Paper # 3 - Rex Research

Band 212. 

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"- ... ,:t. )?y ,/' 

ASTRONOMISCHE NACHRICHTEN. 

l. Two Renrarkable Theorems on the Physical 

Constitution of the Aether. 

In the year rgro Professor E. T' WtittaZrz published, 

under the auspices of the Dtlblin University Press, a valuable 

)History of the Theories of Aether and l)lectricity< from 

the age of Dcsrurtcs to the close of the rgth century. 'Ihe 

title of this useful treatise and the general usage of science 

recognizes that there is some connection bet*'ecn aether 

and electricity, yet in spite of the great learnins shos'n in 

Whittahcr's work, the nature of that connection remains profoundly 

obscure, and the modern investigator thercfore labors 

in vain to obtain any clear light rrpon the subject. 

If we coulcl prove, for example, that an electric curre nt 

is nothing but a series o[ rvaves of a certain type propagated 

in the aether along and fronr the wire which beais the current' 

and also connect these rvaves with rnagnetism and light, 

by an extension of the reasoning thtls laid down, it would 

add so much to ottr understanding of the processes nnderlying 

the unseen operations of the physical rtniverse, as to 

be worthy of aln-rost any effort. Indeed, it woulrl be rvorth 

hazarding any chance offered by the conscientiotts contemplation 

of knorvn phenomena. And thus I ventrtre to adcl 

some considerations, which, without exhausting the subject, 

may open a new field to those rvho have the independence, 

practical energy and firm resolution to ptlrstle pioneer paths 

in science. l'hese untrodden paths alone offer the hope of 

importarit discoveries in the physical universe. 

And first rve Intlst confirnr a new and iurportant tlleorem 

on the velocity of rvave-progagation in monatotnic grrses, 

announced in the first paper, and also make knotvn a new 

and very remarkable rnethod for determining the clensitl' ol' 

Nr. 5079. 15. 

New Theory of the Aether. tsy T. /. /. See. 

: 

(Third I'apcr.) (With 3 Plates.) 

the aether based on an extension of recognized' processeb 

in the theory of sound. As the only method for attacking 

the problem of the density of the aether heretofore known 

is that invented by I-ord ,Kcluin in 1854, this nerv method 

rvill prove extrernely useful as an independent check on the 

numerical values attained in these recondite researches; and 

be found the more valuable because it is absolutely decisive 

against the doctrine of a large deirsitj' for the aether, which 

has recentll' exerted in science an influence both baneful 

and hervildering. 

; 

(i) 'l'he nerv theorem u -- rf zrt l/, connecting the mean 

molecr.rlar velocity of a monatomic gas with the velocity of wavepropagation, 

by means of half the Archimedean number, exactly 

confirnred bl' observrtion in case of oxygen and nitrous oxide. 

Since finishing the first paper on the New 1'heory of 

the Aether, Jan. r4, r9zo, I have had occasion to discuss 

the nerv theorem 

I - rf,rr It (') 

connecting the rrlean rnolecular velocitv of a rnonatonric gas 

and the velocity of wave-propagation, b1' means of half the 

Archinredean number ru, ivith the celcbrated English physicist 

Sir Oliuu F.odgt, on the occasion of a public address 

at San lirancisco, April l r, rg2o. And as Sir Oliucr Lodgc 

kinrlly shos'ed a great interest in this theorem, regarded it 

as \/ery important, and urged me to extencl the u.'"c of the 

theorem, I have searched for other gases to rvhich it might 

be accnrately applied. 

'fhe 

obscrvecl data givcn in the follorving supplementary 

table are taken from II'ii//nrr's Experimental-Physik, 

Band r, p. 8o4, ancl s'ere accidentally overlooked in the preparation 

of nr1' earlier table. 

Gas 

It 

:-_ 

Z(Air: r) z' observed rnolecular l't 

L 

I z-/ z(observe gJ ol rr. /(b1lk) 

Oqtg"" O ]'o.nrro \nutong): 116., nt 

l 

Nitrous-Oxide, NO2 | 

o.7865 (Dulong) - z8r.r 

i 

46r.o n.r 

393.0 

| 

| 

,,.o 

oo." 

, r.4o2 

I 

I 

r.+58 

| 

t'Sss: 

r.295 I 

t.:lqs r.5858 

The last column gives the observed rat'to f,lV as cor- all of which are of comparatively simple molecular constirected 

for a monatomic constitution, or tution, rve may regard it as fully established by experiment 

: ''J" ,.5g (r) that such. a phvsical law governs the. motions of waves in 

"lf.V(hJhr) 

.L-rr.L^ , -^'*-,' monatomic gases, and thai the velocity of wave motion is 

which verifies rvith great accuracy the use of halt the Archi- I 

. solely 

:^ ;-,: dependent trpon the mean velocity of the molecules' 

medean number z, in the theorem, 

7t : Lf 

2n V . 

But in acldition to the argument thus built up, for a 

r, r ,. 

high wave velocity, where rve have a rare gas of enormous 

connecting the mean molecular velocity with that of rvave- 

I ,oll".ulo. velocit];, we may use the obseived velocity of 

propagation in monatomic gases' 

wave-propagation generally io throw light upon the molecular 

As this theorem is now minutely verified for the six *61g61s of all gases ivhatsoever. ln the relerence abo'e given 

best determined gases, namely: to ll,'iillntr's Experimental-Physik, Band r, p. 8o4, rve find 

r. Air - 

z. Hydrogen 

4. Carbon dioxide CO: 

5. Oxygen 

that the velocity of sound in hydrogen was found by Dulong 

] to be 3. Carbon monoxide CO 6. Nitrous oxide NO2 

3.8123 timesthat in-air, and by.Regnault,3.8or times 

that in air. The rnean of the two values is 3.8o665. Now 

r6

235 

the velocity of sound in oxygen found by Dulong was o.9524 

times that in air; and on multiplying this by 4, we get 

3.8o96 for tbe theoretical velocity of sound in hydrogen. 

But since oxygen is supposed to have only r5.98 tinres 

the molecular weight of hydrogen, we should use the square 

root of this number, or 3.9975, instead of 4, for the multiplier, 

which gives 3.8o7a; an almost exact agreernent with 

the mean of the velocities of sound in hydrogen foLrnd by 

Dulong and Regnatll 

It follorvs, lrom'these considerations, that the velocity 

of wave motion in sirnilar gases varies inversely as the square 

roots of their densities. 'I'he fourfold increase in the velocity 

of sound in hydrogen compared to that in oxygen gives 

' us a definite larv which rnay be appiied directly to all comparable 

gases, and even to lnonatonic gases bv the use of 

tbe faktor t/(4lar). , 

(ii) New method for deternrining the density of the 

aether from the velocity of light and electric wavcs compared 

to that of sound in terrestrial gases. 

Up to the present time only one qeneral rretlrod has 

been availabie for calculating the density of the aether, 

namely, that devised by Lord licluin for deternrining the 

mechanical value of a cubic rnile of sunlight, anci first 

published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of l.ldinburgh 

for May, r85a (cf. llaltin.rore l-ectures, rgo4, p. z6o). 

This method was somervhat inrproved by the subsc-(luent 

researches of Lord Kcluin, tlfarurll, and the present rvriter, 

as duly set forth. in the llrst paper on the Neiv 'l'ht'ory of 

the Aether (AN 5o44, 2tt.ag), ),et the principle underlying 

it remains largely unchanged. 

As'it would be very clesirable to have a second independent 

method for determining the density of the aether, 

I have held in rnind this great desideratum rvhile occupied 

with the researches on the rvave-theorv, and finallf it occuired 

to me to attack the problem from the point of vieu' of the 

velocity of sound in gases. For rr'e have norv shos,n that 

the aether is a gas, with particles traveling r.57 tin)es s*'ifter 

than light; and this general theory is again confirnied by 

the discussion above given for waves of sound in oxygen 

and nitrous oxide. 

Owing to its extreme rarity, the aether is the one absolutely 

perfect gas of the universe; and tve lnay even use 

the velocity of light in the aether to calculate rhe density 

of this nredium. It will be shown, especially in the fourth 

paper, that there is much less difference bet|een the rvaves 

of sound and light than we have long belieyed. In his luminous 

but neglected memoir of r83o, the celebrated lirench 

geometer Poisson, showed and thrice repeated, in spite of 

the earlier repeated objections of -Frcsncl, ttrat in elastic media 

the motions of the molecules, at a great distance from the 

source of disturbance, are always normal to the wave front, 

as in the theory of sound. And rve shall show later how 

$ optical and magnetic phenomena are to be reconciled rvith 

this incontestible result o{ Poisson's analysis. 

. Iirorn the data given in the first paper on the New 

Theory of the Aether it follows that the velocity of light 

is 9o4z68 times swifter than that of sound in air. As sound 

5079 

236 

in hydrogen has a velocity 3.8o665 tirues greater than in 

air, this is equivalent to 237 55o times the velocity of sound 

in hydrogen. But hydrogen is a biatonric gas .with the ratio 

h2: r.4ot, while aether is monatouric, with the ratio 

Ir: r.666; and therefore to reduce the motion in hydrogen 

to the basis of a monatomic gas, we have to divide this 

number bv y'(ttllr): r.ogo47 7, which leads to the num- 

'fhis 

is the ratio of the velocity of light in a 

ber z r 7839. 

rnonatoniic aether to that of sound in a hypothetical monatomic 

hydrogen, yet with density o.oooo896. 

'fhis result is based on the wave theory of sound as 

given by Sir Isaac Netuton in the Principia, r686 (Lib. II, 

l'rop. XL,VllI), which rvas corrected b5' Lallace in r 8 r 6 

(cf'. trfdcanique Cileste,'I. V. I-iv, XII, p.96, and Ann. Phys. 

et Chiur.,'f. lll, p. 288), to take account of the augnrentetion 

of speed due to the ratio of the specific heat of a gas under 

constant pressure to that under constant volume. As above 

used the formula for the propagation of sound is further 

corrected to take account of the increase in velocity in a 

nronatornic gas, hrst inlerred theoretically by Clausius abour 

sixty years ago, but since verified experimentally for mercury 

vapor, argon, heliunr; neon, xenon, and krypton. 'l'he forrnula 

thus becomes for aether and hydrogcn, rs reduced to a 

lnonatomic elasticity: 

, lrlI/r: y'(Eto2fE"or):zr7S.;e. 

13/ 

Under identical physical conditions at the surlace of the 

eartb, Zi : E.t, and thus 

or 

l/rltrr: t/(o2lo):217839 

-\r1 : Vr"lV"' : ,tzldt : (ztZ8:S), : 4745383oooo (4) 

which is the density of .hydrogen in units of that of aether. 

1'o get the densitl' of water in units of that of aether, 

we take 

M 

:,4/r/o.oooo8g 6 : 

5z96 rgooooooooo. (S) 

Accordingll' the absolute density of the aether at the 

earth's surface becomes: 

r/i": o: r888.r5.ro.1s. (O) 

It should be noted that Lord l{cluitis nrcthod of r854, 

rvhich rve used in the first paper on thc Nerv 'l'heory of the 

Aether, is not strictly valid, because although it gives the 

density. at tbe earth's rnean distance, in units of the assumed 

densitl' at the sun, this latter value itself cannot be found 

by .Keluitis rnethod, because of the decrease in the aether 

density near the earth, not heretofore taken account of. 

Let oq be the density at the neutral distance, Qs, where 

the sun's gravitational intensity is just equal to thar of the 

earth. Then, since at the solar surface the mean gravity is 

27.86555 times terrestrial gravity (cf. AN 3g92), rve have: 

rvhere gs - 

27.865551Q rs)z : r/(r! \7) 

distance at which solar and terrestrial gravity 

will just balance. 'l'his gives b;' calculation Qs : 4r.4868 

terrestrial radii, about 'lt of the nroons distance. The 

following table gives the results of. sinrilar calcr.rlations 

for 

the absolute density of the aether at the surfaces of the lun 

and principal pianets of the solar system.

l 

{ I1 

& 

rif 

I: 

;. 

'Jt 

Body 

The Sun 

Mercury 

Venus 

The Earth 

Mars 

Jupiter 

Saturn 

Uranus 

Neptune 

5079 

Table of the Absolute Density of the Aether near the Principal Bodies of Solar 

o 

a 

5 

o 

7 

8 

tr{ean radius 

R 

696o98 kms 

2 r7 5.3r 

6 o9o.86 

637o.52r 

3365.87 

6g++g 

t:,u,:1 

z r643 

lnt""n g."'i,y] 

I at surface I 

l c ' l 

z7 3.or6 m 

r.8794+ 

8.t sst 

9.7 97 62 

J. I I L+ 

z6.zr7o4 

I r.442 

3 

r 3.o4oo 

t 4.6 46o 

Mean distance 

of planet 

in solar raclii 

_, _ri_ 

, 

Accordingly for reasons already indicated we reach 

the following conclusions. 

r. Whatever be the density of the aether at +r.ag6g 

terrestrial radii, u'here the sun's and earth's attractions are 

equal, the aether density, from that point, must decrease 

towards the earth, by the divisor ar.aSOg, and towards the 

sun by the divisor zr9. 

z. That is at the earth's surface 

6.t" : osl4r.4868 . (s) 

3. Owing to this decrease of o near the earth, rvhere 

observations are made, I{cluin's method of rg54 is not valid, 

even for the calculation of the density at the sun's surface, 

because it rests on the hypothesis of homogeneity throughout 

interplanetary and interstellar space. 

4. At earth's surface the new method shou.s 

rI1'' : r888'r5'ro-lE' 

At' sun's snrfa

239 

theoretical value of wave propagation from the use of the 

,^rio y(nrf rt). And if the'r'elocity of the rvave-propagation 

be observed in both cases, and we desire to determine the 

relative density of one of the gases, we may effect this as 

in the above case of the aether, which absolutely excludes 

the possibility of a iarge density. As the aether is a gas of 

excessively small density, it is therefore cornpressible, as 

previously inferred, but only by powerful, cluick-acting forces. 

The study of the aether as r grs, in accordance rvith 

the views entertained by Neu,ton in r7z r, and approved by 

Marutcll in rE77, thus opens nerv possibilities, ancl introduces 

criteria of the utmost vaiue to physical science. 

2. Geometrical and l'}hysical Outline of the 

I{elationship betrveen Light, [Iagnetisnr atrd the 

Electrodynan.ric Action of a Current. 

In the 3'd edition of the celebrated 'freatise on Optics, 

r 7 z r, Query z 8, Sir lsaac '\-tw/otr treats of l{tq'ghens' 

theory of double refraction in Iceland spar, on the hypothesis 

of two several vibrating mediums rvithin that crystal, 

for relracting the ordinarl'and extraordinlry rays, but says 

that Euyg/ttttJ was ilt a loss to explain thenr. t For ltressions 

or motions, propagated from a shining lrody through an 

nniform medium, tnust be on all sides alikc; rvlierens by 

tbese experiments it rppears, that the ray's of light have rlifferent 

properties on their dill'erent sides. < 

In pioof of this confession o1-lailure, b.t'/{tq3htts, 

Ncu,lott cites from the'-['raite de la Lurnicre, r69o, p. gr, 

the rvords: >[Iais pour dire comnleltt ce]a se f rlit, j!' n'ay 

rien trouve jusqu'ici qui nre satisfasse.( 

Arctalon then argues efl'ectiveiy against the explanation 

o{ Eultghens, and points or.rt the improbability of trvo ae thereal 

media 6lling the celestial spaces, which bas been emphasized 

in recent times by lfaru,cll, who declared it unphilosophical 

to invent a new aether every time a new phenomenon was 

to be explained. 

, In the early days of the modern wave theory of light, 

the properties of polarized ra1's were carefully investigated 

by ?'rcsncl and Arago, and subsequently verified by -qir Tohn 

Eerschel and ,1iqt, rvho fully confirmed Ntu,lott's conclusion 

that such rays have sides with dissinilar prol)erties on opposite 

sides. 'fhe account of Fresnrl's progress given by 

Arago in his liloge Historique, July 26, r83o, is vcry instructive, 

since Arago was associated rvith rnany of li'esncls 

discoveries. Resides the able anall,sis in the celebrated and 

comprehensive article Light, Irncyclopedia Nletropolitana, r 849, 

Sir Johi E[crschcl's Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, 

r867, are valuable, in showing his rnature conclusions. 

It being thus recognized that a ray of polarized light 

has sides, with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, it 

remains for us to form a clear image of such a ray of light, 

and to examine the phenomena of magnetisrr.r and electricity, 

to ascertain if a relationship to light can be established. 

The late Professor Paul Drude's coutprehensive Lehrbuch 

der Optik, Leipzig, rgoo, may be consulted for a modern 

analysis of purely optical problems; but, as our object is to 

outline relationships not heretofore developed, we shall make 

the optical treatment very brief. 

507 9 

240 

Let zz denote the displacement of the aether particle 

fron its vertical position of equilibrium, as on the surface 

of still water. Then we have for a flat wave in the plane 

.r'-r' the wellknown equation 

u: asin(zn.tlr-+p) - asin(2n-rl).-+ 1r) (ts) 

rvhere zz represents the displacement at right angles to the 

r-axis, a is the amplitude, ,1, the wave length, .and p the 

plrirse angle, from which the revolving vector of radius a is 

ruteasured. Such a flat wave represents motion like that propagated 

along the surlace of still n'ater, and the nrovements 

".c git'en in tletail by figure r, Plate 4, rvhich is slightly 

rrrodifie

24r 507 9 

a silver surface that an almost circular polarization results, 

whereas that reflected from galena has very narrow ellipses. 

This could not rvell resnlt unless the polarized light before 

reflection from these metals described narrorv ellipses, rvhich 

are not exactly straight lines. 

Norv the elliptical paths established by equations (r6), 

242 

Faraday's discoveries. He found that, if heavy glass, bisulphide 

of carbon, etc., are placed in a magnetic field, a ray 

(r7), (r8), are similar to those analysed by l{er-rdtcl in 

of polarized light, propagated along the lines of magnetic 

'I'he 

force, snffers rotation. larvs o[ the phenomenon werb 

carefnlly studied by l/crdet, whose conclusions may be summed 

up by saying that in a given meclinm the rotation of the 

yrlane for a ray proceeding in any direction is proportional 

Section 6r8 of his great article Light, r849, Suppose rve to the difference of nragnetic potential at the initial and 

consider the part of these waves rvhich in a polarized ray final points. In bisulphide of carbon, at r8o and for a 

have only right-handed rotations. Then if such a selected difference of potential equal to unit C.G. S., the rotation of 

beam traveling along the r-axis be looked at flat on, from the plane of polarization of a ray of socla light is o.o4oz 

a point on the z-axis, the paths of the aetherons rvould nrinttte ol' angle.< 

resemble the motions o.f the particles of rvater in Air1"s 11gv11s )A vcr)' important distinction should be noted between 

given as fig. r, except that the aetherops rnay have paths more 

'1'bis 

highly elliptical than are shown by Air1. is the simplest 

the magnetic rotation and that natural to quartz, s)'rup, etc. 

In the latter the rotation is always right handed or always 

form of the oscillations in the nerv wave-theory of light, left handed rvith respect to the direction of the ra1'. Hehce 

rvhich will be developed in the fourth paper: and rve shall nou' x'hen the ray is reversed the absolute direction of rotation 

see if it is possible to 6nd corresponding oscillations in the is reversed also. A rlv rvhich tra\.erses a plate of quartz 

field of a magnet and of an electric clrrrcnt. 

in one tlirection, and then after reflexion traverses the same 

In the ycar rB45 fiarado-t, marle a cclcbratcd cxpcri- thickncss again in the oppositc clircction, recovers itq original 

ment in which he yrassed a beam of p)anc yrolarized light plane of polarization. It is rlLrite otherrvise rvith the rotation 

along the lines of force; and discovered that rlhen the light under magnetic lorce. In this case the rotation is in the 

travels in a material medium such as heavv lead glass, carbon- same absolute direction even thoueh the ray be reversed. 

disulphide, etc., the plane of polarization is trvisted by the Hence, if a ray be reflected backrvards and forrvards any 

action of the masnetic field. Not only is the plane oi 

polarization rotated, but the rotation increascs in direct pro- 

number of times along a line of magnetic force, the rotations 

due to the severai l)assages are all accumulated. 

portion to the length of path traversed; and even u'hcn the 

light is reflected bick and forth many times the trvistin.g of 

the plane of polarization is alrvays in the saure direction 

like the helix of a circular winding stairs, as s'as lorig ago 

noted by Sir Jotn.Errsrhel. 

In the article lVave-'fheory, Encl'clopedia 13ritannica, 

9'h edition; Lord Ral,lcigh describes this rotation of thc plane 

o[ polarization by magnetism as follos's: 

>>1'he possibility of inducing the rotatory property 

in bodies othenvise free from it rvas onc of the finest of 

'I'he nonrcversibilitl' 

of light in a magnetized medium proves the 

casc to be of a very exceftional.character, and (as ruas 

argrred br Sir II;. T/tottsnn) indicated that the rnagnetized 

rneclium is itself in rotatory motion independently of the 

propagation of light through it.< 

Norv if I understand this subject aright - and my personal 

correspondence rvith the late Lord Ra1'leigh shows 

that he concurred in the present writer's viervs - we must 

conccive a line of force, circling around between the poles 

of a rrragnet, to be the axis of rotation in magnetic wave- 

I 

I 

I 

I 

\ 

| 

n 

| | 

motion, as shown by figure z, repeated 

from the first paper on the New Theory 

of .the Aether. 

If this in'.erpretation be adnrissible, 

we see that just as plane polarized light 

a 

n has sides, - I n- 

\ ///!/,. 

\ l:.'!1,',1, 

-+€/e1},+-e_ 

fl 

with dissimilai properties on 

opposite sides, as remarked by Atcwton, 

/+S**_the --- - - 

L/ 

Fresntl. Arago and Sir John llcrstfitl, - 

\ llt4i;t,:,! lh ,^,U-,.-.' /J so also there are plane waves receding 

from magnets with exactly the same sides, 

i- 

rvith dissimilar properties on the opposite 

sides. It is these sides rvith oppositely 

directed rotations in the waves of the 

aether which gives poles to n:agnets.l) 

Magnetic polarity is. thus directly 

connected by similarity of the rotations 

in the plane rvaves with plane polarized 

light. And just as the amplitude of light 

waves decrease inversely as r, the distancg 

T / lti1,.z.Thewave-theoryof magnetism, shich givesarlirectandsimple ;_..-*-- _;,::,__-^'^:.-_^'i^; -;--"-- 

' '"' '' 

I / 

of both attraction and rcnulsion. ,,,a r,".-onir"r'fti from the radiating centre (cf ' Drudc, 

I I l

. 

2+3 

so also in magnetisnr, the rvave anrplitudes follow the law: 

A : /tlr, giving the force 

- 

if k2fr2, as observed in the 

of the sun, the light of a candle, the light of a glorv-lvorm. 

Take arvay from the rvorld electricity, and light disappears; 

actions of magnetism and universal gravitation (cf. Electrod. remove from the world the luminiferous ether, and electric 

Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., Vol. t, tgrT). Accordingly, and nragnetic actions can no longer traverse space( (cl. I{rtz, 

the connection between magnetism and light is obvious, the Iiiscelllneous papers, p. 3r3). 

moment we do not restrict our conceptions of light to the -fferlz was not able to rnake out the details of the 

side displacement in (r5) 

relationship sought, but the experiments which he devised to 

u : a sin(zrr'/1-t-p) (rs) shorv that clectric waves are refracted, reflected and interfere, 

but regard light as a disturbance involving a circular or like light waves, marked an epoch in the development of 

elliptical displacement of the particles about a mean position, radiotelegraphy, and have long since become classic. Yet 

as the vector 4 representing this displaceurent in th€ case rviren others took up the work, after -Ffur'lr's premature death, 

of a circle, revolves in a plane, which may be tilted at an1' rvhilst they verified and used his results, they did not add 

angle relative to the coordinate axes. 

to the theor)' of the aether, which IIertz considered essential 

In his celebrated article Light, r849, Sir John -[fu'scle/ 

shorvs, by carefully considered leasoning, that in the elliptical 

pat{rs of the aethereal vibrations constituting light, the niotion 

to scientific progless. Ff ence the r-reeci still remained to trar,erse 

the loliy sun.rniits not )'et explorcd (Ifcrtz, l. c., p.327), 

antl to ruake out geometrically the nature of tbe displace- 

of the aetheron is about the centre of the ellipses, just as nrents involved in these rvaves. 

is the path of a vibrating conical pendulunr, rvhich may a)so Accordingly rie have gone into tl)e nature of light nnci 

change the path of its rlotion under the steadv application elcctric rvaves in such a way as to illuminate this relation- 

of small impulses. 

shrp. IItrlz renrarks that to rrlany persons ,lfaxue/l's electro- 

Suppose the undisturbed position of an aetheron bc nuqnetic theory is a book sealed tr'ith seven seals. Thus 

taken as origin, and let trvo radii vectores, drawn frorn the the breaking of'the seals, that *'e mar.read the details ot- 

centre of the elliptical path to the disturbed aetheron, be g thc illunrinated pages, rvould alone give us a direct view oI 

and g'; then rve have the rvellknorvn e(luations 

Dature's secrets, and justify any treatment rvhich would throw 

Q, : .r:1j,? 

gg'cos0: 

_+_ 

5'.1 

,r,.1 : 3,) 1_1J2 _1_ 

3t2 

rr'-Y1,-1,t.r- 5't 

cosd .: cosa cosrr'-Fcosp cosp'-+r:os;, cos;,' 

cos2a-l- cos?p-f cos91 ': cosz{r'-+cos:p'-+-cos97' : 1 

/ - , \ 

\2ol 

(' ' ) 

1'he angle 0 nreasures the rnotion ol' the light vector 

in the plane of the ellipse, rvhile the angles c(, P, f, tt', F', /' 

are fixed by the direction cosines of the revolving radius 

vector at any time, 

It now remains to examine the disturbances takinq 

place about a wire bearing an electric current florving fronr 

south to north, as in Oerstcd's experinent of r8r9. Here 

we notice that if the needle be suspended beneath the rvire, 

the north pole is deflected to the west by the actior.r of the 

current. If the needle be suspended above the rvire, under 

like conditions, the north pole is deflected to the east. 

It thus appears that just as magnets have plane waves 

- like those of plane polarized light rotating in one direction, 

and thus having dissimilar properties on opposite sides - 

so also an electric current has plane n'aves lvith sides, and 

with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, as shorvn by 

'L-his 

the study o( Ocrsted's experiment of r 8 r 9. follorvs 

also from the production of rnagnets from common steel 

under the electrodynamic action of a solenoid, as in Any'lrr's 

experiment of 18zz, 

'I'he 

correct theory of an electric current is that it is 

made up of plane waves, flat in the plane through the axis 

of the 'rvire, as shown in figure r z, section VI, and more fully 

in figure rA (el. 6), section IX, below. 

In his celebrated address on the relations between 

light and electricity, Sept. zo, 189o, I{crtz tried to illuminate 

the connection previously recognized by lLfotuttll, and 

distinctly referred both light and eiectricity to the aether. 

rI am here

a 

245 

all countries, and hasvitiated 

even the mathematical theory 

of Martaell (Treatise on Electricity and tr{agnetisr.n, vol. II., 

p. 28, $ ao4). 

Maxu.'clls reasoning js as follows: 

. rThe nragnetic force and the magnetic induction are 

identical outside the magnet, but within fhe substance of the 

magnet ther. must be carefully distinguished.< 

,lln a straight 

_ 

uniformll,-maguetized bar the magnetic 

force drre to the magnet itself is fronr the end rvhich 

north, 

ioints 

rvhich lve call the positive pole, towards the south 

end or negative pole, both within ibe n.ragnet and in the 

space u'ithorrt. < 

The Iack of symmetry and of appropriate phy.sicai 

basis to tliis reasoning is so truly remarkatle-as to occasion 

genuine surprise that it should have been used bv ,4{arur//. 

He continues: 

507 9 246 

To be sure that no injustice was done to Eulcr, I took 

a small magnetic needle, suspended by a thread accurately 

fastened to its centre, and iound by actual trial how this 

small magnet behaved when substituted for the soft iron wire 

described above. 

\\'e find 

- 

by trial that the suspended needle also is 

drawn from th€ equator-of the magnet towards either pole, 

exactly as in the case of the soft iron nire above used. 'The 

deflection of the supporting thread from the vertic.al direction 

of gravitl', shown by the glass marble suspended in the 

centre of the field, under actual trial, shows ihis clearly and 

unmistakably. 

It seems therefore absolutely certain that Eulcr,s de- 

.rThe 

. 

magnetic induction, on the other hand, is from 

the positive pole to the negative outside the magnet, and 

from the. negarile pole to ihe positive rvithjn thJ ..gn"l 

so that the lines and tubes of induction are reenrenng or 

cvclic figures.< 

This artificial and unnatural theorl. is outlinecl in the 

acconrpanf ing sketch, see Fig. q pl. q'. Fig. pl. 

5 a illu_ 

strates. the usage of Euhr's Circulation ;lt .o.y of a Magnet 

in various modern u'orks. The 6gure above, on the left is 

from tVilli/ran and Gah,s First Course in I,h1,sics, r 9o6 ; that 

to the right is {ront Gaztbroal's Electricitl, ancl l\lagnctisrn, 

tgo3; the sphere belon'is from ct-rsla/r's articre on trIa!netisnr, 

Encycl. Brit.,9 Ed., r875; while ih. figu." to the righi 

js 

beiou., 

from Dnrdt's Physik des Aethers, rg94. 

It appears that lfaturtll adhered to Eulcr's conceptions 

so far as induction is concerned, but added to it to explain 

magnetic force. 

The anomaly of imagining the magnetic force to oppose 

the induction u'ithin the body of the niagnet, but not rvith_ 

,r:]t, i..striking, and probably due to ttrJ naU;t of referring 

all actions 

, 

to that of a unit north Dole. 

On the other hand the rnuch simpler conceptions of 

the \1'ave-theor)., r9r7, need no emphasis. \1:e rhere imagine 

the stress in the aether to be dui to waves fronr all the 

atoms, so that the lines of force _ rvhich are the axes of 

rotation of the receding \1,aves - tend to shorten themselves, 

as Faradot' had obserr.ed, and as rve have explained me_ 

chanically in the second paper on .the New Theory of the 

Aether. 

It is verl'difficult 

- 

to account for the defective theorr. 

of t.744 excepr by remembering that Erkr hrd i"j;r;; 

eyesight, which did not enable hlm to detect tne true sym_ 

metrical nature of magnetisn, by experirnents with soft iion, 

or with smailer magnetic needles, as shown in the acconrl 

panying photograph, see Fig. 6 pI. fecti'e theory of magnetism, with fatal iack of essentiar svnrmetr)', 

yet copied in all. the works on physics for the past 

r76 years, was an o'ersight due to the partial brindness of 

that great mathernatician, and thus excusaire. But what shail 

$'e say of the careless reasoning of phvsicists, rvhich has 

enabled this unsl'mmetrical and unnarur;l hgure to be handed 

dorvn unchanged through nearly,trr.o centuriJs, or else nrended 

b1' strained reasoning Iike that used by i[a:xutctt above? 

It may perhaps be allowed that the above experimental 

result definitely establishes the electrod. wave _ theory of 

magnetism, set forth in the Electrod. \Vave-Th"o* of ilnu.. 

Iiorc., r'ol, I, r g r 7. Accordingly, since rve ha'e attained a 

ltatural point of lieu,, based on recognizecl svntmetrr,, for the 

theories of-electricitv and magneti.,r.,, o." shall see hos.fully 

the nel' theorf is con6rmed br. de6nite lrhenomena rvhich 

are sirnp)e and easilv understood. 

\ii) )fa.ru,cl/'s difficulties overconle by the wave_theory. 

But, first of all, n,e call attention to the fact that in his 

paper.On Ph1-sical Lines of Force (Scientific papers, vol. I, 

p. 468) lfaru,c/l searched diligently but in 'ain foi the 

to the question: )\'hat, is an electric currenti( "nr*". 

>I have found great dif6culty,< he sa1,s, rin conceiving 

of the existence of \.ortices in a nrediunt side by side, rel 

volving in the sante direction about para)lel axes. The contlquous 

portions of consecutir.e vortices must be nroving in 

opposite directions; and it is dif6cult to understand ho*rthe 

rnotion of one part of the medium can coexist with, and even 

ltroduce, an opposite lnotiou of a part in contact rvith it.< 

>The only conception xhich has at all aided me in 

concei'ing of this kind of motion is that of the 'ortices 

being separated by a la1.er of particles, revolving each on 

its orvn a.xis in the opposite direction to that of th'e vortices, 

so that the contiguous surfaces of the particles and of the 

vortices have the sante lnotion.< 

. rIn mechanisnr, when two tvheels are intended to revolve 

in the sanre direction, a wheel is placed between them 

4, of an expenment s.o--as be in gear 

made by the present writer, lg14. 

.to 

rvith both, and this wh&l is called an 

. 

,idle wheel'. 1'he hypothesis 

Sgft 

about 

iron paper 

the 'ortices 

lasteners 

which 

lreely 

I have 

suspended by threads to suggest is that a layer 

are used 

of particles, 

to indicate the pulling from the equator towards 

_ 

acting as idle wheels, 

is interposed between each vortex 

eitber pole of 

and 

the 

the 

magnet. 

nlxt, so 

ThJ 

that 

lines 

each 

of force thus visiblv vortex has a tendenc)' to 

tighten 

make 

and 

the 

shorten 

neighbouring ,r,ortices 

themselves by the aetherial suction into revolve in the same direction 

either pole; 

with 

and 

itself.< 

Euler's defective theory of an inward florv 

at the south pole and an outrvard flow 

. 

The dif6culty here describe d by Marutell is immediately 

at the north pole is solved by the wave-theory, for 

disproved 

when 

by 

a 

observations 

continuous 

which 

series 

any.one 

of 

can make for hirnself. waves are florving, the rotatory motions of ail the particles

247 

of the medium are in the same direction, as we see frotn 

the above Fig, r, Pl. 4, frorn Airy', znd no such antagonism 

as tlfaruell mentions can arise. Surely this removai of 

Marucll's dif6culty, 'along with the complicated structure of 

ridle wheels

25r 

5079 

, But we should look 'into the history' of the subject 

since the earliest experiments, eighty years ago, in order 

to get a connected view of the whole subject of electric 

oscillations' 

---' -i. 

It r842, Profes sor Josclh Eenry was occupied with 

the study of the discharge of a Leyden jar, and reached the 

conclusion that what upp"..t to the naked eye as a single 

soark, >is not correctly iepresented by the single transfer of 

.an impo.rderable fluid from one side of the jar to the other'( 

rThe phenomena,( he adds, >require us admit the ex- 

.to 

' istence of a principle discharge in one direction and then 

several reflex actions backward and forward, each more feeble 

than the preceeding until equilibrium is obtained' >I{enry's 

conclusions *"re dr^*r, from observations of the irregular 

magetizations of steel needles rvhen Leyden jar discharges 

are-directed through a coil, as in Sauarl's experiments' 

' 

5. I{cnry's conclusions were mathematically confirmed 

in ,rSj3 by Lord Kclain, who reached the formula for the 

time of these oscillations: 

T - 

T: znlt/0lKL-/t2laL2) \"J/ 

where ,( is the capacity of the condenser, now usually exoressed 

in Farads; Z the inductance, now usuaily expressed 

i., H"nrys; and ,? the resistance, in Ohms' If '( 

zy'(nzt-12)'1/I{L ' 

where / is the logarithmic decrenrent' 

- o'ot 

Microfarad, ,f :6.ees6r Henry, and i? - o, ihe time of 

an oscillation will be found to be I : 5o3ooo' or the frequency 

of the oscillations 5o3ooo per second' 'l'hey niey be 

made'as rapid as rooooooo per second, or even of higher 

frequency; yet we cannot make them as rapid as the rvaves 

of iight,- becruse our physical apparatus is not of atonric 

dimensions. 

6. When R'l+Lt is so small as to be negligible compared 

to tf I{L, tie time of oscillation becomes like that of 

undamped simPle harmonic motion: 

f :2ryI/KL. \z+) 

But if R2f +L2 is snrall, yet not wholly insensible, the discharge 

is oscillaiory, for undei the danrping due to resistance, the 

period is aitered, and the tinre of oscillation becomes of the 

iorm us"d in radio telegraPhY: 

(, s) 

7. In r858 Feddcr:scn experimentally confirmed Lord 

Kcluinis theory 6f tbe oscillatory character of the'Le1'den jar 

' 

discharge, by photographing the image of the spark 'in a 

.rotating" mi.iot, and found that the image of light rvas drawn 

out inio a series of images, due to sparks following each 

other in rapid succession. 'Ihe is released, as in the discharge of. a Leyden jar' If oniy 

one of these factors, inductance or capacity, were present' 

but not both, the disturbance would rise and fall according 

to some exponential function of the time, yet without regular 

oscillations. 

When both inductance and capacity are present, as in 

all metallic systems, the disturbance calls forth both elasticity 

and inertia, because the electric disturbance is physically 

impeded and the aether is set into wave motion of the kind 

nbove described. 

g. So long as difference of potential is maintained at 

the trvo ends of a circuit this electric wave oscillation is 

maintained along the wire. As in the case of the Leyden 

jar, so also for a battery; the oscillatory discharge begins 

ihe moment the circuit is-complete, and continues to flow 

as a steady current. Since there is finite but small loss of 

\\'ave energy through the body of the rvhire, owing to its 

physical ...i.ton." to the free movements of the aether, the 

wave disturbance erlvelopes the rvire cylindrically, traveling 

nrore rapidly in the free aether outside; but the wave front 

is continualiy bent inward ton'ards the metailic cylinder, just 

as the *'ireless wave is bent around the globe, by the greater 

resistance to the n)otion of the radio wave in the solid globe 

of the earth. 

'l'he 

above bxpianation of the waves propagated from 

a conductor gives a very satisfactory account of the phenornena 

liom a physicai standpoint. Ilut it is hdvisable to 

look into the matter also from the historical point of view, 

in orcler to perceive the driti of research during the past 

sixty years. 

r o. ln the celebrated 

iilustration of this oscillatory. 

discharge in fig. 8, Plate 5, was obtained in r9o4 by Ztnntch' 

who usid a Braun tube as an oscillograph' 

8. Now in the case of a steady electric current, the 

conductor connects points having difference of potential: 

this difference tends to adjust itself, by the electric contact, 

resulting from the conductor, and thus the aether is set in 

oscillati,on and the waves travel along the wire, iust as water 

runs dorvn hill from higher to lower gravitational potential' 

and in this transfer some dissipation ol energy results' 

' 

Inductance is Present in the wire, and as it has also 

. capacity, the contact yields electric oscillations, when energy 

'freatise on lilectricity and ltlagnetism, 

r87S, S lZ r et se(l', '4[axu'ell tirst irrought out the fundamental 

differen.e betrveen electromagnetic and electrostatic 

units, and showed that the ratio is al'vays equal to Lf T: u,a 

velocity. flpon this basis Martacl/ erected the foundation of 

the electromagnetic theory of light, rvhich has come into 

general use, titough the mystery of the connection between 

iight electricity was not fully cleared up' For example, 

".rd 

Lorcl .Kttuiu never could see how it helped the rvave-theory 

of light (Baltimore Lectures, r904, p' 9)' 

As already pointed out, it witl be seen from the table 

given belorv, that the dimensions of resistance, in electroiragnetic 

units, is LT-', which represents.a velocity' This 

is i uery remarkable fact, having profound physical significance, 

which may well claim our attention' ls it possibie 

that the resistance felt in all conductors, and obeying Ohnls 

law, is an indication of the motion of electromagnetic wavesalong 

the wires, by which the resistance is generated? lf 

.o, ,ff. dimensions in electromagnetic units should be z2 times 

that in electrostatic units, as actually observed' 

r r. ln his celebrated discussion of the elecfric medium 

Masu,ell showed how re,< could be determined.experimentally. 

In fact, Vf/ebcr and l{ohlrausch as early as 1856, r7 

years before Maruell's treatise appeared, had already carried 

tut a numerical determination, and obtained the approximate 

value er : 3 r o7 4oooo nretres per second (Poggendorffs Ann', 

r 8 56, Aug., PP. I o-z 5). 

'l'his 

constant has since been determined by many 

252

investigators, rvorking albng lines indicated by Masutcll, witl,t 

very.accordant resurts, the latest and no doubt the l".t felng 

that by Professor E. B. Rosa and zV. n iorrryoftV"stingion] 

tgo7, Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol. 3, ,;.. ; 

and 4, p. 6or, namely: 

.u: z.gg7.toro. 

, t.?. Ar these publications are universally accessible, 

we shall not go into the details of these electrical exoeri- 

254 

ments. It suffices to confine our attention,to a physical 

explanation of the results obtaine.d, Uut "ppnr.ntly not yet 

clearly understood by natural pt itosophe.rl ' 

9". comparing the dimensions of the electromagnetic 

units with those o[ the.electrostatic units, we find that 

is always 

there 

a uniform diffe^rence d"p;l;;g on the common 

factor Lf ?:u, or L2f Tz:rr, ' -": in the f;ll;;l;; 

tables. 

,. "'r-rn-o*"n 

" " 

13. Table of the 

r. Charge of electricity 

z. Density 

. 3. Electromotive force 

4. Electric intensity 

5. Porential 

6. Eleictric polarization 

7. Capacity 

.' '8. equivalent dimensions 

Current 

g. Current per unit area 

r o. Resistance 

r r. Specific resistance 

r z. Strength of magnetic pole 

r 3. .\'Iagnetic lorce 

r4. l\,lagnetic induction' 

r5. Inductive .capacity 

r6. tr,Iagnetic permeability 

'l'able 

of practical units in the two system s. 

' 

I\Ieasure 

ileasure l\reastlre 

in 

in In 

. 

electromag. .rr^m,_,,^.,^ electrostatic 

un ts 

units 

elcctrostatlc unlt: 

.- 

(/,:3. ro,,,C(iS) 

ro ' 

in the'trvo theoretical systems of units. 

Electrostatic 

E lect ro_magn e t ic 

M./, L't, 

ytlr a*6lt 

jll'|, 

LEt' ?-2 

1y'h 1,th 7-2 

17'h a'h 7-2 

iY'tlt a-Elt 

L-r 72 

lyth 1,'h 7-r 

M'/t L-Eh 7--r 

L 7-r 

"r ii 

L2 T-l 

tl'ltlt rth r-t 

L t 

trf 

3'ro3 

ro8 rf ft.ror) 

rlr 

| -rl. ^-r 

1tr '- 

L 

,l 

71tlt 

'': 

L-th 

r' 

7-r 

L-t 72 

r,.'t' 

I 

i ,-,^,._. 

Forsimplicity, 

e Mtlr aEh 7-r - 

17,tlz ath. n o 

Q 

114'b a-th T-7 - 

i14,1tt a-stz., 

E i1('h a'h 7-1 * 

11th L,h T-2. r 

R-(X, y lu 

Z) i17"tt a-'n T-r : ,17t"1,n7-, il, 

,' p'rlr ltlz 7-l : 1lltlt art, 7-2. ,'1) 

llf, x, l,) 11'h 11-'tz T-r - 

71,tt 1,-,i., 

C L * 

L-1 ?-2. uz 

;. ,ytth aEh 7-2 - 

74.1h a,b 7*t ., 

(u, u,'tt,) l{'/, L-tl' T-2 : j[,,,|-*ri 

, 

suppose q condenser is charged *irfrifi". 

-r., 

R L-rT -L?-r.rluz 

,r 

T 

_ 

f.2 7__r .'t lu2 

t4 lf 'h. L'h : 

- 

1l.1th LEl, Z--r. rf t, 

H (o, /l[t./. 

.8, ,f) 

L\h I'-2 - 

,.11'1, a-'i T-,6.u 

B (o, b, c) J1'l,L-"1, : 71ttz 1, 1tt 

T-r. r 

I{ , lu 

r :L-!Z-.:.ur 

lt' L-2 T2 : 1. 1f 7,2 

Charge of electricity Coulomb 

Electronrotive force I 

Electric intensity I Volt 

Potential 

I 

g'ro11 

g'r05 

3'rol' 

r/(9.ro1t) 

It will be seen from the element, resistance, no. 

in the 

ro, 

above table, that to establish equiualence, the electrostatic 

unit must be divided by (f a-'t|z i, t1, ,r, which 

the square 

is 

of the dimensions in'.t..t.#ofnetic units. 

indicates 

l.his 

that eiectronragnetic waves resist& by a conductor 

.1o^ _*:rU depending tricity, and let its quaniity, p, u" .neusu..a i" 

unlts, 

erectrostatic 

dete-rmining 

fy 

ro, i".tni.e .h; ,;;ij;rr which 

proportion a given 

of thc total charge produces in a torsion 

of known 

balance 

dimensions. 

'Let 

the condenser,be again ctrarged to the same 

and let it 

extent, 

be discliarsed.th.oug-t 

" 

on ihe square of the ueioctty rvith 

they 

rvhich 

travel, which conforms to general experience in all 

gotuuio_.ier. By 

the 

measuring 

deflection prodriced, the const?nts ;a;;; 

\n:*n, -" ;i;";;;ine Quantity r\ame ol unll 

Capacity 

Farad r o-9 

Capacity 

Xlicrofarad r o- the. qo"n,i,y ;;T:llilil,tffi:f, 

Current 

deflected the galvanonreter. This gir".'Uf ai.ect 

Resistance 

observation 

QG.^.)le(e.s.) : C.3.o.rorof C:3.o.1610 :. 

.r6. 

r.he process ;;*":il#i, i,,u.,.^,.a 

foltorving 

in *ay. ,hu 

1-he e. rn. f. or, pu";.iir;i 

;", 

by 

be measured 

such an instrument as I_ord I{eluin,s 

and 

electrometer, 

foLrnd to give in electrostatic units "L.ofu," 

'l'he 

"f 

foi""ti"f say o.oo36. 

same differen-ce of potential me"su.ed 

nragnetic 

in 

units 

electro- 

rvill be found io haue the value ,i 

15 

Ampdre r o -1 

Obm ro9 

physical problerns where energy ii expended. 

r.o88' 16$ : o.oro88. ro10.3/3 : , '. 

r4..It 

o.oo36.(3.o. 

thus. appears that 

roro; 

the 

. 

ratio betrveen the trvo Hence the ratio 

sets of 

of the. 

units is 

electromagnetic 

uiriformly Lf T: 

to"the-el".t.ort"ti" 

'" 

z, in the first or second units is 

power, and thus 

3.o.ro10 : velocity 

z undo_ubtedly 

of li;;;. 

. r 

represents -;; a velocity, as 6rst 

clearlylset forth by Marueil, T.;";i* Electricity and 

. 

Magnetisni, s 7zr et seq. Fortunatery it ioppen, that this 

ratio can also be determlned experimentalty, f.om a current 

of electricity in motion, and from an identical electrostatic 

charge, at rest: thus a, admits of electric measurement, independently 

of any theory of light. But as the value ofz is the 

same. as _the velocity of light, Maru,ell naturally concluded 

that the electric medium is identical *itt ttre tuminiferous aether. 

The following is an outrine of the method of ln.u.u.",n.nt. 

'fhe electrostatic 

. quantit f p"G. s.) is the quantity of 

electricity which attracts or repels another equal quantity at 

a distance of r cm, with a force of " dil. The electro- 

i i.l 

; i.', 

i" 

::g?.,]" luantily p (e. m.) is the qu"niiry or 

whlch .r..tri.iiy 

traverses the wire of the galvanometer in 

when 

aa"ond 

the current set up by the air"f,".g. i"s unit " 

intensitv. 

r 7. The ratio between the units is always 

dimensions 

of the 

of a velocity, and ,. i, f,ofj. under the 

dition that 

con_ 

ttre centimetre is the unit oi- length, and .the 

second the unit of time, we see by experim?; ,il ;; .:.- .1,t, 

a r 7r ,;. ,"{'.-: 

'. '' 'i::iiil 

: ^.-:.":,:"i_:.il 

'.r.:i.,

,,;?55, 

:iffi*ii, i,retio.is the actual velocity of light, 3.o.ro10, which establishes the rvave spreads outward, and onli zdat varies, the cylin' 

. ,_Ti,ti I .ii,thi,identity of the electric.medium with that of the lurnini- drical sector thus increases,like the circumference of a circle, 

zm, perpendicular to the axis of the wire. The expansion 

of the radius of the circie thus determines the increase in 

the area of ds, the elementary area of the cylindrical surface, 

in rvhich the electrical waves'must expand. 

in the units, and harmonizes all known electrical phenomena, 

and is an especially satisfactory terrnination of a half century 

of scientific discussion of tne relation betleen electrornag- 

, rietics and electrostatics' It is not by chance that only z 

I and z2 appear in the above table' 

'' ' 

If the actions of the medium involved something besides 

, ,ir" ll ltIE 4Lrrv.ro 

--" --___--___--o - - 

- ;'- say'induction, where u aPPears, or resistance' where zz apl)e:lrs' 

: 

:"..'. l. -L^,.11 l,a ovnontol tn 6nd ,, in nerharrs the third or 

i.,:l ,;; ij, .should be expected to .find z in perhaps the third or 

tl.i- il. i.:..*r. llrt nn 

nnwerc qrc estehlished hv ohser- 

" * "rrnh 

t,.ili fOurth.powers; but no such powers.are established by obserir' 

wtion, which confirms the alrove interpretation. 

,l'. " i ' 

.q. 'Ihe Geometrical and l'hysical Signi[icance 

,o', - --- . ^'.--.- 

": 

1-*i'gt Biot and Sauart's L-a.w for t.he Jn^tSnsity of .a C1r- 

Si i 

'i"' 

r. The law of .Biot and Sauart for an electric current 

: 

5079 

lti : ' . 1'-" - '-^J-r-t. 

--.:-^ L^- +L^ -i*.^l^ e^.^ ( form (Biot tl;^r at et sauart, 

\nttnrt Ann' Ann 

l:i' if ."i,i1g_n, Y:*-.ni.^^tn.-"1Tf]' 

'i;;, 

bhim. Phys:, 15 p. 2 zz, 

_r9zo)-: 

, .f:.KIflr 

\26) 

"'i 

W,hpfg ,(.i1 a colltant, and 1;ttre intensity ol th.^,"]*:: 

:' which varies inversely as the distance r from the wire, 

"itiott 

.:' and directly as the current strength l/. 

': ' 

z. We shall give a simple geometrical basis for Biot 

: and ,sauart'.s law of the inverse, distance. ln the Electrod' 

Wave-Theory,of ,Physic'.'tr'orc., we have shown that the action 

. of an elqctric current, is due to flat waves, with'their planes 

of'rotation contiritting 

". the.axis of .the straight wire, the ro- 

. taiion of the wave' elements being'around the lines of force, 

which are circles about that axis. All points of the wire 

I 

in the form of a cylindrical surface, thus spreading as a 

' 

circular cylinder around the wire, but not in the direction of 

. the wire. The element of cylindrical surface becomes: 

( 

".\ 

where.zdar' is an element of the circles of expansion, increasing 

as the radius r, and d/ is constant, along the length 

of:.the cylinder. 

, f .r New,since,the: el.enlent,'qf length d/ is constant, as 

a 

256 

4. Norv the area of the circular cylindrical sector varies 

as zdar or as the radius, dro being constant in a fixed element 

of the sector. And as the waves thus become less crowded, 

in the direct ratio.of the distance, r, it follows that the intensity 

of the wave action decreases, varying inversely as r. 

'I'his 

is a direct and simple view of the geometrical. basis 

of ,Biot and Sauart's law, heretofore apparently little studied 

b1' natural philosophers. 

5. This remarkable law of Biot and Sauort thus has 

the simplest of explanations: namely, the elementary cylindrical 

surface ds increases directly 'as r, and the resulting 

electrical action therefore decreases inversely as r'. 'lhe 

larv 

thus follorvs at once from the restritted freedom of the waves 

propagated from the rvire: and as it rvas confirmed by experi' 

inents of Biot and Sattart, r8zo, the iaw in turn establishes 

the dependence of current action on electrodynarnic waves' 

No other agenc)' tlian 'taves could prodtrce this result, because 

waves itrvolve expansion, and the agitation has to follorv 

the gcometricai inverse larv of the increase of space. 

6. Ry extending the above reasottitlg, rve see that if 

the l,a'r,es from a body can spread in all directions, thel' 

rvill fill a sphe,re surface, s:.47t r!, and hence the Iarv of 

decrease of the intensity for the action varies inversely as r', 

namely i -f : nf r2, which holds for universal gravitation, 

rrragnetisrr], and other'physical forces of nature' 

. 7. As the coincidence betrveen the requirements of 

rvaves and the space expansion is rigorous, fronr r - 

o to 

r: F, the chances against such a mere accidental conforrnity, 

rvithout physical cause, are infinity to one. Accordingly, 

Biot tnd Sauart's law furnishes direct proof of the 

utmost rigor that u'aves underlie electrodynalnic action, as 

'rvell irs gravitatiorr, nragnetism, etc. 

'fhere has been such a bervildering confusion of thought 

connected. with the whole subject of physical action across 

space that it is necessary to bear in mind clearly the fun' 

damental principles of natural philosophy. To this end t'e 

need obvious proofs of the causes underlf ing physical action, 

under the sinrplest of nature's 'laws. The sintple laws exclude 

the larger nunrber of complicating circunrstances, and enable 

the bause involved to stand out in such a way that we may 

recognize it. 

. Very diflerent indeed is the confusion'of thought carried 

on in certain scientific circles. At a discussion of the Theory 

of Relativity, .as reported in the tr[onthly Ndtices for De' 

cernber, r 9 r g, Sir Oliucr Lodgc justly coniplains that Professor 

Eddiu,glon thinks he understands it all. >To dispense with 

a straight line as the shortest distance betrveen two points, 

and to be satisfied with a crazy geodesic that is the longest 

distance between two points, is very puzzlirig.< . . . rThe 

rvhole relativity trouble arises from giving up the ether' as 

the standard of reference - ignoring absolute motion through 

the ether -, rejecting the ether as our standard of reference,

I 

orl 

EI 

.!'l 

Astronorn. Nachrichtcn lld. 2I2. 

$t 

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether. Tafel 

ft 

sl 

'1 I 

,l,rj 

I'i 

$l 

l{{ 

rl 

:,1 

l 

rl 

t^. 

1 

r 

J t 

: 

I 

I 

t 

i, 

)* 

N 

\' 

\' 

\ 

tr\ 

\ 

t- 

d/*,'t.tr 

Fig. t. /ir1,'s illustration of the rnotion of the particles in a wave of u'ater. Each particle moves 

about a rrrean position, rvhich is shorvn by the centre of the circles; and the radius vector 

drau'n frorn the centrc, slrols the \\'ater vector at various phases ofthe oscillation, 

I'ig 3' 

1') tt ltt's'l' hcory of llagnctisrn, 

I7-14, .rvhich conceivcrl 

a rrragnct as having 

ralres in thc,1\rteries( 

along its axis, pcrrrritting 

the aetircr to llorv in one 

tlirectiorr onll', frorn the 

S()utlr t0 thr' \ortlr l)ole, 

.,1,1,'.'l'his nrislca,lins lrrin, 

cilrlc haslrccn uscrl in ncrrr, 

ll all sorks

Astronom. Nnchrichtcn lld, ztz. 

Iiie. 7. I)iagraur of the Edtly Crrrrents in

Astronom. Nachrichten lld. ztz 

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether. 

1:\:W-tzt 

-'a-=-, 

I 

.! | -l? 

.-: 

i . " i , . \ r r ' 

---. ,i r' \ 

i-i \ 

r -] |. i '-\ -l 

=l 1'l 

I 

ti ,------- ffi / 

r--6q--=r\.-- ,/ 

l _ \ , / 

I .|'- -,-i.--.-- -//' 

iitl";,' 

M.6n.rt, 

l"ig t.1. Illttstr:rli,rn of tltc \\'rlc-t]tcory of tlrc l,rrrtlr's urirgrrcti.ru, slrouing tht: nragrrctic 

'l'lrc 

flrces rlircctr-,rl 

towartls citltcr polc. anncxcrl rlilgnrrrr orr llrc riglrt slrrrvs tlrc r()tirtions t;rliinq lrlacc in thc 

ficlrl as tilc rrrlgttctic uavcs rcct'rlr', ulrrlq' :rlrorc it is lirc lrgrrrc ot ir snurll lrrr{rrctic lccrllc 

pointitrg alotrq the linc ol tirrce, llriclr i. llrc rotltion axis oi rlrc u,rres. 'l lrc rlrrglctic iic),1 is 

fotrtt

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. ztz. 

Iti tt 

C. Schaidt, InhaberGeorg Ohcim, Kiel. 

T. J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether. 

t lllustrrtiotr ol'tlre elfcct ol orthogonal pro,lcction, lrl slriclr rnolccular rrrotions, irr 1i,r.,rr'r's 

elongated ellipses nortnal to thc save I-ront, at rliifi'rent parts of a spherc surllcc, lrcc6rle 

tnrinly transl'crse to the direction of thc ra1', at r grert tlistancc Irorrr ihe sorrrcc. 'l'hc orrter 

circle is rnagni6ed to distinct visibility', so as to rendcr the carrse of rhe trans\.erse r.ibrations 

in light more obvious to the imagination, as shorvn also by the darkened areas of the enlarged 

ray at the centre of the figure. 

Fig' 3. Graph_ical illustration, by means of the shaded portion, of the enorrnous concentration of light 

vibrations in the periphery of a beam, under orthogonal projection of the sphere, with I'oissit,s 

elliptical paths for the 

-molecular 

oscillations along the iadii from the centre, and, by means 

of the small factor '1,'1, thus making nearly all the vibrations transverse to the direction oi 

tne ray. 

Tafel 7

Astron()rn. Nrchrichtcn liirl. z r z. 

C.Schaidt, lohaber Georg Ohcrm, Kiel 

I 

iI 

T..l.J. Scc. New Theory of the Aether. 

' 

$\r, 

t,l 

,;t: 

. ;';t'r[., 

,1" \'-:' 

./' 

":',"r" 

+ -- - 

I 

Irig -5' 

(icncral vicw of tlrc ntrgltctic llclrl alr.rrr tlrc cartlr, *,itlr . s1x:cirncrr .l t5c \r.i'cs 

ficlrl 

t() *,hiclr 

is

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. ztz,, T. J. J. See. New Thiory of the Aether. Tafel 9. 

l.'ig. 8. 

trndulatory explanation of the interference 

of polarized light, when tbe paths of the 

aetherons are circles. It .uill hold for 

ellipscs, and. even for straight Iines, brrt 

SuCn restnctlons are not necessarv. In 

tlre rrJrper part of thc figrrre thc rvnvc 

phases rliffcr lry t/rI; 

in ihc lower parr 

the plrascs concur, and give doublc in. 

tensity. The light and dark bantls above 

correspond to the present position of the 

s'ave, indicated by the heavy linc, whilc 

the arro$'s shorv the advanced position 

of the s'avc rrhcn it has moved to the 

right after an interval d/. 

C.Schaidt, Iohabcr Georg Ohcirr, Kiel. 

F-ig z' 

Illustration of light polari. 

zcd by reflection frorn the 

blue 

'I'he 

sky. vilrrations 

are norrnal to thc planc 

,lf polrrization passing 

tlrrorrglr the sun anrl thc 

zcnitlt, anrl tlrc lrolarizrtiorr 

attalns a ll)a\itnuln irt a 

Pornt crlrrally rlist:rDt front 

the zcnirh. 

. Fis. ro. 

Illustration of the tliffraction fringes tlrrc 

to a rectangular al)crture, rvith the corre_ 

spond.ing visibility curve above it, on 

sli gh tly d i fferen t scale (.1 ft . /t./.t o t i;.' l. he 

central band of iight is nine rrrrres rnort, 

rntense than the first scconrlary rnaxiw.!;le 

1,um, 

the higher orders oi Lands, 

a|l paralte[ to the sides of tlre rectan- 

. gular slit, are still fainter.

{ 

tr. 

257 

and replacing it by the observer. By putting the observer 

in the forefront and taking him as the standard of reference 

you get cornplexity. If you describe a landscape in terms 

of a man in a train looking out of the window, the description 

is necessarily complicated. The surprising thing is that 

this theory has arrived at veri6able resnlts.< .... >The theory 

is not dynamical.'There is no apparent aim at real truth.. 

It is regarded as a convenient mode of expression. Relativists 

seem just as ready.to say you are rising up and hitting the 

apple as that the apple is falling on you. It is not comrnon 

sense, but equations can be worked that way.c 

8. It is quite rernarkable that heretofore the lau, of 

tsidt and Sauart should have been so little studied bv intestigators. 

A larv of such simplicity (compare Fig. 9, I'late 5) 

has enormous advantages over any cornplex law, especially 

when it comes to searching for the causes rvhich produce the 

phenomena observed in nature. Thus it is preeminent)y these 

simple laws, which admit of .one interpretation and onlv one, 

that should claim the attention of natural philosophers. 

9, In the closest analogy with what lliot and Sauorl's 

latv puts before us, for the intensity of an electric current, 

on a straight wire, the Newtonian gravitational potential, for 

. a homogeneous sphcre or a heterogeneous spheie made of 

concentric layers of uniform density, presents to us the ex- 

€essively simple fcrrnrula : 

V: Mlr (rs) 

which we have already interpreted in terms of wavcs frcell' 

expanding in tridinrensional space. 

Any other interpretation than that given for the Nervtonian 

potential function in thesFsimple cascs secms absolutely 

excluded, by virtue of the simplicity and directness of' 

the most obvious special relations, as when the rvaves expand 

outwardly from a spherical nrass such as the sun. 

r o. Any modilication which renclers these formulae 

complicated or non-homogeneous is to be viewed u,ith profound 

. suspicion. 'I'hus the substitrrtion of Gerbcr's formula: 

v:t4r(t-rfe.drldt)2 

\"9) 

for Ncutton's as cited in equation (28) above, is unjusti6able 

and indefensible; yet in the perverse search for complexit.v 

instead of sinrplicity, such bewildering confusion goes on. 

Dr. P. Gerber first published this unauthorized formula 

in the Zeitschrift fiir Mathernatische I'hysik, I3and XLIII, 

r898, p. g3:r04, and the. exploitation of it since made by' 

Eiastcin, and his followers ignores the fundamental fact that 

by introducing the second power factor , /2 : (r - t f c. arl at)2 

in the,dlrisor, the dimensions o[ the equation are changed, 

which is physically inadmissible and equivalent to violating 

the essential mathirnatical condition of homogeneity for the 

equatioir for the potential. Such an objection is fatal 1), since 

it rests upon both geometrical and physical grounds; and 

thus we witness the adoption of a mere convenience, in 

violation of recognized -scientific principles. 

. rr. Tbe fact thatihe Einstein speculations involve this 

fatal contradiction seems to have been overlooked by previous 

t) This rnay be made a little clearer 

hacl e factor 1t introduced into the divisor Z. 

Tenance, and not permissible on mathematical 

5079 

by noticing what would happen 

Such an arbitrary modification of 

or physical grounds 

lr 

i ;l 

'a58 

investigators,,who thus exhibit ,a feeble giasp of the 

essential conditions of geometrical and physical research. , . 

l,; ., 

.;t. 

Accordingly, since this Gcrbcr formula is invalid, when , . 1, i ;(i'-i :t: ii; I 

applied to a homogeneous sphere, or a spherical mass made .rs., i''-"-i"i :tilt',i 

up of concentric layers of uniform density like the sun; its r :i|l 

above explained. Accordingly let us see what connection,,if,!,r;r. 

any, exists between Ohn's law and that of Biot and Sauart.',".:,. 

';'" 

a) In Riot and Sauart's larv we vary the distance, with 

be locnted. )nted. 

.,i,r,',r,', t: 

\ .i i'.-', 

'Ihus 

c) Biot and, Sauart's law, with a fixed 

i:,* 

:i:' 

"teadt 

rr, rLrvcr lut LdlLutd(lllE LIft!l!,- 

jlr, 

, ,:.-1 

j t ' '-..1if1 

tensity at a fixed distance. , .:, r. 

r r. Accorclingly it appears that these two l"ws aie jl'r 'l'.liil 

'' 

nrutually supplernentarv. For all the effects, in the field 9f,;i,'i..$1i. 

electrodynamic waves about a wire, should include both thosd!l'; , *l-.oo; 

';;'Ji;lriili:'"'. 

occurring at a fixed distance, as calcutated 

. l'.$il 

and tlrose occurring at a varying distance, as calculated UV, : ':'S,l 

the law of lliot and, Sauart. 'l'he trvo laws are thus broughi t , .{Si'. 

into immediate and necessary relationship, and both conform' :l: 

,.,.|.ff 

to the wnve-theory. ,,,,,,i ,,; S,,liii" 

\Ve may tt'rite Biot a.nd Sauart's larv in the form; -t:,i,,i;,-.,=il 

I: KIIIr ."(Si 

and Ohnt's law in the form: ffi 

T: IIIR. (s'):" 

Accordingly on combining the two expressions which 

rve may do by equating the identical intensity at any point, 

we oDtaln vrtl 

KHlr : IIIR or I{ : rlR. . 

Therefore, rve find on substitutin g for K 

any value I{ and r, 

I: rIflRr: I1 R ' 

,, 

'., 

(rl) ,: 

its value, for' 

if the exactly analogous formula for the lelocit y, l/ = Lli,, 

the expression for the potential is purely a change de cori., 

. ....i / ;

', ':,1 t' 

t,1;.'. ., 

' ",,{', , ,. 

. I l:il*j' 

t 

,. 

,.);,': t 

25.9 5079 

which again yiel.ds Ohnt's larv, in the form which holds for 

'any fixed distance. 

'., 

r4. These two laws therefore confirm the wave-theory 

of the entire field about a wire bearing a steady current' 

Ohm's law implies a cylindrical.wave field - the resistance 

and intensity being the axes of a rectangular hyperbola 

referred to its assymptotes - Biot and Sauart's law also 

represents a rectangular hyperbola of the same type, but with 

r varying instead of ,? (compare Fig. ro, Plate 5). 

These two laws give the complete theory of the electrodynamic 

wave'action, in the whole field about a wire bearing 

a steady or variable current, and thus greatly simplify the 

theory of the electromagnetic field. 

: : 

6. Ocrstcd's Experiment, r8r9, Arago'sExperiment 

with copper wire, t8zo, and the IMagnetic rvhirl 

shown by iron filings near a conducting rvire all 

confirm the wave-theory, which also agrees with 

Ampirds theory of elernentary electric currents circulating 

about the atoms. 

In the Electrod. Wave-Theory' of Phys. Forc. we have 

given a simple and direct explanation of. the deflection of 

ihe magnetic needle first observed by Ocrsled in r8r9, the 

adherence of iron filings to copper wire conducting a ctrrrebt, 

first observed by Ara.go in r8zo. We also explained 

., the.circulir whirl assumed by iron filings near a conducting 

wire, and finally were enabled to harmonize the wave-theory 

with Anfbrc's theory of elementary electric currents al)out 

the atoms (comp. Fig. rr, Plate 5). l 

.,,.,,Such- an illumination of the obscure subject of the 

magnetic field is too remarkable to rest on nrere cbance; 

and thus we shall describe the argument briefly, as.the best 

means of unfolding the true qrder of nature. 'l'he electrodynantic 

waves propagated from the rvire bearing the current 

lie in planes through the axis of the wire, and are of the type 

s: asin(znxf),-t-p) 

. : asin(znylT-rp) 

(3 

sJ 

where r and y are interchangeable, owing to the symmetry 

of the waves about the z axis, which is taken as the axis 

of the wire. Owing to cylindrical symmetry the axes ol' r 

and 7 might be rotated about that of z without any change 

in the expressions for the waves receding frorn the rvire 

under tire action of the current. 

But as we have already pointed out the arnplitude a 

decreases as in Biot and Sauart's law, inversely as 

. r: y'(xzt-tz). 

(i\ Ocrs*d's Experiment of r8r9' 

In the experiment of r8r9, it was observed by Ocrstcd 

that if the magnetic needle be belorv the wirb, and the current 

from the copper positive pole of the battery directed north, 

the deflection of the north pole would be to the west' 

If the needle be above the wire, but the other circumstances 

'unchanged, the deflection of the north pole was observed 

to be torvards the east. The needle might thus be 

revolved in a circle about the wire, without any change of 

the relative position in relation to the axis of the rvire' 

Accordingly it appears that the axis of the needle, sets itself 

260 

tangential to the lines o[ force, which are iircles normal to 

the axis of the wire. 

If now, without other circumstances being altered, the 

direction of the current be changed, the two poies of the 

needle immediately interchange at all points about tire rvire: 

The south pole is deflected to the west when beneath the 

.wire, and to the east when above the wirb. And in general, 

every point in the orientation is exactly reversed. 

What can be the meaning of this phenonrenon in which 

the current acts as if it has sides, when reacting on the 

magnetic needle? We shall see that just as the magnet has 

two poles of opposite properties, so also the current has ts'o 

sides, due to waves which appear to be righthanded rotations 

when vierved from the opposite point. 

Consider the case first cited above, rvith the current 

frorn the'positive copper plate of the battery florving north 

and the needle suspended beneath the wire, but with the 

north pole deflected to the west when the current flows. 

'l'his means that the rvaves desceuding belorv the wire have 

vortices rotatins righthanded, as sho*'n in the following figure, 

frorn the writer's work of I g r 7. 

Iiig. lz. Nerr theory of O.rttdtl's nnd Antgo's 

cxPerilncnl.s, r 8 t 9-zo, tnd of induction. 

It meens aiso that the rotations of the rvaves receding 

from the south pole of the needle have the opposite direction 

of rotation, as shorvn in the figure. 

r. For it is found by experinrent that the needle is 

bodily attracted to the wire, by the action of the current, 

and hence the waves fronr the wire must undo the opposite 

rotations in the waves from the needle. Accordingly the 

mediurn tends to collapse, and by this contraction of the 

volune of the mediunr the needle is drarvn to the wire' 

z. In all the works on electricity and magnetism which 

I have seen including Marwcll's great treatise, this question is 

sornervhat evaded by the claim that the north pole tends to wrap 

itself around the wire, in one direction, s'hile the south pole 

tends to wrap itself around the wire in the opposite direction; 

and tliat this actual bending of the needle rvould occur if 

the needle were flexible. I proved by direct experimept iu 

r g r 4, that the needle is bodily attracted. to the wire in

I -,i 

Ii: 

F'. 

t 

t$ 

26r 

5079 262 

every possible position it may take, but I cdnnot. find so 

I 

o. It is worthy of note that since the lines of force 

eminent scholars have often renrarked how difficult it is to jelementary electric cnrrents irr" ;;;il;; 

get rid of the most obviotis errors, rvhen entrenched in the wave-theory. "uo,rt "^"r*.;; 

irvith 

The formula for a plane wave is 

authoritv j1:i: 

l,o.-., ": :rn., ] 

s : a sin(znrf )"+p\ . (:o) 

4. Further'proof of the above theory of the action of I -^:.- Anrl aq a: wF we mrr, may .h;ft shift ,r,^ the -^,-. ir.r^ _^-.^,_.,__ _--tt"' 

nrric crrrren, nron^a+i^ -^^rt^ *:_L. r_^ ,^,_,- , I - 

point of the revolving 

an electric current 

vector 

'upon simple a statement of this essential fact in any earlier work 

I 

about a magnet are rentrant vortices, - the filaments 

on 

within 

electricity and magnetism' 

the axis 

I 

of ihe magnet rotating in exactly the opfosite direc- 

3. .The usual discussion 

an electrlc current upon a nragnetic ntagnetlc needle might be deduccd 

I 

| try 1,. alteri .llsying the phase angle y', lve see that 

from the 

by chinging 

fact that in nature physical actions always 7 

rt''"- 

"* ] 

o6 ti ,n, rve shouli ha'e a complete oscillation of tbe 

about the tendency of the unit I tion to those in the magnetic equator, for example, - the 

north pole is very unsatisfactory, because rvhile the tendency rvaves emitted by the conducting 

I 

wire in Oersteds ind Arago,s 

thus outlined is fairly accurate, it conveys the impression erPeriments, described above, will have 

I 

their elements rotatling 

that all porver is centred in the polb, .rather than in all the in perfect agreement with 

I rthe vortices inside the body o1 

particles, - notwithstanding the fact that if we break the tfe magnetic needle.. 

] 'l'he waves from the wire thus supporr 

magnet we get as many separate magnets as we havc frag- lthe physical'oscillations within the more resisting body of 

ments, and since this subdivision may be extended to moli- | the needle, and by rendering the sunr total of the mutual 

cular dimensions, we know that the theory of pole action a.ctions a minimum, 

i 

the balanced needle is in equilibrium in 

is altogether nrisleading, yet such vague teaching contirrues the position 

I 

observed by Ocrstcd, r8rg. 

dl*t from generation 

:"*,I_^hil9:9 

.to gen^er-ation, and | 7. It is norv easy te reconcile Antplrc,s theory of 

i"1:rt:::j"]':"^,lo_"t::tlt_l'-:tTt't 

proceed from the needle and also from the wire, and by ,",i.r. 

their interpenetration develop forces of the kind observed in I ( 

; ;; ; "" ;;,;;.;# il'";;i: 

attlacteg to the needle ] .u.r.n, once about the atom; and also to the advance of 

;::":";, l:* l*":n:sl*,i:1iiii:i.::::i_":":[::i i .,,,",r"1 

but not .1:.1'.H.il:'',1',1'1"'_*: 

from the other: there undulations i::H,';"';''l,j';:.: 

m.st nroceecl fr.,- I ""'l.'.'tr 

Lrtuurtrrcrcrlce tnan a wave length ,t ol the rvave 

both bodies incessantly, and.travel with the\n^'i;:"":;,:';'l' 

] emrtted from the aton), all we need to do is to point out 

This is proved by observation. for ,h. .",r:jo;:tTji "llji 

thnt we lYc do uv not rrur know Krruw 

This is 

the rrrc 

proved 

nrechanisrn Irlcclranlsln 

by observation, 

by Lly which wnlcn 

for the 

waves w'1ves 

ryaye actions 

originate, 

orlglnatet 

nao- i l'-l',* 

lii,::.",;1":{",:"", ;::f l*:"1:: .:fii:_J j{q":t waves I :;i",t' 

of a magnet 

*.:.;::o'lf";Ji":J',i"-1;:J:'* 

itsel{, 

ro rna! ot tne atom' An IXJ};;.,,J."j 

undetermined 

though the velocity of the waves l:::,:l- Lulrcsl)oncr 

from a natural 

probablf 

mag'et ha'e 

is invol'ed 

ne'er 

here, 

u."n airJ.tiy 

brrt 

il:J:::: 

at present rve cannot 

yet 

I :Trliiplier nx 

since 

rt rvith 

magnets"are 

anv accuracv 

lrraSurrr 4rE.rrrduc made by uy the Lrrc action aullurr of;;,,;";t";;;; 0t a currenl uDon I 

a bar of steel inserted in a solenoid 1) , it follows that the I 

(iii) Natrtre of atomic vibrations considered. 

velocity of the trvo classes of waves,. one from the current ] 

For in the case of sound, the dimension of the Echnand 

the other from the magnet, must be the same, and in holtz resonators is 

I 

not closely related to the length of the 

both cases identical rvith the velocity of light, u: 3.o ' rol0cms. I 

corresponding sound rvaves received and emitted by the 

t 

] elastic oscillation of the resor.rator. And even if this could 

(ii)'Arago's F)xperinrent 

"'"1:,"'^_'."^:'.. 

of r8zo. I | ho [,e f^,,-,r fotrnd ;- ^;- :1 ...^..rr _^r L^ ^L- 

:. . 

air, it would 

.in 

not be the sarne in hydrogen, 

::^1"..::-^"::f1.:^:i1"li::: -"^t ll,r.,l it is ob'iou'lo*ygen, nitrogen, or other gases; but depend on the 

thatpro- 

copper wire conducting a current will give. a wave 6.ld 

I n.rii.r of' these media, *;[-; 

j",,.1_1t 

", ";-;.";hr;;";';;;;"#; 

:::Jt^t|^'jlllll_ 

,?,!". L"i::: If iron filings be I oi the resonator, its shape, 

""". 

mass, elasticity, rigidity, ctc. 

such a conducting rvire, it is obvious that 

theyshoulrladher"e.oi.,,in.".".inii'g#>

263 5079 264 

',, ' 

So also within'the aether, the vibrations of the atons 

are determined by causes which at present are but little 

understciod;,and we can only infer that the atomic dimensions 

are not directly related to the wave length, or \Yave lengths 

emitted, though there probably is. some correspondence which 

I 

may be nrade out in time. 

', t g. It appears trom the researches in spectroscopy 

:heretofore made that the atom of a single element nay 

emiti a complicated series of spectral lines, which means 

.a very complicated series of vibrations, sonre of rvhich are 

connected by the forrnulae of Balncr and other investigators. 

Now most of the vibrations of the visible spectrum are belorv 

the resolving power of the microscope, and thus the rvaves 

are so short that such vibrations do not penetrate solid or 

even transparent fluid bodies to any appreciable depth. But 

we know by the transmission of the sun's rays through such 

a medium as the terrestrial atmosphere that longer rvaves 

have increased penetrating power. And since Langlel extended 

the length of the solar spectrum tg some zo times that observed 

by Netuton, without finding any indication of an end, 

it is natural to bold that the waves upon rvhich gravitation, 

magnetism, electrodynamic action, etc., depend must be of 

comparatively great length, otherwise they would not Penetrate 

solid masses as they are observed to do in actual nature. 

ro. It thus appears that the shorter atomic rvaves there' 

fore do not produce forces acting across sensible spaces, ancl 

in dealing rvith the long range forces of.the universe \\'e nrust 

look to waves of considerable length, which have the re

26s 

^lt\r' , 

5079 

principal'parl of the force which regulates the motions . of 

the hear,enly bodies. But there are slight effccts resulting 

from the second and third terms, l'hich were first numerica)ly 

investigatlcl by Tissu'and in r87 3 (cf. Tissu'azrl's 1\,ldcanir1ue 

Celeste, Tome l\r, last chapter), but'the theory was rendered 

more conrplete in the present rvriter's Electrodynanric trVave- 

1'heory of l'h1's. I,-orc., vol. l, tgr7, where tabular data rvill 

be found for the planets,.satellites, comets and binary stars. 

,The chief effect of the minor terms of equation (37) 

is to give the perihelion a small progressive motion, which 

in the case o[ the planet Ivlercury amounts to da: -+r4!5r 

in a Julian centur)'. This reduces the anomaly in the outstanding 

motion of tha.t perihelion to about two.thirds of its 

value, namely from 6a: -r4z!g5 to d6: -+zS1'44, but 

does not obliterate the anomaly, which is more exhaustively 

investigated in the second paper on the nerv tbeory of the 

aether. 

It was in his celebrated paper of r864, A l)linamical 

'fheory. 

of the E,lectron)agnctic Iiield, that ll[arirl/ reached 

the conclusion that the velocity of electrodynamic action is 

identical rvith that of light, as alreadf indicatcd lty /t-oh/rausrh's 

experimental determinatioh ol u, in r856. ISut although sut:h 

a conclusion follorved fron Kohlrazsrl's experintents, ancl 

from .tifttrutrl/'s theory oI the electr.onraqnetic ficld, it rvas 

necessary to lbrm a more definite conception of the nature 

of the action, than was then available, be lbre the use of z 

could be introduced as a rvorking hypothesis. 

tlfarutll's electromaenetic theory of light rvas prrt in 

such shape that thc existence of electric \\'aves \\'as renderecl 

probable, but not directly veri6ed by any tangible experirnent, 

till I{er/z's discovery of the electric rvaves (r 887-94) rvhich 

bear his name, along v/ith a nrethod for investigating their 

properties, including an expcrimental demonstration that they 

travel rvith the velocity oi light. 

This practical development of the rheorl, of electric 

oscillations, rvith experimental deternrination that the vclocity 

of the electric u,ates is identical with that of lieht, lcft no 

doubt of tbe identity of the electric nredirrrn rvith thc lunrinifereus 

aether. Otherwise it is inconccivablc that the tn'o 

velocities shorrld be identical. The previous and suLrscclucnt 

determinations of 2 have confinned this conclusiorr, so that 

such a result has nou' been aciepted for abotrt a quarter of 

a centurJ,. It remained, however, to form sorne demonstrable 

physical conception of magnetism and of gravitation, *,hich 

u'ould justiil' the clainr not only that elcctric rvaves travel 

with the speed of light, but-also that magnetic ancl gravitational 

forces are due to a similar citusc, rvh-ich s'as the 

aim of the writer's researche^s, rgr4-rgr7. 

r. First, it rvas necessary to show that a pbysical theory 

of magnetisnr may be based on the mutual action of .waves r), 

but of such lengih that they may be propagated through 

solid masses s'ithout very great loss of energy. 

z. 

and to disclose the nature of these rvaves, u'hich n)ust meet 

certain requirements in electrodynamics, and cosmical . ntagnetism, 

so as to be adaptable to' the more hidden problem 

of universal gravitation. This requirement was rnet by the 

theory of rvaves from atbms, shorvn to conforrn to Anfirt's 

theory of.elementary electric currents about these particles, 

'l'he rvave is taken to be flat in the equator of the 

atom, so that in this plane, the waves are perfectly plane 

waves, while in the trvo hemispheres of the atom the rotations 

give righthanded or lefthanded helict's, as actually observed 

in polarized light rvhen propagdt€d. through certain crystals. 

This specification fulfilled . the most necessary optical requirenrents, 

and thus presented no dilficulty from the point 

of vierv of light or electricity. 

3. The magnetic requirement, that contmon s(eel should 

be capable of magnetization by the action of an electric 

crrrient, was met by rhe theory of lnfire that before magnetization 

the p)anes of the atoms Iie haphazard, with their 

ecluatorial planes tilted indifferently in all directions. The 

actjon of the electric current, with waves flat in the planes 

through the axis of the conducting wire, rvill yielcl electric 

oscillations in the form of plane waves, oriented at right 

angles .to the axis of a bar of steel under magnetization in 

a solenoid. Hence tbese electric oscillations or plane $'aves 

due to the current, u'ill force the atoms of the steel .bar to 

tilt around, so as to make their vibrations conform to those 

due to the current in the solenoid; and rvhen the magnetized 

steel bar is cooled strddenly, by plunging into water 'or oil, 

the rcsult will be a permanent electromagnet oI the type 

first rrade by '4tnfire about r8zz. l'hus the atoms of the 

mxqnet are set in planes at right angles to the axis through 

the poles, and all vibrate in concert. 

4. Accordinsly, rve find a direct relation betlveen magnetisnr 

and eicctrocll'nrnric action, and as dynamic electricity 

is founcl l;v experiment to travel on wires rvith nearly the 

velocity of light, it is inrpossible to doubt rhat the rvaves 

er-nittcci b1' nrtr.rral and artificial mrgnets travel also with the 

sanrc speed. In fact it follorvs that bclbre uragnetization the 

steel emittecl rvaves of the srme type as after action by the 

elcctric current, yct prior to the action of the current throtrgh 

the solenoid tlre orientation of the atoms was a haphazard 

one. 'I'he act of nragnctization consists in forcine the e(luators 

of the atoms into parallel planes, so that they may I'ibrate 

in concert, rvhich explains the great strength of magnetisnr 

in comparison rvitir the feeble force of gravitation. 

5. 'I'his brinss ns directly to the problem of cosmical 

magnetism and of gralitation. In steel n)agnets of good 

quality a)l or nearly all the atoms are forccd into parallelisrn 

by thc neitations'of the current throueh the solenoirl. Now 

the heavenly bodies contain some iron, nickel and other 

magnetic elements, but much of their matter, of a stony or 

glassy clrarnctcr, exhibits nrasnctic prol>c'rties in a very f'eeble 

degree. Nloreovcr, the planets are subjected to no. very 

strong solenoidal action other than that due to the sun's 

magnetic field. It is not remarkable therelore that they are 

only partially nragnetic. Their nragnetisn.r may hale been 

acquired or considerably nrodified by the secular action of 

the sun since the formation of the solar systent. 

6. Accordingly, Faradals great discovcry tbat under 

current action all bodies are more or less nragnetic, while 

i i . 

fi p. 

!t 

i 

*, 

* 

$ It 

, 

r) 

The fact that waves'rvill explain the attraction and repulsion of magnets, under the observed las's of magnetism, must be regarded 

as a very notable triumph- As no other e,rplanation is known, the simple cause thus assigned must be hcld to be the true cause. 

' 1 8 

266

267 

nickel, iron, steel, etc., are the most perfectly ,adaptable to 

the process o[ magnetization, would lead us to expect cosmical 

magnetism to be a very geheral phenomenon, but 

always somewhat feebly developed, in accordance with actual 

observation. Herein lies the connection with universal gravitation, 

which Marwcl/ found so difficult to conceive. lVhen 

the equators of the atoms aie not lined up in parallel planes, 

so as.to oscillate in concert, they naturally are tilted haphazard, 

and do not lead to poles, - as in a magnet, rvhich 

Airy describes as exhibiting a drlality of porvers, - but to 

the central action cailed gravitation. As the hed.venly bodies 

are partially magnetic, this means that they have feeble 

n)agnetic poles, in addition to the powerful central gravitational 

action, and thus two independent wave fields are developed, 

about them, one due to the atoms lined up and acting in 

concert, called magnetism, and the other to gravitation (cf. 

Fig. r4, Plate 6). 

7. It is impossible to hold any r other vierv of the 

interlocked magnetic and gravitational {lelds observed about 

a planet. In the case of the earth Gauss fo,lod that about 

r : r 38oth part of the matter acts as if it rvere magnetized 

50'7g 

268 

magnetic attraction backward and forward irr the'line from 

the Red Sea to Hudson's Bay< (Treatise on Magnetism, 

r87o, p. zo6). 

r o. This semidiurnal tide in the earth's magnetism 

depending on the moon's action is shown to be coperiodic 

rvith that of gravitation (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. 

Forc., rgr7, pp. 5o-53). And on examining Ltoyd's analysis 

in the Philosophical Nlagazine for March, r858, I have shown 

it to be vitiated by a subtile error, in that he retained the 

hour angle 0 instead of the z0 rvhich occurs in the expressions 

for the tide-generating potential. Apparently he did 

not susl)ect that there could be such a thing as a rnagnetic 

tide, and thus his rnode oI analysis simply begs the question, 

and the resulting error is repeating in many later rvorks. 

For example, in his Mathematical '.fheory of E,lectricity and 

Nlagnetisnr, r9r6, p. 4oz, Jeans asserts that the daily variation 

of tlie earth's rnagnetiqm is not such as the heavenly 

bodies could produce - thus repeating Lloyds error of r858. 

Of course this is not true, for a careful exarnination of the 

problenr shows that the larger part of the terrestrial maguetism 

is constant, as depending on the arrangenrent of 

r/r38oth of the atorns of the globe, whilst the variable ell-ects 

(Allgemeine Theorie des E,rdmagnetismus, r838, p. a6), while 

the remainder, r3jg: r38oth', should give the central action 

o[ gravitation. I3y the observations taken at Mt. Wilson 

Solar Observatory the sun's magnetic field appears to be 

some 80 times stronger than that of our earth. Whether this 

is due to the heat of the sun, and the resulting greater conductivity 

of rvave action through its matter, so that the 

action on the planets produce a larger secnlar effect upon 

their atoms, or to some unknown cause, cannot at present 

be determined. 'fhe strength of the sun's nrirgnetic held has 

no doubt added to the cosmical mngnerism of the planets, 

though the changes are excessively slow. 

' 

8. It is more than probable that the secular changes 

in the earth's magnetism should be ascribed to the working 

of the sun's strong magnetic field, which is not equally powerful 

at all times, but varies appreciably with the sunspot cycle, 

the relative position, and seasonal tilt of the earth's axis, 

etc. As the magnetic storms are definitely shorvn to be 

related to the cycles of the sunspots, as is also the aurora, 

and the earth currents, these related Dhenomena deserve a 

too.e detuiled investigation than they have yet received. 'I'he 

periodic phenomena all appear to depend on the sunspots, 

with their magnetic fields uncovered, and thus are more active 

with the maximum of the spot cycle. 

9. For many years a great difficulty existed in accounting 

for the senridiurnal tide in the magnetism of the earth, 

depending on the action of the moon. 'lhis are sul)erposed by the actions of the sun and moon. Thus 

all the knorvn periods .ot' the terrestrial magnetism are shown 

to follorv frorn those of the heavenly bodies. 

r r. Norv.it is found lhat Arewton's larv rvill explain all 

grar,itational plienornena, but not the phenomena of the 

rnagnetic tide depending on such a body as the nroon. Iior 

as ,lirv points out, this irnltlies attracrion backrvard and forrvard, 

in tire line frorn the Red Sea to F{udson's l}ay, ri.}rich 

is along the iine of force of the edrth's nagnetism. 

rvas first detected 

by l{rcil at Prague in r84r, but independently discovered 

by /ohn Allan Broun, 1845. A very accurate analysis of the 

observations at Dublin was published by Dr. Llo1d about 

1858, which showed that the magnetism of the earth had 

the same semidiurnal period as the tides o[ oui seas. Ac, 

cordingly ,4.iry d,eclare'O that there is )a true lunar tide of 

magnetism, occurring twice in the lunar day, and showing 

'l'he 

intensity of the earth's magnetism thus varies in sernidiurnal, 

periods, just as the direction of the vertical varies under 

the gravitational attraction of the moon, and in similar 

periods. 

rz. Accordingly, the attraction to the carth's magnetic 

pole is subjected to a true tide in the earth's nragnetism, 

arid can only be explained by ll/tber's larv, which takes 

account of induction under the changing distance of the 

partially rnagnetized rnttrer of the globe, the lines oI force 

towards the rnasnetic pole being subjected to the same ebb 

and flow as the central forces called gravitation. This connects 

lnagnetisrn rvith gravitation, by direct observation: for 

the earth has feeble polarity, with magnetic lines of force 

directed to the magnetic poles, as rvell as the much nrore 

powerful central lines of force producing the phenonienon 

of gravitation. Now the phenomenon of local gravitational 

change, due to the moon's action, .is indicrLted by the oscillations 

of the sea, while that due to the uroon's macnetic 

action is felt only by magnetic instrurnenrs ri'hich show the 

variation of the northrvard cornponent of the earth's magnetism. 

. r3. When the tide-generating potential is developed in 

hour angle /ie (rvestward), 'longitude / and latitude l, of the 

place of observation, declination of the rnoon d, the components 

of the gravitational attraction are shown to be: 

V: (sfrnazfrt)lLf 2co,s2),cos2dcos z(ho-t)-rsinzlsindcosdcos(,1, -t)*tl"(lo-sin2,1)) (:S) 

westw. comp. : ? Il acos)'67 : zf 

,(tnf M)(alr)3 {cos). cos2 d sin z(/to - l) -*sin l. sin z d sin(zo - z)} (ss) 

southw'Comp, - *alf ad)":3la@rlM)(alr)3{sinzl,cos2dcos z(no-t)-2cosz,lsinzdcos(le-l)-rsin z!"(r_ 3sin?d)}. (ao)

lA:i 

i: 

z6g 

. It will be noticed that the westward component is made 

up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations 

twice and tbe otber once a day, *'hile the southrvard comj 

ponent undergoes like periodic oscillations, as illtrstrated by 

the following figure, lrom Sir Georgc Dartain's Tides and 

Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, r89g. 

s 

N 

l'i g' 

"'l::::(;:,::1-:T";i,in 

?l 

D 

semi >the ratio of the moon's mean 

distance from the earth in tbe half orbit about apogee is ro 

that in the half orbit about perigee as r.o7 to r; as the 

cube of r.o7 is r.z3 nearly, we see that the mean range 

of the curves for the trvo distances are in the ratio of the 

inverse cubes of the moon's distance from the earth. as in 

the theory of the tidcs. < (Stuaart's Article Meteorology, 

Encyc. Brit. 9tr'ed., p. r79). 

lts Broun had observed the lunar magnetic effects io 

be as r to r..24, and. Sabinc had found similar results, he 

natrrrally regarded the veri6cation of this tidal law in the 

lunar sernidiurnal variation as very important. With the above 

correction of Llo1,d.'s error of analysis, this result of Broun 

shows conclusively that all the diurnal effects observed can 

be explained by the ntagnetism of the sun and moon. 

It is not strange therefore that in his celebrated article 

on Terrestrial Magnetism, \ t39, Batforr Slcwart recognized 

that as the moon's magnetic influence follorvs as nearly as 

possible Jh'oun's larv of the .inverse cube o[ the distance from 

the earth, it is impossible to refrain from associating this 

-magnetic 

influence either directly or indirectly with 

'fraving 

something 

the type of tidal action. Slctaat't points out that Airy 

found a similar semidiurnal inequality depending on the sun 

in the Greenu'ich records, and A. Adams found corresponding 

rEarth Currents< to be induced in the crust of the globe 

at the corresponding hours. 

8. Plane \\'aves propagated from the Equators 

of the Atoms of a N{agnet fulfi l1 Poisson's Equation 

of Wave trIotion ?'!Qtf7tz:22gr (D, and yield the 

Larv of Amplitude required to produce the Forces 

'observed 

in Irlagnetism. 

'fhe 

oscillatory motion in a plane wave propagated 

along the r-axis may be defined by the rvell known equation: 

E : ocos(znxf )"+p) (+t) 

rvhere the zgro of the angle (znxl),-rp) is reckoned from 

the parallel to the y-axis. 

llut in plane wave rnotion the particles not only undergo 

a periodic side displacement like that exhibited in a curve 

of sines, but also a longitudinal motion, supplementing the 

above, which may be expressed in the form: 

q:psin(znxllt-p). er) 

In general the particles tbus undergo elliptical moticin 

de6ned by the equation: 

{2f a2-rr1zf p,z: ,. (+r) 

This may become circular nrotion for surface waves 

in still water, as illustrated graphically in the foregoing 

figure r, Plate 4, from Airyt's celebrated Treatise on Tides 

and Waves, Encyc. Metrop., r845. 

In the electrodynarnic wave-theory of magnetism it is 

held that when the magnetism is imperfect the atoms may 

r8r

I 

[ : : 

t 

E 

z6g 

. It will be noticed that the westward component is made 

up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations 

twice and the otber once a day, r,r'hile the south.rvard comj 

ponent undergoes like periodic osciilations, as illtrstrated by 

the following figure, from Sir Georgc Daruin's Tides and 

Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, r899. 

N 

l2 

s 

l'i g' 

"''l;::#:;,?*T'TJi,lh.se 

m i llarth Currents< to be induced in the crust of the globe 

at the corresponding hours. 

8. Plane Waves propagated from the Equators 

of the Atoms of a Magnet fulfill Poisson's Equation 

of Wave N{otion 32A1A1z:42y2 (D, and yield the 

Law of Amplitude reqrrired to produce the Forces 

'observed 

in Magnetism. 

'l'he oscillatory motion in a plane wave propagated 

along the *-axis may be defined by the rvell known equation: 

E- acos(znrf),-+1t) (qt) 

rvhere the zgro of. the angle (znrlT-+p) is reckoned from 

the parallel to the y-axis. 

Ilut in plane wave rnotion the particles not only undergo 

a periodic side displacement like that exhibited in a curve 

of sines, but also a longitudinal motion, supplementing the 

above, which may be expressed in the form: 

,l : p sin(znxf )"+-p) . 

(+rl 

In general the particles thus underg'oelliptical 

moticjn 

defined by the equation: 

12f a2-rr12f Pz: t ' 

(+:) 

This may become circular nrotion for surface waves 

in still water, as illustrated graphically in the foregoing 

figure r, Plate 4, from Airy's celebrated Treatise on Tides 

and Waves, Encyc. Metrop., r845. 

In the electrodynarnic wave-theory of magnetism it is 

held that when the magnetism is imperfect the atoms may 

r8'

27r 

have their equatorial planes tilted at any angles in respect to 

the coordinate axes; 'Ihe plane waves above outlined would 

apply to the midplane of a perfect magnet, but it is necessary 

to conside,r the most general case. 

Now the equation of a plane passing through the origin 

of coordinates is 

lr-rrny-rnz : o. (++) 

If the wave be fiat in this plane it rvill travei rvith the 

velocity a and at the end of the time l, rvill have spread 

to a 'distance al. Accordingly, the argurnent 

5 - 

tYtx2y*nz-a/ t45/ 

will represent the motion of the disturbance rvith veiocity a. 

Ilut s is the equation.of a plane u'hose norntal has 

the direction cosines ,1, at, n, and whose distance frorn the 

origin is at-+- s. .It is inferred. that the plane is therefore 

traveling in the direction of its norrnal rvith the velocity a; 

but it is equally logical to say that a rvave originlting in 

the. plane is traveling in all directions s'ith this vclocity, and 

at the end of tirne l, the sphere surface lat)2: r2-+-y21rt 

would be this distance \at-rs) frour the original centre of 

distufbance. 'l'hus instead of consi.dering the'plane to rravel, 

we may consider tire rvave to travel and carry a plane 

s-+-at - 

lr-rny*nz, $;ith it parallel to the plane in (+S). 

The directions cosines o[ the plane fulhll the larv 

72-tnt2{172 : 1. (q0) 

' 

Norv with the value of s'in (a5), rve nray take thc 

equation 

@: (D(lr-+tny-rnz-at) 

\+l) 

and derive the follorving results by simple differentiation 

. 

?4tl6r : t rlt'(s) Abp,t, : tt e'\s) 

A@lAz : 2 Qt' (s) ?Al?t : - a rD' (s) 

TtrDf?x2 - | e'(s) T@lAl - 21\ eY ls) 

02rDl0z2 7 n2 rD' (s) OlQtf 0f - . 

a2 Qt'(s) . 

, 'fherefore, by acldition of these terms rve find : 

. 0'tQt f0# -+-02rD 

: 

147 li/ 

f01,2 aDtrltl0t, - 

: V2@ : (12-+-rn2-+-n2).(r" (s) : ttt'(s) . (+z cJ 

(+z l,) 

And hence by the last of the above second diffcren-' 

tials .we obtain 

A,reftt2 _ a2V2(D (+s 

) 

which is Poissot's celel-rrated equation of rvave motion. (Sur 

l'intdgretion de queiques dquations lineaires aux dift'drences 

partielles, et particulierenlent de I'iquation tdndrale clrr mouvenrent 

des fluides ilastiques,< \{dmoires de I'Acadirnie ILoyale 

'l'ome 

des Scicnces, Ill, Juillet r9, r8 r9.) 

I( u represents the displacernent of the particles above 

considered, in the direction of the r-axis, we lnay derive a 

less general . but urore obvious ibrrn of Itoisson's erluation, 

If ig. I6. Illustrating the Wave 

which rvas appiied by Eulet'to the theory of sound. 

' . 

Put s 

- 

sil(nf-kr\ n: ,nal)" k : zrcl)". 

And then we nray derive iminediately: 

' ?ul1t: ncos(nt-Ar) 0uf0r: --kcos(nt--hr) 

(+S) 

(So) 

'f lrcorl' of J\,i.rtot , 

us in rellccted l,igirt. 

'fhen 

if, for brevity, we l)ut 7(p, - 

r/-r rve have for 

the dcrivatiyes: 

0 tl f 0 t : A +, p lfi u f A t -r 0 q f 0 u.0 u I 0 t : a (0 tp I 0 u -r 0 Lp p u) (o o\ 

02rl0t.t--tt2u 32uf0r2:.-+rtIu (Sr) 

whence 02uf0t2: -(n2fi2)A'rl?r'. (Sr) 

In the usb of Poissott's equation of wave motion 

' A2{Df7f : a2V2(D (+S) 

we may multipll' both sides of the equation by the eleurent 

5079 

272 

of volunre Q,5 

- 

ls dy dz, and integrate throughout the volume 

bounded by a closed surlace S 

[ ! !O'ap,,)a": ",! [ [Q2af 0r2 -r02@f ar,z -ra2@F,\ d, : 

: -"'I].Qala4ds. (sr) 

If the surface S is a sphere of radius r *ith its 

centre at the point P, rve may proceed as follows: 

' 

- 

! ! Q u, Ja,,1 os : 

fJlao F r)," d, : r, (0 10,) ! ! ut, a, ( s +) 

rvhere d). denotes the value of @ at points on the surface of 

tlre sphere of radius r, about the ccritre P. 

\Vhen rve introduce polar coordinates into the first 

rrenrbcr oi (Sf ) we obtain: 

p'pfl 

,!!a65 

: (otl0rl!! a.(ia,,-,,r,.) . (ss) 

' 

On clifferentiating the right member relative to r-, we 

get frour the original ecluation (a8) t;y means of (53): 

, . . " ( 1 P _ | ^ , ^ , ^ , ( P 

r-\c!,ct:)) : a,\0ldr)(r,\dldr)) (S0) 

){Itrda )Qtrdot). 

Yet the surface intcgral rO, a. rvhich 

! ! 

appears .in 

botlr urcrnbers of (56) is 4,r tinres the rneau value of the 

tirr-rction @. on the surface of a spltere of rtrdius 2,. ^Suppose 

tliis rrrean value. be denoted by Q,;. then slnce ItA,a, 

: 47t @, rve haie 

r'zQ')A,fAi) : o2(0,'?r)(,''.ZtO,l3r). (SZ) 

On differentiating and dividing by'r, rve nray put 

this in the forrn: 

A2|'@)|AP: ar?"(rtO,\10r2. (ss) 

We ma1' nol introduce two nel variables z und z, 

as follon's: u : at-tr u : at- r. (SS) 

0 p l0 r :0p l0 u. 0 uf1 r -r0 q l1u. 0i f1r : aq l1a 

- aq l1u (o' ) 

82t1tf?tt:a2l02ql0u2-+-z1ttpf?yDy-+-02q10u2) (Or) 

0zqf0rt:0'VlD,,'- z02qf0uou-r7zqf1u') . (o:) 

lJy equation (5S) we have through the addition of the 

terms of the right of (62) and 63 

0zqf0u0y 

: 6 (o+) 

a :i 

,:..'l 

. .i.:l 

J

.?7 

3 

.Thisequationyieldsthegeneralsolrrtion: 

and then we have 

rA,: 

. 

f (at-r.r)-f (at-r). 

. When rve differentiate relative to r, we get: 

. (D,+r?rlt,f d7 : 

/,(at-+r)-+-f,(at-r) 

' 

And on putting t..* e,.this leads to 

, 

(D,.j 

,{,,rJ,rn"n 7. : o. 

On differentiating (6q') relative to r- ancl t, 

successively: 

. 

5079 274 

. 

rp :1rQ)-+f2fu) 

where / and f2 are perfectly arbitrary funcrions 

arguments. 

Suppose, for exarnplb, that initially O ana liOflt are 

(os) both zero, except for a certain region ,?, whose nearest poiirt 

is at 

of their 

a distance 1 frorlr P, whilJ the remotest point lies at 

a distance 22. 

If /: e, the 

Then 

left member 

so 

vanishes: 

long as \ r2f a there rvill be no rnore rvaves and O@Ft wilt again 

the functions f1 andf2 are not independent, but one is the be zero at P. 

negative of the other, namely 

frkt) : -,fr{"t) 

(oz) 

by (OO),'whatever be the uaiue of the argument al. 

' 

Accordingly we norv put 

(A l0r) (rrD,) : 

/, (at -t- t.) +-/, (a t - r) 

Q la4 QQi,) : a l/' (at-+ r) ' 

*.f, 

Q; 

- 

iI . 

Accordinsly, lry adclition, .rve obrain 

?(,@)Pt -+(tla).AQa,1pt : zJ'(,tt-+t.). (;.;) 

And for 'f : 6, 

[AV@,)lAr-+-llQ.aQa,)Ft),,. 

" :,,f,(,,) (;:) 

(;+) 

, 

275 

in an elastic fluid. Besides the celebrated memoir of rgr9, 

already cited, Poisson treated the matter in another able paper, 

presented to the Acadenry of Sciences, March 24, r g 2.3, 

Mimoire sur la Propagation du N{ouvement dans les Fluicles 

Elastiques, finally published under the title : Sur le Mouvement 

de Deux Fluides Elastiques Superposds (lvldmoires de 

I'Institut, Tome X) in which this celebrated geomerer confirmed 

the conclusions previously reached, nanely, that 

whatever be the direction of the original disturbance, the 

vibratory motions of the particles finally become normal to 

the wave front. 

\Yhen li'esttel and his follorvers obiected to ?oisson's 

processes as founded on mathematical abstraction, though 

deduced from the assumption of contiguous elements, tte 

celebrated geometer returned to the subject in a series of 

later menroirs, as follows: 

r, Mimoire sur I'Erluilibre et le X'Iouvement des Corps 

Elastiques, Avril r4, r828. Ivldmoires de I'Institut, 'I'orne VIII, 

pp. 35 7-627. 

z. Mdmoire sur l'llquilibre des Fluides, Nov. 24, rgzg. 

Tome IX, r-88. 

. 3. Mdmoire sur Ia Progagation du lVlouvement clans 

ies Milieux Elastiques, Oct. r r, r83o, 1'ome X, pp. 549-6o5. 

4. Mdmoire sur I'Equilibre et le lVlouvement cles Corps 

Crystallisds, Torne XVIII, pp. 3-r52. 

In all of these memoirs the earlier conclusions of 

r8z3 are confiimed and emphasizecl, that rvhatever the primiti'r'e 

disturbance may have been, at a great distance ihe 

motion of the,rnolecules finally becomes perpenclicular 

to 

the wave snrface. This is deduced jn the mer-noir of rgro, 

pp. 5Zo-5?r, by an argument which cannot well be evaded, 

and announced in these words: 

rll en resulte donc qu'l mesure rlue I'on s'dloigne du 

centre de I'ibranlement primitit, la vitesse dupointllapproche 

de plus en plus d'6tre dirigde suivant son rayon vecreur ,., 

et qu'tr une trds-grande distance, oi l'onde mobile peut 6tre 

regardie comme sensiblenrent plane dans une grande itendue, 

on doit, en meme temps, considirer Ie mouvement des rnolicules 

qui la composent, comme perpendiculaire i, sa surface, 

quel qu'ait itC I'dbranlement primitif.( 

@ - rf r'tlr(p,1) 

where we should have 

s - On pages 524-5 of the same menroir of rg3o, 

rf a2'06fA1 : o 

poissott 

deduces the formula (D : r . 

lr t! (r - at, y,, 1,) and passes to 

tbe case at > r* c, 

'' >Il rdsulte de cette discussion que dans le cas oil la 

formule uds * udl -+- wdz ne satisfait pas i la condition 

(sz) 

(ss) 

d'intigrabilitC, les lois de la propagation du rDouvement, 

I 

une grande distance de I'dbranlernent, ne diffdrent pas essen_ 

tiellerqent de celles qui ont lieu, lorsque cette condition est 

remplie, ainsi que je I'avais supposd dans rron ancien memoire 

sur Ia thiorie du son.s 

>Le mouvement imprimd arbitrairernent 

I une portion 

limitde d'un fluide homogdne se propage toujours en ondes 

sphiriques autour. du lieu de cet dbranlement. A une srande 

t) The spacing'out of the concluding sentence is mine - not in the.original. 

5079 276 

distance, ces ondes sont sensiblement planes dans chaque 

partie, d'une petite dtendue par rapport i leur surfacb entidie; 

et alors, la vitesse propre des moldcules est, dans ious les 

cas, sensiblement normale ir leur plan tangent. Mais on peut 

aussi considdrer directement la propagation du mouvement 

par des ondes infinies et planes dans toute leur. dtendue. 

Or, on va voir que. la vitesse des molecules sera encore 

perpendiculaire a ces sortes d'ondes en mouvement.< 

Accordingly, in his most matuie memoirs, after re_ 

searches on the theory of waves extending over.25 years, 

f'oisson confirmed the conclusion that in elastic rnedia, of 

tbe type of a gas, the nrotion of the molecules is alwavs 

like that of sound. This result rvill be found to have great 

significance when we come to deal with a fundamental 

irror 

in the wave-theory of light, in the fourth paper on the New 

'lheory of the Aetber. 

Q. liejection o I T/tottttsou's Corpuscular Theory 

of an Electric Current, because of the Small Velol 

city tbus attainable:'I'heory of a Magneron also 

rejected because of its Inconsistency with Electro_ 

di'nan.ric r\ction: observed High Velocity of Electron 

runder Charge explained by Acceleration due to 

Aether \\raves. 

(i) T'ltotrson and other electronists hold that an electric 

current is due to the notion of electrons. 

In his Corpuscr-rlar Theory of Nlatter, rgo7, Sir J. J. 

T/to,tsott p,t forth the 'ierv that an electric current consists 

in the nrotion of the electrons. >On the corpuscular theorlof 

electric conduction through metals the electric current i; 

carried by the drifting of negatively electrified corpuscles 

against the current. ( . . , ,'I'he corpuscles we consider are 

thus those rvhose freedom .is of long duration. On this vierv 

the drift of the corpuscles rvhich fornrs the current is brousht 

about by the direct acrion of the elecrric field on the fiee 

corpusclcs.o (p..lq.) 

uAs, 

. 

ho*.ever, the mass of a corpuscle is only about 

tftToo of that of an aton) ofhydrogen, and therefore only 

about r/34oo of that of a nrolecule 1f hydrogen, the mean 

vaiue of the square of the velocity of a corpuscle must be 

i4oo times that of the sarne quantity for the rnolecule of. 

hydrogen at the same temperature. Thus the averase 

velocity o1- the corpuscle must be about sg tim-es 

that oI a molecule of hydrogen at the tem-perature 

of the nretal in which the molecules are siiuated 1). 

At o' C. the mean velocity of the hydrogen molecule is 

about r.7.ro5 cm/sec, hence tbe aue.nge"nelocity of the 

corpuscles in a nretal at this temperature is about ro? cm/sec, 

or agrpioxinrately 6o rniles per sec. 1'hough these corltuscles 

are charged, yet since as n)any are ntoving in one direction 

as in the opposite, there will be on the average no flow of 

electricity in the metal. Although the change produced in 

the velocity of tbe corp-uscles by this force is, in general, 

very small cornpared with the average velocity of translation 

of the corpuscles, yet it is in the same direction for all of 

thenr, and yrroduces a kind of wind causing the corpuscles 

to flow in the opposite direction to the electric force (since, 

j

I 

277 

Observed Z 

463 r 33 Km. 

3to47 5 

r 7989o 

99938 

zroqoo I 

,isZo" I 

z4 r 8oo 

These measurements, rvhich are of very unequal value, 

give a mean of 2546t8 Knrs., which ruouli not seem iml 

probable, in view of the lact that the Sitntrns-Fr-i)licl series, 

apparently by far the best, give a mean z4z966 Kms. for 

electric waves on iron rvires, As the electric disturl;ances 

should travel with the velocity of light, 3ooooo linrs., except 

for the resistance of the wires, it rvould thus appear that 

the velocity is reduced about 1/5,h o. t/u,n of the rvhole. 'l'he 

r€sistance causes the disturbance to travel slorver in the rvire 

and thus the waves around the wire envelope it, and necessarily 

follow it as a conductor. 

A more modern investigation of the velocity of electric 

waves on wires was nrade by .Prof. Jofin Troral,rirl,ge and 

5079 

. ,279 

the charge on the corpuscle is negative), 

wind beirrg the velocity imparted to the 

electric force r).< 

the velocity of the 

torpusclqs by the 

Thontson's calculations of the velocity of 6o miles per 

second are based upon the formulae cited in Section I2, 

below, which I had made before I found the above statement. 

T/tonson does not drvell on the inadequacy of this 

Again, (p. ,+o) Crr.tlrr, iThese electrons,. if 

"dds: 

velocity of 6o miles per second to explain the transrnission 

of electric signals on' rvires, which have a velocity only 

slightly less than that of light. 

On page 68, horvever, he points out that in a Rdntgenray-bulb 

giving out hard rays the velocity of the corpuscles 

in air may be about roto cm/sec, .or ros times the r;elocit1, 

of those in the metals. 

It is held in tbe theory of ionization of gases by 

X-rays, that the positive and negative parts of the atorns are 

separaterl. >The positive ions are attracted to the nesative 

electrode and the negative.ions to the positive elecirode, 

and the movement of these electric charges consritutes a 

current,( says Du1fs, 'I'ext no electric force be acting, will be moving in all directions, 

so that if we. take any cross section of the metal the number 

of electrons crosSing it in one direction will be the same 

as the number crossing it in the opposite direction, and sb 

the total transference of electricity across lthe section will 

be zero.< 

>If, bowever, rve apply an electric field to the body 

there 

Book of Physics, (ed. r9 r6, 

p. 498). This is used at the Uniyersity of California, and 

this discussion was rvritren by Prof. R. I{. ,ltcCluzz.g of the 

University o[ ]\Ianitoba, who is a Doctor of Science of the 

University of Cambridge, Ensland, and thus speaks rvith 

authority. 

Likervise, Crotather says on p. r3g of his r\Iolecular 

Physics: rWe have now come to connect electricity with 

electrons, and hence an electric current is a florv of electrons 

from a place of high to a place of lorv potential. \Ve nray 

regard a conductor, then, as a substance containing electrons 

which are lree to move under the action of an electric field, 

while in non-conductors the electrons are fixed and unable 

to follow the impulse of the field.< 

.will be a force on each electron urging it in the 

direction of the 6eld. Thus in addition to the irregular motion 

due to the heat energy of the body, there will be a steady 

drift of the electrons as a whole in the direction of the eiectric 

force. (( 

' 

'Ihis 

discussion, like that of Thomson, admits that an 

electric field is necessary so set the electrons in motion, but 

the nature of the electric field itself is not explained, beyond 

the general phrase that difference of potential is involved. 

This is almost as unsarisfactory as the failure of the electronists 

to account for the high velocity of electric signals 

on wires. 

(ii) Experimental tests of the velocity of electric waves 

on rvires. 

The problem of the velocity of the electric waves along 

rvires has been much discussed, and formulas given in such 

lyorks as Cohen's >Calculation of Alternatihg Current problems

279 5079 28o 

':was arranged with great ingenuity, and the apparatus so 

designed as to sho.w a small difference in the trvo velocities, 

'rif such difference existed. The first observations showed that 

the two velocities were nearly identical, yet not rigorously 

the same. 

Under the delicate and dependable means o[ adjustment 

used Gutton discovered that the velocity of the electric 

wave on the wire. was a little. less than that of light. And 

he found that the difference thus very accurately deternrined 

amounted to about one-half of one percent. Accordingly for 

the velocity.of eiectric rvaves on wires Gutton's values would be: 

Electric rvaves Z: z9g5oo Kms. 

Light Zj3oooooKms. 

This retardation of the electric waves by wires is small, 

but fortunately the experiment of Gullon was so rvell de- 

. signed that no doubt can attach to the reality ofthe difference. 

We must therefore admit that the electric I'aves on *,ires 

are slightly retarded by the resistance in the.n'ircs. l-his 

has been probable on general prin,ciples, and indicated by 

the older experirnents, and it no'n'takes its place as an 

established fact of observation. 

1'he result is sinrilar to tbat rcached in the frrst paper 

on the New Theory of the Aether, rvhere we shorved that 

wireless wa\\'es travel more .slowly through the solid nrass 

of the earth,-and the wave front is thus bent arourrd the 

globe, - which explains the observed fact that the l'ireless 

'fhis 

wave travels around the earth. propagation of the 

It is to be noted that.the oscillations 

in the mirroi have their phases spread along 

photographed 

in time, and 

therefore the disturbances are spread along in space, when 

ne deal rvith a wire on rvhich the disturbance travels, so. 

that the oscillations diagrammed on the left are repeated 

throughout the wire. 

'l'he 

reflection of any element of the aetber wave outside 

the wire is given dorble effect by the surge from the 

opposite snrface of the wire, as shorvn in the diagram. And 

thus the wave rotations take the reversed directions shown 

'Ihis 

above and belorv the wire; is the wave field we investigate 

in Otrste d's experiment, and find to follorv Biot and, 

Sauatt's larv, as already explained in Section 5. 

Accordingly the delay in propagatiori through the wire 

causes a slight whirling.of the aether particles against the 

wire, then a rebound, .rvith rotations in the opposite direction 

- in rvaves t'hich are. propagated away ds shown in the 

diagranr of the ivave field. In regaid to such reflection from 

metallic surfaces, Prof. F'leatiug says: )'I'his electrical radia- 

tion (rvaves of length approaching 4 cns.), penetrates easily 

through dielectric bodies. lt is completely reflected from 

nretallic surfaces, and is also more or less reflected lrom the 

surfaces of insulatorsu (p.4rr). : 

(iii) Rejection of the theory of 'a magneton as contrarv 

to electrodynamics. 

1\re norv pass to the discussion of the so - called 

wireless wave around the globe had ltroved very nrysterious, 

and no .satisfactory explanation of it had been lbrthconring. 

. As *'e have norv definite proof of the retarciation of 

electric.waves by the resistance encounterccl within a nterallic 

wire, we see that the rvire is surroundetl bv an envelooe of 

. waves in the. free aether tc'nding to liroceed ivith the veltcity 

of light, yet held back by the resistance within the rvire, 

and thus the advancing rva.r'e envelopes and is made to follorv 

.the wire. Is it not probable that we have here the trr,re 

explanation of the nature of a conductori 

Of course a conductor must be metal, n'hich has both 

the porver of indrrctance and capacity, - otheru'ise the electric 

distur.bances would not take the forrn of wav€s, thus exl)ending 

the energ)' due to difference of potential. Yet, there 

must be another physical cause at wori< to make the disturbance 

follow the wire. It is this, that the rvave in the free 

aether'travels more rapidly than 'lvithin the dense resisting 

.wire, and.owing to this resistance, the waves follorv the wire, 

being bent towards it on all sides,. as shorvn in the inner 

part of the Fig. 18, Plate 6. 

'l'he 

discharge spark of d Leyden jar is due to the 

oscillations of the invisible aether, rendering particles of air. 

luminous by the agitation; and rvhen this spark is photographed 

in a rapidly revo.lving 'mirror, 

lil:lgt)('toil. 

r. lt appears that the existence of the so-called magnetor) 

is pure)i' hypothetical. It was at first adnitted, rvith 

sonre ircsitation, as a possible corpuscle, in nragnets, analogous 

to tlle elcctron in the problcns of .elcctricity. 

the oscillations are 

shown as indicated on the axis of the rvire to the left. \\/e 

must therefore assume electric surges from one side of the wire 

. to the other, just as in a Leyden jar. Moreover, as the aether 

' is compiessible, this compressibility contribntes to the development 

of waves. 

'l'his idea 

seenreci Iogicai in terminology, and the narne appeared in 

ct:rtuirr 

'I'ransactions 

I)aI)ers ol' the }hilosolrhical of the Royal 

Society, and it has since conre into rnore general use. 

2. Ilut the above described ternrinoiogy apparently 

overlooks the fact thtt magnets are produced by the action 

of an electric current. If therefore electrons be active in 

a crlrrent, and the crlrrent generates a lltagnet, it is more 

natural to exltlain n)agnets by the cff'ects of' electrons, and 

to do away lvith the nlagncton as supcrfluous. 

j. In the l)rescnt nLrthor's *'ork, lrol't.r't:r, waves are 

made the basis of the generation of a rl)agnet out of steel 

by the lining-up action of an electric current. Ir is thus 

illogical to introduce fit:titious corpuscles imagined to have 

rotatory propertics, rvhen sirnple waves in the aether suffice 

for all practical purposes. 

4. In the l'rincipia, Lib. III, t686, /\retulozr lays down 

as the frrst rule of philosoplry: >\Ve are to admit no more 

causes' of natural things tl-ran such as are both true and sufficient 

to explain their appearances.< >'l'o tiiis purpose the 

philosophers say that nature does nothins in vain, and rnore 

is in vain rvhen less rvill serve; for nature is pleased-with 

sirnplicity, and affects not the poulp of superfluous causes.( 

5. Under the circumstances, there is no need for,the 

hypothesis of a magneton, and thus we reject it because its 

use in inconsistent with electrodynamic phenomena as explained 

by the wave-theory. 

(iv) Velocity of the electron made to approximate that 

of light . by the action of electric waves. 

In his later researches on the ratio of the charge to"

z8r 5079 z8z 

the mass of cathode ray particle, Thomson devised 'a method 

for exactly balancing the electric and magnetic forces, and 

was able to determine the ratio ef m, and get V from the 

ratio of the strength of the electric field X 1o the strength 

of the magnetic field ZI, both of which could be measured. 

In this way he found V:2.g.roecnrs. per second, or 

about one-eleventh of the velocity of light. 

This value was found to be not qnite constant, but to 

vary somewlst with the potential in the tube, yet the value 

cfm was found to be I.Z.ro7, and shown to be independent 

of the nature of the gas used in the tube. The greatest 

value of cfm known in electrolysis is for the hydrogen ion, 

and comes out roa, whence it was concluded that the value 

for the cathode particle is rToo times that for the hydrogen 

ion. As the charge r carried by the cathode particle rvas 

found to be the same as for the hydrogen ion, it was held 

thaf the mass of the cathode particle is r f r 7 oo of the 

hydrogen ion or atom, 

It will be seen that notwithstanding the great ingenuity 

displayed by Thornson and his pupils, this whole subject is 

involved in considerable uncertainty. Perhaps it may fairly 

be asked whether any of these phenomena are yet interpreted 

on their final basis. No doubt the experiment as 

described supports the result found, but it is always difficult 

to feel sure that some entirely different view of these matters 

may not develop hereafter, orving to further experimentation, 

or improvement 'in the theory of the aether. 

them that have led to the great advances in molecular physics 

which we are about to describe. Particles having this velo, 

city are shot out in large numbers from radioactive bodies. 

To anticipate a little we may say that the a-particles from 

radium consist of atoms of helium shot out with a speed of 

this order of magnitude, and bearing a positive charge. 

Thus it is that a single a-particle is able to cause a flash 

of light when it strikes upon a screen covered with a suitable 

material. < 

The view that the high velocity attainable by the electron 

is due to the action of electric waves is suggested by 

Croutlher's further remarks: 

. rThe a-particles consist of helium atoms only. Velocities 

approaching that of the a-particles can be given to 

atoms' and molecuies of other substances by passing .an 

electric discharge through them in the gaseous state at very 

low pressures. The phenomena of the discharge tube have 

indeed afforded the best means of investigating the properties. 

o[ moving electrified particles, anU we shall proceed to their 

consideration imnrediately. < 

Aciordingly it seems that the electron researches strongly 

support the wave-theory as the only means of generating the 

velocity of the electron found by observation 1). If heliurn 

atoms or a-particles can be given such high velocities by 

electric cbarges, still more may electrons, in view of their 

very small size, be given the high velocities approaching 

r/roth that of light. I,-or as helium gas is .monatomic but 

trvice as heavy as hydrogen, the electron is about 68oo times 

lighter than helium, and under gaseous laws a velocity of 

over 8o times that of a helium atom might be expected for 

the electron, if equal energy were concentrated in a single 

corpuscle, This gives ample power to account for the observed 

velocity ol' projection of the electron, and the high 

velocity therefore is naturally attributed to wave-action. 

The net result is therefore as follows: 

r. Viewing the electron as a corpuscle of a gas, it 

would attain a velocity of only about 98 kms. (6o miles) 

per second, or r:3ooo'h of the velocity of light. This is 

very insignificant compared to the velocities observed in light 

and electric waves. 

z. Under the action of impulses in the tubc not yet 

fully understood, but generated under considerable electric 

tension, the velocity of the charged particle may be augmented 

nearly 3oo fold, so as to become a little less than a tenth 

of the velocity of light a.nd electric waves. 

3. The mhss of the corpuscle is considered to be due 

wholly to the charge, but too little is yet known to justify 

It is worthy of note tbat, with Crotathtr's estimate that 

the electrons attain a velocity of r : r 5th of the speed of 

light, the aetherons have a speed r5.r.57:23.55 times 

that of the srviftest corpuscle heretofore recognized. The 

New 

this claim, and it cannot be admitted. Apparently wave 

action alone could produce the velocity oI the electron, 

z.8.roe, approaching one tenth that of light, because the 

aetherons move r.5Z times faster yet. 

4. In his *o.k on Irfolecular Physics, p. 7-8, Croutthtr 

describes how much energy may be given to a small mass by 

increasing its speed to about r/r5th of the velocity of light. 

rSuch particles, however, actually exist, and it is the 

discovery of these particles and the measurements made upon 

'I'heory of the Aether thus bids lair to give quite an 

impetus to the study of high velocities. 

Io. 'l'he Identity of the Velocity of Electric 

Waves rvith that oi Light shows that the Aether 

underlies both Classes of Phenomena: the Formal 

Public Discussions on doing away rvith the Aether 

recently held before the Royal Societies in London 

striking Evidence of the General Bewilderment. 

(l) fne physical significance of the identity o[ the 

velocity of electric rvaves with that of light. 

1) 

In his History of tbe Inductive Sciences, Whene/l bestows high praise on Rocmer, - who lived about a century in advance .of 

his contemporaries, so that his discovery of the velocity of light was accepted by very few, chiefly by Neulon and l{u1,ghens, - because this 

celebrated discoverer noticed that the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites vere delayed in time in proportion to the distance of the earth from Jupiter. 

Thus when Jupiter was near opposition, the eclipses came about t6 minrrtcs earlier than when the earth rvas on the opposite side of the sunl 

tnd, WheucII remarks on the highly philosophic character of Roctnc/s argument for the gradual propagation of light across space, which no 

one before him had suspected from the earliest ages. 

Now in our time the researches of the electronists have occupied great prominence, but without any inquiry, so far as I know, being 

instituted by them to account for the known velocity of clectric waves on wires and radio waves across free space, This neglect greatly weakens 

the position of the electronists, and when they propose to do away with the aether, without accounting for the propagation of light and electricity, 

they add presumption to carelessness; and therefore if Roemer's course was highly philosophic the course adopted by the electronists 

has been just the reyerse - unphilosophic and indefensible ! 

r9

' 

283 5079 284 

The early evidence deduced by Maxwell, in r864, and 

his successors during the next quarter of a century, to the 

eft-ect that electricai actions travel sensibly with the velocity 

of light, received a remarkable confirmation from the physical 

discoveries of I{crtz, who devised nrethods for investigating 

electrical rvaves of the type since used in radio-telegraphy. 

And the.progress of radio-telegraphy has been such that the 

velocity of these waves between Paris and other parts of 

France, and between Paris and Washington, has been measured 

as accurately as is humanly possible in the deternrination of 

inten'als of time iess than a fiftieth of a second. 

We cannot sa)' indeed that the meastlrelnents between 

Paris and \\rashington give incontror,ertible experirnental proof 

that the electrical rvaves travel rvith exactly the vclocity of 

lieht. Perhaps the velocity of propagation is involved in say 

fiue percent of uncertainty; yet all the observations are consistent 

with the speed of light.' And in vierv of the accuracy 

of the determinations of l/, by such nrethods as were ernployed 

by the American llureau of Standards in rgo7, we must hold 

that the radio-rvaves betrveen Washington and Paris travel 

with the observed laboratory velocity, which appears to be 

exactly identical with that of ligbt. 

'fhe 

fact that approximateiy the same speed is attained 

bv light and radio-electric waves, reduces us to the necessity 

of adrnitting: 

r. llither the trvo classes of rvaves travel rvith oreciselv 

the sarue velocity. 

z. Or rve must assume the existenr:e of tu'o media rvith 

siightly different elastic porvers, vet giving rvaves of practically 

the sarne velocity. 

Marucll long ago protested against the unphilosophic 

habit of inventing a nerv medium every time we have a new 

phenomenon to explain ; and fortunately in this case lneasurenrent 

Fupports ll,faru,ell's contention, by showing nrore and 

more conclusively that 

'l'he 

the two velocities are identical. 

difference between the velocity of electric waves in free 

aether and light is now so small as to be within the probable 

error of the separate determinations; and it is difficult to 

decide which rnethod affords the greater accuracy of measurement. 

We must therefbre wholly reject any claim for two 

media, and acknowledge that light and dynamic electricity 

depend on one and the same nrediunr - the aether. And 

we have discussed the physical character of that medium, 

and fixed the constants with such great accuracy that when 

the density is calculated by a new method, in the ltresent 

paper, it is found to be 

6: 1888.r5.ro-18 

as against the other value, now no longer adnrissible, as 

shown above in section I, 

6: 439. ro-tS 

yet found in the first paper by the rnethod invented by 

Loid Kcluin in r854 and since improved by Kcluin, Maxutcll 

and the present writer. 

'lhe physical significance of the identity of the velocity 

of light and electricity is therefore unmistakable; nanrely, 

electricity in motion consists of waves in the aether, and 

as they travel with the same velocity as light, we know that 

electricity and light both depend on the aether, and are 

simply waves of different length and type in this all-pervading 

medium. 

(ii) Accordingly, as Sir Oliuer Lodge correctly says, 

Einstcin has not done away with the aether, but simply 

ignored it, and thereby shown a renrarkable lack of under: 

standing of the physical universe. 

In a irublic address at San Francisco, April 1r, rg2o, 

Sir Oliucr Lorlgc dealt with the physical properties of the 

aether, as the vehicle of energy, and enphasized the vierv 

that although totally invisible, the aether is capable of exerting 

the nrost stupendous power throughout space, and thus is 

the medium or vehicle rvhich transutits the forces rvhich 

govern the nrotions of the planets and stars in their orbits. 

Not only is the aether necessary lor conveying the 

light of the sun and stars across space, but also for conveying 

the stresses to get)erate the planetary forces, tvhich 

are equivalent to the breaking strength of gigantic cables 

of steel stretched between the sun and planets. 'l'hese stupendous 

gravitative meclranisms are wholly invisible, and yet 

frorn the observed operation of centrifugal force, we knorv 

that the gravitative forces lbr balancing them do really exist. 

Under the circunrstances, as Sir Oliucr Lod3e pointed out, 

we cannot hold that appearances correspond to reality. \\re 

know of the aether chiefiy fronr its transm'ission of rvave 

action, which in free space travels with the velocity of light. 

Accordingly, after tracing the physical properties of 

the aether, Sir Oliuer Lod.gc jttstly exclaimed: >You have 

heard of Einsttitt, and probably knorv that he has go use 

for the aether. He has, however, not done. away with the 

aether, but sirnply ignored it.< 

'I'his concise statement covers the case exactly; but in 

view of the fact that Einsftin shuts his eyes to the unseen 

operations of the physical universe, which Nru'lttz artribdted 

to irrpulses in the aethereal mediunr, it is not remarkable 

that the uranl' sagacious investigators. of natural phenomena 

are obliged to reject the nrystical and misleading doctrines 

of,Lins/titt. 

'fo 

turn as'ay frorl a mechanical explanation of the 

tvorld, and attelnpt to account tbr phenornena by ruere 

formulae reposing on the supposition of action at a distance, 

and to furtber cornplicate the reasoning by the assurnption 

of the curvature of space, - when such an hypothesis is 

unnecessary and purely fictitious, * is not a sign of penetration, 

but of lack of experiencd in natural philosophy. 

It is just such unwarranted procedure which Ncutton 

denounces as resting on >vain fictions(, in the second sentence 

of the discussion following the statenrenr of Third Rule of 

Reasoning in Philosotrihy: >We are certainly not to relinquish 

the evidence of experiments for the sake of dreams and 

vain fictions of our own devising; nor are we to recede 

from the analogy of nature, which uses to be simple and 

always ionsonant to itself< (Principia, Lib. III). 

It appears from Ncutton's discussion that electrical actions 

conveyed along wires and across space, as in radio-telegraphy, 

and found by actual experimental measurenrents to be transruitted 

with the velocity of light, are the very kind of >evidence 

of experiments< which that great philosopher says we 

are not to relinquish for the sake of dreams and vain fictions

285 5079 286 

of our own devising; yet Einstcin and his followers have 

thus plainly violated Ncu.ton's Third Rule of Philosophy, in 

proposing to do away with the aether. Without this medium 

the phenomena here cited are not explainable, so that even 

a cbild can see the necessity for the aether. The sun and 

stars are the perpetual witnesses to the existence of the aether, 

and all rvho live and behold the light, as Honer says, thereby 

recognize ttris superfine medium (.1i0{1d. 

(iii) The formal discussions on the theory of relativity 

before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec., rgr9, and Royal 

Society, Feb. 5, r9zo, wholly unpro6table, in default ,of a 

kinetic theory of the aether. 

In view of the above criticisms it is unnecessary to 

emphasize the unprofitable character of the fornral discussions 

held before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec., r g r g, 

and the Royal Society, Feb. S, rgzo. But the fact that two 

of the oidest scientific societies in Europe did not refuse 

to $'aste their time and resonrces of publication on the vague 

and chirnerical theory of relativity - thereby still further 

confusing the public mind, already bewildered by the misapplication 

of mathernatics which rests on no physical basis, 

u'hen the problem is primarily a physical one - may rvell 

deserve our attention. 

true relation; in a crowd of ,ideas there is not one truth: 

he becomes a man after being a spirit of light.< 

The results brought out in the first and second papers 

on the New Theory of the Aether, show the worthless bharacter 

of the whole theory of relativity. We are justified in 

saying it is a foundation laid in quicksand, rvhen a foundation 

of granite rvas near at hand. And therefore the whole 

theory of relativity, as heretofore taught, is now shaken to 

its foundations, and thus no longer deserves the serious con. 

sideration of natural philosophers. 

As throrving some historical light upon the unprolitable 

subtleties of the theory of relativity, and the vague and chimerical 

discussions which the Royal Astronomical Society 

and the Royal Society have inflicted upon a bewildered and 

long suffering public, \rye recommend an attentive reading ol 

the latter part of the first volume of Wheutell's History of 

the Inductive Sciences. lllcu,ell dedicated this justly celebrated 

*'ork to Sir John fftrsrhtl, and it ought to be familiar to 

every modern investigator. 

ll'heutrll's lurninous discussior-r of the >Indistinctness of 

Ideas in the Middle r\gesCollections of Opinionslndistinctness 

of Ideas in lllechanics< 

of Ideas 

; >>lndistinctness 

A report of these meetings will be found in the Monthly 

Notices, and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and 

other journals, such as the Journal of the British Astronomical 

Association, for Nov., r g r 9, ar'd Jan., r g z o, which 

al)l)ear a month or so late. lVe may condense the discussion 

as an American physicist summarized .a similar discussion 

held in Washington about ten years ago: 

>When we got through, we did not know any rnore 

than when rve started. < 

Now we submit that such methods are not those by 

which science is advanced. And when the proceedings of 

learned societies take the form oI unprofitable debates, orr 

rnere subtleties, or on reasoning which rests on false premises, 

- such as a mere mathematical foundation, 

when a physical foundation is required, - in Architecture( ; 

it is a sign 

of the mysticism which usually accornpanies intellectual decadince. 

There can be no defense for the policy of exploiting 

Einstcin's theory without first considering the kinetic theory 

of the aether, which renders such mystical doctrines unnecessary 

and wholly inadmissible. 

'fo 

cite an example of historic interest, the chimerical 

character of Kcller's early speculations is judiciously pointed 

out by Loplact (Precis de I'Hist. d'Astron., p. 94): 

>Il est affligeant pour I'esprit humain de voir ce grand 

homme, mCme dans ses dernidres ouvrages, se complaire 

avec dilices dans ses chimiriques spdculations, et les regarder 

comme I'Ame et la vie de I'astronomie.< 

Delanbre is even more severe, and subscribes to the 

judgement of Bai$, in regard to Kcplcr (Astron. du moyen 

Age, r8r9, p. 358): 

>After this sublime effort (discovering the planetary 

laws, is meant) I{epler replunges himself into the relations 

of music to the notions, the distance, and the eccentricities 

of the planets. In all these harmonic ratios there is not one 

>Indistinctness of Ideas in AstronomyIndistinctness of ldeas shown by SkepticsIndistinctness of Ideas 

shown by Skeptics< U/hcu,cll remarks: 

rThe same unsteadiness of ideas which prevents men 

frorn obtaining clear views, and steady and just conyictions, 

on special subjects, may lead them to despair of or deny 

the possibility of acquiring certainty at all, and may thus 

make them skeptics with regard to all knowledge. Such 

skeptics are themselves men of indistinct views, for they 

could not otherwise avoid assenting to the demonstrated 

truths of science; and, so far as they may be taken as specimens 

of their contemporaries, they prove that indistinct 

ideas prevail in the age in which they appear. ln the stationary 

period, moreover, the indefinite speculations and unprofitable 

subtleties of the schools might further impel a man 

of bold and acute mind to this universal skepticism, because 

they offered nothing rvhich could fix or satisfy hirn. And 

thus the skeptical spirit rnay deserve our notice as indicative 

of the defects of a system of doctrine too feeble in demonstration 

to control such resistance.< 

Accordingly, from the considerations here advanced, 

it follows that the recent formal discussions before the Royal 

Society and Royal Astronomical Society of the theory of 

relativity, which is both vague and chimerical, have confused 

rather than clarified the subject in the public mind; and 

thus in the cause of truth I have felt obliged to protest 

against the misuse of the powers of these learned societies. 

I L Rejection of the Theory of ,Electrical 

Mass' except for Smail Particles of Common Matter 

expelled under Electric Charges: the so-called,Electrical 

Mass'thus not applicable to the Aetherons, 

or Corpuscles of rvhich the Aether is made up. 

(i) Description of the so-called ,electrical mass'. 

Of late years a number of physicists occupied with 

tg'

287 

experiments involving the ejection of snrall charged particles, 

in an electric field of very considerable intensity, hive 

Iaid much stress upon the so.called ,electrical mass', and 

even gone so far as to entertain the view that all mass is electrical 

(cf. Crowthcr, Molecular Physics, r9r4, pp. 6Z-8S). 

It is true no doubt that under the charges involved in these 

experinrents there is an ,electricai mass' because tbe small 

mechanical mass is thereby thrown out of electric equilibrium 

with its surrounding field. 

But when we deal with the aether as an all-pervading 

medium, we have to do with the motions of the aetherons 

only, and as common matter is not involved, we have to 

reject the ,electricai mass' as applied to the aether, for 

the reason that the aetherons make up the field, and normally 

are in kinetic equilibrium, so as not to be subjected 

to any forces except those due to passing waves in the 

aether, involving concerted displacernent of neighboring 

aetherons. 

It is well known that Ncuton rvas quite aware of the 

effect of the resistance of a medium upon the motion of a 

sphere or otber body projected through it. In the Optics, 

r72r, pp. 342-3, Ntaton discusses the very problem here 

treated o[ in the follouing manner: 

>>The resistance of water arises principally and almost 

entirely from the vis inertiae of its matter; and by consequence, 

if the heavens were as dense as water, they would 

not have rnuch less resistance than water; if as dense as 

quick-silver, they rvould not have mnch less resistance than 

quick-silver; if absolutely dense, or full of matter rvithout 

any vacuum, let the matter be ever so subtile and fluid, 

they would have a greater resistance than quick-silver. A 

solid globe in such a nredium would lose above 

half its notion in moving three times the length 

of its diameter, and a globe not solid (such as are 

the planets) would be retarded sooner. And therefore 

to make way for the regular and lasting motions ol the planets 

and comets, it's necessary to ernpty the heavens of all rnatter, 

except perhaps some vcry thin vayrours, stealns or effluvia, 

arising from the atmospheres of the earth, planets and comets, 

and {iom such an exceedingly rare aethereal mediun'r as we 

described above. A dense lluid can be of no tse for explaining 

the phenomena of nature, the nrotions of the planets 

and comets being better explain'd without it.< 

In this passage rve have spaced the sentence especially 

applicable to the problem of the ,electrical mass', rvhich 

is explained as follows. I.et m be the ordinary mechanical 

mass o[ the nroving particle; then the ordinary kinetic energy 

.due to its motion becomes 

But electrical experiments on small particles ejected 

under considerable charge, show that there is in addition a 

quantity of energy due to that charge. I'he total energy is 

found to be made up of the two parts shown in the right 

nrember o[ the following equation: 

B - rf ,nu2-+-rf se2u2f a: rf 

,[m-r2f sczf a]u2 (So) 

the first term yielding the mechanical energy depending on 

n, and the second that depending on the so-called ,electrical 

mass', 'lot'lo, where e is the electrical charge borne 

5079 

288 

by the particle, and a is the radius of the spherical space 

occupied by the charge. The ,electrical mass' is not quite 

constant for all velocities, but the above formula holds approximately 

for moderate speeds. 

(li) fire rejection of the theory of the so-called ,electrical 

mass', as an effect of the aether due to the systematic 

arrangement .of the u'aves, justified by Thontsaze's views o[ 

the motion of a corpuscle' through an electrical field. 

In his Elenrents of Electricity and Magnetism, 4th ed., 

rgo9, p. 5zr, Prof, Sir ]. |. Tltotnson indicates that il nt 

be the mass of an uncharged sphere, the kinetic energy of 

such a sphere with charge e, magnetic-permeability 1e, and 

radius of action a. is 

6 : rf 

2ln+2f spc2f a)u2 . (s') 

The effect of the charge is to increase the mass of 

the sphere by ?fspre2fa. 'I'his is a resistance called the 

,electrical mass', and the question arises whether it should be 

regarded as an increase of nrass, as described by Tlunsou, 

or an effect of the field in which the sphere moves, as described 

by tVutton in the discussion above cited frorn the 

Optics, r7zr. 

Sir ]. ]. 

'fhonson compares the motion of a torpuscle 

through an electrical field with that of a sphere through a 

liquid, which he says leads to an increase in the effective 

mass, because the moving sphere drags some of the liquicl 

along with it. .Thus. rvhen a sphere nroves through a liquid it 

behaves as if the mass were increased from n to n-rr;'.,ttt', 

where nl is the nrass of the liquid displaced by the sphere. 

Again, when a cylinder moves :rt right angles to its axis 

through a liquid, its apparent mass is til-rrn', where zr'is the 

mass of the liquid displaced by the cylinder. 

)In the case of bodies moving through liquidsthe increase in nrass is due to the motion of the 

body setting in motion the liquid around it, the site of the 

increased nass is not the body itself but the space around 

it where the li (p.5zz). 

E - rf 2n.u2 

This reasoning concedes that the so-called ,electrical 

mass' depends not on the sphere itself, but on the field about 

iti in other rvords the,electrical ntass'is an effect due to 

the surrounding fieid, and not inherent in the body itself. 

For that reason it is necessary to consider carefully whether 

the ,electrical mass' in the larger mechanics, ought not to 

be rejected altogether'as fictitious, and due to disturbances 

in the aether 6lled with waves and thus polarized, the arrangement 

of the waves exerting the force called the ,elec- 

(ss) trical mass'. 

(iii) Theory of J. A. Cr;otother, rgt4. 

In his Ivlolecular Physics, r9r4, p. 7o, (eiritadelphia, 

Blakiston's Son .t Co.), J. A. Crowtltcr, also of the Cavendish 

Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, points out that the extra or 

,electrical' mass is due to the fact that the particle carries 

a charge. Crou,ther even says that if the ,mechanical' mass 

n be zero, the ,electrical' mass will still persist. Analytically 

this follows from the above formula (9 r ), but physically 

there is no proof that such an ,electrical' mass can exist

z8g 

independently of nratter, and thus Crowther's claim cannot 

be admitted. 

Croutlhcr announceshis 

final conclusions thus (pp. 7o 

and 7 r); 

. >Since this,electrical'mass is really that of 

the rnagnetic field surrounding the particle, it 

resi des not in the particle itself but in the medium 

surrounding it, that is, in that mysterious fluid 

rvhich lve call the etherl). As soon, however, as we 

attempt to alter the motion of the particle this energy flows 

into it from all sides, so that, as far as experinrents upon 

the particle itself are concerned, the results obtained are 

precisely the same as if it resided permanently there.(( 

>To make this somewhat novel idea a little clearer 

n'e may consider a close and very servicable analogy, where 

the rnechanism of the extra mass is a little clearer than in 

the elcctrical case. lf anv body is nroving through water, 

or any viscous fluid, it carries with it a certain anrount of 

the liquid through rvhich it is moving. In the case of a 

sphere, for exarnple, the quantity carried along by the motion 

of the body anrounts to half the volume of the sphere itself. 

A long cylinder rnoving at right angles to its orvn length 

rvill carry with it a quantity of fluid equal to its own volunre. 

On the other hand, if it moves in the direction of its own 

length the fluid entangled is practically nil. Thus, in order 

to set the body in rnotion rvith a velocity er, rve have to 

supply to it energy enough to give this velocity, not only 

to the sphere itselfl but also to the mass of fluid which it 

carries with it. That is to sal', if M is the mass of the 

sphere itself, and M' the mass of the attached fluid. the 

'n'ork done in starting the body is tf"(-lfe-U,) .i,2. In other 

rvords, the body will behave as if its mass rvere increased 

by the mass of the fluid entangled by it. Just as in the 

electrical case, this extra mass resides in the surrounding 

medium.< 

Accordingly, it clearly appears, from T/tonson,s and, 

Crou,l/tc/s arguments, that the ,electrical' mass 2f sezf a clepends 

rvholly on the field in which the charged corpuscle is moving, 

not upon the body itself, and changes when the motion 

through the field is altered. All that the arguments can be 

said to prove therefore is that the aether in a magnetiC field, 

exerts an influence on bodies moving 

'fhis 

through it. shows 

that the aether really exists, is polarized near magnets and 

electric wires bearing currents, and acts physically according 

to definite larvs. 

This is a reason therefore rvhy the theoiy of the aether 

cannot be rejected, as some superficial rvriters have held. 

The other reasons for adntitting the aether are as convincing 

as stupendous cables of steel would be.iI we could actually 

see them stretched from the sun to the several planets for 

holding these huge masses in their orbits. l'or the centrifugal 

force of the planets has to be balanced and the 

aether is the medium which sustains the tremendous forces 

required to curve the paths of the planets at every point, 

and enable them to describe Keplerian Ellipses about the 

sun as the focus. 

r) The spacing.out is mine. 

5079 290 

(iv) We therefore conclude that the ,electrical mass 

depends wholly upon the aether. 

As the ,electrical' mass admittedly depends on the 

aether, and the inffuence it exerts depends on the wave motion 

in this medium, it is better for most purposes to reject 

the doctrine of a so-called ,electrical mass' as fictitious, and 

consider separately the common Newtonian mass ,rr, and the 

influence exerted by the field in which zz is moving. 

In case of the ,electrical mass': 

E - 2f,p.c2uefa (sr) 

where a is the radius of the space occupied by the charge, 

and 1a the mag.netic-p.ermeability 

of the medium, e the charge, 

it is thus obviorrs that Z becr:mes trrrly a drag exerted on 

the moving mass /,,/. It is evident that this effect ought to 

depend on /2, and z?, since the induction due to the waves 

is thus developed like ordinarl' rnechanical work done. 

For it must lrc remenrlrered that there are rvaves in the 

field, produced by the bodies and charges of the universe, 

and also waves, or Faradav tubes of force, produced by the 

moving corpuscle itself, rvith charge r. Since the charge a 

is a measure of the electri6cation of the corpuscle, the field 

about it necessarill' 

lvill have ,a corresponding condition,, but 

negative in character, and the interaction of the charged 

corpuscle on the field will be measured b.v the product of 

these charges, and thus by a2. 

This explains the nature of the formula (92), except 

the divisor a. And Croathcr (1tp. 16z-3) shows that the 

total energy in the field is the integral of the total magnetic 

energy lretrveen trvo spheres of radius r and r*dr, when 

taken from the surlirce of the electron of radius a to inlinity, 

becomes: 

r - t ' , . P , r " 

[: 

t,.,1t 

e2 u2)drf r! : 

tf 

,1,12,,2f a. (qs) 

l'rom this line of investigation it appears rhat we are 

justified in rejecting, and even required to reject, the ,electrical 

mass' for the aetherons, rvhich pervade the universe, and 

by their vibrations render the aether the vehjcle of energy. 

Accordingly our conclusions are: 

r. It appears that Prof. Sir ]. ]. Thonson's argument 

tor the ,electrical mass' is an extension of that given by 

Ntruton, but is likely to be misapplied, unless the specific 

condition of non-electric e

29r 507 9 

bulb quite through the walls of the glass tube; (z) the Ultraviolet 

theory, which supposes the energy to be aether-wave 

rnotion of the same character as light, but of only about 

r: rooooth part of the wave length of visibie light; (3) the 

longitudinal aether-wave theory, at first lavored by Ranryen, 

Jauntann and others, which ascribed the observed effect to 

longitudinal motion in the aether weves. 

Probably something could still be said in favor of each 

of these theories, and it is not yet certain that the nature 

of the X-rays is understood. In the usage of men of science 

however, the ultra-violet wave-theory has found most favor. 

In rgrz the Swiss physicist Dr. Laue first nrade use 

of X-rays to investigate the structure of crystals, and from 

this beginning has grown a resourceful nrethod for attacking 

the problem of molecular arrangement in crystals, which may 

even throrv light on the internal structure of the atoms thenr. 

selves. An article on this subject by Prof. l[/. L. Bragg, on 

rCrystal Structure(, will be found in Discovery, Feb., rgzo; 

and a review of the subject appears in the Journal of the 

British Astrononrical Association for March, r92o, pp. r99 

till z oo. 

The following table gives an outline of the different 

types of waves, expressed in Ahgstrdm units, or tenth-metres, 

r m'ro-10, D"f's Physics, p. 64o: 

Gamma rays o. r 

X-rays r 

Shortest ultra-violet waves 6oo 

Shortest visible waves (violet), about 38oo 

Violet, about 4OOO 

Blue 

Green i::: 

Yellow i Z oo 

Red 6qoo 

Longest visible wa'res (red) Zi"o 

Longest rvaves in solar spectrum, more than 

Longest waves trensrnitted by fluorite 

Longest waves by selective reflection 

5 3ooo 

95ooo 

from rock salt 5ooooo 

from potassium chloride 6rzooo 

Longest waves fronr nrercury lamp 3r4oooo 

Shortest electric waves 4ooooooo: 4 nrnr. 

It is very difficult to understand horv such very short 

waves as X-rays are supposed to be, on the ultra-violet theory, 

could penetrate so easily through the human body and other 

semi-solid subst4nces, as they are found to do in practice. 

The experiments of lauc, Bragg and others in crystal photography 

show the extreme fineness of the X-rays, and their 

great penetrating power. 

But it is perhaps possible that what appears to be a 

passage of X-rays through resisting structures is rather a 

general agitation of the aether by which the atoms emit 

wives 1) rvhich can impress the photographic plate, than an 

292 

actual passage of such short waves through these resisting 

masses, If so, the facts of experience would lend a strong. 

support to the wave-theory since it might be much easiei to 

evoke vibiation of appropriate length than for such short waves 

to actually pass. The waves evoked by agitation of the aether 

would show crystalline structure, and even the diffraction of 

X-rays, quite as well as. the passage of X-rays waves. 

In confirmation of this view that the X-rays observed 

are waves evoked by agitation, lve quote front Dulf's Text- 

Book of Physics, 1916, p. 64r: 

>Glass is opaque to waves shorter than 35oo Angstrdm, 

units, and longer than about 3oooo Angstrci* units. Quartz 

is transparent between the wave-lengths tSoo and 7oooo, 

and for some longer waves; rock salt is transparent between 

r8oo and r8oooo, and fluorite, one of the nrost transparent 

substances, will transnrit ultra-violet waves liorn about l, - 

roootol-g5ooo.( 

A similar argument has also been adduced by Prof. Sir 

J. !. Thonsoz to the effect that X-rays depend on collisions 

by negatively charged particles. They are evoked by the 

somewhat irregular agitation of the wave-field, the disturbance 

produced being due not so much to regular continuous wave 

motion, as to isolated wave irupulses, rvhich travel throughout 

the neighboring aether, and set free the corpuscles from the 

atoms. Such X-rays could not well interfere, and their diffraction, 

if obseived, would be of the type photographed by 

Lauc tn crystais, corresponding to short waYes, probably 

produced by the degeneration and breaking up of longer 

aether impulses of no considerable regularity of movement. 

1'his puts the ultra-violet theory in a new light, in Iine 

with the wave-theory, and at the sarne time explains the 

mechanically injurious effects of X-rays in surgerye) as due 

to the irregular u'ave impulses, which regular ultra-violet 

waves could hardly produce. And it explains also why calciurn 

tungstate lray render the X-rays capable of casting 

shadows visible to the eye. !'or the irregular irnpulses would 

come rvith sulficient rapidity to give an effect which optically 

is apparently continuous. When obsen'ing the X-ray througb 

calciunr tungstate I have noted an appearance of rapid 

llickering, as in the case of rapid but irregular electric 

sparks, or liglrtning flashes in quick succession but at un-. 

eclual intervals. 

In connection with this subject it is well to bear in 

mind that magnetism, which in the .wave-theory depends on 

polarized waves of perfect regularity, can penetrate thick 

plates of glass 9r any other substance, but the action seems 

to take a little tinie. Probably the polarized character of 

magnetic waves and their length makes this penetration 

possible, whereas it is possible for the confused waves of 

light only within fixed limits. Thus we hold that the irregular 

inrpulses in X-rays correspond to long waves, which 

under degeneration call forth the very short ones used for 

the newer investigations in crystals. 

') This idea is suggested by llinlgen's original experiment of cutting offall cathode rays with black card board, yet noting that some 

crystals of^barium platino-cyanide in the darkened room were rendered lurninous by the general agitation in the aether, 

'?) A dispatch from Paris, \lay 26, quotes M. Dauiel Bcrthelo/ as reporting, \laf 25, to ile Acatlemy of Sciences a nerv method. ftrr 

protecting operators against the injurious effects of X-rays, which are neutralized by a simultaneous application of infra.red rays. This use of 

infra-red rays to counteract the X-rays confirms the theory here developed; unless the agitations underlying the X.rays were long, the long 

infra-red rays could hardly afford the protection reported. - Note added, May z[, rg2o,

zg3 5079 

t2. The acknowledged Failure of the Electron 

Theory, which. represents a Subordinate Phase of 

Scientific Progress: The Larger Problems of the 

llniverse can only be attacked through the Wave- 

Theory based on the Kinetic'l'heory of the Aether. 

(i) The acknowledged failure of the electron theory. 

In his interesting but unconvincing work on l\4olecular 

Physics, Philadelphia, r914, Crout/ur treats of rnany molecular 

phenomena from the point of view of the electron 

theory. Including the effect of the electrical mass, 2f se2u2f a, 

Crorulhrr concludes (p.8t) that the mass of an electron is 

8.8. ro-28 gms., while the value of the charge it carries is 

r.57.ro-20 units. Thence he deduces for the radius of the 

electron r .8 7 . r o- 13 cms. 1) 

, Calling attention to the conclusion that the radius of 

an atom is of the order of lo-13 cms, he adds a comparison 

u'hich I give spaced: 

>We rnay now say that small as the atom is, 

the electron is so mnch smaller that the electron 

bears to the atom which contains it very mucb the 

same relation as a pea to a cathedral.< 

rWe have seen that the whole of the mass of the 

electron is due to the charge which it carries. 'fhe thought 

at once suggests itself: Are there indeed trvo kinds of mass 

or is all mass electrical in its originl Probably nrost physicists 

cherish this belief at the bottom of their hearts, but 

it cannot at present be said to be mrrch more than a pious 

hope. 'l'he mass of a negative electron is about 1/17ep 

part 

of the mass of a hydrogen atorn. Neglecting the positive 

charge of the atom, of which we know practically nothing, 

it would require rToo electrons to make up the mass of 

a single hydrogen atom. This of course is not a priori an 

impossible number considering the smallness of the electron; 

and speculations along these lines were for a time freely 

indulged in. In this case, however, experiment failed to confirm 

the bold conjecture. 'I'he nurnber of electrons in the 

atorn has been determined at any rate approximately, and 

affords no support for such a theorv. < 

Croutther then examines at some length the question 

of the number of electrons in an atom, and after admitting 

the obscurity of positive electrification, finally concludes, 

pp.'8S-8+ as follows: 

> Unfortunately, we are not yet acquainted with the 

nature'of positive electricity. Prof. Sir J. J. Thonson's experiments 

on the.positive rays, brilliant as they have been, 

have not at present thrown nruch light upon this exceedingly 

difficult problem. For the present the term ,positive electrification' 

remains for the physicist very much what the term 

,catalytic action' is for the.chemist - a not too humiliating 

294 

method of confessing ignorance. lf we suppose that the 

positive electricity is distributed uniforrnly over a sphere of the 

size of the atom (a hypothesis which lends itself very readily 

to mathernatical treatment), the author's result would indicate 

that the nunrber of electrons in an atom is almost exactlv 

three times its atomic rveight. That is to say, the number 

of electrons in a hydrogen atom would be three.2) 

If we go the other extreme, and suppose that the positive 

electrification is a sort of nucleus at the centre of the atom, 

and that the electrons revolve around it somewhat after the 

manner of the rings of Saturn, the number of electrons in 

a hydrogen atonr works ouf at unity, the number in any 

other atom being equal to its atornic weight. The assigning 

of unit atomic weight to hydrogen would then have a very 

.definite physi.cal significance, as it $'ould be the lightest atom 

which could possibly exist. In either case the number of 

electrons in an atom is only a very small nrultiple of its 

atomic weight. We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable 

fraction of the mass of the atoms ro the negative electrons 

it contains.< 

>'fhere still renrains, of course, the possibility that the 

mass is electrical, but that it resides in the positive portion 

of the atom. If the formula for the electric mass be examined, 

it rvill be seen that for a given charge the mass is 

inversell' yrroportional to the radius of the sphere upon which 

it is concentrated. II we suppose the positive charge on 

the h1'drogen atom to be concentrated upon a sphere of 

t/rroo ol the size of the nesative electron, its mais would 

be rToo times as .grcat, that is to say, equal to that of the 

hydrogen atom. Our perfect ignorance of the nature .of 

positive electricity renriers the suggestion not unt'enable, though 

evidence for it is sadly Iacking.< 

'fhis 

is a very frank confession of a failure of the 

electron theory, for two chief reasons. 

r. In size the electron bears to the atom about the 

ratio of a pea to a cathedral. 

z. The nuntber of such electron peas to the atom 

cathedral is very small, either r or 1 for hydrogen, and 

always a small multiple of the atonric rveight. Hence the 

i,mportant conclusion: )We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable 

fraction of the mass of the atoms to the negative 

electrons it contains.< 

Accordingly it is not surprising that Crouttho. admits 

that >for the present our belief in the electro-magnetic nature 

of all mass remains an expression of our faith that all the 

varied phenomena with which we have to deal are manifestations 

o[ some single principle or essence which underlies 

them all.< 

Another important and much more elaborate work, 

>The Electron Theory of matter(, by Prof. O. W Richardson 

r) 

Another proof of the great uncertainty attaching to the theory of the electron is afforded by conflicting deductions as to the absolute 

dimensions of this little mass. 

. _t. _Crouthcr' 

pp. 8t-r65, give3 for the radius of the electron r.87.ro-ts cm, and for the radius of a hydrogen atom t.2r,ro-8 cm. 

Thus the hydrogen atom has about 66oootimesgreaterdiameter, yet it has only rToorimesthemassoftheelectron, wlich makes the electron 

relatively very heavy for its small diameter. If of equal density with the hydrogen, this mass would make the'hydrogen atom have a diameter 

rr.93 times that of the electron, 

z. But the diameter of the electron itself must^be very uncertain, In Phys,Rev.vol. r14, pp.247-259, Sept.1919, A.I{. Comliton, 

who had previously estimated the diameter to be z'ro-toc-s, now finds it to be (1.85*s.qe5;.rotid".r, or")':6.g"i.t;;; cm. This is 

about zoooo.times larger than Crouttler's value; so that apparently no conhdence whatever can be put in these 

') 

results. 

The spacing-out is mine.

295 

of K_ing's College, London, appeared under the auspices of 

the University Press, at Cambridge, rgr4, pp. r_612. We 

cannot attempt to describe the treatment, except to say that 

it is similar to Crouther,s work, but less expeiimental, and 

sets forth .the mathematical tbeory in greater detail. 

In spite of the elaborateness of this treatise, Ric/tardson 

. 

5079 

containing electrons which are free to move under the action 

of an electric field, whire in non-cond.uctors the electrons are 

fixed and .unable to follow the impulse of the.field.c 

)How are these electrons set free? In the first place 

it may be noticed that the only good conductors of elec_ 

tricity are metallic, that is to say, elictro-positive i., .t u.""t.r, 

substances which we know from other phenomena readily 

part with an electron under the slightesi provocation. Now 

in a solid. such 'provocation 

is obliged to admit the short-comings of the electron theory. 

On page 5gz the author admits tf,at rwe cannot be sure 

that the rnass of the electrons is not appreciably different 

in djfferent substances.< 

.Accordingly it'would appear that 

the mass of the electron is definitely fixed only in particular 

substances which have been experimentally investigated, It 

is acknowledged that nearly ail the atomic problems are 

clouded in great obscurity. 

Under the head of General Conclusions, p. 6oo, we read: 

r>A review of the preceding discussion shows that the 

electron theory is not in u porition to make very definite 

assertions about the nature of gravitational attraction. It 

seems likely that the Newtonian law of attraction between 

elements of matter is one between elements of mass or confined 

eneigy and.that it is of a very fundanrental character. 

It is doubtfull) if it can be replaced by a nrodified 

law of electrostatic force bitween electrons or 

elements of electric charge, unless the modified 

law includes the associated mass explicitly. Even 

so, the case does not appear very simple. We may regard .ondu.tor, 

_-_' 

a substance 

" 

1) 

The spacing.out is mine. 

- 

may well be supplied by the 

close propinquity of the neighbouriDg molecules. It is well 

known that a charged body *ill ^tt.u*"t light uncharged sub_ 

stances. The attraction of a well-rubbed siick of seaiing wa* 

for srnall 

.pieces 

of paper is generally our first introduction 

to the science of electricity. The attraction is of course 

mutual, the force on the charged body being equal to that 

on the uncharged paper, Hence an ilectron in one atom 

is attracted by a neighbouring uncharged atorn, and under 

ravouraDle clrcumstances, and especially in the case of an 

atom only too ready to part with its electrons, the attraction 

may well be sufficient to enable it to make its escape.< 

It is obvious without further discussion that this theory 

is so very defective that it cannot be seriously entertained 

by investigators who are familiar with the propagation of 

electric and radio-telegraphic waves and light-acioss free 

space. For, in the first place, it claims to account for disturbances 

along conductors, which cannot be done with 

e,lectrons of the recognized mass. And, in the second place, 

the electron theory gives no explanation of light and iadiotelegraphic 

waves across free space, wbere the aether alone 

is involved. 

Accordingly 

. 

the electron theory cannot explain the 

phenomena of the aether, and it rnu.i b. adrnitted that the 

subject of the electron is still involved in great obscurity. 

9o .fur 

hydrogen molecule. 

as we can judq-e it can only be cleaied up ly tt e 

further. development of the wave-theory, deduced from the 

new kinetic theory of the aether. 

For although 

^ 

the mass of the aetheron given in the 

first paper on the New Theory of the Aether, will have to be 

multiplied by about 4.3r to take account of the increased 

absolute density of the aether, found by the new method 

of section I above, after Lord l(cluin,s method was sbown 

to invalid: 

_be 

yet the total change in the mass of the 

aetheron is comparatively slight, ,,a-.rrely: molecular weight 

:67.o72.ro-rz. 

- Accordingly the general mass and dimensions of the 

aetheron are but slightly altered, yet the size of this corpuscle 

is somewhat increased and becomes: 

'lroor., 

of that of a 

z. This radius is equivalent to 5.+4. ,o'-t, cms., that 

of'hydrogen being taken ,.34.ro-"r.rr. 

(iii) 

". 

fne electron theory like that of radio_activity is 

a subordinate phase of scientific progress, 

The electron theory developid luring the last quarter 

of a century 

'physiby 

a considerable group of e"lperimental 

I cists. led by. Prof. Sir j. J. Tionsin and others, has now 

I acqulred acquired such definite fnrm form an.l and cha,,,o shows .,.^L such r^r^^.^ aL-^ 

defects, that we 

296 

j

297 5079 298 

are safe in considerin!' it a subordinate phase in scientific 

progress. If it should prove to be an ultimate development, 

apparently this can only be owing to the more fundamental 

rvave-theory, which underlies the electron.theory and gives a 

physical basis for the pihenomena of electrons. \ 

r. l'he alpha-, beta-, gamma-rays, recently so much 

observed, are held to give experimental proof that snrall 

particles, under electric charges of grenter or less intensity, 

are. ejected from certain bodies with velocities which may 

be one third that of light, 

z. It is very difficult to understand how alpha-, beta-, 

gamma-particles can be ejected with this enormous speed 

unless conrrnotions incident to wave action underlie the 

ejections. For electrodynamic waves travei with the velocity 

of light, and material particles caught up by a combination 

of such waves might travel more slorvly than light, but yet 

with so great a speed as to approach that speed or a large 

fraction of it. 

3. It is inconceivable that velocities approximating one 

third that of light could be generated without sone association 

rvith the release of elastic action in the aether, which 

speeds on with the enormous velocity of 3ooooo kms per 

second. llven in solid bodies.the aether waves advance at 

a rate which is a large fraction of that in free space. .+ 

4. Now rnolecular and atomic velocities are very small 

indeed compared to that of light. I{ence it is apparent that 

no ordinary molecular collisions or disturbances could eject 

particles with these enormous speeds. But if invisible electro. 

dynamic waves underlie these ejections their speeds are easiiy 

accounted for. Under oscillating electric charges the particles 

nright be carried along from the surface or even into the 

interior of a splid anode or cathode, or similar terminals. 

5. In the author's work of r9r?, p. 20, we have ex- 

plained the nature of an electric current, and illustrated the 

waves about a conducting rvire by a figure (cf. fig. rz, p. z6o, 

above) showing the rotations which make up the waves; Tbe 

'waves act in concert, tbe elements whirling everyrvhere in 

the same direction. If therefore, there be a particle small 

enough to be ejected, yet observable, it might be carried 

away with great speed. 

6. But in a Geissler-tube, or similar rarified gaseous 

medium, we have rarified gas itself for the conductor or 

discharge of the electric sftain at the ternrinals. In such a 

good conducting partial vacuum, it apparently wouid be much 

easier for a small particle to be ejected with great speed 

than from any conductor of metallic constitution. 

7. Thus, in all the phenomena of electric discharges 

through rarified gases, on which Prof. Sir ]. f. Thonstn has 

experimented for so many years, the indications are that the 

observed velocities of the ejected particles are attained under 

wave influences or releases of electric stresses, by commotions 

in the aether traveling with the velocity of light. 

8. Since the rarified gas acts as a conductor - Prof. 

John Troabridgc of Harvard University having found that 

rare air is a more perfect electric conductor than even copper 

wire -, we should in fact expect certain solid particles to 

be transported along with a large fraction of the velocity of 

light. Thus the electron phenomena are not remarkable, but 

naturally lollow from the wave-theory. 

9. Accordingly, it hardly seems possible that the alpha-, 

betd-, gamma-particles, so rnuch studied in the electron theory, 

can be other than a temporary phase in thc progress of 

science. Irrportant as the results attained are, they do not 

disclose to us any workable theory of the universe. Even 

the ejectiqns of small charged bodies rnust rest on the wave. 

theory : there is no other possible way in which we can 

explain the ejection of these corpuscles, and their enormous 

velocities, whereas the wave-theory makes their ejection natural 

and re

299 5079 

such a supposition, lbr reasons already given; yet if the 

charge exerts a drag on the aether in which the waves 

are traveiing,. the velocity attained will be reduced to a 

fraction of that of light, in accordance with observations. 

No other hypothesis than that here adopted will explain the 

phenomena; and it seems certain that the electron phenomena 

are explicable by means of the aether, but not without 

this nruch finer 'nrediunr. 

(iv) Explanation of inertia, momentum, the larvs of 

motion and of static electricity. 

Ever since the formulation of the Newtonian philosophy 

in the Principia, r686, the problenr of inertia, momentum 

and the laws of motion have appeared to natural philosophers 

as 1>henomena requiring elucidation; yet for n iong time no 

solid progress could be rnade in this inquiry, because there 

was no adequate theory of the aether. Now that a kinetic 

theory of the aether is outlined, and the properties of the 

rredium sontewhat understood, we consider it advisable to 

sug€(est an explanation of the chief mechanical actions which 

underlie natural philosophy. 

r. Since the aether is filled u,ith rvai'es and presses 

s1'mmetrically upon bodies at rest, or in uniforn-r rnotion, - 

and all bodies carry their wave fields rvith thern, - whatever 

their state of rest or rnotion, we perceive that the high elasticity 

of tlie aether makes it impossible to move a body at 

rest, or alter the velocity of a body in motion, without expending 

energy upon it. For in every case the wave-field 

about the body must be readjusted, and rrnder the elastic 

porver of the aether, this involves work, - just as the aether 

waves of solar radiation, for exarnple, do work when arrested 

in their motion at the surlace of the earth. The kinetic 

theory of the aether therefore accounts for inertia, which 

represents the energy to be overcqnre in readjusting the 

wave-field about any body, 

z. To make this a little clearer rve recall a remark 

of T1'ndall in his work on sound, 3'd ed., 1896, p. 73: 

>A certain sharpness of shock, or rapidity of vibration, 

is needed for the production of sonorous waves in air. It 

is still more necessary in hydrogen, because the greater mo-_ 

bility of this gas tends to prevent the formation of condensations 

and rarefactions.< 

In further proof of Tyndalls remark as to the increased 

difficulty of starting waves in hydrogen compared to air, we 

cite the fact tfat heretofore Prof. F. E. Atiphcr of St. Louis 

is the only experimenter rvho has been able to generate 

waves in the aether by nrechanical nreans. 'I'o this end Niphcr 

used dynamite, which generates trenrendous forces acting 

with extreme quickness - exactly as Tltndall points out should 

be the case for a gas having very great mobility of its 

molecules. 'l'his confinns the kinetic theory o[ the aether 

and the cause assigned for inertia by an experinlentunt crucis. 

3. ln the case of momentum, the physical cause involved 

is the same as that assigned for inertia, for very 

obvious reasons, Ior mornentum is the prodtrct of mass by 

velocity, tnu, and as the mass does not change, the change 

can only occur in z, the velocity, and thus momentum and 

inertia are identical as to physical cause. 

We may even go a little further, and say that all 

3Qo 

kinetic energy depends on the aethg; for the fornrula for 

the kinetic energy 

E - Lf 2nu2 : 1f 

"ud2sf 

dt! (so) 

involves only mass zr, which is constant, and the velocity z, 

any charfge in which is resisted by the moving rvave-field 

about the body, exactly as in the case of inertia. 

4. Ls Ncwtoz's laws of motion, Principia, Lib. r, are 

concerned with motion, which involve chiefly chanees of 

velocity, we perceive that these laws have their recognized 

form in virtue of the kinetic medium of the aether: and 

that all.changes of motion involve.changes in the aether 

wave-fields about bodies, and are thus proportional to the 

forces acting, and produce effects in the direction of these 

forces, or stresses, in the aether. 

5. It only remains to l)oint out that as rve ascribe 

dynamic electricity, or electric currents, to waves of the 

aether in motion, so also rve ascribe static electricitv to a 

non-equilibriurn of the wave-field of the aether due to the 

escal)e of certain waves, under friction or other disturbing 

causes, which lbcilitates tbe escape i-aster than restoration 

takes place, and thus leads to the developnront of charges 

'lhus 

of static electricity. it is easy to throrv the universe 

out of electric equilibriunr, and develop electric stresses. 

6. As a charge of static electricity is not permanent, 

but accornpanied by a gradual discharge, it is natural to hold 

that the insulators on u'hich the electric stress act:umulates 

do not allow of an adequate flow of aether waves to rlaintain 

the electric e

. the sun is specially considered. The astronomical density of 

30I 

vance; and I ask no more of The value found for k is 6.7 3.ro-12. On applying 

these results to the sun, the author considers the sun's true 

density to be 4.27, which is three times as great as that 

believed in by astronomers.( 

This remarkable result seents so strikine as to be worthv 

oI careful attention. It rnay be recalled that in the F]lectroj. 

Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., vol. r, rgrT , p. r 5 5, paragraph 

18, I pointed out that )up to the present time the 

researches of astronomers throw but little light on the amount 

of rnatter within the heavenly bodies. 

'l'hey 

have simply 

calculated the.arrount of matter within these masses which 

nay nrake itself effective by external attraction; and the 

amount of matter actually there may be considerably larger 

than we have heretofore believed.< 

Perhaps it may appear premature to claim that my 

prediction of r9r7 is already definitely verified by Majorana,s 

researches, .but as his experiments were well planned, and 

executed with such care as to command :ippro,r,al in the 

highest scientific circles, the evidence certainly indicates the 

detection by dilicate physical experiment of a screening effect 

in the action of universal gravitation which I first discovered 

from the fluctuations of the moon's nrean motion, l)ec. ro, 

rgr6, as recurring with the eclipse cycles, and thus depending 

on the interposition of the solid globe of the earth in the 

path of the sun's gravitative action on the rnoon. 

The conrse of this celestial-terrestrial progress is the 

nore remarkable, because Prof. E. l4/. Rrotun, the leading 

lunar theorist, had pronounced against the theory, after Ilottlinger 

and Secligcr had been unable to conlirm the interceotion 

of part of the sun's gravitation near the time of eclipses. 

It rvould notv seem that Majorana's experiments open a new 

line of attack on the nature of gravitation, which can scarcely 

be interpreted except in terms of the rvat'e.theory. 

If so, it will no longer be admissible to speak of 

action at a distance, rvben the sun's action on the moon 

is 'shown to be partly put off by the interposition of the 

earth's mass near the time of lunar eclipses, while terrestrial 

gravitation can be sensibly reduced by the layer of mercury 

made to surround one of trvo deiicately balanced lead spheres, 

in Majorana's laboratory experiments. 

It may be noted also that the explanation of the prosression 

of the perihelion or mercury given by me in AN 

5o48, p.r43, seems to be triumphantly verified, and that too 

without resorting to relativity or the theories o( Einstcin, which 

I believe to depart from the laws of nature, because they 

are both lacking in physicai basis. It is not by accident 

that '4[ajorana's experiments confirm my lunar researches of 

rgr6, and the simple explanation of the outstanding rnotion 

of Mercury's perihelion given in AN 5o48. 

rgzo August 18. 

T. J. J. Su. 

' 

2o'

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