Prophet Muhammad and the Black Arabs - Dr. Wesley Muhammad
Prophet Muhammad and the Black Arabs - Dr. Wesley Muhammad
Prophet Muhammad and the Black Arabs - Dr. Wesley Muhammad
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1. Introduction<br />
<strong>Prophet</strong> <strong>Muhammad</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Black</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong>:<br />
The Witness of Pre-Modern Chinese Sources<br />
By<br />
<strong>Wesley</strong> <strong>Muhammad</strong>, PhD © Copyright <strong>Wesley</strong> <strong>Muhammad</strong> 2011<br />
China has a remarkable Sinophone Muslim community, <strong>the</strong> Hui, which is at least 1300<br />
years old <strong>and</strong> may actually go back to <strong>the</strong> time of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong> <strong>Muhammad</strong> (d. 632) who,<br />
according to Chinese Muslim tradition, is supposed to have sent ambassadors to China to teach<br />
Islam [Lipman 1997; EI 2 s.v. al-Sin]. Numbering around nine million today, this Chinese Muslim<br />
community began as Arab (<strong>and</strong> later Persian <strong>and</strong> Central Asian) migrants (diplomats, traders,<br />
soldiers) during <strong>the</strong> T’ang dynasty (618-907) who settled, married local women <strong>and</strong>, through a<br />
long <strong>and</strong> gradual process of assimilation <strong>and</strong> acculturation, became nearly totally sinicized<br />
[Leslie, 1998; idem, 187; Israeli, 1979; Lipman, 1997].<br />
This community of Islam is remarkable on a number of accounts: (1) While Islam arrived<br />
in China around <strong>the</strong> same time Judaism <strong>and</strong> Christianity did, <strong>the</strong>se latter along with o<strong>the</strong>r nonindigenous<br />
religious traditions like Manichaeism failed to survive <strong>the</strong> purge of all things<br />
foreign by <strong>and</strong> during <strong>the</strong> Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Islam not only survived this purge, but<br />
prospers, a fact that continues to raises questions for researchers. (2) Chinese Islam survived<br />
<strong>and</strong> prospers despite its near-total isolation from <strong>the</strong> centers of Islamic spirituality <strong>and</strong> learning<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Middle East [Chuah, 2004]. It was not until <strong>the</strong> 18 th-19 th centuries that Chinese Muslim<br />
scholars had access to enough Arabic <strong>and</strong> Persian literature to develop a Muslim apologetic<br />
literature of <strong>the</strong>ir own <strong>and</strong> a Chinese translation of <strong>the</strong> complete Qur’an did not appear until <strong>the</strong><br />
19 th century [Peterson, 2006]. What has sustained Islam in this sometimes hostile environment<br />
for so long?<br />
Despite this geographical <strong>and</strong> intellectual isolation, but also because of it, Chinese annals<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hui traditions prove to be an important alternative source of information for a<br />
reconstruction of early Arabian Islam. In particular, <strong>the</strong> relevant pre-Modern Chinese sources –<br />
Muslim religious literature as well as official dynastic histories – confirm what we learn from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Western Christian (Crusader) sources <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Late Antique <strong>and</strong> Medieval Jewish sources:<br />
that <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> that erupted out of Arabia in <strong>the</strong> seventh century <strong>and</strong> established probably <strong>the</strong><br />
greatest empire in <strong>the</strong> last six thous<strong>and</strong> years were black-skinned <strong>Arabs</strong>, descendents of <strong>the</strong><br />
African Arabian (Afrabian) inhabitants of ancient Arabia [on which see <strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011;<br />
idem, 2009]. These non-Arabic sources - non-Muslim <strong>and</strong> Muslim - challenge popular<br />
conceptions about <strong>Arabs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Islam that are mainly based on late Arabic <strong>and</strong> Persian Muslim<br />
literature <strong>and</strong> iconography. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>the</strong>se sources agree with an earlier Arabic<br />
tradition wherein <strong>Arabs</strong> self-identify as black (<strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2010; Berry, 2002).<br />
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2. <strong>Muhammad</strong>: Chinese Islam’s <strong>Black</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong><br />
The Hui have a foundation myth that both recounts <strong>the</strong> origin of Islam in Zhong Guo,<br />
‘<strong>the</strong> Middle Kingdom (i.e. China),’ <strong>and</strong> also seeks to provide meaning to Chinese Muslim<br />
existence as both Chinese <strong>and</strong> Muslim - heirs to a dual legacy of civilizational greatness. This<br />
popular myth, called Huihui yuanlai (‘Origins of <strong>the</strong> Hui’) circulated in several oral versions<br />
among different Chinese Muslim communities before being committed to writing sometime<br />
during <strong>the</strong> Ming. It was no doubt revised during <strong>the</strong> Qing dynasty (1644-1911).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Third Year of Zen Guan [Tai Zong] of <strong>the</strong> Tang Dynasty (r. 629-649), in <strong>the</strong><br />
evening of <strong>the</strong> 18th of <strong>the</strong> third month, <strong>the</strong> Emperor in his sleep dreamed that a<br />
turbaned man came running into <strong>the</strong> palace grounds, chasing after a demon. He woke<br />
up <strong>and</strong> was puzzled by <strong>the</strong> dream, for he knew not what it foretold. On <strong>the</strong> following<br />
day he assembled all <strong>the</strong> officials of <strong>the</strong> court to discuss <strong>the</strong> matter.<br />
The Imperial Astronomer respectfully reported to <strong>the</strong> Emperor, saying: “In <strong>the</strong> night, as<br />
I observed <strong>the</strong> appearance of <strong>the</strong> heaven, I saw a strange <strong>and</strong> evil appearance which<br />
impinged on <strong>the</strong> Tzu wei star, <strong>and</strong> I feared this might portend trouble for <strong>the</strong> Empire; I<br />
also saw in <strong>the</strong> West a felicitous light brightly manifested <strong>and</strong> encircling <strong>the</strong> Tzu wei star<br />
as a wall of protection. I opine that in <strong>the</strong> west <strong>the</strong>re must be a sage who can control <strong>the</strong><br />
threatened evil; would it not be well for your Majesty to send a messenger to enquire, in<br />
obedience to <strong>the</strong> heavenly portents?”<br />
The Emperor <strong>the</strong>n said: “At midnight I dreamed of a turbaned man <strong>and</strong> a demon which<br />
had a black face, red hair, large <strong>and</strong> prominent teeth, <strong>and</strong> was of very evil appearance<br />
generally. The man in <strong>the</strong> turban, with his h<strong>and</strong>s clasped <strong>and</strong> murmuring prayers,<br />
pursued <strong>the</strong> demon closely. To look on, he (<strong>the</strong> turbaned man) indeed had a strange<br />
countenance, totally unlike ordinary men; his face was <strong>the</strong> color of black gold, his ear<br />
lobes reached his shoulders, his whiskers stood outward, his moustache <strong>and</strong> beard were<br />
cut off, short <strong>and</strong> even; he had phoenix eyebrows, a high nose <strong>and</strong> black eyes. His<br />
clo<strong>the</strong>s were white <strong>and</strong> powdered, a jeweled girdle of jade encircled his loins, on his<br />
head was a plain hat, <strong>and</strong> around it a cloth turban like a coiled dragon. His presence was<br />
awe-inspiring <strong>and</strong> dreadful to behold, as might be that of a sage descending to <strong>the</strong><br />
palace. When he entered he knelt towards <strong>the</strong> West, reading <strong>the</strong> book he held in his<br />
h<strong>and</strong>. When <strong>the</strong> demons saw him <strong>the</strong>y were at once changed into <strong>the</strong>ir proper forms,<br />
<strong>and</strong> in distressful voices pleaded for forgiveness. But <strong>the</strong> turbaned man read on for a<br />
little, till <strong>the</strong> demons turned to blood <strong>and</strong> at last to dust, <strong>and</strong> at <strong>the</strong> sound of a voice <strong>the</strong><br />
turbaned man disappeared. Now,” <strong>the</strong> Emperor continued, “whe<strong>the</strong>r this be a good or<br />
an ill omen I’m sure I don’t know.”<br />
Thereupon <strong>the</strong> diviner of dreams reported: "The turbaned man is a Huihui (i.e. Muslim)<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Western Region, out beyond <strong>the</strong> Jiayu Pass. The kingdom of Arabia is ruled by<br />
a Muslim king of great knowledge <strong>and</strong> virtue. His l<strong>and</strong> is rich <strong>and</strong> powerful. The demon<br />
2
entering <strong>the</strong> palace grounds surely means that <strong>the</strong>re is evil lurking, which you will only<br />
be able to dispel with <strong>the</strong> help of a Huihui"…<br />
The general reported: "The Huihui are impeccably honest in <strong>the</strong>ir dealings. If you meet<br />
with <strong>the</strong>m peacefully, <strong>the</strong>y will serve you loyally <strong>and</strong> with no care for reward. You may<br />
send an emissary to <strong>the</strong> Western Region to see <strong>the</strong> Muslim king, <strong>and</strong> request <strong>the</strong> services<br />
of an enlightened one (zhenren) to keep <strong>the</strong> portended evil at bay."<br />
The Emperor did as was advised, <strong>and</strong> sent <strong>the</strong> senior official Shi Mingtang on a mission<br />
to present a letter to <strong>the</strong> Muslim king. [He travelled to Mecca <strong>and</strong> saw <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong><br />
<strong>Muhammad</strong>]. The Muslim king was delighted upon receiving <strong>the</strong> letter, <strong>and</strong> sent with<br />
<strong>the</strong> official his senior disciples (Thabit b. Qays), Uways <strong>and</strong> (Sa’d b. Abī Waqqās) to<br />
China to offer <strong>the</strong>ir services. <strong>Muhammad</strong> said to <strong>the</strong> official: “When you return to China<br />
take with you my portrait to give to <strong>the</strong> king of T’ang, who when he sees it, will<br />
naturally underst<strong>and</strong> (about <strong>the</strong> dream)…” He <strong>the</strong>n charged <strong>the</strong> official that when <strong>the</strong><br />
portrait was given to <strong>the</strong> king of T’ang, it was clearly to be told him that no one was to<br />
worship <strong>the</strong> picture…<br />
The Emperor received <strong>the</strong>m with full honors, <strong>and</strong> asked what were <strong>the</strong> ritual <strong>and</strong><br />
scriptural differences between his l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> China. The turbaned man (Sa’d or Qays)<br />
replied that <strong>the</strong> revealed scripture of <strong>the</strong> Western Region was called <strong>the</strong> Quran, which<br />
could be likened to <strong>the</strong> Five Classics of China. He <strong>the</strong>n expounded <strong>the</strong> difference<br />
between Eastern <strong>and</strong> Western ritual <strong>and</strong> teachings.<br />
The Emperor was delighted, <strong>and</strong> so selected 3,000 T’ang soldiers to move to <strong>the</strong> Western<br />
Region, in exchange for 3,000 Muslim soldiers to accompany <strong>the</strong> turbaned elder in<br />
China. These 3,000 Muslims had countless descendants, <strong>and</strong> are <strong>the</strong> ancestors of <strong>the</strong><br />
followers of Islam in China today. [Broomhall, 1966 [1910]: 64-67; Mason, 1929: 46-53;<br />
Lunde, 1985: 12]<br />
The apocryphal nature of this story is fairly obvious to those familiar with Chinese<br />
history <strong>and</strong> religious literature [Israeli, 2001: 191; Garnaut, 2006; Mason, 1929: 53]. The literary<br />
use of <strong>the</strong> motif of “<strong>the</strong> Emperor’s <strong>Dr</strong>eam” to justify a faith newly introduced to China also<br />
appears in legendary accounts of <strong>the</strong> origin of Buddhism in China, according to which emperor<br />
Han Mingi (57-75) in 64 C.E. had a dream of a person from <strong>the</strong> West identified by an interpreter<br />
as Buddha. The Emperor thus sent envoys to <strong>the</strong> Indus region to find out all about <strong>the</strong> new<br />
religion [Israeli, 2001: 192, 204; Broomhall, 1966 (1910): 68; Parker, 1907: 64]. It is also <strong>the</strong> case<br />
that references to events that occurred much later can be discerned in this story, such as <strong>the</strong><br />
eighth century rebellion of An Lushan against <strong>the</strong> Chinese emperor Xuan Zong (712-756) which<br />
brought, by his request, 3000 Muslim soldiers to China who settled <strong>the</strong>re <strong>and</strong> whose<br />
descendants became a part of <strong>the</strong> nucleus of <strong>the</strong> developing Hui community. This myth is a<br />
‘community biography,’ aimed at legitimizing Arabian Islam within a Chinese cultural <strong>and</strong><br />
political environment [Benite, 2004: 85; Israeli, 2002: 62]. Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong>re is undoubtedly a<br />
3
‘grain of truth’ underneath all of <strong>the</strong> apologetic accretions [Hongxun, 1985; Sushalo, 1971: 42-43<br />
(Dyer, 1981-1983: 563); Stratanovich, 1954: 52-66 (Dyer, 1981-1983: 563)].<br />
One quite fascinating piece of this grain of truth is no doubt <strong>the</strong> remarkable description<br />
of <strong>the</strong> turbaned Muslim who appears in <strong>the</strong> Emperor’s dream <strong>and</strong> who turns out to be <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Prophet</strong> <strong>Muhammad</strong> himself (See Endnote 1). Singularly arresting is <strong>the</strong> description of his<br />
color: black gold. What could this possibly mean <strong>and</strong> what is <strong>the</strong> source of this very eccentric<br />
Chinese description of Islam’s prophet? <strong>Black</strong> gold, one of several ‘colored golds’ used for<br />
jewelry, is gold with a black oxidide layer resulting from a cobalt component <strong>and</strong> heat<br />
treatment. As eccentric as such a description may seem vis-à-vis <strong>the</strong> popular, though late,<br />
Arabic/Persian description found in <strong>the</strong> more central Muslim l<strong>and</strong>s according to which<br />
<strong>Muhammad</strong> is ruddy white, this Chinese description actually is curiously consistent with an<br />
earlier Arabic description, a description, we should add, that is more in agreement with <strong>the</strong><br />
ethno-cultural context of Jahili <strong>and</strong> early Islamic Arabia [on which see Reynolds, 1992; Berry,<br />
2002].<br />
The most common description of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong> in Arabic sources of <strong>the</strong> ninth century, <strong>the</strong><br />
date of <strong>the</strong> earliest extant Arabic Islamic literature, is abyad [<strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011: 2 n. 9]. This term<br />
usually means ‘white’ in contexts not related to human complexion. In <strong>the</strong> latter context,<br />
however, by antiphrasis abyad frequently means black [Stewart, 1999: 119; Shivtiel, 1991:336].<br />
But in Classical Arabic <strong>the</strong>re are several distinct ‘blacknessess’ or ‘shades of blackness’ [al-<br />
Asyuti, 1992, II: 574; al-Tha‘labī, 2006: 81-82]. Abyad is a particular shade or ‘type’ of blackness.<br />
According to <strong>the</strong> important Syrian hadith scholar <strong>and</strong> historian of Islam, Shāms al-Dīn Abū<br />
`Abd Allāh al-Dhahabī (d. 1348),<br />
When <strong>Arabs</strong> say, ‘so-<strong>and</strong>-so is white (abyad),’ <strong>the</strong>y mean a golden brown complexion<br />
with a black appearance (al-hintī al-lawn bi-hilya sudā’). And if <strong>the</strong>y are speaking of <strong>the</strong><br />
color of <strong>the</strong> people of India, <strong>the</strong>y say: more or less dark brown (asmar wa ādam). And<br />
regarding <strong>the</strong> blackness of <strong>the</strong> people of Takrur <strong>the</strong>y say aswad, intensely black, <strong>and</strong><br />
similarly all those whose complexion is overwhelmingly black are called aswad or shadīd<br />
al-udma.. [al-Dhahabī, 1981, II: 168]<br />
Abyad, <strong>the</strong> most common descriptor of <strong>Muhammad</strong>, is, like this black gold, a black<br />
complexion with a golden-brown undertone <strong>and</strong> it is a complexion free of blemish or dark<br />
patches [al-Asyuti, 1992, II: 574; Ibn Manzur, 1955-1956, IV: 209; al-Zabīdī, 1965, XVIII: 251-253].<br />
Abyad, like <strong>the</strong> black gold analogy, also suggests a ‘black luminosity,’ viz. a black complexion<br />
that is imbued with a luminosity or glow [<strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2010a: 23-25]. This is <strong>the</strong> ideal of beauty<br />
in early Arab society [al-Zabīdī, 1965, XVIII: 251; Ibn Manzur, 1955-1956, VII: 124; <strong>Muhammad</strong>,<br />
2011: 245; contra Badawī, 1973], <strong>and</strong> gave rise to <strong>the</strong> metaphoric use of coal (ano<strong>the</strong>r ‘black<br />
gold’) to describe Ethiopian blackness. See e.g. <strong>the</strong> words of <strong>the</strong> epigrammatist Ascelepiades (fl.<br />
300-270 B.C.E.) who wrote concerning a certain Didyme:<br />
4
Gazing at her beauty I melt like wax before fire. If she is black, what is that to me? So are<br />
coals, but when we burn <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong>y shine like fire [Anth. Pal. 5.210].<br />
This association of ethnic blackness with coals alit is relevant here, not only because ‘black gold’<br />
is a common metaphor for coal, but also because in Arabic coal is euphemistically called abyad<br />
[EI 2 s.v. Lawn]. It should be noted here that in early Arabic society a beautiful, clear <strong>and</strong><br />
luminous blackness was distinguished from an ‘ugly’ blackness, blemished by excessiveness<br />
due to scorching [Ibn al-Faqīh al-Hamadānī, 1996: 199; al-Dimashqī, 1923:274]. It is thus<br />
unsurprising that we find in this Hui myth <strong>the</strong> black gold complexion of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong> in implied<br />
contrast to <strong>the</strong> black <strong>and</strong> generally evil appearance of <strong>the</strong> demon.<br />
There is an alternative version of this myth of <strong>the</strong> Chinese Emperor’s dream that is<br />
relevant also:<br />
One night <strong>the</strong> Emperor Tai Zong of <strong>the</strong> Tang dynasty dreamt that a roof beam of his<br />
golden palace was collapsing. The roof beam nearly smashed his head, but it was<br />
intercepted <strong>and</strong> pushed back by <strong>the</strong> right h<strong>and</strong> of a man. The man wore a green robe,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a white turban was around his head. He had a towel draped over his should <strong>and</strong> a<br />
water kettle in his left h<strong>and</strong>. He had deep eye sockets, a high nose bridge, <strong>and</strong> a brown<br />
face. [Li <strong>and</strong> Luckert, 1994: 237; Benite, 2004: 83]<br />
While this version of <strong>the</strong> myth continues in a way similar to <strong>the</strong> above, our attention is<br />
drawn to <strong>the</strong> description of <strong>the</strong> turbaned Muslim, <strong>Muhammad</strong>: here he is brown complexioned.<br />
This too is consistent with what we find in <strong>the</strong> Classical Arabic tradition. In two reports on <strong>the</strong><br />
authority of <strong>the</strong> famous Companions Anas b. Mālik <strong>and</strong> ‘Abd Allāh b. ‘Abbās <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong> is<br />
described as having a “beautiful brown-complexioned (asmar) body” [See sources in<br />
<strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011: 20]. Asmar is a color term denoting a dark brown, short of black [Borg, 1999:<br />
129; Stewart, 1999: 111-112; Vollers, 1910: 88]. Thus, <strong>the</strong> two descriptions of <strong>the</strong> Arabian prophet<br />
that feature in <strong>the</strong> central <strong>and</strong> most wide-spread myth of Chinese Islam – indeed <strong>the</strong> defining<br />
myth – precisely correspond to <strong>the</strong> two descriptions we meet with in <strong>the</strong> early Arabic literature.<br />
But this general description of <strong>Muhammad</strong> as a very dark-skinned Arab more or less<br />
completely disappears from <strong>the</strong> Arabic literature of a later period <strong>and</strong> is replaced by what will<br />
become <strong>the</strong> orthodox <strong>and</strong> popular description of <strong>Muhammad</strong>: abyad musrab bi-humra, ruddy<br />
white-skinned [see <strong>Muhammad</strong> 2011:25-28]. Being that <strong>the</strong> black-skinned <strong>Muhammad</strong><br />
completely disappears from <strong>the</strong> Arabic Islamic tradition <strong>and</strong> is almost totally forgotten, <strong>and</strong> that<br />
<strong>the</strong> ruddy-white <strong>Muhammad</strong> becomes universally recognized throughout Muslim <strong>and</strong> non-<br />
Muslim literature <strong>and</strong> iconography, how is it that Chinese Islam clung to this black Arab<br />
<strong>Muhammad</strong> for so long?<br />
The Chinese myth is difficult to date, but a printed version of it was probably in<br />
circulation in <strong>the</strong> late Ming period (ca. 1622), certainly by <strong>the</strong> early Qing [Leslie, Daye <strong>and</strong><br />
Youssef, 2006: 144; Leslie, 1981: 55; Garnaut, 2006; Benite, 2004: 84]. However, as Anthony<br />
5
Garnaut reminds us, legends such as this are <strong>the</strong> material of oral literature, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> earliest<br />
written accounts represent only <strong>the</strong> endpoint of a long process of oral narrative development<br />
[Garnaut, 2006]. Therefore, though <strong>the</strong> narrative as we currently find it is apocryphal <strong>and</strong> its<br />
historical context is late [Ma, 2006], it certainly incorporates ancient Muslim tradition. This Old<br />
Arabic description of <strong>Muhammad</strong> as a dark-skinned Arab is no doubt a part of <strong>the</strong> ancient<br />
Muslim tradition that was brought to China early. Because Chinese Islam was, despite some<br />
sporadic intercourse, intellectually isolated from <strong>the</strong> main centers of Islam, it seems to have<br />
been minimally impacted by <strong>the</strong> major intellectual, culturally, <strong>and</strong> demographic shifts that<br />
occurred in <strong>the</strong> Muslim heartl<strong>and</strong>s following <strong>the</strong> misnomered ‘Abassid Revolution of <strong>the</strong> eighth<br />
century. These shifts I have generally called <strong>the</strong> Aryanizing of Islam, because Persian (Aryan)<br />
converts were <strong>the</strong> main shapers of Islamic tradition following <strong>the</strong> Revolution. Newly<br />
introduced into Islam, among o<strong>the</strong>r things, was a virulent anti-black, anti-Arab sentiment which<br />
ultimately ‘de-Arabized’ <strong>Muhammad</strong> by transfiguring him into a ruddy-white Persian<br />
[<strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011; idem, 2010]. This Aryanizing process seems to have had minimal impact on<br />
Chinese Islam at <strong>the</strong> time this myth of <strong>the</strong> Emperor’s <strong>Dr</strong>eam was canonized <strong>and</strong> popularized.<br />
3. Sa’d b. Abī Waqqās: Chinese Islam’s <strong>Black</strong> Saint<br />
On <strong>the</strong> Dingzhou Mosque, <strong>the</strong> oldest mosque in China located in Dingzhou city, Hebei<br />
Province (in eastern China), <strong>the</strong>re is a stele commemorating <strong>the</strong> rebuilding of <strong>the</strong> mosque in<br />
1348 during <strong>the</strong> Yuan dynasty (1206-1368). The stele mentions briefly: “In <strong>the</strong> Kaihuang reign<br />
(581-600) of <strong>the</strong> Sui, our Companion Sa’d Waqqas (Sa Ha Bo Sa Ha Di Wo Ge Si) first brought<br />
<strong>the</strong> teaching to China.” The is <strong>the</strong> oldest documented reference to <strong>the</strong> canonical Hui legend<br />
according to which <strong>the</strong> maternal uncle of <strong>the</strong> prophet <strong>Muhammad</strong>, Sa’d b. Abī Waqqās (d. 664),<br />
<strong>the</strong> conqueror of Persia <strong>and</strong> founder of Kufa, came to China on instructions from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> introduced Islam <strong>the</strong>re [See Ma, 2006]. There is a tomb built in his honor in Guangzhou in<br />
sou<strong>the</strong>astern China, where Arab <strong>and</strong> Persian maritime merchants formed communities as far<br />
back as <strong>the</strong> Tang dynasty (618-907). This account of Chinese Islam’s origin is also found in<br />
official records, such as <strong>the</strong> Ming dynasty’s official history Ming Shi, which was commenced in<br />
1370 <strong>and</strong> published in 1461. There it is stated: “Sahib Sa’d Waqqas came to China in <strong>the</strong> years of<br />
K’ai Huang of <strong>the</strong> Sui Dynasty (i.e. between 581-600).”<br />
Never<strong>the</strong>less, most scholars reject this claim as completely legendary [e.g. Broomhall,<br />
1966 (1910): 77-79; Mason, 1922: 3; EI 2 s.v. al-Sin; Jun-yan, 1980: 95]. The main reasons, o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than <strong>the</strong> relatively late documentation, are two: (1) <strong>the</strong> impossible dates offered in <strong>the</strong> various<br />
versions of <strong>the</strong> narrative (e.g. <strong>Muhammad</strong> sending Islamic ambassadors ten years before he had<br />
his <strong>Prophet</strong>ic call) <strong>and</strong> (2) <strong>the</strong> lack of Arabic documentation of a trip by Sa’d to China, coupled<br />
with <strong>the</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ard Muslim tradition that he died in al-Aqīq <strong>and</strong> was buried in Medina [EI 2 s.v.<br />
Sa’d b. Abī Wakkās]. The latter argument is unpersuasive. The assumption by Western scholars<br />
that Sa’d “never came to China” is baseless. While such an embassy is not mentioned in <strong>the</strong><br />
extent Arabic historical sources, <strong>the</strong>se have lacunae as it relates to Sa’d. His activities between<br />
6
648 <strong>and</strong> 653 are unrecorded, <strong>and</strong> it is precisely during this period (i.e. 650) that this embassy<br />
likely happened (see below), though obviously not on <strong>the</strong> instruction of <strong>Muhammad</strong> who had<br />
been dead for several years by <strong>the</strong>n [Pickens, 1942: 203].<br />
Nor is <strong>the</strong> chronological problem insurmountable. Errors, chronological <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rwise,<br />
as it relates to <strong>the</strong> rise of Islam are certainly found in <strong>the</strong> dynastic annals <strong>and</strong> should not<br />
surprise us [Wakeman, 1990: 409-411, n. 176]. In addition, <strong>the</strong> date most commonly offered in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Hui sources for this embassy, 628, is likely wrong on <strong>the</strong> surface, but it also probably has an<br />
accurate date underneath it. Scholars now know that <strong>the</strong> conversion of Muslim lunar dates to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Chinese luni-solar calendar introduced a twenty-one/two year error into <strong>the</strong> Chinese<br />
retelling of Islamic history. When corrected for this error, <strong>the</strong> Chinese Muslim date of <strong>the</strong><br />
embassy, 628, becomes 649-650 <strong>and</strong> agrees precisely with <strong>the</strong> date we get from <strong>the</strong> official<br />
annals for such an embassy (Leslie, 1998: 11 <strong>and</strong> below). Hui tradition <strong>and</strong> Chinese official<br />
records thus agree, suggesting that <strong>the</strong>y “have a foundation in fact” [Pickens, 1942: 208; <strong>Dr</strong>ake,<br />
1943: 23; Hongxun, 1985]. Even though <strong>the</strong> Hui tradition undoubtedly has legendary accretions,<br />
<strong>the</strong> basic claim that Islam first came to China in <strong>the</strong> seventh century with an Arab embassy (that<br />
included Sa’d) has nothing militating against it [Lipman, 1997: 25; Leslie, 1998: 3].<br />
According to Hui tradition, Sa’d <strong>and</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r Arab ambassador, Thabit b. al-Qays, are<br />
among <strong>the</strong> forefa<strong>the</strong>rs of <strong>the</strong> Hui. Their alleged tombs in Guangzhou <strong>and</strong> Hami, Xinjiang are<br />
holy centers to which distressed Believers travel seeking blessings <strong>and</strong> praying for protection<br />
[Garnaut, 2006; Hongxun, 1985; Gladney, 1987: 497-500]. These saints of Chinese Islam are black<br />
<strong>Arabs</strong>. Sa’d b. Abī Waqqās, cousin of <strong>the</strong> prophet’s mo<strong>the</strong>r, Amīna bt. Wahb <strong>and</strong> uncle of<br />
<strong>Muhammad</strong>, was from <strong>the</strong> Banū Zuhra <strong>and</strong> was thus described as black-skinned (ādam), flatnosed<br />
<strong>and</strong> tall [al-Dhahabī, 1981, I:97; Berry, 2002:71-72]. Thabit b. al-Qays was chieftain of Banū<br />
Khazraj, a tribe notorious for having black skin [see <strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011: 16-17; idem, 2009: 178-<br />
180; Berry, 2002: 68-69]. He was <strong>the</strong> first of Yathrib to swear allegiance to <strong>Muhammad</strong>. These<br />
two famous black-skinned <strong>Arabs</strong> are considered <strong>the</strong> forefa<strong>the</strong>rs of Islam in China <strong>and</strong> are<br />
among Chinese Islam’s most holy figures, Sa’d certainly <strong>the</strong> holiest, second only to <strong>Muhammad</strong>.<br />
4. The <strong>Black</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> in Official Chinese Records<br />
China had contacts with Western Asia as early as <strong>the</strong> pre-Imperial Period, before <strong>the</strong><br />
second century B.C.E. Envoys of <strong>the</strong> Han dynasty (206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.) with caravan reached<br />
Arabia ca. 206 B.C.E. As late as <strong>the</strong> fifth century C.E. during <strong>the</strong> Liu-Sung dynasty (420-479 C.E.)<br />
Chinese trading ships had anchored in <strong>the</strong> Gulf <strong>and</strong> traded with <strong>Arabs</strong>. Formal relations with<br />
Arabia, however, began only with <strong>the</strong> T’ang dynasty (618 -907 C.E.), which was contemporary<br />
with <strong>the</strong> rise <strong>and</strong> zenith of Arabian/Islamic power [Baojun, 2001: 80; Jun-yan, 1980: 91;<br />
Bretschneider, 1929; idem, 1871].<br />
In 638 Yazdigird III, gr<strong>and</strong>son of Chosroes <strong>and</strong> Sasānian ruler of Persia, sent an embassy<br />
to China appealing to <strong>the</strong> T’ang emperor, T’ai-tsung, for assistance against <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> who had<br />
invaded his realm. Yazdigird’s son <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> last Sasānian ruler, Fīrūz, made a similar appeal in<br />
7
650. This is not surprising. Chinese-Persian relations were quite intimate before <strong>the</strong> rise of <strong>the</strong><br />
Muslim <strong>Arabs</strong>. Over thirty Persian embassies from 455 to 651 are noted in Chinese sources <strong>and</strong><br />
trade <strong>and</strong> diplomacy flourished between <strong>the</strong> two countries. Persian (Mazdean) temples were<br />
established in China <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> relatively accurate accounts in official Chinese sources of pre-<br />
Islamic Persian customs <strong>and</strong> religion suggest that real communication was taking place [Leslie,<br />
1998: 3-4]. Fīrūz’s appeal for assistance was made while he, his son, <strong>and</strong> thous<strong>and</strong>s of his<br />
followers were given asylum in China. The T’ang emperor declined to offer military assistance,<br />
however, but did send an embassy to <strong>the</strong> Caliph Uthman to plead <strong>the</strong> case of his Persian ally. In<br />
return, Uthman sent an embassy to China in 650 bearing tribute. This was <strong>the</strong> beginning of<br />
formal relations between <strong>the</strong> Islamic <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> T’ang dynasty.<br />
Between 650 <strong>and</strong> 798 <strong>the</strong> Muslims will send thirty-nine formal embassies to China [Junyan,<br />
1980: 93]. Official Chinese records document <strong>the</strong>se embassies, though <strong>the</strong> Arabic historical<br />
tradition makes little mention of <strong>the</strong>m. This latter circumstance, no doubt a consequence of <strong>the</strong><br />
above mentioned lacunae which characterizes <strong>the</strong> Arabic tradition, makes <strong>the</strong> Chinese sources<br />
that much more valuable [Gibb, 1923]. While <strong>the</strong> Chinese records possess gaps of <strong>the</strong>ir own <strong>and</strong><br />
are prone to <strong>the</strong> occasional error, some of <strong>the</strong>m are contemporary with <strong>the</strong> events <strong>the</strong>y record<br />
<strong>and</strong> in general show a good awareness of <strong>the</strong> major events in <strong>the</strong> Muslim world through <strong>the</strong><br />
reign of <strong>the</strong> ‘Abbāsid caliph Hārūn al-Rashīd (786-809). These sources show Chinese awareness<br />
of: <strong>the</strong> rise of <strong>Muhammad</strong> (though <strong>the</strong> account is garbled); <strong>the</strong> Arab/Muslim conquests <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
rise of <strong>the</strong> caliphate; some caliphal ceremonial; Mu’awīya, <strong>the</strong> first Umayyad caliph, <strong>and</strong> his<br />
unsuccessful siege of Constantinople; <strong>the</strong> Quraysh tribe <strong>and</strong> its political division between <strong>the</strong><br />
Banū Marwān (i.e. <strong>the</strong> Umayyads) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Banū Hāshim (i.e. <strong>the</strong> ‘Abbāsids), <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> latter’s<br />
overthrow of <strong>the</strong> former. These sources also demonstrate accurate Chinese awareness of Arab<br />
Muslim ethnicity.<br />
The oldest relevant T’ang source at our disposal is <strong>the</strong> T’ung Tien, an encyclopedic<br />
administrative tract written by <strong>the</strong> T’ang official Tu yu (d. 812). After 36 years Tu yu completed<br />
<strong>the</strong> work <strong>and</strong> presented it to <strong>the</strong> throne in 801. As a high official Tu yu would have had access<br />
to governmental archives. He also used as a source <strong>the</strong> first-h<strong>and</strong> account of his nephew, Tu<br />
Huan. Tu Huan was taken prisoner after Arab <strong>and</strong> Chinese forces clashed at <strong>the</strong> Battle of Talas<br />
in 751. He was incarcerated in Iraq until 762, when he was allowed to return to China. Tu Huan<br />
made a record of his observations of <strong>the</strong> Muslims during his incarceration, <strong>and</strong> this record was<br />
utilized by Tu yu. One portion of <strong>the</strong> T’ung Tien is a section dealing with <strong>the</strong> ‘western<br />
barbarians (His jung),’ a history of China’s relations with <strong>the</strong> peoples on its western frontier:<br />
Central Asia, Nor<strong>the</strong>rn India, Sassānian Iran, Tibet, <strong>the</strong> Roman Orient, Arabia [Wakeman, 1990].<br />
Arabia, called Ta-shi, is described in <strong>the</strong> last section, which reads in part:<br />
During <strong>the</strong> Yung-Hui period (650-651) of <strong>the</strong> Great T’ang dynasty, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> (Ta-shi)<br />
dispatched missions to China. Their country is said to be located to <strong>the</strong> west of Persia or<br />
alternatively, it was said that <strong>the</strong>y were originally Persian Hu who, apparently with [a<br />
spirit’s aid], obtained swords <strong>and</strong> killed…<strong>the</strong> men of <strong>the</strong> country have large noses. They<br />
8
are slender in shape <strong>and</strong> dark brown in color. They have heavy beards <strong>and</strong> whiskers,<br />
like <strong>the</strong> Indians. Their women are graceful <strong>and</strong> pretty [trans. Behbehani, 1989: 99,<br />
modified with Wakeman, 1990: 892-904].<br />
This is likely <strong>the</strong> earliest extent reference to <strong>the</strong> embassy of 650. Some comment on this<br />
text is in order. Prior to <strong>the</strong> rise of <strong>the</strong> caliphate <strong>the</strong> Chinese considered Arabia a part of Persia.<br />
This is no doubt <strong>the</strong> context of <strong>the</strong> “alternative” account that <strong>the</strong> Arabians were originally<br />
Persian (clients), before <strong>the</strong>ir rise to independent power <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir extinguishing of Sassānian<br />
Persia [Broomhall, 1910: 8; <strong>Dr</strong>ake, 1943: 23]. But <strong>the</strong> Chinese sources distinguished between<br />
ethnic <strong>Arabs</strong>, called Ta-shi, <strong>and</strong> ethnic Persians, called Bosi [Leslie, 1998: 11]. This nomenclature<br />
is significant. As is frequently noted, <strong>the</strong> Chinese double-character term for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong>, Ta-shi,<br />
doubtlessly derives from <strong>the</strong> Persian Tā-zī. The latter is <strong>the</strong> Persianized form of <strong>the</strong> Syriac<br />
tayyāyē, which properly means “Arab of <strong>the</strong> tribe of Tayyi’”[EI 2 s.v. al-Sin; Behbehani, 1989: 93].<br />
The Banū Tayyi’ were a sou<strong>the</strong>rn Arabian tribe that migrated north <strong>and</strong> who became one of <strong>the</strong><br />
most prominent tribes in pre-Islamic Arabian history [EI 2 s.v. Tayyi’]. It had important relations<br />
with Persia <strong>and</strong> its clients, <strong>the</strong> Lakhmids of Iraq. They were so prominent in Pre-Islamic Arabia,<br />
in fact, that <strong>the</strong>ir specific name became <strong>the</strong> general term for ‘Arab.’ Sogdian Persians regarded<br />
<strong>the</strong> Tayyi’ as representative of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> in general <strong>and</strong> thus designated <strong>the</strong> latter Tā-zī. The<br />
significance of this point can be fully appreciated only when we consider <strong>the</strong> following<br />
observation by scholar of Arabian ethnography Dana Marniche: “These Yemenite tribes of<br />
Tayyi <strong>and</strong> his bro<strong>the</strong>r Madhj were notoriously black <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> early Arabic writings make clear<br />
that <strong>the</strong>y also held fair-skin in derision or low regard [Marniche, n.d.].” It is thus unsurprising<br />
that Ta-shi or <strong>Arabs</strong> encountered by <strong>and</strong> known to <strong>the</strong> Chinese are described as “dark brown in<br />
color.”<br />
This embassy of dark brown <strong>Arabs</strong> that visited <strong>the</strong> Chinese court in 650 likely included<br />
Sa’d b. Abī Waqqās, <strong>the</strong> dark-brown or black-skinned uncle of <strong>the</strong> prophet <strong>Muhammad</strong><br />
[Pickens, 1942: 210-211]. Note also that this description of <strong>the</strong> Arab as dark brown in color with<br />
an high nose <strong>and</strong> whiskers agrees with <strong>the</strong> description of <strong>Muhammad</strong> himself as recorded in<br />
Chinese Muslim tradition [above].<br />
The second Chinese source treating <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> as encountered during <strong>the</strong> T’ang is <strong>the</strong><br />
official T’ang History (T’ang Shu). In 941 <strong>the</strong> Chin emperor Kao-tsu ordered <strong>the</strong> production of a<br />
full-scale dynastic history of <strong>the</strong> T’ang. This work, <strong>the</strong> Chiu T’ang shu (Old T’ang History), was<br />
completed by <strong>the</strong> chief minister <strong>and</strong> director of National History, Liu Hsü, in 945 <strong>and</strong> presented<br />
to <strong>the</strong> new emperor Shao-ti. A century later an imperial decree went out for a revised version:<br />
<strong>the</strong> Hsin T’ang shu (New T’ang History) was presented to <strong>the</strong> throne in 1060. The description of<br />
Ta-shi (Arabia) <strong>and</strong> its inhabitants is not much different from what we encounter in <strong>the</strong> T’ung<br />
Tien. The Hsin T’ang shu records:<br />
Ta-shi was originally part of Persia. The men have high noses, are black, <strong>and</strong> bearded.<br />
The woman are very fair <strong>and</strong> when <strong>the</strong>y go out <strong>the</strong>y veil <strong>the</strong> face. Five times daily <strong>the</strong>y<br />
9
worship God. They wear silver girdles, with silver knives suspended. They do not drink<br />
wine, nor use music [trans. Mason, 1929: 68-69; cf. Behbehani, 1989: 93].<br />
Here again we find <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> described as black-skinned with high noses. This consistent<br />
presentation in official Chinese sources of ethnic <strong>Arabs</strong> as black-skinned is not unexpected, as<br />
Chinese contact with black <strong>Arabs</strong> continued after <strong>the</strong> beginning of <strong>the</strong> Aryanization of <strong>the</strong><br />
Islamic world, including Arab ethnicity [on which see <strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2010: 22-27]. After <strong>the</strong><br />
misnomered ‘Abbasid revolution of 749-750 ended Islam’s ‘<strong>Black</strong> Dynasty,’ <strong>the</strong> Umayyad<br />
dynasty [see <strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2009: 202-204], <strong>and</strong> catalyzed <strong>the</strong> Aryanization process which would<br />
result in <strong>the</strong> establishment of <strong>the</strong> de-Arabized ‘Abbasid caliphate, some surviving Umayyad’s<br />
(<strong>the</strong> Umayyads were slaughtered after <strong>the</strong> success of <strong>the</strong> revolution) showed up in 760 at <strong>the</strong><br />
court of <strong>the</strong> Chinese emperor Su Zong, who entertained <strong>the</strong>m [Jun-yan, 1980: 93]. There is also a<br />
report that earlier some descendents of Ali (ahl al-bayt) had fled Umayyad persecution to China<br />
[Broomhall, 1910: 20]. Ahl al-Bayt, <strong>the</strong> descendents of Ali, were in <strong>the</strong> main black-skinned [Berry,<br />
2002: 62-65; <strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011: 11-14]. A Qurayshi Arab <strong>and</strong> descendant of <strong>Muhammad</strong>, Ibn<br />
Wahhab, reportedly travelled to China in 870 <strong>and</strong> sought an audience with <strong>the</strong> emperor. He let<br />
it be known at <strong>the</strong> Chinese court that he was ahl al-bayt, ‘family of <strong>the</strong> [<strong>Prophet</strong>’s] house’. Only<br />
after <strong>the</strong> emperor ordered an inquiry into Ibn Wahhab’s familial claims <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>se were<br />
confirmed did he meet with <strong>the</strong> Arab visitor [Israeli, 2000: 317-318; Mason, 1929: 70-75].<br />
5. Conclusion<br />
The pre-modern Chinese records on <strong>the</strong> Arab Muslims as well as <strong>the</strong> religious traditions<br />
<strong>and</strong> memory of China’s peculiar Sino-Muslim community confirm what researchers like myself,<br />
Marniche, Berry <strong>and</strong> a few o<strong>the</strong>rs have been documenting: <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> who spread Islam from<br />
<strong>the</strong> East to <strong>the</strong> West were black-skinned <strong>Arabs</strong>. The <strong>Prophet</strong> <strong>Muhammad</strong> was no exception.<br />
This black-skinned Arab <strong>Muhammad</strong> all but disappears in <strong>the</strong> Arabic/Persian Muslim<br />
literature, replaced <strong>the</strong>re with a ruddy-white Persian <strong>Muhammad</strong>. Not only do hostile Christian<br />
sources preserve <strong>the</strong> black <strong>Muhammad</strong>, however [see <strong>Muhammad</strong>, 2011: 1-2; idem, 2010:1-6];<br />
<strong>the</strong> Chinese Muslims sources do as well. These pre-modern Chinese sources <strong>the</strong>refore make an<br />
immeasurable contribution to our efforts to reconstruct <strong>the</strong> ‘Old’ Arab Islam, <strong>the</strong> Islam of <strong>the</strong><br />
ummah prior to <strong>the</strong> Aryanization processes that resulted in <strong>the</strong> very racist, misogynist, white<br />
supremacist Islam of most of <strong>the</strong> modern Muslim world.<br />
10
Endnotes<br />
1. In one version of <strong>the</strong> Huihui yuan lai it is explicitly stated: “…<strong>the</strong> T’ang Emperor was<br />
greatly pleased to see <strong>the</strong> portrait of <strong>Muhammad</strong>, who was <strong>the</strong> very man he had seen in<br />
his dream. He said, ‘This is <strong>the</strong> very person I saw in my dream…” [Li <strong>and</strong> Luckert, 1994:<br />
247]. In <strong>the</strong> Dungan version, it says also: “The Great Sovereign of <strong>the</strong> Middle Kingdon<br />
(i.e. <strong>the</strong> T’ang Emperor) saw in his dream his worst enemy, <strong>the</strong> monster, <strong>and</strong> his friend,<br />
<strong>the</strong> turban-wearer, who is <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong> of <strong>the</strong> West, <strong>the</strong> Ma hui-hui [<strong>Muhammad</strong>].”<br />
[Dyer, 1981-1983: 555].<br />
Abbreviations <strong>and</strong> References<br />
Al-Asyūtī, <strong>Muhammad</strong> b. Ahmad al-Minhājī. (1992) Jawāhir al-‘uqud wa-mu’īn al-qudāt walmuwaqqi’īn<br />
wal-shuhūd, 2 vols. (Cairo).<br />
Badawī, ‘Abduh. (1971) al-Shu’arā’ al-Sūd wa Khasā’isuhum fī l-Shi’r al-‘Arabī (Cairo).<br />
Baojun, Haji Yusuf Liu. (2001) “The Arrival of Islam in China,” Hamdard Islamicaus 24: 80-81.<br />
Behbehani, Hashim H. (1989) “Arab-Chinese Military Encounters: Two Case Studies 715-751<br />
A.D.,” ARAM 1: 65-112.<br />
Benite, Zvi Ben-Dor. (2004) “From ‘Literati’ to ‘Ulama’: The Origins of Chinese Muslim<br />
Nationalist Historiography,” Nationalism <strong>and</strong> Ethnic Politics 9: 83-109.<br />
Berry, Tariq. (2002) The Unknown <strong>Arabs</strong>: Clear, Definitive Proof of <strong>the</strong> Dark Complexion of <strong>the</strong><br />
Original <strong>Arabs</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arab Origin of <strong>the</strong> So-Called African Americans (n.p., n.p.).<br />
Borg, Alex<strong>and</strong>er. (1999) “Linguistic <strong>and</strong> ethnographic observations on <strong>the</strong> color categories of <strong>the</strong><br />
Negev Bedouin,” The Language of Color in <strong>the</strong> Mediterranean, ed. Alex<strong>and</strong>er Borg (Stockholm,<br />
Almgvist <strong>and</strong> Wiksell International): 121-147.<br />
Bretschneider, E. (1929) “Chinese Mediaeval Notices of Islam,” Muslim World 19: 53-61.<br />
idem. (1871) On <strong>the</strong> Knowledge Possessed by <strong>the</strong> Ancient Chinese of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> <strong>and</strong> Arabian<br />
Colonies <strong>and</strong> O<strong>the</strong>r Western Countries (London, Trübner <strong>and</strong> Co.).<br />
Broomhall, Marshall. (1966[1910]) Islam in China: A Neglected Problem (New York, Paragon<br />
Book Reprint).<br />
11
Chuah, Osman. (2004) “Muslims in China: The Social <strong>and</strong> Economic Situation of <strong>the</strong> Hui<br />
Chinese,” Journal of Muslim Affairs 24: 155-162.<br />
Al-Dimashqī. (1923) Nukhbat al-dahr fī ‘ajā’ib al-barr wa’l-bahr, ed. A. Mehren (Leipzig).<br />
Al-Dhahabī. (1981) Siyar a’lām al-nubalā’, edd. Shu’ayb al-Arna’ūt <strong>and</strong> Husayn al-Asad<br />
(Beirut, Mu’assasat al-Risālah).<br />
<strong>Dr</strong>ake, F.S. (1943) “Mohammedism in <strong>the</strong> T’ang Dynasty,” Monumenta Serica 8: 1-40.<br />
Dyer, Svetlana Rimsky-Korsakoff. (1981-1983) “T’ang T’ai-Tung’s <strong>Dr</strong>eam: A Soviet Dungan<br />
Version of a Legend on <strong>the</strong> Origin of <strong>the</strong> Chinese Muslims,” Monumenta Serica 35:545-70.<br />
EI 2 = The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, ed. J. H. Kramers, H. A. R. Gibb <strong>and</strong> E. Levi-<br />
Provençal (Leiden: Brill, 1954-)<br />
idem. V.2: 698-707 s.v. Lawn by A. Morabia.<br />
idem. XIII: 696-697 s.v. Sa’d b. Abī Wakkās by G.R. Hawting.<br />
idem. IX: 616-625 s.v. Al-Sīn by C. E. Bosworth, M. Hartmann –[C. E. Bosworth], <strong>and</strong> R. Israeli.<br />
idem. X: 402-403 s.v. Tayyi’ by Irfan Shahid.<br />
Frost, Peter. (1990) “Fair Women, Dark Men: The Forgotten Roots of Colour Prejudice,” History<br />
of European Ideas 12: 669-679.<br />
Garnaut, Anthony. (2006) “Hui Legends of <strong>the</strong> Companions of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Prophet</strong>,” China Heritage<br />
Newsletter 5 (March).<br />
Gibb, H.A.R. (1923) “Chinese Records of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> in Central Asia,” Bulletin of <strong>the</strong> School of<br />
Oriental Studies 4: 613-622.<br />
Gladney, <strong>Dr</strong>u C. (1987) “Muslim Holy Tombs <strong>and</strong> Ethnic Folklore: Charters for Hui Identity,”<br />
Journal of Asian Studies 46:495-532.<br />
Hongxun, Yang. (1985) “A Preliminary Discussion on <strong>the</strong> Building Year of Quanzhou Moslem<br />
Holy Tomb <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Au<strong>the</strong>nticity of its Legend,” The Islamic Historic Relics in Quanzhou, ed.<br />
Committee for Protecting Islamic Historical Relics in Quanzhou <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Research Center for <strong>the</strong><br />
Historical Relics of Chinese Culture (Quazhou, Fujian People’s Publishing House) 16-42.<br />
12
Ibn al-Faqīh al-Hamadānī. (1996) Kitāb al-buldān (Beirut, ‘Ālam al-Kutub).<br />
Ibn Manzūr. (1955-1956) Lisān al-‘arab (Beirut: Dār al-Sādir - Dār al-Bayrūt).<br />
Israeli, Raphael. (2002) Islam in China: Religion, Ethnicity, Culture <strong>and</strong> Politics (Lanham,<br />
Lexington Books).<br />
idem. (2001) “Myth as Memory: Muslims in China Between Myth <strong>and</strong> History,” The Muslim<br />
World 91: 185-208.<br />
idem.(1979) “Islamicization <strong>and</strong> Sinicization in Chinese Islam,” Conversion to Islam, ed.<br />
Nehemia Levtzion (New York <strong>and</strong> London, Holmes <strong>and</strong> Meier) 159-176.<br />
Jun-yan, Zhang. (1980) “Relations Between China <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Arabs</strong> in Early Times,” Journal of<br />
Oman Studies 6: 91-109.<br />
Leslie, Donald Daniel. (1981) Islamic Literature in Chinese, Late Ming <strong>and</strong> Early Chi’ing:<br />
Books, Authors <strong>and</strong> Associates (Canberra, Canberra College of Advanced Education).<br />
idem. (1987) “Living with <strong>the</strong> Chinese: <strong>the</strong> Muslim Experience in China, T’ang to Ming,”<br />
Chinese Ideas about Nature <strong>and</strong> Society: Studies in Honor of Derk Bodde ed. Charles Le Blanc<br />
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