TABLE OF CONTENTS - National Zoo

OBJECTIVE AND OVERVIEW 

1 

CLASSROOM PROCEDURE 

2 - 3 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PRE-VISIT PREPARATION/POST-VISIT FOLLOW-UP 

3 

APPENDICES 

4 - 34 

Appendix 1: Student activity worksheet 

4 

Appendix 2 – Mammalian skeleton skull characteristics 

5-10 

Appendix 3 – Local mammal species 

11-13 

Appendix 4 – Conservation & Research Center mammal species 

14-32 

Appendix 5 – Vocabulary list 

33 

Appendix 6 – Additional resources 

34

Topic: Diet and Dentition. 

CONSERVATION & RESEARCH CENTER 

Educational Outreach Program 

“What’s for Lunch?” 

Teacher Guide 

Virginia Standards of Learning (SOLs) for Science targeted: 

SOL 3.1.a,b,c,d,e,g – Scientific Investigation, Reasoning, and Logic 

The student will plan and conduct investigations in which 

a. questions are developed to formulate hypotheses; 

b. predictions and observations are made; 

c. data are gathered, charted, and graphed; 

d. objects with similar characteristics are classified into at least two sets and 

two subsets; 

e. inferences are made and conclusions are drawn; 

g. length is measured to the nearest centimeter; 

SOL 3.5.b – Living Systems 

The student will investigate and understand relationships among organisms in 

aquatic and terrestrial food chains. Key concepts include 

b. herbivore, carnivore, omnivore 

Objective: 

To teach students about how scientists study the three consumer categories 

(herbivore, carnivore, omnivore). Emphasis will be placed on using the scientific 

method to determine consumer category based on dentition. This will create an 

awareness of how the structure and function of different types of teeth relate to the 

kinds of foods animals eat. This project will involve students directly in 

understanding animal systems and relating these concepts to their own world. 

Overview: 

This module has three sections. The first section will teach the students about the 

different functions of their own teeth (incisors = cutters, canines = tearers, molars = 

grinders). The second section will introduce the students to the concepts of 

herbivore, carnivore, and omnivore. They will define each of these consumer 

1

categories by observing teeth in the skulls of animals they might see in local 

habitats, including an herbivore (beaver), carnivore (fox), and omnivore (raccoon). 

The final section allows the students to become scientists/investigators. There will 

be several unknown skulls that the students have an opportunity to investigate. 

They will collect data on each skull (including skull measurements, tooth structure 

and counts) and they will develop hypotheses about what each animal might eat and 

why. They will test their hypothesis by attempting to identify the species through a 

comparison of their data to information found in a CRC Mammal Identification Guide. 

Finally, the class will reconvene to review important concepts learned during the 

exercise. 

Classroom Procedure: 

Orientation to project: 

1. Introduce CRC and its conservation breeding and research programs. 

2. Define the terms “diet” and “dentition”. 

Section One: Identify structure and function of human teeth 

This presentation provides an introduction to the students’ own diet and dentition. 

1. Students identify the types of teeth by comparing their own teeth (observed in a 

mirror) to the diagram of a mouth found on page one of the student booklet. 

• Number 1 teeth have flat bottoms. They are called “incisors” and are used to 

cut (like a pair of scissors or a knife) into fruits and vegetables. 

• Next are the number 2 teeth, called “canines”. Note the sharp point. These 

are used to tear meat, like when you tear chicken off of the bone. 

• Last are the number 3 and 4 teeth called premolars and molars. Premolars and 

molars have bumps (called cusps). Molars grind food using the bumps, like 

when we grind up a peanut. 

2. Review: Notice the teeth had three different kinds of shapes. That’s because 

there are three different kinds of jobs (functions) for teeth to do: 

• The incisors, or flat teeth, are cutters. They are flat like the edge of scissors 

that cut, like when they cut into a sandwich or lettuce. 

• The canine teeth with points are tearers. They tear food, like when you tear 

chicken off of the chicken bone. 

• The premolars and molars with the bumps are grinders. They grind up the 

food, like when you eat peanuts. 

2

Section Two: Local mammals and consumer categories 

1. Using posters and skulls of local mammal species (herbivore – beaver; carnivore – 

red fox; omnivore – raccoon), the leader will introduce the concepts of consumer 

categories and the differences in dentition. 

2. Ask students questions to reinforce that you can tell what an animal eats based 

on the teeth present. For example, if they found a skull with mostly pointed 

teeth, what would it eat? Answer: meat. It would be a carnivore. If a 

student/scientist found a skull with many cutters and bumpy molars, what would 

it eat? Answer: vegetables and fruits. It would be a herbivore. 

Section Three: Unknown skull stations; investigate using the scientific method 

1. The leader will explain how scientists collect data to understand consumer 

categories. 

2. Using the skulls of local animals (beaver, red fox, raccoon), the leader will explain 

how scientists collect data on skull size and structure and then form a hypothesis 

regarding consumer category based on their knowledge of how diet relates to 

dentition. 

3. Class is divided up into teams of 3 – 5 students each and sent to an “unknown” 

skull station. Students should be reminded to cooperate with their teammates, 

as any scientist would, when performing their investigations. Emphasize that the 

skulls are extremely delicate and should be handled with care to avoid accidents. 

4. At each station, student teams determine the consumer category of the animal 

based on the dentition observed in the skull. Students must observe the skulls, 

collect data, and develop hypotheses using the data sheet provided in their 

student booklets. They must decide, based on the data they collected, whether 

the animal is an herbivore, carnivore, or omnivore. Once they have done this, 

they test their hypothesis by looking up the actual identity of the animal in the 

CRC Mammal Identification Guide. 

5. Allow 4-6 minutes at each station and rotate stations. 

6. Class reconvenes to briefly discuss the students’ findings at each station and 

correctly identify each species. 

7. Class concludes with a dialog about what the students learned in this session. 

Emphasis will be placed on the fact that students were able to figure out what an 

animal might eat based on the different teeth it has. They used the scientific 

methods used by Smithsonian scientists such as nutritionists at the National Zoo 

or paleontologists at the Natural History Museum. 

Pre-Visit Preparation/Post-Visit Follow-Up: 

3

Students should be familiar with the general concepts of diet, dentition and 

consumer groups in preparation for the visit from CRC staff. The appendices include 

information on: (1) mammalian skeleton skull characteristics, (2) local mammal 

species, (3) Conservation & Research Center mammal species, (4) vocabulary list, 

and (5) additional resources. These resources can assist teachers in creating lesson 

plans on diet vs. dentition and incorporating this outreach program into school 

curriculum. 

4

Appendix 2: Mammalian skeleton skull characteristics 

(The following is a technical excerpt from the Handbook to the Orders and Families 

of Living Mammals by Timothy E. Lawlor.) 

The skull consists of a series of bones encasing the brain and nasal cavities and 

forming the upper jaw, collectively making up the cranium and the lower jaw, or 

mandible. Variations in overall shape of the skull among mammals results from 

evolutionary changes in jaw function and associated musculature, brain size and 

proportions, size and shape of the bony housing of the ear (auditory bulla), and 

other features. With the exception of certain elements in the cranium of cetaceans, 

the bones making up the skull retain the same positions relative to one another. 

However, there is substantial variation in the size and shape of individual bones. 

Therefore, it is important to compare skull features for a variety of different 

mammals in order to appreciate the diversity of skull structure. For this reason, skull 

outlines are provided for three distinctly different mammals (Fig. 1). 

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Figure 1. Skulls of a cat (A), a rodent (B), and a porpoise (C). Abbreviations are as follows: AB, 

auditory bulla; Alis, alisphenoid; AngP, angular process; Baso, basioccipital; Bass, basisphenoid; C, 

canine; ConP, condyloid process; CorP, coronoid process; FM, foramen magnum; Fr, frontal; I, incisor; 

Int, interparietal; IC, infraorbital canal; Ju, jugal; Lac, lacrimal; M, molar; ManF, mandibular fossa; MasF, 

masseteric fossa; MasP, mastoid process; Mx, maxilla; Na, nasal; O, orbit; Occ, occipital; Orb, 

orbitosphenoid; PM, premolar; Pal, palatine; Par, parietal; ParP, paroccipital process; Pmx, premaxilla; 

PooP, postorbital process; Pre, presphenoid; Pt, pterygoid; Sq, squamosal; TemF, temporal fossa; Vo, 

vomer. 

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General features of the cranium 

Braincase - That portion of the cranium encasing the brain. It is largest relative to 

other parts of the skull in primates (e.g., Hominidae). 

Rostrum - That portion of the cranium extending anteriorly from the front edge of 

the orbits (see below) or base of the zygomatic arch (see below). It corresponds to 

the externally visible muzzle or snout, and includes the upper jaw and bones 

surrounding the nasal cavity. The rostrum is especially elongate in cetaceans, 

anteaters, pangolins, bandicoots, and nectar-feeding bats, among others. 

Dorsal aspect of the cranium 

Nasal bones - Paired bones forming the anteriormost roof of the nasal cavities. In 

some mammals these bones are absent or are very small and do not roof the nasal 

passages (Fig. 1C). 

Premaxillae (premaxillary bones) - A pair of bones forming the lower margin of the 

outer nasal openings and anteriormost portion of the roof of the mouth, or palate. 

The upper incisor teeth always reside on these bones. In most mammals each 

premaxilla has an elongate process extending along one side of the nasal cavity 

(nasal process or branch) and a second process meeting the other premaxilla at the 

midline of the palate (palatal process or branch). The premaxillae fuse with the 

maxillae in some mammals (e.g., some primates and edentates). 

Maxillae (maxillary bones) - These two tooth-bearing bones make up a large part of 

the sides of the rostrum and the palate posterior to and adjoining the premaxillae. 

They are especially large and elongate in cetaceans (Fig. 1C). The anterior base of 

each zygomatic arch (see below) usually consists of an extension of the maxilla, 

termed the zygomatic process of the maxilla. 

Frontal bones - A pair of bones just posterior to the nasals and dorsal to the 

maxillae. They vary in size. The antlers and horns of artiodactyls are growths of the 

frontal bones. In many mammals, each frontal bone has a lateral pointed projection, 

the postorbital process, which marks the posterior border of the orbit. 

Parietal bones - Located posterior to the frontals, these paired bones form the bulk 

of the roof of the braincase. In certain primates they are very large. 

Interparietal bone - When distinct, this is a single, often triangular-shaped bone 

centrally located on the braincase at the posterior juncture of the parietal bones. 

9

Often it is fused with the occipital bone (see below) in adults. Rodents generally 

have a prominent interparietal (Fig. 1B). 

Squamosal bones - Each of these two bones is located lateral and ventral to the 

corresponding parietal bone. Each squamosal bears a ventral articular surface, the 

mandibular fossa, that forms part of the hinge supporting the lower jaw. The 

posterior base of the zygomatic arch consists of the zygomatic process of the 

squamosal. When the squamosal is fused with the tympanic bone the complex is 

termed the temporal bone; this fusion is found in most mammals. 

Jugal bones - Each of these two bones forms the central portion of the zygomatic 

arch (see below) and is located between the zygomatic processes of the maxilla and 

squamosal. Occasionally the jugal also is in contact with the lacrimal bone (e.g., in 

many rodents) or the premaxilla. When the zygomatic arch is absent or incomplete, 

the jugal often is absent. 

Zygomatic arches - Conspicuous arches on the sides of the cranium that form the 

lateral and ventral borders of the orbits and temporal fossae. Several bones, 

including the maxilla, jugal, squamosal, and lacrimal may contribute to each arch. 

Jaw muscles (masseters) have their origins on the surface of the arch. In many 

rodents the anterior portion of the arch is tilted upward and forms a broad plate 

(zygomatic plate). 

Orbits - The socket-like depressions, one on each side of the cranium, in which the 

eyes are housed. Each orbit is bordered anteriorly and laterally by the zygomatic 

arch and posteriorly by the temporal fossa. 

Temporal fossae - These depressions are located posterior to the orbits and are 

bordered laterally by the zygomatic arches. In some primates and in horses the 

temporal fossa and orbit are separated by a postorbital plate, thus forming two 

compartments. 

Lacrimal bones - Each of these bones is located on or adjacent to the anterior base 

of the zygomatic arch at its dorsal edge. Usually small, these bones can be 

identified by the presence in each of the lacrimal foramen, an opening for the tear 

duct. 

Occipital (lambdoidal) crest - A ridge of variable size extending across the 

posterodorsal margin of the cranium. It is usually part of the supraoccipital bone 

(see below). This crest forms an area of attachment for neck muscles and ligaments 

in large-headed forms. 

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Sagittal crest - A vertical ridge extending along the dorsal midline of the posterior 

portion of the braincase. It is variable in extent, occurring to a lesser degree on 

occipital, interparietal, and parietal bones, and is most prominent in mammals 

requiring an expanded surface area for large temporal muscles. 

Posterior aspect of the cranium 

Foramen magnum - A large opening in the occipital bone through which pass the 

spinal cord and vertebral arteries. 

Supraoccipital bone - The part of the occipital bone overlying the foramen magnum. 

When present, the occipital crest is at the dorsal edge of this bone. 

Basioccipital bone - A single bone ventral to the foramen magnum and extending 

anteriorly on the ventral surface of the cranium between the auditory bullae. 

Exoccipital bones - Each of these bones is located lateral to the foramen magnum 

and bears andoccipital condyle. 

Occipital condyles - Paired swellings of the exoccipital bones adjacent to the foramen 

magnum, each of which articulates with the first cervical vertebra (atlas). 

Paroccipital processes - Each of these processes is a ventrally extending projection 

of the occipital bone lying just posterior to and usually in close association with the 

auditory bulla (see below). Largest in herbivores (Fig. 1B), these processes provide 

sites of origin for large digastric muscles necessary for grinding plant material. 

Mastoid bones - Small, usually obscure bones adjacent to the paroccipital processes 

and at the posterior margins of the auditory bullae. The mastoid is a portion of the 

concealed periotic bone (a bone protecting the inner ear) exposed on the surface of 

the skull. In certain mammals it protrudes as the mastoid process (Fig. 1A). 

Ventral aspect of the cranium 

Auditory bullae - Thin-walled, swollen capsules of bone on each side of the 

basioccipital bone and ventral to the squamosal. Each bulla consists of the tympanic 

bone or a fusion of the tympanic and entotympanic bones. The mastoid and 

alisphenoid (see below) may also participate in its formation. The bullae protect the 

middle-ear ossicles and facilitate efficient transmission of sound to the inner ear. 

They become enormously inflated in many mammals (particularly some groups of 

rodents) that are adapted to open plains or deserts and have acute hearing. In 

others the bullae are absent or are incomplete and the ear is surrounded by a bony 

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ing made up of the tympanic bone (e.g., some insectivores). The bullae are very 

loosely attached to the skull in cetaceans, an adaptation that probably enhances 

reception of water-borne signals by reducing transmission of sound to the bulla from 

other parts of the skull. 

Basisphenoid bone - A single bone in the midline just anterior to the basioccipital. 

Presphenoid bone - A median bone which is usually visible anterior to the 

basisphenoid. It is fused with the orbitoshenoids which extend laterally into the 

posterior wall of the orbits. 

Alisphenoid bones - Wing-like bones in the walls of the temporal fossae posterior to 

the frontal and orbitosphenoid bones and anterior to the squamosals. In marsupials 

the alisphenoids are very large and participate in the formation of the auditory 

bullae. An alisphenoid canal, which transmits part of the fifth cranial nerve, a 

diagnostic character in some mammals, may penetrate a bony shelf at the ventral 

base of the alisphenoid bone. 

Pterygoid bones - Each of these bones lies posterior to the internal opening of the 

nasal passages. An elongate process (the hamular process) usually extends 

posteriorly from the ventral surface of each bone. The pterygoids are unusually 

large and distinctively shaped in odontocetes (Fig. 1C). They are often fused with 

the alisphenoid in other mammals. 

Palatine bones - These are paired bones that form the posterior portion of the 

palate. They lie between the cheekteeth (see below) and are posterior to the 

maxillae. 

Vomer - The bone forming the posteroventral part of the wall separating the two 

sides of the nasal passages. This bone is usually obscure but it appears occasionally 

as part of the palate. 

Lower jaw or mandible 

Dentary bones - The lower jaws consist of two halves, or dentary bones united either 

firmly (most mammals) or loosely (e.g., rodents) in a symphysis at the anterior end. 

Coronoid process - The projection extending dorsally from each half of the jaw into 

the temporal fossa. It is largest in mammals with large temporal muscles (Fig. 1A); 

it is small or absent in certain herbivores (e.g., some rodents). 

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Condyloid process - The projection on the upper rear portion of the mandible bearing 

the mandibular condyle. The latter articulates with the upper jaw at the mandibular 

fossa of the squamosal bone. The condyle varies substantially in shape because of 

differing patterns of jaw movement involved with different dietary requirements. In 

some carnivores (e.g., Mustelidae (black-footed ferrets)) the hinge formed at the 

joint is firmly constructed and the lower jaw can be removed form the upper jaw only 

with difficulty. This adaptation prevents disarticulation of the mandible as the 

predator struggles with its prey. In herbivores the joint tends to be loose in order to 

allow the flexibility of jaw motion necessary for grinding coarse vegetative matter. 

Angular process - A process of variable size at the posteroventral edge of the lower 

jaw. It is enormous in some herbivores, particularly rodents, providing a large 

surface area for insertion of the masseter muscles. Marsupials and some rodents are 

characterized by an angular process that is markedly inflected (bent inward), thus 

providing a large area of insertion for the jaw muscles. 

Masseteric fossa - The lateral depression of the lower jaw ventral to the coronoid 

process into which much of the masseter muscle inserts. 

Teeth 

Incisors - These teeth are the anteriormost teeth in the jaws of most mammals. The 

upper incisors reside wholly on the premaxillae. Incisors are ordinarily simple in 

structure but are modified in many mammals for grooming, cropping, cutting, and 

other functions. 

Canines - There is one pair of these stabbing teeth on both the upper and lower 

jaws. On the upper jaw each canine is located at the suture between the premaxilla 

and maxilla. The tusks found in many mammals are usually modified canines. Some 

mammals, particularly herbivores, lack canines and have a large gap, or diastema, 

between the incisors and premolars. In others the canines are poorly developed and 

peg-like. 

Cheekteeth - An inclusive term for all the teeth occurring in the cheek region. They 

include the premolars and molars of both jaws. The cheekteeth tend to be highcrowned 

(hypsodont) in mammals with course diets, such as grazers, and lowcrowned 

(brachydont) in mammals with soft diets, such as frugivores and omnivores. 

Details on these teeth follow. 

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Premolars - These teeth are located just posterior to the canines. On the upper jaw 

they reside in the maxillae. They are large in herbivores, where they often closely 

resemble the molars in size and complexity, and in certain omnivores and carnivores. 

In the latter, the last upper premolar and first lower molar combine when occluded to 

form the principal shearing teeth (the carnassials). 

Molars - These are generally the most elaborate teeth in the dentition. In the upper 

jaw the molars are located in the maxillae. The molars are extremely variable in 

pattern. The three-cusped or tritubercular (tribosphenic) arrangement found in 

many marsupials, insectivores, and bats, is considered primitive for mammals. Each 

occluding pair of upper and lower molars functions as a set of “reversed triangles,” 

with the apexes pointing in opposite directions. The lower molars are more complex 

than the upper molars, consisting of a triangular anterior portion, the trigonid, and a 

squared posterior crushing surface, the “tail” or talonid. Tritubercular teeth are allpurpose 

teeth, providing both shearing and crushing surfaces. The addition of 

another prominent cusp on the upper molars results in a four-cusped or 

quadritubercular molar, an arrangement common in some insectivores and primates. 

Omnivores frequently have bunodont molars. Often basically quadritubercular, these 

teeth have low, rounded cusps. Effective crushing devices, they are found in pigs, 

bears, raccoons, and many primates (including humans). The secodont dentition of 

carnivores results from modification of certain cusps into an elaborate shearing 

mechanism. A lophodont dentition, present in most herbivores, is identified by 

ridges, or lophs, of enamel arranged in various ways between the cusps The tooth 

may vary from having a simple ring-like ridge around the margin to having a complex 

series of ridges and cross-ridges. When the ridges are formed in to two adjoining 

triangles or rings on the same tooth, the arrangement is called bilophodont, as in 

lagomorphs and some rodents. In most artiodactyls ridges of enamel take on a 

crescent shape, and for this reason the molars are termed selodont. 

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Appendix 3: Local mammal species 

BEAVER 

(Castor canadensis) 

Herbivore 

Description: Beavers are among the largest rodents in the world. They are compact 

and heavyset with streamlined bodies, a flattened tail, and webbed feet for 

swimming. The sexes are about the same size. The unusually dense pelt consists of 

fine underfur overlaid with coarse guard hairs. The short, soft underfur usually has a 

slight tinge of lead color. The long, coarse, shiny guard hairs mask and protect the 

underfur. The coloration of the upper parts are brown to tawny. The tail and feet 

are black. Beavers cut down trees with their long, sharp front teeth and use the 

wood for food and for building dams across streams. 

Teeth: The incisor teeth of rodents grow throughout life. They have 4 incisors, 2 

above and 2 below. Canines and anterior premolars are lacking, leaving a space 

between the incisors and the cheek teeth. The number of teeth does not exceed 

22. The incisors are strongly developed, and the high-crowned cheek teeth 

(premolars and molars) have flat grinding surfaces and numerous enamel folds. The 

outer surface of the tooth is harder than the inner surface, much like a chisel, so 

that it is to some extent self-sharpening. The grinding, or cheek, teeth have many 

peculiar patterns when seen from above. The enamel, harder than dentine and 

cement, wears less rapidly and forms sharp ridges on the crown of the tooth. The 

space between the incisors and the cheek teeth permits maximum utilization of the 

gnawing front teeth and the manipulation of food when passed back to the grinding 

teeth. 

Diet: Beavers feed on the bark, cambium, twigs, leaves, and roots of deciduous 

trees and shrubs, such as willow, alder, birch, and aspen, and on various parts of 

aquatic plants, especially the young shoots of water lilies. Beavers anchor sticks and 

logs underwater to feed on during winter. 

Range: Alaska, Canada, conterminous United States, extreme northern Mexico. 

Habitat: Beavers are semiaquatic. They prefer streams and small lakes having 

nearby growths of willow, aspen, poplar, birch, or alder. 

Social Organization: Beavers are primarily nocturnal, but sometimes begin work in 

the afternoon. They are active throughout the year, but in the northern parts of 

their range during the winter they may leave their lodges only to travel to the nearby 

food cache. They may even remain lethargic and live off of stored body fat for a 

15

time. They do not hibernate. Beavers live in family groups consisting of an adult 

pair and the offspring of several years (they have one litter each year). 

They are often thought of as the “engineers” of the animal kingdom, because they 

build complex dams, lodges, and canals. A dam provides an area of still, deep water 

where a lodge can be conveniently constructed and protected from terrestrial 

predators, and in which building materials and food supplies can be easily floated and 

kept from being washed away. The foundation of a dam may consist of mud and 

stones. Then brush and poles are added, and mud, stones, and soggy vegetation are 

used as plaster on top of the poles. A dam is built higher than the water level. It 

may be kept in repair and extended over the years by several generations of 

beavers. The lodge is usually surrounded by the water backed up by the dam. The 

floor is above the water level and bedded with dry vegetation. Three are one or 

more underwater entrances that extend below the winter ice level. In some areas, 

especially the vicinity of large rivers, beavers do not build lodges, but dig dens in the 

banks for shelter. 

Sources: Knight, Linsay. The Sierra Club Book of Small Mammals. San Francisco: 

Weldon Owen Pty Limited, 1993. Page 60. 

Nowak, Ronald M. and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of the World. 4th 

edition, Volume I. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Pages 

493, 560-563. 

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RED FOX 

(Vulpes vulpes) 

Carnivore 

Description: The fox is characterized by a rather long, low body; relatively short 

legs; a long, narrow muzzle; large, pointed ears; and a bushy, rounded tail that is at 

least half as long, and often fully as long, as the head and body. The typical 

coloration ranges from pale yellowish-red to deep reddish-brown on the upper parts, 

and is white, ashy, or slaty on the underparts. The lower part of the legs is usually 

black, and the tail is generally tipped with white or black. 

Teeth: The first incisor is the smallest and the third is the largest, the difference in 

size being most marked in the upper jaw. The canine teeth are pointed, elongate, 

and round to oval in section. The premolars are usually adapted for cutting, and the 

molars usually have four or more sharp, pointed cusps. The last upper premolar and 

the first lower molar are called the cartnassials, and often work together as a 

specialized shearing mechanism. The fox’s teeth stay hard and sharp because of a 

new layer of hard enamel that grows each year. 

Special Note: Have you ever counted the rings on a tree stump to see how old the 

tree was? In the same way, scientists can tell how old a fox is by looking at one of 

its teeth. If a fox’s tooth is cut in half, you can see a ring for each new layer of 

enamel. You can tell how old a fox is by counting the enamel rings on the tooth. By 

studying fox teeth in this way scientists have found that many foxes die from 

disease or are killed by predators when they are young. Those foxes that learn to 

hunt and defend themselves will often live to be 12 or older. 

Diet: While the fox is a carnivore, the diet can be considered omnivorous. It 

consists mostly of rodents, lagomorphs, insects, and sometimes fruit. To hunt mice, 

the red fox stands motionless, listens and watches intently, and then leaps suddenly, 

bringing its forelegs straight down to pin the prey. Rabbits are stalked and then 

captured with a rapid dash. The red fox will eat any animal it can catch or scavenge. 

This is one of the reasons it has survived so well. The fox likes rabbits, voles, mice 

and other small rodents best, but it will also eat insects, snails, eggs and other 

things that it finds on its travels. If a fox is lucky enough to kill a large animal, it 

may bury the part it does not eat right away and save it for a meal later on. If meat 

is scarce, foxes will also eat wild fruits such as blueberries and apples. 

Range: The red fox has settled in all areas of northern and central Europe, Asia, and 

northern America. The red fox continues to spread and it is pushing into the Arctic 

region, where it threatens to compete with the Arctic fox for food. 

17

Habitat: It is adaptable to all habitats - from lowland forests to town suburbs. 

Habitats range from deep forest to arctic tundra, open prairie, and farmland, but the 

red fox prefers areas of highly diverse vegetation and avoids large homogenous 

tracts. 

Social Organization: A home range is typically occupied by an adult male, one or two 

adult females, and their young. A female fox may sometimes mate with several 

males, but later she will establish a partnership with just one of them. 

Sources: Knight, Linsay. The Sierra Club Book of Small Mammals. San Francisco: 

Weldon Owen Pty Limited, 1993. Page 47. 


edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Pages 

930, 932-933. 

Switzer, Merebeth. Red Fox. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational Corporation, 1986. 

Pages 22, 29. 

18

RACCOON 

(Procyon lotor) 

Omnivore 

Description: The general coloration of the raccoon is gray to almost black, 

sometimes with a brown or red tinge. There are 5 to 10 black rings on the rather 

well-furred tail, and a black “bandit” mask across the face. They are good climbers 

and swimmers. Raccoons have a well-developed sense of touch, especially in the 

nose and forepaws. The hands are regularly used almost as skillfully as monkeys use 

theirs. Wild raccoons are most at home near water, and it spends much of its time in 

shallow water or mud near the water’s edge looking for something to eat. A 

raccoon’s sensitive, naked-soled feet and long toes, plus the short hair at its wrists, 

make this kind of food foraging easy. 

Teeth: Raccoons have three pairs of incisors and one pair of canines on both jaws. 

The number of premolars on the upper and lower jaws range from 3 to 4 pairs. On 

the upper jaw, there are two pairs of molars, while the lower jaw has 2 to 4 molars, 

for a total of 36 to 40 teeth. The last upper molar is relatively large and rounded. 

Diet: A raccoon is a true omnivorous animal. Its diet consists mainly of crayfish, 

crabs, other arthropods, frogs, fish, nuts, seeds, acorns, and berries. A raccoon will 

eat almost anything. Even garbage is high on its list of favorite foods. Raccoons 

living in the woods will check out camp sites and picnic places for any scraps of food 

that may have been left. Raccoons near farms, towns or cities visit any place where 

food may have been grown, cooked or stored. Trash piles, garbage cans, and pet 

food dishes are often raided. Exactly what a raccoon eats changes with the time of 

year and the area in which it lives. Raccoons tend to eat more plants than animals. 

They eat fruits, nuts, and grains. Acorns are their favorite nuts, but they will also 

eat hickory nuts, beech nuts, pecans and walnuts. Corn is by far their favorite grain. 

They like it best when it is in its “milk stage,” when it is green and before it has 

hardened. Raccoons eat wild berries of all kinds, whenever they can find them. At 

times, a raccoon may add grasses, weeds, seeds, and flower buds, to its diet. 

Raccoons favor invertebrates like crayfish, crabs, clams, and oysters that are found 

in mud or sand. When they can catch them, small animals such as squirrels, gophers, 

and mice are important food for raccoons. They will also eat turtles, turtle eggs, 

frogs, and fish. Because they like young chickens, turkeys and ducks, as well as 

eggs, raccoons can become quite expert at raiding farms and ranches. They also eat 

small birds, pheasants, and quail. 

Food is generally picked up with the hands and then placed in the mouth. Although 

raccoons have sometimes been observed to dip food in water, especially under 

captive conditions, the legend that they actually wash their food is without 

19

foundation. They often swish the foods back and forth in water to remove any sand 

and dirt. It may be this habit that gave the raccoon its name and its fame as a foodwasher. 

Raccoons also use their sense of touch to explore each piece of food they 

eat. They will turn the piece over and over with their “fingers,” and rub it between 

their forefeet. Scientists have learned that raccoons “feel” their food before eating 

it, more than they “wash” it. 

Range: Range is southern Canada to Panama. 

Habitat: Raccoons frequent timbered and brushy areas, usually near water. 

Social Organization: Raccoons are primarily solitary individuals, but they have been 

known to congregate in large numbers (up to 23!) in winter dens. They are more 

nocturnal than diurnal. A male and female may live together for a few weeks during 

the mating season. Then they go their separate ways. Three or four cubs are born 

in late spring, and will be nursed for three to four months. By early autumn, the 

cubs may spend several days and nights away from their mothers. Then they are off 

to find a home range of their own. 

Sources: Nentl, Jerolyn. The Raccoon. Mankato, MN: Crestwood House, 1984. 

Pages 19, 22-26. 



980-981. 

20

Appendix 4: CRC mammal species 

ARABIAN ORYX 

(Oryx leucoryx) 

Herbivore 

Description: Arabian oryxes have black and white face masks that recall the head 

markings of the gazelles. The arabian oryx is white, and has very dark brown, almost 

black, hair on its legs and face. The tail is tufted, and males have a tuft of hair on 

the throat. The ears are fairly short, broad, and rounded at the tips. Both sexes 

have horns that can be up to 4 feet long. Their horns are fairly straight and directed 

backward from the eyes. 

Teeth: The oryx has no upper incisors or canines. They do have three pairs of 

incisors and 0-1 pair of canines in the lower jaw. They have three pairs of premolars 

in the upper jaw and 2-3 pairs of premolars in the lower jaw. There are also three 

pairs of molars in both the upper and lower jaws. The total number of teeth is 30- 

32. The surfaces of their molars have a smooth texture. 

Diet: The oryx diet consists of grasses and herbs, juicy roots and fruits, melons, 

leaves, buds, and bulbs. They drink water when it is available, but they can go 

without water for several days. 

Range: Originally found in Syria, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Sinai, and the Arabian Peninsula. 

Habitat: Habitat consists of flat and undulating gravel plains intersected by shallow 

wadis and depressions, and the dunes edging sand deserts, with a diverse vegetation 

of trees, shrubs, herbs, and grasses. 

Social Organization: The normal group size is 10 animals or fewer, but herds of up 

to 100 have been reported. Groups are mostly females and young dominated by 

one adult male. 

Conservation Status: This species declined primarily because the expansion of the 

oil industry led to hunting from motor vehicles with modern firearms. Its meat is 

greatly esteemed, its hide is valued as leather, other parts have alleged medicinal 

uses, and the head makes a choice trophy. They were extinct in the wild until the 

success of recent reintroduction programs in Saudi Arabia and Jordan. 

Sources: Arabian Oryx Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. Acting SSP Coordinator: 

Jerry Brown, Phoenix Zoo, 455 North Galvin Parkway, Phoenix, AZ 85008. 

21



1265-1266. 

Walther, Fritz Rudolf. “Roan and Sable Antelopes.” Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of 

Mammals. New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume IV, pages 437-448. 

22

BACTRIAN CAMEL 

(Camelus bactrianus) 

Herbivore 

Description: The Bactrian, or two-humped, camel is characterized by a long, thin 

neck, a small head, and a slender snout with a cleft upper lip. The hind part of the 

body is contracted and they have a relatively short tail. The color varies from deep 

brown to dusty gray. These camels have long hairs that are thickest on the head, 

neck, humps, forelegs, and tip of the tail. The eyes have heavy lashes and the ears 

are small and haired. Their long, slender legs have prominent knee pads. Contrary to 

popular belief, camels do not “store” water in their humps, but they can go for very 

long periods without drinking. 

Teeth: Camels have one pair of incisors in the upper jaw and three pairs of incisors 

in the lower jaw. The incisors, which are spatulate, are located in the forward, 

somewhat upward position. The canines are nearly erect and pointed, and are 

sometimes absent in the lower jaw. The molars have crescentic ridges of enamel on 

their crowns. They have 2-3 pairs of premolars and three pairs of molars in both of 

the jaws. Thus, the total number of teeth is between 30-34. 

Diet: Camels are grazers, feeding on many kinds of grass, though, when hungry, 

they will eat a wide variety of food. They thrive on salty plants that are wholly 

rejected by other grazing mammals. If forced by hunger, they will eat fish, flesh, 

bones, and skin. 

Range: The bactrian camel was formerly found throughout the dry steppe and 

semidesert zone from Soviet Central Asia to Mongolia. Today it is found on the Gobi 

Steppe along rivers, but moves to the desert as soon as the snow melts. 

Habitat: Wild camels inhabit semiarid to arid plains, grasslands, and deserts. 

Social Organization: Camels are diurnal. They are found alone or in groups, 

sometimes with over 30 individuals. Camels usually bear a single offspring, rarely 

two. At 4 years, the young camel becomes wholly independent. Full growth is 

attained at 5 years. Potential longevity is 50 years. 

Conservation Status: Because of human population growth, there has been drastic 

reduction in the range of wild camels, but domesticated members of the family have 

spread over much of the world. In Central Asia, the Bactrian camel was 

domesticated as early as the third and fourth centuries B.C., and its range was 

extended from Asia Minor to northern China. Wild populations also remained 

common until the 1920’s, but subsequently became restricted to relatively small 

23

areas of southwestern Mongolia and northwestern China. About 300-500 individuals 

now survive in the wild. 

Sources: Gauthier-Pilters, H. and A. I. Dagg. The Camel. Chicago: The University of 

Chicago Press, 1981. 



1188- 1191, 1193-1195. 

24

BLACK-FOOTED FERRET 

(Mustela nigripes) 

Carnivore 

Description: The black-footed ferret is a small weasel-like animal with a black mask 

around its eyes and black legs and feet. It is between 43-56 cm long (18-22 in), 

including its tail. It weighs up to 1.2 kg (2.5 lbs). Black-footed ferrets live 

underground as much as possible in order to avoid their natural enemies which are 

hawks, bobcats, owls, badgers and coyotes. 

Teeth: Black-footed ferrets have three pairs of incisors in the upper jaw and 2-3 

pairs in the lower jaw. They have one pair of canines and 2-4 pairs of premolars in 

both jaws. In the upper jaw, there is one pair of molars and the lower jaw has 1-2 

pairs of molars. Thus, the total number of teeth ranges between 30-38 teeth. The 

upper molar is relatively large and squarish or dumbell-shaped. 

Diet: Prairie dogs, which are often equal or larger in size than the ferret, make up 

90% of its diet. It also eats rabbits and rodents on occasion. 

Range: The black-footed ferret formerly ranged from Mexico to Canada through the 

western plains states. It was thought to be extinct in the 1970’s, however, in 1981, 

a population was found in Meeteetse, Wyoming. In 1985, disease almost destroyed 

this small population, and in 1987, the survivors were removed to captivity. 

Through breeding programs in zoos, including the Conservation & Research Center, 

the species has been saved from extinction and is now being reintroduced back into 

the wild. 

Habitat: The black-footed ferret is found mainly on short and mid-grass prairies. It 

lives almost exclusively in prairie dog towns of the Great Plains. Prairie dog towns 

are a community network of prairie dog dens and tunnels that can cover hundreds of 

acres. Black-footed ferrets den in abandoned prairie dog burrows. 

Social Organization: Black-footed ferrets are primarily nocturnal, and they are 

thought to have keen senses of hearing, smell, and sight. They are thought to be 

solitary hunters and can use a range of around 100 acres each. A male ferret’s 

territory may overlap that of several females with which he mates. Females raise a 

litter of about three to four kits without help from males. 

Conservation Status: The decline of the black-footed ferret was almost entirely due 

to government-sponsored poisoning of prairie dog towns and the development of 

farms, roads, towns, etc. over prairie dog colonies. Seven zoos, including the 

National Zoo’s Conservation & Research Center, participate in the Black-Footed 

25

Ferret Recovery Program. Under the direction of the Black-Footed Ferret Species 

Survival Plan, these institutions breed genetically valuable ferrets for reintroduction 

back into the wild. Four states currently have reintroduciton programs. The goal of 

the Black-Footed Ferret Recovery Program is to have 10 self-sustaining black-footed 

ferret populations in the wild by the year 2010. 

Sources: Black-footed Ferret Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. rev. 5/94. SSP 

Coordinator: Astrid Vargas, DVM, PhD, National Black-Footed Ferret Conservation 

Center, 410 E. Grand Ave., Ste. 315, Laramie, WY 82070. 



993-994. 

26

BURMESE BROW-ANTLERED DEER 

(Cervus eldi thamin) 

Herbivore 

Description: The upper parts of the Burmese brow-antlered deer, or Eld’s deer, are 

some shade of brown, and the underparts are paler. The pelage (coat) is coarse, and 

most males have a long, dense mane. The antlers are “lyre shaped” after the 

ancient Greek instrument. 

Teeth: Deer species have no upper incisors and three pairs of lower incisors. They 

have 0-1 pair of canines in both jaws. They have three pairs of premolars and molars 

in both the upper and lower jaws, for a total of 32-34 teeth. The surfaces of their 

molars have a smooth texture. 

Diet: Eld’s deer are grazers, but browse on trees and shrubs opportunistically. They 

will supplement their diet with wild fruit and cultivated crops, particularly rice. 

Range: Once widespread in tropical areas throughout Indo-China, the Eld’s deer 

extended as far west as the State of Manipur in India. Today, it survives precariously 

in a few reserves. 

Habitat: They formerly inhabited monsoon forests composed mainly of tropical 

deciduous hardwoods with thin canopies and with grassy ground cover. They prefer 

open grasslands or savannas. Now they are confined to habitat fragments in 

Burmese deciduous forests with open understories. 

Social Organization: The males and females are separate for most of the year 

except during breeding season. Females herd into family groups with their young, 

and males are solitary. 

Conservation Status: There are said to be 2000-3000 Burmese Eld’s deer still living 

along the large rivers in Burma. Few mammalian genera have been so extensively 

affected by people. On one hand, various species of Cervus, including Eld’s deer, 

have been introduced to many areas beyond their natural range. There has also 

been much manipulation of herds in an effort to improve big game hunting. On the 

other hand, excessive hunting and habitat modification have resulted in drastic 

declines in the natural distribution and numbers of most species. The most seriously 

jeopardized populations are found mainly in the less-developed parts of the world. 

Problems vary, but generally involve uncontrolled hunting for food and commerce, 

and usurpation of habitat by the growing number of people. 

27

Sources: Kurt, Fred. “True Deer.” Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: 

McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume V, pages 174-175. 

Monfort, Steven L., Christen M. Wemmer, and William J. McShea. “Ecological 

Correlates of Reproductive Seasonality in the Eld’s deer (Cervus eldi thamin) in 

Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary, Myanmar.” 1997 Research Proposal. 



1209-1212. 

28

CLOUDED LEOPARD 

(Panthera nebulosa) 

Carnivore 

Description: The clouded leopard is frequently described as bridging the gap 

between big and small cats. It has very short legs and a long, bushy tail, and its coat 

is brown or yellowish-gray and covered with irregular dark spots and blotches 

resembling clouds. There are broad black bands on the face and large spots and 

broad bands on the neck and legs; the tail also bears broad, dark bands at regular 

intervals. It weighs 16 to 23 kg (35 to 50 lbs) and stands 25 to 41 cm (10 to 16 

inches) high at the shoulder. It is a skilled tree-climber, even descending the trunks 

with its head pointed downward. The skull is long, low, and narrow. 

Teeth: Clouded leopards, like other cat species, have three pairs of incisors and one 

pair of canines in both the upper and lower jaws. The upper canine teeth are the 

longest, relative to its size, than those of any other living cat. There are 2-3 

premolars in the upper jaw and two pairs in the lower jaw. The first upper premolar 

is greatly reduced or absent, leaving a wide gap between the canine and the molars. 

They have one pair of molars in both jaws, for a total of 28-30 teeth. Their last 

upper molar is small and round. 

Diet: The chief prey of the clouded leopard are monkeys, small deer, wild boars, 

cattle, young buffalo, goats, birds, and even porcupines which it ambushes from the 

trees or stalks from the ground. It may also take birds, rodents and domestic 

poultry. The leopard depends primarily on animals that live on the ground for food. 

Range: The clouded leopard lives in the evergreen rainforests at the foot of the 

Himalayas throughout Indo-China, and on Taiwan, Hainan, Sumatra, and Borneo. 

Habitat: Little is known about the clouded leopard in the wild. It was previously 

thought to be highly arboreal based on anecdotal observations. However, there is no 

field evidence to support this assumption. It now appears that trees are used 

primarily for resting sites, and clouded leopard movements are typically terrestrial. It 

prefers the deep forest far away from human habitation. It is known to Malaysians 

as the “tree tiger.” 

Social Organization: Because the clouded leopard is such a secretive forest animal, 

much of the knowledge of its social behavior comes from observations in zoological 

facilities. In captivity, they show a preference for monogamist pairings, which is very 

unusual in felines. Mating pairs are most successful when animals are introduced 

before their first year of age. After that time, introductions can be extremely 

29

dangerous because of aggression, and males will often injure or even kill females. 

The females bear two to four young, which reach independence in under one year. 

Conservation Status: The clouded leopard is a classic example of a species that is 

known to be rare and whose numbers, in spite of the ban on trade, are dwindling 

because in many parts of its range, the forests continue to be destroyed. Clear 

cutting of forests for use as agricultural lands is its primary threat, as the clouded 

leopard requires large tracts of forest for hunting. It has been poisoned as well, 

either as a livestock predator or for its coat, which is worth over $2,000 in the black 

market. Because it is extremely difficult to breed in captivity, the Conservation & 

Research Center is studying ways of using assisted reproduction (artificial 

insemination and in vitro fertilization) to breed clouded leopards. 

Sources: Clouded Leopard Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. 2/91. SSP Coordinator: 

John Lewis - John Ball Zoological Gardens - 1300 W. Fulton Street - Grand Rapids, MI 

49504. 

Leyhausen, Paul. “Clouded leopard.” Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals. New 

York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume IV, pages 3-6. 


edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Page 

1083. 

30

GOELDI’S MONKEY 

(Callimico goeldii) 

Omnivore 

Description: Adult goeldi’s monkeys are brownish black, with buffy markings on the 

back of the neck and two or three light buff-colored rings on the basal part of the 

tail. Head and body length is 21 to 23.5 cm (8.4 to 9.4 inches), tail length is 25.5 

to 32.5 cm (10.2 to 13 inches), and adult weight is 393 to 860 grams (13.8 to 30 

ounces). 

Teeth: The goeldi’s monkey has two pairs of incisors, one pair of canines, and three 

pairs of premolars and molars in both the upper and lower jaws. This amounts to 36 

teeth in total. 

Diet: Its diet includes fruit, insects, and some vertebrates. 

Range: This species occurs in the upper Amazonian rain forests of Columbia, eastern 

Ecuador, eastern Peru, western Brazil, and northern Bolivia. 

Habitat: It prefers deep, mature forests and is relatively rare in areas accessible to 

people. It is found most frequently in the understory and on the ground. 

Social Organization: They live in relatively small groups centered on a mated adult 

pair. Litter size is normally one, and within a few weeks of birth the father or an 

older sibling takes responsibility for carrying the young. Sexual maturity is attained 

at an age of 18 to 24 months. 

Conservation Status: It is an extremely endangered species, and its natural rarity 

makes it vulnerable to such adverse factors as habitat destruction and hunting. 

Source: Goeldi’s Monkey Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. SSP Coordinator: Melinda 

Pruett-Jones, Brookfield Zoo, 3300 South Golf Road, Brookfield, IL 60513. 


edition, Volume I. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Page 

392. 

31

LONG-NOSED ARMADILLO 

(Dasypus novemcinctus) 

Specialized Carnivore (Insectivore) 

Description: The skin of the armadillo is remarkably modified to provide a doublelayered 

covering of horn and bone over most of the upper surface and sides of the 

animals, and some protection to the underparts and limbs. The covering consists of 

bands or plates, connected or surrounded by flexible skin. The long-nosed armadillo, 

often referred to as the 9-banded armadillo, actually usually has 8 bands in the 

northern and southern parts of its range, and 9 in the central part of the range. The 

top of the head has a shield, and the tail is usually encased by bony rings or plates. 

The body is mottled brownish and yellowish white. 

Teeth: The skull is flattened, and the lower jaw is elongate. Armadillos have no 

incisors or canines in either jaw. The teeth are small, peglike, ever growing, and 

numerous. They have between 7-25 cheek teeth, the premolars and molars are 

indistinguishable. The total number of teeth ranges from 28-100. 

Range: South-central and southeastern United States to Peru and northern 

Argentina, Grenada in the Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, and Tobago. 

Habitat: Long-nosed armadillos are partial to dense shady cover and limestone 

formations, from sea level to 3,000 meters elevation. 

Diet: They feed on mostly on insects (beetles and ants) and other invertebrates. 

Social Organization: They travel singly, in pairs, or occasionally in small bands. They 

are terrestrial in habit, powerful diggers and scratchers, and mainly nocturnal. When 

not active they usually live in underground burrows. Armadillos generally give birth 

to several identical young produced from a single ovum. The young are covered with 

a soft, leathery skin, which gradually hardens with age. 

Sources: Lavies, Bianca. It’s an Armadillo! New York: E. P. Dutton, 1989. 



460-461, 466-467. 

32

MANED WOLF 

(Chrysocyon brachyurus) 

Carnivore 

Description: The maned wolf is an unusual looking animal with extremely long legs, 

large ears and long pointed face. It is known affectionately to some people as the 

“fox on stilts.” It is larger than a coyote, standing three feet tall at the shoulder and 

weighing approximately 23 kg (50 lbs). It has golden-red fur, black legs and a black 

mane on the back of its neck and shoulders. It is thought that its long legs allow it 

to travel and see better in tall grasslands. It often walks with an unusual pacing gait, 

where the pairs of legs on each side of its body move together instead of 

alternately. The long legs are an adaptation to the tall grass; maned wolves are 

amblers, which is quite unusual for predatory animals. 

Teeth: Canids have three pairs of incisors in both upper and lower jaws, for a total 

of twelve. They have one pair of canines and four pairs of premolars in both jaws. In 

the upper jaw, the number of molars range from 1-4, while the lower jaw has 

anywhere between 2-5 pairs. Their last upper molar is relatively large and 

transversely elongate. 

Diet: Interestingly, while the maned wolf is a carnivore, the main items in its diet are 

fruits, particularly lobeira, a small tomato-like berry, along with a more “usual” 

carnivore diet of small mammals such as rodents and rabbits, and insects. When 

food is readily available, the maned wolf stores it away; it digs a hole with the 

forepaws, places the food in it, and closes the hole with its snout. 

Range: The maned wolf is found in South American grasslands and scrub forest of 

Brazil, northern Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia. 

Habitat: Maned wolf habitat is the grassy steppe, arid bush forest, wet wooded 

islands, dried river beds, and swampy areas. 

Social Organization: Maned wolves are solitary animals most of the year. A male 

and female pair share the same territory, but interact mainly during the breeding 

season. The female bears two to four pups, which the male may help rear. They 

have no natural enemies, but it is afflicted with a number of parasites. The maned 

wolf is active at dusk and at night. However, in areas that are untouched by human 

activity, they are also active during the day. 

Conservation Status: The maned wolf has almost no natural enemies, but 

nevertheless is in great danger because it needs wide, uninterrupted spaces. With 

33

its habits and striking appearance, it is not suited to follow the development of 

civilization. 

Sources: Maned Wolf Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. rev. 5/94. SSP Coordinator: 

Melissa Rodden, NZP Conservation & Research Center, 1500 Remount Road, Front 

Royal, VA 22630. 



957-958. 

34

MATSCHIE’S TREE KANGAROO 

(Dendrolagus matschiei) 

Herbivore 

Description: Tree kangaroos are marsupials, and are the only members of the 

kangaroo family which live in the trees. Matschie’s tree kangaroos range in size from 

6.8-18 kg (15 to 40 lbs). Despite their life in the trees, these animals lack the 

opposable thumb or prehensile tail of opossums. They differ from terrestrial 

kangaroos in having shorter, wider hind feet and a long, narrow tail that is used for 

balance. All four feet have heavy, curved claws that aid in climbing. It is among the 

most brilliantly colored of marsupials; its back is red or mahogany brown, its face, 

belly, and feet are bright yellow, and its tail is mostly yellow. The long, well-furred 

tail is of nearly uniform thickness and acts as a balance; it is not prehensile, but is 

often used to brace the animal when climbing. 

Teeth: The kangaroo family, Macropodidae, is characterized by three pairs of 

incisors in the upper jaw and one pair of incisors in the lower. The number of canines 

in the upper jaw range from 0-1, while the lower jaw contains no canines. Tree 

kangaroos have two pairs of premolars and four pairs of molars in both upper and 

lower jaws. This makes a total of 32-34 teeth. The upper and lower incisors are 

large and sometimes grow horizontally. The upper canine, if present, is relatively 

small. 

Diet: Tree kangaroos feed primarily on tree leaves, but also eat flowers, grass and 

fruit, which are digested in their sacculated stomachs by fermenting bacteria. 

Range: Tree kangaroos are found only on the island of New Guinea and in 

northeastern Australia. 

Habitat: Dense tropical forests from sea level to nearly 3000 meters (10,000 ft) in 

altitude are home to the tree kangaroo. These animals live in extremely inhospitable 

and inaccessible mountain forests. 

Social Organization: Little is known about the tree kangaroo in the wild. Most 

species of tree kangaroo appear to be solitary. It appears that females keep a 

territory of a few acres, while males have larger territories which overlap those of 

several females. The female has a single joey which, like those of other marsupials, 

is born small and quite undeveloped. It climbs unassisted into the pouch where it will 

stay for approximately 10 months. Joeys continue to nurse for several months after 

permanently leaving the pouch. 

35

History: Tree kangaroos are especially interesting to zoologists because of their 

unique history. They are a living model for the total reversal of a direction of 

specialization, the gradual adaptations of which are evident in a number of species. 

Both zoologists and the general public find it extraordinary that a family of lightfooted, 

jumping animals living mainly in such habitats as scrub, plains, and rocky 

terrain should include several arboreal species. Finally, they seem poorly equipped 

for this habitat. The tree kangaroo is not able to “hop” like the ground dwelling 

kangaroos. Rather, it usually takes little hopping steps, in which the two forelegs 

and the two hind legs alternately touch the ground. 

It seems likely that tree kangaroos returned to the arboreal lifestyle because of their 

primitive browsing ancestors’ quest of succulent leafy sustenance. 

Conservation Status: Tree kangaroos are primarily threatened by hunting for meat 

and habitat destruction from logging, mining, oil exploration and agriculture. 

Sources: Collins, Larry R. “Big Foot of the Branches.” Zoogoer. July-August 1986, 

pages 15-18. 



88-89. 

Tree Kangaroo Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. rev. 5/94. SSP Coordinator: Valerie 

Thompson, San Diego Zoo, PO Box 551, San Diego, CA 92112. 

36

PERE DAVID’S DEER 

(Elaphurus davidianus) 

Herbivore 

Description: The most unusual thing about Pere David’s deer is the stags’ antlers, 

which are reminiscent of giant roots. While two knobby antler beams rise vertically 

out of the frontal bone, they sprout very bizarrely shaped side branches - not 

forward, but rather toward the rear. The summer pelage, reddish tawny and mixed 

with gray, is much shorter than the grayish buff winter pelage. A mane is present on 

the neck and throat. 





Diet: Although it supplements its grass diet with water plants in the summer, it is 

essentially a grazing animal. 

Range: It formerly inhabited the broad, swampy plains of the large river valleys of 

China. It is now extinct in the wild. 

Habitat: Pere David’s deer may have originally inhabited swampy, reed-covered 

marshlands. 

Social Organization: Females are clustered into “hinds,” or large groups. Adult 

males keep to themselves for about 2 months before and 2 months after the mating 

season. When the mating season begins, a stag joins with a group of females (now 

his harem) and fights off all other males. After all the females have come into heat 

and been impregnated by the stag, he leaves the harem to feed. 

History and Conservation Status: These animals liked to browse in open spaces, 

thus making them more easily hunted and their population was reduced early on. 

Only thanks to the avid collecting of a powerful, animal-loving Emperor of China was 

a herd captured and installed in the imperial park of Nan Hai-tsu south of Peking. 

This, at least, preserved the species in captivity. In the wild, though, its eradication 

continued until, in 1939, the last known Pere David’s deer living in the wild was shot 

not far from the Yellow Sea. 

It was a mere historic coincidence that led to the discovery and thus eventual rescue 

of the Pere David’s deer. A Jesuit priest, Armand David, negotiated with the 

Emperor and obtained permission to import several pairs to European zoos. 

37

Subsequently, the emperor’s game park in China was destroyed by floods and the 

deer that were held there were killed. The Duke of Bedford, in his spacious game 

park in England, recognized that the species was at risk of complete extinction. He 

took care to provide a well thought-out breeding program for increasing the 

population. It succeeded beyond all expectations. Preservation of the Pere David’s 

deer is considered to this day an exemplary instance of zoologically-based animal 

conservation though planned breeding in captivity. 

Sources: Butzler, Wilfried. “Pere David’s Deer.” Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals. 

New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume V, pages 161-164. 



1212-1213. 

38

PERSIAN ONAGER 

(Equus hemionus onager) 

Herbivore 

Description: The onager, or wild ass, has a general body form that is thick headed, 

short legged, and stocky. They are tawny colored. The tail is moderately long, with 

the hairs reaching at least to the middle of the leg when the tail is hanging down. 

Their bodies are heavily haired with a mane on the neck and a lock of hair on their 

forehead, known as the forelock. 

Teeth: The onager has three pairs of incisors and 0-1 pair of canines in both the 

upper and lower jaws. The incisors are shaped like chisels, the enamel on the tips 

folding inward to form a pit, or “mark,” that is worn off in early life. The cheek teeth 

have a complex structure. They are high crowned, with four main columns and 

various infoldings with much cement. They have 3-4 pairs of premolars in the upper 

jaw and three pairs of premolars in the lower jaw. They also have three pairs of 

molars in both jaws, for a total of 36-42 teeth. 

Diet: Onagers are entirely vegetarian in habit, feeding mainly on grass, although 

some browsing in the low branches of trees and shrubs is done. They drink water 

daily; however, onagers can go for longer periods without water than can any other 

species of equid, and they are remarkably capable of surviving on a minimum of food 

and under hot and difficult conditions. 

Range: They are located in the desert and dry steppe zone from Syria and Iraq to 

Manchuria and western India. 

Habitat: The onager is found mostly in desert plains, sparsely covered with low 

shrub. 

Social Organization: Members of this species live in unstable groups of variable 

composition, and there is no indication of permanent bonds between any adult 

individuals. 

Conservation Status: The wild asses of Asia have declined drastically though such 

factors as excessive hunting, habitat deterioration, transmission of disease from 

livestock, and interbreeding with the domestic donkey. 

Source: Nowak, Ronald M. and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of the World. 

4th edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. 

Pages 1157-1163. 

39

PRZEWALSKI’S HORSE 

(Equus ferus przewalskii) 

Herbivore 

Description: The Przewalski’s horse, also known as the Asian or Mongolian wild 

horse, is the only true wild horse that exists today. It is small and sturdy with a 

sandy-colored coat and a short stiff mane. It has a thick neck and heavy head, and 

dark legs often with faint striping and a dark stripe down the back. In Mongolia, the 

wild horse is known as “takhi” which means “spirit” or “spiritual” in Mongolian. The 

species is a symbol of the Mongolian national heritage. 

Teeth: The Przewalski’s horse has three pairs of incisors and 0-1 pair of canines in 

both the upper and lower jaws. The incisors are shaped like chisels, the enamel on 

the tips folding inward to form a pit, or “mark,” that is worn off in early life. The 

cheek teeth have a complex structure. They are high crowned, with four main 

columns and various infoldings with much cement. They have 3-4 pairs of premolars 

in the upper jaw and three pairs of premolars in the lower jaw. They also have three 

pairs of molars in both jaws, for a total of 36-42 teeth. 

Diet: Grasses make up the diet of the Przewalski’s horse. 

Range: Though they are thought to be extinct in the wild, Przewalski’s horses 

formerly ranged over Mongolia, China, and the Soviet Union. They were last seen in 

the wild during the 1960s in the Gobi, which accounts for roughly the southern third 

of Mongolia. 

Habitat: Grassy plains and steppes of central Asia make up its habitat. It requires 

access to drinking water. 

Social Organization: The herd structure of the Przewalski’s horse is highly 

developed, with a dominant stallion defending his group. Young males are ejected 

from the herd prior to their reaching sexual maturity. A hierarchy exists among the 

females of the herd and a lead mare often guides the herd in grazing activities. 

Conservation Status: The Przewalski’s horse was driven into extinction in the wild by 

hunting and encroachment of domestic animals grazing in their habitat. The horses 

were forced further back in the desert where they had difficulty finding adequate 

water. However, zoos saved the wild horse from dying out altogether by breeding 

the species. All of the approximately 1,200 wild horses alive today are descended 

from 12 that were caught in the wild around 1900. 

40

Today’s Przewalski’s horse population enjoys remarkably good genetic health. The 

two largest of the four breeding programs are the Species Survival Plan (SSP) in 

North America, which has about 190 horses in 21 zoos including the CRC, and the 

European equivalent (EEP), which has about 600 horses in 16 countries. The two 

other breeding programs are in Holland and Australia. 

While the breeding in zoos has been a tremendous success, the ultimate goal of a 

breeding program is to re-establish free-ranging, self-sustaining populations of the 

species in the wild. Unfortunately, rather than coordinating with each other, each 

breeding program has promoted its own idea for how and where to reintroduce the 

species. Right now, the best hope for successfully reintroducing wild horses is a 

program in the Hustain Nuruu Steppe Reserve, which lies in the low, rolling mountains 

of central Mongolia and was historically protected as a khan hunting preserve. The 

reserve’s wild horse reintroduction program is a joint effort of the Mongolian 

Association for Conservation of Nature and the Environment and the Foundation 

Reserves for the Przewalski Horse. Even if the Hustain Nuruu program achieves its 

goal of establishing a free-ranging, self-sustaining population of wild horses, more 

reintroduction sites will be required to secure the species’ future in the wild. 

Sources: Meadows, Robin. “Takhi: The Last Wild Horse.” Zoogoer. September/ 

October 1997, pages 16-21. 



1157-1163. 

Przewalski Horse Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. 10/90. SSP Coordinator: Oliver 

Ryder - Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species - Zoological Society of San 

Diego - PO Box 551 - San Diego, CA 92112. 

Volf, Jiri. “Przewalski’s Horse.” Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals. New York: 

McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume IV, pages 588-598. 

41

PUDU 

(Pudu puda) 

Herbivore 

Description: Pudus are the world’s smallest deer species. The hairs of the coat are 

long, coarse and brittle. The general coloration of the pudu ranges from rufous to 

dark brown or gray. The legs and feet are generally tawny. The male pudus have 

short spike antlers, which, like all deer, they shed annually and then sprout anew. 





Diet: Pudus eat fruit that has fallen from trees, along with herbs, and juicy shoots. 

The preferred food seems to consist of ferns, vines, shrubs, and the foliage of small 

trees. Pudus generally seek their food as they slowly move along, nibbling on a leaf 

here and on a fruit there, then on a tender twig and sometimes grazing on the 

ground. Pudus can survive for a long time without drinking water. 

Range: The Southern pudu exists today only in the rainforests of the temperate 

zone of Chile and Argentina. As with most South American deer, the life of these 

animals in the wild has barely been explored; because of their small size, secretive 

habits and the inaccessibility of their habitat, hardly anyone has observed pudus. At 

one time, they were widespread in the foothills, valleys, and lowlands of the Andes. 

Habitat: The habitat of the southern pudu is characterized by a mild, wet winter and 

a short, dry summer. It lives in the deciduous forests, some of which are evergreen, 

from sea level up to an elevation of about 3 km (9600 ft). They prefer the dark, 

dripping wet underbrush of the rainforest, especially bamboo groves. The luxuriant 

foliage provides them not only with food, but also with protection and the possibility 

of hiding from predators like the puma. 

Social Organization: Little is known about the social organization of pudus in the 

wild. They appear to live in small groups. 

Conservation Status: In recent years, the destruction of their habitat, the 

competition of the roe deer and fallow deer that were introduced from Europe, and 

the forays of feral domestic dogs have substantially reduced the distribution and 

number of the pudus. 

42

Sources: MacNamara, Mark. “Pudus.” Grzimek’s Encyclopedia of Mammals. New 

York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume V, pages 223-226. 



1219-1221. 

43

RED PANDA 

(Ailurus fulgens) 

Herbivore 

Description: The red or lesser panda is much smaller than the more famous giant 

panda and more closely resembles a raccoon in size and appearance. Although their 

relationship has been debated for 150 years, red pandas are now known to be 

related to raccoons while giant pandas belong to the bear family. The red panda has 

a bright orange-red woolly coat with black legs, and black underside and a long, 

ringed tail. It has a white face with orange-red “tear-tracks” on its cheeks. Although 

the red panda is a capable climber, it seems to do most feeding on the ground. 

Teeth: The lesser panda has three pairs of incisors and one pair of canines in both 

jaws. The number of premolars varies from 3-4 pairs in both jaws, oftentimes the 

upper first premolar is missing, and the lower one is also either small or missing. 

There are two pairs of molars in the upper jaw and 2-4 pairs in the lower jaw, leaving 

a total of 36-40 teeth. The last upper molar is relatively large and rounded. The 

molars and premolars are extremely well-adapted to crushing bamboo, the lesser 

panda’s principal food. 

Diet: Red pandas feed almost exclusively on bamboo. During the short growing 

season, they may also feed on fruit, berries or seeds. They occasionally eat small 

animals and, rarely raid domestic crops. Their diet comprises bamboo, grasses, 

acorns, roots, berries, and lichens, although it will also sometimes eat eggs or young 

birds. 

Range: One subspecies lives in southwestern China and northern Burma, and the 

other is found in the Himalayas of India and Nepal. 

Habitat: Red pandas live at an altitude between 1,000 to 3,000 meters (3,000 to 

12,000 ft) in forests with dense bamboo growth. 

Social Organization: Red pandas are largely nocturnal in habit. Except for the brief 

relationship between mother and young, they lead solitary lives. The female has one 

to three cubs, which reach maturity at one and a half years of age. Females require 

tree hollows or other naturally occurring shelters for raising their young. During 

daylight hours, they can be found sleeping in trees. 

Conservation Status: Habitat destruction is the main threat to the red panda. China 

and Nepal have rapidly growing human populations and their need for timber, fuel 

and grazing land causes widespread losses of forested land that supports bamboo 

44

undergrowth. Young pandas are killed by domestic and feral dogs, while poachers 

hunt them for the fur and pet trades. 

Sources: Barrett, Norman. Picture Library: Pandas. London: Franklin Watts Ltd., 

1988. Pages 6, 25, 28. 

Laidler, Keith and Liz. Pandas: Giants of the Bamboo Forest. London: BBC Books, 

1992. 


edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Page 

978. 

Red Panda Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. rev. 5/94. SSP Coordinator: Miles 

Roberts - National Zoological Park - 3001 Connecticut Avenue, NW - Washington D.C. 

20008. 

Schaller, George B. The Last Panda. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 

1993. 

45

SABLE ANTELOPE 

(Hippotragus niger) 

Herbivore 

Description: The sexes of the sable antelope resemble each other. They have 

pronounced facial markings; some also have black markings on their forelegs and 

hind legs as well as a dark band on the side. Their underparts are white. Its English 

name is frequently translated incorrectly into German as saber antelope. The saber 

antelope, however, is a completely different animal, and the English word “sable” has 

nothing to do with a saber, but means somber or dark. Only the adult bulls are really 

pitch black (on the upper part of their bodies). The cows and young bulls are blackbrown 

to reddish-brown, and the calves are light brown. They have a well-developed 

and often upright mane on the nape; a short mane on the throat; a moderately long 

tail with a tufted tip; large, long, and pointed ears; and long white hairs below the 

eyes. The large, curving horns, borne by both sexes, are stout and heavily ringed, 

and rise at an obtuse angle from the plane of the face. When fully developed, the 

horns can reach up to 4 feet long! 

Teeth: The sable antelope has no upper incisors or canines. They do have three 

pairs of incisors and 0-1 pair of canines in the lower jaw. They have three pairs of 

premolars in the upper jaw and 2-3 pairs of premolars in the lower jaw. There are 

also three pairs of molars in both the upper and lower jaws. The total number of 

teeth is 30-32. The surfaces of their molars have a smooth texture. 

Diet: They feed primarily on grass, but the sable may also browse extensively in the 

dry season. 

Range: They live in the savanna zone from southeastern Kenya to Angola and 

eastern South Africa. 

Habitat: These antelopes occur in a variety of habitats, but generally the sable 

requires some wooded country, such as tree and brush savannas, gallery forests, 

sparse coppices near water, in flat and hilly country, also in park land and dense 

brushy forests. 

Social Organization: More than 50 individuals may herd together at any one time. 

The herds consist mostly of females and young, and are dominated by a single adult 

male. Their enemies are the lion, leopard, Cape hunting dog, hyena, crocodile. 

Conservation Status: Sable antelopes in Angola are endangered, possibly 

exterminated during that country’s civil war. However, as a result of large protected 

46

areas containing national park lands, the species is vulnerable although not directly 

threatened. 

Sources: Nowak, Ronald M. and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of the World. 

4th edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 

1983. Pages 1262-1264. 


Mammals. New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume V, pages 437-448. 

47

SCIMITAR-HORNED ORYX 

(Oryx dammah) 

Herbivore 

Description: Scimitar-horned oryx have brown and white face masks that recall the 

head markings of the gazelles.They are creamy white with a brown neck and chest. 

The tail is tufted, and males have a tuft of hair on the throat. The ears are fairly 

short, broad, and rounded at the tips. Both sexes have horns that can be up to 4 

feet long. Their horns curve back in a large arc, like a “scimitar,” or large sweeping 

sword. 

Teeth: The oryx has no upper incisors or canines. They do have three pairs of 

incisors and 0-1 pair of canines in the lower jaw. They have three pairs of premolars 

in the upper jaw and 2-3 pairs of premolars in the lower jaw. There are also three 

pairs of molars in both the upper and lower jaws. The total number of teeth is 30- 

32. The surfaces of their molars have a smooth texture. 

Diet: The oryx diet consists of grasses and herbs, juicy roots and fruits, melons, 

leaves, buds, and bulbs. They drink when water is available, but they can go without 

for several days. 

Range: Originally found in the semidesert zones from Morocco and Senegal to Egypt 

and the Sudan in the Sahara region as well as the northern extremities of Burkina 

Faso and Nigeria in the Sahel region. It ranged from Rio de Oro and Senegal to the 

Nile and from the southern edge of the Atlas Mountains to the Sudan in its overall 

range from West to East 100 years ago. Since then, this “game of the desert” has 

been exterminated in this vast area through ruthless hunting. 

Habitat: Found in barren steppes, semideserts, and deserts and sometimes wooded 

savannas. It migrates across its range nomadically, following rainfall. These animals 

usually live on arid plains and deserts, but in some areas they also inhabit rocky 

hillsides and thick brush. 

Social Organization: Generally found in groups of 20-40 individuals (mostly females 

and young with one dominant male), but at certain times of the year, in areas of 

fresh pasture or surface water after rainfall, or during the wet season migrations, 

herds may contain 1,000 animals or more. Enemies are the lion, leopard, Cape 

hunting dog, hyena; for calves, also the cheetah, jackal, caracal. 

Conservation Status: The scimitar-horned oryx is listed as critically endangered, i.e. 

facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. There 

have been no reported sightings of the species in the wild since the late 1980s. 

48

Until systematic surveys are conducted, the status of the species in the wild will 

remain uncertain. The main causes of decline are due to hunting, habitat loss, and 

drought. 

Sources: Nowak, Ronald M. and John L. Paradiso. Walker’s Mammals of the World. 

4th edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 

1983. Pages 1265-1266. 

Scimitar-Horned Oryx Species Survival Plan Fact Sheet. SSP Coordinator: Alan Rost, 

Jacksonville Zoo, 8605 Zoo Parkway, Jacksonville, FL 32218. 


Mammals. New York: McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990. Volume V, pages 437-448. 

UNEP Convention on Migratory Species. Workshop on the conservation and 

restoration of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes. 19-23 February 1998, Djerba, Tunisia. 

49

TIGER QUOLL 

(Dasyurus maculatus) 

Carnivore 

Description: The tiger quoll is a marsupial which is very similar to the North 

American opossum. The upper parts are mostly grayish, or olive brown to dark rufous 

brown. All individuals of the genus have prominent white spots or blotches on the 

back and sides. The quoll can occasionally attain a weight of 6.8 kg (15 lbs), but 

the females reach only 4 kg (9 lbs) at most. All species are terrestrial, but can climb 

well. All are nocturnal, but some are occasionally seen by day. It may follow its prey 

for over 4 km (2 1/2 miles) in one night. They occasionally raid poultry yards and 

are, therefore, disliked by farmers, but they probably also benefit humans by 

destroying many mice and insect pests. 

Teeth: The quoll has four pairs of incisors in the upper jaw and three pairs in the 

lower jaw. They have one pair of canines, 2-3 pairs of premolars, and four pairs of 

molars in both jaws for a total of 42-46 teeth. The lower incisors are approximately 

equal in size. Their canines are well developed and their molars have three cusps. 

Diet: The tiger quoll is a carnivore, but also will eat vegetable matter when it is 

desperate. They mostly eat small rodents and birds, and they can sometimes catch 

animals as large as wallabies. 

Range: Originally found in Eastern Australia and Tasmania. 

Habitat: Habitats include dense, moist forest. 

Social Organization: They are solitary, and males and females only come together 

for a brief courting and mating period. Litter size is 4-6 young. The young are 

weaned after 3 months and reach full maturity by 10-11 months. 

Conservation Status: The species has been exterminated on mainland Australia; and 

in Tasmania, the tiger quoll has become rare because of a disease which wiped out 

whole populations at the beginning of the twentieth century. In Queensland, the 

disappearance of the tiger quoll has been blamed on the toxic cane toad, which was 

introduced from South America to control sugar cane beetles and is poisonous to 

animals which try to eat it. 


4th edition, Volume I. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. 

Pages 36-38. 

50

WESTERN TUFTED DEER 

(Elaphodus cephalophus cephalophus) 

Herbivore 

Description: The western tufted deer is a dainty deer with a body covered in coarse, 

spinelike hairs that give it a shaggy appearance. The general color of the upper 

parts is deep chocolate brown, the underparts are white, and the head and neck are 

gray. The antlers of this species are almost completely hidden by the tuft on the 

forehead. Both sexes “bark” when suddenly alarmed (also during the mating 

season). 


have 0-1 pair of canines in both jaws. The male western tufted deer’s upper canine 

teeth are elongated into tusks, which curve strongly outward from the lips; they are 

thus capable of inflicting serious injuries to dogs and other animals. They have three 

pairs of premolars and molars in both the upper and lower jaws, for a total of 32-34 

teeth. The surfaces of their molars have a smooth texture. 

Diet: The diet includes grasses and other vegetation. 

Range: The single species occurs in eastern and southern China, and in northern 

Burma. 

Habitat: The tufted deer inhabits areas of dense vegetation at elevations of 900- 

2600 meters, and is said always to be found near water. 

Social Organization: They are usually solitary, but occasionally they travel in pairs. 

Conservation Status: Very little is known about the occurrence and habits of this 

elusive deer species and its status in the wild is not certain. The knowledge gained 

by the study and breeding of this species in zoos will be crucial in conserving them in 

the future. 


4th edition, Volume II. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. 

Pages 1202-1204. 

51

Appendix 5: Vocabulary List 

Students should have an awareness of the following vocabulary list in preparation for 

the Nutrition Education Program: 

Approximate - more or less exact (often symbolized using “~”) 

Canine - the conical teeth located between the incisors and the premolars. 

Carnivore - an animal that eats mostly animals (meat). 

Characteristics - a distinguishing attribute, element, or trait. 

Classification - the systematic grouping of organisms into categories based on 

shared characteristics or traits. 

Cusp - a projection (bump) on the chewing surface of a tooth (e.g. “bicuspid” means 

“tooth with two cusps”). 

Dentition - the type, number, and arrangement of teeth, especially in animals. 

Diet - an animal’s usual food and drink. 

Equal - of the same quantity, size, number, value, degree, intensity, quality, etc. 

(often symbolized using “=”) 

Function - assigned duty or activity. 

Habitat - the environment in which an organism or biological population usually lives 

or grows. 

Herbivore - an animal that eats mostly plants. 

52

Hypothesis - an explanation for a set of facts that can be tested by further 

investigation. 

Incisor - a cutting tooth at the front of the mouth. 

Molar - a tooth with a broad crown for grinding food, situated behind the premolars 

at the back of the mouth. 

Nutrition - the process by which a living organism processes food and uses it for 

growth and tissue replacement. 

Omnivore - an animal that eats both plants and animals. 

Premolar - one of the bicuspid teeth located on both sides of the upper and lower 

jaws behind the canines and in front of the molars. 

Range - the geographic region in which a given plant or animal normally lives. 

Scientific name - the latin name for the genus and species of an organism usually 

designated by italics. Example: Homo sapiens for humans. 

Skull - the framework of the head of vertebrates, made up of the bones of the brain 

case and face. 

Species - a group of organisms that look alike and can reproduce amongst 

themselves. 

Structure - the manner in which parts are arranged or combined to form a whole. 

Appendix 6: Additional resources 

“What’s For Dinner?” 

Ask students to go home and make a list of everything that they have for dinner 

that evening. In the classroom, ask the students to work alone or in groups to 

analyze which teeth they used to eat which type of food. Then have them 

determine why they used each type of tooth to process each type of food. They 

should compare this information to the knowledge they gained analyzing skulls from 

herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores the previous day. Questions: Is anyone 

53

missing any teeth? Do they have problems eating certain foods? What do they do 

to compensate? Is anyone in the class a vegetarian? Do they eat their dinners using 

different teeth than their omnivorous classmates? 

Other Related Subjects: 

Food Web 

Producer, Consumer, Decomposer 

Predator-Prey 

Complex consumer categories: insectivore (eats insects), folivore (eats leaves), 

granivore (eats grains), nectivore (eats nectar), frugivore (eats fruit), etc. 

54

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