Class Notes

General Biology II
Protists
Eukaryotic: has membrane around nucleus.
Other characters: Motility: flagella, cilia or pseudopod
Uni or multicellular
Autotroph, heterotrophic or mixotrophic
Protozoa: Classified according to Genetics and Nutrition
1) Super Group Excavata: feeding groove, unicellular, flagellated. Hetero and mixotroph
Ph. Diplomonad: Giardia, Trypanosoma.
Ph. Parabasalids: Trichomonas sp.
Ph. Euglenozoans: Contain chlorophyll a & b. Capable of photosynthesis. Euglena.
2) Super Group Chromalveolata (Stramenopiles)
Diatoms: Dia=through, tom=cut “cut through, cut in half” Notice that each side is slightly different
from the other, like a box and its top. Flagellated, many colonial forms.
Ph. Bacillariophyta (bacillaris = rod shaped): Chlorophyll and carotenoit pigment Fucoxanthin.
Previously in the group of Chrysophyta (chryso= golden)

Ph. Phaeophyta: phaios=brown. Chlorophyll, carotenoid Fucoxanthin and xanthophylls. Fucus and
Sargassum
Ph. Oomycota: Oo=egg. Known as water molds. Multinucleated, cell wall made of cellulose, branched
cells. Saprolegnia sp.
(Alveolates)
Ph. Pyrrophyta: Pyrro = fire, red. Have two flagella and xanthophyll pigments, forms the red tie when
in high populations. Ceratium sp., Dinoflagellates
Ph. Apicomplexa: api=tip of. Name from a complex of organs used to enter the host, found in one end
of the organism. Plasmodium
.
Ph. Ciliophora: Locomotion by cillia. Paramecium, Stentor
Algae: Grouped according to nutrition

3) Super Group Rhizaria amoeba like, thin pseudopods, shelled.
Ph. Foraminifera: foramen = little hole. Shelled-looking like individuals with calcareous
skeletons.
Ph. Actinopoda: actino=ray. Radiolarians, siliceous exoskeleton.
4) Super Group Archeoplastids: Archeo= old. Autotrophs. Chlorophyll present in cells.
Ph Chlorophytes
Volvox, Spirogyra, Chlorella, Chlamydomonas
Ph. Rhodophyta: rhodos = red Phycobilin pigments dominant. Red algae.
5) Super Group Unikonta (amoebozoans)
Ph.Gymnamoebas: gymno= naked, Amoeba
Slime Molds: Classified according to: body type, motility of spores, composition of cell wall,

diploid hyphae.
Ph. Myxomycota (myxo = slimy): true slime mold, usually in the form of a plasmodium .
Physarium sp.
Ph. Acrasiomycota: plasmodial or cellular slime mold. Unicellular, forms a “colony” only in
adverse conditions. Ceratiomyxa sp.

Non-Vascular
Gametophyte dominant over sporophyte
antheridia= male
archegonia=female
Kingdom Plantae
Seedless Plants
Ph. Hepatophyta: (Hepato=liver, “liver-colored”, redish-brown) Thallus asexually produces
gemma cups containing gemma, each of which develop into a new thallus. Liverworts
(Marchantia). Life cycle.
Ph. Bryophyta: (bryo= mosses) Sporophyte develops from zygote and produces spores by
meiosis. Mosses (Mnium). Life cycle and cut of stem and leafs.
Ph. Anthocerotophyta (Charophyta): (Antho=erected, ceroto= horns) Hornworts Chara.
Vascular Plants
Sporophyte dominant over gametophyte
Ph. Lycopodophyta: (Lyco=wolflike, podos=foot) Scalelike leafs, photosynthesis done by stem
sporophylls clustered in strobili. Club mosses

Ph. Pterophyta: (ptero=wing). Sporophyte is the fond form known as fern. Gametophyte called
prothallus is shaped as a heart, has both male and female organs in it. Identify sorus under leaf.
(Psilo=beared) No roots or leafs, branches carry photosynthesis, yellow sporangia. Whisk fern.
Whorls of leafs at joints of stem. Sporangia formed in strobili. Example: Horsetail.

Seed Plants
Gymnosperms: “naked seeds”, sporophyte is the longest generation
Classified according to plant anatomy, fruit type and flower type.
Ph. Cycadophyta (Cycads): palm-like
Male produces cones
Female produces a thistle like center
Ph. Ginkgophyta (Ginkgoes)
Ph. Gnetophyta (Gnetophytes)
Ph. Coniferophyta (Conifers): Pines, hemlocks, spruces
PRODUCTION OF GAMETES

Male
Microsporangia(2n pollen sacs)
meiosis
microscopes(n)
mitosis
male gametophyte (n, pollen)
Female
Megasporangia(2n ovules)
Meiosis
Megaspores (n)
Mitosis
female gametophyte (n, eggs)
Angiosperms:
Ph. Anthophyta
(anthos = flower)
Class Liliopsida (Monocots)
Class Magnoliopsida (Eudicot)
Typical flower parts: Pistil(carpel)........stigma, style, ovary FEMALE
Stamen..............…anther, filament MALE
Corolla (petals)
Calyx (sepals)
Receptacle
Differences between monocot & Eudicot
Flower Parts Leave veins seed
x3 parallel 1 cotyledon .............Monocot
x4 or x5 net-like 2 cotyledon ............ Eudicot
Reproduction in Plants
Female: Pistil (carpel) Stigma
Style
Ovary
Cotyledon: stores nutrients that the embryo uses as nourishment.
Male: Stamen Anther
Filament
Embryo: Epicotyl:becomes leaves
Hypocotyl:becomes stem
Radicle: becomes root
Fruit: derives from the ovary.- Pericarp
Exocarp: outermost layer of fruit wall (skin)
(Ovarian wall) Mesocarp: middle layer (“meat”)
Endocarp: innermost layer (hard layer of seed)
Plant Structure

Monocot
Root
Eudicot
Parts of root: Root cap: protects root as it grows.
Zone of cell division: (Meristem) embryonic cell providing new cells for root
growth
Zone of elongation: new cells elongate as they begin to grow larger.
Zone of maturation: cells become differentiated into particular types (root hairs,
xylem, phloem).
Xylem: transports water and minerals from root to leaf.
Phloem: transports nutrients from leaf to root.
Endodermis (Casparian strip): regulates intake through the root.
Root types: Fibrous (grass)
Adventitious (corn)
Taproot (dandelion, carrot)
Pneumatophores (Mangroves)
Monocot
Stem
Eudicot

Types of stem: Stolon (strawberry)
Rhizome (Daisy)
Tuber (potato)
Corm (corn)
Bulb (onion)
Woody stem: xylem builds up year after year. The most center part is called pith after which
comes the primary xylem (first ring) and secondary xylem (second and third rings).
Monocot
(cross cut)
Leaf
Eudicot
(cross cut)
(Epidermis)
(Epidermis)
Body called Mycelium
Kingdom Fungi

Made of strands called Hyphae: rhizoid: root-like part
Stolon: stem-like part
Sporangiophore: carries the spores
reproduces by spores found in special hyphae called fruiting body produced after sexual union.
Classified according to life cycle and structure that produces spores.
Ph. Zygomycota: Known as Zygomycetes (zygo= egg)
Reproduced by zygospores
Example: Rhizopus sp.
Ph. Ascomycota: Known as Ascomycetes (asca= sac)
Reproduce by ascospores (have eight spores in them)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae reproduce asexually by budding (asexual)
Conidiophores are produced in the ascocarp in some Morels (asexual)
Peziza, Aspergillus, Penicillum, Saccharomyces (yeast)
Ph. Basidiomycota: Known as Basidiomycetes (basidio=club shaped)
Basidiocarp known as mushroom
Reproduce by basidiospores sexually and conidiophores asexually
Symbionts
Lichens: mutualistic relationship between fungi and either algae or cyanobacteria
Mycorrizae: (myco=fungi, rhiza=root) mutualistic relationship between plant roots and fungi.

Introduction to Invertebrates
Classified according to body characteristics.
ACOELOMATES no coeloma
Phylum Porifera
Sponges
“pore bearing”
No symmetry
Sessile
Spicules
Collar cells: filter suspended food & creates currents
Example: Grantia sp., Leucosolenia sp.
Phylum Cnidaria
Jellyfish, sea anemones, corals, hydras
“cnidas=nematocyst”
2 body forms: polyp and medusa
Radial symmetry
gastrovascular cavity
Nerve net
2 developmental layers: ectoderm & endoderm
Marine and freshwater
Phylum Ctenophores
“comb + movement”
Have rows of fused cilia (combs)
Radial symmetry
Marine
Phylum Platyhelminthes
“flat parasitic worm”
Flatworms
3 layers, ecto, meso, and endoderm
Organs appear
Cephalization (Head formation)
Bilateral symmetry
Hermaphrodite
Class Turbellaria
Planaria

“turbe=top shaped”
Lives in freshwater
non parasitic
Class Trematoda
“perforation” or “having holes”
Flukes
Parasites
Class Cestoda
“belt” or “girdle”
Phylum Nemertea
Tapeworms (Taenia sp.)
Parasites
Bilateral symmetry
Mouth & anus
Majority marine but some live in fresh water
Separated sexes
Predatory worms that may carry venom in a stylet
COELOMATES
Phylum Nematoda
“nemato=thread like”
Tube-within-a-tube (mouth-anus)
Non segmented
Male and female separated
Male with grove
Example: Vinegar eels, Ascaris lumbricoudes
Phyllum Rotifera
“wheel”
Tube-within-a-tube
Bilateral symmetry
Freshwater

PROTOSTOMES
The first embryonic opening becomes the mouth.
Classified according to body type.
Phylum Mollusca:
“thin shelled”
muscular foot for locomotion
Mantle secretes shell
5 classes although we’re going to study only the first 4
Class Cephalopoda
“head + feet”
Marine (squid, nautilus, octopus, cuttlefish)
Bilateral symmetry
Cephalization
Beak
Class Gastropoda = “stomach + feet”
Aquatic and land (snails)
Cephalization
Development of foot and shell
Radula (Teeth-like section used for feeding)
Class Pelecypoda = “ax foot”
Aquatic (clams, mussels and scallops) also known as
Lamellibranchea (gill looking) or
Bivalvia (2 valves)
Filter feeding
2-part shell
Class Polyplachophora = “several placks”
Marine (chitons)
bilateral symmetry
6-8 part shell
Radula
Class Scaphopoda = “elephant’s tooth”
Dentalium sp.

Phylum Annelida
Class Polychaetea = “many hairs”
segmented bodies
marine (Nereis)
Appendages called parapodia
Bristles called setae
Class Oligochaeta = “few hairs”
Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris)
No parapodia or setea
Mouth-pharynx-esophagus-crop-gizzard-intestine-anus
Class Hirudinea
leeches
No parapodia or setea
Suckers, ectoparasites
Phylum Arthropoda exoskeleton of chitin
“articulated feet”
Joined appendages
Complete and incomplete metamorphosis
Sub Phylum Chelicerata: spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions, horseshoe crab.
Sub Phylum Crustacea: crustaceans (crab, lobster, shrimp)
Sub Phylum Uniramia: millipedes, centipedes, insects

DEUTEROSTOMES
The first embryonic opening becomes the anus, the second (deutero) becomes the mouth (stome).
Classified according to anatomical features.
Phylum Echinodermata .
“spiny-skinned”
marine.
Sessile or free living.
Have endoskeleton hard of calcium carbonate as urchins or soft as
cucumbers.
Radial symmetry on multiples of 5.
Larvae have bilateral symmetry.
Water vascular system very important with tube feet used for gas
exchange and food gathering.
Class Crinoidea:
“long hair”
marine
Filter feeders
Feathery arms
Example: Sea lilies
Class Asteroidea: 5 arms or multiple of 5
“star like” Central disk
Tube feet
Example: sea star
Class Ophiuroidea
“snake like”
Slender and long
Often spiny
Flexible arms multiple of 5
Central disk
Example: Brittle star
Class Holothuroidea Long body
“Holo=complete” Body divided into 5 sections
Tentacles
Example: sea cucumber

Class Echinoidea
“echino=spiny”
No distinct arms
5 sections
Tube feet
Spines used for locomotion
Examples: Regular = sea urchins. These have mouth and anus on
opposite sides of the body.
Irregular = sand dollars. These have both mouth and
anus on same side of the body.
Phylum Chordata
Have 3 characteristics in their life history:
1. Notochord: later becomes vertebral column in vertebrates.
2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord: later in vertebrates is known as spinal cord.
3. Pharyngeal pouches: becomes gills in fishes, invertebrate chordates, and larvae of
amphibians.
Sub Phylum Urochordata: “chodate with tail” (Tunicates)
These have the incurrent/excurrent siphon and the gill slits.
Sub Phylum Cephalochordata: “chordate with head” (Lanceolates or Amphioxus)
Fishlike, marine.
Sub Phylum Vertebrata: (Vertebrates)
Segmented and specialized
Brain has increased in size and complexity and is enclosed in skull
Aquatic and terrestrial
Super Class Agnatha: lacks jaws and paired appendages
“

“no lower mandible”
Cartilaginous skeleton
Notochord
Examples: lampreys, hagfishes
Super Class Gnathostomata: Hinged jaws
“with lower mandible” Tetrapods
Jawed
Class Chondrichthyes: “cartilaginous fish”
Marine fishes
Cartilaginous
Fishes lack operculum and swim bladder
Asymmetrical tail
2-chamber hearts
Example: sharks, rays, skates
Class Osteichthyes: “bony fish”
Bony
Marine and freshwater fish
Operculum
Swim bladder or lung
Tail is symmetrical
Example: tuna
Class Amphibia: “double life”
Tetrapod
Non-amniotic egg
3-chamber heart
Ectothermic
Metamorphosis
Non tailed (Anuran): frogs
Tailed (Urodeles): Salamanders
Class Reptilia:
Tetrapod and without legs
Amniotic egg
Scaly skin
4-chamber heart
Ectothermic

Example: snakes, turtles, crocodiles.
Class Aves:
Tetrapod
Feathered
Bipedal with wings
Double circulation
Endothermic
Examples: Sparrows, penguins, ostriches.
Class Mammalia: “with mammary glands”
Tetrapods with hair
Mammary glands
Double circulation
Endothermic
Teeth differentiated
Monotremes: lays eggs, has beak and hair. Duckbill platypus Marsupials: placental, completes
development outside the womb. Kangaroo
Mammals: complete development inside womb. Humans, bats, whales
Different systems in a frog
Comparative anatomy between amphibians and fish
Evolution of cardiovascular system in vertebrates
From 2 chambers to 4
Sends blood more efficiently
Doesn’t mix blood rich in oxygen with that rich in CO2

Animal Organization
Cells--------tissues----------organs
Tissue: made of cells of same type.
Epithelial Tissue: Covers most of our inner cavities, protects.
Name Location Observations
Simple Squamous blood vessels, urinary, respiratory, male single layer, thin, flat with
reproductive tracts
central nucleus.
Simple Cuboidal kidney, ducts of secretory glands single layer, cubed-shaped
w/central nucleus. Protective
function.
Simple Columnar lines digestive tract from stomach to anus, single layered,
protects, secrets and absorbs
tall,cylindrical
cells, nucleus near base.
Pseudostratified ci- trachea Appears layered while the

liated columnar
cells actually touch basement membrane.
Cilia located on free end on each cell
Muscular tissue: There are three types.
The skeletal permits the movement of the body itself, the cardiac keeps the
heart pumping, and the smooth keeps our organs moving smoothly.
Name Location Observations
Skeletal muscles attached to bones striations, voluntary, many
peripheral nuclei
Cardiac heart Striations, involuntary
Branched cells, intercalated
discs
Smooth viscera (internal organs) spindle-shaped,
involuntary,unicelled.
Nerve tissue: Sends information to/from brain and rest of body.
found in brain, spinal cord and nerves

neurons composed of: cell body
axon
dendrites
Nervous brain, spinal cord, nerves cell body with notorious
nucleus, long axon, shorter
dendrites.
Connective Tissue; Joins different parts of the body.
Name Location Observations
Loose Fibrous or Aerolar between skin and skeletal loose, separated cells called
muscle
fibroblasts, elastic fibers and
collagen fibers
Dense Fibrous tendons Closely packed collagen
fibers, non-flexible.
Adipose beneath skin and around internal loose tissue w/a large central
organs.
vacuole filled with fat.
Nucleus & cytoplasm at
perimeter.
Hyaline cartilage ribs, nose, trachea flexible, matrix w/lacunae

Compact bone skeleton Central canal, osteons, lacunae
Blood veins and arteries red blood cells carry oxygen,
plasma is the matrix,Platelets
initiate blood clott, White
blood cells fight infections:
Neutriphil
Lymphocyte
Eosinophil
Basophil
Monocyte
Organ: Structure composed of 2 or more types of tissues that work together.
Example: Skin.- epidermis- stratified squamous epithelium
dermis- loose connective tissue
subcutaneous- adipose tissue
Copyright by Diana Kropf-Gomez 2008