a great effect on the cost of
maritime transport and the competitiveness of the
Table 8: Profit and loss account for the ‘best’ company
Source: Own production
Table 9: Balance sheet of standard company
Source: Own production
Table 10: Profit and loss account of standard company
Source: Own production
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 26
port. For this reason it is fundamental for the cargo
handling service to be conducted efficiently, ensuring
reliability and reducing the costs of the service.
The personnel who provide this port service
are the stevedores, who are either employed by
the stevedore companies (common employment
regime) or are under a special employment contract
of the SAGEP, the port stevedore management
company.

Although there may be variations, the scenario is
normally as follows: the owner of the cargo will
terminate a contract for the transport of the cargo
with the shipowner, who in turn will commission
the agent to manage the services while the ship is
in port, in particular the loading and unloading of
cargo. As this is an activity reserved for stevedore
companies, the commissioned agent will have to
enter into a contractual relationship with them, for
which they will require port stevedores.
4.2. Formulation of Measures
Having underlined the importance of optimising
the provision of cargo handling services, we detected
that they represent the main proportion of
port costs and we also found that this situation is
not the result of high profit margins of the stevedore
companies (mean profit/sales ratio = 4.68
%). We then proceeded to analyse the causes
and identified the specific and advantageous occupational
circumstances of the port stevedores
and on the basis of these findings we can propose
the following measures to optimise the service:
• Sizing of port work teams on the basis of real
needs
In contrast to what one might think, increasing the
number of personnel in a work team does not necessarily
lead to better performance in the loading
and unloading of cargo. It is currently not a decisive
factor, as the limits are imposed by the performance
and capacity of the mechanical means
employed and other factors, such as operational
safety.
At present, the number of persons in a team is
normally excessive and in any case the establishment
of the number of personnel is set by union
and historical agreements instead of using objective
criteria.
• Professionnalisation of the port worker
While the practical work of the professional port
stevedore is virtually identical in any European
port, there is great variation over the formulas
for their education and training. In Spain, until
recently, one did not need specific requirements
to apply for a job as port stevedore. Law 33/2010
emphasises the need to standardise training, but
it does not establish a specific qualification for port
stevedores.
27
• Simplify salary conditions and bring them into
line with other similar sectors
According to the IV Framework Agreement for the
Regulation of Occupational Relations in the port
stevedore sector, once the basic salary is fixed,
incentives such as the following are added for a
variety of concepts: special conditions for unit of
time, performance, bonuses for years of service,
bonuses for job position, travel allowance, extraordinary
payments, remuneration for days of inactivity,
remuneration for finishing, special payments,
bonuses for arduousness, toxicity and danger, appointment
attendance bonus, etc. There are other
types, such as the introduction of technological
measures by the terminal operator designed to increase
productivity; in this case stevedore personnel
are entitled to a bonus.
These advantageous pay conditions reduce the
competitiveness of the port, by increasing port
costs and losing market share to other competitors,
normally to international competitors who
can reduce their wage costs. In fact, this can be
a decisive factor for container transhipment traffic
which is the most volatile and sensitive to variations
in fees and charges.
• Optimising the efficiency of available resources
Productivity will be improved with versatile work
teams for Ro-Ro and Lo-Lo. This will mean that
with mixed cargoes, when the operation with one
type of cargo has finished, the full-working day of
the stevedores can be used even if they have finished
loading or unloading beforehand.
• Flexible working-hours
The distribution and type of working days are laid
down in each port by agreement. The excessive
strictness of entry and exit times for port stevedores
leads to extra docking costs by having to
resort to ‘finishing’ time.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

• Increase the number of employees in the stevedore
companies
The minimum number of workers employed by
the stevedore companies is currently fixed by law,
having to be capable of covering at least 25 %
of the company’s activity, but on the whole these
minimum numbers are not respected.
The stevedore companies do not register labour
costs under the Special Labour Regime as costs
of personnel, but as operating expenses and in
some cases they even bill the cargo owner directly,
on the one hand detailing personnel costs and
separately the rest of the handling costs and the
profit margin. Thus, in most cases the stevedore
companies themselves are merely intermediaries
who will be unaffected by the improvement in
these costs and consequently are not going to undertake
actions to optimise them.
• Introduction of new technologies
Smart systems for logistics management allow
stevedore companies to manage cargo more efficiently,
through the real-time control of the cargo
being handled or moved through the terminal.
In turn, there is also an unstoppable trend towards
the automation and mechanisation of cargo
handling methods in container port terminals.
Although port stevedores currently view this as a
threat to personnel requirements, it may provide
an opportunity for training and obtaining professionals
with a high degree of preparation and
100 % versatility.
• Facilitating temporary contracts for workers
Facilitating temporary contracts for workers would
make it possible to cover peak operational demand
for workers, with these being selected from an employment
pool and would lead to fewer workers on
a standard or special employment contract, while
their level of activity would be greater. This would
lead to an improvement in the costs of stevedore
companies who would not have to assume costly
expenses of structure and inactivity which subsequently
affect their services.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
28
4.3. Quantification of the Best Proposals
We are going to select those measures which can
be quantified for the purposes of evaluating their
impact on the overall cost of the passage of cargo
through a port:
• Sizing the number of personnel per work team
to meet operational requirements
With the information provided by operating companies
in the terminals of Valencia, Malaga and
Algeciras, it would be possible to reduce the number
of personnel employed on average across the
three terminals by 25 %.
• Bring the salary of the port stevedore into line
with that in similar sectors
Given the wide range of salary extras and, being
based on variables such as productivity or dependent
on agreements reached in each port, we
were not able to obtain mean salary values at a
national level.
We therefore referred to the data of the stevedore
companies for 2010 and, after updating this to
2012, we obtained a mean gross annual salary of
€ 53,141.65 for each port worker.
In the construction sector agreement updated to
January 1st, 2012, a minimum gross annual salary
of € 16,234.61 is established for crane operators.
In turn, the construction agreement indicates
that the salary of a port crane operator depends
on the port authority with the gross annual salary
being set at € 18,001.60.
Taking this last figure as a reference, we find that
there is a difference between the salary of a worker
in the construction sector or performing the same
job but dependent on the administration and the
cost of a stevedore of at least 68 %.
• Calculation of hours actually worked
We calculated the level of activity, taking this as
the ratio between the hours actually worked in
relation to the maximum theoretical hours to be
worked by employees according to the Workers’
Statute (1,824 hours).

€
€
In this case, we shall give as an example the real
data for cargo handling activity of a port of public
interest.
Calculating the mean over three years we find that
a 54 % reduction is possible between theoretical
hours and actual hours worked.
Application and results for the operation of the
cargo handling service
With the results we have obtained in this study and
the proposed measures for optimisation, we are
going to make the calculations for the optimisation
of the cargo handling service by the reduction of
costs for a cargo loading or unloading operation,
applying the quantification of the proposed measures.
The cost of the passage of cargo through a port is
due to several factors, the part corresponding to
the handling of the cargo which is the object of this
study accounts for the largest share, representing
roughly 65 % of the overall cost. In other words:
C P = C E + O
C P = aC P
With C : the overall costs of the passage of the
p
cargo through the port for the shipowner, C : E
costs corresponding to the cargo handling port
service, O: other costs (fees and charges for the
remaining services supplied in the port) and α:
percentage which represents the charge € for the
provision of the cargo handling service, in relation
to the total cost of the passage of the cargo
through the port.
As in any commercial transaction, the invoice for
the cargo handling service issued by the stevedore
company to the shipowner or company which
owns the merchandise for each loading and unloading
operation, covers the total costs incurred
by the stevedore company plus a profit margin.
We obtained that profit margin in the present study
by obtaining the mean ratio (RBV = 4.68%) from
the ratios obtained for each of the companies.
As this is the mean ratio in annual terms, we shall
suppose that it is
€
the margin obtained for each of
its operations: C E = CO + B
With C : cost per operation in which the stevedore
O
company is involved and B: profit. Commercial
margin
€
obtained from the mean profit/sales ratio
(RBV = B / C ). E
The measures for optimising the service are
aimed at reducing the costs of stevedore personnel.
Therefore, we need to know the percentage
figure attributable to the costs of personnel (only
stevedores) in relation to the overall costs of the
company, being approximately 55 % of overall
costs.
We have taken into consideration that the annual
economic-financial structure of the stevedore
company is applicable to each of its operations; in
other words, the relation between the total costs of
the stevedore company and personnel costs is the
same in one operation and will correspond to the
cost of the port stevedores, under both the general
and special occupational regimes.
29
Ce = bCo
With C e : the costs derived from the stevedore personnel
for each operation and β: the ratio between
personnel costs and the totals for the standard
stevedore company.
We are going to express the costs of personnel for
the stevedore company for each one of the cargo
loading or unloading operations as a function of
the following variables: number of stevedores per
operation = x, number of hours per operation = y,
and cost derived from the hourly wage rate of the
stevedore = z.
The product of the three previous factors will give
us the personnel costs incurred by a stevedore
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

company in each loading or unloading operation.
Ce = x × y × z
Thus, the value which we want to know is the percentage
reduction in the new situation compared
to the previous one:
Δ(%) = ( Ce − Ce1 ) ×100
C P
In the new situation, the costs of stevedore personnel
in each operation (C ) will be:
e1
Ce 1 = x 1 × y 1 × z 1
Therefore:
x1 = g1x y1 = g 2y z1 = g 3z Ce = g1x × g 2y × g 3z We express the cost derived from the stevedore
personnel as a function of the costs of passage
through the port:
Ce = ab(1− RBV )C P
Applying to the formula that we wish to obtain:
Δ(%) = Ce − g 1 g 2 g 3 Ce
Ce
ab(1− RBV )
×100
According to the previously obtained values:
a = 0.65
b = 0.55
RBV = 0.0468
g1 = 0.75
g 2 = 0.46
g 3 = 0.32
Δ(%) = 30.3%
A 30 % reduction could be achieved in the cost of
the passage of cargo through the port following
the application of the measures proposed for the
port stevedore.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 30
5. CONCLUSIONS
In the course of this briefly outlined study and
research project, we have reached the following
conclusions:
• After a detailed analysis of the port sector from
the point of view of the administration using
Porter’s Five Forces model, we can conclude
that, to recover its attractiveness, the two main
challenges facing the sector are, on the one
hand, the growing power of clients as a result of
the process of decentralisation in planning and
supply of port terminals and, on the other hand,
the excessive power of port service providers,
in particular cargo handling services.
• After gathering the information available and
gauging the opinion of the sector using the
Delphi method, we have concluded that the
Spanish Port System does not have enough
mechanisms to help it observe the process objectively,
enabling it to lay down the conditions
for the concession of licenses for the provision
of the port service of cargo handling. This is
particularly alarming as the search for the balance
between the necessary profitability of the
stevedore company and the efficient and costcompetitive
provision of the service represents
one of principal and most difficult objectives of
port operation in a Spanish port of public interest.
Furthermore, the following conclusions
have been reached about the sector:
1. Most of the companies dedicated to the
provision of port services form part of large
business groups, of mainly Spanish capital,
linked to the maritime sector, and which
have diversified their activity to include the
provision of services.
2. Given the bleak outlook for the growth of activity
in coming years, the tendency towards
concentration in the sector will gather pace,
with the likelihood of new mergers between
companies.
3. The main operators will continue to intensify
their policies of internationalisation.
• The study into the impact on the cost of merchandise
of the passage through the port was
successful, with the conclusion that this cost is
not representative in the cost of the product perceived
by the end consumer (approximately a
0.5 %).

• We corroborated the initial hypothesis that handling
is responsible for the largest share of cargo
costs in a port. We quantified that 65 % of
the total cost for the passage of containerised
cargo through a port is due to handling.
• We analysed different indicators and economicfinancial
ratios of the most important stevedore
companies operating in the Spanish Port System
which gave us tangible figures for standard
and best values which will make it possible to
compare future projects tendering for Port Authority
licenses and establish benchmark values
with other international companies. Amongst
others, we obtained the mean ratio for profit
over sales of 4.68 %, a value which shows that
the excessive costs produced in the handling
sector are not the result of high profit margins of
the stevedore companies.
• We prepared an ideal balance sheet and profit
and loss account on the basis of sales designed
using the best economic-financial ratios of the
sector’s most representative stevedore companies.
This tool makes it possible to compare
forecasting structures of potential bidders for licenses
in the Spanish Port System and will provide
the Spanish Port Administration with criteria
for the provision of cargo handling services,
encouraging the sustainable development and
creation of value in the area of influence of the
port.
• We identified the main measures that would
contribute to the improvement in the competitiveness
of the port service of cargo handling.
We quantified those that have a direct influence
on the reduction of labour costs of the port service
of cargo handling. Furthermore, by using
these mean ratios we found that a 30 % reduction
could be achieved in the costs of the passage
of cargo through a port with the application
of these measures. The application of these
measures represents an important contribution
to encouraging the competitiveness of Spanish
ports.
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
(1) Royal Legislative Decree 2/2011, 5 September,
approving the Revised Text of the Law
of State Ports and the Merchant Navy.
(2) Porter, M.E. (1998): “Competitive Strategy
Techniques for Analyzing Industries and
31
Competitors”, Touchstone (Simon & Schuster).
(3) De Monie, G. (1988): “Measuring and evaluating
port performance and productivity”,
UNCTAD monographs on port management,
Nº6, New York.
(4) Jansson, J.O. and Sheneerson, D. (1982):
“Port Economics”, MIT Press, Massachusetts.
(5) Almazán Gárate, J.L. (1998): “Estudio de
determinación del coste de paso de los contenedores
por el sistema portuario español”,
Fundación Agustín de Betancourt, E.T.S de
Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos,
Madrid.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Port services, and in particular the cargo handling
service, are responsible for the greatest share
of costs incurred during the passage of cargo
through a port. The provision of these services reliably
and efficiently is crucial in a sector in which
there is great opacity. This study has provided the
responsible administration – the Port Authority
– with a tool enabling objective decision making
Les services portuaires, et particulièrement le service
de manutention de marchandise, représentent
une part importante des coûts engagés pour
le passage portuaire. Une fourniture fiable et efficace
de ces services est cruciale dans un secteur
où existe une grande opacité. Cette étude a fourni
à l’administration responsable, à savoir l’autorité
portuaire, un outil permettant une prise de décision
Dienstleistungen in Häfen, insbesondere die Abfertigung
der Ladung, sind für den größten Kostenanteil
verantwortlich, der bei der Passage von
Fracht durch einen Hafen anfällt. In einem Industriezweig,
der erhebliche Intransparenz aufweist,,
ist es von entscheidender Bedeutung, diese Dienste
zuverlässig und effizient anzubieten. Diese
Studie liefert der verantwortlichen Administration
– der Hafenbehörde – ein Werkzeug, welches
SUMMARY
RéSUMé
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 32
both when it comes to issuing the corresponding
licenses and during the period of service provision.
Furthermore, we have proposed a series of
measures whose application would improve the
conditions of service provision and reduce the
costs incurred by the passage of cargo through
the port.
objective à la fois lors de la délivrance du permis
correspondant et durant la période de prestation
du service. De plus, nous avons proposé une série
de mesures dont l’application améliorerait les
conditions de prestation de service et réduirait les
coûts engagés par le passage des navires dans
le port.
eine objektive Entscheidungsfindung ermöglicht,
sowohl für das Ausstellen der entsprechenden Lizenzen
als auch während der Bereitstellung der
Dienste. Außerdem schlagen wir eine Reihe von
Maßnahmen vor, deren Anwendung die Bedingungen
der angebotenen Dienste verbessert und
die Kosten reduziert, die beim Durchgang von Ladung
innerhalb eines Hafens anfallen.

A SIMULATION CASE STUDY FOR A COMMERCIAL HUB
PORT PLANNING IN PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO
BERTHS LENGTH AND ANCHORAGE CAPACITY
KEY WORDS
simulation models, berths lengths evaluation,
anchorage areas capacity, commercial ports
planning, berth occupancy factor, representative
statistical distributions, waiting times in units of
service times.
MOTS-CLEFS
modèle de simulation, évaluation de la longueur
des quais, capacité des zones d’ancrage, aménagement
de port commercial, facteur d’occupation
des quais, distributions statistiques représentatives,
temps d’attente en unité de temps de service.
1. INTRODUCTION
Simulation of entry, departure and manoeuvring
for the design vessel in a port are considered very
important to select the suitable planning through a
proposed group of alternatives in the preliminary
design stage. After that, the main required modifi
cations for the selected planning can be carried
out to ensure safety of navigation. This requires
an accurate manoeuvring simulation study to be
carried out [PIANC, 1992 ; PIANC, 1996 ; Groenveld,
2000].
by
33
M. R. A. KHALIFA
Hydraulic Engineer
(Coastal and Port Engineering Specialist, PhD),
85 Moustafa Kamel, Alexandria – Egypt
Guest Lecturer Harbor Eng. (HTI) – Egypt
E-mail: ramzy24@hotmail.com
Nowadays, a rapid and huge development exists
in the fi eld of both programming and computing for
the simulation languages. Through these simulation
models, vessel entry, departure, berthing and
de-berthing and all its main manoeuvring movements
can be mathematically simulated by using
some certain statistical distributions. A good example
for the most famous statistical distributions
is the one of Earlang. It statistically represents the
queue theory in an effi cient manner, which is used
to represent and organise the entry and departure
of vessels in ports except for containers. This theory
cannot be used in case of container vessels
as they do not accept time delays via waiting in
queues [Blaauw, 1985 ; Groenveld, 2003].
Besides that, through these simulations the accurate
evaluation for minimum berth lengths to accommodate
vessels in a certain fl eet due to an
acceptable waiting time can be carried out. The
considered waiting times are only for arrival cases.
Departure waiting times are not considered in
the carried out simulations. Carrying out such kind
of simulations requires an intensive experience in
simulation profi ciency, which should be applied
through an accurate simulation of the studied case
(berths lengths, fl eets characteristics and generators,
berths occupancy, service times, accommodated
number of vessels, maximum expected design
vessels lengths and beams, etc. [Blaauw et
al., 1981 ; Groenveld, 1983 ; Groenveld 1993])
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. The Used Model: About Port
and Maritime Systems Simulation Model
(Harboursim)
To optimise a port and/or waterway system, operations
have to be analysed, a process which is
often facilitated by applying simulation models.
Simulation techniques have to be used when it
is no longer possible to create a simple system.
The model is normally used for evaluation and optimisation
of ports and maritime systems. In terms
of acceptable fleet volumes, number of berths or
quay lengths, functional design of terminals, nautical
risks and functional design of inland waterway
systems. Very often, port authorities are dealing
with extension or development works of new satellite
ports to satisfy the demand of increasing ship
traffic (berthing facilities and anchorage areas [Ligteringen
et al., 2000]). The model (Harboursim) is
a generally applicable simulation model. It covers
the wet infrastructure of a port and simulates the
vessel movements in this area. It is used to estimate
the capacity of the wet infrastructure. Generally,
the capacity of a port is dependent on the
dimensions of the approach area, tidal conditions
traffic patterns and terminal facilities. With minor
adaptations nearly the majority of commercial hub
port cases can be represented. Furthermore, because
of the modular structure of this model, it is
possible to insert the accurate details of the terminals.
[PMSS, 2001]
2.2. Main Components of the Model
(Harboursim)
The simulation model (Harboursim-student version)
consists of a group of modules. Each module
can make a certain function. The description
comes as follows [PMSS, 2001]:
[Main] – (Permanent, single component): The
component main initialises the model.
[Generator] - (Permanent, belonging to a class of
components): A component ‘Generator’ generates
vessels of a certain fleet according to an inter arrival
time distribution and assigns the attributes.
[Ship] – (Temporary, belonging to a class of components):
A ship follows the process of a ship from
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
34
the arrival buoy to the terminal and from the terminal
to the end of the approach channel).
[Q.Master] – (Permanent, belonging to class of
components): Checks the availability of a berth or
quay length, and wave conditions in front of the
quay.
[H.Master-(1)] – (Permanent, single components):
H.Master-(1) stands for the component harbour
master (1) and controls the incoming ship traffic
and if necessary the tidal conditions.
[H.Master-(2)] – (Permanent, single components):
H.Master-(2) stands for the component harbour
master (2) and controls the incoming ship traffic
and if necessary the tidal conditions.
[Termoper] – (Permanent, belonging to a class of
components): The component ‘Termoper’ stands
for terminal operator and manages mainly the departure
of vessels.
[Wavecond] – (Permanent, single components):
The component ‘Wavecond’ stands for the wave
conditions and generates the wave conditions in
front of the different quays.
[Tidalrec] – (Permanent, single components): The
component ‘Tidalrec’ stands for tidal conditions
and generates and registers the tidal conditions
(currents and water levels).
2.3. General Configuration of the Model
An approach channel consisting of different sections
different dimensions turning basins giving
access to mooring basins. Each mooring basin
may consist of a number of terminals providing
the mooring facilities for the different ship types.
[PMSS, 2001]
3. RESULTS OF THE MODEL
(EVALUATION OF BERTHS
LENGTHS AND ACHORAGE
CAPACITY)
Examples of model output are ship waiting times
presented with necessary statistical characteristic
dimensions of the approach channel with respect
to the required capacity, the required number of

Fig. 1: Main Skelton and example of the simulation model (Harboursim).
Outputs for the expected waiting times in the different simulated terminals [PMSS, 2001].
berths, quay lengths, transhipment capacities,
store capacities, etc. to meet the design requirements,
dimensions of berths and anchorage areas
capacities and nautical safety aspects. Fig.
1 presents an example of the main Skelton, as
well as an example of the outputs of the used
simulation model (Harboursim) with regard to the
expected waiting times in the different terminals
[PMSS, 2001].
3.1. Evaluation for Optimum Berth Lengths
This research deals with a case study for a port
with four handling terminals. Two of these terminals
are dedicated for container handling and
the other two are dedicated for both dry bulk and
general cargo handling. Fig. 2 represents a neat
sketch for the studied port, which is required to
determine its optimum berth lengths. A simulation
study was carried out by using the model (Harboursim-student
version) for the expected fleets
to accommodate the harbour. The procedure of
estimation is that we change the quay length to
35
arrive close to the allowed values of waiting times
in units of service times. Table 1 presents the
maximum allowed waiting times as a percentage
of service times for the different types of accommodated
vessels.
Practically, no waiting times are acceptable for the
case of container vessels. In some special cases,
a small percentage (up to 10 %) of service times
can be considered acceptable. For both dry bulk
and general cargo fleets, the acceptable waiting
times can be up to 30 %, as increasing the waiting
times for such kind of vessels is not as sensitive
as the case of containers.
To evaluate the required optimum lengths of
berths, the main considered items in simulation
modelling are as follows:
• Berth occupancy factor for different types of accommodated
vessels (--).
• Service times for the different accommodated
vessels in the port (%).
Table 1: Maximum allowed waiting times as a percentage of service times for the different types
of accommodated vessels
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

• Maximum expected number of vessels to be accommodated
for the different types of accommodated
fleets (vessel/year).
• Maximum expected design lengths for the accommodated
vessels (m).
Table 2 represents the main characteristics for
the different accommodated fleets related to the
maximum length, maximum width and the annual
number of accommodated vessels. Besides
that, both maximum and minimum expected limits
for service times and the average ones are also
considered. The main idea for using the Harboursim-student
version model is to carry out a group
of runs to determine the optimum length for the
berths, which are able to satisfy the allowed percentages
for the waiting times as percentages of
service times (or less). Afterwards, the final evaluation
for the berths lengths can be quite accurately
determined (m).
This simulation model is also able to predict the
suitable number of vessels to be accommodated
in a certain anchorage with a certain dedicated
area. The used procedure to carry out such evaluation
of the beginning is to use preliminary values
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
Fig. 2: General layout for the studied port by using
the simulation model (Harboursim) [PMSS, 2001]
36
for berth lengths based on expectations and manual
calculations. Such expectations and calculations
depend on using the theoretical equations
and rules of thumb, in order to get more realistic
values. In the next step, the simulation model
makes the required corrections for these preliminary
lengths, based on the previously used data
of the different accommodated vessels fleets. The
main used data are the expected number of accommodated
vessels (vessel/year) and the maximum
design length. The most accurate calculated
lengths come via applying the re-calculation and
correction procedure on some regular iteration
bases. Thus, the optimum berth lengths to get
both navigation safety and economic options can
be accurately determined.
3.2.Evaluation of the Optimum
Capacity for an Anchorage Zone with a
Certain Area
To evaluate the optimum capacity for an anchorage
zone with a certain area to be able to accommodate
a dedicated number of vessels in one
time, the Harboursim-student version simulation
model calculates the accumulated probability of
Table 2: Main characteristics for the accommodated fleets and
the approximate evaluated berth lengths based on the simulation results

occurrence (%) for each case separately to accommodate
this dedicated number of vessels
[PMS, 2001]. The main base is to make the required
estimation by evaluating the number of
vessels that have been registered during one year
in the quay anchorage. The difference in the probability
of occurrence (%) can also be calculated
via feeding the simulation model with the annual
average number for the accommodated vessels
in this anchorage area in similar port cases and
their occurrence percentages. This can be practically
applied based on the available data in the
databases. Thus, the selection for the anchorage
areas capacities can be determined on the basis
of the accumulated probability of occurrence. Fig.
Fig. 3: Relationship between the numbers of vessels and
their associated occurrence intensity
37
3 presents the relationship between the number
of vessels and their associated occurrence intensity.
Table 3 presents the accumulated occurrence
probabilities and their differences in the percentages
of occurrence probabilities (%). Based on
the previous, the capacity for the anchorages with
certain areas can be accurately determined.
3.3. Evaluation of the Berth Lengths and
Optimum Capacity for the Anchorage,
Considering the Effect of Tidal Windows
To check the effect of considering the tidal windows
on the waiting times, they were taken into
* H.D.P. = High difference in probability of occurrence. * A. D.P. = Average difference in probability of occurrence.
* S. D.P. = Small difference in probability of occurrence. * V.S. D.P. = Very small difference in probability of occurrence.
* M. D.P. = Minor difference in probability of occurrence.
Table 3: Accumulated percentages of occurrence probabilities and their associated difference percentages (%)
to evaluate the anchorage capacity with certain areas
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Table 4: Allowed times for vessels to go (in-out the port) according to the allowed tidal windows
consideration for the cases of the two fleets for
container vessels. For these fleets, the current velocity
(horizontal tide means cross currents) can
change the vessels bath in case of high speeds.
This way, they are very sensitive to it (may cause
big waiting times, which is not acceptable for container
vessels fleet) and it should be taken into
consideration. Benefits from the tidal windows
effects (both vertical and horizontal ones), are
caused by either/both the tide variation or/and current
speed, respectively. Thus, the high water levels
can help to accommodate vessels with bigger
drafts and therefore the small currents can help
to accommodate vessels with small Dead Weight
Tonnages (DWT). The intersection period for the
two windows can also be invested for some dedicated
types of vessels passing (as in the condition
of high water level and small current velocity).
This helps to reduce the waiting times to the acceptable
minimum. In case the tidal windows will
be considered, all tidal cycles are allowed in both
vessels entry and departure operations. The simulation
process included one year (365 days) as
well. Table 4 presents the allowed times for vessels
(entry/departure of the port) according to the
allowed tidal windows.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
38
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Evaluated Berth Lengths
The last column in Table 2 presents the evaluated
length (m) for the different accommodated
fleets. Figures 4 through 7 present the evaluated
optimum quay lengths for the two cases without
and with considering the effect of tidal windows
respectively (as will be discussed in detail afterwards).
They represent the progressing waiting
time during the simulation process. For the simulation
results, a remarkable increase in the waiting
times for the container vessels fleets (1) & (2)
can be recognised as presented in Figures 4 and
5. From the simulation results, it can be clearly
recognised that for the first 20 % of time (approximately
the first 73 days of the year), the results are
variable and still not completely stable. After this
period, the results started to stabilise. The waiting
times approximately doubled from (10 % to 20 %)
from the service times. This occurred because the
allowed times for vessels entry/departure were reduced.
For the cases of both dry bulk and general
cargo fleet, the waiting times slightly increased.
This is due to the increase of the waiting times for
the other two fleets.
Fig. 4: Waiting times in units of average service times for the accommodated vessels of the fleet (Container-1)

Fig. 5: Waiting times in units of average service times for the accommodated vessels of the fleet (Container-2)
Fig. 6: Waiting times in units of average service times for the accommodated vessels of the fleet (Dry Bulk)
Fig. 7: Waiting times in units of average service times for the accommodated vessels of the fleet
(General Cargo)
39
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

4.2. Evaluated Anchorage
Zones Capacity
From the simulation model results, it can be recognised
that the dedicated area can be used,
based on the assumption that four vessels can be
accommodated at the same time. The reason is
that the accumulated probability for occurrence
for this event equals approximately 99.20 %. This
accumulated occurrence probability exceeds the
one of the possibility of the three vessels existing
together with a difference in the probability of an
event of approximately 2.5 %.
From the simulation results, four vessels at the
same time can be accepted as a capacity for the
anchorage. This means that the anchorage zone
will be able to receive them (or less number of
vessels). This came associated to an accumulated
occurrence probability of 99.20 % and it happens
197 times/year. Accepting the option for a capacity
of five vessels at the same time (associated to
accumulated occurrence probability of 99.99 %)
will not make much improvements, but will cost
more money without any direct benefit.
Increasing the waiting times for the container fleets
can only be accepted in case of vessels with big
drafts, which cannot enter/departure the port in
the case of, for example, low water level (‘LWL’).
The problem of increasing the waiting times for
container fleet can be solved via increasing the
berth length. Hence, the available room to accommodate
and thereby quickly serve the vessels will
help to achieve that target. Another good solution
is to use the berths of the general cargo terminal
to accommodate the container vessels as well.
Thus, the waiting times for the container fleets will
be dramatically reduced and therefore the service
improved. Priority of entrance/departure for the
container fleets vessels (traffic rules) is a quite
good solution to reduce their waiting times (carry
out two functions).
To ensure the simulation results’ accuracy for
the berth lengths of the different terminals and
anchorage areas capacity, the real-time simulation
techniques should be applied and accurately
treated via applying the cases in a real-time simulator
complex. The real-time simulation experiments
will ensure the evaluated berths lengths
and anchorage zones areas. Such experiments
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
40
should be carried out by the local pilots in the port
area (in general conditions). They will really use
the port with their available skills and capabilities.
Based on the obtained simulation results, the required
modifications for these found lengths and
areas can be determined and practically applied.
This will help to make the port work attitude in the
optimum conditions for the maritime requirements
(as berthing/de-berthing, cargo handling on berth,
occupancy factors, waiting times, etc.).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The port simulation model (Harboursim-student
version) was applied to evaluate the optimum
berth lengths for the four accommodated fleets
(Container-1, Container-2, General Cargo and
Dry Bulk). The optimum lengths to accommodate
vessels of the different fleets for each case were
determined, considering waiting times of 10 %, 10
%, 30 % and 30 % of service times for the four
fleets respectively. The effect of tidal windows was
not considered in the simulation inputs. Both windows
were taken into consideration as time series
data (both tides and current speeds) in the
port entrance area. The evaluated berths lengths
for the vessels lengths (‘LOAContainr-1’ equals
205m, ‘LOAContainr-2’ equals 205 m, ‘LOADry
Buk’ equals 195 m and ‘LOAGeneral’ Cargo
equals 180 m) equal 350 m, 350m, 300m and
250m respecitively.
For the evaluation of the optimum capacity for the
anchorage zone, the simulation results gave a direction
to the suitability to accommodate four vessels
at the same time (evaluated optimum lengths
for the vessels of the four fleets were considered).
This is associated to an accumulated occurrence
probability of approximately 99.20 %. This occurs
as using the option of accommodating five vessels
together in the anchorage zone will give an accumulated
occurrence probability of 99.90 %, with a
difference of only 0.70 %. This option is considered
uneconomic in case of comparison with the
little difference in occurrence probability.
Afterwards, the effect of tidal windows existence
was considered in the simulation. It was shown
that the waiting times in units of service times
were approximately doubled for the cases of the
two container fleets (from 10 % to 20 % of service
times in average approximately). These times

were slightly affected in case of both dry bulk and
general cargo vessels fleets.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Allah for giving the power and the
knowledge. Deep thanks to my family for the continuous
encouragement. I would like to express
my gratitude to my professors, who gave me the
favour of teaching coastal and port engineering
subjects. Many thanks for the great international
scientific conference, PIANC-COPEDEC VIII
2012 in Chennai, India, for support and for giving
me the chance to express my effort and present
this post doctoral research in the international
framework.
7. REFERENCES
Blaauw, H.G., Koeman, J.W. and Strating, J.
(1981): “Nautical contribution to an integrated port
design”, Delft Hydraulics, The Netherlands.
Blaauw, H.G. (1985): “Applicability of simulation
models in design of ports in developing countries”,
International Navigation Congress (PIANC), Brussels,
Belgium.
Groenveld, R. (1983): “The use of discrete computer
simulation models for harbours in developing
countries”, Conference of Coastal and Port Engineering
in Developing Countries (COPEDEC),
Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Groenveld, R. (1993): “Service systems in ports
and inland waterway”, Lecture notes Delft University
of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.
Groenveld, R. (2000): “A simulation tool to assess
nautical safety”, The international workshop on
harbour, maritime & multimodel logistics modelling
and simulation (HMS-2000), Portofino, Italy.
Groenveld, R. (2003): “A simple method to assess
nautical risks”, The International Conference
for Coastal and Port Engineering in Developing
Countries (COPEDEC), Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Port and Maritime Systems Simulation – PMSS
(2001): “Software Harboursim model user manual
software – Student version”, The Netherlands.
41
Ligteringen, H. et al. (2000): “Ports and terminals”,
Technical University of Delft (TU Delft), The Netherlands.
PIANC (1992): “Container transport with inland
vessels, Report of working group- V”, Brussels,
Belgium.
PIANC (1996): “Standardization of ships and inland
waterways for rivers/sea navigation”, Report
of Working Group 16”, Brussels, Belgium.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Simulation of entry, departure and main manoeuvring
procedures are considered important to select
a final planning through a group of proposed
alternatives for the case of commercial ports and
to carry out the compulsory modifications to ensure
navigation safety. With the rapid development
in the fields of both computers and programming
by using simulation languages, the basic manoeuvring
can be mathematically simulated by using
some representative statistical distributions, such
as ‘Earlang distribution’, which is the quite realistic
representative for the queue theory. This theory
is considered acceptable to organise the entry or
departure of vessels, except for container fleets,
which cannot be subject to waiting times. In this
research, it handled a case of a commercial port,
which consists of four terminals. Two of them are
meant for container handling and the other two are
for both dry bulk and general cargo handling activities.
The simulation study was carried out by using
the mathematical model ‘Harboursim’, simulating
the expected fleets for the accommodated vessels
from different types. The optimum required waiting
times for the container vessels fleets should
be equal or very close to zero, as their waiting is
considered uneconomic and so practically unacceptable.
Practically, the maximum allowed waiting
times as a percentage of service times for container
fleets equal ’10 %, approximately’. Both for
dry bulk and general cargo fleets, its upper bound
is close to 30 % of service times.
SUMMARY
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 42
In the berth lengths evaluation, the most important
simulated factors are berth occupancy (%), average
service times for the accommodated vessels
in the port, annual number of them for each fleet
and maximum design length and width for the
accommodated vessels for each fleet. The main
idea in calculation by using the simulation model
is carrying out a group of runs to calculate the optimum
length for berths, which is able to apply the
allowed waiting times as units of service times (%)
for each accommodated fleet or quite less. Based
on that, the final evaluation for berths lengths (m)
can be determined.
Besides that, the simulation model can evaluate
the capacity of anchorage areas to accommodate
a certain number of vessels at the same time. This
comes via balance between both ensuring the
navigation safety and the economic aspects. To
evaluate the optimum capacity for an anchorage
zone with a certain area to accommodate a certain
number of vessels at the same time, the simulation
model calculates the accumulated probabilities
for events occurrence (%) for each case
separately and practically apply them through the
available database or the port. The study recommended
that to decrease the waiting times for the
accommodated fleets and so increasing the handling
works efficiency, a group of practical conclusions
can be applied. The simulation study gave
the suitable number of vessels to be accommodated
together in the studied anchorage zone.

Pour les ports de commerce, la simulation des arrivées,
des départs et des principales procédures
de manœuvre est jugée d’importance vitale dans
le choix de l’aménagement final parmi les alternatives
proposées. Avec le développement rapide
des techniques de calcul informatique et de la
programmation par l’utilisation de langages de
simulation, les manœuvres de base peuvent être
mathématiquement simulées en utilisant des distributions
statistiques représentatives assez réalistes
de la théorie des files d’attentes, à l’exception
des porte-conteneurs qui ne tolèrent quasiment
aucune attente. Cette étude aborde le cas d’un
port de commerce, composé de quatre terminaux.
Deux d’entre-eux sont dédiés à la manutention
des conteneurs et les deux autres à la manutention
conjointe de pondéreux et de marchandises
diverses. L’étude de simulation a été menée avec
le modèle mathématique (Harboursim - version
étudiant) en simulant la flotte attendue pour les
différents types de bateaux accueillis. Les temps
d’attentes optimaux requis pour les porte-conteneurs
devraient être nuls ou très proches de zéro,
puisque leur attente est jugée non-économique
et donc pratiquement inacceptable. En pratique,
le temps d’attente maximal des porte-conteneurs
autorisé est d’environ 10 % du temps de service.
Pour les navires de marchandises diverses et de
pondéreux, la limite supérieure du temps d’attente
est proche de 30 % du temps de service.
Pour l’évaluation des longueurs de quais, les facteurs
les plus importants sont le taux d’occupation
des quais, le temps de service moyen des navires
RéSUMé
43
accueillis par le port, leur nombre annuel prévu
et la longueur et largeur maximales des navires
accueillis. L’idée principale de la simulation est
de mener une série de calculs pour déterminer la
longueur optimale des quais respectant les temps
d’attente autorisés ou moins en pourcentage de
temps de service pour chaque flotte de navires
accueillie. En se basant sur cela, ont peut déterminer
l’évaluation finale des longueurs de quais
(m). Les graphiques (1 à 4) représentent respectivement
les temps d’attentes (temps de service
moyen) des navires porte-conteneurs (1) et (2),
pondéreux et marchandises diverses accueillis.
Par ailleurs, le modèle de simulation peut évaluer
la capacité des zones de mouillage à recevoir un
certain nombre de bateaux simultanément. Ceci
découle d’un arbitrage entre la sécurité de la navigation
et des aspects économiques. Pour évaluer
la capacité optimale d’une zone de mouillage
d’une surface à accueillir simultanément un certain
nombre de navires, le modèle de simulation
calcule les probabilités d’occurrence conjointe
d’évènements (%) pour chaque cas, séparément.
En pratique, ils peuvent être mis en place grâce
aux données disponibles dans le port. L’étude a
recommandé de réduire les temps d’attente des
flottes accueillies et donc d’améliorer l’efficacité
de la manutention. L’étude de simulation a donné
le nombre de navires pouvant être accueillis simultanément
dans la zone de mouillage étudiée.
Une autre série de conclusions pratiques est proposée
et peut être appliquée.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Die Simulation von Ein- und Ausfahrten und
Manövriervorgängen wird für Handelshäfen mit
großer Bedeutung betrachtet, um die endgültige
Planungsvariante aus einer Gruppe von vorgeschlagenen
Alternativen auszuwählen. Durch
die schnelle Entwicklung sowohl im Bereich von
Computer-Techniken als auch im Bereich der Programmierung
unter Anwendung von Simulations-
Sprachen können Manövriervorgänge mathematisch
simuliert werden, indem einige repräsentative
statistische Verteilungen als recht realistische
Platzhalter für die Warteschlangen-Theorie verwendet
werden. Eine Ausnahme bilden hierbei
Containerschiffflotten, für die in der Praxis keine
Wartezeiten akzeptiert werden können. Diese
Studie behandelt den Fall eines Handelshafens,
der aus vier Terminals besteht. Zwei von ihnen sind
für die Abwicklung von Container-Schiffen bestimmt,
die anderen beiden sowohl für die Abwicklung
von Schiffen für trockene Massengüter als auch
von Schiffen für allgemeine Handelsfracht. Die
Simulationsstudie wurde unter Anwendung des
mathematischen Modells (Harboursim Studenten-Version)
durchgeführt, indem das zu erwartende
Aufkommen der verschiedenen Schiffstypen
simuliert wurde. Die optimale Wartezeit für Containerschiffe
sollte gleich oder nahe Null sein, da
das Warten als unökonomisch und so praktisch
als unakzeptabel angesehen wird. Praktisch entspricht
die maximal zulässige Wartezeit 10 % der
Abfertigungszeit für Containerschiffe. Sowohl für
die Schiffe für trockene Massengüter als auch für
Schiffe mit allgemeiner Handelsfracht beträgt die
Obergrenze der Wartezeit fast 30 % der Abfertigszeit.
Bei der Evaluierung der Länge der Anlagestellen
sind die wichtigsten, simulierten Faktoren (% der
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 44
Belegung der Anlegestellen): durchschnittliche
Abfertigungszeiten für die Schiffe im Hafen, die
angenommene Anzahl pro Jahr und die maximale
Länge und Breite der Schiffe. Die Hauptidee
bei der Berechnung unter Anwendung des
Simulationsmodels ist es, eine Reihe von Läufen
durchzuführen und so die optimale Länge für Anlegestellen
zu bestimmen, die in der Lage ist, die
zugelassenen Wartezeiten in Bezug auf die Abfertigungszeiten
(%) für jeden Schiffstyp anzuwenden.
Darauf basierend kann die endgültige Evaluierung
der Längen der Anlegestellen (m) bestimmt
werden. Die Abbildungen 1 bis 4 repräsentieren
die Wartezeiten in Einheiten der durchschnittlichen
Abfertigungszeiten für die entsprechenden
Schiffe der Containerflotte (1) und (2), für trockene
Massengüter und für Handelsfracht analog.
Daneben kann das Simulationsmodell die Kapazität
der Ankerplätze evaluieren, um Platz für eine
bestimmte Anzahl von Schiffen zur gleichen Zeit
vorzusehen. Dies wird erreicht, indem ein Gleichgewicht
hergestellt wird zwischen der Sicherheit
der Schifffahrt und den ökonomischen Aspekten.
Um die optimale Kapazität in der Anlegezone für
eine bestimmte Anzahl von Schiffen zur gleichen
Zeit zu berechnen, kalkuliert das Simulationsmodell
die Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit für das Auftreten
(%) eines jeden Falles separat. In der Praxis können
sie auf die für den Hafen verfügbare Datenbasis
angewendet werden. Die Studie empfahl eine
Verringerung der Wartezeiten der entsprechenden
Schiffe und so eine Erhöhung der Effizienz bei
den Abwicklungsarbeiten. Die Simulationsstudie
zeigte die geeignete Anzahl an Schiffen auf, die
zusammen in der untersuchten Ankerzone liegen
können. Weitere praktische Schlüsse werden geliefert
und können angewendet werden.

AN ANALYSIS OF VESSEL BEHAVIOUR
BASED ON AIS DATA
T.M. DE BOER
Engineer, Consultant Maritime
& Waterways,
Royal HaskoningDHV
Tel.: +31 88 348 22 31
E-mail: thijs.de.boer@rhdhv.com
KEY WORDS
vessel Traffi c Model, AIS Data, Vessel Behaviour,
Statistical Analysis, Ports and Waterways
MOTS-CLEFS
modèle de trafi c de navire (VTM), donnée AIS,
comportement du navire, analyse statistique,
ports et voies navigables
1. INTRODUCTION
In the last decades seaborne trade has increased
considerably. This has led to higher traffi c intensities
in port areas and waterways. With this higher
intensity, safety issues have come up. A Vessel
Traffi c Model (VTM) is a valuable tool to increase
safety in ports and waterways with a very dense
traffi c. Such a model is benefi cial for planning and
design, but also for operational guidance.
The main challenge for an improved VTM is that it
results in sound statistical distributions of the vessel
traffi c in the cross section of the waterway and
to better predict the behaviour of two vessels before
and during encounters. Of particular interest
is the representation of the human behaviour of
the bridge team, as this is a determining factor in
the vessel behaviour. A good representation is diffi
cult to obtain, as it depends on various (human)
by
45
W. DAAMEN
Doctor Engineer,
Assistant Professor Transport &
Planning, TU Delft,
Tel.: +31 (15) 27 85 927
E-mail: w.daamen@tudelft.nl
factors such as experience and stress level on the
bridge.
The research towards these challenges might be
facilitated by data from the Automatic Identifi cation
System (AIS). Since 2004 all seagoing vessels
over 300 Gross Tonnage (GT) are obliged to be
equipped with AIS [4]. Equipped with AIS a vessel
sends out messages on a regular base, containing
information regarding the vessel’s speed, position,
heading, name, destination, etc. These messages
can be received by other vessels. The information
is then made visible on the navigational displays
of the ship, supplying more (detailed) information
on the vessels nearby, additional to the radar image.
Also port authorities can receive the messages
and use them for traffi c management purposes
as an addition to the radar data [2].
By providing real-time information, AIS improves
the safety of navigation and assists in traffi c management.
The AIS data can also be used to investigate
the vessel behaviour in cross sections
and during encounters. Vessels send out AIS
messages every 2-10 seconds, thereby creating a
huge amount of data [3]. This makes it possible to
perform statistical analyses of the vessel behaviour,
including the human behaviour of the bridge
team.
This article is based on an MSc-study [1] that was
performed at the Delft University of Technology,
in co-operation with Marin (Marine Research Institute
Netherlands) and Port of Rotterdam. The
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

study was done in preparation of a large research
project on the development of an improved VTM,
such as described above. The aim is to verify that
AIS data can be used to derive generalised distributions
of the vessel behaviour, as a function of
the waterway geometry, vessel type, vessel size,
external conditions, etc.
This study focuses on one specific route within a
port area, for which a thorough analysis is made of
the vessel behaviour. This paper starts with a site
description of the investigated area. Secondly, the
research methodology is described, divided into
different steps. After this, the results are given for
respectively the influence of the vessel size, the
fitting of standard distributions, the influence of
external circumstances and the set-up of generic
distributions. Finally conclusions and recommendations
for further research are given.
2. SITE DESCRIPTION
The aim of the study is to find generalised distributions
of the vessel behaviour, by using AIS data.
To limit the number of AIS data the study focuses
on one specific route. The chosen route should
meet the following requirements:
- Degree of AIS presence
The presence of many vessels without AIS (e.g.
inland vessels, fishing and pleasure boats) disturbs
the AIS picture. For example, interaction
between two vessels cannot be seen if one of
the vessels is not equipped with AIS. It is there-
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
46
fore preferred that the chosen route should have
a high degree of AIS presence.
- Type of vessel
Every type of vessel (dry bulk, container, general
cargo, etc.) has a different behaviour. It
should be easy to select one vessel type and
only investigate the behaviour of this type. In
this way the differences in behaviour between
vessel types do not influence the statistical
analysis.
- Vessel traffic intensity
The statistical analysis should reach a sufficient
level of significance. Therefore, it is needed to
include enough vessels tracks in the analysis. A
port area with a high intensity is beneficial because
a lot of tracks can be collected in a short
period and the highest amount of interaction between
vessels is found.
- Range of vessel size
To investigate the influence of vessel size on
vessel behaviour, it is beneficial that a large
range of vessel sizes sails along the chosen
route.
- Infrastructure
Along the chosen route, vessels should meet
different waterway geometries, such as wider
and smaller channels and a bend. The influence
of the waterway geometry can then be included
in the generalised distributions.
Based on the requirements above a route is chosen:
between the North Sea and the Amazonehaven.
The Amazonehaven is a harbour basin in
the port of Rotterdam Maasvlakte 1 area, see Fig. 1.
Fig. 1: Overview of the Port of Rotterdam, the Maasvlakte I area is indicated by the red circle

The Amazonehaven complies very well with the
requirements mentioned above. The degree of
AIS presence is high, as it lies in the most western
part of the port and is mainly visited by large seagoing
vessels that are all equipped with AIS. Only
container vessels visit the Amazonehaven, so the
behaviour of this type of vessels can be analysed.
The behaviour of other types of vessels is not considered
in this study.
There is a large difference in size range of the
container vessels visiting the Amazonehaven,
from 10,000 dwt up to larger than 100,000 dwt.
Fig. 2 shows this route. There are several interesting
waterway segments along the route, which
makes it possible to include the influence of the
waterway geometry:
1. Northern breakwater: the current and wave regime
is different inside and outside the protection
of the breakwater.
2. Maasmond: As this is the main channel towards
the port of Rotterdam, there is a lot of
47
expected interaction with other vessels. This is
also the location where tugs fasten, if needed.
3. Beerkanaal: Vessels have to make a turning
manoeuvre into or out of the Beerkanaal. This
gives insight into vessel behaviour in bends.
In this study AIS data are used from the port of
Rotterdam area. These data were obtained from
Marin and The Netherlands Coastguard, which
collects the AIS messages.
For this study AIS data are used from 8 (different)
months in 2009 (February, March, April, July, August,
October, November and December). These
months are chosen to obtain information from different
seasons. As described before, the data resolution
depends on the vessel speed and ranges
from 2 to 10 seconds. Taking into account a typical
vessel speed of 10 knots (~5 m/s), at least every
50 metres a message is sent.
The total amount of AIS messages used for this
study is approximately 4.1 million.
Fig. 2: The chosen route (red line) between the North Sea and Amazonehaven
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As described in the introduction the main aim of
the research is to use AIS data to analyse individual
vessel behaviour in order to come up with generic
rules for vessel behaviour in port areas. The
methodology to come from raw AIS messages to
such generic rules consists of the following steps:
1. Collecting raw AIS data
2. Data processing (cleaning and preparing for
the analyses)
3. Comparison of vessel tracks and vessel
speed
4. Identify influence of vessel size
5. Derive theoretical distributions
6. Identify influence of external circumstances
7. Derive generic rules
In the following each of the steps is discussed in
more detail.
3.1. Collecting Raw AIS Data
The 8 month AIS data collection is done by selecting
the AIS messages that have been sent by
the vessels that visited the Amazonehaven during
the selected months. However, some processing
is needed before they can be used for statistical
analysis. Out of every AIS message the following
information is selected:
- Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) number
- International Maritime Organisation (IMO) number
- Location of antenna position
- Ship’s position (latitude and longitude)
- Time of message
- Speed over ground (SOG)
- Heading
3.2. Data Processing
The (main) aim of the data processing is to transform
the raw AIS messages into vessel tracks that
can be analysed. The first steps are the transformation
of the co-ordinate reference system (from
a geographical to metric system) and correction
for the antenna position on the vessel. After this,
the AIS messages from the same vessel are combined
to individual vessel tracks. Then, the tracks
of the vessels between North Sea and Amazonehaven
are selected.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
48
After performing these steps, a total of 805 incoming
(from open sea to Amazonehaven) and
663 outgoing (from Amazonehaven to open sea)
tracks is available for analysis.
3.3. Comparison of Vessel Tracks
and Vessel Speed
To investigate the influence of different factors,
such as vessel size and external circumstances,
the tracks are compared to each other. This is
done as follows:
The route (between North Sea and Amazonehaven)
is split into several grid points. The distance
between the grid points is 50 metres. The
difference between two tracks is determined at
every grid point, see Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Calculating differences between two tracks
The distances between the vessel tracks are plot
in a cumulative probability distribution function
(Fig. 4). From this graph the 95 % confidence interval
is determined. An example is shown in Fig.
4 on the next page. These intervals give an indication
how well the data sets match.
The accuracy of the dataset is analysed by comparing
tracks from the same data set with each
other. 95 % confidence intervals are determined,
as described above. It is found that the accuracy
of the average path is +/- 30 metres. The accuracy
of the vessel speed is +/- 6.5 %. These values
are taken as a maximum, conservative limit.
Differences in position and vessel speed that are
larger than these values are seen as significant
influences, and thus not due to random variation,
but due to differences in vessel behaviour.

Fig. 4: An example of a cumulative probability
distribution function of the distances between two
average tracks
3.4. Influence of Vessel Size
The influence of vessel size on vessel behaviour
is determined in two steps:
- Assigning size classes
Table 1: Number of tracks in each vessel size class
A division into size classes is made. This division
is made in such a way that roughly the
same amount of tracks is available for each size
class. This way the same order of accuracy can
be achieved in the statistical analysis for every
size class. Exception is the smallest size class,
containing about two times as many tracks. The
49
reason for this is the expected larger variation
in the behaviour of smaller vessels. Therefore,
more vessel tracks are needed to reach the
same amount of accuracy and significance in a
statistical analysis. Table 1 shows the number
of tracks in each size class.
- Determine influence of vessel size
The average tracks for all size classes are compared
to each other. The differences are calculated
in the same way as described above: the
average track is calculated for a size class and
then compared to the average track for a second
size class. The same procedure is followed
for the average speed. In this way insight is obtained
into the relation between the vessel size
and the average track and vessel speed.
Furthermore, a detailed look is given at the vessel
location and vessel speed distribution at cross
sections over the waterway. Four cross sections
are taken for this purpose, at characteristic locations
between open sea and the Amazonehaven
(see Fig. 5):
1. Port entrance
2. Maasmond
3. Bend into the Beerkanaal
4. Beerkanaal
Fig. 5: Locations of the cross sections that are
investigated in this study
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

3.5. Derive Theoretical Distributions
Both the distributions describing the lateral position
of vessels in the cross section and the vessel
speed distributions over the cross sections in
the waterway are investigated in relation to vessel
size. The goal of the study is to find generic rules
to describe vessel behaviour. In order to achieve
this, the derived empirical distributions should be
transformed to standard distributions described
by standard parameters.
In other words, it is tried to fit a standard distribution
at the empirical distributions. Different theoretical
distributions will be evaluated to find a good
fit. When an accurate distribution is found, the parameters
(mean, deviation) are estimated for every
size class and cross section.
3.6. Influence of External Circumstances
The influence of three external circumstances is
investigated: wind, current and visibility. The influence
of waves is not investigated as the largest
part of the route is inside the protected port area,
where the wave influence is expected to be relatively
small.
Wind
Wind data are available from the Royal Netherlands
Meteorological Institute (KNMI) over 2009,
with an hourly interval.
Fig. 6: Splitting the track North Sea -
Amazonehaven into two tracks.
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50
The route from open sea to the Amazonehaven
is split up into two parts: ‘Maasmond’ and ‘Beerkanaal’
(Fig. 6). This division is made because
the heading of vessels is quite different in these
parts.
The influence of wind speed is also evaluated.
Again, the three wind classes are defined in such
a way that every class has about the same amount
of vessel tracks. The formulated wind speed classes
are shown in Table 2.
Current
Table 2: Wind speed classes
Current data are obtained from the port of Rotterdam.
Data are available for 10 important locations
along the trajectory, for normative tidal cycles
and river discharges. By coupling these normative
current data with water level measurements
over 2009 (obtained from the Servicedesk Data of
Rijkswaterstaat), the current regime over 2009 is
obtained. As the moment in time at which a vessel
sails its trajectory is known, the current the vessel
was subjected to can be identified.
Current varies both in time and in space. The
variation in space is horizontal as well as vertical.
The horizontal variation is simply caused by
the port’s infrastructure. The vertical variation is
mainly caused by the interaction between the river
discharge (fresh water) and the tidal currents (salt
water). Because of this interaction there are moments
in time where the top layer and the lower
layers of the water may even have opposite current
directions.
The track between the open sea and the Amazonehaven
is split up into five parts. These parts
are chosen because of their differences in current
regimes:
- Part 1: Important influence of tidal cross currents

- Part 2: Maasmond, the river discharge and tide
generate currents parallel to the waterway
- Part 3: Bend into the Beerkanaal, mainly cross
currents
- Part 4: Beerkanaal, very small current velocities
- Part 5: Amazonehaven, currents are negligible
Fig. 7 shows these parts and the locations where
data were available. The current velocity is also,
like for wind, split into three categories.
Visibility
Fig. 7: Part 1-5 for the calculation of the
influence of current
Visibility data over 2009 are obtained from the
KNMI, with a resolution of one hour.
The influence of visibility is more straightforward
than the influence of wind and current. There is
no variation in space, only in time. Next to this,
most vessels meet sufficient visibility. Two situations
are regarded: sufficient visibility and low
visibility. In this study a low visibility is defined as
a meteorological visibility that is lower than two
kilometres.
3.7. Generic Rules
The final aim of the study is to see whether generic
rules for vessel behaviour can be found. The
theoretical distributions that are found (in step 4)
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are made generally applicable. In other words,
they are to be used for every port infrastructure
and are not only valid for the investigated area in
the port of Rotterdam. This means that standard
distributions are formulated in cross sections over
the waterway and the vessel speed. Depending
on a port’s infrastructure, these distributions can
be made location specific. The set-up of generic
rules is done in two steps:
Define infrastructural characteristics
The route between open sea and the Amazonehaven
is again split into five parts, similar to the
ones used for the analyses of the influence of currents
(Fig. 7).
Every part of the route is schematised by defining
the outer boundaries. These boundaries limit the
channel at both sides, thereby defining the channel
width (different for different cross sections). In
most cases the outer boundaries are simply given
by the delineation of the channel with buoys.
Where there are no buoys, the contour lines of
the vessel tracks are used (Fig. 8). These contour
lines show what is seen by the bridge team as the
representative width of the waterway, when there
are no strict nautical, infrastructural restrictions.
Fig. 8: Schematisation of part 1, outside the port’s
breakwaters
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Determine generic behaviour
Following the schematisation of the port’s infrastructure,
the channel width is now known for every
cross section in the schematised parts. The
standard, theoretical distributions that are derived
can now be made scalable. This is done by including
the schematised width and type of the waterway
segment.
4. INFLUENCE OF VESSEL SIZE
4.1. Influence on the Vessel Path
Fig. 9 shows the difference in the average path
between the smallest and largest size class, for
vessels that leave the port. It can be seen that,
obviously, the difference between the tracks is
relatively low inside the port area and increases
quickly when the ships are outside the breakwaters.
Fig. 9 only shows the average trajectory of all
vessels inside both size classes. This only makes
it possibly to draw general conclusions concerning
the influence of vessel size on location on the
waterway. Including the lateral position of individual
vessels on the waterway gives a more detailed
insight. The lateral distribution is elaborated and
explained in the following sections, the derivation
of theoretical distributions and generic rules.
Fig. 9: Average path for outgoing vessels, size classes
100,000 dwt (blue line)
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52
4.2. Influence on the Vessel Speed
There are quite some differences in vessel speed
between the size classes. Fig. 10 gives an example
of the average speed along the track for outgoing
vessels of two size classes. On the X-axis
the speed along the route from North Sea to Amazonehaven
is shown. On the left Y-axis the vessel
speed is given. On the right Y-axis the differences
in percentage are given, in this case between the
size classes 70,000-100,000 dwt and larger than
100,000 dwt.
Fig. 10: Speed development and the relative
difference between the size classes
70,000-100,000 dwt (green) and >100,000 dwt
(black).
The figure shows that the main speed differences
can, in this case, be found between the North Sea
and the entrance of the Beerkanaal, both in absolute
and relative sense.
Next to the differences between the size classes,
it is also interesting to look at the development
of the speed. Both graphs clearly show a similar
development. Very striking is the speed dip just
before the port entrance. This is only present in
the graphs for outgoing vessels; incoming vessels
(not in figure) do not show this dip. A practical
explanation for this is that at this location the
pilot leaves the vessel, as he has finished his job.

For incoming vessels the pilot embarks the vessel
while it is further away from the port entrance.
Also of interest is the strong speed reduction at
the entrance of the Amazonehaven. This has to
do with the fact that the vessels have to make a
strong turn between the Amazonehaven and the
Beerkanaal. The vessel speed during this manoeuvre
is around 2 knots.
An analysis such as shown in Fig. 10 is made for
the differences between all size classes. In general,
the vessel speed decreases as the vessel size
increases: larger vessels sail slower. An exception
to this is the comparison of the two highest size
classes: 70,000-100,000 dwt and >100,000 dwt.
The most probable explanation for this is that the
vessels from the highest size class use in general
more tugs. This increases their manoeuvrability,
which enables them to sail with a larger speed
through the port area.
5. DERIVING THEORETICAL
DISTRIBUTIONS
This chapter handles the vessel distribution over
the waterway. Theoretical distributions are fit on
the empirical data sets. Also the distribution of the
vessel speed is worked out.
5.1. Spatial Distribution
The results derived above give insight into the differences
between the average track and the average
speed of various size classes. Next step is
to investigate the distribution of the vessels and
the vessel speed over a cross section of the waterway.
Fig. 11 shows a plot of all AIS messages
that are sent by incoming vessels from the size
class 70,000-100,000 dwt. The colours show the
amount of AIS messages that sent from that specific
location; thereby reflecting the amount of
vessels that sail through this location. The figure
clearly shows that the vessels are distributed over
the waterway. At the North Sea, this distribution
is relatively wide. The distribution constantly narrows
towards the bend into the Beerkanaal.
In the Beerkanaal the distribution describing the
lateral position over a cross section of the waterway
is ‘split’ into two parts. There is one ‘main’
53
path that most vessels choose. However, a second
path, more to the west, is also visible. Between
these two paths, almost no AIS messages
are sent (white area), so it is clear that vessels
choose one of the two paths and do not take the
‘middle way’. An explanation for this is the way
in which the vessels have to enter the Amazonehaven.
Depending on what board most containers
are to be (un)loaded, the vessels sail forwards or
backwards into the Amazonehaven. This requires
different manoeuvring, already in the Beerkanaal.
A schematic impression of this is given in Fig. 12.
Figure 11: Overview of all AIS messages sent from
specific areas. Size class 70,000-100,000, ingoing
vessels.
Blue < 8 AIS messages, Yellow = 8-13 messages;
Red = 14-30 messages; Black > 30 messages.
Fig. 12: Difference in vessel path when sailing forwards
(red) or backwards (blue) into the Amazonehaven.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

5.2. Vessel Distribution in Cross Sections
For the cross sections shown in Fig. 5 the distributions
of the vessels’ lateral positions are obtained
for every size class. Through the different
empirical distribution functions standard distribution
functions are fitted. Different statistical tests
are performed (e.g. skew, kurtosis and χ2-test) to
see whether a normal distribution gives a good fit.
These show that a normal distribution is a realistic
approximation.
Therefore, normal distributions have been defined
for every data set, using the mean (μ) and standard
deviation (σ) derived from the empirical data.
An example of a fitted normal distribution is given
in Fig. 13. This figure shows the empirical distribution
(blue line) and the fitted normal distribution
(red, dash-dotted line). For every fitted distribution
also the coefficient of determination, the R2 value,
is calculated to see how well the two distributions
match. This value is given in the upper right corner
of the graphs.
5.3. Vessel Speed Distribution
in Cross Sections
In one cross section vessels from the same size
class have different speeds. The distribution in a
cross section gives more insight into these differ-
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
54
ences. A similar exercise is performed as for the
distribution of lateral positions of the vessels. Calculating
skew and excess kurtosis, it is found that
a normal distribution would give a good fit for the
vessel speed as well. Fig. 14 shows the distribution
of the vessel speed, for incoming vessels from
size class 70,000-100,000, at the four cross sections
that are looked at in this study (see Fig. 5).
In Fig. 14 on the next page, it can be seen that
the vessel speed decreases from 10.2 knots at
the North Sea (cross section 1) to 6.0 knots in the
bend towards the Beerkanaal (cross section 3).
Between cross sections 3 and 4 (Beerkanaal), the
vessel speed only slightly reduces. Interesting is
that the width of the distribution also significantly
decreases between the North Sea (σ = 1.9) and
Beerkanaal (σ = 0.8), because the vessels converge
in the confined waterways of the port area.
At the North Sea, the vessel speed ranges approximately
from 4 to 16 knots. In the Beerkanaal
this has reduced to 4-8 knots, as the vessels
speed converges towards a speed at which the
Amazonehaven basin can be safely entered.
5.4. Vessel Speed Related to Lateral
Position in Cross Section
The vessel speed distribution in a cross section
describes the range and average vessel speed of
Fig. 13: The spatial vessel distribution of the vessel size class 10,000-40,000, incoming based on observed values
(blue line) and the fitted normal distribution (red dotted line), on location 1 (left) and location 4 (right).

Fig. 14: Vessel speed distribution on locations 1 to 4, for size class 70,000-100,000 dwt; incoming vessels.
The blue line represents the empirical data set, the red line the fitted normal distribution.
a certain size class. Now, the vessel speed distribution
in relation to the lateral position in a cross
section is investigated. This shows e.g. whether
sailing more to the middle or to the side of the
channel influences the vessel speed.
Fig. 15 shows these distributions, for size class
70,000-100,000 dwt, at the different cross sections.
It can be seen that the vessel speed is
hardly influenced by the position on the waterway.
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At the outer sides of the distribution some deviation
from the average vessel speed can be seen.
No conclusions concerning these deviations can
however be drawn, as these are based on very
few vessels. Therefore it is assumed that the vessel
location in the cross section has no influence
on the vessel speed. Further research, with more
data specific at the outer sides of the distribution,
can however refine this conclusion.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Fig. 15: Vessel speed distribution over the cross sections at locations 1 to 4, for incoming vessels
from size class 70,000-100,000 dwt.
6. INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL
CIRCUMSTANCES
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
6.1. Wind
To investigate the influence of wind, the route is
split into two parts, as described in the methodology.
The influence on vessel speed, path and
heading is determined:
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Influence on vessel speed
Some influence of wind on vessel speed is found.
In general the (obvious) conclusion can be drawn
that tailwind leads to higher vessel speed, while
headwind decreases the vessel speed. Fig. 16
shows this influence, for the vessels in the Beerkanaal.
The dots are the data points that are found,
for the different wind speed classes, as defined

in the methodology. The red line is a best fit of a
linear relationship.
Fig. 16: The influence of parallel wind on the vessel
speed in the Beerkanaal for incoming vessels.
Influence of wind on average path
The influence on the average path is limited.
Some deviations are found, but no significant
conclusions can be drawn. This might be due to
the fact that vessels correct their heading, in order
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to keep their preferred path also during high wind
speeds. Therefore, a more detailed look is given
at the heading of vessels.
Influence of wind on vessel heading
There is a clear influence on the vessel heading
when vessels are subject to cross winds. The largest
cross winds are found in the part of the trajectory
on the North Sea, outside the breakwaters.
Fig. 17 shows the average vessel heading for the
size class >100,000 dwt, the upper line. The second,
lower, line shows the average heading from
the vessels, in the same size class, that encounter
strong cross winds. Strong cross wind is defined
as a wind speed higher than 8 m/s. The graphs
show the heading over ground.
From Fig. 17 it can be concluded that cross winds
clearly have an influence on the vessel heading.
Vessels adapt their heading about 5-6° at the
maximum, to compensate for the lateral force of
the wind.
After passing the northern breakwater a large
peak can be observed in the graphs. This is at the
location where normally tugs fasten. At this location
large container vessels are very close to the
tugs. As most tugs also transmit AIS messages,
these sometimes interfere with the data from the
container vessel, causing the large peak.
Fig. 17: Development of the average vessel heading for the size class >100,000 dwt (incoming vessels)
and the part of the vessels that encounter a strong crosswind from starboard side.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
6.2. Current
The influence of current is found to be quite similar
to the influence of wind. Only outside the port’s
breakwaters a significant influence is found for
cross current. Figure 18 shows a graph that is
very similar to the one shown for the influence of
wind. Interesting is that the absolute influence that
is found is now larger. The deviation from the average
heading, to compensate for the cross current,
can go up to 15°.
Fig. 18: Development of the vessel heading under
influence of a strong cross current (green) compared
to the average heading (blue) for vessels of size class
40,000-70,000 dwt
6.3. Visibility
No significant influences are found for visibility.
Some differences are obtained, but it is not possible
to draw conclusions. The preliminary results
do however give some direction; further research
might accommodate valid conclusions.
7. GENERIC RULES
In the methodology it is described how the infrastructure
in the case study is schematised. In the
previous sections, standard distribution functions
are found to describe to lateral position of vessels
along various cross sections. By coupling these
58
two, distributions such as in Fig. 19 on the naxt
page can be derived. In this figure the distributions
for the smallest and largest size class, for
both incoming and outgoing vessels are shown.
Some interesting conclusions can be drawn from
Figure 19. The larger vessels clearly sail more to
the middle of the channel. Next to this, the width
of the distribution is much smaller for incoming
vessels than for outgoing vessels. This can be
explained by the fact that incoming vessels converge
towards the entrance of the port, whereas
outgoing vessels spread out over the sea.
Also very interesting is the overlap between the
incoming and outgoing vessels of the largest size
class. This surface indicates the risk area where
these vessels might encounter each other. When
two vessels meet each other at this location, an
interaction is needed to avoid collision. It therefore
also indicates the area where interactions are
likely to be found.
By discounting the schematised width of the waterway,
generic distributions are found that are
independent from a specific infrastructure. This
exercise is also performed for the vessel speed
distribution.
8. CONCLUSIONS
This study shows the potential of AIS data in a
statistical analysis and description of vessel behaviour.
Advantages of this are the possibility to
include the human behaviour of the bridge team in
a statistical way. Such an analysis is possible because
a lot of AIS data are available. Also, some
limitations of AIS data have come up during the
study.
The influence of vessel size is given a close look in
this study. It is clear that vessel size has a considerable
impact on the path and speed of vessels.
From an analysis of AIS data also the distribution
of vessel position and speed in representative
cross sections of the waterway can be found. This
is very advantageous, because it makes it possible
to identify differences in behaviour for different
waterway geometries.
In most cases these differences can be linked
to the practice, e.g. container vessels that sail

Fig. 19: Distribution over the waterway at cross section 1-C
forward or backward into the Amazonehaven basin.
Another example is the location where pilots
leave the vessel, which is noted by seeing a ‘speed
dip’ in the graphs based on AIS data. This shows
that AIS data can not only give a very detailed insight
into average behaviour, but also detect more
(local) divergent behaviour.
The influence of external circumstances such as
wind, current and visibility are investigated in this
study. It turned out that it is difficult to find significant
influences. Main problem for this is the huge
amount of data that is needed to do so. This is
because these influences are often quite weak
inside a port area, especially when vessels are
guided by tugs. Outside the port’s breakwaters a
clear influence of crosscurrents and wind is found,
which shows that the potential of such an analysis
is present. This should however be done in further
analysis.
The vessel behaviour is made generic by fitting
normal distributions to the data, which are shown
to match very well. This shows that, if enough AIS
data are used, it is very well possible to deduce
theoretical distributions. By combining these distributions
with the geometrical characteristics of
the port area where they are found, the distributions
can be made location independent.
59
The schematising of the waterway geometry is
however a process that involves some interpretation;
it is therefore difficult to create strict rules.
Although this is a disadvantage, some fair results
are obtained for the port area that is investigated
in this study.
Follow-up research
Generalised distributions have been formulated
that describe the vessel behaviour in cross sections
of the waterway. More research is however
needed. The two most important points of interest
that follow from this study are:
- The influence of vessel type. Obtaining more
insight in the influence of the vessel type on the
vessel behaviour. In this study only the behaviour
of container vessels is investigated. For example
dry bulk vessels (with a larger depth and
smaller height) are very interesting.
- The vessel behaviour in encounters. The prediction
of behaviour before and during encounters.
An improved Vessel Traffic Model needs to
include a fair description of this behaviour.
These two issues are the main focus areas of
the large research project which is presently undertaken
at TU Delft. A third interesting topic for
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

future research is a more in depth investigation of
the influence of external circumstances. Also the
influence of other factors like the influence of day
/night is interesting.
9. REFERENCES
[1] Boer de, T. (2010): “An analysis of vessel behaviour
based on AIS data”, Delft University of
Technology, MSc thesis.
[2] Harati-Mokhari, A., Wall, A., Brooks, P. and
Wang J. (2007): “Automatic Identification System
(AIS): Data reliability and human error implications”,
Journal of Navigation 60: 373-389.
[3] IALA and AISM (2004): IALA guideline no. 1028
on the Automatic Identification System (AIS), Volume
1, Part I: Operational issues.
[4] International Maritime Organization (IMO),
“Automatic Identification Systems (AIS)”, [Online],
Available: www.imo.org
This article is based on a study that was done as
a graduation project, which formed the concluding
part of the Master of Science program Civil
Engineering at Delft University of Technology, The
Netherlands. The research has been done in cooperation
with the Port of Rotterdam Authority and
Marin.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
60

Due to an increased intensity in ports and waterways,
there is a need for a Vessel Traffic Model
that is capable of handling high vessel intensities.
Such a model is a very valuable tool in planning
and design, as well as operational guidance. The
main challenge for this Vessel Traffic Model (VTM)
is that it results in statistical distributions of the
vessel traffic in a cross section of the waterway
and to better predict vessel behaviour before and
during encounters. It is also important to include a
fair representation of the human behaviour of the
bridge team.
The introduction in 2004 of the Automatic Identification
System (AIS) on board of seagoing vessels
has created good possibilities to develop such a
model. AIS data messages are sent every few
seconds and therefore give a very detailed representation
of the vessel position and speed. This
facilitates statistical analyses in order to obtain
distributions of the vessel traffic in cross sections
of the waterway and behaviour during encounters.
Also, a representation of the behaviour of the
bridge team can potentially be made, as the AIS
data show the results of its decisions: the behaviour
of the vessel.
This paper is based on an MSc-study that was
performed at the Delft University of Technology,
in co-operation with the Marin (Maritime Research
Institute Netherlands) and Port of Rotterdam. The
study was done in preparation of a large research
project on the development of an improved VTM.
Aim is to verify that AIS data can be used to derive
generalised distributions of the vessel behaviour,
as a function of waterway geometry, vessel type,
vessel size, external conditions, etc.
In this study container vessel tracks between the
North Sea and the ‘Amazonehaven’ (a basin in the
port of Rotterdam, The Netherlands) are investigated.
The distributions of vessel position in typical
cross sections of the waterway are standardised
by fitting normal distributions to the AIS data. The
quality of the fits is validated by checking the statistical
characteristics of the distributions and by
calculating the R2 values.
The influence of the vessel size on the vessel
behaviour is investigated by dividing all vessel
tracks into several size classes. The comparisons
SUMMARY
61
between these size classes show that the vessel
size has a significant impact on the vessel position
in the cross section and the vessel speed: in
general larger vessels sail more to the middle of
the channel, with a lower speed.
By inspecting the vessel distributions in representative
cross sections also more locally, divergent
behaviour is identified. In most cases this behaviour
can be given a practical explanation. In one
of the cross sections it is observed that vessels
choose different paths in the approach of the Amazonehaven
basin, depending on their forward or
backward entering of the basin itself. Other links
between the theoretical findings and practice are
found as well. An example of this is the location
where pilots leave the vessel, which can be seen
as a speed dip in the AIS data.
The influence of three external conditions is investigated:
wind, current and visibility. It is difficult to
find statistically significant influences, as most of
these influences are rather small within the protected
port area, especially when vessels are
guided by tugs. Outside the protected port area
a clear influence is found on the vessel heading
for strong crosswinds and crosscurrents. Vessels
correct their heading in order to stay on course
during the entry into the port through the main approach
channel.
The geometry of the waterway between the North
Sea and the Amazonehaven is schematised. After
this, the derived normal distributions of the vessel’s
speed and position are coupled with the site
specific waterway characteristics: the width and
the type of the waterway. This way generic distributions
are found that can also be used for other
port areas with a different geometry. They also
may form input for the vessel traffic model that is
to be developed.
The study shows that AIS data can be used to
derive generalised distributions of the vessel behaviour.
Further research is planned to investigate
the influence of different vessels types, as in this
study only container vessels are looked at. Also,
the vessel behaviour during encounters and the
interaction between vessels are important aspects
that are not covered in this study, but essential in
the development of a VTM.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

En raison de l’importance croissante du trafic dans
les ports et sur les voies navigables, un modèle
de trafic capable de gérer des trafics intenses de
navires est nécessaire. Un tel modèle est un outil
très précieux dans la planification et la conception,
et aussi pour la gestion de l’exploitation. Le principal
défi pour ce modèle de trafic de navires (VTM)
est qu’il aboutisse en une distribution statistique
du trafic sur une coupe transversale de la voie
navigable et qu’il prédise mieux le comportement
des navires avant et pendant les croisements.
L’introduction des systèmes d’identification automatique
à bord des navires de mer (AIS) en 2004
a généré des bonnes possibilités pour le développement
d’un tel modèle. Les données AIS sont
envoyées à un intervalle de quelques secondes et
fournissent ainsi une représentation très détaillée
de la position et de la vitesse du navire. Ceci facilite
l’analyse statistique pour l’obtention de la distribution
statistique sur une coupe transversale de
la voie navigable et le comportement des navires
pendant les croisements. Une représentation du
comportement de l’équipage en passerelle peut
également être établie, car les données AIS montrent
le résultat de leurs décisions : le comportement
du navire.
Cet article est basé sur une étude de Master en
science menée à l’Université Technologique de
Delft, en coopération avec l’institut Marin (Maritime
Research Institute Netherlands) et le Port de Rotterdam.
L’étude a été menée en préparation d’un
vaste projet de recherche sur le développement
d’un VTM amélioré. Son but est de vérifier que les
données AIS peuvent être utilisées pour décomposer
les distributions généralisées du comportement
du navire, en une fonction de la géométrie
de la voie navigable, du type de navire, de la taille
du navire, des conditions externes, etc.
Les relevés des porte-conteneurs entre la Mer
du Nord et le ‘Amazonehaven’ (un bassin du Port
de Rotterdam aux Pays-Bas) sont analysés dans
cette étude. Les distributions de position des navires
sur une coupe transversale représentative
de la voie navigable sont modélisées par des distributions
normales calées par ajustement aux
données AIS. La qualité des ajustements est validée
en contrôlant les caractéristiques statistiques
des distributions et en calculant les valeurs du co-
RéSUMé
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 62
efficient de détermination R².
L’influence de la taille du navire sur son comportement
est analysée en séparant les relevés
des navires en plusieurs catégories de taille. Les
comparaisons entre ces catégories montrent que
la taille des navires a un impact significatif sur son
positionnement dans la coupe transversale et sur
sa vitesse: en général les bateaux plus grands
naviguent davantage au milieu du chenal, à une
vitesse moindre.
Des comportements divergents sont identifiés en
analysant également les distributions des navires
sur des coupes transversales représentatives à
une échelle plus locale. Dans la plupart des cas
ce comportement peut trouver une explication en
pratique. Dans une des coupes transversales on
observe que le navire choisit des trajectoires différentes
à l’approche du bassin Amazonehaven,
selon qu’il entre dans ce bassin en marche avant
ou en marche arrière. D’autres liens entre les résultats
théoriques et la pratique sont également
identifiés. Par exemple, le lieu où les pilotes quittent
le navire peut être observé grâce à une chute
de la vitesse dans les relevés AIS.
L’étude analyse l’influence de trois conditions extérieures:
le vent, le courant et la visibilité. Il est
difficile d’établir des influences statistiquement
significatives, car la plupart de ces influences sont
plutôt faibles dans l’enceinte de la zone portuaire,
en particulier quand les bateaux sont assistés par
des remorqueurs. Une nette influence est constatée
sur les navires exposés à de forts courants et
vents traversiers à l’extérieur de la zone portuaire
abritée.
La géométrie de la voie navigable entre la Mer
du Nord et le bassin Amazonehaven est schématisée.
Ensuite, les distributions normales déduites
des vitesses et positions des navires sont associées
aux caractéristiques nautiques spécifiques
du site : la largeur et le type de voie navigable.
De cette manière des distributions génériques
sont établies et peuvent également servir dans
d’autres zones portuaires à la géométrie différente.
Elles peuvent également servir de données
d’entrée pour le modèle de trafic de navire qui va
être développé.

L’étude montre que les données AIS peuvent
être utilisées pour décomposer les distributions
généralisées du comportement des navires.
Un approfondissement est prévu pour analyser
l’influence de différents types de navires, car cette
étude ne considère que des navires porte-conteneurs.
De plus le comportement du navire pendant
les croisements, l’interaction entre les navires, est
un aspect important qui n’est pas couvert par cette
étude, mais essentiel pour le développement d’un
VTM.
Aufgrund einer erhöhten Verkehrsdichte in Häfen
und auf Wasserstraßen besteht zunehmend der
Bedarf eines Schiffsverkehrsmodells, das in der
Lage ist, hohe Verkehrsdichten zu simulieren.
Solch ein Modell ist ein sehr wertvolles Werkzeug
für die Planung und den Entwurf sowie für die
Unterhaltung von Wasserstraßen und ihren Anlagen.
Die wesentliche Herausforderung für dieses
Schiffsverkehrsmodell (Vessel Traffic Model
(VTM)) ergibt sich daraus, dass es auf einer
statistischen querschnittsbasierten Verteilung
des Schiffsverkehrs auf der Wasserstraße beruht
und zugleich das Verhalten von Schiffen vor und
während Begegnungen präziser vorhersagen soll.
Es ist außerdem wichtig, das menschliche Verhalten
der Besatzung auf der Kommandobrücke
mit einzubeziehen.
Die Einführung des automatischen Identifikationssystems
(Automatic Identification System (AIS))
an Bord von Seeschiffen im Jahr 2004 schuf
geeignete Möglichkeiten, ein solches Modell zu
entwickeln. AIS-Daten werden engmaschig gesendet
und bieten daher sehr detailliert Auskunft über
die Position und die Geschwindigkeit von Schiffen.
Dies erleichtert statistische Analysen hinsichtlich
der Verteilung des Schiffsverkehrs auf Wasserstraßen
innerhalb von Querschnittsprofilen und
hinsichtlich des Verhaltens bei Schiffsbegegnungen.
Zudem kann möglicherweise eine Auswertung
über das Verhalten der Besatzung auf der
Kommandobrücke vorgenommen werden, soweit
die AIS-Daten die Ergebnisse der Entscheidungen
widerspiegeln: das Verhalten des Schiffs.
Dieser Artikel basiert auf einer Masterarbeit, die
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
63
an der Technischen Universität Delft (Delft University
of Technology) in Kooperation mit dem Marin
(Maritime Research Institute Netherlands, maritimes
Forschungsinstitut der Niederlande) und
den Rotterdamer Hafenbetrieben durchgeführt
wurde. Diese Studie wurde in Vorbereitung auf ein
großes Forschungsprojekt zur Entwicklung eines
verbesserten VTM durchgeführt. Ziel ist es, zu
überprüfen, ob AIS-Daten dazu verwendet werden
können, eine allgemeingültige statistische Verteilung
des Schiffsverhaltens als Funktion der Wasserstraßengeometrie,
des Schiffstyps, der Schiffsgröße,
äußerer Bedingungen, etc. abzuleiten.
In dieser Studie werden die Routen von Containerschiffen
zwischen der Nordsee und dem ‘Amazonehaven’
(ein Becken im Hafen von Rotterdam,
Niederlande) untersucht. Die Verteilung von
Schiffspositionen in typischen Querschnittsprofilen
der Wasserstraße werden normiert, indem
die AIS-Daten in eine Gauß-Verteilung überführt
werden. Die Güte der Anpassung wird validiert
durch eine Prüfung der statistischen Charakteristik
der Verteilungen und durch Berechnung der
R2–Werte.
Der Einfluss der Schiffsgröße auf das Schiffsverhalten
wird untersucht, indem alle Routen in unterschiedliche
Größenklassen aufgeteilt werden.
Die Vergleiche dieser Größenklassen zeigen,
dass die Schiffsgröße einen signifikanten Einfluss
auf die Schiffsposition im betrachteteten Querschnittsprofil
und auf die Schiffsgeschwindigkeit
hat: Im Allgemeinen fahren größere Schiffe mehr
in der Mitte der Fahrrinne und mit geringerer Geschwindigkeit.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Bei lokaleren Untersuchungen der Schiffsverteilungen
in repräsentativen Querschnitten, wird ein
divergentes Verhalten festgestellt. In vielen Fällen
gibt es für dieses Verhalten eine praktische
Erklärung: In einem der Querschnitte wurde
beobachtet, dass Schiffe verschiedene Fahrwege
beim Anlaufen des Amoazonehaven-Beckens
wählen, abhängig davon, ob sie vorwärts oder
rückwärts einfahren. Es werden auch andere
Verbindungen zwischen den theoretischen Ergebnissen
und der Praxis liegend, gefunden. Ein
Beispiel hierfür ist die Stelle, an der die Schiffsführer
die Schiffe verlassen, was als Geschwindigkeitsabfall
in den AIS-Daten erkennbar ist.
Der Einfluss von drei Randbedingungen wird untersucht:
Wind, Strömung und Sichtverhältnisse.
Es ist schwierig, statistisch signifikante Einflüsse
zu finden, da die meisten dieser Kenngrößen innerhalb
des geschützten Hafengebietes schwach
ausgeprägt sind, besonders, wenn die Schiffe von
Schleppern gezogen werden. Außerhalb des geschützten
Hafengebietes ist ein deutlicher Einfluss
auf den Kurs der Schiffe gegeben, allen voran durch
heftige Seitenwinde und Querströmungen. Die
Schiffe korrigieren ihre Fahrtrichtung, um bei der
Einfahrt in den Hafen auf der Hauptzulaufrinne
den Kurs zu halten.
Die Geländestruktur der Wasserstraße zwischen
der Nordsee und dem Amazonehaven wird schematisiert.
Anschließend werden die abgeleiteten
Normalverteilungen der Schiffsgeschwindigkeit
und Schiffsposition mit den spezifischen Charakteristiken
der Wasserstraßen gekoppelt: die Breite
und der Wasserstraßentyp. So werden allgemeine
Verteilungen ermittelt, die auch für andere
Hafengebiete mit einer abweichenden Geometrie
verwendet werden können. Sie können ebenso in
das zu entwickelnde Schiffsverkehrsmodell einfließen.
Die Studie zeigt, dass AIS-Daten dazu verwendet
werden können, verallgemeinerte Verteilungen
über das Verhalten von Schiffen abzuleiten.
Für die weitere Forschung ist geplant, den Einfluss
verschiedener Schiffstypen zu untersuchen,
da in dieser Studie nur Containerschiffe betrachtet
werden. Ebenso sind das Schiffsverhalten
während Begegnungen und die Interaktion zwischen
Schiffen wichtige Aspekte, die mit dieser
Studie nicht abgedeckt werden, aber für die Entwicklung
eines VTM unerlässlich sind.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
64

THE LOCKS OF THE SEINE-SCHELDT PROJECT:
INTRODUCING THE CONCEPT OF LIFE CYCLE COST
KEY WORDS
lock design, Seine-Scheldt, life cycle management,
whole life cost, design & build
MOTS-CLEFS
conception d’une écluse, Seine-Escaut, gestion
du cycle de vie, coût total, conception-réalisation
1. THE SEINE-SCHELDT PROJECT
by
ELLEN MAES
Project Engineer,
Waterwegen en Zeekanaal NV,
Upper-Scheldt Division,
Nederkouter 28
9000 Gent
Belgium
Tel.: +32 9 268 02 92
E-mail: ellen.maes@wenz.be
Fig. 1: The Seine-Scheldt link
65
1.1. The Overall Seine-Scheldt
Project in a Nutshell
Waterwegen en Zeekanaal NV, the Flemish waterway
manager, is preparing the execution of the
international Seine-Scheldt project. This project
aims at connecting the Seine basin in the Paris
region with the Scheldt basin in the region of
Antwerp-Rotterdam through means of a performant
inland navigation link. By 2016 it will be possible
to navigate ships up to 4,500 tonnes (ECMT
class Vb) from Paris to Antwerp and vice versa.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

On Flemish soil the project mainly consists of the
adaptation of the Lys river from a 2,000 tonnes
waterway to a 4,500 tonnes waterway. To achieve
the necessary 4.5 m water depth for ships with a
draught of up to 3.5 m, a deepening of the river
with approximately 1 m is necessary. Widening of
river bends and construction of mooring places
will allow vessels up to 185 m long to pass through
the waterway link in one way passage. The deepening
of the river calls for the reconstruction of the
locks of Sint-Baafs-Vijve and Harelbeke. To facilitate
the booming container traffic, a clearance of
7.0 m will be provided for all bridges crossing the
Lys and downstream canals. This allows stacking
the containers 3 levels high.
Fig. 2: The Seine-Scheldt link in Flanders
(red line)
The Seine-Scheldt project offers the opportunity
to work on the ecological quality of the river Lys.
Under the header ‘River Restoration’ the demands
of the European Water Framework Directive are
translated in specific projects, such as the construction
of embankments that offer a good ecological
potential to typical wetland species, the reconnection
of old meanders to the dynamic river
system and the re-establishment of fish migration
throughout the river.
Apart from these ecological goals, a number of
landscaping projects will be launched and some
recreational measures will be undertaken to make
the valley visually more attractive and appealing
to a large number of stakeholders. As an example
the building of bridges for pedestrians near tourist
attractions can be mentioned.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 66
1.2. The Seine-Scheldt Project
in Harelbeke
The Seine-Scheldt project in Harelbeke calls for
the following actions:
- the deepening of the Lys to a water depth of
4.5 m
- the construction of a new lock, adapted to vessels
of ECMT class Vb
- the repair of fish migration possibilities around
the new lock and (new or existing) weir
- the rebuilding of the bridge ‘Hoge Brug’, just
downstream of the lock
- the lifting of the bridge ‘Kuurnebrug’, just upstream
of the lock
- the reconstruction of the necessary mooring
structures on both sides of the lock
- the construction of embankments that are environmentally
appealing
One of the main challenges for the calibration of
the Lys in Harelbeke lies in the construction of a
new lock in Harelbeke, to replace the insufficient
existing one. Therefore, the reconstruction of the
lock and its interconnected weir – and simultaneously
the reassessment of the urban site with
its waterfront and its two bridges – becomes an
important goal for the Seine-Scheldt project. To
achieve this, a ‘Design & Build’-procedure (D&B)
was started in 2010.
2. CONSTRAINTS OF THE PROJECT
2.1. Project Zone
The project zone for the D&B project comprises
the river Lys shown on the aerial view below (Fig.
3 on the next page) and stretches from 500 m
upstream the ‘Kuurnebrug’ (in the southwest corner)
to 500 m downstream the ‘Hoge Brug’ (in the
northeast corner).
As can be seen from the aerial view, the project
zone is situated near Harelbeke’s city centre.
Due to the urban environment, the project site
has many conflicting goals. All of them will be discussed
in the following paragraphs, as to offer the
reader good insight in the complexity of the overall
project.

Fig. 3: Aerial view of the D&B project zone
in Harelbeke
2.2. Existing lock and weir of Harelbeke
The existing lock and weir of Harelbeke were built
in 1966. The lock, with a vertical lifting door upstream
and miter gates downstream, has a chamber
length of 110 m, width of 12.5 m and a sill
depth of 3.5 m. The weir on the left river bank has
two openings of 12.5 m each, with vertical lifting
doors. It regulates the water level in normal conditions
at 10.18 m TAW upstream and 8.00 m TAW
downstream.
67
The electromechanical equipment of both lock
and weir was replaced in 1972. In 1987-1989 a
bottom revetment was placed at the downstream
side of the weir. However, periodic measuring
revealed further erosion in 1995, so some extra
riprap was put in place in 2004. In recent years
the lifting doors were renovated, the service building
was expanded and measures against pigeons
were taken.
But the worst problem was only discovered in
2001: the central wall between lock and weir is
tilting in the direction of the lock chamber, thus reducing
the actual width of the lock chamber with
several centimetres. This stability failure is due
to erosion at the weir which undermines the pile
foundation of the lock wall. Taking into account
that the lock has to be replaced by 2016 because
of the Seine-Scheldt project, no further actions
were taken (except for some minor repairs in 2006
as can be seen on Fig. 4b).
The existing lock and weir structures offer the
most stringent constraint to the D&B project, as
the continuity of navigation is to be guaranteed
throughout the whole construction phase. Also, a
minimal safety against flooding is requested, so
the existing weir should at least be partially kept
active during construction of the new lock and
weir. A third requirement was added to the project,
namely the straightening of the waterway downstream
‘Hoge Brug’ to allow safe navigation in and
out the new lock. A bend in combination with the
bridge already poses a problem for vessels today.
It would be intolerable for larger vessels in the future.
Fig. 4: (a) Upstream view of lock and weir of Harelbeke – (b) Downstream view of lock chamber
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Fig. 5: (a) Central historical building of the Bloemmolens – (b) Banmolens
2.3. Surrounding buildings
The lock and weir are situated right next to the urban
environment of the city of Harelbeke. This historical
city was built around the river, which functioned
as the energy supplier for the grain mills
that brought prosperity to the city in the Middle
Ages. Until recently the milling industry remained
active at the site: on June 30, 2009 the last mill
closed its doors. The abandoned factory, known
as the ‘Bloemmolens’, as shown in figure 5a and
seen from afar on Fig. 4a, is in the process of being
purchased by Waterwegen en Zeekanaal NV.
Further up the river on the same river bank, lies
another former mill, named ‘Banmolens’. This
complex is officially considered as industrial heritage
since 1998 and receives the proper protection
accordingly. It was recently renovated and
transformed into lofts. In the renovation project the
restoration of the hydraulic turbine underneath the
mill was included, but since there is no more link
to the Lys, this was not executed. As this offers
an opportunity to the D&B project, the creation of
a water intake for the ‘Banmolens’ was added to
the list of requirements. It could even offer a solution
for the fish migration around the new lock and
weir and should therefore be investigated further
in detail.
2.4. Spatial vision
The construction of a new lock and weir in an urban
environment, historically linked to the river,
brings along stringent demands with regard to
urban planning, landscaping and architecture. On
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 68
top of that all the different stakeholders all have
different points of view on the priorities of functions
like navigation, water management, recreation,
nature, etc. To find an equilibrium amongst
all these functions is proven to be a complex issue
that needs to be seen in the bigger picture of the
Lys valley.
The new lock and weir and the furnishing of the
public space around it have to lead to the creation
of a new spatial unit that strengthens the urban
dynamics on the right river bank and the green
link on the left river bank, as depicted in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6: Spatial vision of the lock surroundings
The urban river bank takes a central place in the
landscaping of the river. The fragmentary character
today needs to be changed into a coherent

and spatially readable unit. Therefore, the quay
walls should form one continuous line alongside
the water, preferably lowered to strengthen the relation
of the strolling pedestrians with the water.
Through transversal links the city centre clings itself
to the water.
The left bank, which already has a far greener image,
should pursue this even further. Because of
the disappearance of industry, the recreational and
natural functions can be developed. A continuous
recreational biking trail through an ecologically interesting
area, should be the focus point. Linking
the old meander to the river again, is giving life
back to the water and can work as a fish migration
route, bypassing the new lock and weir. By means
of ecological management a hotspot for fish, birds
and water related plants can be created.
3. DESIGN & BUILD PROCEDURE
In order to achieve an integrated project that offers
a best fit solution for this complex problem, a
‘Design & Build (D&B)’-procedure was launched.
As a D&B-contract lacks the maintenance factor
as an implicit quality control, Life Cycle Management
(LCM) had to be introduced in the contract.
This means that not only construction cost has to
be minimised, but the Whole Life Cost (WLC) of
the lock and weir should be kept to a minimum.
The WLC contains all cost factors taking part in
the life span of the lock and weir, namely the construction
cost, the maintenance cost, the cost of
operation, the cost related to downtime of the lock
and necessary repair and – in the end – even the
cost for demolition.
Calamities such as power failures, malfunction
of the gates and of the levelling system have to
be avoided and downtime due to maintenance
should be kept to a minimum. This can be done by
precautionary maintenance (specifically for those
parts subject to wear and tear), integration of protection
systems for gates in the design and installing
the proper safety equipment for the people using,
maintaining or operating the lock and weir.
From a durability point of view it can also be interesting
to look for ways to use renewable energy
sources on site. Photovoltaic energy cells and
wind energy are possible and can e.g. be used for
69
the lock movements. Hydro-electric power should
be researched on site, but will probably not be
feasible due to the limited fall of the water level
(approximately 2 m).
Attention should also be given to minimising noise
and general nuisance of the construction and the
exploitation for the surrounding neighbourhood.
4. CONCLUSION
The construction of a new lock and weir at Harelbeke,
along the river Lys, is one of the main challenges
for the international Seine-Scheldt project.
Due to the urban environment, the project site has
many conflicting goals.
The main objectives are – of course – navigation
and water management. These objectives offer
the geometrical characteristics for the design of
the lock and weir. On top of that, a large number
of other challenges are added. The spatial constraints
are one of them: the historical buildings
and the existing bridges are the main ones. Apart
from that, recreational and ecological aspects
also play a role in the future design of the lock
and weir.
To be able to get a best-fit solution considering
all the above mentioned – and often conflicting –
goals, it was decided by Waterwegen en Zeekanaal
NV to consider the project as an integrated
project. As such a Design & Build procedure was
launched. To integrate an implicit quality control,
the minimisation of the Whole Life Cost (WLC)
was added as a requirement in the contract.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

The Seine-Scheldt project aims to connect the
Seine basin in the Paris region with the Scheldt
basin in the region of Antwerp-Rotterdam, for vessels
up to ECMT-class Vb (4,500 tonnes). In order
to achieve this by 2016, the Belgian region of
Flanders is preparing navigability enhancements
of the river Lys, which currently allows vessels up
to 2,000 tonnes.
One of the main challenges for this calibration lies
in the construction of a new lock in Harelbeke, to
replace the insufficient existing one. Therefore,
the reconstruction of the lock and its interconnected
weir – and simultaneously the reassessment
of the urban site with its waterfront and its
two bridges – becomes an important goal for the
Seine-Scheldt project.
Due to the urban environment, the project site has
many conflicting goals. All of them are discussed
in the paper, as to offer the reader good insight
in the complexity of the overall project. On top of
the main objective (navigation) other challenges
Le but du projet Seine-Escaut est de connecter le
bassin de la Seine en région parisienne avec le
bassin de l’Escaut dans la région d’Anvers-Rotterdam
pour des bateaux de 4.500 tonnes (Classe
Vb-CEMT). Pour arriver à cette fin d’ici 2016, la région
belge des Flandres prépare l’accroissement
de la navigabilité de la Lys qui pour l’instant peut
accueillir des bateaux de 2.000 tonnes.
L’un des principaux défis pour cela est la construction
d’une nouvelle écluse à Harelbeke afin de
remplacer l’ancienne devenue insuffisante. Ainsi,
la reconstruction de l’écluse et du barrage associé
– et en même temps le réexamen du site urbain
avec ses rives et ses deux ponts – est devenu un
enjeu majeur du projet Seine-Escaut.
En raison de son environnement urbain, le site
comporte plusieurs enjeux contradictoires. Afin
d’offrir au lecteur un bon aperçu de la complexité
de l’ensemble du projet, tous ces enjeux
sont exposés dans l’article. A l’enjeu principal (la
navigation), d’autres défis se sont greffés allant
SUMMARY
RéSUMé
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 70
are added, ranging from economic aspects (transhipment
of goods over the waterway, protection
against flooding, recreation) over ecological aspects
(ecological river embankments, migration of
fish, durable energy consumption) to landscaping
(urban planning, integration of an archaeological
mill site, architectural interests).
In order to achieve an integrated project that offers
a best fit solution for this complex problem, a
‘Design & Build’-procedure (D&B) was launched.
As a ‘Design & Build’-contract lacks the maintenance
factor as an implicit quality control, the life
cycle cost concept is introduced. Not only should
the construction cost of the project be taken into
account, it becomes clear that the cost for maintenance
and exploitation of the infrastructure, as
well as the cost of downtime of the system, also
play an important role in the appreciation of the
ultimate design. The paper thus focuses on different
ways to minimise life cycle cost within the D&B
contract for Harelbeke.
des aspects économiques (transbordement des
marchandises sur la voie d’eau, protection contre
les inondations, loisirs), écologiques (digues
écologiques, migration des poissons, consommation
d’énergies durables) jusqu’à l’aménagement
du territoire (planification, intégration du site archéologique
du moulin, intérêts architecturaux).
Une procédure de ‘conception-réalisation’ a été
lancée afin d’aboutir à un projet intégré offrant la
meilleure solution à tous ces défis.
Etant donné que le contrat de ‘conception-réalisation’
ne prend pas la maintenance comme
un contrôle qualité implicite, le concept de coût
du cycle de vie a été introduit. En effet, outre le
coût de la construction, il faut tenir compte dans
l’appréciation finale des coûts de maintenance et
d’exploitation ainsi que des coûts de chômage du
système. L’article souligne donc les moyens de
minimiser le coût du cycle de vie dans le contrat
de ‘conception-réalisation’ d’Harelbeke.

Das Ziel des Seine-Scheldt Projektes ist es, das
Seine-Becken der Region Paris mit dem Scheldt-
Becken der Region Antwerpen-Rotterdam zu
verbinden und für Schiffe bis zur ECMT-Klasse Vb
(4.500 Tonnen) befahrbar zu machen. Um dieses
Ziel bis zum Jahr 2016 zu erreichen, bereitet die
belgische Region Flandern den Ausbau des Flusses
Lys vor, auf dem zurzeit Schiffe bis zu 2.000
Tonnen fahren können.
Eine der größten Herausforderungen bei diesem
Ausbau liegt in dem Bau einer neuen Schleuse
in Harelbeke, die die bestehende, den neuen
Anforderungen nicht entsprechende Schleuse
ersetzen soll. Daher wird der Neubau der Schleuse
mit dem Wehr sowie die gleichzeitige Neubewertung
der städtischen Situation am Ufer und
den beiden Brücken zu einem bedeutenden Ziel
des Seine-Scheldt-Projektes.
Bedingt durch das städtische Umfeld unterliegt
das Projekt vielen widerstreitenden Zielvorgaben.
Alle werden in diesem Beitrag diskutiert, um dem
Leser einen guten Einblick in die Komplexität des
gesamten Projektes zu geben. Zu dem Hauptziel
(Schifffahrt) kommen noch weitere Heraus-
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
71
forderungen, von den ökonomischen Aspekten
(Warentransport zu Wasser, Hochwasserschutz,
Freizeit) über die ökologischen Aspekte (umweltfreundliche
Uferdämme, Fisch-Wanderung,
Verwendung nachhaltiger Energien) bis hin zur
Landschaftsgestaltung (Städteplanung, Einbindung
einer Mühlen-Ruine, architektonische Interessen).
Um zu einem integrierten Projekt zu kommen,
das die bestmögliche Lösung für dieses komplexe
Problem bietet, wurde ein ‚Design&Build(D&B)-
Verfahren‘ gestartet.
Da in einem ‚Design&Build‘-Vertrag der Wartungsfaktor
als implizierte Qualitätskontrolle fehlt,
wird ein Lebenszyklus-Kosten-Konzept eingeführt.
Es sollten nicht nur die Baukosten des Projekts
berücksichtigt werden, sondern es wird klar,
dass die Kosten für Wartung und Nutzung der Infrastruktur
sowie die Kosten bei einem Ausfall des
Systems eine wichtige Rolle bei der Bewertung
des endgültigen Designs spielen. Schwerpunkt
dieses Artikels sind verschiedene Wege, die Lebenszyklus-Kosten
innerhalb des ‚D&B‘-Vertrages
für Harelbeke zu minimieren.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 72

THE NEW GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN
OF WATER SPORTS FACILITIES
KEY WORDS
water tourism, design of water sports facilities,
boat ramps, boat chutes, boat locks, launching
and landing points
MOTS-CLEFS
tourisme nautique, conception des installations de
sports nautiques, rampe de mise à l’eau, chutes
pour sports nautiques, écluses, points de mise à
l’eau, points de mise à terre.
As part of the German Bundestag’s ‘Improving infrastructure
and marketing for waterborne tourism
in Germany’ initiative (Bundestag printed paper
16/10593), the ‘Recommendations for the Confi guration
of Water Sport Facilities on Inland Waterways’,
which were issued by the Federal Ministry
of Transport in 1979, have been radically revised.
The revision took place from November 13, 2009
until August 2011. All the associations relevant to
recreational and pleasure shipping were consulted.
The new ‘Guidelines for the Design of Water Sports
Facilities along Inland Waterways’ [1] contain design
guidance for recreational and pleasure shipping
facilities that relate to the basic infrastructure
provision. This includes all the necessary durable
basic installations of a waterway network focused
on the needs of waterborne tourism such as:
− installations used to overcome a change in el-
by
GABRIELE PESCHKEN
Bundesministerium für Verkehr,
Bau und Stadtentwicklung,
Referat WS 12 - Technik der Wasserstraßeninfrastruktur,
Tel.: +49 228 300 4222
Fax: +49 228 300 807 4222
E-mail: gabriele.peschken@bmvbs.bund.de
73
evation
− launching and landing points
When the Guidelines were being drafted, as many
technical solutions as possible were developed as
a standard, especially in order to enhance safety
through the recognition value of uniform systems.
(see fi gure 1 and 2 on the next page)
Another major principle in the revision was that the
facilities should, as far as possible and wherever
necessary, be designed with accessibility in mind.
To meet the requirements of accessibility, it should
not be necessary for users to disembark from their
vessels to operate or use the facilities, or alternatives
should be provided for mobility-impaired
water sportsmen and women, e.g. operating the
lock from the vessel or sharing use of the lock with
other vessels.
Fig. 3: Switching device for lock operation, source [1]
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

For overcoming changes in elevation, the ‘Guidelines
on the Design of Water Sports Facilities along
Inland Waterways’ formulate technical principles
for the following types of installation:
a) Boat ramps
Boat ramps are one option for overcoming differences
in elevation or for crossing between watercourses
at different elevations. They can be used
to transfer canoes, rowing boots and smaller motor
boats and sailing boats (up to 300 kg).
They can be installed either by themselves or, if
necessary – especially when there is likely to be
heavy traffic –, in combination with a boat chute
or boat lock.
Boat ramps consist of the launching points (slipways)
with upstream and downstream landing
points and the connecting path. They can be
equipped with rails or designed as a boat ramp
without rails. A boat ramp includes one or more
trolleys to transport the boats.
Figs. 1 and 2: Circular bollard, floating bollard, source [1]
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 74
Fig. 4: Boat ramp with rails, source [1]
Fig. 5: Boat ramp with rails, transferring downstream,
source [1]

) Boat chutes
By using a boat chute, a smaller – usually manually
propelled – pleasure craft can overcome a difference
in elevation downstream in a short time.
Upstream, the vessels can be towed by hand. The
costs of a constructing, operating and maintaining
a boat chute are low. Boat chutes have a high
capacity (number of boats per unit of time) and
are thus suitable for use anywhere where there is
heavy vessel traffic or where such traffic is likely
because of the new installation.
Fig. 6: Boat chute – church boat passing downstream,
source [1]
75
c) Boat locks
Locks for pleasure craft are required where ship
locks are no longer able to cope with the traffic by
themselves because of the high level of commercial
shipping combined with a high level of recreational
and pleasure shipping.
The standard dimensions are as follows:
Fig. 7: Boat chute – complete installation, source [1]
Serviceable length (Ln) = 20.0 m
Serviceable width (Bn) = 5.5 m
Because of the trend toward wider boats, a Bn
= 6 m should be aimed for.
Fig. 8: Chamber of a lock for pleasure craft, source [1]
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Another key issue addressed by the Guidelines is
landing and launching points, especially with regard
to the structural design of slipways, wharves
and steps.
Fig. 9: Floating jetty with fender, source [1]
Fig. 10: Landing point with steps, source [1]
In addition to the aforementioned technical aspects,
Chapter 13 of the Guidelines addresses
standard markings and signage for facilities for
recreational and pleasure shipping, in order to enhance
safety on waterways.
To ensure that visitors from abroad can easily recognise
the signs and get directions, use is made
not only of the Inland Waterways Regulations, but
also of the ‘Pictograms for Pleasure Navigation’,
published by PIANC, because they are the most
familiar and widespread pictograms in Europe.
New pictograms have been developed to mark a
boat ramp, transfer facility and boat chute.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 76
Fig. 11: Information signs, source [1]
When the Guidelines were being drafted, particular
emphasis was placed on graphical representation,
and so the Guidelines include 42 drawings,
most of which are provided for guidance. In addition,
a series of photos provides valuable information.
The ‘Guidelines for the Design of Water Sports Facilities
along Inland Waterways’ can be downloaded
from http://www.bmvbs.de/SharedDocs/DE/
Artikel/WS/wassersport.html. It is recommended
that the Guidelines also be applied to facilities for
which the Federal Government is not the sponsoring
entity, in order to continue the systematic
approach.
LITERATURE
[1] Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban
Development (July 2011): “Guidelines for
the Design of Water Sports Facilities along Inland
Waterways”.

This report wants to inform about the the ‘Guidelines
for the Design of Water Sports Facilities
along Inland Waterways’, which contains design
guidance for recreational and pleasure shipping
Cet article vise à faire connaître le ‘Guide pour
la conception des installations de sports nautiques
sur les voies d’eau intérieures’, qui contient
des recommandations de conception, relatives
Dieser Bericht möchte über die „Richtlinie für die
Gestaltung von Wassersportanlagen an Binnenwasserstraßen“
(„Guidelines for the Design of
Water Sports Facilities along Inland Waterways“)
informieren, die gestalterische Anleitungen für Vor-
SUMMARY
RéSUMé
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
77
facilities that relate to the basic infrastructure provision.
These Guidelines are issued by the German
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and
Urban Affairs.
aux infrastructures de base, pour la navigation
de plaisance et de loisir. Ces recommandations
sont émises par le ministère fédéral allemand des
transports, de la construction et de l’urbanisme.
richtungen der Sport- und Freizeit-Schifffahrt bezogen
auf die Bereitstellung von Basis-Infrastruktur
gibt. Diese Richtlinie wird vom Bundesministerium
für Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung herausgegeben.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 78

RESEARCH ON CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
ON THE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
KEY WORDS
climate change, extreme weather, inland waterway
transport, research, European Union
MOTS-CLEFS
changement climatique, conditions météorologiques
exceptionnelles, transport par voie navigable
intérieure, recherche, Union européenne
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change is neither a new or discontinuous
phenomenon, which is expected to change from
one day to another one. Extreme weather events
have been occurring in the past and today and the
European transport sector has taken and is taking
efforts in order to cope with such events to a
greater or lesser extent. In the light of a projected
accelerated change of the climate it is often assumed
that extreme weather events are going to
increase in severity and frequency. Nevertheless,
it has to be noted that such conclusions are based
on research results involving still high uncertainties
due to the complexity of the problem. Furthermore,
it is to be mentioned that climate change impacts
may have also positive effects, e.g. reduced
ice occurrence on certain inland waterways. While
many studies focus on mitigation of greenhouse
by
79
JUHA SCHWEIGHOFER
Member of the PIANC Permanent Task Group
on Climate Change (PTG CC)
Paper presented during the last PTG CC Meeting
via donau-Österreichische Wasserstraßen-Gesellschaft mbH
Donau-City-Straße 1, A-1220 Vienna, Austria
Tel.: +43 50 4321 1624
Fax: +43 50 4321 1050
E-mail: juha.schweighofer@via-donau.org
gases in transport, research on the vulnerability of
and adaptation to climate driven effects, namely
extreme weather events, is rare, still.
Considering the European transportation system,
three projects have recently been carried out,
funded by the Seventh Framework Programme of
the European Union (EU). The concluded WEATH-
ER and EWENT projects cover several modes of
transport. Inland Waterway Transport is considered
mainly by means of literature survey due to
lack of information related to projected changes
in hydrology. No hydrological models have been
used directly in these two projects in order to evaluate
climate change impacts on the navigation
conditions and inland waterway transport. The still
ongoing ECCONET project is focused on climate
change impacts on inland waterway transport
only, although effects on modal share including
road and rail are investigated in addition. Full information
on the projects, including public reports
summarising the results obtained, can be found
at www.weather-project.eu, www.ewent.vtt.fi and
www.ecconet.eu.
In the following the three projects are described,
followed by descriptions of projected climate
change impacts on navigation conditions, as well
as possible adaptation measures to be considered.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

2. THE WEATHER PROJECT
The WEATHER project (Weather Extremes: Impacts
on Transport Systems and Hazards for European
Regions) aimed at analysing the economic
costs of climate change on transport systems in
Europe and explored ways for reducing them in
the context of sustainable policy design. The research
was carried out by an international team of
eight European institutes, led by the Fraunhofer
Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
(ISI). The project was conducted from November
2009 until April 2012.
The core objective was to “determine the physical
impacts and the economic costs of climate change
on transport systems and identify the costs and
benefits of suitable adaptation and emergency
management strategies”.
This general objective was achieved by:
• Development of a dynamic model on the causal
relations between the severity and frequency of
extreme events, the functionality of critical sectors
and social welfare
• Detailed assessment of the vulnerable elements
and damage costs in transport systems
• Working out efficient and innovative mechanisms
of managing disastrous events, focusing
on maintaining the function of transport systems
• Identification of appropriate and efficient adaptation
strategies for transportation infrastructures
and services to ease the impacts of extreme
events in the future
• Clarification of the role of governments, companies
and industry associations
• Checking the applicability of theoretical concepts
of vulnerability assessment, crises prevention
and adaptation strategies with practical
experiences and local conditions
Inland waterway transport was considered in relation
to vulnerability of transport systems, innovative
emergency management strategies (e.g.
ELWIS and DoRIS), adaptation strategies in the
transport sector and case studies with a comprehensive
description of the impact of the drought
in the year 2003 on inland waterway transport.
Related to adaptation measures of the fleet the
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 80
results are considered as rather general. The area
considered was limited mainly to the Rhine.
3. THE EWENT PROJECT
The EWENT project (Extreme Weather Impacts
on European Networks of Transport) was carried
out by an international consortium consisting of
nine institutions covering transport science, economics
and meteorology. The project was co-ordinated
by the State Research Centre of Finland
(VTT). It started in December 2009 and it was
completed in May 2012. EWENT addressed the
EU policies and strategies on climate change with
a particular focus on extreme weather impacts on
the EU transportation system. The methodological
approach was based on a generic risk management
framework which follows a standardised
process starting with the identification of hazardous
extreme weather phenomena, followed by an
impact assessment and concluded by adaptation
and risk control measures. In detail, the project
comprised:
• Identification and definition of hazards on the
EU transport system
• Estimation of the probabilities of risk scenarios
related to extreme weather events
• Estimation of the consequences of extreme
weather events based on the scenarios developed
• Monetisation of harmful consequences for each
mode of transport considered
• Risk assessment based on impact evaluation
and options for reduction and control of harmful
events resulting from extreme weather
• Analysis of different management and policy
options
The transport modes considered comprise:
• Aviation (passenger, freight)
• Land transport (road, rail, light traffic; passenger,
freight)
• Short sea shipping
• Inland waterway transport (freight)
The transport system is considered with respect
to infrastructure, operations and indirect impacts
to third parties, e.g. supply chain customers and
industrial actors.

via Donau was involved in the project as the only
project partner fulfilling tasks comprising the review
of research work and investigations with
respect to inland waterway transport and inland
waterway infrastructure in relation to extreme
weather events (risk identification, risk impact assessment,
risk mitigation and risk management).
The research related to inland waterway transport
was carried out in close co-operation with the EC-
CONET project.
The core results related to inland waterway transport
can be summarised as:
In the Rhine-Main-Danube corridor no decrease in
the performance of inland waterway transport due
to extreme weather events is expected till 2050.
Extreme weather events relevant to inland waterway
transport are low-water events (drought),
high water events (floods) and ice occurrence. Of
less importance are wind gusts and reduced visibility.
Most available climate change projections
indicate: there is no convincing evidence that lowwater
events will become significantly severer
on the Rhine as well as the Upper Danube in the
near future. On the Lower Danube some impact
of drought in association with increased summer
heat might appear, demanding however dedicated
research. However, for completeness, it is to
be noted that few single projections arrive at contrary
results (e.g. when using the extreme KNMI
06 W+ scenario). Related to high-water events
no reliable statement with respect to increase of
discharge and frequency of occurrence can be
given. However, consideration of floods on inland
waterways will remain important also in the future
due to reasons related to flood protection. Ice occurrence
is decreasing, due to global warming, as
well as human impacts leading to shorter periods
of suspension of navigation in regions where navigation
may be prevented by ice. Wind gusts are
expected to remain on the same level as today,
considering the results of EWENT, thereby not decreasing
the safety of inland waterway transport.
Visibility seems to improve if results for European
airports are considered, thereby improving the
safety of inland waterway transport as well as operation
of inland waterway vessels.
Improving the inland waterway infrastructure by
implementation of the respective TENT-T priority
projects acknowledged by the European Commis-
81
sion, as well as proper national maintenance and
river engineering activities, will have a significant
positive impact on the reduction of the vulnerability
of inland waterway transport to extreme weather
events today and in the future. Further measures
with high potential comprise the development of
customer oriented waterway management as well
as River Information Services and new Information
and Communication Technologies. Related to
flood protection it is important to be aware of the
consequences of flooding, fostering the provision
of financial means dedicated to the implementation
of flood-protection projects, e.g. as it took place in
Austria after the August flood in 2002. Flood protection
measures comprise installation, maintenance
and refurbishment of structural works, e.g.
dykes. A variety of further flood protection measures
is described in the Dutch programme Room
for the River. Non-structural measures comprise
improved flood-prediction and alert systems, as
well as creation and utilisation of dedicated alert
plans, regulating the responsibilities and activities
of the task forces, the communication and information
flows as well as which and where flood
protection measures are to be taken in the case
of a flood event.
In October 2012 a follow-up project of EWENT,
MOWE IT (Management of weather events in the
transport system), was launched by the European
Commission. The project is funded within the
Seventh Framework Programme of the European
Union. Adaptation strategies related to inland waterway
transport, focusing on the provision of improved
safety and service standards, as well as
ship technology, are considered.
4. THE ECCONET PROJECT
The ECCONET project (Effects of Climate Change
on the Inland Waterway Network) is currently one
of the most relevant climate change projects to
inland waterway transport on European level. It
started in January 2010 and it is expected to be
concluded in December 2012. ECCONET is conducted
by an interdisciplinary consortium of ten
partners and it is co-ordinated by Transport & Mobility
Leuven. The objective of ECCONET is to assess
the navigation conditions in the future, taking
into account the influence of climate change on
the waterway network. In parallel, ECCONET also
analyses the possibility for adaptation measures
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

to improve the performance of inland waterway
transport in the light of climate change. Taking into
account its complex and ambitious nature, EC-
CONET integrates past and ongoing research in
meteorology, hydrology, infrastructure operation,
shipbuilding, transportation and economics. This
is reflected in a diverse consortium with partners
of international scientific excellence and high personal
motivation.
The activities carried out comprise:
• Determination of the effects of climate change
on the inland waterway network by applying
recent findings from meteorological and hydrological
modelling
• Determination and assessment of a broad
range of adaptation strategies with relevance to
climate change
• Usage of transport economic modelling to calculate
network based effects on critical links of
inland waterway transport
• Formulation of policy advice for a sustainable
development of the inland waterway network
under climate change conditions
Focused on the Rhine-Main-Danube corridor, the
effects on navigation conditions are summarised
in the following section (reproduced from the executive
summary of the ECCONET Deliverable
1.5: Impact of Climate Change on Hydrological
Conditions of Navigation), as well as an overview
of adaptation measures considered is given in
Section 7.
5. CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON
HYDROLOGY
The Lower Rhine is characterised by a snow- and
rain-driven hydrological regime. Discharge projections
in the distant future indicate a change towards
lower values in the summer time and higher
ones in the winter time. The tendency in the summer
time may be considered critical on the Middle
and the Lower Rhine because already in the actual
situation the discharges are low at that time.
For the near future the projections of the summer
discharges do not show a clear change.
On the Upper Danube both an increase of winter
discharges and a decrease of summer discharges
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 82
are projected. The consequences are, however,
different compared with the River Rhine given the
fact that at present the Upper Danube shows a
more snow-driven hydrological regime. For the
upcoming decades a relief of winter low-water
situations is projected due to the changing climate
indicating less snowfall and higher liquid precipitation.
The currently higher summer discharges will
be reduced, yet they will still be higher than the
ones in winter. For the middle and the end of the
current century, however, the low-water situation
might become more severe on the Upper Danube.
This is an effect of a permanent shift from a
snow- and ice dominated regime towards a more
rain-dominated one. This tendency can be seen in
measured records over the 20th century, and it is
projected to continue in the 21st century.
ECCONET has collected much information on the
span of climate change effects as simulated by
different climate models. This makes uncertainties
of simulation with today’s models transparent.
In Tables 1 and 2 the results obtained for the Rhine
and the Upper Danube are summarised. The
colour codes indicate the trends of the changes.
Blue indicates a rising trend (a great majority of
about 80 % of projections indicates an increasing
trend), orange a decreasing trend (a great
majority of about 80 % of projections indicates
a decreasing trend) and grey no unambiguous
trend (approximately the same number of projections
shows an increasing trend and a decreasing
trend) of the parameter under consideration.
6. CLIMATE CHANGE EFFECTS ON
NAVIGATION CONDITIONS
Based on the investigations described above, the
impact of hydrological changes due to climate
change on the navigation conditions in the Rhine-
Main-Danube corridor can be assessed. Whenever
possible, the changes related to navigation conditions
are expressed as the average number of days
per year when navigation is restricted or suspended
by hydrological phenomena like low water, high
water and ice formation as well as meteorological
phenomena like fog. The values representing possible
future conditions are compared with observed
values to assess whether the future changes pose
‘new’ challenges to the navigation sector.

Table 1: Changes of the mean discharge (MQ) and the lowest 7-day mean discharge (NM7Q)
between 30-year periods of the simulated present (1961-1990) and the near future (2021-2050)
as well as the distant future (2071-2100) in percent, presented for the Rhine 1
Table 2: Changes of the mean discharge (MQ) and the 90 %-quantile of the flow duration curve (indicator for
low water situations) between 30-year periods of the simulated present (1961-1990) and the near future
2021-2050) as well as the distant future (2071-2100) in percent, presented for the Upper Danube.
1 Görgen, K., Beersma, J., Brahmer, G., Buiteveld, H., Carambia, M., De Keizer, O., Krahe, P., Nilson, E., Lammersen, R., Perron, C. and
Volken, D. (2010): “Assessment of climate change impacts on discharge in the Rhine River Basin: Results of the RheinBlick2050 Project”,
CHR Report No. I-23. pp. 51-95. http://www.chr-khr.org/files/CHR_I-23.pdf.
ICPR (2011): “Study of Scenarios for the Discharge Regime of the Rhine”, International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, Report
no. 188.
83
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Navigation in the Rhine-Main-Danube corridor is
to a large degree dependent on climate conditions
and therefore affected by climate change. The
results obtained show that the effects of climate
change on navigation need to be looked at in a
differentiated way.
Firstly, there needs to be a distinction between
single ‘weather phenomena’, which last from minutes
up to a few months (e.g. the low-water situations
in 2003 and 2011) and ‘climate phenomena’,
which represent long-term mean meteorological
characteristics (e.g. the reorganisation of the general
high-water and low-water seasons). Effects of
climate change can be reflected only by ‘climate
phenomena’ and can be detected in multi-annual
statistics only.
Secondly, the results point towards ambivalent effects
of climate change on navigation conditions
depending on the period and the variable under
investigation. Summarising the results (see Table
3), it can be concluded that during the last decades
restrictions of navigation due to low water
and ice formation have become less frequent. For
the middle of the 21st century there is no clear
change in the frequency of low-water situations on
the Middle Rhine, while on the Upper Danube several
projections show an increase, being however
minor. For the distant future low-water situations
are projected to become more frequent, while the
disposition related to ice formation shows a decreasing
tendency over the whole 21st century.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 84
This positive effect on navigation does not apply to
the River Rhine as there navigation has not been
suspended due to ice since the 1960s. Restrictions
due to high water are projected to become more
frequent on the Middle Rhine in the 21st century.
On the Upper Danube there are some indications
that high-water events will not change very much
until the mid of the 21st century. For the distant
future, there is currently no clear tendency related
to the occurrence of high water, considering available
data and literature. The same applies to future
fog conditions.
Table 3 summarises the main effects of climate
change on phenomena relevant to navigation.
The summary is intentionally a qualitative one.
An effect is marked as ‘positive effect’ when the
observations (past) or a majority of discharge projections
(future) point towards reduced restrictions
for navigation. A ‘negative effect’ is assigned when
the observations (past) or a majority of discharge
projections (future) show an increase of restrictions.
The notation ‘no effect’ is chosen (a) when
the observations do not show any clear tendency,
(b) the ensemble of discharge projections shows
different directions of change or (c) a stretch of
the waterway is not sensitive to climate changes.
Lack of reliable data or unequivocal information is
marked by ‘unknown’. The findings marked by ‘*’
are not based on direct observations or modelling.
They are concluded from other findings derived
e.g. for neighbouring regions or from literature.
Table 3: Summary of general effects of climate and hydrological change on navigation presented for the second
half of the 20th century (tendency 1950-2005), the middle of the 21st century (change 2021-2050 vs. 1961-
1990) and the end of the 21st century (change 2071-2100 vs. 1961-1990)

7. ADAPTATION MEASURES
Using the knowledge gained with respect to
changes in hydrology and navigation conditions,
the impact of climate change on inland waterway
transport could be evaluated, and proper adaptation
measures could be elaborated and assessed.
Four different types of adaptation strategies were
considered:
• Fleet- and transport-related strategies covering
technical approaches, e.g. adjustment of the
fleet, operational concepts as well as logistic
chains including other modes of transport, e.g.
rail
• Infrastructure measures (adaptation of waterway
infrastructure) so as to maintain minimum
water depths
• Possibilities for improved methods of water
level forecasting (e.g. seasonal time-scales) to
support the shipping industry
• Measures and options for the shipping industry
in terms of short- or mid-term storekeeping,
shifts to other transport modes or adaptation of
production procedures
Including partly cost considerations, the adaptation
strategies mentioned above have been described
comprehensively in several reports to be
downloaded from the project website. The reader
is kindly advised to consult these reports for further
details.
For all identified adaptation measures the level of
feasibility is known. Improved vessel design and
operation (e.g. single vessel versus coupled formation),
as well as waterway maintenance and
river engineering works seem to be of highest relevance
after the assessment performed.
8. FINAL REMARKS
Similarly to other modes of transport, inland waterway
transport has to deal with weather events,
affecting navigation conditions and the infrastructure
on inland waterways. Most significant extreme
weather events result from high precipitation,
droughts as well as temperatures below zero
Celsius degrees. Heavy rainfall, in particular in
association with snow melt, may lead to floods resulting
in suspension of navigation and causing
85
damage to the inland waterway and other transport
infrastructure as well as the property and
health of human beings living in areas exposed to
flooding. Long periods of drought may lead to reduced
discharge and low water levels limiting the
cargo carrying capacity of vessels and increasing
the specific costs of transportation and temperatures
below zero degrees Celsius over a longer
period may cause the appearance of ice on waterways
leading possibly to suspension of navigation
and damage of infrastructure. These extreme
weather events are affected by climate change either
positively or adversely from the point of view
of inland waterway transport and they are different
in severity for the different regions of the European
Union.
By having launched the projects WEATHER,
EWENT and in particular ECCONET, the European
Commission established more clarity related
to weather and climate change impacts on inland
waterway transport in the European Union.
National programmes like the KLIWAS Programme
in Germany provide a good knowledge basis of
climate change impacts on inland waterway transport
performed on German waterways, which was
used in at least EWENT and ECCONET. For other
European waterways such programmes dedicated
in particular to inland waterway transport are
not sufficiently available. Lack of such knowledge
is given for e.g. the Central and the Lower Danube
where more research would be required in a
similar way as it was performed in the KLIWAS
Programme for the German waterways.
9. REFERENCES
- ECCONET Project: www.ecconet.eu
- EWENT Project: www.ewent.vtt.fi
- WEATHER Project: www.weather-project.eu
- KLIWAS Programme: www.kliwas.de
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

Recently, the European Commission launched
three projects related to the evaluation of weather
and climate change impacts on the transportation
system of the European Union. Funded within the
Seventh Framework Programme of the European
Union, the projects WEATHER and EWENT con-
La Commission européenne a lancé récemment
trois projets liés à l’évaluation des conditions météorologiques
et des impacts des changements
climatiques sur le système de transport dans
l’Union Européenne. Financés par le septième
programme-cadre de l’Union européenne, les
Vor kurzem wurden durch die Europäische Kommission
drei Projekte in Auftrag gegeben, die
sich mit den Auswirkungen von extremen Wetterereignissen
und des Klimawandels auf das
europäische Transportsystem befassten. Diese
Projekte wurden durch das Siebte Rahmenprogramm
der Europäischen Union gefördert. Zwei
Projekte, WEATHER und EWENT, befassten sich
SUMMARY
RéSUMé
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 86
sider all modes of transport, while the project EC-
CONET focuses on inland waterway transport,
complementing the other two projects. This paper
gives a brief overview of the projects launched,
including some selected results obtained.
projets WEATHER et EWENT analysent tous les
modes de transport, tandis que le projet ECCO-
NET, en complément, met l’accent sur le transport
par voie navigable. Cet article donne un bref aperçu
des projets lancés avec quelques exemples de
résultats obtenus.
mit allen Verkehrsträgern. In Ergänzung zu den
erwähnten zwei Projekten war das Projekt EC-
CONET im Wesentlichen auf die Binnenschifffahrt
konzentriert. Dieser Artikel versucht einen kurzen
Überblick über die durchgeführten Projekte zu geben,
wobei auch einige ausgewählte Ergebnisse
vorgestellt werden.

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
FIND PIANC INTERNATIONAL ON THE SOCIAL NETWORKS!
As today’s world is evolving ever so fast, PIANC couldn’t stay behind and entered
‘the modern era’ like so many others by joining the social networks of LinkedIn,
Facebook and Twitter!
Find PIANC on the following URL’s, join us and find out all the latest news and
information about what is going on in the PIANC community:
http://be.linkedin.com/pub/pianc-international/61/386/2a
https://twitter.com/PIANC1
https://www.facebook.com/pages/PIANC-The-World-Associationfor-Waterborne-Transport-Infrastructure/175978305876451?fref=ts
87
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
ITALY
PIANC
RecCom
Marina Designer
Training Program
The PIANC Marina Designer Training
Program (MDTP) will be held
in the Ministry of Infrastructure in
Rome on January 21-26, 2013. The
duration of the course will be five
days with final examinations at the
end. On the sixth day some technical
visits will take place near the city
of Rome. The official language of the
course will be English.
International attendees should have
a degree in technical matters (engineering,
architecture, or similar)
and/or having a CV involved in one
or more of these fields: marina planning,
design, construction or management.
The registration fees are the following:
- € 1,500 for non-PIANC members
- € 1,250 for candidates who have
been PIANC members during the
last two years
The course will take place if a sufficient
number of attendees will be
reached.
Candidacies and CV/resume have
to be sent via e-mail to mdtp@pianc.
org, with carbon copy to Ms Sabine
Van de Velde (sabine.vandevelde@
pianc.org), Ms Cinthia Gianani (cinthia.gianani@mit.gov.it)
and Mr Elio
Ciralli (elio.ciralli@cirallistudio.com).
More detailed information, as well as
the First Announcement Flyer, Tentative
Program and Agenda can be
found at http://www.pianc.org/reccomMDTP.php.
Elio Ciralli
Chairman of PIANC RecCom
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 88
Trelleborg Marine Systems
wins Contract to Supply
Fenders for Salerno Port
Trelleborg was involved in the Salerno
Port project in Italy from the
beginning, when the consultant contacted
them for input into fender design
and specification.
Trelleborg was required to meet a
number of design parameters such
as restricted space for the cone
fender due to a limited high capping
beam. Delivery times are short but
Trelleborg was able to deliver, to
deadline, 34 sets of SCN1300 Super
Cone Fender Systems and 24 sets
of Tee Head bollards 100t to the port
in November. The solution provided
by Trelleborg Marine Systems met
the requirements of both parties: the
port authorities wanted a reliable solution,
with a long life cycle. For the
contractor, an important factor was
the necessity of an accessible dedicated
project management team,
and the assurance of high quality
aftercare.
The fenders supplied by Trelleborg
are fully compliant with PIANC’s
2002 – ‘Guidelines for the design of
fender systems’. They have undergone
both laboratory and full scale
product testing and, as a manufacturing
company, Trelleborg are able
to deliver assurance that the products
meet their stated performance
characteristics, and provide the high
levels of aftercare and maintenance
that the contractor required.
Hannah Leyland
PR Account Manager
NORWAY
CoMEM Erasmus Mundus
Scholarships
The Erasmus Mundus MSc pro-
gramme in Coastal and Marine Engineering
and Management (CoMEM),
supported and sponsored by the European
Union, is currently entering
its 6th cohort. By now 76 candidates
from 29 different countries have
graduated or are in their final year of
studies.
The Erasmus Mundus Master in
Coastal and Marine Engineering
and Management (CoMEM) is a
two-year, English taught international
Master’s programme, in which
five high-rated European universities
participate. Students study key
issues involved in providing sustainable,
environmentally friendly, legally
and economically acceptable
solutions to various problems in the
CoMEM field; they will also develop
their research skills. In doing so,
they get to know the geographical
diversity of coastal and marine systems
including the Arctic and gain
knowledge on the most advanced
tools and techniques.
During the programme, students
study at universities in two or three
different countries. All students spend
the first semester in Trondheim, Norway.
The next semesters depending
on their choice of specialisation
they will visit one or two of following
universities: UPC BarcelonaTech
(Spain), TU Delft (The Netherlands),
City University London (UK) and/or
the University of Southampton (UK).
Erasmus Mundus Scholarships are
available for both European and
non-European applicants.
The programme is also open for selffinanced
applicants with application
deadline set on March 1st, 2013. To
apply online, please visit http://www.
ntnu.edu/studies/mscomem/application.

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
BELGIUM/
THE NETHERLANDS
PIANC-
SMART Rivers 2013
Call for Abstracts
The PIANC-SMART Rivers Conference
is a biennial forum bringing
together those involved in river
transport form developing and developed
countries in the world. The
PIANC-SMART Rivers Conference
2013, the sixth of its kind, is unique
because it will be held in two cities
along the same river: Maastricht,
The Netherlands and Liège, Belgium
both bordering the river Meuse, 25
km apart.
The SMART Rivers Conference
started as an initiative of major international
organisations in the field of
Inland Water Transport to promote
transport by barge, the first conference
being held in 2005 in Pittsburgh,
USA. As from 2011, SMART
Rivers is placed under the umbrella
of PIANC, the World Association for
Waterborne Transport Infrastructure.
The organisation is entrusted to the
PIANC Sections of The Netherlands
and Belgium.
The PIANC-SMART Rivers Conference
2013 will include two days for
meetings of Commissions, Working
Groups and workshops in Maastricht,
two days for presentations
in Liège and one day for technical
excursions to The Netherlands and
Belgium. Moreover, it will offer ample
opportunities for networking.
Please visit http://www.smartrivers
2013.org/home/ or download the Call
for Abstracts at http://www.pianc. org/
downloads/events/PIANC-SMART
%20Rivers%202013%20-%20Call%20
for%20Papers%20-%20final%20version.pdf
to find out all about this very
interesting conference.
Jolke Brolsma
PIANC The Netherlands
Philippe Rigo
PIANC Belgium
THE NETHERLANDS
Ports and Terminals –
By Han Ligteringen
and Hugo Velsink
This new book is based on the reader
developed by the two authors
during their consecutive (part-time)
position in the chair of Ports and
89
Waterways in the Faculty of Civil Engineering
and Geosciences at Delft
University of Technology. Throughout
the 33 years of their total tenure
the new developments in practical
engineering and results of academic
research were merged in subsequent
editions of the reader. In that
respect the many contributions from
colleagues and researchers to the
document and the valuable information
from PIANC Working Groups
and IAPH Committees are gladly acknowledged.
The book treats planning and design
of ports and terminals, not only from
an engineering perspective but also
addressing economic, environmental
and organisational aspects that
are essential in developing a modern
port. Recent trends in container
shipping, leading to ever increasing
demands on the flexibility of port infrastructure,
are included.
However, this does not mean that
the text is focussed on the planning
and design of very large ports and
sophisticated terminals only. On the
contrary, much of the knowledge
and experience related to smaller
ports and ports in developing countries
has been included in the book,
thereby also actualising the valuable
– be it a little outdated – sources,
such as the UNCTAD Handbook on
Port Development. In other words,
the book is aimed at guiding planners
and designers of any type of
port facility, all over the world.
Han Ligteringen
Author
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
UNITED STATES
Dredging 2012 –
Presentations
and Pictures
The Dredging 2012 Conference,
which took place in San Diego, USA
on October 22-25, 2012 has been a
great success! PowerPoint presentations
and pictures taken by the official
photographer have been posted
to the Dredging 2012 Conference
Website:
- Presentations: http://dredging12.
pianc.us/ag_tech.cfm
- Pictures: http://dredging12.pianc.
us/ag_photogallery.cfm
Please note that only the presentations
that were received from presenters
are posted here. There were
some last minute cancellations and
some presenters were not allowed
to post their presentations. Therefore,
not all sessions will have a presentation
attached.
ASCE Releases New
Economic Analysis
Revealing Far-Reaching
Impacts of Under-Investing
in our Nation’s Ports and
Inland Waterways
Aging infrastructure for marine
ports, inland waterways and airports
threatens more than 1 million U.S
.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012 90
jobs according to a new Failure to
Act report from the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Between
now and 2020, investment
needs in the nation’s marine ports
and inland waterways sector total
$ 30 billion, while planned expenditures
are about $ 14 billion, leaving
a total investment gap of nearly $ 16
billion. Similarly, with airports, between
now and 2020 there is an investment
need of about $ 114 billion,
while anticipated spending is $ 95
billion, leaving a gap of nearly $ 19
billion, as well as an additional need
of about $ 20 billion to implement
NextGen. The report concludes that
unless America’s infrastructure investment
gaps are filled, transporting
goods will become costlier, prices
will rise, and the United States
will become less competitive in the
global market. As a result, employment,
personal income and GDP will
all fall due to inaction.
“Congestion and delays lead to
goods waiting on docks and in warehouses
for shipment, which in turn
leads to higher transportation costs
and higher-priced products on store
shelves,” said Andrew W. Herrmann,
P.E., president of ASCE. “If we don’t
close the investment gaps, everyone
is going to feel the negative impacts
because we are on course to lose
more than one million jobs and more
than $ 1 trillion in personal income
by 2020.”
The nation’s marine ports and inland
waterways are critical links that
make international commerce possible.
However, with the scheduled
expansion of the Panama Canal by
2015, the average size of container
ships is likely to increase significantly,
affecting the operations ant most
of the major U.S. ports that handle
containerised cargo and requiring
both sectors to modernise. Needed
investment in marine ports includes
harbour and channel dredging, while
inland waterways require new or rehabilitated
lock and dam facilities.
“Strong ports mean more jobs and
economic growth,” said Congressman
Ted Poe (TX-2), co-founder
and co-chair of the bipartisan Congressional
PORTS Caucus. “Supporting
port infrastructure helps the
U.S. remain globally competitive and
creates economic opportunity here
at home. The ASCE report highlights
the shortcomings of our nation’s in
vestments and seeks to help policymakers
understand where impro-

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
vements are needed and where they
make financial sense.”
The United States has 300 commercial
ports, 12,000 miles of inland and
intra-coastal waterways and about
240 lock chambers, which carry
more than 70 % of U.S. imports by
tonnage and just over half of our imports
by value. To remain competitive
on a global scale, U.S. marine
ports and inland waterways will require
investment in the coming decades
beyond the $ 14.4 billion currently
expected. ASCE reports that
with an additional investment of $
15.8 billion between now and 2020,
the U.S. can eliminate this drag on
economic growth and protect:
• $ 270 billion in U.S. exports
• $ 697 billion in GDP
• 738,000 jobs annually
• $ 872 billion in personal income,
or $ 770 per year for households
“I have made it my priority in Congress
to raise the profile of ports
and the role they play in our national
economy”, remarked Congresswoman
Janice Hahn (CA-36), co-founder
and co-chair of the bipartisan Congressional
PORTS Caucus. “The
study that ASCE has just released
shows the urgency of investing in
this critical component of our infrastructure
and what the cost will be
to every American family if we fail to
recognise the importance of our nation’s
ports.”
Commercial aircraft operations at the
15 major metro markets are projected
to grow significantly in the coming
decades. Passenger traffic at these
airports is expected to increase by
almost one-third by 2020 and more
than double by 2040. Freight shipments
by air are expected to increase
54 % by 2020. Costs attributable
to airport congestion will rise
from $ 24 billion in 2012 to $ 34 billion
in 2020 and is expected to reach
$ 63 billion by 2040 as congestion
worsens. But, with additional annual
investments of $ 2.1 billion per year,
plus the development of NextGen,
the U.S. can protect:
• $ 54 billion in exports
• $ 313 billion in GDP
• 350,000 jobs
• $ 361 billion in personal income,
or $ 320 per year for households
“The fact is we must invest in U.S.
airports today to ensure the global
competitiveness of our country tomorrow”,
said Greg Principato, president
of Airports Council International-North
America (ACI-NA). “ASCE’s
report underscores the importance
of making these investments and,
as importantly, the consequences of
failing to invest.”
Costs attributable to delays in the nation’s
inland waterways system were
$ 33 billion in 2010. These costs in
particular reverberate throughout
the economy given the heavy reliance
of energy inputs like petroleum
and coal on inland waterway
transportation. This cost is expected
to increase to nearly $ 49 billion by
2020.
The full Failure to Act report, including
infographics depicting data
trends, can be found at www.asce.
org/failuretoact and includes the interaction
between investment levels
in the transportation sector and the
shipping sector caused by inadequate
landside infrastructure. The
report’s projections assume needs
and available funding based on current
trends, and do not adjust for possible
costs associated with climate
change, changes in regulations, or
other factors. Download the report
at http://www.asce.org/Infrastructure/Failure-to-Act/Airports,-Inland-
Waterways,-and-Marine-Ports/.
91
Kelly Barnes
PIANC USA
PTGCC
PIANC’s
Permanent Taskgroup
on Climate Change
Climate change mitigation
options for the inland
navigation sector
The PTG CC intends to develop
technical information and guidance
for mitigation options for the inland
navigation sector (e.g. reduction
in GHG emissions, alternative fuel
concepts) and the trade-offs and
implications associated with these
options. Recommendations will
be made where a particular topic
needs to be explored in more detail.
This intention coicindes with an almost
identical activitiy of the Central
Commission for the Navigation of the
Rhine (CCNR). At its 2009 Autumn
Meeting, the CCNR, in its role as
the responsible body for sustainable
navigation on the Rhine and inland
navigation elsewhere, set for itself
the target of cutting greenhouse gas
emissions generated by navigation of
the Rhine in line with the emission reduction
targets of its member states.
This objective was made against the
background that the international
community of states is determined
to take measures to prevent and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions
(mitigation), combined with the finding
that inland navigation is a mode
of transport that causes low greenhouse
gas emissions and, therefore,
can contribute to an overall reduction
of greenhouse gas emissions
from transport as a whole. To reach
this goal, the CCNR has asked its
Inspection Regulations Committee
to write a report based on relevant
studies and on contributions made
by its member and observer states
and the international organisations
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
and trade associations that co-operate
with it. This report should contain
proposed measures and ways of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions
from inland navigation, assess the
options and present a proposal for
how these options can be made accessible
to inland navigation operators
as well as other potential users
in an appropriate manner.
Benefits from the above-mentioned
report extend beyond the CCNR.
Due to the compilation of the measures
and options for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions from inland
navigation, the report also offers
a collection of data that can be
used for future studies in the preparation
of political decisions (e.g.
emission reduction potential of inland
navigation). The report and any
additional work may also contribute
towards reliable and more accurate
greenhouse gas balances for inland
navigation, such as those, for
instance, that are necessary for reporting
purposes in connection with
the Kyoto protocol. The CCNR has
decided to co-operate closely with
PIANC on this work as PIANC has a
global reach with regards to climate
change and navigation.
The report examines the following
issues:
• The context of greenhouse gas
emissions from inland navigation
• Objectives of the international
community and the member states
of the CCNR as well as the inland
navigation industry with regard to
the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions from the transport sector
and inland navigation
• Carbon footprint and specific CO 2 -
emissions (CO 2 -intensity) from
inland navigation and other landbased
modes of transport
• Fundamental strategies for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions
from transport
• Operating conditions with regard
to methods of reducing fuel con-
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
sumption and CO 2 -emissions
from inland shipping
• Technical measures for the reduction
of fuel consumption and CO 2 -
emissions involving the vessels
themselves
• Operational measures for the reduction
of fuel consumption and
CO 2 -emissions
• Use of alternative energy sources
(fuels) to reduce CO 2 -emissions
• Potential for the reduction of fuel
consumption and CO 2 -emissions
from inland navigation
• Supporting measures for reducing
fuel consumption and greenhouse
gas emissions
• Additional benefits of a reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions
• Scenarios for the development of
greenhouse gas emissions from
inland navigation
• Costs and barriers to reducing fuel
consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions
Finally, the report contains proposals
for further work.
The draft report is now complete.
Within the framework of PIANC,
valuable feedback and advice were
given on the initial draft by the CCNR
Secretariat. Additional input was
provided in March 2012 during a
hearing with the European trade federations
for inland navigation, ship
building and equipment, as well as
the petrolium products industry. This
draft will be presented for adoption to
the CCNR in autumn of this year and
will form the basis for the CCNR’s future
strategy on the reduction of fuel
consumption and greenhouse gases
from inland navigation. At the same
time, the report will be discussed by
the PTG CC, which will decide how
to proceed within PIANC based on
the findings and recommendations
of this report.
Gernot Pauli
PTG CC
Chief Engineer CCNR
92
IADC
Peter de Ridder appointed
New President
of IADC
The International Association of
Dredging Companies (IADC) is
pleased to announce the appointment
of Mr Peter de Ridder as the
new President of the Board.
The IADC is the global umbrella organisation
for contractors in the private
dredging industry, dedicated to
promoting the skills, integrity and reliability
of its members, as well as the
economic, social and environmental
influence of the dredging industry
in general. The IADC has over one
hundred main and associated members.
Mr De Ridder has been employed
at Van Oord nv, an IADC member
company, for almost 40 years. He
started his career with Van Oord in
1973 at one of the premier maritime
infrastructure projects of its day, the
Eastern Scheldt barrier, working first
as a surveyor and later on as project
manager. In 1981 he became
project manager at Van Oord’s first
major overseas offshore project in
Australia. From 1983 to 1991 he was
operation manager for Van Oord Offshore
and from 1991 to 1994 manager
of Van Oord’s Engineering and
Estimating department.
As of 1994 Mr De Ridder joined the
Board of Van Oord ACZ and, after
the merger with Ballast Ham Dredging
in 2003, was appointed Chief

NEWS FROM THE NAVIGATION COMMUNITY
Operating Officer of the Board of
Van Oord nv, a position he continues
to hold. During his years at Van Oord
he has been responsible for several
internationally acclaimed projects including
Singapore’s Changi Airport
reclamation, Hong Kong’s Chek Lap
Kok Airport reclamation, the Palm Islands
and The World in Dubai, Princes
Amalia and Belwind Offshore
Wind Projects in the North Sea and
many other worldwide infrastructurerelated
projects.
The IADC and its member companies
look forward to his leadership
as President with his years of expertise
and experience. Mr De Ridder
accepted his appointment and
thanked retiring President Mr Jac.
G. van Oord, who held this position
for 5 years since September 2007,
for his many contributions to the successful
endeavours of the IADC.
Jurgen Dhollander
PR & Project Manager IADC
ON THE CALENDAR
IAPH 28 th World Ports
Conference 2013
The 28 th World Ports Conference of
the International Association of Ports
and Harbors (IAPH) will take place
in Los Angeles, USA on May 6-10,
2013 at the JW Marriott at LA LIVE.
Registration for the IAPH 28th World
Ports Conference is now open at
www.iaph2013.org. On this website
you can find out everything there is
to know about this exciting and informative
Conference.
TransNav 2013
The 10 th Jubilee International Conference
on ‘Marine Navigation and
Safety of Sea Transportation’ –
TransNav 2013 – will be organised
jointly by the Faculty of Navigation,
Gdynia Maritime University and The
Nautical Institute on June 19-21,
2013 in Gdynia, Poland.
On the conference website (http://
transnav2013.am.gdynia.pl) you can
find the First Announcement. For further
questions, you can send an email
to transnav@am.gdynia.pl.
Prof. Adam Weintrit
Chairman of the TransNav
Conference
Tomasz Neumann,
Secretary of the Organising
Committee
Safety and Energy
Efficiency in River
Transportation for a
Sustainable Development
of the Peruvian Amazon
Region
The International Conference ‘Safety
and energy efficiency in river transportation
for a sustainable development
of the Peruvian Amazon Region’
will take place in Iquitos, Peru
on July 17-19, 2013.
The aim of this Conference is to
contribute to the sustainable development
of the emerging areas of the
Peruvian Amazon. The Conference
focus is on all the crucial aspects of
river transportation of people, goods
and services, taking into account
the fundamental role played by river
transportation in the economic and
93
social development of the Amazon
region and considering the peculiarities
of this sector.
The event is held within the IDS
(Ingenieria por un Desarollo Sostenible)
concept, and aims to create
a framework where technicians and
researchers may participate to promote
an environmentally sustainable
improvement for the life of people
in the Andean Region. The Conference
is an opportunity for designers,
research organisations, academic
institutions, shipbuilders, owners,
classification societies, etc. to actively
contribute to the improvement
of river transportation and exploitation
systems, with the final goal of
making river transportation a safe efficient,
environmentally friendly and
profitable sector for local people.
For more information, please visit
http://www.ids2013.pe.
PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012

PIANC E-Magazine n° 146, December/décembre 2012
PIANC General Secretariat
Boulevard du Roi Albert II 20, B 3
B-1000 Bruxelles
Belgique
http://www.pianc.org
VAT BE 408-287-945