Shane Moran - Alternation Journal

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Glenn Hooper Armah, Ayi Kwei 1973. TMJO Thol~smd Seasons London & Nairobi: Heinemann & African Publishing House. Ashcroft, B eta1 1989. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Postcolonicrl Litern1lrr.t.s. London: Routledge. Bhabha. TI 1977. Rcview of Petals ofBlood. CS 12th August. Roehme~; E 1991. TIlc Master's Dance to the Mastcr's Voice: Revolutionary Nationalism and the Reprcsentatioil of Women in the Writing of Ngugi wa Thiong'o. The Joi~rnal of Coi~zwzonwealth Literati~ve 26: 188- 198. Roehmer. E 1995. Colouzial ~rnd Postcolorziirl Literatztre. Oxford: Oxford UP. Edgerton. R 1990. Mali A4azi: .4rzqfiic~ln Crzicible. London: 'Tauris. Eyoh, HN 1986. ha Interview with Ngugi. Me Jotlrnal ofCorn~tzonwealth Literature 21, I: 162- 167. Fnon. I: 119591 1965. Stu~fies in a Dying Colonialism. New York: MRP. ]:anon, I: [I9611 1990. The Wre[cl?edofthe Earth. London: Penguin. Failon, F [I 9671 1986. Blackskin, White Masks. London: Pluto. Gilbert, 13 1994. De-Scribing Orality: Performance and thc Recuperation of Voice. In Tiff111, C & A Lawson (eds): Describing Empire: Postcolonialisrn and Te.xtzla/if)~, London: Routledge. Harlow, R 1987. Resistance Literat~lre. London: Methuen. Kabira. WM & K waMutahi (eds) 1988. Gik~ryzl Oral Literatz~re. Kenya: Heinemann. Kenyatta, J 1962. FacingMotlnt Kenya. New York: Vintage. Kirpal, V 1988. What is the Modern Third World Novel? The .loztrnal of Cornnzonwealtk Literature 23,l: 144-157. Lazarus, N 1990. Resistance in PostcolonialAj?ican Fiction. New Haven: Yale UP. Maughan-Brown, D 1985. Land, Freedom and Fiction: F-Iistovy andldeolog), in Kenya. London: zed. Mukherjce. M 1989. The Centre Cannot Hold: Two Views of the Peripbe~y. In Slemon, S & 1-1 Tiffin (eds): A$er Europe: Critical Theor)~andPostcolonial Writing. Melbourne: Dangaroo. Ngugi wa'rhiong'o 1964. The Fig Tree. In Whiteley, WI-I (ed): A Selection ofAfrican Prose Vol2. Oxford: Clarendon. Ngugi waThiong'o 1967. A Grain ofwheat. London: Heinemann. Ngugi \vaThiong70 1972. Hornecorning. London: Heinemann. Ngugi waThiong'o 119651 1973. The River Rehdleen. London: Heinemann. Ngugi waThiong'o & MG Mugo 1976. The Trial ofDednn Kirnathi. Nigeria: Heinemann. Ngugi waThiong'o 198la. Detained: A Writer's Prison Diary. London: Fleinema~~tl. Ngugi waThiong'o 1981 b. Writers in Politics: Essays. Idondon: Heinemann. Ngugi wa Thi0ng.o 1983. Barrel of'a Pen: Resistance to Repression in Neo-Colonial Kenjja. London:New Beacon. Ngugi wa Thiong'o 1986. Decolorzisirig the h4ind: The Politics of Langzrage in African Litevat~lre. London: Currey. Ngugi waThiong'o [I9771 1986. Petals ofBlood. Oxford: Heinemann. Ngugi wa Thiong'o 1987. Matigari. Oxford: Heinemann. Ngugi wa Thiong'o 1993. Moving the Centre: The 5'trzlggle for Cz~ltzlral Freedonzs. London: Currey. Ngugi waTliiong'o 1998. Penpoints, Gunpoints, ancl Dr*eanzs. Oxford: Clarendon. Ogede. O 1992. Oral Echoes in Armah's Short Stories. Afiican Literature Toda), 1 8:73-84. Ogot. BA & WR Ochieng' 1995. Decolonization andlndependence iri Kenya. 1940-93.1,ondon: Currey. Okpcwho, 1 1988. African Poct~y: 'The Modern Writer and the Oral Tradition. Afiicarz Literatlire 7bdaj: 16:2-26. 1Vg1lgi.k Matigarr cznd the I'olilics of l~l:er.nl:rire ey, 1: 199 1. Oral'ruadition and the African Novel. Modern Fiction Stlrclies 37.31389-408, ika, Wole 1965. The Road London & Nairobi: Oxford University Press. n. H 1991 Iiitrod~~ction. In Adam, 1 & H Tiffin (eds): Post (61 Lost Post: Tl~eorizi~~ ostcolonialisrr~ andPostrnoclernistt~. Hel-ilel Hempstead: Harvester. gh, P i 993. Practisi~zgPostmodernisrn/ReadingMo~lerni.rrn. London: Edward Arnold. right. D 1992 Ayi Kwei Arniah's 7ii~o Thoiirandseasons: A Dissent. Afiican Li~eratere Todo),
The Use of Vernacular Languages in the Malawian Literary Industry Gregory 13. Kamwendo . Ihe . tltreat to 'smaller' African languagcs can come from 'larger' African languages as well as from European languages, and is liable to do so if a government. anxious to promote one or more or its widely spoken languagcs, is tcrnpted to discourage the study and writing of other languages of the country. A Inore positive approach is for the success of 'larger' African languages to be presented as an encouragen~ent for the written development ofothcr languages in acountry (Dalby 1985:3 1). Malawi's pol~t~cal history took a new turn in 1994 when the first post-independence multiparty elections were held marking the end of a one party dictatorship and the birth of ~nultiparty pol~t~cs. The thirty years of the one party state in Malawi (1964-1994) led to a number of negative developments such as peoples' loss of various freedoms and r~ghts (e.g. freedom of expression). Very tough censorship laws crippled the country's literary industry and tlie language policy played a significant role in retarding the growth of l~teratu~e in Malawi English and Chichewa operated as the only officially recognised 'languages of the pen' in Malawi. I will examine the consequences of this post-colonial language pol~cy for the Malawian literary industry, and suggest possible ways forward. Now that Malawi is econo~nically and politically liberalised, efforts should be taken to promote creative writing in the once rnarginalised languages. literary beginnings and post independence policy The history of writing in Malawian languages starts with the nineteenth century arrival of Christian n~issionaries who realised illat in order to achieve success in the evangelisat~on task they had to use indigenous languages. The m~ssionaries set up bush schools ~ II which African converts were taught the 3Rs with the aim of developing a group of Africans who could read religious literature and then preach to fellow Africans. Malawl's first printing house, Hetherwick Press, was set up at Blantyre Mission by Scottlsh rnissionaries in 1884. The missionaries became the first developers of the vernacular languages, codifying the vernaculars and producing orthographies, grammars aiid dict~onai-ies. Some of the fruits of missionaries' work included translations illto indigenous languages of the Bible, catechisms, hymn books, secular literature, and l~tera~y works in Indigenous languages produced by the rnissionaries regory I-I k~amivendo selves. Other works of secular literature were created by the educated Africans the encouragement and support of missionaries. This marked the birth of the rary industry in Malawi (see Mwiyeriwa 1978a). The language policy which the country pursued after independence crippled production of literary works in indigenous languages. 111 1968, Chichewa was made only indigerious language with official status. Thus Chichewa, and English, became two languages of the Inass media. Chichewa also became the mediurn of instruction lnary level from standards 1-4 and the only indigenous language taught as a from the primary school to the tertiary level of the education system. English ned its preindependence position as the language of government business, the Icrary, parliarnetlt, commerce, mass media, and the medium of instruction froin iorpriinary school lip to the tertiary level. People of diverse ethnolinguistic backgrounds were urged by political leaders gnore their ethnic differences, and Chichewa came to be seen as a symbol of national ty and identity (Timpunza-Mvula 1992). People of various ethnic groups were ed upon to identify themselves with one nation (Malawi), one leader (Life President Hastings Banda), one party (the Malawi Congress Party) and one language ichewa) (see Chirwa 1994). 'This political climate led to tlie development and motion of Chichewa at the expense of other pro~ninent indigenous languages such as Chitumbuka, Chilomwe, Chiyao etc. The idea of having Chichewa as a national language in the current author's view, was not bad in itself. However, what is lamentable is the fact that Chichewa's development was not accompanied by development of other indigenous languages. For example, the government set up the Chichewa Board whose f~rnctions included advlslng on thc use of the Ch~chewa language th~oughout Malawi and promot~ng as well as givlng guidance u~th regard to work on the Ch~cl-iewa language 111 Malaw~ and lleighbour~ng countr~es (Tins 1sMnln~l1 1972 6) Yet other Malawian languages were not given such opportunities. 'The then Life Banda took an active role in pro~noting 'good Cliichewa' and gave public n the subject. fle often charged that missionaries and local nonnative speakers Yaos, Lomwes etc.) had spoilt the Chichewa language. It was not at in 1975, the University of Malawi elected him to an honorary Chair of Chichewa in recognition of his services to the national language (Tiiilis 1s irldigenous language received support from the government and the minent position acquired by Chichewa meant that other indigenous nguages were reduced to languages of the home. To this end, Mwiyeriwa's (197%: v) claim that 'the emergence of Chichewa as a lingua franca has not meant the q~tidation of other lar~guages' is fBr from telling the truth. Alex Chima argues that in e thirty years of Malawi's one party dictatorship, Chitumbuka together with so many her Malawian languages were severely marginalised by the govei-nmcnt's policy oS anting official recognition to only one indigenous la~~guage. He adds:
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Page 24 and 25: Davicl Kazanlian deportat~on scheme
Page 26 and 27: David EiLzzcznjlaw Racial C;overrzn
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Page 33 and 34: David Kczcilzanjicln calculably and
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Page 43 and 44: David Kastrnjrnn white Americans ar
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Page 64 and 65: urrent lrends in the Prodzdction of
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Alex la Guma's Politics and Aesthet
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Alex In Gzlrna i Polltics and Aesth
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as L,a Gu~iia hirnself later realis
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Alex la Gums k Politics and Aesthet
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Alex la (Yurna 3 Polilics and Aesth
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Alex In Gumn 2 Politics and Aest la
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Ale\: la (I'11~zcr k Politics cr~z~
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Alex lil Gzlnla .? Politics and Aes
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apart from events, who do not maint
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Ales la C;zlma i Politics ~~ndilesf
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( ~ ~I'IPI>I(, L S ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ / l ~
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C'orlnne .sunr/~i~th X,vo wo~orrzen
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Corinne Sandwith Two Women Critics
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Tilo Women Critics and South Africa
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nces and Selected Bibliography hori
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I'F~CI N~~~I.S~I~I~IL Constr~lction
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coti-iplain. They have beer1 writtz
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aised, the title of the essay, The
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value is socially constructed and d
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C'onstuzrct~ons of Protest Poetqj u
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Priya Narisrntll~l Cowstrnctions of
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and public accountability. Althougl
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epresentative ~nullicultural tlnive
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.Yh~zne MU~LZPJ Acnder~~ic I.l.tchn
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Africa. This partially accounts for
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wolnen' has cxetnplary status (llay
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Maqagi. Sisi 1990. Who Theorises? C
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The L)~viikiA Africtrrl Stc~t avid
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T/7e Dividect African S id Hernson
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The Uzvlded Afrlcnn St vltl ITefnso
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ion. Johannesburg: SATRK. This does
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Writitig .Yoz~th IW~M Sole ican ide
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scrubbed away. Thus, Asvat's c Flam
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Book Reviews States of Eniergency i
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Arrived after you had returned honi
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postinodernism: . . . what is post-
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Shane Moran - Alternation Journal

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