THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY

THE NEW
CAMBRIDGE MODERN
HISTORY
VOLUME VII
THE OLD REGIME
1713-63
EDITED BY
J. O. LINDSAY
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
1957

CONTENTS .
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY {page i)
By J. O. LINDSAY, Fellow ofGirton College and Lecturer in History
in the University of Cambridge
CHAPTER II
THE GROWTH OF OVERSEAS COMMERCE AND
EUROPEAN MANUFACTURE
By C. H. WILSON, Fellow of Jesus College and Lecturer in History
in the University of Cambridge
Changes in world trade by 1713; decline of Dutch . . . . . page 27
Commercial expansion of England and France 28
Beginnings of English industrial revolution 29-30
Financing of industrial expansion 31-2
English mercantilist regulation of overseas trade 32
English naval strength , . 33
French commercial expansion 33
Fundamental weakness of French trade 34-5
Anglo-French commercial rivalry 36
Commercial rivalries in Atlantic 37-9
Commercial rivalries in India 39
Dutch strength in south-east Asia 40
Commercial rivalries in Mediterranean 41
Trade inside Europe 42
Gradual decline of Dutch trade . . 42-3
Holland remains financial centre 43-4
Foreign trade relied on naval strength 45
Economic theories 46
Signs of change in theories 47-9
CHAPTER III
THE SOCIAL CLASSES AND THE FOUNDATIONS
OF THE STATES
By J. O. LINDSAY
Eighteenth-century society apparently aristocratic and French . . . . 50
Aristocratic character supported by Church 51
Society in fact less uniform 51
Differences in relations of nobles and peasants in different countries . . . 52
France 53
Central and eastern Europe 53-4
Political powers of nobles varied from country to country . . . . . 55
Useless court nobility of France, Spain 55
Serving nobility of Prussia, Russia 56
Politically powerful nobles of Hungary 56'
Poland, Sweden 57
England 58
V

CONTENTS
Aristocratic nature of society undermined by growth of middle class . . -page 58
Mercantile middle class of England 58-9
Urban patriciate Italy, Switzerland, German cities, Holland . . . . 59-60
Status of professional middle class . . 61
Bureaucratic middle class of eastern Europe 62
Society not exclusively French 63
Influence of Italy 63
Germany 64
World outside Europe 65
CHAPTER IV
THE VISUAL ARTS AND IMAGINATIVE
LITERATURE
By PROFESSOR SIR ALBERT RICH ARD SON, Past President of the Royal Academy
Art and literature theoretically classical and derivative 66
Architecture, classical transformed into baroque 66-7
Early emergence of Gothic revival 69
Originality of English town planning 70
New social environment of coffee houses 70
New journalism 71
Natural treatment of contemporary life 72
Poetry both classical and original 73
Originality of satire and travel books 73
Need for new genre, degeneracy of stage 74
Rise of the novel 75-6
Romantic poetry 76
Art shows same development as literature 77
Classical French painting 77
Baroque painting 77-8
Greater naturalness of French painting 78
French sculpture remains classical 78
English painting of real life 79
Theories about art 80
Influence of illustrated books on architecture and art 81-4
CHAPTER V
THE ENLIGHTENMENT
By A. COBBAN, Professor of History, University College, London
Enlightenment begins before 1700 85
Early criticism of religion . . . 85-6
Later criticism of religion in France and England 86-7
Superficiality of eighteenth-century philosophy 87
Science the new evangel 88
Importance of Newton 88-9
Popularity of natural science 89
Backwardness of chemistry 90
Period of diffusion rather than advance 91
Psychology of Locke ' 91-2
Social sciences 92
vi

CONTENTS
Great importance of history page 93
Vico 94
Theoretical presuppositions of philosophers 95
Sensational psychology • 95-6
Hedonism and re-orientation of moral ideas 97
Individual hedonism and the claims of society 98
Political ideas of secondary importance 99
German ideas of natural law 100
English and French political ideas 101-2
Economic ideas 103
Optimism of the Enlightenment 104-5
Belief in possibility of reform 105
Diffusion of ideas of the Enlightenment 105-6
Journals, dictionaries, the Encyclopaedia 106
Influence of Paris salons 106-7
Backwardness of universities 107
Educational experiments 108
Religion still very strong 108-9
Protestant mysticism 109
M;taphysical thinkers no
Emergence of romanticism in imaginative literature no-n
Small area influenced by Enlightenment 111
CHAPTER VI
RELIGION
By R. W. GREAVES, Reader in History in the University of London
Decline of papal political influence 113
The personalities of the popes 113
Difficulties confronting the popes 114
The renewed Jansenist controversy 114
Unigenitus 114-16
Last phase of Jansenist struggle 116
Modification of Unigenitus by Ex Omnibus 117
Similarities between Jansenists and philosophers 117-18
Growth of historical criticism 118
Reform of breviary and missal 118-19
Strength of secular influences 119
VanEspen 119
Giannoni's criticism of ecclesiastical power 120
Von Hontheim's attack on Papacy . . 121
Declining power of the Jesuits 122
Failure of Jesuits, China 123
Jesuits expelled from Portugal 123-5
Suppression of Jesuits in France 125
Jesuits overthrown not by 'philosophers' but by anti-papal Christians . . . 126
Protestantism in England 126
The Archbishop of Canterbury 126-7
Political character of English episcopacy 127-8
The Dissenters 128
Relations of Church and State in England 129
Lutheran and Reformed churches in Germany 130
vii

CONTENTS
Pietism and rationalism both anti-clerical page 131
Rationalism 132
Projects of Christian reunion 133
Archbishop Wake's projects for union 133-4
The traditions of the Church of England 135-6
Growth of Methodism 136-9
Evangelical awakening of Church of England 139-40
CHAPTER VII
MONARCHY AND ADMINISTRATION
1. European practice, by J. O. LINDSAY
2. The English inspiration, by W. R. BROCK, Fellow of Selwyn College and
Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge
I. EUROPEAN PRACTICE
Contemporary writers on political thought 141
Prevalence of absolute monarchy 141
Difference between absolutism in different countries 142-3
Improvement in central governmental institutions:
Sweden 144
Russia 145
France 145-6
England 146
Spain 147
Prussia 148
Habsburg dominions 149
Financial methods still chaotic 150
Indirect taxes in Spain 150
Direct taxes 151
Beginnings of a National Debt 152
Administration of justice 152
Increased efficiency of provincial administration 153
Intendants in France 153
lntendants in Spain 154
Prussian provincial government 155
Austrian provincial government 155-6
Hungarian provincial government 157
English J.P.'s 157-8
Theories of government, cameralism 158-60
Exceptions to absolute monarchy, Poland 160
2. THE ENGLISH INSPIRATION
Ideas about English liberty 160-2
CHAPTER VIII
THE ARMED FORCES AND THE ART OF WAR
By the late ERIC ROBSON, Senior Lecturer in History
in the University of Manchester
Eighteenth-century warfare governed by convention 163
Emphasis on manreuvre rather than battle 164
viii

CONTENTS
Strategy primarily defensive page 164-5
Limited objectives of eighteenth-century wars 165
Many wars were purely dynastic . 166
Conventions of siege warfare 166-8
Armies'lack of mobility 168
Strict discipline necessary because of tactical methods 169
Tactical formations elaborate and slow. . 169-70
Naval tactics equally conventional . 170
Winter campaigns infrequent 170-1
Formal character of warfare made few demands on officers 171
Strategic methods of Frederick the Great characteristic of his age . . . 171-2
Tactics of Frederick the Great original. . . 172-3
British reliance on naval supremacy 173
British military methods unsuited to colonial warfare 173
Gradual changes in British methods on land and at sea 174
Armies relatively small, wars lacking in passion 174
Armies recruited from nobles and vagabonds 175
Composition of armies necessitated harsh discipline 175-6
Inadequate evidence of conditions of other ranks 176-7
•julf between officers and men 177
Frederick II's care for his men 178
Growing consideration for men in British navy . . . • . . . . 178
Development of conscription 178-9
Use made of nobility in Prussian army 179
Position of peasants in Prussian army 179-80
Savage Prussian discipline 180-1
Inadequacy of noble French military commanders 181-2
French naval commanders more able 183
French naval conscription 183
Methods of recruiting for British army and navy 183-4
Purchase of British commissions 185-
Influence and promotion 186
No purchase of naval commissions 187
Conditions of promotion in the navy 188-9
CHAPTER IX
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
By J. O. LINDSAY
Peace settlement, 1713-14 191
Renunciation of Philip V to French throne 191
Establishment of'barriers' 191
English acquisition of naval bases 192
English commercial benefits 192
System of alliances after 1713 192-3
Death of Louis XIV 193
French reasons for desiring alliance with England 194
England influenced by developments in Baltic to ally with France . . . 195
Value to England of French alliance 195
Diplomatic storm centres, Baltic and Mediterranean 195
Baltic crisis of 1716 196
ix

CONTENTS
Mediterranean crisis provoked by Elizabeth Farnese page 196-7
Expeditions organised by Alberoni 197
Quadruple alliance 197
Success of Anglo-French diplomacy, 1719-21 198-9
Congress of Cambrai 199
Changes of personnel in France 200
Spanish approach to the Emperor 200-1
Mission of Ripperda, 1725 201
Failure of Ripperda's policy 202
Treaty of Seville, 1729 . . ' 202
Don Carlos in north Italy 202
Anglo-French diplomacy in north-east Europe 203
Holstein-Gottorp question 203
British naval expedition to Baltic, 1726 203
Emergence of Russia and Prussia as Great Powers 203-4
War of Polish Succession 204
English neutrality 205
Breakdown of Anglo-French Alliance 205
Growth of Russian power 205
War of Austrian Succession, 1740 206
Friction between England and Spain 206
Share of South Sea Bubble in causing war of 1739 207-9
French diplomacy 210
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 210
Diplomatic Revolution 211
Outbreak of Seven Years War 211
Peace of Paris, 1763 212-13
CHAPTER X
THE DECLINE OF DIVINE-RIGHT MONARCHY
IN FRANCE
By A. COBBAN
Divine-Right monarchy in France still strong 214
France best example of decline of absolute monarchy 215
Weakness of French absolutism, administrative confusion 215
Survival of independent enclaves 215
Lack of unified fiscal system 216
Decay of effective local self government 216
Limitations in powers of the intendant 216-17
Weakness of central government 217
Councils 217-18
Secretaries of State 218
Difficulty of enforcing royal will 219
Crown as symbol of the State 219
Incapacity of Louis for the role of absolute monarch 220
No other authority to share burden of government 220
Policy of regent 220-1
Financial problems 221-2
Financial reform of Law 223
Results of Law's experiment 223
x

CONTENTS
Failure of regent's administrative reforms page 224
Foreign policy of the regent 224
Duke of Bourbon in power 224
Fleury's administration 224
Pacific foreign policy of Fleury . 225
Louis XV in control of policy . 225-6
Character of Louis XV . . . 226
Lack of consistent foreign policy 227-8
Diplomatic Revolution and emergence of Choiseul 228
Weakness of internal policy 228-9
Religious disputes 229
Rkhirisme among parish clergy 229
Jansenist controversy 230
Religious policy of the regent 230
Revived Jansenist controversy, 1750 231
Persecution of the Huguenots . 232
Spread of anti-religious spirit . . 233
Suppression of the Jesuits 233
Financial difficulties of the Crown only a symptom 234
Social structure essential cause of collapse of Divine-Right monarchy . . . 235
Complex characteristics of the nobles and of bourgeoisie 236
Economic developments disrupting social structure 237
Industrial developments 237-8
Economic weaknesses 238
CHAPTER XI
ENGLAND
By W. R. BROCK
Economic conditions 241
Exceptionally low rates of interest 242
Bad communications 242
Exports of great value 242-3
Rural conditions ~~-% . 243
The country gentleman j . 243-4
Increasing political power of great landowners 244
Borough politics 245
Role of Church of England 245-6
Dissenters 246
Party alignments in 1714 246
Triumph of Whigs 247
Failure of Jacobite rising 1715 247-8
Religious policy of Whigs to Dissenters 248 :
Convocation silenced 249
Dissensions among the Whig leaders 249
Ascendancy of Sunderland and Stanhope, 1717 249-50
South Sea Bubble 250-1
Political results of the Bubble, rise of Walpole 251
Character and achievement of Walpole 251-2
Growing opposition to Walpole 253
xi

CONTENTS
Walpole's successors, Carteret and Pelham . page 253-4
Jacobite rising of 1745 254
Rise of Pitt 255
Accession of George III 255
Fall of Newcastle 256
Powers of Crown in eighteenth century 256-7
Growth of cabinet government 258-9
Ministers of the Crown 259
Central bureaucracy 259-60
Local government 260
House of Lords 260
House of Commons 260
Influence and patronage 261-2
Judicial system 262-3
Nature of English liberty 264
Libel and sedition 264
Younger sons of gentry entered professions 265
Conditions of poor 266
Industrial development 267
CHAPTER XII
THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND ITALY
By J. O. LINDSAY
Diplomatic initiative gained for Spain 269
Spain in state of economic collapse at end of seventeenth century . . . 269-71
Economic reform hampered by Church 271-3
Nobility indifferent to reform 273-5
Bourgeoisie few and apathetic 275
Economic reforms of army 276
Alberoni's reforms 277
Ripperda's effort to restore prosperity to Spain 278
Reforms of Patiflo 278
Attractive appearance of Italy in eighteenth century . . . . . . 280
Reality less attractive, much poverty and oppression 281
Changes in political maps of Italy, 1713-48 282
Effects of these changes, reforms in Milan and Naples 284
Rome 284
Spanish policy under Ferdinand VI 285
Carvajal's foreign policy 285
Industrial reforms 286
Ensenada's economic reforms 287
Charles III , 287
Portugal unstirred by reform till 1750 / 288
Economic conditions 288
Portuguese monarchy 289
Pombal's attack on the Jesuits 290
Pombal's economic reforms '. . . . . 291
Xll

CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIII
THE ORGANISATION AND RISE OF PRUSSIA
By W. H. BRUFORD, Fellow of St John's College and
Professor of German in the University of Cambridge
German historians' treatment of rise of Prussia page 292
Geographical character of Hohenzollern possessions 292
Gradual unification of Hohenzollern territories 293
Economic weakness 293
Effects of Thirty Years War 294
Creation of standing army by Great Elector and provincial Estates overcome . 294
Frederick William I's contribution to growth of strong monarchy . . . 294-5
Development of the army 295-6
Efforts to increase royal revenue 296
Exploitation of domain lands 296-7
Other taxes 297-8
Reform of civic administration 299
Encouragement of immigration 302
Reform of administration 303
Combination of domain and excise officials 304
Creation of General Directory 304-5
Religious toleration 306
Education 306
Administration of justice 306
Education of the Crown Prince 307-8
Character and abilities of Frederick the Great 308-9
Aggressive policy of Frederick the Great 310-n
Political philosophy of Frederick the Great 310-n
Frederick's reforms after 1756 311
Complete centralisation of government 312
Objects of this system 312
Attempts to improve the governmental system 312-13
Industrial reform 315
Trade 316
Reform of the judicial system 317
CHAPTER XIV
RUSSIA
By IAN YOUNG, Lecturer in Slavonic Studies in the University of Cambridge
New epoch as from 1709 318
Economic conditions, chief wealth forest products 318
Development of iron industry . . 1 318
Other industrial developments . • /• 319
Labour plentiful ' 319
Communications 319
Export trade . . . . . . 320
Peter's fiscal reforms . 320
Population and social structure 321
Conditions of the peasants 321-2
The nobility 322-3
xiii

CONTENTS
Re-organisation of the army page 323
Reform of administrative institutions 323
Reform of provincial administration 324
Judicial system 324-5
The Church 325
Reforms of education 325-6
Reign of Catherine I 327
Peter II, negotiations on behalf of Anna 328
Anna's accession, administrative reform 329
Concessions to the nobility, Volynsky 330
Ivan VI, intrigues on behalf of Elizabeth 331
Elizabeth's accession, Diplomatic Revolution 332
Seven Years War, Bestuzhev's intrigues 333
Peter III, further concessions to the nobility 334
Orlov's revolution, the Church 335
Education and cultural life 336
Income of the nobility 337
Shuvalov's financial and commercial reforms 338
CHAPTER XV
SCANDINAVIA AND THE BALTIC
By R. M. HATTON, Lecturer in Economic and Political History
at the London School of Economics
Settlement after the Great Northern War 339-40
Benevolent absolutism of the Oldenburgs 341
Agriculture and land reform 342-3
Policy of making Denmark and Norway economically complementary . . . 344
Mercantilistic communal policy 344-5
Danish foreign policy 345
Holstein-Gottorp claims in Slesvig-Holstein • . 345-7
Crisis of 1723-7 347
Danish foreign policy, alliance with France 348
Danish efforts to secure succession to Swedish throne for Danish prince . . 348
Tsar Peter Ill's claim to Slesvig-Holstein, 1760 349
Settlement of Slesvig-Holstein 350
Reduction of royal power hi Sweden on death of Charles XII . . . . 350-1
Ulrika Eleonora's election and abdication 351
Swedish Constitution of 1720 352
Composition and powers of the Four Estates '. . 353-4
Swedish political parties . 355
Brief ascendancy of Hessian party, 1720-1 355
Holstein party in power, 1723-6 355
Ascendancy of Count Horn and the'Caps' 355
Hats'period of power, 1738-65 356-7
Sweden's part in the War of the Austrian Succession 358
Russian occupation of Finland 359
Charles Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp refuses Swedish succession . . . . 360
Sweden's dependence of Russia after Treaty of Abo 361
Party struggle of Hats and Caps 362
Further limitation of the monarchy; the Seven Years War 363
Election campaign of 1764-5 364
xiv

CONTENTS
CHAPTER XVI
POLAND UNDER THE SAXON KINGS
By L. R. LEWITTER, Fellow of Christ's College and Lecturer in Polish
in the University of Cambridge
Political institutions page 365-6
Administration of justice 367
Backward condition of agriculture 368
Trade and industry 369
Education and intellectual life 370-1
Rivalry for Polish throne; concluded, 1717 372
Economic aspect of the settlement 372-3
Russian domination after the Treaty of Warsaw, 1717 373
Anti-Russian foreign policy of Augustus II 373-4
Persecution of Protestants 374
Religious crisis at Thorn, 1724 375-6
Attempts to secure Saxon succession 377-8
Czartoryskis and Potockis 378
Succession of Augustus III 379
War of the Polish Succession 379-8o
Settlement of the War of the Polish Succession 381
Political degeneration under Augustus III 382-3
Waning influence of the Czartoryskis 384
The Seven Years War 385-6
Foreign policy 387-8
Failure of the political system 389
Russian and Prussian territorial claims 390
CHAPTER XVII
THE HABSBURG DOMINIONS
By C. A. MACARTNEY, Fellow of All Souls, Oxford
Conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession 391
Hungary and the Treaty of Szatmdr 391
Charles VI's conciliation of Hungary < 392
The female succession in Austria 393
Hungarian support of Charles's daughter 393-4
War with Turkey, 1716-18 394
Charles joins Quadruple Alliance 394
Female succession confirmed in Hungary 395
Rights of Hungary recognised by Charles VI 396
Pragmatic Sanction enacted 397
Friction over the Ostend Company 397
War of the Polish Succession; marriage of Maria Theresa 398
Cultural life 399
Administrative institutions 400
Austrian trade to East Indies; power of Church in Austria and Bohemia . . 401
Weakness of Czech nationalism; Habsburg policy of preserving territorial division
in Hungary 402
XV

CONTENTS
Subordination of Hungary to Austria; survival of some Hungarian independence page 402-3
Habsburg support for Roman Catholicism in Hungary 403
The national pride of the nobility • . . . 404
Growth of population 405
Increase in proportion of non-Magyar people 405
Predominantly agricultural character 406
Turkish war 407
Unsuccessful Peace of Belgrade 408
Maria Theresa's accession; the Pragmatic Sanction repudiated . . . . 408
Maria Theresa's concessions to Hungary 409
Hungarian support for the Pragmatic Sanction 409
Ultimate retention of throne by Maria Theresa, 1748 410
Maria Theresa's reforms after 1748 410
Military reforms; Lombardy and the Netherlands 411
Maria Theresa's treatment of Hungary , . . 411-12
Obstacles in way of reform 412
Administrative and judicial reforms; Haugwitz . . . . . . . 412-14
Foreign policy after Aix-la-Chapelle 415
CHAPTER XVIII
THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
By MARK A. THOMSON, Professor of Modern History
in the University of London
Diplomatic origins 416
Prussian invasion of Silesia 417
British and Russian reactions 418
French support for Charles Albert of Bavaria 419
Prussian victory over Austrians at Mollwitz 419
Prussia's uneasy alliance with France and Bavaria 419
Convention of Klein Schnellendorf between Austria and Prussia . . . . 420
Election of Charles Albert as Emperor 421
French military reverses . . . 421
Frederick's desire for peace, diplomatic schemes of Carteret for accommodation
between Austria and Prussia 422
Dutch non-intervention, preliminaries of Breslau end Austro-Prussian War . . 423
French retreat from Bohemia 424
Austrian strategy in Germany weakened by Spanish intervention in Italy . . 424-6
French policy under personal direction of Louis XV, British victory at Dettingen 426-7
Diplomacy of Carteret 428
Treaty of Worms, 1743 429
George II discredited, naval battle off Toulon 430
French invasion of the Netherlands, prussian invasion of Bohemia . . . 431
Prussian invasion of Saxony; Treaty of Dresden, 1745 432
British and Dutch defeats, Franco-Spanish invasion of Sardinia . . . . 433
Franco-Spanish armies repulsed 434
British naval superiority, French victories in Dutch Flanders . . . . 435
Preliminary peace negotiations 436
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 437-9
XVI

CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIX
THE DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTION
By D. B. HORN, Professor in History in the University of Edinburgh
Signs of strain in the Anglo-Austrian alliance page 440
Kaunitz's plan for a French alliance 441-2
Britain's need for Austrian help increased by threats of colonial conflict . . 442
Austria's terms become stiffer 443
Austrian overtures to France, negotiations between Starhemberg and Bernis . 444-5
Anglo-Prussian relations 446-7
British convention with Russia, 1755 447-8
Reactions of Prussia to Anglo-Russian agreement . . . . . . 448
Convention of Westminster (1756) befween England and Prussia . . . . 449
French reactions 450
Austrian reactions 451-2
First Treaty of Versailles between France and Austria 453-5
Austro-Russian relations 456-9
Failure of Newcastle's foreign policy 460
Final breach between France and Prussia 461
Connexion between the Diplomatic Revolution and the outbreak of the Seven
Years War 462-4
CHAPTER XX
THE SEVEN YEARS WAR
By ERIC ROBSON
Interconnexion of continental and colonial rivalries 465
Geographical and political conditions affecting Prussia. . . . . . 465
British obligations to Prussia 466
Pitt's gradual conversion to value of continuing operations on the Continent . 467
Frederick's masterly strategy . 468
Defeat and occupation of Saxony by Frederick II 469
French success culminates in Convention of Kloster-Seven, Russian and Swedish
attacks on Prussia 470
Prussian victories at Rossbach and Leuthen 471-2
Britain recovers the position in western Germany, Army of Observation, Prussian
invasion of Moravia 473
Austrian campaigns in Saxony and Silesia, 1758 474
Russian victories, French advance into Westphalia 475
Plan to invade England, rights of neutrals 476
British privateers; campaigns of 1760 477
Military stalemate; peace with Russia 478
Peace negotiations in the West 479
Britain witholds Frederick's subsidy . . 480
Breach between Britain and Prussia . . 481
Family compact 482
Treaty of Paris 483
Treaty of Hubertusburg 484
Effect of the war on Prussian economy . . . 484-5
Results of the war for Britain and France 485-6
xvii

CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN
COMMUNITIES
i. Latin America, by J. H. PARRY, Principal of the University College,
Ibadan, Nigeria
2. North America, by FRANK THISTLETHWAITE, Fellow of St John's College
and Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge
I. LATIN AMERICA
Administrative incompetence in Spanish America page 487-8
Defence; sale of administrative offices 489
Colonial administration; corregidores 490
Social structure, Creole resentment of Spanish misgovernment . . . . 491
Beginnings of Bourbon reform, enactments against the Church . . . . 492
Reform of the coinage; silver mining 493
Regulation of trade; breakdown of the convoy system 494
Trading companies 495
Creoles gain nothing by the reforms 495
Grouping of administrative units 495-6
Jesuit missions 497
Brazil, reforms of Pombal 498
Visual arts, intellectual life 499
2. NORTH AMERICA
Spread of European immigration and settlement 500-2
Expansion by colonists as well as immigrants 502
Plantation, colonies' expansion aided by new crops of rice and indigo . . . . 502-3
Foundation of Georgia 503
Cleavage between older and newer settlements intensified by system of land holding 504-5
Friction over home government's prohibition of colonial industry . . . 505
Problems of credit and prices intensify resentment of back country farmers . . 506
Religious revivalism encouraged by spread of settlement 507-8
Many tensions within colonial society 508
Social structure, simplicity and poverty of hinterland society . . . . 510
Royal government identified with eastern oligarchy by farmers of the hinterland . 510-11
French expansion 511
Economy based on fur and fish 512
Trading posts; administration; the Church 513
CHAPTER XXII
RIVALRIES IN AMERICA
1. The Caribbean, by J. H. PARRY
2. The North American Continent, by FRANK THISTLETHWAITE
I. THE CARIBBEAN
Claim of trade monopoly by Spain 514
Relations between Spain and the South Sea Company 515-17
War of Jenkins'Ear 518-19
Anglo-French warfare, 1744-8 519-20
xviii

CONTENTS
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . page 520-21
•Seven Years War: Pitt's strategy 521-22
Naval warfare 522
Capture of Guadeloupe; Family Compact 523
Spain's entry into Seven Years War 524
French and Spanish losses in the West Indies 524-5
Peace negotiations 526-8
(^/ NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT
Increasing Anglo-French tension, 1713-63 . 528
French colonial development 528
British colonial development 528-9
Systematic French expansion, foundation of Louisbourg 529
New Orleans; Georgia 530
French attempt to control Illinois District 531
Confederation of the Six Nations; French and Dutch trade 532
Anglo-French hostilities; capture of Louisbourg 533
Acadians deported; French and Indian co-operation 534
French offensive in Ohio 535
Virginians gain support of British government 536
Failure of Braddock's campaign 537
Full-scale hostilities directed by Pitt . . . 538
Fall of Fort Duquesne; the attack on Quebec 539
British naval victories; Treaty of Paris 540
CHAPTER XXIII
RIVALRIES IN INDIA
By C. C. DAVIES, Reader in Indian History in the University of Oxford
Decline of the Mogul Empire 541-2
Administrative institutions 543
Fratricidal warfare after death of Aurangzeb, persecution of Sikho . . . 544
Rule of Bahadur Shah; court factions . . 545
Marathas under Sivaji 546
Marathas under Shahu, aims of Maratha policies . 547
Maratha claims in the Deccan 548
Raids into Malwa and Gujarat 549
Attacks on the Siddis and on Portuguese territory 550
Nadir Shah's invasion 551-2
Growth of the 'country powers' 553
Maratha invasions of Bengal 554-5
Maratha invasions of the Carnatic • . 556-7
European trading factories; Anglo-French hostilities, 1744-8 . . . . 558
Condition of India in 1748; French bid for Indian Empire 559
Succession struggles in the Carnatic and the Deccan 560
Reasons for Dupleix's failure 561-2
dive's conquest of Bengal 562-3
Marathas driven southwards by Afghans 564
Consolidation of British rule in Bengal. . 565
xix

CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIV
ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN AFRICA AND
THE FAR EAST
I. Africa, by J. GALLACHER, Fellow of Trinity College and
Lecturer in History in the University of Cambridge
2. Asia, by VICTOR PURCELL, Lecturer in Far Eastern History
in the University of Cambridge
I. AFRICA
Slave-trading regions page 566
Techniques and units of exchange 567
Formation of national companies 568
Prussian, Danish and Portuguese companies 569
Dutch and French companies 570-1
British companies 571-2
Fierce competition and rising costs of slaving 573
European penetration in Africa limited 574
Effect of slave trade on African society 575
Dutch settlements in South Africa 576-7
Portuguese empire in Africa 578
Madagascar, Ethiopia 579
2. ASIA
Dutch trading settlement in Japan 579-8o
European relations with China 580
Trading ventures of British East India Company 581
Chinese control over foreign trade 582
European trading missions 583
Chinese distrust and misunderstanding of foreigners . . . . . . 584-5
Coffee production in Indonesia 585-6
Spread of Dutch power 587
Chinese penetration in Indonesia 588
Decline of the Dutch East India Company 588-9
Trade and economic relations in the Philippines . 589-90
Persecution of the Chinese . . 591
Land tenure in the Philippines 592
INDEX 593
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