Archaeological Field Research in the Upper Mantaro ... - Bruce Owen

Archaeological Field Research
in the
Upper Mantaro, Peru,
1982-1983:
Investigations of Inka Expansion and Exchange
Timothy Earle Terence D'Altroy
Christine Hastorf Catherine Scott
Cathy Costin Glenn Russell
Elsie Sandefur
With appendixes by
Bruce D. Owen
Marilyn A. Norconk
Illustrations by
Robert Keller
Glenn Russell
Monograph XXVIII
Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Archaeological field research in the upper Mantaro,
Peru, 1982-1983.
(Monograph ; 28)
Bibliography: p.
1. Huanca Indians—Antiquities. 2. Incas—
Antiquities. 3. Indians of South America— Peru—
Antiquities. 4. Peru—Antiquities. I. Earle,
Timothy. II. University of California, Los Angeles.
Institute of Archaeology. III. Series: Monograph
(University of California, Los Angeles. Institute
of Archaeology) ; 28.
F3430.1.H8A7 1987 985'.01 87-16807
ISBN 0-917956-58-3
Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology include
preliminary and final excavation reports, symposia
papers, and accounts of research in progress in such
wide-ranging subjects as archaeometry, ethnoarchaeology,
paleodemography, and rock art.
Series editor: Ernestine S. Elster
Associated Editors: Timothy Earle, Clement W. Meighan,
Merrick Posnansky, James R. Sackett
Director of Publications: Ernestine S. Elster
Cover Design: Timothy Seymour
Cover Photo: Wanka house from Tunanmarca; photo by
Glenn Russell
Copyright 1987. Regents of the University of California,
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN: 0-917956-58-3

Appendix 1
Analysis of the Human Burials,
1977-1983 Field Seasons:
Demographic Profiles and Burial Practices
Bruce D. Owen and Marilyn A. Norconk
INTRODUCTION AND METHODS
The remains of 106 individuals from 59
single and multiple burials were recovered
during the 1977, 1979, 1982, and 1983
field seasons. Table 16 summarizes the
burials from the four seasons. This analysis
generally excludes the Wanka IV material,
leaving 90 Wanka II and III individuals
from 57 separate burials. About 63 percent
(57/90) of the individuals are considered
primary interments, although some of these
appeared to be disturbed or incomplete. Of
the primary interments, about 20 percent
(11/57) of the individuals are missing
extremities and/or crania. Preservation is
generally good.
107
Burials were recovered during the
excavation of patios and structures. Field
laboratory analysis of all burials used the
following determination:
1. Age was determined in infants
using dental eruption sequences
(Ubelaker 1978) and long bone
measurements (Bass 1971). Age
was determined in children using
dental eruption sequence and
epiphyseal closure estimates (Bass
1971). Young adult age was
determined by epiphyseal and
cranial suture closures (Bass 1971),
and the age of mature individuals
was determined using the degree of
bone resorption of the pubic
Table 16. Distribution of Floor, Subfloor, Patio, and Wall Fall Burials
Patio Period Patio Status
Total Wanka II Wanka III Commoner Elite
Burial Type N % N % N % N % N %
Floor, subfloor 42 79 22 76 20 83 23 93 12 67
Patio 9 17 5 17 4 17 0 0 6 33
Wall fall 2 4 2 7 0 0 2 8 0 0
Total 53 100 29 100 24 100 25 101 18 100
Note: Percentages are the fraction of the burials in the column category
of the specified type.
Post-publication note: A data table listing details of
each burial was published in Appendix 2, a report on
paleopathologies in the 1983 burials. The table is
included in this reprint, as are the combined
references for the entire volume.

symphysis (females: Gilbert and
McKern 1973; males: Todd 1962).
If the pelvis was absent or too
incomplete for this method, we
estimated a general age based on
dental wear (Molnar 1971) and
comparison with individuals of
known ages.
2. Sex was identified only in mature
individuals with suitable portions
of the innominate bone present.
We used a combination of criteria,
of which the excursion of the
iliopectineal line and the presence
of the ventral arc and subpubic
concavity were the most useful
(Bass 1971). Two individuals
found with fetal bones in their
pelves helped establish the female
pattern.
3. Dental wear was estimated using
the technique of Molnar (1971) for
all individuals over six years of
age. See appendix 2 for a discussion
of dental pathology.
4. Long bone measurements were
taken of complete long bones
(humerus, radius, ulna, femur,
tibia, and fibula). Subadult bones
were measured without epiphyses.
Diameters of the femoral and
humeral heads and the
circumference of the femur at
midshaft were recorded. This
analysis is not yet complete and is
not included in this report.
For the purposes of this analysis, a
burial is defined as a set of remains that
appears to represent the simultaneous
interment of one or more individuals. The
unit of analysis may be either the individual
or the burial, depending on the question
being considered. A number of isolated
body parts, including articulated extremities
and isolated crania, are labeled as "partial"
burials and are not included in this analysis
except for a brief description. Identification
numbers (e.g., 83-B6) were assigned in
Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
108
the field laboratory, generally to individuals
that are at least 80 percent complete and to
secondary individuals that are at least 50
percent complete. Some less complete
individuals also have burial numbers. The
first two digits of the burial label represent
the year of excavation; the digits following
the hyphen reflect the order of processing.
Primary burials are defined as remains
that are sufficiently articulated and
complete that they appear to have been
interred before the body had decomposed
badly and that have not been significantly
disturbed since. Primary burials may lack
crania or one or more extremities.
Secondary burials are defined as
remains that appear to represent the
interment of an individual, but that are not
sufficiently complete and articulated to be
considered primary. Secondary burials are
presumed to result from reburial,
disturbance, or burial after the body had
largely decomposed. X-ray photographs of
Andean mummy bundles at The Field
Museum of Natural History, Chicago show
extensive disarticulation in some instances
not unlike our "secondary" burials.
Naturally, there are some cases in which the
distinction between primary and secondary
burial cannot be clear. Except where noted,
primary and secondary burials are grouped
together in this analysis.
Except as stated otherwise, this
analysis considers only the primary and
secondary Wanka II and III remains. It
excludes 16 Wanka IV individuals, all partial
burials, some scattered earlier remains from
Pancan, the isolated human bones and teeth
found throughout the excavations, and the
redeposited or disturbed human bone in
J7=2-1. Because of the incompleteness of
the data available for each individual,
figures for different categories of analysis
often will not add to the same total (see
note in table 16). For analyses based on
ages, individuals are assigned to age
categories according to the midpoint of
their estimated age range, rounding up when
necessary. Individuals classified only as

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
older than a certain age are assigned to the
age range that includes the specified
minimum age. For example, an individual
of 40+ years falls in the 40-49 years of age
category.
Because of the small number of
individuals recovered, this analysis does not
divide the individuals into small, specific
categories such as "Wanka II commoner
males." Instead, most parts of the analysis
are done by dividing the entire population
into two opposed categories, such as
"Wanka II" and "Wanka III," or "Commoner"
and "Elite." That is, the category "Wanka
II" includes remains from both commoner
and elite patios, and the category "Elite"
includes remains from both Wanka II and
Wanka III contexts.
Individuals buried in Wanka II contexts
are considered to be from the population of
Wanka II times, and individuals buried in
Wanka III contexts are considered to be
from the population of Wanka III times.
This is a reasonable working hypothesis for
several reasons. First, all but one of the
sites were occupied during only one of the
two periods. Second, if abandoned Wanka II
sites were used as burial grounds in Wanka
III, one would expect to see some difference
in burial practices between the burials in
patios in abandoned sites and those in
occupied sites. There may be temporal
differences in burial practices, but they are
not immediately apparent. Third, if individuals
were buried in abandoned Wanka II
sites rather than in Wanka III patios, one
might expect a higher density of burials in
Wanka II than in Wanka III patios. The
density of burials is almost the same in
patios of both periods. Fourth, all seven
burials that contained copper objects are
from Wanka III patios. In nonburial
contexts, copper was over three times more
ubiquitous in Wanka III than in Wanka II.
Although copper cannot strictly be used as a
marker for the Wanka III period, the
exclusive occurrence of copper in burials in
Wanka III patios suggests that these burials
date from Wanka III times and that burials
in Wanka II patios do not. None of these
109
lines of evidence is conclusive, but together
they tend to support the working hypothesis.
Although the burials are considered to
be from the Wanka II and Wanka III
populations, they are not necessarily
representative samples of these populations.
At several sites human burials also occur in
caves and in small circular structures that
may be chullpas; other burial locations may
exist away from sites. These remains have
not been collected nor systematically dated.
Some are definitely colonial or later, but we
cannot rule out the possibility that some of
these unexamined burials may date to
Wanka II or Wanka III times. However, the
survivorship data, sex distributions, and
range of associated grave goods are all
consistent with samples from stable,
complete populations. No single class or
range of individuals appears to be missing
from the burial populations. This analysis
therefore treats the burials as representing
formerly living populations.
Any classification of the burials as
commoner and elite is somewhat problematic.
Individuals may not always have been
buried in the patios in which they lived, and,
in fact, the presence/absence and number of
grave goods in burials seems to vary
independently of the architectural status of
the patio in which the burial was placed.
This lack of association of grave goods
with elite patio burials suggests either that
individuals were not always buried in the
patios in which they lived, or that burial
treatments varied according to different
criteria than did the quality of patio
architecture. Some parts of this analysis
divide burials into those found in elite
patios and those found in commoner patios.
This division is only for the purpose of
elucidating the similarities and differences
between burials in commoner and elite
patios, and is not meant to imply that the
individuals included in each category were
necessarily members of that social status
category.

WANKA II AND III BURIAL POPULATIONS
The burial population includes comparable
numbers of individuals from both periods,
from both elite and commoner patios, and
of both sexes. However, because elite patio
groups comprise only a small fraction of all
patios, the burial population is disproportionately
weighted in favor of burials from
elite patios as compared with the entire
Wanka burial population.
Because of the small size of this burial
population, the demographic data should be
taken as suggestive only. Table 17 divides
the Wanka II and Wanka III population by
age, sex, period, and patio status. Figures
70 and 71 illustrate some of this information
Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
110
as age-at-death/sex pyramids. Because
most of the individuals of determinate sex
are from Wanka III, the Wanka II figure
does not discriminate between males and
females. These figures represent distributions
of ages at death, and are not
directly comparable to age/sex pyramids
based on census data.
The age-at-death pyramids clearly
illustrate the small deviations of the burial
populations from the ideal smooth profile.
These deviations can be attributed to the
small sizes of the excavated populations.
The Wanka III figure shows that there is
virtually no difference in age at death
between males and females. Preliminary
stable isotope analysis data (Hastorf 1985)
Table 17. Wanka II and III Individuals Excavated from 1977 through 1983
Age Sex Patio Period Patio Status
Total Male Female ? Wanka II Wanka III Commoner Elite ? Wanka IV b
Individuals a
0-4 32 -- -- 32 18 14 14 10 8 5
5-9 8 -- -- 8 4 4 3 4 1 0
10-14 5 -- -- 5 2 3 3 1 1 0
15-19 4 1 0 3 3 1 1 3 0 2
20-29 8 5 1 2 4 4 4 2 2 4
30-39 7 3 4 0 1 6 1 6 0 3
40-49 8 3 4 1 2 6 4 4 0 1
50- 5 2 2 1 0 5 5 0 0 0
Subtotal 77 14 11 7 34 43 35 30 12 15
Age Unknown 13 0 2 8 10 3 7 5 1 1
Total 90 14 13 63 44 46 42 35 13 16
Burials a
Partial
Burials c 10 -- -- -- 6 4 7 2 1 --
Burials 57 -- -- -- 29 28 27 20 10 6
a. The headings Individuals and Burials refer to the number of bodies represented and the
number of graves, respectively.
b. Wanka IV individuals are included only in the far right column.
c. Partial burials, that is, burials of hands, feet, legs, or isolated crania, are not
included in the top half of the table, which describes the distribution of burials that
apparently represent most or all of the individual.

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
Figure 70. Age-at-death pyramid, Wanka II, showing 34 individuals
of known age. Sex is indeterminate for all Wanka II individuals,
so the counts are evenly divided between the male and female sides
of the pyramid. The numbers at the ends of the bars represent the
total number of individuals on that side of the chart. Fractions
occur when there are odd numbers of individuals in an age category.
Figure 71. Age-at-death pyramid, Wanka III, showing 43 individuals
of known age. Areas with darker stippling represent individuals of
known sex; individuals of indeterminate sex are evenly divided between
the male and female sides of the pyramid. The numbers at
the ends of the bars represent the total number of individuals on
that side of the chart. Fractions occur when there are odd numbers
of individuals of indeterminate sex in an age category.
111

suggests that males in Wanka III ate more
maize than did females, but this dietary
difference does not seem to have strongly
affected male and female mortality rates.
Since there are virtually equal numbers of
adult males and adult females, there was
probably also little difference in overall
infant and juvenile mortality between males
and females. The figures also show that the
excavated Wanka II and III populations
seem to have rather different distributions of
ages at death. This pattern is clearer when
the data are recast as survivorship curves.
The limited data suggest that there
may have been a significant drop in
mortality rates in Wanka III. Figure 72
illustrates the survivorship curves for Wanka
II and Wanka III individuals, and for the two
populations combined. As suggested by the
age-at-death pyramids (figs. 70-71), the age
Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
112
structures of the two periods appear to be
quite different. Figure 73 shows the same
two survivorship curves compared with the
best-fitting stable population models from
Weiss (1973). The survivorship curve for the
Wanka III individuals corresponds closely to
Weiss's stable population model 25-55, which
is within the range he cites as being typical
of preindustrial societies (Weiss 1973:48-51).
The good fit suggests that the burial
population reflects the survivorship of a
population.
The survivorship curve for the Wanka
II burials, however, corresponds to Weiss'
stable population model 15-30, which
features the highest juvenile and adult
mortalities that he calculates. Weiss does
not cite any anthropological or archaeological
populations with mortality rates this
high. Weiss (1975:54-55) argues elsewhere
Figure 72. Survivorship curves for Wanka II, Wanka III, and both periods combined.

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
that the effects of sporadic events, such as
epidemics or warfare, are strongly and
quickly damped out in burial populations, so
a more continuous cause for the unusually
high Wanka II mortality rates is required.
It is possible that burial practices were
significantly different in Wanka II than in
Wanka III, such that older juveniles and
older adults but not infants and young
adults, were selectively buried outside the
residential settings. Such an unlikely burial
practice would account for the observed
Wanka II age-at-death distribution. However,
one might expect other changes in
burial practices to accompany such a strong
shift in the location of burials. There may
be some changes in burial practices over
time, but they are not clear or strong.
A more likely explanation is that the
113
Wanka II populations, living in dense, walled,
hilltop settlements under conditions of
intense intersettlement hostility, were
severely stressed and suffered from unusually
high mortality rates. When the Inka
pacified the region and resettled much of
the populace into lower altitude agricultural
sites, the stress was relieved and mortality
rates dropped to more normal levels.
The skeletal pathologies of the individuals
excavated in 1983 show no indication
of long-term nutritional stress or unusual
prevalence of trauma in Wanka II. The
skeletal evidence cannot confirm or reject
the presence of contagious disease encouraged
by dense settlement and poor
sanitation as the cause of the high mortality
rates in Wanka II.
The survivorship curve in figure 74
Figure 73. Survivorship curves for Wanka II and Wanka III compared with the best-fitting
stable population models from Weiss (1973).

indicates that there was probably no
important difference in mortality rates
between individuals buried in elite and
commoner patios.
BURIAL PRACTICES
About 80 percent (42/53) of the burials
were found in the floor or subfloor fill of
habitation structures. Roughly 17 percent
(9/53) were in open patio space, either in
cultural fill or midden deposits. The
remaining two burials (3 individuals) were
postoccupation interments in the rubble of
collapsed structures. All the burials in
commoner patios are located inside
structures, while one-third of the burials in
elite patios are found in open patio areas.
This feature is one of the few apparent
differences between burials in elite and
commoner patios. Burial in open patio
Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
114
space does not seem to have been related to
age, sex, or grave goods. There was no
particular orientation or special treatment
for patio burials. Table 16 summarizes the
locations of burials by period and patio
status.
Burial pits were visible in only ten
cases, and the stratigraphically significant
top surfaces of the pits were poorly defined.
Many burial pits were defined in part by
bedrock, and four were bordered by rocks
or limestone slabs set in place. The wall fall
burials appeared to be in crude stone
chambers.
Most primary individuals (about 85%) were
buried in a fully flexed position. Many of
these were flexed extremely tightly,
strongly suggesting binding of the corpse or
mummy bundling. Another 10 percent were
buried with legs flexed but arms extended,
Figure 74. Survivorship curves for individuals from elite and commoner patios.

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
generally alongside the torso. Some of
these were also very tightly flexed. Three
individuals in two structures (J59=1-1 and
J7=3-1) were interred in vertical, seated
positions inside structures, with their backs
against the wall.
Individuals buried inside structures
were generally placed in the structure floor
or subfloor fill close to the wall and parallel
to it. Few burials extended more than 100
cm from the wall, and many were directly
against it, facing up, down, to either side,
toward or away from the wall. This
placement suggests that the individuals
were wrapped as mummy bundles and the
position of the body inside the bundle could
not be discerned. Burials were clearly not
located according to compass directions or
to the position of the structure's door.
Placement of the burial along the wall was
evidently determined primarily by the
location of sufficient fill above the irregular
bedrock. Secondary burials were placed
inside structures and in patio space in the
same manner as primary burials.
Not all excavated patios produced
burials. While the five patios fully excavated
in 1982 did have burials, only 16 of
the 25 patios partially excavated in 1983
had burials. This discrepancy may be an
artifact of the sampling strategy, or it may
115
suggest that some patios were used for
burials while others were not.
The strongly clustered distribution of
some unusual dental and skeletal traits that
may be genetically determined suggests that
at least some individuals buried in the same
patio may have been genetically related.
There are seven occurrences of shovelshaped
incisors among the individuals
excavated in 1983. Three patios each
contained two individuals with shovelshaped
incisors, one patio contained one
individual with shovel-shaped incisors, and
in the remaining twelve patios with burials,
there were no individuals with shovel-shaped
incisors. Similarly, occurrences of sutural
bones tend to be concentrated in particular
patios and even particular multiple burials,
rather than dispersed throughout the excavated
areas. Sutural bones may or may not
have a genetic component (see appendix 2
for details).
About 72 percent of all burials contained
only a single individual. Most of the
remainder contained two or three individuals.
Table 18 and figure 75 summarize
the distributions of single and multiple
burials. The individuals in the small-size,
multiple burials are typical of the general
population in age and sex distributions, and
they are not differentiated by grave goods
Table 18. Distribution of Multiple Burials by Period and Patio Status
Number of
Individuals Total Patio Period Patio Status
In Burial Burials Wanka II Wanka III Commoner Elite
N % N % N % N % N %
1 38 72 21 72 17 71 17 68 13 72
2 7 13 5 17 2 8 4 16 2 11
3 4 8 2 7 2 8 2 8 1 6
4 1 2 0 0 1 4 1 4 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 2 4 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 6
8 1 2 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 6
Note: Percentages are the fraction of the burials in the column category
that contained the specified number of individuals.

Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
Figure 75. Single and multiple burials, Wanka II and III.
or special treatments. There is little
difference in the frequency or nature of
small-size, multiple burials between elite
and commoner patios or between Wanka II
and Wanka III.
In Wanka III, however, there were two
large-size, multiple primary burials. One, in
commoner patio structure J54=10-1, contained
seven individuals, one of whom had
five gold, copper, and lead objects on his
chest. The chest cavities of these
individuals were without dirt, suggesting
that the structure they were buried in was
not used after their interment; the rich
grave goods suggest that the individuals
might not have lived in the commoner patio
in which they were buried.
The other large multiple primary
burial, found in elite patio structure J54=7-
116
1, contained eight individuals and some
modest grave goods. The structure appears
to have been reused after the interments for
some unusual, perhaps ritual, purpose. (See
the section on Marca for details.)
Males and females and most age
categories are represented in these largesize,
multiple burials. The age and sex
distributions do not differ in any systematic
way from those of the rest of the popula-
tion. The practice of interring several
individuals in single burials persisted into
Wanka IV, as indicated by the five
individuals buried together in J2=701.
In addition to the multiple burials from
Wanka III and IV, there are two earlier
deposits of bone representing numerous
individuals. The large multiple secondary
burial of some seven individuals in the

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
Wanka II elite structure J41=8-1 may or may
not be similar to the later multiple burials.
Some of the long bones in this burial were
neatly bundled or stacked together with two
crania, while others were tossed in carelessly.
Associated with the remains were
seven silver disks (possibly representing a
single item), a bone pin, and a perforated
stone discoid. Although the burial was close
to the surface, the bones were in very good
condition, suggesting that this may be a
postoccupation interment. A dense deposit
of completely disarticulated bones representing
up to seven individuals was found in
the Wanka II structure J7=2-1. The bones
may have been redeposited unintentionally
as fill rather than as a secondary burial and
are not included in any analyses.
The large-size, multiple burials could
reflect epidemics resulting from European
contact, or they could represent warfare,
special burial practices, or some more
ordinary event. Both of the large primary
Wanka III multiple burials were found at
Marca (J54), suggesting that they might be
due to the same cause, perhaps one of the
historically documented epidemics that
swept the region before and after the
Spanish conquest.
Many more secondary burials come
from Wanka II contexts than from Wanka III.
About 60 percent of all Wanka II individuals
were found in secondary burials, while only
13 percent of the Wanka III individuals were
Table 19. Distribution of Secondary and Primary Burials
117
found in secondary burials. This decline in
secondary burial may indicate a change in
burial practices in Wanka III such that fewer
individuals were reburied, disturbed, or
buried after substantial decomposition than
had been the case in Wanka II.
Alternatively, the finding may suggest that
secondary burials in Wanka III times were
more often placed outside residential areas.
Finally, the larger proportion of secondary
burials in Wanka II sites may simply be due
to the earlier burials being in the ground
longer and so being exposed to more
disturbance by subsequent uses of the sites.
This last explanation would be especially
likely if a disproportionate fraction of the
Wanka III burials were from the end of the
Wanka III period or the beginning of Wanka
IV, when epidemics swept the region and
sites were quickly abandoned. These late
burials would have been subject to little
subsequent disturbance because the sites
were abandoned and the regional population
was significantly reduced. Table 19
summarizes the distributions of primary and
secondary burials.
About 54 percent (49/90) of all individuals,
both primary and secondary, were
buried in pits containing one or more objects
or grave goods. In multiple burials the
goods were sometimes clearly associated
with a single individual; in other cases, the
goods could pertain to any or several of the
individuals. In this analysis, such
questionable goods are assigned equally to
Patio Period Patio Status Sex
Type Total Wanka II Wanka III Commoner Elite Male Female
N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Primary 57 63 17 39 40 87 27 64 21 60 12 86 10 77
Secondary 33 37 27 61 6 13 15 36 14 40 2 14 3 23
Note: Percentages are based on column totals.

all individuals in the burial by dividing the
number of objects by the number of
individuals in the burial.
Most grave lots contain one, two, or
occasionally three items, generally
recovered from the soil immediately around
the remains but in no particular anatomical
relationship to the individual. The number
of grave goods is not clearly related to elite
or commoner patio status, primary or
secondary burial, or sex. The fraction of
individuals buried with grave goods is almost
identical in Wanka II and Wanka III. Table
20 and figure 76 summarize and illustrate
the distributions of grave goods in burial
pits. Older individuals are more likely to be
buried in pits with one or more grave goods
than are younger individuals, as illustrated
in figure 77. Moreover, when goods are
present, older individuals tend to be buried
with more of them than are younger individuals,
as illustrated in figure 78. The latter
pattern is not strong, probably in part
because of the analytical strategy of
Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
118
dividing grave goods among all the individuals
in each multiple burial. Table 21
summarizes the occurrences of grave goods
by age ranges as used in this analysis.
Because the population is so small, the
trends illustrated in figures 77 and 78 are
based on combined age categories. There
are not enough individuals to compare the
distributions of grave goods by age in Wanka
II and Wanka III. The overall pattern of
association of grave goods with older individuals
is traditionally taken to suggest a
society featuring attained, rather than
ascribed, status.
Examples of virtually all artifact
types other than flaked stone tools were
found in burials. Table 22 summarizes the
distributions of various types of grave goods
by sex, period, and patio status. The most
common grave good (found with 10% of all
individuals) is a large sherd or several large
sherds covering the head of the individual,
and occasionally covering the body. In
several cases, aryballoid bases appear to
have been specially prepared to cover the
head of the deceased, a practice found
Table 20. Numbers of Individuals from Pits According to Number of Grave Goods
Total
Number Indivi- Sex Patio Period Patio Status Burial Type
of Items duals Male Female Wanka II Wanka III Commoner Elite Primary Secondary
in Pit N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
0 61 68 7 50 8 62 31 70 30 65 29 69 23 66 39 68 22 67
1 14 16 3 21 2 15 5 11 9 20 6 14 7 20 8 14 5 15
2 7 8 0 0 1 8 5 11 2 4 3 7 2 6 4 7 3 9
3 2 2 1 7 1 8 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 4 1 3
4 1 1 1 7 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0
5 1 1 1 7 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 3
10 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3
11 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13 1 1 0 0 1 8 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 3 1 2 0 0
14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 1 1 1 7 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0
Note: Percentages are based on column totals. Sherds covering the head count as one grave good.

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
Figure 76. Grave goods per burial pit, Wanka II and III.
Figure 77. Percentages of individuals of given age categories that were buried in
pits containing grave goods. Where a burial with one or more grave goods
contains more than one individual, each individual is counted as being buried
with grave goods.
119

Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
Figure 78. Median number of grave goods associated with individuals of given
age categories. Only individuals from burials with at least one grave good are
included. Goods not associated with a specific individual are divided equally
among all individuals in the burials.
Table 21. Distribution of Grave Goods by Individual's Age
Number of Number of Individuals
Grave Goods Age Groups
per Individual 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50
0 19 5 3 3 4 3 4 1
0.1-1.0 6 1 1 0 1 3 0 1
1.1-2.0 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 1
2.1-3.0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
3.1-4.0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
5 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Note: Goods in multiple burials that cannot be associated with a single individual
are divided among all the individuals in the burial. These data are
illustrated in figures 77 and 78. Sherds covering the head are counted as
one grave good.
120

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
primarily in elite patios. Twenty percent of
all individuals buried in elite patios were
treated this way compared with two percent
of those in commoner patios. This association
of sherds on the head with elite patios
is the only noticeable difference between
burials in commoner and elite patios other
than the restriction of burials in open patio
space to elite patios.
Sherds on the head are somewhat more
common in primary burials (12%, 7/57 individuals)
than in secondary burials (6%, 2/33
individuals ), probably because some or all
of the secondary burials are disturbed or
reburied such that any sherds originally on
the head of the individual have been lost.
Both of the secondary burials covered by
sherds are infants. There is no other
pattern to sherds covering the head; they
are not associated with age, sex, other
Table 22. Occurrences of Various Grave Goods
121
grave goods, or chronological period. A
phyllite slab covering the Wanka III multiple
burial in commoner patio J54=2-1 may be
analogous to the sherds covering individual
crania.
The practice of covering the head of
the deceased persisted into the early
colonial period, as indicated by the phyllite
slab on the head of Wanka IV burial 82-B1 in
J54=1-1, the aryballoid sherd covering the
crania of 82-B2 and 82-B3 in the Wanka IV
burials in J54=1-20, and the sherds on the
head of 77-B6 in the colonial burial in
J2=701.
Grave lots tend to consist of sets of
similar or related objects. The most
striking example of this tendency is found in
burial 83-B43 from the large primary
multiple burial in J54=10-1. This 25 to 30
Sex Patio Period Patio Status
Type of Goods Total Male Female Wanka II Wanka III Commoner Elite
N % N % N % N % N % N % N %
Sherds on head 9 10 2 14 1 8 4 9 5 11 1 2 7 20
Copper 7 12 2 14 3 23 0 0 7 25 5 19 2 10
Silver 2 4 1 7 0 0 2 7 0 0 0 0 1 5
Lead 2 4 2 14 0 0 0 0 2 7 2 7 0 0
Gold 1 2 1 7 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 4 0 0
Ceramic 7 12 3 21 2 15 3 10 4 14 4 15 2 10
Worked stone 6 6 2 14 0 0 4 14 2 7 2 7 2 10
Worked bone 5 9 1 7 2 15 3 10 2 7 2 7 2 10
Phyllite 3 5 3 21 0 0 0 0 3 11 1 4 2 10
Camellid mandible 2 4 0 0 0 0 2 7 0 0 1 4 0 0
Ore 2 4 0 0 2 15 1 3 1 4 0 0 2 10
Shell 1 2 1 7 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 4 0 0
Whorl blank 1 2 1 7 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 4 0 0
Deer antler 1 2 0 0 1 8 1 3 0 0 1 4 0 0
Hematite ball 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 5
Note: Sherds on the head are associated with specific individuals, so the numbers are
counts of individuals with sherds on their heads and the percentages represent
the individuals in the column category with sherds on their heads. Other goods
generally cannot be associated with specific individuals, so all other numbers
are counts of burial pits with the stated type of good and all other
percentages are the fractions of the burial pits in the column category that
contained that good. Sex is specified when the burial pit contained one
individual or individuals of the same sex.

year old male was found with a collection
of metal items on his chest: three copper
disks, a packet of small lead laminae, and a
piece of rolled repoussé gold sheet.
There are several examples of paired
items in two-piece grave lots, such as the
two bone implements with 83-B1, the two
phyllite slabs with 83-B38, the two copper
needles with 83-B40, and the two ceramic
vessels with 83-B5. Larger grave lots tend
to be made up of several sets of similar
items, such as the three copper needles, six
ceramic vessels, and three bone implements
with 83-B3, as well as the five or six
camelid mandibles and five worked stone
items with the secondary burial in J7=3-51.
The homogeneity of goods within grave lots
and the heterogeneity between them
suggests that the items buried with each
individual may have been expressions by the
survivors of ideas or roles specific to the
deceased individual, rather than ideas
pertaining to generalized notions concerning
death for which the same assortments of
goods could have served for all individuals.
Most grave lots contained one to three
items, but there were a few notable
exceptions. The 35 to 45 year old Wanka III
woman 83-B3 from elite patio J2=1-1 was
buried with six ceramic vessels, three small
bone implements, and some sort of plain
woven textile gathered around her throat
and preserved by three copper needles
pinning it together. She lay on limestone
slabs, and her head was covered with large
sherds. The 25 to 30 year old Wanka III
man 83-B43 in the large primary multiple
burial in commoner patio J54=10-1 was
buried with three copper disks, a packet of
small lead laminae, and a gold ornament on
his chest. The two Wanka III adults, 82-
B12 and 82-B13, and two or three children
were buried in commoner patio J54=2-1
with a stone discoid, a lead ball, a copper
fragment, two shell fragments, two manos,
a pestle, three bone implements, a stone
hoe, and two guinea pig crania. The whole
burial was covered by a phyllite slab.
The burial of individuals with large
Appendix 1: Human Burials Analysis
122
grave lots persisted into Wanka IV. In the
triple burial in J2=701, the male 77-B6 had
sherds on his head, colonial beads around his
neck, and a shell fragment nearby. Two
groundstone items, an iron knife, a worked
bone implement, a copper axe, two large
copper and lead balls with suspension holes,
a copper clip, a tumi-shaped ornament, and
sherds of several reconstructable vessels
could be associated with any of the three
individuals.
Finally, the secondary remains of the
seven individuals, 79-B1 through 79-B5,
which were stacked and jumbled in a single
pit in elite patio J41=8-1, were buried with
seven silver disks and a perforated stone
discoid. If the silver disks are the remains
of a single valuable item, a textile with
silver bangles sewn on it, for example, then
this grave lot is not unusually rich.
Except for this strange secondary
Wanka II burial, all three large precolonial
grave lots are from Wanka III. This
association may suggest a change in beliefs
regarding the afterlife or in economic,
social, ritual, or other stratification in
Wanka III. However, the data set is too
small to infer secure conclusions.
In addition to the comparatively
complete burials, there were nine burials of
isolated, fully or partially articulated body
parts representing nine or ten individuals.
These finds probably do not represent the
interments of individuals, but rather some
ritual, surgical, or other practices. As such,
they are not included in any of the analyses
in this appendix.
In Wanka II there were five such
partial burials: an articulated leg and foot in
a midden in the open patio space of elite
patio J7=7, an adult's feet and hands under
and inside the door of commoner structure
J41=4-1, an infant's torso and arms in
commoner structure J41=5-2, a cranium and
mandible in structure J41=6-1, and an
associated arm and vertebral column with
sacrum in the open patio space of J7=3. The
arm and vertebral column may represent

one or two individuals.
Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
In Wanka III, there were bones from
one or two feet of a child in the open patio
space of the elite patio J2=3, and three
isolated crania in commoner structure
J54=9-1. This structure also contained
seven subfloor burials, one of which was a
dismembered, fragmentary, and partially
burned adult female.
Three burials contained burned human
bone. The dismembered female and the
partial burials of a spinal column and an
arm described above were partially burned.
The third partially burned individual was
infant 83-B25 found in a triple primary
burial in the Wanka II structure J41=6-1.
Fragments of carbonized cloth were
preserved among the pieces of the burned
cranium. None of these cases suggests
intentional cremation. The bone was
blackened and sometimes broken up, but
never cracked or charred white.
The burial data raise an interesting
question concerning the lengths of
occupation of sites and patios in the two
periods. Taking all the excavated structure
and patio areas together, approximately the
same number of individuals was recovered
per square meter excavated in Wanka II and
Wanka III contexts. In 672 m 2 of Wanka II
deposits excavated in 1982 and 1983, 37
individuals were unearthed, or 0.055/m 2 . In
730 m2 of Wanka III deposits excavated in
1982 and 1983, 45 individuals were
disinterred, or 0.062/m 2 .
123
Current radiocarbon dates (see chap.
4) suggest that Wanka II lasted from A.D.
1350-1460, or about 110 years, while Wanka
III is known from historical sources to have
lasted only about 70 years. Wanka II was
thought therefore to be 1.5 times as long as
Wanka III, yet Wanka II patios actually have
a slightly lower density of burials.
There are several possible explanations
for the absence of higher burial
density in the supposedly longer Wanka II
period. Burial practices may have changed
from a pattern of large-scale burial outside
patios or in unexcavated chullpas in Wanka
II to burial mostly within patios in Wanka III.
This explanation postulates a massive
change in the numbers of individuals buried
outside patios, from close to 70 percent in
Wanka II to none in Wanka III. It seems
unlikely that such a major change would not
be accompanied by other noticeable changes
in burial practices.
More people may have lived in Wanka
III patios than in Wanka II patios. This
possibility is unlikely, however, since Wanka
III patios have about the same density and
absolute quantity of domestic refuse as do
Wanka II patios.
Most likely, however, Wanka III burial
density may be inflated by unusually large
numbers of interments at the end of the
period as a result of the epidemics that
preceded and immediately followed the
Spanish conquest of the region.

Appendix 2
Analysis of the UMARP Burials,
1983 Field Season: Paleopathology Report
Marilyn A. Norconk
[The primary data table for Appendix 1 (Owen and Norconk 1987, Analysis of the Human Burials, 1977-
1983 Field Seasons: Demographic Profiles and Burial Practices) was included in Appendix 2, which
begins on this page and continues through page 133. The table was prepared by Bruce Owen for Appendix
1, and is reproduced here with the published pagination. The age and sex determinations shown in the
table were done by Marilyn Norconk.]
124

Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
Table 23. Burial Data from 1983, 1982, 1979, and 1977
Floor/ Number
Com- Primary/ Subfloor/ of
ID oner/ Secondary/ Patio/ Indivi-
Provenience Number Phase Elite Age Sex Partial Wall Fall duals Associated Artifacts and Comments
1983 Burials
J2=1-1-3-5-6 83-B3 W III E 35-45 F Primary Subfloor 1 Sherds on head. Body lies on
limestone slabs. Textile with
three copper needles at throat.
Aryballoid. Olla. Four other
vessels. Two bone tools. One
bone pin. Charcoal.
J2=1-1-3-5-7 83-B8 W III E 2-4 - Primary Subfloor 1 Sherds cover body. Head rests on
grindstone, body on two limestone
slabs.
J2=2-1-1-4-5 83-B7 W III C 2-4 - Primary Subfloor 1 Missing cranium, mandible, right
leg, right and left feet.
J2=2-1-4-5-3 83-B9 W III C Fetus - Primary Subfloor 1
J2=3-1-4-4-6 83-B10 W III E 3-7 - Primary Subfloor 1
J2=3-53-3-6-6 - W III E Child - Partial Patio 1 One or two isolated feet found in
pit defined by placed rocks and
bedrock.
J2=3-53-4-6-7 83-B16a W III E 0-1 - Primary Patio 1 Missing cranium and various bones.
J2=3-53-4-6-8 83-B16 W III E 20-25 F Primary Patio 1 Pit in bedrock.
J2=3-54-2-5-4 #1 83-B13 W III E 30-40 F Primary Patio
J2=3-54-2-5-4 #2 83-B14 W III E 30-40 F Primary Patio 3 Piece of galena.
J2=3-54-2-5-4 #3 83-B15 W III E 3-4 - Primary Patio
J2=6-1-3-2-4 #1 83-B19 W III C 4-5 - Primary Subfloor Three infants buried in a linear
pit defined by bedrock and the
J2=6-1-3-2-4 #2 - W III C 8-12 - Primary Subfloor 3 structure wall. Numbers 2 and 3
not fully removed due to caliche
J2=6-1-3-2-4 #3 - W III C 4-6 - Primary Subfloor deposit.
J7=5-1-2-1-3 - W II C Adult ? Secondary Wall Fall 1 Only cranium, spine, ribs, femur.
Postoccupation.
J7=5-1-4-2-5 #1 83-B6 W II C 23-53 F Secondary Subfloor Two intermixed. B6 lacks cranium.
2 Infant lacks cranium, spine,
J7=5-1-4-2-5 #2 - W II C Infant - Secondary Subfloor various bones. Two broken
vessels, deer antler.
J7=5-1-3-2-4 83-B5 W II C Adult ? Secondary Subfloor 1 Missing some vertebrae and ribs.
Two broken vessels.
J7=7-2-2-2-4 #1 83-B18 W II E 0-1 - Secondary Subfloor 1 Large sherd, hematite ball,
possible copper ore.
J7=7-2-4-4-6 #2 83-811 W II E 1-3 - Primary Subfloor
J7=7-2-4-4-6 #3 83-812 W II E 0-1 - Primary Subfloor
J7=7-3-1-3-4 83-B2 W II E 2-3 - Secondary Subfloor 1 Sherds on head.
J7=7-51-4-2-2 - W II E ? ? Partial Patio 1 Isolated articulated leg and foot.
J7=8-2-3,4-2-5 #1 - W II C 20-30 ? Secondary Wall Fall Missing cranium, mandible present.
2 Postoccupation. Possibly
J7=8-2-3,4-2-5 #2 - W II C 1-2 - Secondary Wall Fall associated camelid mandible.
J7=9-1-4-4-3 83-B1 W II C 40-50 F Primary Subfloor 1 Bone needle, bone pin.
125
2

Table 23, continued
Appendix 2: Paleopathology Report
Floor/ Number
Com- Primary/ Subfloor/ of
ID oner/ Secondary/ Patio/ Indivi-
Provenience Number Phase Elite Age Sex Partial Wall Fall duals Associated Artifacts and Comments
J41=4-1-2-3-3 83-B24 W II C 8-12 - Primary Subfloor 1
J41=4-1-2-3-5 - W II C Adult ? Partial Subfloor 1 Isolated partially articulated
hands and feet under and inside
structure door.
J41=5-1-3-4-3 83-B21 W II C 25-30 M Primary Subfloor 1
J41=5-2-1-2-2 83-B22 W II C 2-3 - Partial Subfloor 1 Articulated torso and arms. Small
lead ball
J41=5-2-1-3-3 83-B23 W II C 0-1 - Primary Subfloor 1 Large sherds cover body. Missing
mandible, various long bones.
J41=6-1-1-3-6 #1 83-B25 W II ? 9-12 - Primary Subfloor B25 has burned arm bones and
cranium, and burned textile
J41=6-1-1-3-6 #2 83-827 W II ? 18-25 M Primary Subfloor 3 fragments. B27 lacks cranium and
mandible. Possibly pertains to
J41=6-1-1-3-6 #3 83-B26 W II ? 0-2 - Primary Subfloor cranium and mandible in 41=6-1-1-
3-1. Folded silver disk could be
associated with any of three
individuals.
J41=6-1-1-3-1 - W II ? 16-20 F? Partial Subfloor 1 Isolated cranium and mandible with
large sherds. May pertain to B27
above.
J41=6-2-1-3-3 83-B20 W II ? 7-8 - Primary Subfloor 1
J41=6-53-1-2-1 - W II ? Adult ? Secondary Patio 1
J41=7-1-3-3-3 - W II C Infant - Secondary Subfloor 1 Missing cranium, various bones.
J41=7-1-2-3-5 - W II C 0-2 - Secondary Floor
J41=7-1-2-3-5 - W II C Adult ? Secondary Floor 3
J41=7-1-2-3-5 - W II C Old ? Secondary Floor
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #1 83-B30 W III E 10-15 - Primary Subfloor
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #2 83-B31 W III E 45-50 F Primary Subfloor Copper pin may be associated with
B31 or another of these
individuals.
Post-publication note: This copper pin, metal
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #3 83-B32 W III E 30-40 M Primary Subfloor
ID 610, was cataloged as J54=7-1-2-3-4
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #4 83-B33 W III E 30-40 F Primary Subfloor
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #5 83-B34 W III E 30-40 M Primary Subfloor
8
Sherds on head of B34.
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #6 83-B35 W III E 0-3 - Primary Subfloor Infant B35 on chest of male B34;
sherds on head of infant B35.
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #7 83-B36 W III E 30-40 M Primary Subfloor Small vessel covered by phyllite
slab near head of B36
J54=7-1-1,2-4-4 #8 83-B37 W III E 39-44 M Primary Subfloor
J54=7-54-1,2-5-3 83-B38 W III E 20-35 M Primary Patio 1 Two phyllite slabs define one side
of pit. Two aryballoid bases
cover cranium.
J54=9-1-2-2-3 #1 83-B40 W III C 9-12 - Secondary Floor 1 Two copper needles.
Postoccupation.
J54=9-1-3-2-4 #2 83-B39 W III C 50+ M Secondary Floor 1 Miniature ceramic spoon.
Postoccupation.
126

Table 23, continued
Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
Floor/ Number
Com- Primary/ Subfloor/ of
ID oner/ Secondary/ Patio/ Indivi-
Provenience Number Phase Elite Age Sex Partial Wall Fall duals Associated Artifacts and Comments
J54=9-1-2-3-5 #3 83-B40a W III C 50+ F Secondary Subfloor 1 Copper needle. Lacks cranium,
hands, and feet.
Post-publication note: Only
J54=9-1-2-3-5 #4
J54=9-1-2-3-5 #5
83-B40b W III
83-B40c W III
C
C
6-8
0-2
-
-
Primary
Primary
Subfloor
Subfloor
2 Copper needle.
one copper needle, metal ID
655, was cataloged from
J54=9-1-2-3-5
J54=9-1-1-3-13 #6 83-B40d W III C 0-2 - Primary Subfloor 1 Lacks cranium and mandible. Rocks
define pit.
J54=9-1-1-3-7 #7 83-B42 W III C 50+ M Primary Subfloor B43 missing mandible and feet.
2 Ceramic spoon, stone mortar, and
J54=9-1-1-3-7 #8 83-B41 W III C 0-1 - Primary Subfloor pestle. Each body has a spindle
whorl blank at top of cranium
J54=9-1-1-3-7 #9 83-B41a W III C Adult F Secondary Subfloor 1 Dismembered and partially burned.
J54=9-1-2-2-1/5 - W III C Old ? Partial Floor 1 Isolated cranium.
J54=9-1-3-3-4/12 - W III C ? ? Partial Floor 1 Isolated cranium. Postoccupation.
J54=9-1-4-1-1 - W III C ? ? Partial Wall Fall 1 Isolated skullcap.
Postoccupation.
J54=10-1-3-4-6 #1 83-B43 W III C 25-30 M Primary Subfloor Rolled silver repoussé sheet,
packet of lead laminae, three
J54=10-1-3-4-6 #2 83-B44 W III C 20-25 M Secondary Subfloor copper disks, all on chest of B43.
All chest cavities are open and
hollow -postoccupation? B44 lacks
finger phalanges.
J54=10-1-3-4-5 #3 83-B45 W III C 18-20 M Primary Subfloor
J54=10-1-3-4-5 #4 83-B46 W III C 1-2 - Primary Subfloor
J54=10-1-3-4-5 #5 83-B47 W III C 35-45 F Primary Subfloor
J54=10-1-3-4-5 #6 83-B48 W III C 0-1 - Primary Subfloor
J54=10-1-3-4-5 #7 83-B49 W III C 1-2 - Primary Subfloor
J59=1-1-1-1-3 83-B28 W III C 50-60 F Primary Floor 1 Seated with back to wall.
Postoccupation.
J59=1-1-2-2-5 83-B29 W III C 40-45 M Primary Floor 1 Seated with back to wall.
Possibly postoccupation. Prior to
B28.
J74=1-1-3-1-3 83-B50 W III C Adult F? Primary Floor 1 Missing cranium, one leg, both
hands and feet. Postoccupation.
1982 Burials
J7=1-2-2-2-3 82-B5 W II ? Fetus - Primary Subfloor
J7=1-2-2-2-3 82-B6 W II ? 3-5 - Secondary Subfloor
127
7
Post-publication note: The repoussé sheet
appears to be gold, not silver, with no
corrosion products.
2 Pit in bedrock.
J7=2-1-4-2-3 82-B8 W II E 6-8 - Primary Subfloor 1 Pit defined by bedrock and
J7=2-2-1-3-3 82-B7 W II E .5-1 - Secondary Subfloor 1 Lacks many small bones.
J7=2-1-2-2-1 - W II E ? ? Secondary Floor 7 Lots of disarticulated bones.
Redeposited?

Table 23, continued
Appendix 2: Paleopathology Report
Floor/ Number
Com- Primary/ Subfloor/ of
ID oner/ Secondary/ Patio/ Indivi-
Provenience Number Phase Elite Age Sex Partial Wall Fall duals Associated Artifacts and Comments
J7=2-4-2-4-4 82-B9 W II E 14-22 ? Primary Subfloor 1 Missing cranium, pelvis, one leg,
part of one arm. Disturbed.
Looted in excavation.
J7=2-52-1-1-3 - W II E Fetus - Secondary Patio 1 In rich garbage midden.
J7=2-53-4-1-2 - W II E 14-22 ? Secondary Patio
J7=2-53-4-1-2 - W II E Child - Secondary Patio
128
2 Both fragmentary.
J7=3-1-2-2-4 - W II ? Infant - Primary Subfloor 1 Missing most long bones. In niche
in bedrock.
J7=3-1-3-1-3 - W II ? 15-25 ? Primary Floor 1 Seated with back to wall in stone-
lined pit. Lacks cranium, some
long bones. Bone needle, tiny
pot. Disturbed? Postoccupation?
J7=3-2-1-3-4 - W II ? 0-5 - Primary Subfloor 1 Large sherd covers cranium. Well
articulated, but missing pelvis,
legs, and vertebrae. Grindstone.
In niche formed by bedrock and
wall.
J7=3-51-1-1-3 - W II ? 0-8 - Secondary Patio 1 Five or six camelid mandibles,
camelid long bone fragments, four
grinding stones, one donut stone
blank with hole started.
Associations uncertain. Missing
vertebrae.
J7=3-53-2-2-3 - W II ? Infant - Primary Patio 1 Articulated torso and head, but
most long bones missing. In niche
in bedrock.
J7=3-55-1,2-1-3 82-B14 W II ? 14-22 ? Partial Patio Articulated arm, articulated
2 vertebrae with sacrum. Arm and
J7=3-55-1,2-1-3 82-B10 W II ? ? ? Partial Patio vertebrae may or may not be the
same individual. Some burned
bone.
J41=1-2-3-4-6 82-B11 W II E Child - Secondary Subfloor 1 Large sherd covers cranium,
another next to it. Cranium,
mandible; rib and long bone
fragments.
J54=1-1-1-4-7 82-B1 W IV? E 20-30 F Primary Subfloor B1: copper tumi near head,
2 phyllite slab covers head.
J54=1-1-1-4-7 82-B1b W IV? E Fetus - Primary Subfloor B1b cranium in pelvis of B1. No
postcranials.
J54=1-20-2-4-9 82-B2 W IV? E 20-25 F Primary Subfloor In rectangular structure. Iron
horseshoe and nail may be
J54=1-20-2-4-9 82-B3 W IV? E 30+ M Primary Subfloor 3 associated. Large Inka aryballoid
body sherd covers crania of B2 and
J54=1-20-2-4-9 82-B4 W IV? E Fetus - Primary Subfloor B3. B2 and B3 lie on their sides,
facing each other.
J54=2-1-2-4-4 82-B12 W III C 40+ M Primary Subfloor Multiple burial covered by
phyllite slab. Stone discoid,
J54=2-1-2-4-4 82-B13 W III C 50+ ? Primary Subfloor lead ball, copper fragment, two
4-5 shell fragments, two manos, one
J54=2-1-2-4-4 - W III C Child - Primary Subfloor pestle, three bone tools, stone
hoe, two Cavia crania. In
J54=2-1-2-4-4 - W III C Infant - Primary Subfloor depression in bedrock. Infant may
be one or two individuals.
Post-publication note: These metals are
cataloged as J54=2-1-2-4-1

Table 23, continued
Archaeological Field Research, Upper Mantaro, Peru
Floor/ Number
Com- Primary/ Subfloor/ of
ID oner/ Secondary/ Patio/ Indivi-
Provenience Number Phase Elite Age Sex Partial Wall Fall duals Associated Artifacts and Comments
1979 Burials
J41-8-1-1-2-1 79-B1 W II E 6-8 - Secondary Floor Lacks femora, tibia, various
bones.
J41=8-1-1-2-1 79-B2 W II E Adult ? Secondary Floor Assorted postcranial bones not
assignable to other individuals.
J41=8-1-1-2-1 79-B2a W II E 14-18 ? Secondary Floor Cranium only.
7 7
J41=8-1-1-2-1 79-B3 W II E 40+ ? Secondary Floor Cranium and assorted long bones.
J41=8-1-1-2-1 79-B4 W II E ? ? Secondary Floor Cranial fragments.
J41=8-1-1-2-1 79-B4a W II E 3-7 - Secondary Floor Pelvis, vertebrae, femora only.
J41=8-1-1-2-1 79-B5 W II E Adult ? Secondary Floor Cranium only.
Post-publication note: These metals were
cataloged in the 1979 system, as
J41=707-0-0-1 and J41=707-0-0-2
1977 Burials
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B1 W IV? ? 30+ F Primary Subfloor
129
Seven silver disks, bone pin,
stone perforated diskoid may be
associated with any or all of
these individuals. Some bones
were tossed in carelessly, some
long bones appear bundled or
stacked with two crania. Largest
articulated portion is a leg and
foot. bones are close to floor
surface and in good condition.
Postoccupation?
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B1a W IV? ? 1-3 - Secondary Subfloor B1a extremely fragmentary: cranial
fragments and illiac crest only.
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B1b W IV? ? ? ? Secondary Subfloor 5 B1b extremely fragmentary:
vertebrae, phalanges, and patella
only.
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B2 W IV? ? 20-25 M? Primary Subfloor
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B3 W IV? ? 12-18 F? Primary Subfloor
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B4 W IV? ? 40+ M Primary Subfloor 1 May be associated with B1-B3
above. Large sherd on head,
sherds over body. Copper pin,
bone bead, ceramic bowl.
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B5 W IV? ? 2-3 - Primary Subfloor B5 lacks pelvis, tibia, many small
2 bones.
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B5a W IV? ? 0-1 - Secondary Subfloor - B5a lacks cranium, assorted bones.
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B6 W IV ? 18-23 M Primary Subfloor - B6 has sherds on head, colonial
beads around neck, glass bead at
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B7 W IV ? 30+ F Primary Subfloor 3 pelvis, shell fragment. B8 is
disturbed. All three in rock-
J2=701-0-0-3-1 77-B8 W IV ? 16-18 F? Primary Subfloor - lined cavity; two rocks are ground
stone. Iron, worked bone, copper
axe, two copper balls,
Post-publication note: These metals were cataloged as
J2=701-0-0-2-1, J2=701-0-0-2-3, J2=701-0-0-3-1, and
J2=701-0-0-3-3
J2=702-0-0-2-2 77-B9 W III ? 1.5-2 - Secondary Subfloor 1
copper tumi-shaped ornament,
charcoal concentration, ocher?
Copper clip may be associated.
Sherds of several reconstructable
vessels.

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