Purpose of this Toolkit - Griffith University

Purpose of this Toolkit
The Toolkits developed by members of the Griffith Graduate Project are intended primarily for
academic staff. They offer an overview of some of the main issues related to developing students’
graduate skills during their degree studies.
They draw heavily on existing literature and current practice in universities around the world and
include numerous references and links to useful web resources.
They are not comprehensive ‘guides’ or ‘how to’ booklets. Rather, they incorporate the
perspectives of academic staff, students, graduates and employers on the graduate skills adopted by
Griffith University in its Strategic Plan, 2003-2007 in the Griffith Graduate Statement:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/ua/aa/plans/docs/strategicplan2003-2007.pdf
This toolkit, Written Communication Skills, focuses on how you can help students to write not only
academic papers, but material for a range of different audiences and contexts.
This toolkit, together with others in the series including:
• Analysis and Critical Evaluation;
• Information Literacy;
• Oral Communication;
• Professional Skills;
• Problem Solving; and
• Teamwork;
can also be accessed on the Web at: http://www.griffith.edu.au/centre/gihe/griffith_graduate
Copyright: Griffith Institute for Higher Education, Griffith University, Nathan, Brisbane, Australia, 2004.

Table of contents
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Why your students need effective written communication skills ............................ 1
Definition............................................................................................................................................. 1
The need for written communication skills..................................................................................... 1
The six ‘C’s of effective writing ........................................................................................................ 1
Griffith Online Writing Skills Course .............................................................................................. 2
What employers, graduates and students say about written communication
skills................................................................................................................................ 3
Employers’ comments........................................................................................................................ 3
Graduates’ and students’ comments ................................................................................................ 4
Research findings................................................................................................................................ 4
Teaching tips—How to develop your students’ written communication
skills................................................................................................................................ 5
How to develop students’ writing skills........................................................................................... 5
Structuring the writing task ............................................................................................................... 6
Structuring the writing process ......................................................................................................... 7
Writing skills........................................................................................................................................ 8
Inclusive language............................................................................................................................. 10
Assessing written communication ............................................................................ 11
Provide clear criteria......................................................................................................................... 11
Criteria sheets .................................................................................................................................... 12
Peer review......................................................................................................................................... 13
The terminology................................................................................................................................ 15
When assessing student writing ...................................................................................................... 16
Principles of effective written communication skills............................................... 18
Writing Skills...................................................................................................................................... 18
Where to go for help.................................................................................................... 19
Contact............................................................................................................................................... 19
Additional resources................................................................................................... 21
Print resources................................................................................................................................... 21
Web resources ................................................................................................................................... 22
Student handouts ........................................................................................................ 23
What employers, graduates and students say about written communication
skills.............................................................................................................................. 25
Checklists for reviewing and monitoring your writing ............................................ 27
Understanding the terminology used in assignments ............................................ 29
Table of contents
iii

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Referencing.................................................................................................................. 31
A sample criteria sheet for assessing students’ written work ............................... 33
Table of contents
iv

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Why your students need effective written
communication skills
Definition
Written communication is the ability to use the conventions of disciplinary discourse to
communicate effectively in writing with a range of audiences, in a variety of modes (e.g.,
persuasion, argument, exposition), as context requires, using a number of different means
(e.g., graphical, statistical, audio-visual and technological).
The need for written communication skills
Students need to write effectively to communicate with their peers, lecturers, professional
colleagues and employers. They are not always experienced writers when they enter
university and they don’t always receive formal teaching in written communication while
doing their undergraduate degrees.
This Toolkit is intended to provide some useful suggestions, strategies and checklists to
help your students improve their writing skills.
Good communication skills are at the top of the list of what potential employers look for
in graduates. The vast majority of business transactions involve written communication of
some kind. Employers of graduates often express concern that students graduate with
inadequate basic written communication skills. It is generally expected that university
graduates have good literacy skills that can transfer into various work contexts, but
research shows that this is not always the case.
The six ‘C’s of effective writing
“Effective business correspondence yields results because it achieves two basic objectives.
First, it conveys a clear and unambiguous message to the reader and second, it produces
goodwill in that reader. To achieve these two objectives, the writer must write:
• clearly:
• coherently;
• concisely;
• correctly; with
• courtesy; and
• confidence.
These characteristics are the result of careful planning, writing in plain English, and critical
editing.”
Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook, (3 rd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall, p.186.
Why students need effective communication skills
1

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Griffith Online Writing Skills Course
This online course was developed by Dr Marilyn Ford to improve students’ writing skills.
The course is broken into three self-paced components, which cover basic grammar and
writing skills.
Some disciplines use this course as a zero credit point requirement, either prior to
graduation, or as a pre-requisite for other subjects.
The resource consists of:
• lessons;
• examples of errors from student writing with suggested revisions;
• pdf files that contain the information from the lessons; and
• quizzes.
Visit:
http://www.cit.griffith.edu.au/~mf/wrsk/wrsk.html
Why students need effective communication skills
2

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
What employers, graduates and students
say about written communication skills
Employers’ comments
“Our biggest issue is writing skills. Graduates need to be able to write a report. All of our
outputs are written. [They] also need good oral communication skills and fundamental
confidence in their ability to be able to support what is being written. However, an academic
writing style is completely different from [what] we need in practice. It is the largest failing,
without question, from our point of view. What the university can do to improve that is to give
the opportunity for the practical application of ‘real world’ writing skills during course work.
Not necessarily in a work placement environment, but actually as part of the course work.
There is a big difference between the way you write a report compared with a discussion paper
on criminological theory.”
(Employer of Griffith Criminology and Criminal Justice Graduates, 2001)
“At the risk of making a generalisation, many science graduates are not as strong in the written
area as they could be. With competition for jobs so strong in the science industry, graduates
cannot afford to lose ground in any area and poor spelling and grammar [are areas] where it is
easy to lose ground. If you send in a poorly written/spelt resumé (to us or any potential
employer), you are going to be behind the eight-ball from the start.”
(Employer of Griffith Science Graduates, 2001)
“Students need to realise that there are different forms of communication suited to different
settings. I had a student who had done a Law degree and who came to work with me and was
giving me the sorts of notes you would put down in a brief, but not a piece that would
communicate with the audience. Different contexts require different types of written
communication.”
(Employer of Griffith Law Graduates, 2003)
“As an employer, I expect to see graduates who can write, spell and put a report together that
is literate, meaningful and properly researched. That is a fundamental skill but one that, we are
disappointed to say, we don’t always see.”
(Employer of Griffith Engineering Graduates, 2003)
“Written communication skills are extremely important. People are becoming too familiar
these days with email and text message communication. Graduates need to appreciate that
we’re still looking for well-developed, formal, written communication skill.”
(Employer of Griffith Accounting Graduates, 2004)
Employers, graduates and students
3

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Graduates’ and students’ comments
“When you are writing at uni you tend to write in a format that lecturers expect. But when you
get out in the workforce you are actually writing for a different kind of population and you
can’t approach it [as if] you are writing a prac or an assignment.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2002)
“My written communication skills are constantly improving at uni because I receive feedback
on my written assignments, which helps me to make improvements on my writing style. I find
that my writing skills are very useful in my part-time work because I have to write lots of
memos to my manager to express all sorts of details about the shift. I am able to write these in
a concise and informative manner, which is appreciated by my manager.”
(Griffith student)
“In the courses I’ve done, we’ve been taught to always ask ourselves: ‘From what point of view
am I writing this? Who is going to read this?’ ”
(Griffith student)
Research findings
“Literacy skills and written business communication skills were rated as being very important
by the employers participating in an AC Nielsen research project conducted in Australia in
1999. It was found that job applicants who had poor skills in this area did not fare well when
seeking positions.”
AC Nielsen Research Services. (1999). Employer Satisfaction with Graduate Skills. Department of
Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Canberra: AGPS.
http://www.dest.gov.au/archive/highered/eippubs/eip99-7/eip99_7pdf.pdf
Employers, graduates and students
“Effectively, we are looking for people who can write in almost a bullet-point form. We are no
longer really looking for people who can write wonderfully flowing twenty-five page
documents, which take two hours to read.”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., and Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational
Change and Student Attributes. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002:
http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
“Employers want graduates who can write for a variety of audiences. Graduates may be
experienced in producing academic texts such as essays, laboratory reports and dissertations,
but they are not always proficient in other forms of written communication, especially business
communication.”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., and Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational
Change and Student Attributes. Retrieved from the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002:
http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Teaching tips—How to develop your
students’ written communication skills
How to develop students’ writing skills
Make writing enjoyable:
• involve students in small group writing tasks in which everyone ‘has a voice,’ and ask
them to analyse the differences in writing styles;
• ask students to write for different audiences presenting similar material on the same
topic, and ask them to analyse the differences;
• invite guest lecturers to talk about writing in their fields or professions; and
• use peer editing processes for formative assessment practice.
Do lots of writing:
• introduce short writing tasks into lectures and tutorials and ask students to exchange
work to check for clarity and understanding;
• check students’ lecture notes from time to time to see whether they are getting the
point;
• ask students to write down their questions at the end of every lecture and collect –
then answer the questions at the next lecture;
• encourage students to write for ‘the hostile reader’–an imaginary person who will
contest everything they say in their writing–this will help them consider and counter
ideas from different perspectives; and
• set writing assignments for the ‘real’ world and involve ‘real’ professionals in giving
feedback on some sample assignments.
Vary the writing tasks:
• introduce assignments that require students to write up interviews with practising
professionals, or document field trips;
• use reflective journals or diaries – ask students to use them as thinking aids (even if
you don’t assess them, students learn how to analyse their own thoughts and
experiences);
• instead of formal essays, ask students to prepare an article for a disciplinary journal,
using the journal’s formatting and referencing requirements; and
• ask students to prepare written agendas and notes of meetings in teamwork projects.
Share examples of good student writing:
• with students’ permission, circulate blind copies of good student writing and use
peer review to analyse why it is good; and
• involve students in setting criteria for written assignments.
Some relevant material is available at:
Teaching Students to Write Argumentative Essays:
http://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/argueweb/frntpage.htm
Learning how to write more clearly:
http://learnhowtowrite.com/
Teaching tips
5

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Structuring the writing task
Setting the topic:
Do you set it? or
Do the students negotiate what they want to write about?
Narrowing it down:
Ask students to express in one sentence what their assignment is about (thesis statement);
And then another sentence on what they are going to say about the topic.
Gathering the evidence:
Suggest some useful sources;
Encourage students to follow leads in the lists of references they contain;
Show them how to evaluate resources on the basis of relevance and currency.
Writing:
Stress the importance of drafting, and re-drafting to clarify thinking;
Encourage peer review (it’s what happens in scholarly journals);
Use drafts to monitor logical flow of ideas and arguments.
Refining:
Give constructive feedback on drafts – it helps students refine their ideas and saves you
time in the long run!
A good writing assignment:
Is set for a clear purpose that students understand; it has meaning for them; it’s relevant to
their course or program; it has clearly defined criteria; it is focused on achieving a particular
aim; it’s manageable in the time available; it lends itself to peer review before final
submission; and it allows for incremental development of writing skills.
Encourage students to ask themselves, when starting to write an assignment:
• Who am I writing this for?
• Why am I writing it?
• How will I write it?
Teaching tips
6

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Structuring the writing process
This checklist will help students to monitor their own writing.
Checklist
1. In the essay introduction have you:
a. taken account of the interests of your reader and identified possible sources of
resistance?
b. analysed what the question requires you to do?
c. defined the scope of your topic without being apologetic?
d. attracted the reader’s attention early, either using a thesis statement or in some other
way?
e. included a clear, arresting thesis statement, or planned one to use later in the essay?
f. orientated your reader, either using a forecasting statement or another method?
2. In the body of your essay have you:
a. considered using an organising framework for your paragraphs?
b. ensured that each paragraph has one central idea?
c. ensured your paragraphs support the essay’s main idea or relate to it in some other
way?
d. used appropriate evidence, illustrations and arguments to support each paragraph’s
main ideas?
e. made links between preceding and following paragraphs and from the paragraphs to
the essay’s main idea?
f. included a final statement that either sums up the central idea of each paragraph,
suggests implications, or provides one or more of the linkages mentioned in the
previous point.
3. In your conclusion have you:
a. summarised the main evidence in the essay?
b. linked ideas and evidence back to the main ideas?
c. provided rounding off, or evaluative comments, or pointed to implications or
possible further developments?
d. dealt with any possible objections on the part of the reader?
e. avoided introducing unrelated material?
4. In the essay as a whole have you:
a. established and maintained an appropriate style and tone?
b. provided signposts for your reader through the essay’s structure, headings and
transition words?
c. avoided overly complex words and used acronyms and jargon judiciously?
d. made conscious decisions about the use of first, second or third person pronouns,
contractions, direct questions, run-on expressions and quotations?
e. used an appropriate level of grammatical correctness?
f. proofread your work several times for clarity, brevity, spelling and typographical
errors?
Baker, E., Barrett, M. & Roberts, L. (2002). Working Communication. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons Australia, pp. 211-212.
Teaching tips
7

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Encourage students to monitor their own writing by asking
themselves:
• Is it to the point?
• Is the most important point obvious?
• Have I used simple language?
• Will my reader understand?
• Is it brief?
• Have I used the right tone?
• Have I eliminated unnecessary jargon?
• Are my paragraphs short?
• Are the spelling and punctuation correct?
• Will my reader know what to do next?
Adapted from: Alexander Communications: Style Guide:
http://www.alexcommunications.com/style_guide.htm
Writing skills
Emphasise to students that it’s important to:
Teaching tips
Use short
sentences
Use common
words
Use subjectverb-object
constructions
Use active verbs
Make lists
Reduce
Edit and proof
Adapted from: McCracken, M. (1998)
http:// www.LearnHowToWrite.com
Short sentences force you to break your ideas into simple understandable
statements. Sentences should not be more than 20 words.
Use words readers understand.
It is easier to read sentences with simple subject –verb-object
construction. For example it is easier to read ‘The man gave the ball to
the boy’, than ‘The ball was given to the boy by a man.’
Active verbs are easy to read. Passive verbs are more difficult to
understand. You can eliminate many passive verbs and shorten your
sentences by avoiding ‘is, am, are, was, were, be, been and being.’
Use lists when you have several items you want to include in one sentence
or paragraph such as:
‘My company gives me the following benefits:
Undercover parking
4 weeks paid vacation each year
Free day-care services.’
Remove all words which do not add meaning to your writing.
Read your writing to find errors. Eliminate unnecessary words and
repetition. Read backwards to find spelling errors. Use a ruler beneath
each line.
8

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Idea generators
Idea generators can stimulate the writing process by helping the writer to:
• Discover more ideas;
• Discover new paths or slants;
• ‘Kick-start’ your brain;
• Prevent or dissolve writer’s block; and
• Manage time more effectively.
Idea generators include:
Brainstorming – write down all ideas about a topic. Do not censor or edit any idea.
Freewriting – just start writing anything about the topic without any regard to structure,
spelling, or grammar.
Flow Charting – construct a formal chart with major points and arrows signifying flow of
information.
Mapping – write topic in centre of page, and box it. Put other boxes around page and
draw lines to link ideas to topic.
Fishboning – use a sequence of lines instead of mapping boxes. Use main line as subject,
and draw branches, or bones, to show how other ideas link to main topic.
Petelin, R., & Durham, M. (1994). The Professional Writing Guide. Sydney: Longham Professional,
pp. 35-41.
Thesis statement
“A thesis statement puts forward the point of view or organising idea for an essay.”
Davis, L., & McKay, S. (1996). Structures and Strategies: An Introduction to Academic Writing. South
Melbourne: Macmillan, p. 76.
A thesis statement can be true or false, but must be able to be supported by evidence.
Give students lots of practice in summarising an entire essay or written assignment into
one thesis statement which is unambiguous, controversial and above all, ‘provable.’
Referencing
“Referencing is the familiar scholarly practice of referring to the works of other writers, where
they have supplied you with source material or particular arguments or ideas. This may not be
necessary when the same ideas are written about by many authors in the field, but when you
are expressing an idea or argument in the words of a particular author you must acknowledge
him/her as your source. Failure to do so is a form of plagiarism (passing off someone else’s
work as your own) and it incurs heavy penalties.”
Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers.: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and
Reports. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, p. 123.
Source material is documented for three main reasons:
• To give credit to the original author;
• To indicate the writer’s own research credibility; and
• To enable others to locate the original work, or actual words.
Teaching tips
9

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Conventions for referencing vary between disciplines, journals and publishing houses. The
social sciences, for example, uses the American Psychological Association (APA), or
Harvard conventions; while medicine, health science and the sciences use the Vancouver
system; and the humanities uses the Modern Language Association of America (MLA)
system. Examples of these systems can be found as follows:
Griffith University’s Library Research Tutorial provides valuable information for students
and academic staff on all aspects of research and referencing:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/library/home_lrt.html
Referencing:
http://www.allenandunwin.com/estudy/referencing.asp
Library On-Line Tutorials: How to Acknowledge What You’ve Read:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/citecon.htm
Harvard Referencing Guide:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/library/libdocs/hsl-dvc1.html
Harvard System of Referencing:
http://www.lmu.ac.uk/lss/ls/docs/Harvard/Harvard.htm
Vancouver System of Referencing:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/medvex.htm
MLA System of Referencing:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/mlaex.htm
There are numerous electronic tools for managing research and information. Some of the
more well-known are:
Procite:
http://www.procite.com
Www.Biblioscape.com:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/instraining/library/home_lrt.html
EndNote:
http://www.EndNote.com
Inclusive language
Students should not use inappropriate words or expressions that exclude certain people, or
groups of people, demean them either intentionally or unintentionally, or which rely on
stereotyping.
Queensland University of Technology has a very useful website on the use of inclusive,
non-discriminatory language, with suggestions for avoiding language that discriminates
against people on the basis of race, gender, disability, ethnicity, etc.
http://www.qut.edu.au/pubs/equity/diversity/diversity.html
Teaching tips
Other useful links are:
Writing: Inclusive Language – Grammatical Issues
http://www.learnline.cdu.edu.au/studyskills/wr/wr_ws_pr_il_gi.html
Inclusive Language
http://www.rhodes.edu/writingcenter/group_b/inclusive_language.html
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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Assessing written communication
Provide clear criteria
General guidelines
Distinguish which features of the writing you need to assess
Are students expected to consider a topic? Generate ideas? Demonstrate understanding?
Construct an argument? Ensure students know which elements are important in grading.
Make assignments and deadlines work for you
Structure and schedule writing tasks that won’t bury you. Assess students’ work in stages
through drafts, peer review, group evaluation and self-assessment. Refuse to be the first
human being to read their paper.
Expect excellence
Set high standards in advance. Ensure students are aware of grading criteria and can selfevaluate
against those criteria. Set process deadlines for the assignment so students
approach it as an on-going reflective experience and stay on task.
Assessing Writing. University Writing Centre, University of Central Florida
http://www.uwc.ucf.edu/Faculty_Resources/fac_assessing_writing.ht
ml
Let students know criteria
Make sure students know the criteria you use to mark their written work. Ask students to
hand in the criteria sheet with their assignment with their own grading of their work
indicated on the sheet.
Let them see how their expectations and your expectations align.
Why not:
Use a ‘dummy’ assignment from the High Distinction and Fail ranges to illustrate strengths
and weaknesses of student writing.
Assessing written communication
11

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Criteria sheets
Give students a criteria sheet like the one below to help them understand expected
standards in written communication assignments.
HIGH DISTINCTION
Analysis and
Conceptual
Clarity
All content highly
relevant to the topic
and covers all key
issues. Thorough and
clear analysis.
Demonstrates
excellent
understanding.
DISTINCTION
Content consistently
relevant to the topic
and covers most key
issues. Clear analysis
demonstrates good
understanding.
Structure and
Development
Research Base
Grammar,
Spelling,
Presentation
Professional
presentation
throughout. No
grammar or spelling
mistakes.
Assignment follows
clear, logical
sequence. Highly
effective use of
proportion and
emphasis.
Extensive use of
relevant research data
and theory to support
analysis. All sources
referenced correctly.
Assignment follows
logical sequence.
Demonstrates
effective use of
proportion and
emphasis.
Evidence of extensive
research. Some use
of relevant research
data and theory to
support analysis. All
sources referenced
correctly.
Written style clear
and effective.
Consistent use of
standard grammar
and punctuation.
Good presentation.
CREDIT
Majority of the
content relevant to
the topic but
significant issues not
covered. Analysis
demonstrates limited
understanding.
Assessing written communication
PASS
Less than half the
content relevant to
the topic. Major
issues not covered at
all. No analysis or
demonstrates poor
understanding.
FAIL
Not relevant or only
vaguely relevant to
topic. No analysis.
Structure and plan of
assignment apparent
but development and
emphasis
inconsistent.
Structure and plan
only vaguely evident.
Proportion and
emphasis frequently
inappropriate.
No evidence of
planned structure to
the report.
Proportion and
emphasis consistently
inappropriate.
Some evidence of
research. Occasional
use of relevant
research data and
theory to support
findings. References
mostly correct and in
academic style.
Demonstrates very
limited research with
very limited or no
support material
presented. No
references or largely
incorrect.
Demonstrates
minimal evidence of
research. No use of
research data or
theoretical
frameworks to
support analysis. No
references.
Sentence
construction generally
correct. Some
spelling and grammar
errors. Written style
wordy or repetitive.
Acceptable
presentation.
Frequent problems
with sentence
construction.
Frequent spelling and
grammar errors.
Written English so
poor as to be barely
understandable.
Many spelling
mistakes. Very poor
presentation.
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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Peer review
Devote at least one tutorial to peer review. Ask students to bring their ‘work in progress’
and in pairs or small groups, read their peers’ draft work and give constructive feedback
on:
• its ‘understandability’;
• its structure;
• its logic and flow;
• its style (including paragraph and sentence construction, use of words, tone,
consideration of the reader, etc.); and
• its alignment with assignment criteria.
Opportunities to improve drafts
before it’s too late
Practice in reading for revision
Enhanced communication skills
Increased confidence
Benefits of peer review to students
The questions and comments from peers can prod a writer to
deepen their approach to a subject.
Talking constructively within the peer group about writing can
strengthen students independent ability to read for revision.
Talking with peers about their work can strengthen students’
ability to articulate specific reactions and suggestions, requiring
a tricky balance of tact and clarity.
Students frequently believe classmates’ writing is much better
than their own writing. When they see their peers’ first drafts
they see it is safe to loosen up and take risks in developing
ideas. They feel more confident in submitting their assignment
for assessment.
Benefits of peer review to lecturers and tutors
Better writing and more time Students will all have been through one round of guided
response leaving the instructor free to address higher-order
issues such as idea development and direction.
High levels of student engagement Whether the workshops last five minutes or fifty, excitement is
generated by peer activity. Students hold each other
accountable and therefore invest more in their writing.
High evaluation ratings
Students recognise the value of effectively conducted peer
workshops.
Creating Effective Peer-Response Workshops. University of Minnesota.
http://writing.umn.edu/tww/responding_grading/peer_workshop.htm
Assessing written communication
13

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Potential drawbacks of peer review
Careful pre-class planning.
Inadequate modelling, and an absence of modelling can cause groups to flounder, wasting
valuable class time.
Peer response requires class time.
Whether using a five-minute pair model or a full-period group workshop model, class time
is required.
Peer workshops are student centred.
Instructors need to temporarily remove themselves from the centre of attention. Students
need to depend on each other for useful responses without unnecessary intervention,
otherwise they will possibly resent the process.
Some students believe they work best alone.
Generally speaking, the academic world rewards independent work. Often, strong students
may initially feel that the peer workshop is not going to offer them anything they couldn’t
do better alone. Once they participate however, they often realise the value of diverse
responses to their work.
Negative attitudes.
Assessing written communication
If students or instructors have been part of badly run groups, they may have a negative
attitude to peer review. Allow reservations to be voiced early in the semester so
appropriate mechanisms can be established to ensure success.
Creating Effective Peer-Response Workshops. University of Minnesota.
http://writing.umn.edu/faculty/responding/peer_workshop.htm
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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The terminology
Students need to understand what the terms used in assessment items mean. For example:
Reference list of commonly used terms in writing assignments
Account for
Give an explanation as to why
Analyse 1. Examine closely
2. Examine x in terms of its components and show how they
interrelate
Assess
Decide the value of
Compare
Discuss x and y in terms of their similarities and differences
Contrast
Discuss x and y in terms of their differences
Critically
evaluate
Articulate the arguments on both sides of an issue by arguing for and
against
Criticise
Make judgments or show the relative merits of an argument
Define 1. Explain (make clear) what is meant by
2. Use a definition or definitions to explore the concept of
Describe
Present an account of
Differentiate Discriminate between two or more factors
Discuss 1. Make x your subject
2. Consider and offer some interpretation or evaluation of
Enumerate
Give an item-by-item account of
Evaluate
Give a reasoned appraisal or assessment of the facts or argument
presented
Examine
Inspect and report on in detail
Explain 1. Make clear the details of
2. Show the reason for, or underlying cause of, or the means by
which
Illustrate
Offer an example or examples to
1. show how/that
2. make concrete the concept of
Indicate
Focus attention on
Interpret
Explain or bring out the particular meaning
Outline
Go through the main features of
Prove
Show by logical argument
Review 1. Report the chief facts about
2. Offer a critique about
Summarise
Provide a brief account or an abridged version
Adapted from: Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and
Reports. John Wiley & Sons Australia: Brisbane, p.23. and Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook, (3 rd
ed.) Prentice Hall, NY.
Assessing written communication
15

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
When assessing student writing
Look for:
• evidence of understanding of the material;
• links and transitions between ideas, sections and paragraphs;
• conclusions that emerge from the evidence presented;
• relevant and current references; and
• evidence of thorough research.
Has the student:
• used simple, short sentences;
• used only the words necessary to convey meaning;
• used acceptable grammar and syntax (sentence construction); and
• used inclusive language?
Why not:
Enlist the help of an employer or professional in your field to give feedback on one or two
written assignments.
You could give them the criteria which students were given for the assignment, but also
ask them to give feedback from their own professional perspective. What works? What
doesn’t? Why? Then present a summary of the employer’s feedback in class and expand
on it by addressing some of the more frequently made ‘mistakes’, or weaknesses in student
writing in that particular assignment.
Assessing written communication
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is knowingly presenting the work or property of another person as if it were
one’s own. In some cultures, summarizing or quoting the words or ideas of respected
scholars is acceptable, or even desirable. In Australian universities, however, all such source
material must be fully documented in all forms of academic writing.
Griffith University treats instances of plagiarism in students’ written work very seriously
and imposes harsh penalties.
Examples of plagiarism include:
• word for word copying of sentences or paragraphs from one or more sources which
are the work or data of other persons (including books, articles, theses, unpublished
works, working papers, seminar and conference papers, internal reports, lecture
notes or tapes) without clearly identifying their origin by appropriate referencing;
• closely paraphrasing sentences or paragraphs from one or more sources without
appropriate acknowledgement in the form of a reference to the original work or
works;
• using another person’s ideas, work or research data without appropriate
acknowledgement;
16

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
• submitting work which has been produced by someone else on the student’s behalf
as if it were the work of the student;
• copying computer files in whole or in part without indicating their origin; and
• submitting work which has been wholly or partially derived from another student’s
work by a process of mechanical transformation. For example, changing variable
names in computer programs.
Griffith University’s Policy on Academic Misconduct:
http://www62.griffith.edu.au/policylibrary.nsf/azcategory/352f26aa1a1011e64a256bbb0062fd5f?opendocument
Discourage plagiarism
• Avoid having students simply find answers. Encourage students to do their own
thinking, not paraphrase the thinking of someone else. What are their thoughts and
ideas on a given topic?
• Ask questions which require students to make an inquiry or investigate.
• Have students compile and turn in working bibliographies well in advance of the
assignment dates. This will require students to begin research at an early date,
avoiding the temptation for last minute information downloads.
• Have students maintain a research log. This will note the databases and indexes
searched, search dates, keywords and subjects used, and a summary of search results.
Preventing and detecting plagiarism. Staley Library, Millikin University.
http://www.millikin.edu/staley/plagiarism.html
Detecting plagiarism – some clues:
• Essay is off-topic, with oddly placed ‘on-topic’ paragraphs;
• References are from books not available in your University. Check your library
catalogue;
• References are all five or ten years old, showing it may have been lifted from the
Internet;
• The assignment is beyond, or does not reflect the normal level of the student’s
written work;
• Use search engines. Insert a four to eight word distinctive phrase in full text search
engines such as Google, AltaVista, HotBot or Northern Light;
• Look for vocabulary not commonly used in this particular class; and
• Unusual formatting, or a change in fonts within the assignment.
Adapted from Preventing and Detecting Plagiarism. Staley Library, Millikin University.
http://www.millikin.edu/staley/plagiarism.html
and Dead Giveaways, Plagiarized.com.
http://www.plagiarized.com/deadgive.html
Assessing written communication
17

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Principles of effective written
communication skills
Writing Skills
Effective writing is clear, concise and economical.
Students’ writing skills improve if they are provided with opportunities to:
• understand the role of writing in the professions;
• write often in a variety of formats;
• share ideas of what makes good writing;
• self-evaluate their writing in a structured manner; and
• receive comprehensive feedback on their writing prior to submitting assignments.
Principles of effective written communication skills
Writing tasks
To ensure maximum benefit from written tasks, ensure that:
• there is a wide variety of writing styles expected, not just essays;
• assignments are relevant to students’ potential professions; and
• students have access to methods of structuring the writing task.
Writing guidelines
Effective writing is a complex task. Make sure that students:
• understand where to go for help with their writing;
• take advantage of on-line writing courses such as
http://www.cit.griffith.edu.au/~mf/wrsk/wrsk.html ;
• understand how to write for the reader;
• are well acquainted with referencing rules; and
• have access to assistance for grammar, spelling and layout.
Assessing students’ written communication
When designing a writing assignment:
• ensure that students understand the terminology you have used in creating the
assignment;
• consider which element of the writing is important in the assessment. Is it, for
example, the generation of ideas, the ability to write a logical report?
• give students the assessment criteria in advance;
• make assignment deadlines work for you by expecting bibliographies, drafts, etc.,
prior to the final assignment date;
• incorporate peer review into the process to improve the standard of writing;
• design the task to make plagiarism difficult.
18

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Where to go for help
Contact
The Griffith Graduate Project (Stage 6)
Dr Gay Crebert
Griffith Institute for Higher Education
Griffith University
Ph. (07) 3875 5981
Email: G.Crebert@griffith.edu.au
Ms Carol-joy Patrick
School of Microelectronic Engineering
Griffith University
Ph. (07) 3875 5007
Email: CJ.Patrick@griffith.edu.au
Learning Services
Written communication is an area where the University has recognised that support is
crucial. Learning Services has teams of learning advisers here to work with you. They
can:
• advise you on teaching, learning and assessment strategies; and
• team teach with you in your lectures and tutorials.
There are also services to which you can refer your students so that they can independently
develop their written communication skills. These include:
• individual or small group consultations with a learning adviser;
• workshops;
• self-help resources.
For more information on these services, visit:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/
Where to go for help
19

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Library
Faculty Librarian Team Leaders
Arts and Education
Di Selzer
D.Selzer@griffith.edu.au
338 21217 (Logan)
55528278 (Gold Coast)
Business and Law
Colette Smith-Strong
C.Strong@griffith.edu.au
387 57245 (Nathan)
Health and Science
Veronica Dawson
V.Dawson@griffith.edu.au
387 57256 (Nathan)
Other academics
Dr. Martin Bridgstock
Senior Lecturer
School of Science
Griffith University
Phone: (07) 3875 7549
Email: M.Bridgstock@griffith.edu.au
Dr. Margaret Fletcher
Researcher
Centre for Applied Language, Literacy & Communication Studies
Griffith University
Phone: (07) 3875 6869
Email: M.Fletcher@griffith.edu.au
Where to go for help
20

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Additional resources
This Toolkit draws on various print and web resources, which are acknowledged in text.
Other useful resources are included in the following list.
Print resources
Baker, E., Barrett, M., and Roberts, L. (2002). Working Communication. Brisbane: John Wiley
& Sons Australia.
Burt, A. (2003). Write with Confidence: Solutions and Examples for Everyday Writing Needs. Oxford,
UK: Howtobooks.
Butt, D., Fahey, R., Feez, S., Spinks, S., and Yallop, C. (2000). Using Functional Grammar: An
Explorers Guide. (2 nd ed.). Macquarie University. National Centre for English Language
Teaching and Research.
Davis, L., and McKay, S. (1996). Structures and Strategies: An Introduction to Academic Writing.
South Melbourne: Macmillan.
Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook (3 rd ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.
Field, M. (2003). Improve your Written English. Oxford, UK: Howtobooks.
Kane, T. S. (1983). The Oxford Guide to Writing: A Rhetoric and Handbook for College Students.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Kohut, G., and Mcfarland Baxter, C. (1987). Business Communication: a Functional Perspective.
Columbus: Merrill Pub. Co.
Lahiff, J., and Penrose, J. (1997). Business Communication: Strategies and Skills. N.J.: Prentice
Hall.
Lehman, C., and DuFrene, D. (2002). Business Communication. Cincinnati, Ohio: South-
Western.
McEvedy, R., and Wyatt, P. (1990). Developing Writing Skills. Melbourne: Nelson.
Oshima, A., and Hohue, A. (1997). Introduction to Academic Writing. (2 nd ed.). White Plains,
NY: Longman.
Peacock, C. (1986). Teaching Writing. London: Croom Helm.
Petelin, R., and Durham, M. (1994). The Professional Writing Guide. Sydney: Longman
Professional.
Peters, P. (1985) Strategies for Student Writers: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam
Papers and Reports. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, Australia.
Thompson, N. (198 ). Written Communication. South Melbourne: Macmillan.
Thornton, G. (1980). Teaching Writing: The Development of Written Language Skills. London:
Edward Arnold.
Treece, M. (1983). Communication for Business and the Professions. Boston : Allyn and Bacon.
White, E. (1985). Teaching and Assessing Writing. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Additional resources
21

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Web resources
Using Portfolios to Assess Student’s Writing
http://www.berea.edu/cltcr/teaching_matters/tm_usingportfolios.htm
Peer Review of Writing
http://www.berea.edu/cltcr/teaching_matters/lc_peer.htm
Teaching Writing in Engineering
http://www.uic.edu/portfolio/writing/teachingportfolioforengineering.pdf
Additional resources
22

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Student handouts
A collection of ready to use resources associated with various aspects of facilitating,
teaching and assessing written communication.
1. What employers, graduates and students say about written communication skills
2. Checklists for reviewing and monitoring your writing
3. Understanding the terminology used in assignments
4. Referencing
5. A sample criteria sheet for assessing written work
Student handouts
23

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
What employers, graduates and students
say about written communication skills
Employers’ comments
“Our biggest issue is writing skills. Graduates need to be able to write a report. All of our
outputs are written. [They] also need good oral communication skills and fundamental
confidence in their ability to be able to support what is being written. However, an academic
writing style is completely different from [what] we need in practice. It is the largest failing,
without question, from our point of view. What the university can do to improve that is to give
the opportunity for the practical application of ‘real world’ writing skills during course work.
Not necessarily in a work placement environment, but actually as part of the course work.
There is a big difference between the way you write a report compared with a discussion paper
on criminological theory.”
(Employer of Griffith Criminology and Criminal Justice Graduates, 2001)
“At the risk of making a generalisation, many science graduates are not as strong in the written
area as they could be. With competition for jobs so strong in the science industry, graduates
cannot afford to lose ground in any area and poor spelling and grammar [are areas] where it is
easy to lose ground. If you send in a poorly written/spelt resumé (to us or any potential
employer), you are going to be behind the eight-ball from the start.”
(Employer of Griffith Science Graduates, 2001)
“Students need to realise that there are different forms of communication suited to different
settings. I had a student who had done a Law degree and who came to work with me and was
giving me the sorts of notes you would put down in a brief, but not a piece that would
communicate with the audience. Different contexts require different types of written
communication.”
(Employer of Griffith Law Graduates, 2003)
“As an employer, I expect to see graduates who can write, spell and put a report together that
is literate, meaningful and properly researched. That is a fundamental skill but one that, we are
disappointed to say, we don’t always see.”
(Employer of Griffith Engineering Graduates, 2003)
“Written communication skills are extremely important. People are becoming too familiar
these days with email and text message communication. Graduates need to appreciate that
we’re still looking for well-developed, formal, written communication skills.”
(Employer of Griffith Accounting Graduates, 2004)
Student handout—Employers, graduates and students
25

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Graduates’ and students’ comments
“When you are writing at uni you tend to write in a format that lecturers expect. But when you
get out in the workforce you are actually writing for a different kind of population and you
can’t approach it [as if] you are writing a prac or an assignment.”
(Griffith Graduate, 2002)
“My written communication skills are constantly improving at uni because I receive feedback
on my written assignments, which helps me to make improvements on my writing style. I find
that my writing skills are very useful in my part-time work because I have to write lots of
memos to my manager to express all sorts of details about the shift. I am able to write these in
a concise and informative manner, which is appreciated by my manager.”
(Griffith student)
“In the courses I’ve done, we’ve been taught to always ask ourselves: ‘From what point of view
am I writing this? Who is going to read this?’ ”
Student handout—Employers, graduates and students
(Griffith student)
Research findings
“Literacy skills and written business communication skills were rated as being very important
by the employers participating in an AC Nielsen research project conducted in Australia in
1999. It was found that job applicants who had poor skills in this area did not fare well when
seeking positions.”
AC Nielsen Research Services. (1999). Employer Satisfaction with Graduate Skills. Department of
Education, Training and Youth Affairs. Canberra: AGPS.
http://www.dest.gov.au/archive/highered/eippubs/eip99-7/eip99_7pdf.pdf
“Effectively, we are looking for people who can write in almost a bullet-point form. We are no
longer really looking for people who can write wonderfully flowing twenty-five page
documents, which take two hours to read.”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., & Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational
Change and Student Attributes. Accessed on the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002:
http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
“Employers want graduates who can write for a variety of audiences. Graduates may be
experienced in producing academic texts such as essays, laboratory reports and dissertations,
but they are not always proficient in other forms of written communication, especially business
communication…”
Employer interviewed in: Harvey, L., Moon, S., & Geall, V. (1997). Graduates’ Work: Organisational
Change and Student Attributes. Accessed on the World Wide Web on 2 March, 2002:
http://www.uce.ac.uk/crq/publications/gw/gwcon.html
26

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Checklists for reviewing and monitoring
your writing
Before you start, ask yourself:
1. For whom am I writing?
You need to consider your intended audience. Are you writing something for other students, lecturers/tutors, or a
prospective employer? Once you have identified your audience you can tailor your writing to meet their expectations
and background knowledge. This will enable you to decide what sort of information, what level of complexity, and how
much detail is required. Is it worth doing?
2. Why am I writing?
What is the purpose of your writing? You may be explaining something, presenting an argument, an evaluation, a
report, or merely a giving a description of some event or process. However, it is important to be clear about what you
are doing and what impact you want it to have on the audience.
3. How am I going to write?
How will you go about organising your time in terms of planning, drafting and revising what you write? How will you
structure material for maximum clarity and coherence?
Adapted from: Writing: Writing: Inclusive Language – Grammatical Issues
http://www.learnline.cdu.edu.au/studyskills/wr/wr_ws_pr_il_gi.html
Checklist for reviewing and monitoring your writing
1. In the essay introduction have you: Tick
taken account of the interests of your reader and identified possible sources of resistance?
analysed what the question requires you to do?
defined the scope of your topic without being apologetic?
attracted the reader’s attention early, either using a thesis statement or in some other way?
included a clear, arresting thesis statement, or planned one to use later in the essay?
orientated your reader, either using a forecasting statement or another method?
2. In the body of your essay have you:
considered using an organising framework for your paragraphs?
ensured that each paragraph has one central idea?
ensured your paragraphs support the essay’s main idea or relate to it in some other way?
used appropriate evidence, illustrations and arguments to support each paragraph’s main ideas?
made links between preceding and following paragraphs and from the paragraphs to the essay’s
main idea?
included a final statement that either sums up the central idea of each paragraph, suggests
implications or provides one or more of the linkages mentioned in the previous point.
3. In your conclusion have you:
summarised the main evidence in the essay?
linked ideas and evidence back to the main ideas?
provided rounding off or evaluative comments, or pointed to implications or possible further
developments?
dealt with any possible objections on the part of the reader?
avoided introducing unrelated material?
4. In the essay as a whole have you:
established and maintained an appropriate style and tone?
provided signposts for your reader through the essay’s structure, headings and transition words?
avoided overly complex words and used acronyms and jargon judiciously?
made conscious decisions about the use of first, second or third person pronouns, contractions,
direct questions, run-on expressions and quotations?
used an appropriate level of grammatical correctness?
proofread your work several times for clarity, brevity, spelling and typographical errors?
Baker, E., Barrett, M. & Roberts, L. (2002). Working Communication. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons Australia, pp. 211-212.
Student handout—Checklists
27

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Understanding the terminology used in
assignments
Reference list of commonly used terms in writing assignments
Account for
Give an explanation as to why
Analyse 1. Examine closely
2. Examine x in terms of its components and show how they
interrelate
Assess
Decide the value of
Compare
Discuss x and y in terms of their similarities and differences
Contrast
Discuss x and y in terms of their differences
Critically
evaluate
Criticise
Articulate the arguments on both sides of an issue by arguing for and
against
Make judgments, or show the relative merits of an argument
Define 1. Explain (make clear) what is meant by
2. Use a definition or definitions to explore the concept of
Describe
Present an account of
Differentiate Discriminate between two or more factors
Discuss 1. Make x your subject
2. Consider and offer some interpretation or evaluation of
Enumerate
Give an item-by-item account of
Evaluate
Give a reasoned appraisal or assessment of the facts or argument
presented
Examine
Inspect and report on in detail
Explain 1. Make clear the details of
2. Show the reason for, or underlying cause of, or the means by
which
Illustrate
Offer an example or examples to
1. show how/that
2. make concrete the concept of
Indicate
Focus attention on
Interpret
Explain or bring out the particular meaning
Outline
Go through the main features of
Prove
Show by logical argument
Review 1. Report the chief facts about
2. Offer a critique about
Summarise
Provide a brief account or an abridged version
Adapted from: Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and
Reports. John Wiley & Sons Australia: Brisbane, p.23 and Dwyer, J. (1993). The Business Communication Handbook (3 rd ed.).
New York: Prentice Hall.
Student handout—Terminology
29

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Referencing
“Referencing is the familiar scholarly practice of referring to the works of other writers, where
they have supplied you with source material or particular arguments or ideas. This may not be
necessary when the same ideas are written about by many authors in the field, but when you
are expressing an idea or argument in the words of a particular author you must acknowledge
him/her as your source. Failure to do so is a form of plagiarism (passing off someone else’s
work as your own) and it incurs heavy penalties.”
Peters, P. (1985). Strategies for Student Writers.: A Guide to Writing Essays, Tutorial Papers, Exam Papers and
Reports. Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons, Australia, p. 123.
Source material is documented for three main reasons:
• To give credit to the original author;
• To indicate the writer’s own research credibility; and
• To enable others to locate the original work, or actual words.
Conventions for referencing vary between disciplines, journals and publishing houses. The
social sciences, for example, use the American Psychological Association (APA), or
Harvard conventions; medicine, health science and the sciences use the Vancouver system;
and the humanities use the Modern Language Association of America (MLA) system.
Examples of these systems can be found as follows:
Web sites
Griffith University’s Library Research Tutorial, which provides valuable information for
students and academic staff on all aspects of research and referencing:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/ins/training/library/home_lrt.html
Referencing:
http://www.allenandunwin.com/estudy/referencing.asp
Library On-Line Tutorials: How to Acknowledge What You’ve Read:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/citecon.htm
Harvard Referencing Guide:
http://www.shef.ac.uk/library/libdocs/hsl-dvc1.html
Harvard System of Referencing:
http://www.lmu.ac.uk/lss/ls/docs/Harvard/Harvard.htm
Vancouver System of Referencing:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/medvex.htm
MLA System of Referencing:
http://www.lib.monash.edu.au/vl/cite/mlaex.htm
Student handout—Referencing
31

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Electronic referencing tools
There are numerous electronic tools for managing research and information. Some of the
more well-known are:
Procite:
http://www.procite.com/
Www.Biblioscape.com:
http://www.griffith.edu.au/instraining/library/home_lrt.html
EndNote:
http://www.EndNote.com
Student handout—Referencing
32

WRITTEN COMMUNICATION SKILLS
A sample criteria sheet for assessing
students’ written work
HIGH DISTINCTION
Analysis and
Conceptual
Clarity
Structure and
Development
Research Base
Grammar,
Spelling,
Presentation
All content highly
relevant to the topic
and covers all key
issues. Thorough and
clear analysis.
Demonstrates
excellent
understanding.
Assignment follows
clear, logical
sequence. Highly
effective use of
proportion and
emphasis.
Extensive use of
relevant research data
and theory to support
analysis. All sources
referenced correctly.
Professional
presentation
throughout. No
grammar or spelling
mistakes.
DISTINCTION
Content consistently
relevant to the topic
and covers most key
issues. Clear analysis
demonstrates good
understanding.
Assignment follows
logical sequence.
Demonstrates
effective use of
proportion and
emphasis.
Evidence of extensive
research. Some use
of relevant research
data and theory to
support analysis. All
sources referenced
correctly.
Written style clear
and effective.
Consistent use of
standard grammar
and punctuation.
Good presentation.
CREDIT
Majority of the
content relevant to
the topic but
significant issues not
covered. Analysis
demonstrates limited
understanding.
PASS
Less than half the
content relevant to
the topic. Major
issues not covered at
all. No analysis or
demonstrates poor
understanding.
FAIL
Not relevant or only
vaguely relevant to
topic. No analysis.
COMMENTS
Structure and plan of
assignment apparent,
but development and
emphasis
inconsistent.
Structure and plan
only vaguely evident.
Proportion and
emphasis frequently
inappropriate.
No evidence of
planned structure to
the report.
Proportion and
emphasis consistently
inappropriate.
Some evidence of
research. Occasional
use of relevant
research data and
theory to support
findings. References
mostly correct and in
academic style.
Demonstrates very
limited research with
very limited or no
support material
presented. No
references or largely
incorrect.
Demonstrates
minimal evidence of
research. No use of
research data or
theoretical
frameworks to
support analysis. No
references.
Sentence
construction generally
correct. Some
spelling and grammar
errors. Written style
wordy or repetitive.
Acceptable
presentation.
Frequent problems
with sentence
construction.
Frequent spelling and
grammar errors.
Written English so
poor as to be barely
understandable.
Many spelling
mistakes. Very poor
presentation.
Student handout—Sample criteria sheet
33