2190-2192 - International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences ...

International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences.
Available online at www.ijagcs.com
IJACS/2013/5-19/2190-2192
ISSN 2227-670X ©2013 IJACS Journal
Review Paper
Investigation of basic factors influencing rice
losses in Iran
Seyedeh-Maryam Hasheminya 1 , Jalal Dehghannya *2
1. Department of Food Science and Technology, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch,
Tehran, Iran
2. Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
* Corresponding author email: J_dehghannya@tabrizu.ac.ir
ABSTRACT: Rice is the second high-consuming product in Iran and the demand for this product is
growing each year. Limitations for increasing under-cultivation areas make policymakers to plan
programs for enhancing productivity of the under-cultivation areas. Any attempt for reducing losses
as well as optimum use of agriculture entities are indirect ways in enhancing productivity of undercultivation
areas. Paying careful attention to management, instructional and technological issues can
aid in better understanding the causes of losses in rice industry. Better management of water
resources and agricultural lands and supporting the development and extension of integrated
industries are key factors influencing rice production and reducing losses.
Keywords: Education; Integrated industry; Management; Policy-making; Technology
INTRODUCTION
Annually a high percent of different agricultural products is lost in the world. Losses are regarded as a
great damage to food security. Based on the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), any change in quality
which leads to non-edibility, unavailability and insecurity of food products is regarded as losses. The amount of
rice losses in Iran is higher than that of average world rice losses. Therefore, in order to maintain food security,
it is necessary to attempt for increasing under-cultivation areas, optimizing productivity of agricultural lands and
reducing losses in different stages of production and consumption. Increasing under-cultivation areas is almost
impossible due to the limitation of fertilized lands. Appropriate planning for reduction in rice losses can be a
useful way of protecting food security in the country. Therefore, having enough knowledge on factors affecting
occurrence of losses produced at different stages of planting, growing, harvesting and consuming is necessary
(Noori, 2007). Of among these factors, economic policy-making management, education and extension
management of farms and management of technology application are important considerations.
Economic policy-making management
There is a growing concern about increasing rice losses. Therefore, it is necessary to set strategies for
reducing the losses and to enhance public awareness. Of among important management issues in reducing
losses of agricultural products, optimum management of water resources and agricultural lands, imports and
exports trade policies as well as supporting the development and extension of integrated industry can be
referred.
Optimum management of water resources and agricultural lands
Regarding that in recent years selling rice lands and creating residential building due to economic
losses have been quite common and that under-cultivation areas have been reduced due to environmental
limitations, it is necessary to codify and execute clear and practical policies by responsible organizations. Other
causes of reduction in rice production and enhancement of losses include lack of facilities and devices for
storing surface water, lack of coordination between custodians of water resources and lack of proper projects at
the macro level for supplying water (Yevjevich, 1995; Hurni, 1997; Rao et al., 1998).
Imports and exports trade policies
Paying subsidy to producers or consumers is an important protective policy in the country. It has great
influences on economic, political and social conditions. Therefore, making decision on the method of paying
subsidy is very difficult. Although some of economists believe that protective policies lead to distortion of market
prices and production costs, undesirable designation of entities and reduction in social welfare in the long time,

Intl J Agri Crop Sci. Vol., 5 (19), 2190-2192, 2013
some other think that they result in retaining occupation, increasing farmers income, decreasing poverty,
supporting domestic producers, encouraging exports and alleviating dependency. In order to improve economic
situation of Iranian farmers, some protective policies are used including providing entities needed for farmers
such as fertilizers and pesticides, extending insurance coverage for agricultural products, pricing and
guaranteed purchasing of agricultural products from farmers directly, protecting agricultural products from
unexpected events and paying loans with low interest for purchasing agricultural machineries. It seems that
paying subsidy in Iran can cause problems such as development of losses due to inefficiency of distribution
system and lack of coordination between responsible authorities (Razini Rahmani, 2002; Noori, 2005).
Use of an appropriate tariff system is another protective policy device against irregular imports. In other
words, in order to prevent from importing foreign goods with a lower price compared to a desirable protective
price, tariff system should be exercised in such a way that import of the foreign goods with a lower price will not
be possible. Some problems in current trend of rice tariff rate policies lead to inefficiency of the aforesaid
protective policy. Therefore, it is necessary to modify the determination method of imported rice tariff (Noori,
2004).
Pricing and guaranteed purchase of rice are other protective policies. In order to retain price of an
agricultural product in the market, the government attempts to determine guaranteed price and to purchase the
product. The aim of this policy is to protect producers (Noori, 2007). However, in some instances, due to lack of
precise planning and expertise, guaranteed purchase rate of rice is much lower than its finished cost. In other
words, farmers are not satisfied with selling their products and are reluctant to plant rice in the future.
Supporting the development and extension of integrated industries
Supporting capitalists in order to establish processing factories and to reduce rice losses is an effective
protective strategy (Pilat, 1995). Appropriate planning, protecting capitalists in private section and allocating
credits especially to related projects can encourage establishing rice factories. It should be mentioned that
issuance of license for the establishment of integrated industries should be proportionate to raw material
potential as well as to marketing conditions of these products.
Education and extension management of farms
Educating rice farmers by experienced promotion agents can be a great step for optimum use of
agricultural entities; i.e. farmers can better manage their farm with the aid of scientific information received from
experts. Knowing factors affecting farm productivity is an educational aim of rice farmers. These factors include
applying appropriate amount of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, educating about temperature and moisture
variations, seed nature and quality of soil and water as well as engineering under-cultivation areas with the use
of modern technologies. Some farmers using inappropriate amounts of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, in
addition to the loss of the national wealth, their savings, agriculture and environmental pollution, can cause
increased pests and diseases, plant lodging, plant available water reduction, non-inoculation and osteoporosis
occurrence. Appropriate promotional education can aid farmers in improving the amount of fertilizers and
pesticides used. Of other promotional points we can refer to description of temperature variations effect and its
consequent losses. For example, if nylon covers are not used at building rice exchequers, chilblain of seedling,
retardation of seedling growth and in some instances destruction of whole exchequer will be probable. Also,
high temperature in exchequer leads to irregular maturation of rice grains in addition to product loss due to high
respiration. Therefore, obtaining information about consequences of temperature variation encourages farmers
to build standard exchequers (International Rice Research Institute, 1987; Toriyama et l., 1994).
Moreover, variation of relative humidity influences product yield. High relative humidity leads to
occurrence of stem borer and diseases such as blast and false rust. Relevant use of pesticides can be
beneficial in reducing the losses. Use of appropriate seed is another factor affecting quality and quantity of
product. Use of high-yield seeds and seeds that their products are resistant to wind, rainfall and lodging leads
to more convenient and economic harvesting. In addition, drought and high water depth at different stages of
rice cultivation have their own consequences. Post-planting drought results in increased weeds, inappropriate
tillering, osteoporosis occurrence and incomplete seed filling whereas high water depth retards growth and if
the high water level remains after planting, inappropriate tillering and elongation of plant will be observed. Plant
lodging is also a consequence of elongation in feet-tall varieties. In addition to occurrence of various diseases,
quantitative reduction of products is resulted from high depth of water (International Rice Research Institute,
1987; Toriyama et l., 1994).
Furthermore, investigation of soil elements aimed at improving poor soils via chemical fertilizers is an
effective way of enhancing production yield. For instance, heavy-texture soils show low yield due to low
permeability. In addition to evaluation of soil fertility, engineering assessment of agricultural lands is of special
status. Integration and leveling of agricultural lands is a very effective parameter on optimizing productivity of
water, land, pesticides, fertilizers and machineries as well as reducing capital losses. Extending the application
of appropriate machinery and promotional information about appropriate use of machineries such as pump,
2191

Intl J Agri Crop Sci. Vol., 5 (19), 2190-2192, 2013
motor, Taylor, combine, tractor, Taylor and tractor threshers are also effective. However, inappropriate use of
machinery can enhance losses (Pilat, 1995; Eskandari Cherati et al., 2011).
Management of technology application
Introduction of non-mechanized (high-yield varieties) and mechanized (machinery) technologies into
rice lands has led to enhanced yield performance and reduced losses compared to traditional methods (Chen
et al., 2006; Marrit et al., 2007; Xiaa et al., 2010). In recent years, with the aid of rice research institutes, high
yield varieties have been produced with the aim of enhancing national production and farmers’ income as well
as reducing production losses. About the design of high yield varieties such as biotechnologically-produced
varieties, it is important to mention two points. First, the production of new varieties by researchers should be
tailored to the needs and challenges faced by farmers. Second, legal supports of responsible organizations
from promotion of produced varieties should be carried out to appropriately utilize researchers’ achievements.
Regarding mechanized modern technologies, having enough knowledge about functional properties of
machineries and their efficiency based on weather conditions and planted varieties lead to optimum use of
these devices. Also, appropriate use and maintenance of agricultural machineries enhance their efficiency and
reduce losses during planting, growing and harvesting operations. For instance, use of transplanting machine
facilitates planting operations; however, some factors can reduce the machine efficiency including choosing
non-standard boxes for transplanting, transplanting at stormy days and operating the machine in farms having
high water level. In addition, technical problems such as rubbed transplant recipients’ nails, change in
calibration of transplant fingers, fracture of spring behind pressure bars, failure to apply the appropriate finger
nails for planters and use of inappropriate components reduce machine efficiency (Toriyama et al., 2004).
Combine is another machine about which enough knowledge should be obtained. Some factors such
as plant lodging, planted varieties, area and type of agricultural land determine type of combine used. If an
appropriate combine is not used, production losses will increase. For instance, inappropriate combine choice
may fracture rice due to mechanical impacts at threshing chamber and transfer units which in turn leads to
reduction in quality and acceptability of rice. Additionally, use of old threshers for preparation of white rice from
paddy is an important factor reducing rice yields. Broken rice obtained from conversion process can enhance
production losses. Factors influencing formation of broken rice include drying method, machine performance at
husking and whitening stages as well as performance of sorting machine. Therefore, it is necessary to design
machines which lead to the lowest heat and mechanical tensions while controlling temperature and moisture
(Chi, 2010).
CONCLUSION
With regard to increasing demand for rice and optimum use of current rice-farming conditions, attempt
to reduce production losses is necessary. Rice losses are formed during all stages of rice farming namely
planting, growing, harvesting and processing. Use of agricultural machinery, high-yield verities and updated
knowledge of promotion agents can aid in optimum use of agricultural entities. Furthermore, protective policies
of government including pricing and guaranteed purchase rate of rice, use of appropriate tariff systems for
imported rice and supporting extension and promotion of integrated industry are effective in increasing
production and reducing rice losses.
REFERENCES
Chen LY, Snow AA, Wang F, Lu BR. 2006. Effects of insect-resistance transgenes on fecundity in rice (Oryza sativa, Poaceae): a test for
underlying costs. Am J Bot 93: 94-101.
Chi TT. 2010. Factors affecting mechanization in rice harvesting and drying in the Mekong delta, South Vietnam. OmonRice 17: 164-173.
Eskandari Cherati F, Bahrami H, Asakereh A. 2011. Energy survey of mechanized and traditional rice production system in Mazandaran
province of Iran. Af J Agr Res 6: 2565-2570.
Hurni H. 1997. Concept of sustainable land management. Instrument Transcommun J 3/4: 210-215.
International Rice Research Institute. 1987. Rice Farming Systems: New Directions. Proceedings of an International Symposium, January
31 - February 3, 1987. Rice Research and Training Center, Sakha, Egypt.
Marrit M, Hengsdijk H, Wolf J. 2007. The impact of increasing farm size and mechanization on rural income and rice production in Zhejiang
province, China. Agr Sys 94: 841-850.
Noori K. 2004. Study on rice price policy efficiency in Iran (in Persian). Pajouhesh and Sazandegi 61: 73-81.
Noori K. 2005. Study of support policies of rice in Iran. Agr Econ Dev (in Persian) 52: 87-106.
Noori K. 2007. A Study on market distortions and its effects on rice supply, demand and import in Iran (in Persian). Pajouhesh and
Sazandegi 19: 17-25.
Pilat D. 1995. Comparative Productivity of Korea Manufacturing, 1967-1987. J Dev Econ 46: 123-144.
Rao N, Sarma P, Chander S. 1988. Irrigation scheduling under a limited water supply. Agr Water Manage 15: 165-175.
Razini Rahmani EA. 2002. Protective policies and their implications in Iran (in Persian). Tehran: Institute for Trade Studies and Research.
Toriyama K, Heong KL, Hardy B. 2004. Rice is life: scientific perspectives for the 21st century. World Rice Research. Nov 5-7, 2004,
Tsukuba, Japan. International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines.
Xiaa H, Chena L, Wang F, Lua BR. 2010. Yield benefit and underlying cost of insect-resistance transgenic rice: Implication in breeding and
deploying transgenic crops. Field Crops Res 118: 215-220.
Yevjevich V. 1995. Effect of area time horizons in comprehensive and integrated water resources management. Water Sci Technol 31: 19-
25.
2192