Table of Contents 

List of Tables, Figures, Boxes and Photos ……………………………………………………. 

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………………. 

Acronyms and abbreviation used ……………………………………………………………… 

Glossary ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 

Executive Summary ………………………………………………………………………….. 

iii 

v 

vi 

vii 

viii 

Chapter 1: Introduction …………………………………………………………………….. 1 

1.1 Study background ……………………………………………………………….………… 1 

1.2 Justification for a Process Review ………………………………………………………… 1 

1.3 Objectives of the Process Review …………………………………………………………. 3 

1.4 Study design and implementation …………………………………………………………. 4 

1.5 Clarifying some basic concepts ……………………………………………………………. 8 

Chapter 2: The Context of Literacy in Uganda …………………………………………….. 13 

2.1 International framework …………………………………………………………………… 13 

2.2 Socio-economic and education context ……………………………………………………. 16 

2.3 Gender context ……………………………………………………………………………… 19 

2.4 Policy and planning framework for adult literacy ………………………………………….. 22 

Chapter 3: Peoples Basic Needs Problems and Concerns ………………………………….. 27 

3.1 Socio-economic Characteristics of the Population …………………………………………. 27 

3.2 People’s perceived problems and concerns ………………………………………………… 32 

3.3 Views from focus group discussions on problems and needs ……………………………… 34 

Chapter 4: People’s Learning Desires and Readiness to Learn …………………………… 36 

4.1 Expressed learning desires and readiness to learn ………………………………………….. 36 

4.2 Expected benefits from learning ……………………………………………………………. 40 

4.3 Desired learning and teaching arrangements ……………………………………………….. 41 

4.4 Expected difficulties while learning ………………………………………………………… 42 

Chapter 5: Current Organisation and Management ………………………………………… 44 

5.1 Status of the government FAL programme ………………………………………………….. 44 

5.2 Other adult literacy programmes …………………………………………………………….. 49 

5.3 Partnership in current provision ……………………………………………………………… 54 

5.4 Financing of literacy programmes …………………………………………………………… 57 

Chapter 6: Approaches Curriculum and Materials ………………………………………….. 60 

6.1 Adult literacy approaches in Uganda ………………………………………………………… 60 

6.2 Programme contents, methods and materials ………………………………………………… 61 

6.3 Teaching and learning arrangements ………………………………………………………… 62 

6.4 Learning assessment and certification ………………………………………………………... 64 

Chapter 7: Participants’ Learning Experiences and Prospects for Further Learning ….… 68 

7.1 Learners’ characteristics and reasons for joining the literacy programme ………………..… 68 

7.2 Learners’ participation and learning experience …………………………………………..… 70 

7.3 Learners’ desire and prospects for further learning ………………………………………..… 73

Process Review of Functional Adult Literacy Programme in Uganda 2002-2006 

ii 

Chapter 8: Literacy Instructors and their Performance ……………………………………… 76 

8.1 Instructors’ characteristics …………………………………………………………………….. 76 

8.2 Instructors’ training for literacy work ………………………………………………………… 77 

8.3 Instructors’ motivation and incentives ………………………………………………………… 78 

8.4 Instructors’ participation and performance ……………………………………………………. 79 

Chapter 9: Current Provision as a Response to the Learning Needs and Desires …………… 81 

9.1 People’s needs concerns and learning desires …………………………………………………. 81 

9.2 Programme achievements ……………………………………………………………………... 82 

9.3 Challenges and concerns in the current provision …………………………………………….. 84 

9.4 People’s suggestions for improvement ………………………………………………………... 89 

Chapter 10: Conclusions and Recommendations ……………………………………………… 91 

10.1 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………………. 91 

10.2 Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………... 91 

References ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 97 

Annexes ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99 

Annex 1: Writing the wrongs: international benchmarks on adult literacy 2005 ………………... 99 

Annex 2: The Abuja Call for Action 2007 ……………………………………………………….. 100 

Annex 3: Organisations from which information was obtained in the sampled districts ………… 103 

Annex 4: Other organisations reported operating in the sampled districts ……………………….. 103 

Annex 5: Summary of information obtained from some national organisations ………………… 105 

5.1 Literacy Network of Uganda (LitNet) …………………………………………………. 105 

5.2 Adult Literacy and Basic Education Centre (ALBEC) ………………………………… 107 

5.3 Literacy Aid Uganda …………………………………………………………………… 108 

5.4 Uganda Programme of Literacy for Transformation (UPLIFT) ……………………….. 110 

5.5 Young Men’s Christian Association Kampala (YMCA) ………………………………. 113 

Annex 6: Conditional Grants for FAL to the Districts 2006/2007 ……………………………….. 115 

Annex 7: Terms of reference ……………………………………………………………………... 116 

Annex 8: Instruments used in the Process Review ……………………………………………….. 120 

Annex 8.1: Interview schedule for adult literacy instructors ………………………………. 120 

Annex 8.2: Interview schedule for participants in adult literacy programmes ……………. 127 

Annex 8.3: Interview schedule for graduates of adult literacy programmes …………….… 132 

Annex 8.4: Interview schedule for non-literate adults (potential FAL learners) ……….….. 137 

Annex 8.5: Questionnaire for district leaders and officials ………………………………... 140 

Annex 8.6: Questionnaire for sub-county leaders and officials ……………………………. 143 

Annex 8.7: Questionnaire for heads of organisations and other leaders at district level …… 146 

Annex 8.8: Guiding questions for semi-structured interviews with community leaders and local 

government leaders and officials ……………………………………………… 149 

Annex 8.9: Guiding questions for semi-structured interviews with schooled people ……… 151 

Annex 8.10: Guide for focus group discussions used in the study …………………………. 153


iii 

List of Tables Figures Boxes and Photos 

TABLES 

Page 

Table 1.1 Categories of the study population 4 

Table 1.2 Sampled districts for the process review 5 

Table 1.3 Methods and instruments planned 6 

Table 1.4 Data collected from the different populations 7 

Table 2.1 Trend in literacy rates for population aged 10 years and above 1997-2002/3 17 

Table 3.1 Control over radio by sex 30 

Table 3.2 Radio listening by sex 30 

Table 3.3 NAPE assessment results for P3 and P6 pupils (1999 & 2003) 30 

Table 3.4 What government could do to solve people’s problems 33 

Table 3.5 Problems associated with illiteracy 34 

Table 4.1 Explanation why non-literates want to learn the different things 37 

Table 4.2 Participants’ reasons for joining the adult literacy programme 37 

Table 4.3 Graduates’ reasons for joining adult literacy class 38 

Table 4.4 Person non-literate sample prefers to teach them by sex 41 

Table 5.1 District and sub-county contribution to FAL 47 

Table 5.2 Whether FAL provision has improved since 2003 as rated by respondents at the 49 

district and sub-county 

Table 5.3 Reasons by district and sub-county respondents for assessment of existing 55 

collaboration 

Table 5.4 Government financial releases in Uganda shillings 57 

Table 5.5 ICEIDA financial support to FAL in Uganda 59 

Table 6.1 Basic education curriculum in primary school and in FAL 66 

Table 7.1 Reasons for learners’ absence from class according to learners and instructors 71 

Table 7.2 Learners’ reasons for enjoying class and instructors’ explanation of learners’ 72 

interest 

Table 7.3 What learners reported finding easy or difficult to learn 72 

Table 8.1 What instructors read and write 77 

Table 8.2 Instructors’ reasons for deciding to teach and for happiness with the work 78 

Table 8.3 Learners’ rating of their instructors 80 

Table 9.1 Problems reported by the instructors 85 

Table 9.2 Challenges/problems mentioned by learners 86 

Table 9.3 Learners’ and instructors’ suggestions for improvement 89


iv 

FIGURES 

Figure 3.1 Main occupation of respondents 27 

Figure 3.2 Instructors’ main occupation 28 

Figure 3.3 Source of light at night 29 

Figure 3.4 Have a radio in the family 29 

Figure 3.5 School attendance 31 

Figure 3.6 Levels of schooling attained by those who attended 32 

Figure 3.7 Non-literates’ most serious problems 32 

Figure 3.8 Non-literates’ plans for improvement 33 

Figure 4.1 Things non-literates want to learn first 36 

Figure 4.2 Things non-literate sample want to read 38 

Figure 4.3 What non-literate sample wants to write 39 

Figure 4.4 Number of class days per week preferred by non-literate sample 42 

Figure 4.5 Difficulties while learning anticipated by non-literates 43 

Figure 5.1 Whether FAL is a priority and regular budget item at district and sub-county 46 

Figure 5.2 District and sub-county respondents’ rating of current policy as an adequate 48 

guide for adult literacy 

Figure 5.3 Collaboration in adult literacy provision as rated at the district and sub-county 54 

Figure 7.1 Age distribution of learners 68 

Figure 7.2 Marital status of learners by sex 70 

Figure 7.3 Learners’ interest and attendance as assessed by their instructors 70 

Figure 8.1 How long instructors have taught literacy 79 

Figure 8.2 Instructors’ absence from class 80 

Figure 9.1 Personal problems while teaching as reported by instructors 85 

BOXES 

Box 2.1 Comparison between EFA and MDG 14 

Box 2.2 United Nations Literacy Decade 15 

Box 5.1 Multi-stakeholder partnership – Kabamwe Tukore FAL 56 

Box 6.1 A traditional adult literacy setting 62 

PHOTOS 

FAL instructor with participants in an active learning session in Kalangala Cover 

Process review team and Prof Rogers discussing with the community in Bugiri xix 

Women in Bundibugyo bearing their heavy burdens with a smile 12 

FAL graduates in Bundibugyo proudly display their certificates 64 

Elderly FAL participant interviewed in Kumi 69 

University adult education students studying literacy practices in the field 96


v 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

We thank all those who contributed in various ways to this process review of the functional adult literacy 

programme in Uganda: 

- all the people who gave their time to be interviewed or took part in the focus group discussions in the 

selected sites of the sampled districts 

- the Community Development officers of the selected districts and sub-counties, other officials and 

other leaders who mobilised the sampled people and gave various other types of support 

- members of the Community Development office and others recruited in the districts, with whom we 

worked as a team to carry out the field work 

- the members of the core research assistant team from Kampala who participated in the production of 

the instruments, data collection in all districts and the final editing of the data pieces before data 

analysis and especially the few who coded the instruments for analysis 

- those who participated in the workshop to discuss the draft report are highly appreciated for the 

significant contributions they made to help the review team improve the study and report 

- in particular, we thank the civil society group of participants who met after the workshop and 

submitted well-considered comments and suggestions that the review team has thoroughly used 

Very special thanks go to Professor Alan Rogers for his keen interest in the task and very useful inputs 

that have made a big difference to the study. 

Finally and most importantly, we thank the Ministry of Labour, Gender and Social Development and the 

Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA) office in Kampala for initiating this process 

review, giving us the opportunity to carry it out and providing support during the accomplishment of the 

task. ICEIDA is specially thanked for providing the finances for the job and the prompt provision of the 

funds at each stage of the exercise. We hope your contribution will bear the fruit that you expect. 

Process Review Team 

Reviewers 

1. Anthony Okech (Team Leader) Adult Education specialist, long experience at Makerere University 

Institute of Adult and Continuing Education, has led numerous research projects 

2. I.M Majanja Zaaly’embikke (Reviewer) Training and management consultant, long experience 

training in the Cooperative Department, the FAL programme and various NGOs 

3. Catherine Mugisha Rwaninka (Reviewer) Gender specialist, independent consultant, long experience 

training and gender mainstreaming in Cooperative Department and NGOs 

4. Gabriel Obbo Katandi (Reviewer) Curriculum expert working at NCDC, Kampala 

5. Fred Kabuye Musisi (Reviewer) Socio-economic development expert, long experience in CSO 

development work, currently Director Africa 2000 Network Uganda 

International Adviser 

Professor Alan Rogers, an international expert in adult education and learning, with wide experience in 

Asia and Africa, has written numerous articles and books on adult learning and literacy and is currently 

visiting professor at the Universities of Nottingham and East Anglia and Convenor of the Uppingham 

Seminars in Development. 

Research Assistants 

Angelo Ogola (Research Assistant) 

Ann Ruth Masai (Research Assistant) 

Donnah Atwagala (Research Assistant) 

Esther Norah Nakidde (Research Assistant) 

Francis Aduka (Research Assistant) 

Harriet Akello (Research Assistant) 

Jane Frances Nabasirye (Research Assistant) 

(60 others recruited for work in specific districts)


vi 

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED 

ACDO Assistant Community Development Officer 

ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency 

ALBEC Adult Literacy and Basic Education Centre 

ALMIS Adult Literacy Management Information System 

BTVET Business, Technical and Vocational Education and Training 

CBO Community Based Organisation 

CDA Community Development Assistant 

CDO Community Development Officer 

CEFORD Community Empowerment for Development 

CSO Civil Society Organisation 

DIFRA Dick Francis’s Language and Literacy Services 

DVV German Adult Education Association 

EFA Education for All 

EFAG Education Funding Agencies Group 

FAL Functional Adult Literacy 

FALP Functional Adult Literacy Programme 

FBO Faith Based Organisation 

FGD Focus Group Discussion 

GAD Gender and Development 

GOU Government of Uganda 

IALS International Adult Literacy Surveys 

ICEIDA Icelandic International Development Agency 

ICT Information and Communication Technology 

IGA Income Generating Activity 

IMF International Monetary Fund 

INFOBEPP Integrated Non-Formal Basic Education Pilot Project 

KAFIA Kalangala FAL Instructors’ Association 

LABE Literacy and Adult Basic Education 

LC Local Council 

LitNet Literacy Network 

MDG Millennium Development Goals 

MFPED Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development 

MGLSD Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development 

MOES Ministry of Education and Sports 

MOLG Ministry of Local Government 

MP Member of Parliament 

NAADS National Agricultural Advisory Services 

NAPE National Assessment of Progress in Education 

NARO 

NCDC 

National Agricultural Research Organisation 

National Curriculum Development Centre 

NGO Non-Government Organisation 

NWASEA National Women’s Association for Social and Educational Advancement


vii 

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 

PAF Poverty Action Fund 

PEAP Poverty Eradication Action Plan 

PEVOT Promotion of Employment-Oriented Vocational Training 

PMA Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture 

REFLECT Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering Community Techniques 

SACCO Savings and Credit Cooperative Organisation 

SDIP Social Development Sector Investment Plan 

SOCADIDO Soroti Catholic Diocese Development Organisation 

SPSS Statistics Package for Social Sciences 

TOCIDA Tororo Community-Initiated Development Association 

UACE Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education 

UBOS Uganda Bureau of Statistics 

UCE Uganda Certificate of Education 

UDHS Uganda Demographic and Health Surveys 

UGAADEN Uganda Adult Education Network 

ULALA Uganda Literacy and Adult Learners Association 

UNDP United Nations Development Programme 

UNEB Uganda National Examinations Board 

UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation 

UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activities 

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund 

UPE Universal Primary Education 

UPLIFT Uganda Programme of Literacy for Transformation 

UPPA Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment 

WID Women in Development 

GLOSSARY 

FAL (Functional Adult Literacy) is in this report used to refer to the Government literacy programme 

being implemented in the districts of Uganda and the methodology it uses. There are also other 

organisations in Uganda that use the FAL approach. 

Instructor is the word used to refer to the teacher in the Government adult literacy programme. In 

programmes using REFLECT and in some other programmes the word facilitator is used. However, 

in this report, the word instructor is sometimes used to refer to teachers in adult literacy activities 

when the various programmes are being referred to together. 

Graduate is used to refer to those participants who sat and passed the proficiency test in the FAL 

programme. Some of those interviewed had completed more than one level of the programme. 

Non-literate refers to those sampled community members who have never attended adult literacy classes. 

Most of the sample cannot read and write but there were many who can, although they are also 

referred to as non-literate. Sometimes the sample is referred to as potential learners.


viii 

Executive Summary 

0.1 The Assignment 

During the 2006/2007 financial year, the last covered under the National Adult Literacy Strategic 

Investment Plan (NALSIP) (2002/3-2006/7), the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development 

(MGLSD), which is in charge of adult literacy in Uganda, found it important to undertake a process 

review of its functional adult literacy programme (FAL) in readiness for the preparation of a new plan. 

For that reason the review covered that period covered by NALSIP. The Icelandic International 

Development Association (ICEIDA) accepted to support the review. An independent consultant was 

commissioned to undertake the review with his own team but selected according to specifications in the 

terms of reference. MGLSD and ICEIDA recruited also Professor Alan Rogers, internationally renowned 

and widely published in Adult Learning and Literacy to enable the process review to take into account 

international dimensions and changing concepts of ‘literacy’. 

The general objective of the process review was to assess the changing needs for FAL and review the 

current FAL programme and its context so as to provide information required for its further development, 

refinement and improvement to adequately address the current needs. Specifically the review was to: 

1. Identify and describe the basic needs, problems and concerns of the FAL participants and 

potential participants 

2. Assess the learning needs and desires of the target population 

3. Determine the status and performance of the Government FAL and other adult literacy 

programmes in the country 

4. Analyze the values attained by learners through the formal basic education curriculum and 

propose how the same values can be attained through the non-formal Curriculum i.e. adapted to 

suit the needs of adult learners with the view to obtaining equivalent qualifications. 

5. Draw lessons from past and current literacy programmes for planning the FAL programme and 

make recommendations for 

• redesigning the programme to meet the changing and unmet needs 

• issues to be included in the adult learning policy that is currently under development 

• the further development of the adult learning qualifications framework. 

• identify the current incentive arrangement and advise on the best option/modality. 

As the above objectives drawn from the terms of reference show, the focus of the process review was the 

government FAL programme. The purpose was to study its current performance as an adequate response 

to the current needs, which had, therefore, also to be identified and analysed. The needs assessment and 

performance review are therefore closely linked. However, the government FAL programme is not alone 

in providing literacy education in Uganda. The several non-government providers of literacy education in 

Uganda could be meeting needs that the government may not be meeting adequately. That is why 

objective number three addresses not only the government FAL but also other adult literacy programmes 

in the country. 

0.2 Methodology 

The process review used a mix of methods and instruments to obtain both qualitative and quantitative 

data: analysis of programme documents, structured and semi-structured interviews, self-completed


ix 

questionnaires, focus group discussions and observation. 17 districts were sampled from all regions of the 

country and data were collected from a total of 1300 respondents composed of: FAL participants, 

graduates and instructors, a sample of non-literates, district leaders and officials, sub-county leaders and 

officials, heads of organisations at district level, schooled people and local leaders. In addition several 

hundred more respondents were covered through focus group discussions from most of the same 

populations. The data collected were analysed both for quantitative information using the SPSS computerbased 

programme for frequencies and percentages, and qualitatively to bring out the trends and patterns in 

the focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews. 

Some papers on changing understandings of literacy and on different practices of developing adult 

literacy learning programmes in other contexts were utilised. These were mainly contributed by Professor 

Alan Rogers, who was also able to visit the districts of Kalangala and Mukono, which were not in the 

sample and from which he obtained valuable information that was used in this study, including that he 

captured in the photo on the cover page of this report. 

MIGLSD and ICEIDA convened a two-day workshop bringing together a cross-section of stakeholders 

from all over the country to discuss a first draft of the report. The contributions of the workshop 

participants enabled the process review team to fill in information gaps and enrich the report through 

more reflection on the issues raised and the suggestions given. A second workshop organised mainly by 

CSOs made other useful contributions that were used to further enrich the report. 

0.3 Main Findings 

The research team is confident that, although some of the responses will undoubtedly have been given to 

please the interviewers, the views expressed here are substantially those of the respondents. 

0.3.1 People’s basic needs, problems and concerns 

Poverty, mentioned by about 65% of the male “non-literate” respondents and 51% of the female, or lack 

of money, mentioned by 35% male and 56% female are the main problems and the top concerns of the 

predominantly rural population, depending on subsistence agriculture. This is followed by disease or 

illness (41% male and 44% female). Most of the non-literate respondents would like to change this 

situation by improving agricultural production (41%); but others by doing business (13%) and incomegenerating 

activities (10%). They would like to see government helping them to improve by providing 

micro-finance and supporting agriculture, but also by providing adult education and supporting FAL 

programmes financially. 

The non-literate respondents are also concerned about illiteracy (19% male and 19% female) and lack of 

knowledge and skills (9% female and 11% male), although these are not among the top concerns. They 

articulate clearly the problems associated with illiteracy and the benefits they expect from becoming 

literate. 

0.3.2 People’s learning desires and readiness to learn 

Literacy takes top priority among the things the people would like to learn first, whereas illiteracy ranked 

fourth in the list of most serious problems, and acquisition of literacy skills was not among their 

spontaneous strategies for dealing with the problems. 

They want to learn also numeracy, technical and vocational skills, agriculture, languages, health and 

religion, in that order of frequency of mention. The fact that agriculture and technical and vocational 

training also feature somewhat significantly would seem to indicate that the people to some extent see the


x 

acquisition of knowledge and skills as having a contribution to make to improvements in their strategies 

to deal with poverty, their most serious problem. 

The people explained that they want to learn these different things in order to: read and write on their 

own; sustain their life; get information easily; be able to carry out a project; gain confidence and keep 

secrets. They felt that being literate would, specifically, be very useful in daily life; enable them to do 

things by themselves; make for easy communication; take them out of ignorance and change their life and 

bring about development. 

More than half the current literacy programme participants and literacy graduates want to learn English. 

Some want to learn more reading, writing and numeracy and general knowledge. Only few of both the 

participants and graduates mentioned agriculture and business and even fewer mentioned technical and 

vocational training. Health was also mentioned, but by fewer than 10%. 

Apparently, the change brought about by participation in the literacy programme has been to strengthen 

even further the orientation of the learning desires towards things to do with communication and social 

benefits and weaken the desire for learning related to livelihood knowledge and skills. 

0.3.3 Status and performance of adult literacy programmes 

a) Governance, organisation and management 

MGLSD is responsible for adult literacy in the country and currently manages adult literacy as a set of 

activities with a coordinator reporting to the Commissioner, Department of Elderly and Disability. The 

coordinator works with a principal literacy officer and two senior literacy officers. Adult literacy and 

adult education in general does not have a directorate, department or any formal unit. 

Although in the 1992 White Paper on Education government stated that it had recognised adult and nonformal 

education as very important and decided to place it in the Ministry of Education and Sports, with a 

Directorate, MGLSD argues that it is the right home for adult and non-formal education since it deals 

with vulnerable groups, non – literates inclusive. This is the current Government position. 

The current location and status of FAL deprives it of the benefit of professional specialisation since it is 

just another set of activities that is managed by any other civil servant. However, the Ministry is taking 

measures to uplift the status so that it becomes more visible in the Ministry structure. Professionalism in 

this area is also being emphasised. 

The FAL programme is implemented by the local governments in the decentralised system by the 

Community Development Officer (CDO) usually in the District Community Based Services Department 

or Directorate, which is in charge of FAL, among other programmes. The process review found that the 

relations and linkages between MGLSD and the implementation mechanism in the districts are not clear 

and are rather weak. The relevant Minister of State explained the efforts that he personally and the 

ministry were taking to rectify this situation. 

There are strikingly wide variations among the districts and sub-counties in the level of commitment to 

FAL, as manifested through budgeting, actual financing and implementation. Whereas decentralisation 

gives a large degree of autonomy, the central government has still the role of ensuring pursuit of national 

goals and quality in the provision of government financed services. The mechanism for this in the 

provision of FAL is very inadequate.


xi 

Actual implementation of FAL is at the sub-county level. FAL currently operates in all districts but in 

only 740 out of the 966 sub-counties. There seems to be inadequate support for the sub-counties from the 

district level as explained below, thus weakening the actual implementation in the communities. 

The districts and sub-counties state that FAL is a priority in their respective Councils to some extent a 

regular item in their budgets. However, the budget allocations are in most cases just nominal and the 

actual availability of the funds is not assured. The districts and sub-counties pointed out other forms of 

contribution to the programme: sensitisation, mobilisation, provision of leaning centres and similar inkind 

contribution by both the councils and the communities. 

The government encourages partnership with civil society organisations and other agencies, national and 

international in the provision of adult literacy. This has enabled many other organisations to become 

involved in the provision of adult literacy. Civil society organisations (CSOs) are contributing 

significantly, through policy advocacy, dissemination of innovative approaches and ideas, and actual 

implementation of literacy education on a small-scale basis. However, there has been concern that there is 

inadequate mechanism for more fruitful collaboration, in spite of some guidelines in the MGLSD 

documents, developed in consultation with CSOs. The fact that the guidelines are optional to other 

providers is in harmony with the liberal environment of Uganda. However, MGLSD does not reach out 

enough to dialogue with CSOs, which results in little use of the guidelines by other providers. 

Partnership with agencies like UNESCO, UNICEF, and DVV International in the past contributed 

significantly to the development of FAL. Currently, the most significant such partner is the Icelandic 

International Development Agency (ICEIDA), which, apart from sustained support of programmes on the 

Lake Victoria islands, is also supporting national FAL efforts such as developing the national adult 

literacy management information system (NALMIS) and the non-formal adult learning qualifications 

framework. 

The leaders and officials at district and sub-county level on the whole feel that the current policy is a good 

guide for the implementation of FAL. However, concerned civil society organisations at national level 

find the current policy framework inadequate and have been working with MGLSD to put in place a new 

one. The main organisations involved are Uganda Adult Education Network (UGAADEN), Literacy 

Network for Uganda (LitNet) and Uganda Literacy and Adult Learners Association (ULALA). 

b) Financing and other non-human resources 

FAL is funded mainly through the government Poverty Action Fund (PAF) with a budget release of 

slightly above shillings 3 billion per year, shared almost equally between MGLSD headquarters and the 

districts. However, it has also benefited from project funding from bilateral and international partners 

through the partnerships mentioned above. 

The funding is very inadequate. With the current number of districts at 80, and shillings 1.64 billion as the 

total annual release to the districts, the average annual release per district is shillings 20,000,000/=, about 

5,000,000/= (about US $ 2,900) per quarter or about 1,670,000/= (US $ 966) per month. The districts 

have no other revenue base to meaningfully supplement this budget. 

From this meagre budget, the district is expected to provide also for the learning venue, equipment and 

instructional materials. Some of these requirements are provided in kind by the local governments and the 

communities, but generally there is serious lack of facilities with most classes taking place under trees 

without furniture for the instructor and learners. Most classes have a blackboard but many often lack 

chalk.


xii 

The finances released for FAL from the central government hardly reach the sub-county and the 

communities where the actual implementation takes place. As a result the sub-county community workers 

have no resources to supervise and monitor the programme and the sub-county cannot support the class 

centres in any way. It is necessary to have strong mechanisms and systems for tracking the releases, 

expenditures and impact (value for money). Some CSOs (UGAADEN and LitNet) have started a number 

of initiatives towards budget tracking for basic Education, which can be used, supported and adapted as 

models upon which improvements can be made. 

MGLSD needs to explore ways of widening funding opportunities for FAL available in Uganda such as 

marketing it to Education Funding Agencies Group and Education For All funding initiatives such as 

Education Fast Track Initiative. 

c) Approaches, curriculum and materials 

As recommended after the pilot phase in 1995, the programme at first spread gradually, moving out into 

parts of the country where interest was explicit and demands for the programme were made. While the 

principle of gradual expansion has been maintained, the political push from members of Parliament and 

local politicians is to have the programme spread in every part of the country, resulting in some token 

implementation in parts of all the districts 

Functional adult literacy, an approach that is designed to impart reading and writing skills side by side 

with other functional knowledge in agriculture, health and other areas, is the most commonly used in 

Uganda. Just over a decade ago, Action Aid introduced the REFLECT approach to Uganda and it has 

been adopted by a number of non-governmental providers. Government provision has also taken up 

REFLECT in some cases. 

The curriculum prepared for the pilot project in 1992 has been only slightly modified in subsequent 

revisions and still guides the implementation of the government programme, which hence tends to be a 

“one-size fits all” approach, although efforts are made to diversify through development and use of 

primers and teachers’ guides relevant to the different parts of the country. The FAL approach also 

encourages flexibility in the actual learning situation but the inadequately trained instructors seek safety 

in closely sticking to the curriculum and materials. 

Learners and graduates, however, expressed great satisfaction with what they had learnt and explained 

how they had benefited from it and how it was continuing to help them in their daily life and their 

improvement efforts. They also wanted to learn more, especially English and more reading, writing and 

numeracy, but also technical and vocational training, agriculture and health. 

There seems to be general agreement among the programme providers that the primer and teachers’ guide 

prepared by the government and used by a number of other providers as well is a useful starting point. 

However, optimal use of these materials is only possible if the instructors are adequately trained, which is 

not the case in Uganda today. Some CSOs find the government prepared materials inappropriate and have 

developed their own materials. 

d) Learners and their participation 

The majority of adult literacy learners in Uganda are female. The learner sample for the process review 

consisted of 79% female and 21% male. By very interesting coincidence, this was exactly the same ratio 

in the learner sample of the 1999 evaluation of adult literacy in Uganda! This is of-course a much higher 

proportion of women than the proportion of women who are non-literate, compared to the men. It is 

obvious that there are many men who would be expected to need the literacy programme but are not


xiii 

participating. This has been a matter of concern to the government and other literacy providers and to the 

Uganda Literacy and Adult Learners Association (ULALA). There is need for a special investigation of 

this situation. 

There were rather few learners in the sample aged 20 or younger. Between the ages of 20 to 50 years, 

participation was almost even, decreasing only slightly. The percentage of non-literates in Uganda 

increases with age, but there is not a corresponding increase in participation. 

The majority who participate in FAL have attended school. In this sample 57% had attended school (71% 

of the men and 54% of the women). Of those who had attended school, the majority had gone only up to 

Primary 4, a level at which literacy acquisition is still very low, as revealed by the 1999 evaluation of the 

adult literacy programme in Uganda and the National Assessment of Progress in Education (NAPE) by 

the Uganda National Examinations Board (UNEB). 

According to the instructors’ assessment, female learners are much more interested in learning, and attend 

more regularly than men. On their part, 97.5% of the learners reported that they enjoy learning and 52.6% 

said they always attend. This is somewhat higher than the instructors’ assessment of learners’ attendance. 

It was not possible to calculate the drop out or withdrawal rate due to inadequate statistics. 

Sickness, funerals, domestic work and social commitments appear prominently among the reasons for 

being absent from class. Farm work and business feature less prominently. 

e) Instructors and their performance 

The majority of instructors have had some secondary school education although only a few have 

completed, obtained the school certificate of education or gone higher. This poses a challenge for 

enhancing the programme and introducing further education for those adults who want to continue. 

The majority of the instructors have been trained for adult literacy work, but most of them for only up to 5 

days, without any refresher training for many years. This is mainly because of inadequate funding 

reaching the district level where the training of instructors takes place. Some good capacity has been 

developed at the level of trainers and trainers of trainers, although there is still need for more. 

Over 80% of the instructors do some reading and writing that is not part of their teaching. They read 

books of various types and newspapers. They write mainly letters and personal records. In this, instructors 

are a good example to their learners. 

41% of the instructors reported receiving some form of incentive: 64% of them in cash; 26% bicycles; 

and 15% T-shirts. However, the cash incentives from government that many of them receive is extremely 

small in many districts, coming to as little as shillings 5,000/= (= US $ 2.50) every 3 months, but often 

shillings15,000/= every 3 months. In most districts, as the findings show, even this little is not paid at all. 

Most instructors are happy and some even very happy with their work, despite the fact that they receive 

very small incentives. They say they are happy to fight illiteracy and promote development and are happy 

of their achievements. 

There seems to be a significant amount of perseverance among the instructors: almost 40% had taught for 

over 3 years and only 27% had taught for one year or less. This is in contrast with some programme 

managers’ concerns that there is a high turn-over among instructors.


xiv 

The commitment is also manifested by the regularity of their attendance to their class duties. To crosscheck 

this, learners were asked to rate their instructor’s attendance. The rating given by learners is much 

more positive than that given by the instructors themselves! 

0.3.4 Signals from International Developments 

Since 1992 when FAL was launched, there have been two major developments which are particularly 

relevant to this process review of FAL: 

a) a move from talking about adult education to talking about adult learning: an interest in informal 

learning (the experiential learning which goes on outside of the classroom) which is seen as 

participation in a community of practice 

b) a change of understanding of literacy and numeracy, especially the concept of the pluralities of 

literacy (embedded literacy). 

As a result, new practices have sprung up, among these are the following: 

• The UNESCO Global Monitoring Report on Literacy in 2005 with its emphasis on the literacy 

environment 

• A move away from a campaign model towards a slow progression in adult literacy (like an extension 

service for literacy) (e.g. Tanzania and Brazil) 

• Work-based literacy (Botswana) and skill training-based literacy (Afghanistan) 

• Community literacy programme (Nepal) with user groups 

• Drop-in centres of adults (Nigeria) 

• ‘Home-school’ links in numeracy and literacy (e.g. family literacy in S Africa and Uganda; building 

bridges between literacy class and the community in India) 

0.3.5 Key Concerns Identified 

Arising from the findings of this study and the international comparisons, a number of key concerns for 

FAL have been identified: 

• Relevance of the curriculum to the diverse needs and the poverty eradication efforts 

• Encouragement of the uses of literacy and numeracy in the daily lives of the participants for 

development purposes 

• Instructor training and incentives 

• Unreached populations, including people with disabilities, the men and others with special learning 

needs 

• Status of the programme in the managing ministry and professionalism in its execution 

• Resource availability and its distribution and proper use 

• Supervision, monitoring and documentation 

• Collaboration among government agencies and with non-government organisations 

0.4 Recommendations 

0.4.1 Redesigning the programme to meet the changing and unmet needs 

Under this objective the process review team recommends three routes to strengthen and widen 

FAL: 

i) Deepening FAL that is strengthening FAL relevance, management and so its effectiveness in meeting 

the changing needs and addressing poverty (Recommendations R1 –R6)


xv 

ii) Diversifying FAL that is widening it by turning FAL from being a single programme to being a field 

of activity in which different delivery systems can be found to help adults to develop their literacy 

skills and practices in the many different contexts in which they live (Recommendation R7) 

iii) Moving beyond FAL by designing provisions that take the FAL participants who so wish for 

continued learning beyond the current levels of FAL (Recommendation R8) 

R1. Revise FAL curriculum and materials for more relevance to learners’ needs and the poverty 

eradication efforts 

a) to address poverty more effectively by enabling participants to analyse its causes, identify 

alternatives for addressing it and take appropriate measures to overcome it 

b) to develop a closer link, both in design and practice, between adult learning and the country’s 

various poverty eradication efforts as expressed in policies and strategies such as the PEAP and 

PMA 

c) to include the other learning areas learners and graduates desire such as English, Vocational 

and Technical training, Agriculture, Health (including HIV/AIDS) and Business 

R2. Develop links between literacy learning and practice so as to promote beneficial literacy use 

in the home and community and at work by 

a) encouraging the use of literacy skills in the home and community and the influence of the home 

and community in the literacy learning situation, building, for example, on the experience of 

the family literacy programme that was run by LABE in Bugiri for some years 

b) working to integrate FAL into skills training such as those that have been piloted in Kalangala 

with ICEIDA support, by the Promotion of Employment-Oriented Vocational Training 

(PEVOT) of MOES in Luweero, Kabale and Mubende districts, as well as by other 

organisations 

c) including in the learning situation material drawn from the daily lives of the participants to 

increase the uses of literacy outside of the classroom 

d) enhancing the literate environment by providing for mobile village libraries that could be linked 

to the local council (LC) systems and in other ways e.g. working with newspapers to include 

easy reading sections 

R3. Build more effective instructors who are more appropriately trained, remunerated and 

motivated by 

a) continued use of community members with an adequate educational base, at least some or 

complete secondary education, with adequate specific face-to-face training of at least 4 weeks, 

not necessarily continuous, supplemented by distance learning and leading to some recognised 

certificate, as is, for example, being done in Kalangala; and regular on-going support for all 

instructors 

b) strengthening the training so that the instructors build home-class links (family literacy) and 

develop more active group learning methods (building communities of practice) 

c) engaging existing adult education training institutions and organisations in developing relevant 

and diversified training curricula to develop the trainers and instructors able to meet the 

diversified learning needs of adults 

R4. Strengthen the management and capacity of FAL for greater effectiveness, specifically 

a) strengthen further the FAL management structure in the ministry 

b) increase funding and other resources for it: especially teaching-learning materials; use of ‘real 

materials’ in classes and engage the civil society in ensuring and tracking proper resource 

utilisation 

c) increase training and support for management staff, especially CDOs, particularly in 

monitoring and developing new ways of working


xvi 

d) develop further and ensure effective functioning of the MIS for adult literacy and basic 

education being created within the Ministry 

e) enhance the training of trainers and development of a national resource centre for adult literacy 

concentrating on training, research and development – perhaps developing further the centre in 

MGLSD, in Makerere University or one of the other relevant tertiary institutions 

f) restructure the FAL programme for systematic coverage focusing on specified areas of each 

district to ensure meaningful results in view of the limited resources available, and then 

gradually spreading out to other areas as more resources become available. 

g) strengthen the international links of FALP to keep in touch with new developments in the field 

in bodies such as UNESCO, ICAE and other agencies 

R5. Widen the financing and strengthen the financial management to ensure that adequate 

resources are availed for the programme, specifically: 

a) lobby to increase government budget allocation for FAL and other resources for the 

programme, especially teaching-learning materials 

b) work with interested international partners, e.g. Irish Aid, to find ways of tapping into 

funding opportunities available in Uganda such as marketing FAL to Education Funding 

Agencies Group and Education For All funding initiatives such as Education Fast Track 

Initiative 

c) improve financial record keeping and accountability and engage the civil society (including 

learners) in ensuring and tracking proper resource utilisation 

R6. Implement the collaboration arrangements found in the various strategy documents and 

guidelines to enrich adult learning provision and widen its reach, in particular: 

a) Activate inter-ministerial coordination and collaboration as provided for in the PEAP, NALSIP 

and other government documents 

b) Government and CSOs should work together to develop mechanisms for making real the 

suggestion in PEAP for subletting some literacy activities to CSOs 

c) Government should recognize the various roles CSOs can play and put in place measures to 

support CSOs to grow and take greater responsibility in the promotion of adult learning 

d) Government should study the initiatives that CSOs have taken and work to adopt them to enrich 

and widen adult learning provision; such initiatives include the innovative programmes, 

attractive materials and management mechanisms such as the systems for tracking the 

budgetary releases, expenditures and impact (value for money) that have been developed by 

UGAADEN and LitNet) 

e) CSOs should maintain and increase their momentum in advocating for adult learning 

opportunities and advising and providing experimental evidence on useful alternatives for best 

practices 

R7. Develop strategies and new strands of activities in FAL to reach the unreached, to include: 

a) strengthening the efforts to develop special packages for people with disabilities 

b) encouraging the inclusion of relevant literacy into skill training offered by other agencies such 

as extension services and private training providers 

c) provision of relevant literacy and numeracy learning to existing user groups such as work-based 

literacy (employers), self-help and micro-credit groups etc 

d) development of ‘drop-in centres’ of adults to learn literacy at a time when they need it 

including the uses of ICT 

e) designing special courses, with narrow practical goals closely tied to the needs and interests of 

the men and even combine some literacy elements into these courses (As recommended for 

Kalangala by Arnason and Mabuya, 2005)


xvii 

f) liaising with employers in appropriate situations to enhance the literacy practices of their 

employees e.g. in factories such as Tororo Cement 

g) using the media for programme information dissemination and to supplement the face-to-face 

learning is recommended to enhance the programme, since the need for more sensitisation was 

expressed by many 

R8. Design continued learning provisions for FAL participants and graduates by 

a) Recognising the diversity of reasons why adults in Uganda join adult literacy programmes and 

the need to draw out diverse continued learning programmes to satisfy the different reasons for 

coming to learn 

b) Ensuring that whatever the design of the continued learning programmes, it allows adults room 

for flexible self-directed learning and does not subject them to a school-type curriculum and 

learning routine 

c) Developing demand-driven programmes such as English and Small Business Courses as 

already being tried out in Kalangala with ICEIDA support 

d) Choosing and developing an appropriate approach to enable adult learners to acquire the 

desired accreditation and certification (See discussion in Chapter 6, Section 6.4 and R11 below) 

0.4.2 Issues to be included in the adult learning policy that is currently under development 

R9. The adult learning policy under development should include provisions to enhance the status 

of adult learning, its more effective and efficient management, greater commitment to it at all 

levels and partnership to ensure optimal use of available capacity and recourses, specifically: 

a) Adult learning policy must provide for an adequate adult education organisational and 

management structure such as what had been proposed in the 1992 White Paper on Education, 

without necessarily transferring the structure to the Ministry of Education and Sports 

b) The policy must lead to, and be accompanied by, the immediate adoption of regulations and 

mechanisms for the promotion, coordination, supervision, monitoring and evaluation of literacy 

programmes in the country, at the central, district and sub-county levels. 

c) Specifically, measures must be put in place to ensure serious commitment to provision of adult 

learning opportunities in all districts and sub-counties through both dialogue and clear 

instructions 

d) Measures should also be put in place to ensure active inter-ministerial coordination and 

collaboration with relevant government ministries, e.g. those of Education, Health, Agriculture, 

Trade and Industry and Finance, Planning and Economic Development 

e) The policy should create a conducive environment and spell out clear mechanisms for 

partnership with civil society organisations, recognising that government has the primary 

responsibility for both policy and implementation and that civil society organisations must 

maintain their autonomy, but that the government has also the responsibility to support them to 

grow and take on responsibility for some elements in a vibrant adult learning programme 

R10. The adult learning policy must also lay down a strong resource base for FAL and other adult 

learning programme, specifically 

a) The policy must enable adult basic education to access budgetary allocation at a level of 

priority similar to that enjoyed by basic education in the formal education system 

b) The policy should put in place strategies for involving the private sector in financing and 

providing other support for adult literacy programmes


xviii 

0.4.3 The further development of the adult learning qualifications framework 

R11. Opportunities must be opened for adults to move further from FAL and other basic 

education programmes in a manner that ensures diversity, flexibility and self-directed 

learning while at the same time enabling those who so desire to obtain formal accreditation, 

taking into consideration the following possible avenues: 

a) Enhancing the opportunities to enable people to use their literacy in their daily lives by 

bringing the daily lives into the classroom, building the literacy environment and encouraging 

individuals and groups to invest in activities that develop the literary environment 

b) Developing collaboration between FAL and skills training programmes to link adult literacy 

to skills training and skills training to literacy and enable FAL graduates who so wish to 

move into further skills training programmes, such as the Kalangala Small Business Course 

c) Developing a suitable arrangement to enable FAL graduates to obtain desired formal 

accreditation and equivalency, choosing from: 

i) Enabling adults to sit existing examinations without going through the formal school system; 

ii) Developing an adult education programme with its own set of examinations equivalent to 

those of the formal system; or 

iii) Developing an adult education programme with its own set of examinations different from 

those of the formal system but leading to recognised qualification 

The final choice can be a mix of two or all three alternatives. 

R12. The development of further learning opportunities for adults and an adult learning 

qualifications framework should be done in close consultation with other relevant bodies, 

specifically: 

a) Develop links with the Business, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (BTVET) 

Department in the Ministry of Education and Sports, which is developing a qualifications 

framework, so as to promote linkage between the adult learning qualifications framework and 

the BTVET qualifications framework 

b) Make systematic consultations with existing curriculum and accreditation authorities to 

establish beneficial links in the further development of the adult learning qualifications 

framework 

0.4.4 Best incentive arrangement options for instructors 

R13. Incentive arrangements for instructors must be significantly enhanced and include not only 

material remuneration but also provision of opportunities for profitable collaboration 

among themselves, further education according to their desires and upward career 

movement, specifically: 

a) The current arrangement of giving a bicycle to each instructor should be implemented more 

effectively to make sure each instructor receives one: it enables them to move to the class 

centres, apart from helping them at home and in their other work. The arrangement should, 

however, include some kind of bonding so that an instructor who receives a bicycle is bound 

to serve for a defined period; at least two years are recommended 

b) Whoever is engaged as instructor should be given some incentive of a type acceptable to the 

instructors and affordable to the country. Ideally, the arrangement should have a regular 

monthly payment of allowances as recommended by many of the respondents.


xix 

c) Instructors should be encouraged to form associations, which could be supported to undertake 

some developmental projects and be an example in the communities where they are. The 

example of the ICEIDA supported association in Kalangala could provide a model. 

d) Instructors should be supported in their search for further education and a career path, as is 

being done, with ICEIDA support, in Kalangala: this could be a strong incentive. 

0.4.5 Way forward in the short run 

R14. To take forward the lessons learnt and recommendations coming out of this process review, 

it is recommended that MGLSD works with CSOs to set up and finance task forces or 

teams to draw up plans and develop curricula for a more relevant and effective adult 

learning provision to meet the changing needs and poverty eradication effort, specifically: 

a) Planning task force to develop NALSIP II and take forward the Policy and Qualifications 

Framework 

b) Technical team to revise the curriculum and training packages 

c) A research development task force to plan and design research and documentation of various 

key aspects where information is required, especially: 

i) Gender concerns in FAL 

ii) Learning session (classroom) methodology and delivery/learning techniques 

iii) Comprehensive survey and documentation of adult literacy provision in Uganda 

iv) Social uses of literacy and literacy practices in Uganda 

Some members of the process review team, with Professor Alan Rogers, holding a discussion 

with FAL participants and instructors and some community members at Nabukalu Sub-County 

head-quarters, Bugiri District

Process Review of Functional Adult Literacy Programme in Uganda 2002-2006 1 

Chapter 1: Introduction 

1.1 Study background 

Uganda considers education one of the most important strategies in poverty eradication, which is the basis 

of its planning today. The country has seriously embarked on the implementation of education for all, in 

which the government plays a major role through formal education for children and youth and functional 

adult literacy (FAL) for youth and adults. Whereas the main government focus has been on universal 

primary education, attention has also been given to the other aspects of education including FAL, whose 

recent development can be summarized as follows: 

a) Re-launch of the government’s functional adult literacy provision in 1992 through the Integrated Non- 

Formal Basic Education Pilot Project (INFOBEPP) in eight districts representing the four regions of 

Uganda, preceded by a country-wide needs assessment survey as a basis for the project 

b) Process review of the pilot project in 1995 that recommended expanding the project into a nationwide 

programme in a controlled, systematic and planned manner, starting with consolidation in the 8 pilot 

project districts 

c) Evaluation of the functional adult literacy programme in Uganda in 1999 that revealed the 

effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the programme and made significant recommendations for its 

improvement and consolidation for better results 

d) Development and adoption of the National Adult Literacy Strategic Investment Plan (NALSIP) in 

2002 and inclusion of its budget under the privileged Poverty Action Fund raising the government 

budgetary allocation for FAL by over five times 

e) Inclusion of FAL as an important component for community empowerment and mobilisation in the 

Government’s Social Sector Development Strategic Investment Plan in 2004 

f) Inclusion of adult literacy as a strategy in the Government’s revised Poverty Eradication Action Plan 

(PEAP) 2004 

1.2 Justification for a Process Review 

In 2006, it was fourteen years since the countrywide needs assessment study, eleven years since the first 

process review and seven years after the comprehensive 1999 evaluation. Much of the information 

generated by those studies, each of which had a different focus, had become outdated in the dynamic 

rapidly-changing environment of Uganda. The country had in the mean time made significant progress in 

the development and implementation of the FAL programme. The very momentum with which FAL was 

growing had raised new challenges that needed to be addressed in order to sustain the momentum and 

answer the new needs and demands that arose from the successes and weaknesses that the programme had 

experienced. The following points in particular needed to be addressed: 

Changing needs 

The initial demands for literacy were basically that people wanted to be able to read, write and develop 

basic numeracy skills so that they could improve their status and perform their daily tasks better. 

However, as participation in FAL grew, new demands were expressed by the participants, especially 

those who had completed the basic cycle. Some required specialised focus e.g. on mathematics, some 

demanded examination leading to the issuing of recognised certificates and others even demanded for a 

parallel education provision providing equivalencies with the mainstream education provision. This raised


the demand for the development of an adult learning qualifications framework to feed into a national 

qualifications framework. It was important that the new emerging needs were properly collated and 

analysed so that further development of the programme would be based on sound up-to-date information, 

which would give it a firm footing. 

Policy gaps 

The growing interest in adult education not only in government but also among Uganda civil society 

organisations and international development partners operating in Uganda had brought to the fore the 

important gap in policy. Although it was possible to gleam different bits of policy relevant to adult 

education from various government documents, in particular the Government White Paper on Education 

adopted in 1992, it was generally recognised that there should be a comprehensive policy on adult literacy 

or adult basic education in general, to form the basis for planning not only by government but also by 

civil society organisations and international development partners interested in contributing to the 

development of adult education. Such a policy, on which work had already started, also needed to be 

based on well researched information. 

Participation and turn-over 

Evidence from the field seemed to suggest a high turn over among both learners and instructors in some 

places. It was also not rare that adult literacy classes started and melted away before the basic nine-month 

cycle had been completed. The fact that this happened amidst clearly articulated demands for adult 

literacy education seemed to point to a mismatch between demand and supply. There was need to 

investigate the discrepancy. The statistics also showed that the percentage of men who needed literacy 

education and were participating in the literacy programme was much smaller than that of women who 

needed literacy education and were participating. There was need to find out the reasons for the low male 

participation and source for ideas for improving the situation. 

Ongoing programme reforms and initiatives 

Some of the ongoing reforms seemed not to have a strong information basis and they might have ended 

up not being relevant to the situation and so not responding adequately to the needs. The study was 

required to ensure that those ongoing reforms were well founded, reflecting the situation and needs. This 

would make it possible to redesign the programme with validity. 

Towards universal adult literacy 

Uganda had taken a bold step by targeting poverty eradication rather than just poverty reduction. This 

meant that all components of the anti-poverty strategies had to target the totality of the population that 

needed to be addressed. FAL was such a strategy and would be out of step with the country’s anti-poverty 

strategy if it did not target the total population that needed literacy. This study had therefore to enable the 

country to have a clear idea of the unmet needs for FAL and ways in which the programme could be made 

to reach all who needed it and progress towards universal adult literacy. 

1.3 Objectives of the Process Review 

1.3.1 Overall objective 

The overall objective of the process review was to assess the changing needs for FAL and review the 


refinement and improvement to adequately address the current needs.


1.3.2 Specific objectives 

The immediate objectives were to: 

1. Identify and describe the basic needs, problems and concerns of the FAL participants and potential 

participants 

2. Assess the learning needs and desires of the target population 

3. Determine the status and performance of the Government FAL and other adult literacy programmes 

in the country 

4. Analyze the values attained by learners through the formal basic education curriculum and propose 

how the same values can be attained through the non-formal Curriculum i.e. adapted to suit the 

needs of adult learners with the view to obtaining equivalent qualifications. 

5. Draw lessons from past and current literacy programmes for planning the FAL programme and 






As the above objectives drawn from the terms of reference show, the focus of the process review was the 

government FAL programme. The purpose was to study its current performance as an adequate response 

to the current needs, which had, therefore, also to be identified and analysed. The needs assessment and 

performance review were therefore closely linked. However, the government FAL programme is not 

alone in providing literacy education in Uganda. The several non-government providers of literacy 

education in Uganda could be meeting needs that the government may not be meeting adequately. That is 

why objective number three addresses not only the government FAL but also other adult literacy 

programmes in the country. Reference to government here may, as appropriate, cover any level of the 

government, from the central to the lowest levels of local government. 

The period reviewed is that during which FAL has been guided by NALSIP (2002/3-2006/7). Although 

this was not explicitly specified in the terms of reference, the background explanation in the terms 

implied that this should be the period. Among other things, it was explained that the review was 

considered necessary to feed into a new plan. 

It was also considered important for the process review to take into account international dimensions and 

changing concepts of ‘literacy’. For that reason, Professor Alan Rogers, internationally renowned and 

widely published in Adult Learning and Literacy, was recruited to work with the national team. 

1.3.3 Expected Outputs and Outcomes of the Process Review 

The main expected output was a report describing: 

i) Current needs for FAL and adult education among literacy learners, literacy graduates and potential 

learners 

ii) Current provision, the extent to which it is responding to current needs, the gaps that exist and the 

factors affecting its performance 

iii) Lessons learnt and recommendations for redesigning the programme, developing effective policy and 

strategies and developing an adult learning qualification framework 

The expected outcomes were: 

a) A better understanding of the current needs and demands for adult education in Uganda 

b) Valid assessment of the status and performance of adult education provision and participation in the 

country


c) Redesigned programme able to meet the changing and unmet needs 

d) Comprehensive adult education policy 

e) Appropriate adult learning qualifications framework 

1.4 Study design and implementation 

The study was designed to cover the whole country through sampled districts. The population, sampling, 

methods and implementation plan are summarised below. 

1.4.1 Population and Sampling 

Table 1.1 lists the different categories of the population from which the samples were drawn. 

Table 1.1: Categories of the study population 

Population Category 

Status 

1) Participants in FAL and other adult literacy programmes Main population 

2) Instructors/facilitators in FAL and other adult literacy programmes 2nd most important 

3) Graduates of FAL and other adult literacy programmes 3rd 

4) Non-literate population 4th 

5) Adult population with limited literacy skills and low education levels 5th 

6) The formally schooled population 6th 

7) Managers/providers of FAL and other adult literacy programmes 

8) Community leaders and other opinion leaders in the community; 

9) NGOs and CBOs not providing literacy programmes 

10) Local government leaders at sub-county and district levels 

11) Local government officials at sub-county and district levels 

12) Officials of the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development 

13) Officials of other relevant government ministries e.g. Education, 

Agriculture, Health, Local Government, Trade and Industry etc. 

14) Members of the Parliamentary Committee on Gender, Labour and Social 

Development 

15) Academics and trainers in the Adult Education discipline 

a) In selecting the districts, purposive sampling was used to include different geographical 

characteristics and regional representation. The sampled districts and their main features are detailed 

in Table 1.2. 

b) In each sampled district two sub-counties were selected using, to a great extent, purposive sampling 

to ensure that important characteristics of the districts are catered for. The sampling was done in 

consultation with the District Community Development Officer. 

c) The six main populations were sampled around sampled FAL classes in the selected sub-counties 

according to the sample sizes in Table 1.3. 

d) At the district and sub-county level, relevant local government political leaders were selected to 

provide information including the chairperson and other prominent members of the committee in 

charge of FAL while the government officials included those in Community Development, 

Education, Health, Agriculture and other extension services.


e) At community level key informants were identified from traditional leaders, the more recent opinion 

leaders such as Christian and Islamic religious leaders, Local Council (LC) leaders and individuals 

with special contributions 

Table 1.2: Sampled Districts for the Process Review 

Region District Main languages Characteristics 

Central Kayunga Luganda Rural agricultural, with a very small amount of fishing. Easy 

access to the Capital Kampala and industrial town of Jinja 

Mpigi Luganda Rural but with significant urban areas; combining wealth 

communities and quite poor sections of the society 

Nakasongola Luganda; Ruruli Mainly pastoralist, with difficult access to formal education 

because of the thinly spread population and the lifestyle 

Rakai Luganda Rural, agricultural but with a significant pastoralist 

population; District particularly affected by HIV/AIDS 

Eastern Bugiri Lusoga Rural agricultural, with a very small amount of fishing. 

Kapchorwa Kupsapiny Rural, Agricultural, mountainous and affected by some 

insecurity from neighbouring districts 

Kumi Ateso Rural, agricultural 

Tororo Dhopadhola; Ateso Rural, agricultural; very densely populated 

Northern Adjumani Madi Rural, agricultural, affected by insecurity resulting in refugees 

and displaced people 

Gulu Acholi (Luo) Rural, agricultural, seriously affected by insecurity resulting 

in large numbers of displaced people 

Dokolo Lango (Luo) Rural, agricultural, affected by insecurity resulting in refugees 

and displaced people 

Nebbi Alur Rural agricultural, with a certain amount of fishing 

Western Bundibugyo Rwamba; Lubwisi Rural, Agricultural, mountainous and affected by some 

insecurity; has been under-serviced 

Ntungamo Runyankore/Rukiga Rural, Agricultural 

Kisoro Rufumbira; Rukiga Rural, Agricultural, mountainous; has been under-serviced 

Kyenjojo Rutooro/Runyoro Rural, agricultural 

Kampala All Divisions Multilingual Urban, commerce, industry 

1.4.2 Methods and Instruments 

The study used a variety of approaches to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data, as briefly 

described below. Table 1.3 displays the methods and instruments that were planned to be used with the 

indicated samples from the different population categories in each sampled sub-county and district. Table 

1.4 shows the actual number of respondents reached using the different instruments. The methods and 

instruments that were used are briefly described below. 

a) Structured Interviews 

As can be seen in tables 1.3 and 1.4, the structured interview schedules were the most widely used. The 

structured schedules were followed as strictly as possible. However, probing was encouraged to obtain a 

richer depth of information. 

b) Semi-Structured Interviews 

The semi-structured interviews were to be used mainly for key informant interviews. They were in 

practice used with the formally educated and leaders in the local governments and the communities.


c) Questionnaires 

Questionnaires personally delivered to the respondents by members of the research team were used with 

the local government leaders and officials at district and sub-county level and heads of organisations. 

d) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) 

The focus group discussion was used with selected FAL participants and community members sampled in 

the villages of the selected sub-counties, using guidelines for the focus group discussions that were 

prepared and adopted in advance by the research team. 

Table 1.3: Methods and Instruments planned to be used with the indicated samples from the 

different population categories in each sampled sub-county and district 

Instrument/Method Population Category 

Interview schedules 

Semi-structured 

interviews 

Questionnaires 

Focus Group 

Discussions & other 

PRA tools 

Sub- District Total 

County 

Participants in FAL 15 30 510 

Facilitators in FAL 2 4 68 

Graduates of FAL 10 20 340 

Non-literate 10 20 340 

Lowly-educated 5 10 170 

Instrument 

total 

Schooled 5 10 170 1598 

Community leaders 3 6 102 

Local Government leaders (Sub-County) 3 6 102 

Local Government leaders (District) 3 51 

Academics & trainers in adult education 6 261 

Managers/providers of FAL As available - do - Est. 80 

NGOs and CBOs not in literacy As available - do - Est. 60 

Local Government officials (Sub-County) 3 6 102 

Local Government officials (District) 3 51 

Other Government ministries Officials 6 102 395 

Participants in FAL 1 2 34 

Graduates of FAL 1 2 34 

Lowly-educated 1 2 34 

Schooled 1 2 34 136 

Panel discussion MGLSD Officials 1 

MPs on GLSD committee 1 2 

Observation Adult literacy education centres 1 2 34 34 

e) Document Review/Literature Search 

Some of the information required was obtained through study of various documents as listed in the annex 

on references. 

f) Observation and Photographic Documentation 

Observation was used to collect information on various aspects such as the literacy practices, indicators of 

the literate environment, the physical appearance of the people, their home and environment sanitation 

and similar physical data. Some photographs were taken to illustrate important features. 

1.4.3 Implementation 

The process review was carried out from November 2006 to March 2007, with the data collection 

undertaken from mid-November to mid-December, according to the following itinerary:


Region Dates Districts 

Northern Monday 20 – Wednesday 22 Nov 06 Adjumani and Gulu 

Thursday 23 – Saturday 25 Nov 06 Dokolo and Nebbi 

Eastern Monday 27 – Wednesday 29 Nov 06 Kumi and Kapchorwa 

Thursday 30 Nov – Saturday 2 Dec 06 Tororo and Bugiri 

Central Monday 4 – Wednesday 6 Dec 06 Mpigi and Rakai 

Thursday 7 – Saturday 9 Dec 06 Kayunga and Nakasongola 

Western Monday 11 – Wednesday 13 Dec 06 

Thursday 14 – Saturday 16 Dec 06 

Kampala Monday 18 – Tuesday 19 Dec 06 

Bundibugyo and Kisoro 

Kyenjojo and Ntungamo 

Kampala 

Data collection at the national level, at MGLSD, ICEIDA, national institutions and organisations and key 

individuals, was done mainly during February but was supplemented during March and April, especially 

after the workshop to discuss the first draft report held in Kampala on 22 and 23 March. 

Table 1.4 Data collected from the different populations using various methods and instruments 

Population Instruments Covered 

sample 

Planned 

sample 

Percent 

covered 

1. Participants Structured interview 403 510 79% 

2. Graduates Structured interview 245 340 72% 

3. Non-literates Structured interview 202 340 59% 

4. Instructors Structured interview 87 68 128% 

5. District leaders Questionnaire 74 51 145% 

6. Sub-county leaders Questionnaire 80 102 78% 

7. Organisations Questionnaire 41 60 68% 

8. Schooled people Semi-structured interview 68 None* 

9. Local leaders Semi-structured interview 102 255 40% 

Total interview and questionnaire respondents 1302 2254 58% 

Focus group discussions with the different populations 65 136 48% 

* The original plan was to cover the schooled only through focus group discussions 

There were some changes of plan because it was soon realised that the original targets were rather 

ambitious in view of the time constraints and the fact that the data was collected during bad weather with 

frequent heavy rains described as a “mini el nino”, rendering many of the roads in the rural areas very 

difficult to use and often delaying planned interviews and meetings since most of them had to be carried 

out in the open under trees. In the end only about 60% of the planned data was collected. However, since 

the change of plans affected all the districts, the sample still remained balanced. The only area that did not 

receive adequate attention was Kampala, which had been added later on at the suggestion of the 

Commissioner in charge of FAL. 

Quantitative data from the structured interviews and questionnaires were coded, entered into an SPSS 

computer programme and analysed using mainly frequencies and percentages, a number of crosstabulations 

were made to relate and compare information from various variables. The analysis is 

presented in tables and charts both in this report and in the statistical annex.


The review process benefited from three visits by Professor Alan Rogers, each lasting about one week: 

the first during the designing of the study, the second in the middle of the data collection and the third to 

be able to participate in the workshop to discuss the draft report. He also exchanged ideas and information 

with the process review team leader by email. 

1.5 Clarifying some basic concepts 

Understanding Literacy 

The MGLSD Training of Trainers Manual on Adult Literacy (2005 p. 3) defines literacy as one’s ability 

to read, write and numerate with understanding. This manual has, no doubt, some influence on the literacy 

provision since it is used to train those who train the instructors. It is important to reflect on that definition 

in light of the following input from Professor Alan Rogers, who has had a wide exposure to literacy 

programmes in many countries, especially in the developing world, reflected on the experience and on 

literacy practice, and written profusely to contribute to a better understanding of literacy. 

The world of literacy and numeracy – at both school and adult level – today is rapidly changing. It may 

be helpful to set out the changing views of literacy. Much the same applies to numeracy but for the time 

being we will concentrate on literacy. 

The traditional approach to literacy 

The traditional approach which arises from the schooling model is that literacy is a basic set of skills 

which once learned enables the learner to apply these skills in any context and to any material. Such 

skills are essential in today’s world with its emphasis on textual communication. Those who lack such 

skills are in deficit – they are unable to participate in today’s society, and they are at a great disadvantage 

(unable to deal with health matters, liable to be cheated etc). 

The world then can be divided into two, those (the literate) who possess these basic skills, and those (the 

illiterate) who do not possess these skills; and these people can be identified (some 800 million). 

Learning such skills is done in a formal context – either at school or in adult literacy classes, with a 

teacher (facilitator) and special teaching-learning materials, usually a primer. Once learned, it is possible 

for persons to slip back into illiteracy, but on the whole those who have learned literacy can engage in 

development. Without literacy, there can be no development. The aim of literacy programmes then is to 

motivate the illiterate to learn literacy and to teach them these skills through a more or less formal course 

and to test their competence at the end of the programme. It is assumed that if the learners know literacy, 

they will use literacy. 

The literacy learning programme with this approach is very similar to that of schooling although adapted 

for adults. It is a process of learning the skills first in an artificial situation using specially prepared texts 

and then practising real-life literacy afterwards. A uniform approach can be adopted with standardised 

teaching-learning materials and standardised tests. Once the learning programme is completed, the 

illiterate learners are ‘made literate’ and can utilise their newly acquired skills in any situation and on any 

text. 

Freire altered this scene to some extent but he did not rewrite it fundamentally. His argument was that the 

illiterate were not just in deficit but oppressed; that they were deprived of literacy by the elites. He did 

link literacy with power and he did point out that developing literacy skills among the illiterate would 

involve the oppressors changing as well as the illiterate. His methods of teaching literacy to the illiterate 

were different but the essential division of the world into literate and illiterate remained the same.


The New Literacy Studies 

The pressure for a radical new approach to literacy came from two main sources, anthropology and adult 

learning. Anthropology looked at the world as it exists and saw that the literacy used in every day life 

was very different from that being taught in the schools and adult classrooms. And adult education 

challenged the view that we should start with a negative approach to the learners; instead it held that they 

brought with them to the learning of literacy lots of experience and perceptions which must not be 

ignored but built upon. This approach has been called the New Literacy Studies (Street 1995). This 

approach enlarges at the same time as it challenges the traditional approach. 

First, it sees literacy as a set of social practices; literacy is something which is done in certain contexts by 

people for purposes. And it speaks of many such literacies. To give some examples: there are religious 

literacies – the reading of the Koran or Bible, the singing of hymns and psalms. There are what have been 

called economic or commercial literacies, what I prefer to call occupational literacies embedded within 

different kinds of jobs. The literacies used by a taxi driver are different from those of a hospital porter or 

a restaurant waiter. There are academic literacies – certain approved ways of reading and writing and 

certain other forms of literacy which are not allowed (plagiarism, for example). What is taught in school 

and adult literacy classes has been called a schooled literacy – it is one form of literacy which however 

excludes all other forms of literacy. Thus the notes that children pass round under the desks in class and 

the text messages which adults send during adult literacy classes are not approved. 

Many of these literacies are thus hidden. We never get to see the notebook which the shopkeeper keeps 

of the credit she/he offers to some customers, the tailor’s notebook of measurements and designs, the lists 

of work done on cars in the garages. And if we could, we might not be able to read them, for they are 

often very personal or localised literacies – the brief notes issued to staff in a hotel to indicate tasks to be 

done, the marks on the wall which some fishermen may use to indicate different kinds of catches, the 

meaning of notes written in the margins of books by a reader. But these are the real functional literacies; 

they serve a purpose and enable a task to be completed. 

This approach challenges the division of the world into two classes, the literate and the illiterate, in two 

ways. First, seeing literacy as a set of social practices reveals that there are many literacies practised by 

many people, some of whom have been called ‘illiterate’. The man who can read the Koran in Arabic but 

cannot read anything in the national language or script – is he any more illiterate than the woman who 

says she can read the literacy primer but cannot read a newspaper? The shopkeeper who keeps a record 

of sales and credit in his/her own shorthand; the tailor who reads fashion magazines and keeps a notebook 

of her clients’ measurements and of materials and designs; the carpenter and car mechanic who use 

catalogues to set out wares; the fisherman who makes marks on a wall to indicate the different kinds of 

fish caught – all these are using a literacy. Recent research has shown that a significant number of socalled 

illiterate have in fact learned usable literacy skills without going to school or adult literacy classes; 

they have acquired their relevant literacies. 

But secondly, this view of literacy as social practice shows us that every person, literate and non-literate, 

engages with literacy and learns from that encounter. Each of us adopts different strategies to cope with 

the different literacies we face. For many, it is a strategy of mediation, getting someone to help with a 

literacy task (highly literate persons do this with legal or insurance literacies; footballers and politicians 

etc use ghost writers; non-literate persons use family members, friends or commercial scribes). Even the 

so-called illiterate engage with literacy tasks and learn from this – they learn much about who each form 

of literacy is for and who is excluded from it. Everyone who comes to an adult literacy class has a range 

of experience of literacy; they have expectations about literacy; they have some aspirations about literacy 

and themselves.


For literacy in today’s world is inextricably tied up with identity; it helps us to define who we are. It is 

not alone in this; there are other definers. But as we all change our identities, so we change our means of 

communication, and literacy is one form of communication. Those who come to our adult literacy classes 

are seeking to move forward, to change their identities even just a little. Literacy is not a bolt-on skill 

which leaves the person untouched; it is part of a changing identity. 

This new view of literacy creates a number of challenges for the traditional schooling model of literacy 

learning. First, the traditional literacy programme is teaching a formally state-approved form of literacy. 

But in so doing, it denies the validity of these other forms of literacy, or sees them as inferior, to be 

engaged with after learning the privileged schooled literacy. Literacy learning programmes need to find 

ways to promote other literacies, ones some of the literacy learners want to learn. 

Thus secondly, the traditional literacy learning programme often denies adult education principles by not 

starting where the learners are, by not building on the learners’ experience, on what the learners can do 

but rather on what the learners cannot do. 

And thirdly, the traditional literacy class, while it is concerned about the uses of the literacy it is teaching, 

does relatively little to help the learners to take their classroom literacy out into their daily lives. It aims 

to help the learners to develop their competency in the belief that if the learners know how to do 

something, they will do that something quite naturally, without assistance – a belief which many studies 

have shown is simply not true (smoking is a prime example of this: many people know about the dangers 

of smoking but that does not make them change their behaviour). The end-of-class test will show us what 

the learners can do but not what they actually are doing. To find that out, we need to observe what the 

former participants are doing some six months after the learning programme has ended, what their literacy 

practices are now. 

This view that there are pluralities of literacy is spreading (see for example UNESCO 2005), but the 

implications of this for the classroom at both school and adult levels are just being worked out. 

The New Literacy Studies and FAL 

The most important implication of this approach to literacy as a social practice is the renewed emphasis 

on the uses of literacy rather than on the learning of literacy skills alone. The aim of FAL as can be seen 

from its title is to encourage the uses of literacy for development purposes – for poverty eradication 

through livelihoods, for enhanced health practices, for increased citizenship engagement, for personal and 

community growth. Learning literacy skills and not using them will not lead to any socio-economic 

changes of the kind that development seeks. Any measurement of the success of FAL must include the 

changed literacy practices of the literacy learners and the enhanced literacy environments of the 

communities they live in. This process review of FAL includes some examination of the ways in which 

different literacy skills are being used by the graduates of FAL as well as the numbers of those who 

participate and complete the learning programmes. 

Such an evaluation raises further issues, for the New Literacy Studies point to the fact that in life as 

distinct from schooling, there are pluralities of literacy (UNESCO pluralities). FAL promotes one form 

of literacy, the formal schooled literacy of the classroom, and it does that well, as all the evaluations 

show. But it could do more to promote other forms of literacy such as the more informal and practical 

literacies embedded with various occupational activities. 

And this perhaps suggests that FAL in some ways will need to become wider, more inclusive, to add to 

itself other ways of promoting literacy practices of a more informal kind. There will still be a need for the 

formal adult literacy class leading to a certificate for those adults who wish for that. But others who feel 

they need a more immediately relevant learning programme, a practical literacy for an occupation such as


fisheries, will not be satisfied with going through a one-size-fits-all programme first before getting to their 

own form of literacy; they need immediate help. There are many different motivations for joining an 

adult literacy class; and to be true to adult learning principles, we should “start where they are”, with their 

motivation rather than try to persuade them to adopt ours. That will mean creating some new programmes 

which will be more occupationally based, starting there and moving towards the more standardised forms 

of literacy and eventually more generally recognised qualifications. 

We do need to recognise that some adults will never wish to learn literacy skills for themselves – they feel 

they can get along without them. We cannot just ignore them but make them feel they still belong to the 

society of which they are a part. But for the rest, we need to diversify the programme. 

The implications of this approach then would seem to be two-fold: 

• that we need to start some programmes by learning about the existing literacy and numeracy 

practices of the learners in their environment, to take their existing literacies seriously, to help them to 

achieve their own ambitions rather than our ambitions for them, to start their learning with what they 

can do and are doing 

• that we could start other programmes with helping the adults to learn what they want to learn (often 

poverty reducing activities) and to build in the appropriate forms of literacy within that activity. This 

is not a learn-first-and-then-practise approach but a learn-by-doing-for-real approach. This is a view 

already recognised in Uganda: 

“Most adult learners want to learn only the material and skills they see as useful from 

their current point of view. Therefore it might be useful - if one of the aims is to reach 

more men - to design special courses, with narrow practical goals closely tied to the 

needs and interests of the men and even combine some literacy elements into these 

courses” (Arnason and Mabuya 2005:19). 

Both of these strategies can be used to build on towards the more formal schooled literacy. This is not 

difficult. A building vocational training course could first build in the embedded literacies of that 

occupation; it could then go on to look at some newspaper reports of buildings which are in the news 

either for reasons of poor workmanship or for excellence. A tailoring class could use catalogues and 

fashion magazines, a car mechanic course could use invoices and catalogues of components etc. A 

fisheries course can use material relating to fisheries to learn the more formal skills of the classroom. For 

those who wish to go further, any such starting point can lead to the more formalised learning which can 

be evaluated and certificated. 

This more modern approach to literacy challenges any “one-size-fits-all” approach to helping adults to 

develop their literacy activities. It calls for a diversity of provision to meet the diversity of needs and 

aspirations of the participants. 

Implications for the Process Review 

The above input by Alan Rogers provides some useful indicators against which to assess the extent to 

which the current FAL programme is meeting the learning needs of the participants and the people in 

general and how it can be made to do so, which is the overall objective of the process review. Some of the 

questions that should be kept in mind during the process review in line with Alan Rogers’s analysis are: 

1. To what extent does the current FAL programme emphasise the uses of literacy: treat and promote 

literacy as a set of social practices, something which is done in certain contexts by people for 

purposes? 

2. How does FAL in its design and implementation recognise the different types of literacy (literacies)?


3. How does FAL respond to the different literacy needs of those who come to participate in the literacy 

programme? 

4. How does FAL cater for those adults who may not initially want to learn literacy skills but are 

interested in learning other things relevant to their needs? 

Women in Bundibugyo bearing their heavy burdens with a smile: one of the major concerns of the FAL 

programme is to redress the existing gender imbalance (See Section 2.3 in the following chapter).


Chapter 2: The Context of Literacy in Uganda 

2.1 International context 

Illiteracy is still considered a major social challenge worldwide: at the turn of the millennium it was 

estimated that there were over 900 million illiterate youth and adults, and 104 million out-of-school 

children (UNESCO 2003). Moreover, the problem of functional illiteracy - that is, people who went to 

school or attended a literacy programme but are not able to read and write properly, with understanding 

and with autonomy – appears a major concern not only in developing countries but also in developed 

ones, a phenomenon that is related to the low quality of the education provided in and out of school, and 

to the lack of conducive environments and opportunities to use and further develop reading and writing in 

everyday life. 

Literacy is seen to be at the heart of basic education and an essential learning need for all - children, youth 

and adults. A literate population is in a position to effectively take advantage of the Information, the 

Knowledge and the Learning Society announced as the society of the 21st century. The expansion of 

modern Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) enhances, rather than diminishes, the 

importance of a literate population capable of making meaningful use of the tremendous information, 

communication and knowledge possibilities of today’s world. 

Universal literacy has been an old aspiration and a goal set by and for developing countries for at least 

half a century. However, that goal has not been accomplished and has been successively postponed, while 

new generations of unschooled or poorly schooled children and youth continue to nurture the illiterate 

population. 

As the world, societies and life become more complex, literacy needs have also become more complex. 

Evaluation and research studies show that, today, access to school, and even a few years of schooling, do 

not ensure functional literacy, that is, effective literacy. Within the framework of the International Adult 

Literacy Survey (IALS), literacy in and for the Knowledge Society has been defined as “the ability to 

understand and employ printed information in daily activities, at home, at work and in the community – to 

achieve one’s goals, and to develop one’s knowledge and potential" (OECD/ Statistics Canada. 1997). 

Education for All (EFA) goals: 1990-2000-2015 

The traditional and ambitious goal of “eradicating illiteracy” has been changed to “reducing illiteracy” in 

the past few years. Reducing the illiterate rate by half by the year 2000 was one of the six basic education 

goals adopted at the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. However, ten 

years later, the global EFA decade assessment showed little progress in relation to this goal, which was 

sidelined while priority was given to schooling and primary education. The thematic study on literacy, 

commissioned by UNESCO as part of the EFA 2000 Assessment, concluded that, although illiteracy rates 

declined over the last two decades the number of illiterate persons remained constant, due to population 

growth, the geographical distribution of adult illiterates remained relatively unchanged and in developing 

countries competition of resources was a major impediment. (Wagner 2001). 

In fact, none of the six EFA goals were accomplished by 2000. At the World Education Forum (Dakar, 

2000), the decision was taken to renew the commitment and postpone the deadlines until the year 2015. 

Although presented as a list, all six EFA goals are inter-related and literacy crosses all of them. Two goals 

(Goals 3 and 4) refer to youth and adult literacy, basic and continuing education. (See Box 2.1).


Millennium Development Goals - MDG (2000-2015) 

The Millennium Development Goals were approved also in the year 2000 and monitored by the United 

Nations, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and 

Development (OECD) and the World Bank. The MDGs comprise 7 broad goals, 18 targets and 48 

indicators. Two objectives refer specifically to (primary education, and gender equality in primary and 

secondary education) but none of them include adult literacy. The 8 goals for the year 2015 are as 

follows: 

Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 

Goal 2. Achieve universal primary education (survival to Grade 5) 

Goal 3. Promote gender equality and empower women 

Goal 4. Reduce child mortality 

Goal 5. Improve maternal health 

Goal 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases 

Goal 7. Ensure environmental sustainability 

Goal 8. Develop a global partnership for development 

There are important differences between EFA and Millennium Goals as far as education is concerned (see 

Box 2.1). While EFA’s six goals embrace basic education for children, youth and adults, in and out of 

school, the Millennium Education Goals include only two goals, both related to the formal school system: 

Goal 2: universal primary education (survival to Grade 5), and Goal 3: gender equality in primary and 

secondary education. It is assumed that “literacy in 15-24 year-olds” is an outcome of primary and 

secondary education. The EFA framework provides a much broader and sector-wide framework for 

education development than the Millennium Goals for Education, as shown in Box 2.1. 

Box 2.1: Comparison between Education for All (EFA) and Millennium Goals (Education) 

Education for All Goals (Dakar) 

2000-2015 

UNESCO/UNICEF/UNDP/UNFPA/World Bank 

1. Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood 

care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and 

disadvantaged children. 

2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, 

children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to 

ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and 

compulsory primary education of good quality. 

3. Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and 

adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning 

and life skills programs. 

4. Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult 

literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to 

basic and continuing education for all adults. 

5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary 

education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and 

equal access to and achievement in basic education of good 

quality. 

6. Improving all aspects of the quality of education and 

ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable 

learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, 

numeracy and essential life skills. 

Source: Education for All Goals 

http://www.unesco.org/education/efa/wef_2000/index.shtml 

The Millennium Summit Development Goals 

(2000-2015) 

United Nations/OECD/IMF/World Bank 

1. Achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE). 

Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys 

and girls alike, will be able to complete a full 

course of primary schooling. 

2. Promote gender equality and empower women 

Eliminate gender disparity in primary and 

secondary education preferably by 2005 and in 

all levels of education no later than 2015. 

Source: Millennium Development Goals 

http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/


United Nations Literacy Decade (2003-2012) 

The United Nations Literacy Decade, launched in 2003 and coordinated by UNESCO, proposes a 

“renewed vision for literacy” that encompasses all – children, youth and adults, both in and out of the 

school system, and throughout life. The table below compares the old vision and this renewed vision. 

Box 2.2: United Nations Literacy Decade (2003-2012) 

LITERACY FOR ALL: A RENEWED VISION 

OLD VISION 

NEW VISION 

Illiteracy is a social pathology (i.e. "scourge") and an Illiteracy is a structural phenomenon and a social 

individual responsibility. 

responsibility. 

Literacy is a panacea for social development and Literacy needs broader educational and socio-economic 

change. 

interventions. 

The goal formulated as "eradicate illiteracy" or "reduce The goal is to create literate environments and literate 

the illiteracy rates". 

societies. 

Literacy education is associated only with youth and Literacy education is associated with children, youth 

adults. 

and adults. 

Literacy education is associated with out-of-school Literacy education takes place both in and out of the 

groups and non-formal programmes. 

school system. 

Child literacy and adult literacy are viewed and Child and adult literacy are linked within a holistic 

developed separately, in a parallel manner. 

policy framework and strategy. 

Literacy is centred around literacy provision (teaching). Literacy is centred around literacy learning. 

Literacy goals are centred around literacy acquisition. Literacy goals include literacy acquisition, development 

and effective use. 

Literacy is understood as initial, basic literacy only (an Literacy is understood as functional literacy (literacy, to 

elementary level). 

be such, must be functional and sustainable). 

Literacy is viewed separately from basic education (i.e. Literacy is viewed as an integral part of basic education. 

literacy and basic education). 

Literacy acquisition and development are associated Literacy is understood as a lifelong learning process. 

with a particular period in the life of a person. 

Literacy is associated only with the written language Literacy is related to both oral and written expression 

(reading and writing) and print. 

and communication, within a holistic understanding of 

language (speaking, listening, reading and writing). 

It is believed that there is THE literacy method or There is no single or universal method or approach to 

approach valid for all cases and circumstances. literacy. 

Literacy acquisition in school is viewed as a goal of the Literacy acquisition in school is viewed as a goal for the 

first or the first two grades. 

whole primary education cycle. 

Literacy is viewed as a specific area in the school Literacy is viewed across the school curriculum. 

curriculum (Language). 

Literacy is associated only with conventional tools (i.e. 

pencil and paper). 

Literacy is related to both conventional and modern 

tools (pencil and paper but also keyboard and digital 

technologies). 

Literacy is viewed as a responsibility of the 

Literacy is viewed as a responsibility of both the 

State/government only or of civil society alone. State/government and civil society. 

Source: R M Torres 2000, Base Document for the UN Literacy Decade 

See: UNESCO-United Nations Literacy Decade web site 

http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.php-URL_ID=5000&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html 

The new vision of literacy and the growing understanding of the diversity of literacy practices leads to the 

realisation that the concern with illiteracy eradication or even reduction may have been leading to 

misguided efforts that were not beneficial to many. The challenge may not be illiteracy, whether basic or 

functional, but rather the creation of the learning opportunities and the enabling environment to enable 

people to practice their particular literacy for their purposes in a more effective and beneficial manner, for


the individuals and their groups or communities. A programme like FAL in Uganda, based on the old 

paradigm of efforts toward eradication of illiteracy requires rethinking, leading possibly to new 

conceptualisation and redesigning. This process review therefore comes at an opportune time when the 

new vision of literacy is increasingly gaining acceptance. Important new dimensions have also been 

brought out in the International Benchmarks on Adult Literacy 2005 (See Annex 1) and the Abuja 

Call for Action 2007, (See Annex 2). 

2.2 Socio-economic and education context 

Basic indictors for Uganda 

• Low life expectancy at birth (2002): 50.4 (UBOS 2006) 

• High population growth: 3.2% per annum between 1991-2002 (UBOS 2006) and 3.4% between 

1991-2003, the third highest population growth rate in the world (PEAP 2004). 

• High poverty rate: 31% below the poverty line (UBOS 2006). 96% of the poor live in the rural areas 

and there is serious income disparity with a Gini coefficient of 0.43 (PEAP 2004) 

• High population density in many parts of the country: Average 226 persons per square kilometre with 

several rural districts having more than 500 persons per square kilometre (UBOS 2006) 

• High concentration on rural areas and on agriculture. 88% of the population live in rural areas (UBOS 

2006). Agriculture employs 69% of the population, services employ 23% and industry 8% (PEAP 

2004). While subsistence agriculture is the largest employer, soil degradation is reaching alarming 

levels. 

• High HIV prevalence and serious impact of the AIDS pandemic: The infection rate is 6% of the 

population (2006) and there is a high number of AIDS orphans and child headed families. 

• Devastating rebel war especially in Northern Uganda: this has displaced over a million people from 

their homes and some children have spent their whole childhood and adolescence in displaced 

people’s camps. Many of the population in these areas, especially children, have gone through 

severely traumatizing experiences. 

Education Indicators 

Status of school provision – Primary School Net Enrolment Ratio (2006): 91.7% (boys 90.4%, girls 

93.0%) (MOES 2006) 

– Secondary School Net Enrolment ratio: 23% (UBOS 2006) 

– Gross Tertiary Education Enrolment Rate: 2% (PEAP 2004) 

Literacy (UBOS 2006) – 10 years and above: 70% 

– 15 years and above 68.2% (male 76%, female 61%) 

The disparity between the male and female literacy rate is explained by the rapid decline in female 

literacy from the age of 30 years: 53% for the age group 30-44, 36% for the age group 45-49 and only 

17% for women aged 60 and above. The fact that in the age group 10-14 the literacy rate is higher among 

girls than boys and that over 70% of the girls in the age-group 15-29 are literate, shows that the gender 

gap in education has been reduced to almost parity status for the younger generation, giving hope for a 

future with full gender justice in education. However there is still the large female population aged 30 and 

above who yearn for education and eagerly take up the opportunity offered, as can be seen from analysis 

of on-going non-formal education provision. 

Table 2.1 gives the trend in literacy rates from 1997 to 2002/2003. As is clear from the table, there has 

been very little increase in the percent of literate population in spite of the drastically increased enrolment 

is schools and the fact that adult literacy provision has reached all over the country. The rapid population 

growth is to a great extent responsible for this situation.


Table 2.1: Trend in literacy rates for the population aged 10 years and above 1997-2002/03 

1997 1999/00 2002/03 

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 

National 74 57 65 74 57 65 77 63 70 

Urban 89 79 83 92 82 86 90 84 87 

Rural 70 49 59 72 54 62 74 60 67 

Kampala - - - - - - 94 91 92 

Central Region 81 74 77 81 74 77 82 74 79 

Eastern Region 72 52 62 72 52 62 72 54 63 

Northern Region 72 38 55 64 33 47 72 42 56 

Western Region 70 51 60 74 61 67 79 69 74 

Source: PEAP 2004 citing UNHS 2002/03 

Uganda’s economic development framework 

Poverty is the major concern of Uganda as a nation. Uganda Participatory Poverty Assessment (UPPA) 

Report of 2000 defined poverty as described by local people as "lack of the means to satisfy basic 

material and social needs as well as a feeling of powerlessness." The Government of Uganda (GOU) is 

working to achieve its poverty eradication agenda within the next 15 years, as the country strives towards 

the realisation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015. As such, the country has 

developed strategies geared towards this goal. 

The Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP), which was developed from the PRSP in 1997 and revised 

in 2004 to keep up with emerging priorities and changing circumstances, is Uganda’s national planning 

framework. The revised PEAP has five pillars including: (1) Economic management; (2) Production, 

competitiveness and incomes; (3) Security, conflict resolution and disaster management; (4) Good 

governance and (5) Human development. In its executive summary, Poverty Eradication Action Plan 

(PEAP) 2004/5-2007/8 states that the proportion of income poverty people living below the poverty line 

rose from 34% in 2000 to 38% in 2003. However, according to UDHS report (UBOS) 2005/2006 those 

below the poverty line had again dropped to 31%. The majority of this percent is women. 

The GOU recognizes the role of the agricultural sector in poverty eradication and accordingly formulated 

the Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture (PMA) whose main thrust is ‘to transform subsistence 

agriculture to commercial agriculture’. The specific objectives of the PMA are to: (1) increase incomes 

and improve the quality of life of the poor subsistence farmers (2) improve household food security (3) 

provide gainful employment (4) promote sustainable use and management of natural resources. 

The GOU has expressed the need to build the capacity of the small holder farmers to manage their natural 

resources for agricultural production by increasing farmer access to information, knowledge and 

technologies for profitable agriculture production. The Government also recognizes the contribution of 

NGOs and other service providers in this regard and is promoting partnerships at central and local 

government levels with NGOs to provide advisory services to the agriculture sector under the National 

Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADS). NAADS is one of the programmes under the PMA and has 6 

focus areas one of which is on “increasing farmers’ access to and sustaining knowledge, information and 

communication”. The recently formulated NAADS Communication and Information Strategy highlights 

partnerships and linkages between NAADS structures, NARO and extension organisations in the 

successful implementation of the NAADS Programme, especially the provision of agricultural 

information and agricultural technologies to rural farmers.


All these interventions require that the population is able to generate and access critical development 

information as a catalyst for their development management and effective participation in development 

initiatives and good governance for sustainable development. This pitches high the need for literacy and it 

provides the basis for effective FAL programmes as aspired by the MDGLSD on behalf of the GOU. 

According to the PEAP, poverty is multi-dimensional and requires comprehensive approaches to 

eradicate it. Under the current era of informatics, the population needs to acquire capacity to tap and 

utilize the information available to meet their livelihood challenges and development aspirations. 

Rural development and support to the urban poor 

Rural development remains a central tenet of Government’s socio-economic development strategy over 

the medium term as 20 million Ugandans live in rural areas where 98 percent of the population depends 

on agriculture. There is widespread food insecurity in areas affected by conflict in north and north-eastern 

Uganda resulting in high malnutrition. In other parts of Uganda, protein-energy malnutrition, and child 

stunting remains a serious concern. 

Protracted civic education and gender sensitisation are vital to conscientise the citizens about their civic 

responsibilities and rights. Voter education has been mistaken to take care of civic education but this is to 

the contrary given the time when it takes place, which is always towards an election. Grassroots 

communities’ empowerment and capacity enhancement to monitor their development management and 

public spending is vital in light of the government strategy for Participatory Development Management 

(PDM). This, besides requiring higher literacy abilities, will entail mainstreaming crosscutting issues of 

gender, environment, human rights and security for sustainable development ventures. 

On the education front, primary school enrolment rose from 5.3 million to 7.6 million between 1997 and 

2003. Enrolment rates are the same for the poorest 20% of the population as for the richest 20%, and the 

gender parity gap has been closed at the primary level. Universal enrolment is now within reach, but drop 

out rates make achieving universal completion by 2015 unlikely (UNDP 2005). Liberalisation of 

education particularly higher education, including the introduction of cost-sharing schemes in public 

higher education institutions has led to the high cost of education where children from poor families find 

it increasingly difficult to access. Currently, children from poor households are less likely to obtain 

formal jobs than children from rich families. 

Further in the social realm, HIV/AIDS is eroding the social and economic infrastructure. The already 

overstretched health infrastructures are being stretched to the brink of collapse. Patients with HIV/AIDS 

related conditions are occupying more than a half of all hospital beds (UNDP 2005). HIV/AIDS is 

eroding the human capacity on a broad front. Uganda has, however, due to massive campaigns and 

education, contained the HIV/AIDS pandemic and is on the road to reverse the crisis. 

Whereas over the last few years a total of 210 Health centres have been constructed, which together with 

the abolition of cost sharing has led to an increase in health service utilisation, the Uganda Demographic 

and Health Survey (UDHS), 2001/2 estimates maternal mortality to be 505 deaths per 100,000 live births, 

which is an equivalent of about 6,000 women dying annually. This ratio has remained static for the last 

ten years, says the report. According to the maternal deaths audit reports of 2002/3, the majority of 

mothers die due to direct causes such as severe bleeding, sepsis, obstructed labour, abortion and 

eclampsia. The indirect causes, which include malaria, sickle cell disease, anaemia (lack of blood) and 

HIV/AIDS contribute 23%. Not all women who develop these complications die. It is a combination of 

factors. Majority of women were delivered by non-skilled attendants, who could not offer appropriate 

midwifery care including basic care of the new born. Only 35.2% of pregnant women were delivered by 

nurses/midwives and just 3.8% by doctors (UDHS 2001/2). The extension of financial support to NGO 

facilities in the past few years has paid dividends. The support has encouraged the NGO facilities to


resume outreach activities. This is expected to reverse the decline in service utilisation by women and 

children observed in recent years (Development Cooperation Uganda 2002 Report). 

All in all, the outcome indicators for health, including infant, child and maternal mortality have either 

stagnated or deteriorated, with under-five mortality rising since 1995. The failure to reduce child and 

maternal mortality threatens to undermine social and economic progress. One of the strongest MDG 

performers in Africa, Uganda is now off track for all of the major health goals. Progress in the health 

sector has been hampered by deep structural problems. Malnutrition is implicated in two-thirds of 

childhood deaths, less than one-third of women give birth under the supervision of trained staff, and there 

has been no decrease in major childhood killers, such as malaria and measles. High fertility rates and 

inadequate birth spacing are another problem. Uganda has the third highest fertility rate in the world 

(UNDP 2005). 

The communication sector is growing in relative strength especially substantial investments designed to 

provide adequate quantities and improved efficiency in the sub-sector. Currently there is one national 

postal operator, three mobile phone operators, 20 Internet service providers, 7 television stations and over 

130 private FM radio stations. Subscription to satellite linked television channels is also possible in most 

parts of the country, although limited by inadequate electricity supply. Additional benefits have also 

accrued to the sub sector following its liberalisation, which include competition and the growing 

availability of skilled and experienced human resources. Weaknesses however, still remain and among 

others they include high rental and construction services, high tax and advertising costs. This ICT 

opportunity can well advance the FAL outreach and impact among the communities if utilized creatively. 

2.3 Gender Context 

The Gender Face of Poverty 

The majority of Uganda’s poor are women. It is a well known fact that in general, women worldwide are 

poorer than men. PEAP quotes a recent research in Uganda that concluded, "Lack of control over 

productive resources by women remains one of the root causes of poverty" (page 29). Yet they are 

responsible for meeting family needs. 

In spite of affirmative action that has been vigorously pursued for two decades, there are still gender 

inequalities in Uganda perpetuated by historical factors of men dominance in education and economic 

activities. As a result participation in political processes and governance by women is very low. Although 

the number of women in decision-making positions has continued to increase, their representation and 

effectiveness is still very poor. There is concern that the few women who have ridden on the affirmative 

action ticket have done so for too long and are probably serving their individual agenda at the expense of 

majority of women especially in the rural areas. The participation of women councillors in the lower level 

of local councils also leaves a lot to be desired given their cultural responsibilities and effective time to 

engage in meetings amidst their family roles. 

It is imperative therefore, that all interventions planning and implementation put special emphasis on 

equitable participation of men and women in consideration of the two gender roles, responsibilities, 

workload, power relations, access to and control of resources. For the last ten years, the Equal 

Opportunities Commission, constitutionally provided for in the Uganda Constitution 1995, to redress the 

persisting gender imbalances has not been effected. This poses a question and challenge to the 

government’s commitment to address the gender inequalities in the country. 

According to the UPPA report mentioned above, the most common identified causes of poverty at 

household level were: poor health, excessive alcohol consumption enjoyed mostly by men, lack of


education and skills afflicting mainly women, poor access to markets, idleness, lack of cooperation, 

limited access to financial services and capital, ignorance and insurgency. And major effects of poverty 

on the household given include poor health, inability to meet basic needs, low production and food 

insecurity among others. UPPA further noted that factors that influence household poverty were 

interconnected, acting both as a cause and effect, depending on location, type of livelihood, culture, and 

whether the person is a man, woman or a youth. From its definition, causes and effects, gender is one of 

the major aspects of poverty. 

Among the groups perceived to be more vulnerable to poverty, according to the above report, were the 

landless, women, children, orphans and neglected children, the youth, and refugees. Here again we see 

that women as a category are more prone to poverty than men. FAL programme sets out to meet the needs 

of the youth, men and women who missed out on formal education, while UPE target all children of 

school going age. Thus, between them, most if not all categories prone to poverty are beneficiaries of 

Uganda’s education for all strategy. It must, of-course, be kept in mind that education is only one among 

several important factors in addressing poverty. 

Gender as a development concern 

One of the challenges to the success of PMA is in regards to empowering women in agriculture. This is 

because they face several constraints in increasing cash crop production arising from unequal gender 

relations, (Uganda Poverty Status Report 2003 pages 18-19). The report asserts that gender relations 

within the household, community and at national levels were identified as a key determinant of poverty 

trends in Uganda (page 106). 

Gender relations are part and parcel of social relations as a result of socialisation. They refer to the way in 

which women and men, male and female, relate over the whole range of social organisations, not just 

interactions between individual man and woman. They describe the social meaning of being male and 

female, and therefore, what is considered appropriate behaviour, role, responsibility or activity for men 

and women in a given location at a given point in time. 

The same Poverty Status Report referred to the following unequal gender relations within the agriculture 

sector: 

i) Heavy household tasks 

This is a result of inequalities in gender roles and gender division of labour. Gender roles are reflected in 

activities ascribed to men and women on basis of perceived differences and reinforced by the division of 

labour at a given place and point in time. Women in Uganda like in other developing countries have been 

ascribed the role and responsibility for reproductive work. This includes tasks such as taking care of 

children and the sick, collecting water and firewood, preparing and serving family meals and other 

domestic related activities. In addition, they are active in productive work like farming, marketing of 

agriculture produce, food processing etc. as well as community managing work such as social, religious 

and political functions/ ceremonies. Men, on the other hand, are involved in productive and community 

managing work mainly. Gender roles determine our aspirations for our selves and others, what we are 

able to do, when and with what resources. There is need to free women from some domestic work so that 

they have time to participate fully in development programmes. 

(ii) Limited access to productive resources and control over income from crop sales, which is 

appropriated by male members of the household who have the privilege, power, ownership and control 

over resources and benefits from them. The same report notes that women provide the bulk of agriculture 

labour, are responsible for providing food and increasing other basic necessities for their families. 

However, they do not control productive resources, such as land or the returns from them, (page 106).


To address these issues, PMA targets agriculture advice and extension to women farmers and poor 

households and raises awareness of the need for improved female literacy as part of agriculture 

modernization. This is just as well. The Population and Housing Census 2002, puts the national literacy 

rates at 76% and 61% for men and women respectively. These rates indicate that majority of women in 

Uganda are illiterate. Literacy in this context refers to the ability to read with understanding and write 

meaningfully in any language. It is important to note here that the gender issues given in PMA above also 

affect and impact on the success of other development initiatives, and FAL programme is no exception. 

PEAP, mentioned earlier on, notes that women are increasingly getting into economic activities outside 

their homes, and although this adds pressure to their already limited time, it has given them economic 

benefits and empowerment. However unequal ownership of resources, bride price, and domestic violence, 

among others continue to disempower them, and tend to erode their self-esteem and self-confidence. It 

thus advocates for more empowerment through, among other things, enabling them to define their goals, 

and act on them, create more gender awareness and building their self-esteem and confidence. 

Gender needs 

Gender needs arise out of gender roles, division of labour, access to and control over resources and the 

unequal power relations. They represent what men and women require to get or to have so as to meet their 

gender expectations more easily and conveniently. Men and women’s needs are different. Gender needs 

are categorized into practical and strategic in nature. 

Practical gender needs are needs men and women identify in their socially ascribed roles. They respond to 

immediate perceived necessities, arising from conditions men and women experienced in a given context. 

Because division of labour within a house-hold give women domestic responsibilities, productive and 

community work, initiatives to meet their gender needs tend to focus on domestic sphere, income 

generating activities as well as community level requirements of basic services. Similarly, initiatives 

aimed at meeting men’s gender needs should focus on their challenges and desire to fulfil their roles as 

biological fathers and husbands, economic providers, social parents and community representatives. 

Addressing practical gender needs does not change gender roles, but enables beneficiaries to meet them 

effectively and efficiently. 

Strategic gender needs represent what men and women require in order to bring about equality in their 

positions and status in regards to each other. Satisfying these needs mean that women and men are able 

and free to define their own roles and responsibilities; that each one’s gender is recognized as being of 

value and having rights both social and legal and that one is not subject to another because of his/her 

gender. Strategic needs are less visible and obvious than practical gender needs. Development 

programmes, FAL inclusive, have tended to address more of practical gender needs and less of strategic 

ones. 

Mainstreaming men into gender and development 

Development initiatives in many developing nations FAL in Uganda inclusive have tended to find women 

an easy target for their programmes. While they have addressed women’s immediate practical needs, men 

have been excluded. Yet prevailing imbalances in gender roles and responsibilities in family nurturing 

and planning, time and work for subsistence and survival and development, domestic violence, drunkardness 

and community safety require that men are actively involved in contributing to family and 

community welfare, not only as part of the problem but as part of the solution. Enlisting men’s 

involvement in FAL programmes is a step in the right direction and everything possible should be done to 

ensure their full participation.


2.4 Policy and Planning Framework for Adult Literacy 

The Constitution of Uganda 1995 affirms the right to education for all and the role of the government to 

provide the opportunity for all. It also provides for affirmative action to favour those who are 

disadvantaged in any way, including in education. 

Vision 2025 

Uganda’s long-term objectives are contained in its Vision 2025. Uganda’s overall vision according to that 

document is, “A prosperous people, a harmonious nation, a beautiful country”. Within this overall vision, 

there are partial visions that target specific important sectors. The vision for education is, “An 

enlightened, well informed and prosperous society”, which the National Adult Literacy Strategic 

Investment Plan (NALSIP) slightly paraphrased to, “A literate, well informed and prosperous society”. 

Poverty Eradication Action Plan (PEAP) 

The guiding planning framework by Uganda most used by the government of Uganda today is the 

Poverty Eradication Action Plan with its five pillars of: 

(i) Economic management 

(ii) Enhancing production, competitiveness and incomes 

(iii) Security, conflict resolution and disaster management 

(iv) Good governance 

(v) Human development 

Education, both formal and non-formal, is handled mainly under the fifth pillar. The two main education 

programmes seen as very important to increasing the ability of the poor to raise their incomes and 

enhancing quality of life for the poor are the Universal Primary Education (UPE) and Functional Adult 

Literacy (FAL). NALSIP takes it as inconceivable that poverty eradication can make much headway in 

the absence of major advances in literacy. Because of this recognised importance of basic education in the 

struggle against poverty, the government commitment is to ensure access to basic education to all. The 

government policy on education adopted in 1992 made the emphasis very clearly. The PEAP target is 

increased literacy rate from 70% in 2003 to 85% in 2009/10 (PEAP 2004 p. 224). This is taken as one of 

the key strategic results under improved human development, together with reduced infant and maternal 

mortality. PEAP also provides for putting in place a National Agricultural Education Strategy to be 

integrated into the adult literacy and education programmes. 

The Government White Paper on the Education Policy Review Commission Report (1992) has a section 

on Non-Formal and Adult Education, which recognises the importance of non-formal and adult education, 

specifies its objectives, proposes structures for its implementation and coordination, stating: 

“Government has now decided to regard non-formal education as extremely important, 

and to place it under effective control of the Ministry of Education and Sports” 

(Government of Uganda 1992, p.176) 

The White Paper specifies the objectives and strategies for its various components identified as follows: 

i) Eradication of Illiteracy 

ii) Post Literacy and Permanent Functional Literacy geared to productivity for both rural and urban 

development 

iii) Livelihood skills or apprenticeship education for youth, especially primary school leavers 

iv) Continuing Education for those holding UCE and UACE certificates of secondary education as well 

as working people who wish to better their professional and academic qualifications 

v) Heath care, Population and Family Education Programmes 

vi) Basic Education for Community Development


vii) Training in Improved Agriculture, Farming and other Production Practices 

viii) Civil Participation Programmes; and 

ix) Education for Environment Protection and Development 

The structures proposed by the Government White Paper for non-formal and adult education include: 

National Council for Non-Formal and Adult Education, whose functions are to coordinate programmes, 

formulate curricula, evaluate, mobilise resources, propose programmes, organise training courses and to 

provide special education opportunities for women. (This council has never been set up) 

Directorate of Non-Formal and Adult Education in the Ministry of Education and Sports (This has never 

been established either, since the responsibility for non-formal and adult education still remains in the 

Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development) 

District Committees for Non-Formal and Adult Education to work with the Assistant Education Officer 

for non-formal and adult education and the communities (These have never been established either) 

National Adult Literacy Strategic Investment Plan (NALSIP) 

As explained above, the commitment has been implemented through UPE launched in 1997 and FAL for 

which a strategic investment plan (NALSIP) was prepared and implemented starting from 2002. With a 

target of achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2007, and achieving equitable access 

to basic and continuing education for women and out-of-school girl youths NALSIP was a very ambitious 

document in the face of the fact that Uganda was at the time estimated to have a non-literate population of 

almost 7 million. Strategies were adopted that, it was hoped, would lead to the achievement of that target. 

The strategic objectives are listed below. 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

(e) 

(f) 

(g) 

(h) 

(i) 

To win national commitment to the programme and incorporate district, sub-county and 

community level adult literacy action plans into overall development. 

To provide adequate and equitable access to literacy education by all women and men. 

To empower the marginalized and vulnerable groups in society through functional adult literacy 

to participate fully as equal partners in development programmes. 

To establish a sustainable management framework that will provide direction to the programme 

towards effectiveness in performance. The management framework will provide for a 

strengthened institution, greater representation in decision-making and consist of in-built 

mechanisms to ensure sustainability. 

To improve the capacity of literacy educators for the National Adult Literacy Programme in the 

country. 

To improve the quality of literacy learners through better delivery systems. 

To provide the knowledge base of theory and Research for Systematic Research-Development- 

Diffusion process necessary for an effective NALSIP in all aspects of planning, curriculum 

development, implementation, teaching and evaluation. 

To provide an effective framework for collection, documentation and sharing of information 

pertaining to strategic adult literacy policy and programme review, planning and implementation 

of the NALSIP. 

To mobilise additional resources for sustainability of the national adult literacy programme and 

quality delivery of its activities 

To achieve those objectives, the plan was in particular designed to venture into the following new 

frontiers:


(i) Information, communication and advocacy to enhance national commitment and incorporate 

district, sub-county and community level adult literacy action plans into overall development 

planning; 

(ii) Developing a national accreditation framework; 

(iii) Enhancing access for literacy services for people with special learning needs; 

(iv) Establishment of community/village libraries to promote a literate environment for the neoliterates; 

(v) Research and Programme Development; 

(vi) Monitoring and Evaluation system to create ‘a culture of information’; 

(MGLSD, 2002 p.v). 

The Social Development Sector Strategic Investment Plan (SDIP 2003) is the strategic development 

plan of the sector served by the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development (MGLSD), which is 

currently in charge of adult literacy and non-formal and adult education. Whereas NALSIP had targeted 

enabling 3.5 million non-literate adults to acquire basic literacy by June 2007, SDIP significantly lowered 

the target to enabling 1.2 million non-literate adults to become literate by 2008. 

Language in Literacy Policy and Practice 

Language Policy 

Uganda is a multilingual country; the large number of languages spoken is identified at over 30. 

Language has as a result been a big challenge in education and at national level in general. English is the 

main official language in the country and Kiswahili was in 2006 passed by Parliament as the second 

official language. English is spoken mainly by the percentage of the population that has attended school. 

Only about 70% of the population has ever attended school and some of those did not attend long enough 

to master English adequately to be able to use it. In spite of several efforts to adopt a national language, it 

has not been possible because of the failure to agree on one language to adopt. 

The principle that formal school-based literacy should first be acquired in the mother tongue has been 

accepted in the education policy and efforts are made to practise it in both primary and adult education. 

According to the 1992 Policy on Education, during the first four years of primary education the language 

of instruction should be the local language of the area, while adult basic education should also be in the 

local language. The exception for primary education is the urban areas that have a multilingual situation 

for which English is to be used as language of instruction right from the beginning of primary education. 

In adult education the policy is fully followed for literacy education. Literacy is taught only in the local 

language of the area, which is usually the mother tongue of the greatest majority of the learners. Learning 

materials have been produced in 13 of the more than 30 languages of Uganda. The big constraint is that 

most of these languages have hardly been written and therefore have a very limited circulation of written 

materials for people to read. That is one reason why in most cases, after acquiring basic literacy in the 

local language most learners demand for literacy in English. 

In primary education the policy has not been followed partly because of inadequate resources to develop 

teaching and learning materials but partly also because of the lack of enthusiasm on the part of the people. 

English is supposed to become the language of instruction in the fifth year of education and remain so for 

the rest of the education career. Many parents feel that their children would be disadvantaged to spend the 

first four years of their education in the local language when all important examinations will be held in 

English. The result is that, in effect, primary education, hence literacy education in schools, is usually 

done fully in English, which is a second language to almost all pupils. However, the Ministry of 

Education and Sports has now made it mandatory that from 2007 all primary schools in all designated 

rural areas must use the local language as the medium of instruction during the first four years of primary


education. Exception has been made for those languages for which there is no orthography and language 

committee. 

Gender in Literacy Policy and Practice 

The National Gender Policy 

Uganda has over the last two decades made much progress in the effort to redress the gender imbalance 

that existed and still exists to a great extent. The efforts have been formalised through a gender policy and 

one of the areas that has been the focus of attention is gender balance in education. The overall goal of the 

national gender policy is to mainstream gender concerns in the national development process in order to 

improve the social, legal, civic, political, economic and cultural conditions of the people in Uganda, in 

particular women. Specifically the National Gender Policy (1999) had the following objectives: 

• To provide policy makers and other key actors with reference guidelines for identifying and 

addressing gender concerns when taking development policy decisions; 

• To identify and establish an institutional framework with the mandate to initiate, coordinate, 

implement, monitor and evaluate national gender responsive development plans; 

• To redress imbalances that arise from existing gender inequalities to ensure the participation of 

both women and men in all stages of the development process; 

• To promote equal access to control over economically significant resources and benefits; and 

• To promote recognition and value of women’s roles and contributions as agents of change and 

beneficiaries of the development process (MGLSD 1999: 5). 

The strategies adopted to achieve the policy objectives include the following that are very relevant to 

adult education: 

a) Sensitisation on gender issues at all levels; 

b) Promoting a Gender and Development (GAD) approach that is based on the understanding of 

gender roles and social relations of women and men as well as the Women in Development (WID) 

approach that focus on women specifically; 

c) Ensuring that the gender policy shall be disseminated, translated, understood and implemented by 

all sections of Uganda society; 

d) Promoting appropriate education, sensitisation and creation of awareness on the responsibility of 

all concerned parties in each sector to address the specific gender concerns between the sectors. 

This should entail consultation on areas of relevance to identification of gender concerns. 

(MGLSD 1999: 6) 

National Strategy for Girls’ Education Uganda 

The government adopted in 1998 a specific strategy for girls’ education in Uganda, aimed at redressing 

the gender imbalance in education at all levels. The goal of the strategy for girls’ education is: 

‘All girls in Uganda (including the destitute and girls with disabilities) will have full 

access to education opportunities and will be supported by their families, schools, 

communities, government and the private sector to participate fully in gender-balanced 

education programmes in order to attain their maximum potential as equal and effective 

citizens’ (MOES 1998) 

The strategy identifies two major reasons for intensifying girl education in Uganda. The first one is that 

the girl-child in Uganda is entitled to equal access to education as a human being. The second is that the 

educated girl-child is a lynchpin in the development of any nation. As such, the socio-psychological 

environment should be conducive to the full participation of all girls in education.


The strategy addresses different barriers to equitable female participation in education. These barriers 

have been identified from both international and national forums on girls’ education and their respective 

documents. They are categorized as follows: 

a) Social-cultural factors with seven barriers, namely, patriarchal culture, harmful traditional practices, 

traditional division of labour in the home, family instability, some religious beliefs, the insecure 

environment in and outside schools and differential motivational scope. 

b) School related factors with five barriers, namely, inadequate school facilities, lack of comfortable 

appropriate clothing, school and college personnel, the absence of trained guidance and counselling 

personnel, shortage of relevant alternative quality education opportunities and facilities and a critical 

bottleneck to female access to secondary and higher education. 

c) Political/Economic/Administrative factors with five barriers, namely, insensitivity to importance of 

girls education by the general public, inadequate allocation of resources at all levels to respond to the 

needs of girls education, insecure protection of the girl-child e.g. laws on defilement, unavailability of 

and access of gender disaggregated data and information and constraints from the poverty on choices 

available to parents. 

The Ministry of Education and Sports is the main government agency in the implementation of this 

strategy. However, there are numerous partners who work to complement its efforts. Their activities are 

listed in the document in accordance with the category of barriers they each address. Thus, 20 partners 

address socio-cultural factors, 55 address school related factors and 51 address 

political/economic/administrative factors. 

The deliberate strategy has greatly increased the percentage of girls in education at all levels. At the 

lowest levels, girls are more that the boys. If they could be helped to complete the primary cycle this 

would go a long way towards ensuring that all girls acquire literacy. The primary completion rates for 

both boys and girls are still low, but lower for girls. This continues to sustain the imbalance in the adult 

literacy rates between men and women. 

Gender issues in NALSIP 

Two of the expected outputs of NALSIP contain indicators aimed at redressing the gender imbalance in 

adult literacy rates. The two are stated as follows: 

a) 40,000 community literacy instructors (50% women) able to teach literacy and produce relevant 

learning and instructional materials 

b) At least 3,500,000 literacy learners reached (70% women, 30% men) proficient in reading, writing 

and numeracy 

The first output is meant to address the situation where the majority of learners are women but women 

instructors are a small minority, while the second output addresses the imbalance in literacy rates. A 

comprehensive evaluation of adult literacy programmes in Uganda in 1999 already found that an 

overwhelming majority of the participants (over 70%) who successfully completed the adult literacy 

programme were women (Okech et al 1999; Carr-Hill ed. 2001).


Chapter 3: People’s Needs Problems and Concerns 

The process review, as explained in Chapter 1, was conceived mainly because of the increasing 

realisation among the FAL programme managers that new needs were emerging as the programme spread 

and met the basic literacy needs of more and more people. The reviewers were therefore commissioned in 

the first place to study the changing needs for FAL and then study the current programme to assess the 

extent to which it was responding adequately to the changing needs. This and the next chapter, present the 

findings on the people’s general needs and specifically on their learning needs. The later chapters then 

look at the different aspects of the programme to assess its response to the current needs and learning 

desires. 

3.1 Socio-economic Characteristics of the Population 

Economic Activity 

Crop farming, carried out on a small-scale basis using simple technology, is the main source of livelihood 

of most Ugandans, as already explained in Chapter 2. This was well reflected in the samples of this 

process review, as displayed in Figures 3.1 and 3.2. 

Figure 3.1: Main Occupation of Respondents (%) 

Crop farmer 

Business(Trading) 

Domestic work 

Umployed 

Pastoralist/livestock 

Boda boda 

Salaried employee 

Artisan 

Others 

5.0 

5.5 

7.0 

1.5 

0.8 

2.2 

1.0 

3.4 

1.7 

2.0 

3.0 

1.0 

0.5 

0.4 

0.7 

3.0 

3.4 

0.7 

0.5 

0.4 

0.7 

0.0 

0.4 

0.8 

83.4 

84.5 

84.4 

Non-Literates 

Graduates 

Participants 

0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0


Figure 3.1 shows that there was no difference in the main occupation of the three population categories: 

non-literates, graduates and current participants. Nor was there much difference between the main 

occupation of these three categories and the instructors, as can be seen in figure 3.2. 

The sample was mainly rural with the exception of the small number from Kampala, the capital city. 

Uganda has a very small urban population (12.3% according to the 2002 census) and FAL has targeted 

mainly the rural population, as can be seen from the curriculum, which addresses mainly rural issues. 

That all the four main population categories of the study were more than 80% crop farmers (subsistence 

level) is higher than the national average (71% according to the 2002 census). However this is explained 

by the fact that 9 out of every 10 persons with no formal education are in subsistence agriculture as 

revealed by the same census and also by the fact that females have a higher percentage in subsistence 

agriculture (80%) compared to men (63%) and that the sample had more women. 

Figure 3.2: Instructors' Main Occupation 

Crop farmer 

81.6% 

Music 

Other professional work 

Salaried employee 

Church leader 

Business(Trading) 

Pastoralist/livestock 

Artisan 

House work 

5.7% 

3.4% 

2.3% 

2.3% 

1.1% 

1.1% 

1.1% 

1.1% 

0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0% 80.0% 90.0% 

Source of light at night 

One useful indicator of the standard of living in the rural areas of Uganda is the ability to afford a 

kerosene fuelled “hurricane” lamp as compared to the open flame kerosene fuelled wick candle referred 

to in most parts of Uganda as tadoba or tadowa. The open flame wick candle is the source of lighting 

used by most rural households. The findings here (Figure 3.3) are remarkably similar to those of the 2002 

census, which found the tadoba used by 75.9% of Ugandan households (82.8% in the rural and only 33.4 

in the urban areas) while the hurricane lamp was used by 10.8% of the households (24.4% in urban areas). 

The predominantly rural nature of the sample for this study resulted in the percentage of those using 

electricity corresponding to the rural average as found in the census (2.7%). Because 39.3% of the urban 

households use electricity, the Ugandan average given by the census is deceptively high at 7.8%. 

The predominance of the tadoba as the source of lighting has important implications for reading practice. 

The tadoba produces very poor light that cannot be used for reading without very much strain and a big 

risk for the eyes. This discourages reading in the evening since in Uganda it becomes dark soon after 7 

p.m. This situation affects homework by school children and adult participants in FAL. It also affects the 

reading practice in general since people, especially women who are the majority in FAL, have so much to 

do during the day to ensure a livelihood for the family.


Figure 3.3: Source of Light at Night (%) 

Kerosene Candle 

76.8 

78.7 

76.7 

Hurricane lamp 

Wood fire 

Electricity 

Torch 

Wax candle 

Grass 

11.0 

13.1 

12.9 

8.3 

3.0 

4.4 

0.9 

1.9 

3.5 

0.4 

1.5 

0 

0.9 

1.1 

0.9 

1.8 

0.7 

1.6 

0 20 40 60 80 100 

Non-literates 

Graduates 

Participants 

Radio Ownership and Listening 

Radio ownership is another indicator of household well being. The sample for this study shows a 

significantly higher level of radio ownership than that reported by the 2002 census, where the average for 

Uganda was 49.2% while the rural areas had only 46.1%. It is possible that four years after the census, the 

situation in radio ownership has improved that much. It is, otherwise, difficult to find another explanation. 

Figure 3.4: Have a Radio in the Family 

80 

70 

60 

72.3 

62.8 

57.8 

50 

40 

30 

26.9 

35.5 

39.7 

Yes 

No 

20 

10 

0 

Graduates Participants Non-literates


The difference in the levels of radio ownership among graduates, participants and non-literates is 

interesting. Although it may not lead to any significant conclusions, it certainly stimulates some thinking 

and should arouse curiosity for further research. The ten-point difference between graduates and 

participants and the five-point difference between the participants and the non-participating non-literates 

may be indicating something about the impact of FAL. 

The study also sought to find out whether the respondents had control over the radio in the family. Table 

3.1 shows that a much higher percent of the men than the women, 22% higher, had control over the radio. 

This is not surprising in the context of the gender power relations especially in the traditional rural areas. 

Considering that the majority of FAL beneficiaries are women, who may need to be reached with radio 

programmes, this situation poses a programming challenge. Many FAL participants may actually be 

missing FAL-related programmes because they have no control over the radio in the house, although they 

would be very interested in listening to them. 

Table 3.1: Control over radio by Sex Cross-tabulation 

Control over radio Male Female Total 

f % f % f % 

Yes 57 67.1 143 45.1 200 49.6 

No 9 10.6 63 19.9 73 18.1 

Not applicable 17 20.0 94 29.7 111 27.5 

No response 2 2.4 17 5.4 19 4.7 

Total 85 100.0 317 100.0 403 100.0 

Table 3.2: Radio listening by sex 

Ever listen 

to radio 

Male 

% 

Female 

% 

Total 

% 

Rarely 20.0 13.9 15.1 

Sometimes 31.8 34.4 34.0 

Frequently 34.1 31.2 31.8 

Never 7.1 8.8 8.4 

No response 7.1 11.7 10.6 

The lower control over radio by women does not, however, seem to have affected their listening to radio, 

as can be seen in table 3.2. What it may affect, however, is their ability to choose the programme they 

may prefer to listen to. 

Schooling and Literacy 

The principal target of the FAL programme is the non-literate youth and adults who have never attended 

school. These constituted 24.3% of the age group (15 years and above) according to the 2002 census. The 

statistics in figure 3.5 show that the FAL programme attracts only a marginally higher percentage of those 

who have never attended school than the national average (19.3% of those aged 6 years and above; 24.3% 

of those aged 15 years and above) (UBOS 2006). The 1999 evaluation came up with a similar finding, 

that 70% of the FAL participants had attended school. The question raised at that evaluation still stands: 

is the programme missing its target? The fact that 56% of the sample of the population who had never 

attended adult literacy activities had never attended school was because of the deliberate effort to include 

as many non-literate persons in the sample from this category of the population. 

It should, of-course, be noted that attendance at school has not always ensured acquisition of formal 

literacy skills, especially when the school attendance is limited to the lower levels of primary education, 

which is the case with many of the literacy participants as shown in figure 2. The 1999 evaluation of the 

effectiveness of functional adult literacy in Uganda showed that Primary 3 pupils had not yet acquired 

literacy and numeracy skills achieved through the nine-month functional adult literacy programme 

(Okech, A et al 1999; Carr-Hill R. 2001).


Figure 3.5: School Attendance 

80.00% 

70.00% 

60.00% 

57% 

67% 

56% 

50.00% 

40.00% 

30.00% 

40% 

30% 

40% 

Attended 

Never attended 

20.00% 

10.00% 

0.00% 

Participants Graduates Non-literates 

The expansion of primary education, with very limited resources, brought in a big challenge of quality. 

To track the improvement in quality the government, through the Uganda National Examinations Board 

(UNEB) launched the National Assessment of Progress in Education (NAPE) initiative. The assessment 

has been conducted twice, first in 1999 and then in 2003, to ascertain the percentage number of primary 

school pupils in their third and sixth years of schooling who had managed to acquire the requisite literacy 

and numeracy competence levels. The findings from both studies are presented in Table 3.3 below. 

Table 3.3: NAPE Assessment Results for P3 and P6 Pupils (1999 & 2003) 

1999 2003 

% Boys % Girls % All % Boys % Girls % All 

Literacv P3 17.5 18.7 18.2 33.1 35.5 34.3 

Literacy P6 11.2 15.7 13.2 20.3 19.5 20.0 

Numeracy P3 41.3 36.0 38.3 43.9 41.9 42.9 

Numeracy P6 45.8 36.5 41.5 25.7 15.3 20.5 

Source: NAPE Report 2003 

The results in table 3.3 above show that while between 1999 and 2003 there has been a clear 

improvement in the proportionate number of both P3 and P6 boys and girls who have attained the 

stipulated literacy and numeracy competence benchmarks, the overall competency levels are still low. For 

example, only 34.3% and 20.0% of the P3 and P6 pupils respectively had achieved the defined literacy 

skill grades in English; while 20.5% and 42.9% of the P6 and P3 pupils respectively achieved the 

numeracy skills. The fact that in both assessments pupils in the lower classes scored a higher rate of 

literacy achievement than those in the higher classes seems to indicate that literacy acquisition is 

improving. The girls had a lead over the boys in literacy competencies in 1999, but the boys seem to have 

caught up in 2003. The boys are, however, more competent than girls in numeracy throughout, with the 

P6 girls putting up a particularly poor performance in 2003, showing a serious decline since 1999. The 

weakness of girls in numeracy has undesirable consequences for the percentage of girls able to undertake 

science courses in higher education.


Figure 3.6: Levels of Schooling Attained 

by those who Attended (%) 

60 

56 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

41 

34 

48 

10 

11 

Participants 

Graduates 

0 

Primary 1-3 Primary 4-7 Beyond P7 

3.2 People’s Problems and Concerns 

The first task of this FAL process review was to identify and describe the basic needs, problems and 

concerns of the FAL participants and potential participants. When asked what their most serious problems 

were, the potential participants replied, as displayed in figure 3.7, that their main problem was poverty, 

expressed either as poverty or as lack of money; with the women seeming to feel the lack of money more 

than the men. The next most frequently mentioned was illness, followed at some distance by inability to 

read and write (illiteracy). A number of respondents also mentioned lack of knowledge or skills. Illiteracy 

and lack of knowledge or skills is therefore the concern of a much smaller number of people than the 

concern about poverty. It is therefore very relevant that FAL is associated with the effort to reduce 

poverty and improve people’s livelihood. 

Figure 3.7: Non-literates' most serious problems (%) 

Poverty 

Lack of money 

Illness 

Illiteracy 

Lack of food 

Lack of knowledge/skills 

Insecurity 

Others 

3 

0 

2 

5 

11 

9 

11 

19 

19 

19 

35 

44 

41 

51 

56 

65 

Female 

Male 

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70


The association between FAL and poverty reduction is, however, something that does not immediately 

come out from the potential learners’ responses as can be seen in Figure 3.8, where none of them plans 

attaining literacy or any learning as a strategy for dealing with their most serious problem. 

Figure 3.8: Non-literates' plans for improvement % 

Increase or improve agriculture 

Business 

Income generating activities 

Selling property 

Working in groups 

Borrowing from microfinance 

Others 

13 

17 

8 

10 

13 

5 

8 

10 

5 

6 

7 

5 

3 

2 

5 

8 

5 

14 

41 

38 

46 

Total 

Female 

Male 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

Surprisingly, when asked what government could do to solve those problems, provision of adult 

education and literacy programmes feature quite significantly, although not in top position, which is 

occupied by provision of microfinance (Table 3.4). 

Table 3.4: What government could do to solve the problems 

What Government could do 

% of Cases 

1. Provision of microfinance 29.1 

2. Support of FAL programmes financially/construct classrooms 13.4 

3. Support agriculture: provide land/farm inputs 13.4 

4. Provision of adult education 12.2 

5. Provision of food and lowering food price 9.3 

6. Giving scholarships to children 7.6 

7. Providing free health facilities 4.7 

8. Peace talks 4.7 

9. Encourage people to join projects 4.1 

10. Provision of shelter 4.1 

11. Train in modern agricultural methods 3.5 

12. Feeder road construction 2.9 

13. Train people for business management 1.2 

14. Employing/training more instructors 0.6 

There is however high awareness among potential learners that not being able to read and write is a 

problem: 91.5% of them said it is. Table 3.5 gives the problems they associated with not being able to 

read and write. Communication problems feature highly among the problems, and the non-literates are 

concerned with the lack of confidentiality when they cannot read and write, most likely because they have 

to depend on a third party in the literacy mediation process that takes place often. There is, however, 

fairly significant concern about the limitations caused by inability to read and write in business and 

resource management, with the risk of being conned featuring significantly. It is clear that the main


concern related to inability to read and write is social but that economic concerns are also in the people’s 

minds. This may be a useful indicator for the type of programmes the people would be interested in, as is 

further clarified in the next chapter that deal with the people’s learning desires and needs. 

Table 3.5: Problems Associated with Illiteracy and Why Non-literates Regret Being Illiterate (%) 

Problem Male Female Total Why regretting illiteracy Male Female Total 

1. Bad communication 36 45 41 1. Lost in business / was conned 17 12 14 

2. Lack of confidentiality 33 33 33 2. Lost job / failed LC1 election 21 9 14 

3. Inability to carry out business 39 26 31 3. Can’t write name at meetings 21 12 16 

4. Risk of being conned 33 26 29 4. Got lost while travelling 13 18 16 

5. Mismanagement of resources 33 22 26 5. Educated have jobs / live well 8 6 7 

6. No progress in life 19 26 23 6. Friends don’t write me letters 8 18 14 

7. Limited job opportunity 28 18 22 7. Envy people using computers 8 12 11 

8. Inferiority complex 25 20 22 8. Low income / can’t pay fees 0 6 4 

9. Forced to vote one didn’t want 0 6 4 

10. Lack of confidence / insecure 0 3 2 

11. Can’t attend seminars 4 0 2 

3.3 Views from focus group discussions on problems and needs 

In the focus group discussions, men and women, both potential and actual FAL participants, identified a 

number of problems similar to those found through the individual interviews. The main problem the 

people mentioned during the discussions is, as in the case of interviews, poverty at household and 

community levels. Some of them face shortage of land and food, lack stores and markets for their 

produce, receive low prices for their produce but pay highly for manufactured goods and services. They 

are disturbed by unpredictable weather, long dry spells and/or heavy rainfall, both affecting their 

agricultural production and making it hard for women to feed their families. In addition to these, women 

are restrained by their lack of control over resources needed to perform their duties. 

Women are unable to engage in income generating activities because they either lack relevant knowledge 

and skill, high yielding seeds and the required capital. They are faced with a lot of domestic work and 

their husbands cannot help them because it is not their socially ascribed gender role. They are 

overburdened and this is not made any easier when they participate in development programmes. But 

because they seek empowerment, they accept the extra burden such programmes come with. 

Many are unable to provide required scholastic materials. As a result a number of their children drop out 

of school. Some other children drop out of school because of the distance they have to trek daily. Some 

girls are forced out of school to get married or because of getting pregnant. In many communities, there is 

lack of medical facilities and some of what is available lack drugs and/or sufficient qualifies medical 

staff. As a result, many mothers deliver at home, often unassisted. 

One of the most commonly expressed concerns in the focus group discussions on problems and needs is 

that all, but more especially women, desire to feed their families well, to be able to take better care of 

their families socially and economically, to live in hygienic home/community environment, to have safe 

water sources nearby, to be rid of common diseases like malaria and others, to have knowledge on 

HIV/AIDS prevention and management as well as family planning.


They desire to produce marketable goods and services and find markets for them so that they earn them 

good money. Thus they want improved road networks in place and affordable transport system. They 

want to participate in the governance of their community affairs. They desire to qualify for leadership 

positions and to be able to make their leaders accountable. This is especially by women whose 

participation in governance is minimal. 

Women want to live in harmony with members of their families, and to be appreciated by them. They 

want to be heard in public. They want to have time and freedom to belong to social-economic groups, to 

go to FAL classes, acquire relevant skills and have resources to put into practice what they learn. They 

want to see their heavy work reduced and to be free from domestic violence. They don't want to have 

their girl children married at a tender age and/or defiled. They want their husbands learning, working and 

earning, not to while away time idle or in bars getting drunk. 

Men and women, especially in Adjumani, Gulu and Kapchorwa, emphasised that they want to live in 

peace.


Chapter 4: People’s Learning Desires and Readiness to Learn 

The findings presented in the previous chapter showed that lack of knowledge and skills, including 

literacy skills, is not perceived by many non-literates as their main problem. They do not spontaneously 

see acquiring new knowledge and skills as a strategy to reduce or do away with their problems. However, 

when specifically asked, they say that they want to learn, and they give strong reasons why they want to 

learn what they want to learn. The findings presented in this chapter elaborate on their desire and 

readiness to learn, as well as their fears about what may affect their learning. 

4.1 Expressed learning desires and readiness to learn 

The potential learners sample was asked what they would choose to learn first if they were given the 

opportunity to learn whatever they wanted to learn. The majority, a higher percent of the women than the 

men, said reading and writing, as displayed in Figure 4.1. So, whereas illiteracy ranked fourth in the list 

of most serious problems, and acquisition of literacy skills was not among their spontaneous strategies for 

dealing with the problems, yet literacy takes top priority among the things they would like to learn first. 

This is a challenging situation. Did they mention reading and writing because this was a FAL-related 

study and they believe that reading and writing is what FAL offers? Or do they associate learning with 

mainly reading and writing? After all, in most Ugandan languages those who have gone through formal 

education are referred to as those who have “read”. 

Figure 4.1: Things non-literates want to learn first (%) 

Reading and writing 

Numeracy 

Technical, vocational training 

Agriculture 

Languages 

Health 

Religion 

2 

2 

2 

13 

11 

15 

12 

11 

14 

8 

9 

5 

7 

21 

21 

22 

39 

40 

37 

Total 

Female 

Male 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

The fact that agriculture and technical and vocational training also feature somewhat significantly would 

seem to indicate that the respondents to some extent see the acquisition of knowledge and skills as having 

a contribution to make to improvements in their strategies to deal with poverty, their most serious 

problem.


The explanations the respondents gave as to why they want to learn the different things confirm the 

importance they give to literacy, but also show that they want to learn other things that will sustain their 

lives (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 also displays why the non-literates want to learn to read and write. When one 

compares this to the explanations given by current literacy programme participants and by literacy 

graduates as to why they joined the adult literacy programme, one finds an even greater emphasis on 

wanting to learn to read and write and get out of ignorance in a general way. The participants and 

graduates also bring up the social benefits they expected from literacy (Tables 4.2 and 4.3). 

To the specific question whether they wanted to learn to read and write, an overwhelming 92% of the 

non-literate sample said “yes”. The explanations for their choice given in Table 4.1 show that they make a 

link between literacy and their daily life, desirable change and development. 

Table 4.1: Explanation why non-literates want to learn the different things 

N=98 

Why learn the different Male Female Total Why learn to read & Male Female Total 

things 

write 

1. Reading on my own 36.1 61.8 51.6 1.Very useful in daily life 44.7 54.7 50.5 

2. Sustain my life 33.3 38.2 36.3 2. Do things by myself 44.7 50.9 48.4 

3. Getting information easily 36.1 18.2 25.3 3. Easy communication 31.6 26.4 28.6 

4. Be able to carry out a project 30.6 20.0 24.2 4. It will change my life 15.8 32.1 25.3 

5. Lack of confidence 19.4 23.6 22.0 5. For development 28.9 20.8 24.2 

6. Keeping secrets 8.3 3.6 5.5 6. Come out of ignorance 7.9 15.1 12.1 

7. Consideration in society 5.3 3.8 4.4 

8. To be able to get a job 7.9 1.9 4.4 

It is of some interest to note that a greater percent of the women bring out the desire to learn to read and 

write for greater autonomy (to read on their own, do things by themselves). This may be a sign that they 

look to literacy as something which will liberate them from dependency and occupying a lowly position 

in the family and society. Many more women than men, in fact, see that literacy will change their life and 

be useful in their daily life, while men seem to focus more on literacy for development and for external 

communication. This, if confirmed by other studies, could be a useful pointer for the design of 

programmes that are relevant to men and to women. 

Table 4.2: Participants’ reasons for joining the adult literacy programme 

Reason Male Female Total 

1. Learn to read and write 69.0 73.4 72.5 

2. Get out of ignorance 44.0 42.6 42.9 

3. Refresh myself 13.1 13.8 13.6 

4. To read something, newspaper, bible 11.9 11.2 11.4 

5. Social benefits e.g. get married 15.5 9.6 10.9 

6. Find a job 8.3 5.8 6.3 

7. Learn to care for the family 3.6 5.4 5.1 

8. Learn new things, what I missed 2.4 2.2 2.3 

9. Be able to count / calculate 2.4 0.6 1.0 

10. Improve/learn about agriculture 2.4 0.6 1.0 

11. Access capital for business / fight poverty 1.2 0.6 0.8 

12. Others 1.2 0.9 1.0


Table 4.3: Graduates’ reasons for joining adult literacy class 

Reason Male Female Total 

1. Learn to read and write 69.2 68.5 68.7 

2. Get our of ignorance 36.9 36.9 36.9 

3. Refresh myself 18.5 22.0 21.0 

4. To read something, newspaper, bible 10.8 13.1 12.4 

5. Social benefits e.g. get married 10.8 12.5 12.0 

6. Brought by someone 4.6 5.4 5.2 

7. Find a job 4.6 4.8 4.7 

8. Learn to care for the family 4.6 3.6 3.9 

9. Improve/learn about agriculture 1.5 1.8 1.7 

10. Learn better business / IGA 3.1 1.2 1.7 

11. Learn English .0 1.8 1.3 

12. Others .0 4.8 3.5 

To understand more of the people’s learning desires, current literacy programme participants and literacy 

graduates were also asked what more they wanted to learn. Almost one half of the participants mentioned 

English, followed by about one quarter mentioning reading, writing and numeracy and 20% wanting more 

general knowledge. Among the graduates, 64% mentioned English followed by general knowledge at 

23% and reading, writing and numeracy at between 16% and 19%. Only few of both the participants and 

graduates mentioned agriculture and business and even fewer mentioned technical and vocational 

training. Health was also mentioned by fewer than 10%. 

Figure 4.2: Things non-literate sample want to read 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

26 

13 

24 

51 

64 

58 

13 

9 

11 

9 

21 

15 

30 

44 

38 

Male 

Female 

Total 

0 

Newspapers Bible/Koran Prayer book Hymn book Other books 

Apparently, the change brought about by participation in the literacy programme has been to strengthen 

even further the orientation of the learning desires towards things to do with communication and social 

benefits and weaken the desire for learning related to livelihood knowledge and skills. 

The reading and writing desires expressed by the potential learners also show that they are thinking more 

about the social benefits of literacy than about the economic instrumental uses. The high interest in


reading the Bible or Koran could be explained by the high level of religious devotion currently 

manifested in Uganda. It could, however, also be explained simply by the fact that these are the books 

that are available in most parts of Uganda among followers of the Christian or Muslim religion. The lower 

level of interest in reading newspapers may be reflecting the lack of newspapers in many of the 

languages spoken in the sampled districts: of the 18 languages given by the non-literates as their mother 

tongue, 9 do not have a newspaper. The large percentage of responses categorised under “other books” is 

because many responses just mentioned “books” without being specific about what kind of book. 

What the potential learners want to write most are letters (66.1%), followed by the desire to write things 

that are learnt in school: English, maths, social studies and local languages (29.2%). Personal notes were 

also mentioned by a few (10.1%) and so were announcements and articles, presumably for the 

newspapers (7.7%). Figure 4.3 distributes the percentages by sex. 

When asked specifically whether they wanted to learn to do written calculations, 87.4% of the potential 

learners said they did (there were 8% “no responses”). The explanations they gave were a big swing away 

from the social benefits to the more economic aspects. They want to learn to calculate for better business 

and money handling (79.1%), to help in daily life calculations (21.6%), to help in work, e.g. construction 

(3.3%) and to read weighing scales (2.0%). 

Figure 4.3: What non-literate sample wants to write (%) 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

62 59 58 

Letters 

41 

34 

28 

English, Math, 

SST, local 

languages 

9 9 9 6 7 7 6 

Business 

transactions 

Personal notes Announcements 

2 4 5 5 

0 3 0 3 

Bible scripts 

General 

Information 

Male 

Female 

Total 

In summary, whether they have never attended the literacy programme, they have already attended it or 

they are still attending it, a significant proportion of the people want to learn to write, read and master 

numeracy. They also desire to acquire some general knowledge. Having acquired some literacy in the 

mother tongue, many of them want to move on to learn English and acquire literacy in English, the 

language of formal education, official government business and much of the communication at national 

and international levels. 

The reasons given by potential learners (non-literates) seem to show that the people are interested in 

learning to read and write in order to improve their daily lives, be more self-reliant, communicate better 

and acquire more knowledge. Apart from the hope to change their life mentioned in only 15% of the 

responses, the more instrumental reasons which see literacy as leading to other benefits like jobs were 

mentioned by very few people. Their expectations of literacy are thus realistic and require learning that is 

relevant to their current life and activities. In numeracy, too, the people are looking for knowledge that 

will enable them to do better those things that they are already doing as opposed to looking for new 

activities or opportunities. The signal for the literacy programmes is that learning should be as much as 

possible integrated with the people’s ongoing activities and life.


4.2 Expected benefits from learning 

The benefits the potential learners expect from learning to read and write are dominated by gaining 

confidence (29.8%) linked to self-reliance or being able to do things on their own, getting out of 

ignorance and gaining more knowledge (22.7%) and communicating easily (18.4%). They also hope to be 

able to get a job (8.5%), keep records and secrets (7.8%) to avoid being cheated (5.7%) and plan for 

family development (5.7%). Most of these expected benefits are in line with what the potential learners 

have been saying about why they want to learn to read and write, that is, to do better or more effectively 

those things that they are already doing, most of them things in their daily life. It is, however, important to 

note that some expect that they will benefit by being employed. This brings in the dimension of the labour 

market, to which the programme must be designed to respond. 

Views from focus group discussions 

Participants in the focus group discussions emphasised that men and women need to be rid of ignorance. 

As one female FGD member in Kisoro put it, "Ignorance has kept us behind. We want to advance". 

Potential and FAL participants need literacy skills, reading, writing and numeracy to get out of ignorance 

They, especially women said they want to be role models for their children. They said that they want to 

assist in their learning and assess their academic performance. They want good education for their 

children both boys and girls; they want them to go to good schools, complete their studies and get 

employment. They are uncomfortable about being unlearned and want their children to be better off than 

them. 

The following is a summary of the learning desires and expected learning benefits expressed during the 

discussions: 

Reading, writing and numeracy skills 

Men and women, learners and potential learners expressed the desire to acquire reading and writing skills. 

With these skills they expect be able to read road signs, medical prescriptions, religious books, 

confidential letters/information especially from spouses, keep business record, help/check children's 

school work, take notes in meetings and so on. They desire to count money when selling and buying, and 

to keep financial records of their businesses. 

Further education 

Some desire to join mainstream formal educational system after completing the stages in FAL and 

hopefully become employable. This is a great opportunity especially for women, the majority of who 

missed out on formal schooling. 

Practical skills 

Some potential and actual learners, especially the youth and men, desire to acquire skills such as 

masonry/construction and carpentry. Women and men want to acquire tailoring and handicrafts skills, 

business management skills, modem farming and animal husbandry and so on, to meet their immediate 

family needs and improve their family livelihoods. 

Family welfare 

Some women explained that they want to know how to improve their homes through proper hygienic 

practices, such as sanitation, nutrition and food preparation and to better care for their families.


Social participation and status 

Some of the FAL target population also stated that they want to be skilled in leadership/governance and in 

development initiatives in the area. They want to participate in community and religious activities. They 

want to raise their status in their communities given their status as a category, this is especially important 

to them. They want to be good examples to their children and role models to the unschooled in their 

communities. 

Some women wish to see the cultural practices that attach less value and importance to girls and their 

education, those that condone early marriages, domestic violence, and that ascribe all the domestic work 

on women and girls changed. 

4.3 Desired learning and teaching arrangements 

Information sought on the people’s desired learning and teaching arrangements covered (a) the person 

they would prefer to teach them, (b) the required number of days they would prefer to learn in a week, 

and (c) the desired duration of the learning session per day. 

Table 4.4: Person Non-literate sample prefers to teach them by Sex (% within sex) 

N = 98 

Sex Total 

Male Female 

1. Well trained FAL instructor 36.8 28.3 31.6 

2. Educated /experienced person/Degree holder 23.7 10.0 15.3 

3. Teacher 5.3 15.0 11.2 

4. Fellow man/woman 5.3 13.3 10.2 

5. Person with specialised knowledge: business/numeracy skills 5.3 5.0 5.1 

6. Person of a certain age: elderly/youth 0 3.3 2.0 

7. Person doing a particular job: Chairperson LC I/ACDO 2.6 1.7 2.0 

8. Someone active/decent 5.3 0 2.0 

9. A white/European 2.6 0 1.0 

10. Others 10.5 8.3 9.2 

11. No response 2.6 15.0 9.2 

Person preferred as teacher and why 

The preference of the non-literates for a particular type of person to teach them is based mainly on the 

consideration that the person should be knowledgeable, skilled and experienced. That is why in Table 4.4 

the categories that rank highest are those of the well trained instructor and the educated person including 

degree holders. The fact that men seem to have the greater preference for the well-trained and the 

educated than do the women may be due to the fact that while many men are looking for continuing 

education, the women are mainly looking for literacy and basic education, since many of them are to a 

great extent non-literate. However, it should be noted that a significant percent of the women specifically 

mention that they would prefer a teacher, who is usually the person most known as educated, trained or 

skilled in the community. 

The second most frequent reason the people give for their preference is the interest the person has in 

teaching or helping adults. Related to that, they take into consideration the person’s qualities of being 

considerate, cooperative and understanding. Women, in particular, explain that women understand the 

problems of women and are more considerate and cooperative. Accordingly, more women prefer fellow 

women (13%) than men prefer fellow men (5%). The respondents also explain that they want someone


who makes them understand better. A few mentioned they want a person who is respectful and keeps 

secrets. 

Number of days and hours preferred 

There is an interesting agreement between the number of days and hours actually used in the FAL 

programme and the desired number of days and hours preferred for attending classes by the non-literates. 

This means that, in the majority of cases, the current two or three days a week for two or three hours a day 

is what the programme must be ready to work with. 

Figure 4.4: Number of class days per week preferred by non literate sample (%) 

Percent preferring days per week 

Percent preferring class hours per day 

45 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

41.2 

25.1 

9 

7 

3.5 

2 

3.5 

1day 2days 3days 4days 5days 6days 7days 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

5 

33.2 

1hour 2hours 

28.6 

13.6 

5.5 

2 

1 

3hours 4hours 5 hours6 hours7 hours 

There are, of-course, the few who can afford attending classes daily and some for longer periods, as 

displayed in Figure 4.4. The diversity of needs and situations referred to in the clarification of concepts in 

Chapter 1 clearly manifests itself here. The current arrangements seem to respond only to the majority 

views, a rather small majority at that. 

Class venues and facilities 

For the FAL classes, as came out especially in the focus group discussions, the people desire to have 

constructed and appropriately furnished structures, well stocked with relevant materials, with trained, 

motivated and facilitated instructors. Many are discouraged by the long distance to FAL class they have 

to walk in between their other activities. 

4.4 Expected difficulties while learning 

Many of the non-literates seem to be apprehensive about their ability to learn and mention various 

learning difficulties. Many of them anticipate difficulties in learning to read and write, with few of them 

even worried about their ability to hold a pen and write with it. They also mention difficulties related to 

poor memory, learning in old age and problems with numeracy. 

Another significant area of concern is illness. The illness could be that affecting them personally but it 

could also be that affecting members of the family. This can be a big constraint especially for the women, 

who are often left alone to take care of sick children, with very rare support from the husband. When


looking at the participation by the current and former programme participants the reality of this worry 

about illness comes out clearly. It is one of the most common factors in making participants miss coming 

to class. 

Figure 4.5: Difficulties while learning anticipated by non-literates (%) 

Learning difficulties 

45.3 

Illness 

Social and business commitments 

Failure to afford requirements 

25 

23.6 

27 

Lack of materials & facilities 

16.2 

Lack of confidence 

10.8 

Family constraints 

7.5 

Others 

10.8 

0 10 20 30 40 50 

Social and business commitments rank almost equal to illness among the expected difficulties, with most 

of the difficulties in this category being of a social nature: funerals of relatives, friends and neighbours, 

religious functions and other social functions of various types. Indeed, much time in the rural areas is 

spent on these functions. One often hears rural people complaining that they have no more time to work 

because of the numerous funerals these days. Attending funerals is a social obligation that one ignores at 

the risk of serious damage to one’s social belonging and status. 

Concerns raised about failure to afford the requirements for the programme seem to show that the people 

expect that they may have to provide the kind of requirements they find so hard to provide for their 

children in schools. Exercise (note) books, pens and pencils, extra reading books, uniforms and so on. The 

FAL programme only requires the learners to provide their own exercise books (one at a time) and pens. 

Some non-literates no doubt know that the FAL programme does have a shortage of learning and teaching 

materials and usually have no facilities at the venues. They rightly feel that this will cause difficulties.


Chapter 5: Programme Organisation and Management 

One of the objectives of the process review was to determine the status and performance of the 

Government FAL and other adult literacy programmes in the country. This objective has occupied the 

major part of the process review because it summarises what mainly constitutes a process review. The 

findings relevant to the objective are presented and discussed in this and the following three chapters. 

This chapter gives an overview and focuses on organisation and management issues. The other three 

focus respectively on: approaches, curriculum, methods and materials; learners and their participation and 

instructors, their performance and incentives. 

5.1 Status of the government FAL programme 

National responsible organ 

Currently, the Department of Disability and Elderly in the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social 

Development (MGLSD) is responsible for the Government adult literacy programme all over the country. 

Adult literacy provision, however, occupies a very lowly position in the organisational structure of the 

Ministry. Government ministries are divided into Directorates, Departments and Sections or Divisions. 

Adult literacy provision does not constitute any of those units. It is just considered a set of activities with 

a coordinator reporting to the head of the Department of Disability and Elderly. Many feel that putting 

adult literacy under that department is already rather inappropriate since one is dealing neither with a 

disability nor with something for the elderly only. 

The process review team discussed this with the Minister of State and the Commissioner in charge of the 

Department of Disability and Elderly, asking whether the lowly position of adult literacy in the Ministry 

did not hinder its prioritisation and hence adequate funding and whether adult literacy and adult education 

in general would not benefit better by being put together with other aspects of education in the Ministry of 

Education and Sports (MOES). The minister explained that FAL in MOES would be unfortunate because 

it would be swallowed up by the many concerns that preoccupied that ministry. On the other hand, he 

argued, MGLSD was the right home for FAL, a pro-people programme. MGLSD, he justified, is a 

ministry that mobilises the people. He, moreover, did not see the position occupied by FAL as a lowly 

one. FAL, he pointed out, has a Coordinator who reports to the policy level. There is only need to 

streamline how to link the coordinator with the minister. However, he eventually agreed that the existing 

structures could be reconsidered if proper justification is given for that. The discussion with the 

Commissioner came to fairly the same conclusion. 

Implementation 

The FAL programme is implemented by the local governments in the decentralised system. Most districts 

have a Community Based Services Department or Directorate, which is in charge of FAL, among other 

programmes. There is usually a Community Development Officer (CDO) or Assistant CDO (ACDO) 

charged with supervision of FAL. This officer in charge of FAL works with the sub-county CDO, ACDO 

or Community Development Assistants (CDA) for the actual implementation of the programme activities, 

which take place in the communities. Government has embarked upon a programme of improving the 

quality of incumbent staff at the district and lower levels although in a number of places there is still a 

serious shortage of staff. 

It is relevant to note that leadership and public service at district level is still male dominated. Of the 

targeted leaders and officials served with questionnaires at the district level 88% were male and only 12%


female. At the sub-county level the disparity was a little less at 73% male and 21% female; but that is still 

very imbalanced. Among the organisation leaders it was 77% male to 23% female. Even the community 

development departments, which used to be staffed predominantly by female workers at the sub-county 

levels (especially the CDAs), now seem to be having increasingly more female staff at that level, 

probably as a result of the restructuring and upgrading of the positions. At the field level, for example 

among the instructors, there is a somewhat better balance between male and female, which is important 

for a programme that serves women to such a great extent. However, it is still very far from the desirable. 

Using a similar sex-blind sampling procedure as that used for the 1999 evaluation, this process review 

interacted with an instructors’ sample that was 62% male and 38% female, while the 1999 evaluation had 

55% male and 45% female. It seems the sex balance situation is deteriorating. 

Practically all the district officials and leaders who responded (96%) knew that there was FAL running in 

their district and none said there was no FAL activity in the district. At the sub-county level 5% said there 

was no FAL activity in the sub-county. According to information obtained from the Commissioner for 

Disability and Elderly, the government FAL is currently operating in all 80 districts of the country but in 

only 740 out of the 966 sub-counties. He informed the process review that there were a total of 8,644 

classes and that the cumulative figure of learners since 2002/2003 was 1,234,887 with 30,000 trained 

instructors, which he could not disaggregate by sex. The challenge in respect of figures, as will be further 

discussed, is that there is nowhere near comprehensive documentation to confirm these figures. 

As recommended after the pilot phase in 1995, the programme at first spread gradually, moving out into 

parts of the country where interest was explicit and demands for the programme were made. While the 

principle of gradual expansion has been maintained, the political push from members of Parliament and 

local politicians is to have the programme spread in every part of the country, resulting in some token 

implementation in parts of all the districts. Since this push to spread out is not accompanied by increased 

budgetary allocation, the result is a thinly spread out, poorly supported provision that cannot perform 

satisfactorily. There is now a call for more structured and systematic literacy coverage other than the 

wider coverage that produces thin impact. 

Linkage between Ministry and implementers 

A significant issue that arose during the process review is that of the link between the Ministry and the 

FAL implementers at the district and sub-county levels. Although the NALSIP and the FAL 

implementation guidelines spell out the role of the different levels of actors, hardly anything is said about 

the nature of the link between the different levels. In the decentralised system, the District CDO is obliged 

to report only to the District Chief Administrative Officer. Without explicit guidelines, therefore, whether 

a district submits reports to the Ministry or not depends on the decision of the incumbent concerned. 

Some districts further felt that the Ministry neglected them, hardly paid them any support visits and did 

not lobby for them with the district and central authorities as other ministries did. It was rather puzzling 

that the District CDO of a district which MGLSD reported having paid a monitoring and support visit 

during the very quarter during which the process review was carried out said they had not seen officials of 

the ministry in the district for a long time! 

Some CDOs said they were not obliged to submit activity reports to MGLSD. Their obligation was to 

report to the Chief Administrative Officer who in turn submits a progress report and a work plan and 

funding request for the next quarter to the Permanent Secretary MGLSD. These very brief reports and 

requests do not have much useful information about the programme activities focusing as they do on the 

finances. Some of the very few such reports that the process review team was able to access at MGLSD 

after a long struggle did not even have the section on the progress report but only the work plan and 

funding request! At the district level, with just a couple of exceptions, it was difficult to obtain even the 

financial report from the CDO. It was clear that record keeping was a rather weak point in the programme


at all levels, even in financial matters, and that MGLSD was receiving very little information from the 

districts. 

The minister and the commissioner explained that they were aware of the weak linkages and were making 

efforts to improve the situation. With support from the Icelandic International Development Agency 

(ICEIDA) the ministry had developed an adult literacy management information system (ALMIS) that 

would ensure smooth flow of information on FAL from the districts. The minister explained that he had 

also been talking to politicians at district level; something that he acknowledged had been overlooked. 

The Community Based Services sector, he explained, had been neglected by most local governments and 

it was important to talk to the districts so that the planning and funding favours these programmes. 

Support to FAL in the districts and sub-counties 

As already observed in the 1999 FAL evaluation there are strikingly wide variations among the districts 

and sub-counties in the level of commitment to FAL, as manifested through budgeting, actual financing 

and implementation. This process review noted the same variations. Whereas decentralisation gives a 

large degree of autonomy, the central government has still the role of ensuring pursuit of national goals 

and quality in the provision of government financed services. The mechanism for this in the provision of 

FAL is very inadequate. What happens, as already said, as a result depends on the person responsible in 

the district. As noted in 1999, it was again clear that some local authorities do not attach the same priority 

as the central government to the promotion of literacy. 

Officials in one district claimed during a discussion with the review team that FAL is the mother of all the 

district programmes because most of the participants in its development programmes are illiterate and 

especially women, and that this hinders the rate of appreciation and implementation of its programmes. 

When asked how much the district is willing to contribute towards FAL, however, the same officials said 

formal education, roads and other programmes deserve priority attention. 

Primary education has demonstrated that it is possible to decentralise implementation and still ensure the 

required level of commitment by the local authorities and quality of provision at the implementing level. 

MOES does work to ensure quality in primary education. With over 40% of the district respondents and 

over 30% of the sub-county respondents assessing that FAL is not a priority in their respective areas, 

there is certainly need for the government ministry overseeing FAL to do something to ensure more 

commitment to effective and quality implementation of the programme. 

Figure 5.1: Whether FAL is a priority and regular budget item at district and sub-county (as 

reported by officials and leaders from those levels) 

District: N=74; Sub-County N=80 

Whether FAL is a priority 

Whether FAL is a regular item in the budget 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

47.4 

Yes 

66.7 

43.4 

No 

30.9 

District 

Sub-county 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

61.7 

55.3 

28.9 

18.5 

17.3 

11.8 

Great extent Some extent Not at all 

District 

Sub-county 

While more sub-county respondents than district respondents consider that FAL is a priority in their subcounties, 

they seem to rate FAL lower than the district respondents as a regular item in their budgets. This


seems to reflect the reality observed in the field. As Table 5.1 shows, almost double the percent of the 

district compared to the sub-county respondents reported budget allocation as a contribution made to 

FAL. There is also an explanation for that. The districts must budget for FAL in order to receive the 

Poverty Action Fund (PAF) money remitted from the central government for FAL. Since the sub-counties 

do not directly receive this money, the conditions do not oblige them to budget for it; so they often do not 

include it in their budget. Apparently it is not so high a priority that many sub-counties would allocate to 

it any of their own very meagre revenue. 

Table 5.1: District and sub-county contribution to FAL as reported by respondents at those levels 


District 

Budget allocation/planning for FAL 40.0 

Sub-county 

Mobilising/Sensitising learners/community 49.3 

Monitoring and supervision 36.9 Monitors and supervises FAL classes 27.4 

Mobilisation/sensitisation of community 32.3 Financial support/budgets for FAL 20.5 

Training FAL instructors 10.8 Capacity building /training FAL instructors 12.3 

Encourage farmer group formation 6.2 Moral support/encouraging learners 9.6 

Providing physical facilities e.g. for meetings 6.2 Providing teaching /learning materials 9.6 

Staff from other departments teach in FAL 4.6 Shelter/hall provided for FAL activities 5.5 

Political support 3.1 Nothing /Council can provide nothing 4.1 

Hardly any contribution, limited local revenue 9.2 

The responses to the question on contributions made to FAL at the district and sub-county strengthen this 

possible explanation. Twice the percentage of district respondents mentions budget allocation compared 

to that of sub-county respondents. The sub-county respondents emphasise more mobilisation, 

sensitisation, encouragement and moral support as their contribution. Considering the fact that many of 

the other categories of respondents lamented the inadequacy of mobilisation, this contribution by the subcounty 

is certainly important. 

The leaders and officials also rated positively the contribution made to FAL by the community. At the 

district level the rating was: 13.2% to a great extent; 71.1% to some extent; 3.9% not at all and 11.8% 

gave no opinion. At the sub-county level it was: 17.3% to a great extent; 70.4% to some extent; 3.7% not 

at all and 4.9% gave no opinion. The community contribution to FAL mentioned by the district level 

correspondents highlighted mobilisation by LCs and encouragement of other community members; 

providing community learning centres; participating in FAL classes and other FAL activities; providing 

scholastic materials, other local materials and land for practical lessons; volunteering as trainers and 

motivating instructors through in-kind contributions. A few however felt that communities were yet to be 

mobilised to contribute adequately. The respondents at sub-county level listed mainly the following 

community contributions: providing shelter or premises for FAL activities; providing furniture; 

sacrificing time to attend classes and participate in FAL activities; mobilising one another and 

encouraging one another to attend and identifying instructors. 

District and sub-county rating of FAL policy and performance 

At the national level much concern has been expressed, especially by CSOs, that the current policy is 

inadequate and contributes to the poor performance of FAL. The process review thought it useful to find 

out from the officials and leaders at the district and sub-county levels their assessment of the FAL policy 

and performance. Their rating of the policy is presented in Figure 5.2 and the lists of reasons that follow 

it, while the rating of FAL performance is presented in Table 5.2 and the list of reasons follows it.


Figure 5.2: District and sub-county respondents’ rating of current policy as an adequate guide for 

adult literacy 


District rating 

Sub-county rating 

69% 

1% 

4% 

26% 

Great extent 

Some extent 

Not at all 

No opinion 

12% 

43% 

5% 

40% 

Great extent 

Some extent 

Not at all 

No opinion 

District officials seem, on the aggregate, to rate the current policy more highly as an adequate guide for 

adult literacy. A larger percent of the sub-county respondents believe the policy is not adequate at all, 

although a larger percent than the district respondents rate the policy as adequate to a great extent. 

Corresponding to their higher rating of the policy, district respondents give more positive reasons for their 

rating than negative ones. They give positive reasons in 70% of the cases, while the sub-county 

respondents are positive in only 55% of the cases. This is an indication that the policy is not so helpful at 

the implementation level. The positive reasons given include: 

- Enabled people to read and write 

- Enabled people to speak English 

- Improved FAL funding: FAL included in government budgets as part of PEAP 

- Policy provides framework/structure for adult education 

- Policy has improved FAL in various ways; covers some aspects 

- It has increased awareness on importance of literacy 

- Helped government to sensitise people 

- Given people a chance to participate; ensured increased access to adult education 

- Policy has improved gender recognition 

- FAL uplifts people’s well-being 

The main negative reasons given were: 

- Policy leaves out some important aspects 

- Low priority in resource allocation to FAL; inadequate funding 

- More legislation required 

- Mobilisation and sensitisation required 

- More instructors should be trained and facilitated 

- Coverage small: few classes, few instructors 

The current arrangements for FAL also seem not to favour professionalism. The recruitment procedure 

for the staff to work in the FAL unit at headquarters does not require any specialised qualifications related 

to FAL or adult education in general. It is just a general civil service appointment. This lack of 

professionalism extends down to the implementation level. Among the recommendations from the 1999 

evaluation was the professional strengthening of the FAL coordinating unit. Not very much has been done 

towards this. The Minister of State for Elderly and Disabilities, however, felt that what is needed more is


to push the technical staff to take their work more seriously. In his words, “they need to go an extra mile 

to change what is happening”. 

The feeling in the districts and sub-counties is that there has been improvement in FAL since 2002, when 

NALSIP came into effect as displayed in Table 5.2, which shows also the reasons they give for rating the 

improvement. 

Table 5.2: Whether FAL provision has improved since 2002 as rated by respondents at the district 

and sub-county 


District rating and reasons % Sub-county rating and reasons % 

To a great extent 21.1 To a great extent 19.8 

To some extent 71.1 To some extent 74.1 

Not at all 2.6 Not at all 6.2 

Supportive reasons: 

Learners have learned to read and write 

FAL programme has expanded 

Increased interest in FAL 

Learners’ livelihood has improved 

Improved participation in Govt programs 

Learners have graduated 

35.6 

15.3 

13.6 

10.2 

5.1 

5.1 

Supportive reasons: 

Learners have learned to read and write 

Learners have gained confidence 

Increased interest in FAL 

Learners’ livelihood has improved 

Improved participation in Govt programs 

Learners have improved their business 

46.0 

17.5 

4.8 

3.2 

3.2 

3.2 

Negative reasons: 

Need for improvement in FAL 

Inadequate financing 

FAL not doing well e.g. limited coverage 

10.2 

8.5 

6.8 

Negative reasons: 

Aspects of FAL need improvement 

Instructors not facilitated 

15.9 

4.8 

The district and sub-county leaders and officials felt that FAL had brought about positive change in the 

participants’ lives (district level: to a great extent 21.1%, to some extent 72.4%, not at all – none; subcounty 

level: to a great extent 17.3, to some extent 79.0%, not at all 2.5%). The main changes mentioned 

by the district level respondents were: 

- Participants can now read and write 

- Improved socio-economic standard of living 

- Improved health /sanitation/hygiene in participants’ lives 

- Participation in government programmes 

- Participants can express themselves in public 

- Learners use modern agricultural methods 

- Learners have built political ambition 

- Learners able to access information to improve 

- Family benefits e.g. reduced domestic violence 

- Some learners can keep simple financial / business records 

- Learners have started income generating activities 

- Learners understand government programme 

5.2 Other adult literacy programmes 

Pluralism in provision 

Apart from Government, there is a variety of other agencies providing adult literacy in Uganda including 

international or foreign NGOs, local NGOs, and individual initiatives, some of them set up as commercial 

enterprises, referred to as ‘the private sector’. This is in line with the atmosphere of pluralism in


educational and developmental efforts which is actively encouraged by Government. The encouragement 

by Government has given rise to many initiatives all operating autonomously, in most cases without 

reference to each other. 

The pluralism allows the providers to invest in the programme according to their different beliefs and 

approaches. It therefore enables many of the beneficiaries to have choices according to their needs and 

beliefs. This freedom of choice and action is also motivating to the providers because people and 

agencies have a certain degree of confidence that they can undertake a literacy programme of their own 

liking and carry it through without being interfered with. 

Of the respondents interviewed at the district level 53% said there were other adult literacy activities apart 

from the Government FAL and 24% said there were none, while 3% had no information (21% gave no 

response). At the sub-county level 48% said there were other literacy activities and an equal 48% said 

there were none, while 4% had no information about that. These findings seem to indicate that about half 

of the districts in Uganda are benefiting from literacy provision by other organisations apart from 

Government, but it would be unwise to generalise with confidence from the 16 districts and Kampala that 

were studied. 

Extent of non-government contribution 

Emphasising the work of non-government literacy education providers in Uganda, the CSO participants at 

the workshop to discuss the draft report of this process review wrote after their follow-up meeting: 

“This means that the vital unit of the Functional Adult Literacy programme i.e. the class, 

has been for a long time now, mainly the responsibility of other players who have also 

been in charge of recruiting and providing venues for adult learners. These efforts from 

non government programme component need to be recognised in such a review so as to 

provide a basis for redesigning a better programme.”(CSO participants’ submission to the 

Process Review team) 

There is no doubt that CSOs, including faith-based organisations, have always played a significant role in 

literacy education since it was introduced to Uganda by religious missionaries towards the end of the 19 th 

century. Certainly, their efforts need to be recognised in such a review. However, it is far from the current 

reality to state that the adult literacy “class has been for a long time now mainly the responsibility of other 

players”. The government, with implementation initiated and supervised by the sub-county and urban 

local governments, is running most classes all over the country. This is as it should be. Adult literacy and 

basic education is too important for the government not to play the leading role in its implementation, just 

as it is doing for primary education. It is, however, admissible that, in the case of adult literacy, the weak 

management and meagre support reduces the visibility of the government in the implementation of the 

programme. 

Soon after the launch of NALSIP some CSOs proposed that government should give CSOs the leading 

role in literacy implementation, financed from government budget. They copied the proposal to the 

Education Funding Agencies Group (EFAG) in Kampala. The reaction from EFAG indicated that it felt 

CSOs did not have adequate capacity to take on such a role. 

It is important to recognise where the strength of CSOs lies and how much they are really doing in 

implementation. This would be the basis for a valid decision on where CSOs can contribute best to 

strengthen the programme and how they can be supported to enhance the actual implementation to satisfy 

more of the unmet needs. The role of NGOs is recognised in the PEAP, which even considers subcontracting 

some of the literacy services to NGOs (PEAP 2004 page 175). Prompted by the suggestions 

and statements of the CSO group after the draft report discussion workshop, the Process Review team


sought to gather information on CSO programmes through personal visits to CSO head offices in 

Kampala and questionnaires mailed to addresses obtained from the Literacy Network (LitNet) 

Coordinator. Information obtained from four organisations was summarised and is presented in Annex 5. 

The CSO representatives at the workshop had also submitted the following list of CSOs involved in 

literacy in Uganda in the districts indicated: 

- ActionAid in the districts of Lira, Apach, Nebbi, Arua, Kitgum using the Reflect approach 

- ADRA in Wakiso, Kamwenge, Karamoja, Mayuge, and Kampala 

- ALBEC in Kampala 

- CEFORD in Arua, Adjumani, Nebbi and Moyo 

- DIFRA in Kampala 

- LABE in Jinja, Bugiri, Yumbe, Gulu, Amuru, Koboko and Maracha 

- NWASEA in Iganga 

- Plan in Kampala and Kamuli 

- TOCIDA in Tororo 

- UGAADEN in Mukono and Bushenyi 

- ULALA (National) 

- UPLIFT in Nebbi 

- USA [Save the Children] in Nakasongola 

- At the National level UGAADEN and LitNet are working on policy related issues with government. 

In addition, the list of contacts of CSOs in literacy provided by LitNet included also: 

- Literacy Aid Uganda 

- Christian Children Fund 

- SOCADIDO (Soroti Catholic Diocese Development Organisation) 

- YMCA 

- CARE International 

- Finnish Refugee Council 

Also on the list were the following already mentioned above: Action Aid International; DIFRA Language 

Services; LitNet; UPLIFT; Literacy and Adult Basic Education (LABE) and Adventist Developmentt & 

Relief Agency (ADRA). 

The submission from the CSO participants commented that the NGOs work in small areas and some work 

in isolation from government. The Process Review team recognises that the list was not in the least meant 

to be exhaustive and is aware of some other NGO work in some districts, in some cases other than those 

mentioned. The team strongly agrees with the assessment that NGOs “work in small areas”. Moreover, 

some of the NGO work mentioned in the list above is not direct implementation of literacy classes but 

that of advocacy, lobbying, and promoting networking among involved CSOs and in some cases support 

to training instructors. This is, for example, true of LABE in all the seven districts listed and UGAADEN 

in Mukono and Bushenyi. 

CSOs have in recent years made a strong contribution to literacy work in Uganda through advocacy, 

lobbying, networking, training, support to literacy planning and experimentation of innovative 

approaches. Innovations have, for example, been by Action Aid introducing and promoting REFLECT 

and by LABE developing and disseminating diversified approaches and family literacy, piloted in Bugiri 

District. The Uganda Literacy and Adult Learners Association (ULALA) has contributed by enabling the 

learners’ viewpoints to come to the forefront in many adult learning forums. With support from Action 

Aid, ICEIDA and other organisations, ULALA has also ensured the physical presence of adult learners to 

present their information, ideas and demands at national and even international adult learning forums. 

In the 17 sampled districts the district leaders and officials interviewed mentioned 31 different


organisations offering adult literacy, while the sub-county leaders and officials mentioned a total of 21 

only. This is most likely because some of the organisations operate in only one sub-county and while 

someone at the district level may know that, someone from another sub-county may not be aware of such 

an organisation. It would seem from these findings that most districts in Uganda have at least one other 

organisation offering adult literacy. There are, however, many other organisations operating in the 

districts but not involved in adult literacy. Almost a half of those not involved in adult literacy who filled 

the questionnaires said they would be able to become involved. 40% of them said they could be involved 

in several sub-counties while 12.5% said they could be involved only within one sub-county. (The lists of 

the organisations mentioned and interviewed in the districts are included in Annexes 3 and 4). 

An important gap that needs to be urgently addressed is that of establishing an up-to-date database on 

adult learning in Uganda, both governmental and non-governmental. Both LitNet and UGAADEN have 

for several years made efforts to establish such a data-base covering CSOs but have so far not yet 

satisfactorily accomplished the task. 

The findings from the heads of organisations showed that many of those involved in adult literacy did not 

have adult literacy among their explicit objectives. Only 5.7% of the heads of organisation mentioned 

adult literacy among their objectives and adult literacy on the whole ranked 12 th out of 13 among the 

objectives mentioned. Among the activities undertaken by the organisations too adult literacy ranked 

rather low: 5 th of 10 categories. The fact that this is a considerably higher ranking than that of the 

objectives would indicate that many organisations engage in adult literacy even when it is not among their 

explicit objectives. Indeed, some of them believe that adult literacy supports their main activities. Among 

the organisations specifically involved in adult education and development work (77.5% of those who 

filled the questionnaire), adult literacy ranks second to fighting poverty and supporting income generating 

activities. 

As already ascertained in previous studies, the scattered sprinkle of interventions has not been able to 

make much of an impact. Not only do most of them have rather limited coverage, but often their planned 

duration is fairly short, in line with their project approach. These interventions do not seem to add much 

to the local capacity to sustain the provision. In several districts, the review team found that where an 

NGO had intervened even in quite a significant way, the adult literacy activities are seriously reduced 

almost as soon as the organisation leaves. Sometimes the activities are completely interrupted at least for 

some time. This is, for example, the case in the areas where ADRA had until recently been operating in 

Kisoro District. Some centres visited revealed that the last classes had been held under ADRA support. 

Statements from some participants in focus group discussions seemed to indicate that they thought the 

process review team was ADRA returning and they were happy about it. Efforts by NGOs to build local 

capacity have either not been enough or are for other reasons still failing to have any impact. 

It is, however, important to recognise and put on record, the significant contribution ADRA has made to 

adult literacy promotion in Uganda, as the following summary information shows. 

Functional Adult Learning (FAL) of ADRA 

Main objectives/aims: To train participants in functional adult literacy, skills training and development 

and management of income generating projects, with opportunities for learners to apply their knowledge 

by financially being supported through the provision of micro loans to start and sustain Income 

Generating Activities (IGAS) 

Groups targeted: Non-literate and lowly-schooled youth and adults in disadvantaged areas 

Number of people reached: Total of 56,581 people over the past eight years


Teaching and learning activities: Classes held several times a week at learning centres, as agreed upon 

between the instructor (facilitator) and the participants 

Outcomes of the programme: Participants acquired knowledge and skills in literacy, management of 

income generating projects and other functional skills 

Organisations supporting government provision 

The organisations discussed above contribute to adult literacy education by running their own 

programmes or undertaking activities autonomous from the government activities. If they directly support 

government activities, it is in exceptional cases. There are, however, other organisations that do not run 

their own programmes but give support to the running of government programmes. Such support to the 

current FAL programme in Uganda has come also from intergovernmental agencies: UNESCO and 

UNICEF. The most significant external support to the programme has come from the German Adult 

Education Association (DVV) and the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA). 

DVV has supported the programme through the central Ministry in charge of the programme since the 

pilot phase in 1992 and not by supporting any implementation activities at the district and sub-county 

level. The support has gone mainly into curriculum and materials development and production, training of 

trainers and instructors and workshops to develop some of the guidelines. Over the years, the size of the 

support has been gradually reducing, as DVV feels it has done enough to build the capacity and the 

ministry should now be able to continue on its own. ICEIDA has focused its support on the totally island 

district of Kalangala in Lake Victoria and the Lake Victoria island sub-counties of Mukono District but 

has also supported some national activities like the development of the adult learning qualifications 

framework, the adult learning policy development process, the development of various FAL related 

guidelines and very significantly the establishment of the National Adult Literacy Information 

Management System, which has only just been launched. 

ICEIDA support in Kalangala and Mukono 

ICEIDA support to Kalangala Local Government has enabled the FAL programme there not only to grow 

strong and vibrant but also to come up with some innovations that could be used to inspire and feed into 

similar innovations to meet diverse needs in other parts of the country. The three components of the 

programme in Kalangala are: 

- The literacy programme: currently about 150 classes each with 15-20 learners totalling to 2000-3000 

literacy learners in a district of about 40,000 inhabitants. The programme gives a one week initial 

training to instructors but follows this up with refresher courses and helping the instructors to 

undertake relevant further training even up to degree level. The instructors are paid shillings 30,000/= 

per month, paid quarterly into their bank accounts. 

- The small business course for literate people, some of whom have gone through the FAL programme: 

there are currently about 30 small business courses. The small business course uses a multi-media 

package, which LABE was commissioned to prepare, consisting of a set of printed flip charts, a set of 

sound cassette tapes, a comic book, a learner’s workbook and a facilitator’s guide book. 

- English language course also for literate people, which is very much in demand, has currently about 

30 centres. 

The programme has assisted in further training not only the instructors but also the community 

development personnel on the programme to upgrade to diploma and degree levels.


5.3 Partnership and collaboration arrangements in current provision 

The NALSIP incorporated a framework for collaboration between Government and the civil society in the 

provision of adult literacy education. This collaboration was to be implemented mainly through memoranda 

of understanding signed between the government and various organisations. Very few memoranda have been 

signed; most organisations are offering adult literacy autonomously without such formal agreements. The 

resulting situation is the absence of coordination and networking, a situation deplored by many of the 

respondents interviewed as displayed in the table 5.3 below. 

What has been said in the previous section about MGLSD overseeing the programme and ensuring 

quality is relevant here too. In the provision of adult literacy education there are no mandatory guidelines 

to be followed by the different partners. Those who use the government guidelines do so out of free 

choice, and many do not. As has already been stated, the autonomy of other organisations to develop and 

run their own programmes using whatever approach they see suitable has the advantages of giving them 

the confidence to work without government interference and providing them the opportunity to offer a 

variety of programmes that respond to the diverse needs. 

However, public service delivery requires a degree of quality assurance, which is to a great extent the 

responsibility of the relevant government ministry. To avoid one-sided imposition, such guidelines are 

best developed jointly involving all stakeholders. The guidelines in place since the development of the 

NALSIP have been formulated with full involvement of CSOs. At first this was due to pressure put on 

government by CSOs but of late it has become almost the normal practice to involve CSOs. What remains 

a challenge is how to make sure that what is provided for in the guidelines regarding collaboration and 

partnership is put into practice. 

In recent years there has been significant effort in Uganda, pushed by civil society advocacy, to 

strengthen not only the networking among the civil society providers but also the partnership between the 

government and civil society organisations, referred to as public-private partnership. A study on Public- 

Private Patnership in Adult Education in Uganda, commissioned by the Literacy Network for Uganda 

(LitNet) in 2006, assessed the achievements made so far and made recommendations for future 

development of the networking and partnership efforts. (LitNet 2006) 

Figure 5.3: Collaboration in adult literacy provision as rated at the district and sub-county levels 


District rating of collaboration 

Sub-county rating of collaboration 

9% 

8% 

21% 

14% 

7% 

22% 

62% 

57% 

Great extent Some extent Not at all No opinion 

Great extent Some extent Not at all No opinion


The charts above show a very positive assessment, both at district and sub-county level, of collaboration 

in adult literacy provision. As already mentioned, the NGOs advocating for better provision of adult 

literacy do not believe the collaboration is good and are putting in much effort to improve and formalise 

it. The two networks, LitNet for literacy and UGAADEN for adult learning in general are also rallying 

civil society organisations to work together to learn from each other’s experiences, maximise the use of 

resources and advocate with a united voice for greater national commitment to adult literacy and adult 

learning in general. The reasons given at the district and sub-county levels for appreciating the current 

collaboration have something in them but do not really translate into very much collaboration. 

Table 5.3: Reasons by district and sub-county respondents for assessment of existing collaboration 


District level respondents % Sub-county level respondents % 

Main reasons for positive assessment: 

Central-local government collaboration good 

International agencies support programmes 

Central government releases some funds for FAL 

Local government mobilises and implements 

29.1 

12.7 

9.1 

5.5 

Main reasons for positive assessment: 

Central and local governments collaborate 

Providing financial support 

NGOs and Churches provide/fund FAL 

NGOs facilitate/train instructors 

31.6 

22.8 

15.8 

5.3 

Main reasons for negative assessment: 

Coordination poor among different agencies 

Most FAL work left to community development 

No support from international agencies 

Civil society not made FAL a priority 

16.4 

7.3 

7.3 

3.6 

Main reasons for negative assessment: 

No government-NGOs collaboration 

Insufficient money to local governments 

Only few NGOs show interest in FAL 

Information about FAL not available 

14.0 

5.3 

3.5 

1.6 

Recalling the fact that PEAP confirms the role of NGOs in adult literacy and even considers subcontracting 

some of the literacy services, the members of the civil society at the draft report discussion 

workshop proposed that this report should recommend concrete mechanisms of implementing 

partnerships right from the centre, district to sub county, clarifying the roles of each partner and how 

partnerships will be resourced and monitored. The partnership, they explained, should not only be looked 

at as merely CSO supporting Government but also recognize the role Government should play in 

supporting CSO to grow and take charge of some elements in a vibrant FAL programme. Commenting 

on this suggestion, Professor Alan Rogers noted that civil society bodies are free to develop and resource 

their own programmes and the national government must use its limited resources for tasks which it alone 

can do. He went on to warn: 

“I am sure that your joint intention is to avoid civil society organisations becoming 

dependent on government for all that they do. The danger is that civil society 

organisations take government money and become the agents of government; and I am 

sure that is not what you wish.” (Alan Rogers in email feedback to LitNet April 7, 2007) 

The challenge seems to be that of maintaining the optimal balance between CSO autonomy and working 

with government. An extreme position on either side is not beneficial and, as Professor Rogers notes, is 

not desired by civil society organisations in Uganda who have been supplementing government efforts in 

the different sectors while firmly standing for their autonomy. Box 5.1 presents a case study of an 

interesting multi-stakeholder partnership in Ntungamo District.


Box 5.1: Multi-stakeholder Partnership – Kabamwe Tukore Functional Adult Literacy 

Father Charles Mugisha was concerned about the group of Christians who regularly arrived too early 

for the 1.00 p.m. prayers at Kagamba Catholic Church, Ntungamo District, where he had recently been 

transferred. He decided to find them something to do and asked whether they could read. They said 

they could not; and so the idea of Kagamba FAL class was hatched. That was in 1999-2000. Today the 

group of about 40 women and men singing for the visitors a song praising adult learning are among 

the 486 women and 214 men who are benefiting from 28 FAL classes that have grown out of that 

single beginning. 

The 28 classes form one of the programmes of Kabamwe Tukore Foundation for Integrated 

Development set up by Father Mugisha. The Foundation runs 10 programmes in collaboration with 

various partners. He listed eight partners working with the Foundation on the FAL programme: 

Community Development Office Ntungamo, Caritas Mbarara, MGLSD, Kagamba Catholic Parish, 

Africare, Government leaders, community leaders and the learners. This is an impressive example of 

multi-stakeholder partnership in FAL. 

The different stakeholders whom the process review team met all manifested a sense of ownership of 

the FAL programme. The learners have taken up certain roles in aspects of the programme and they 

are proud of them. The Community Development Office gives blackboards, chalk and primers, trains 

the instructors and gives advice on the FAL activities. The training has also been supported by Caritas, 

which has also contributed for the Savings and Credit scheme and other income-generating activities. 

MGLSD gave bicycles to some instructors and gives the examinations and certificates to the learners. 

Kagambe Catholic Parish has enabled Father Mugisha to coordinate the programmes and provides 

facilities for FAL and related activities. Africare has contributed especially through sensitisation. The 

community leaders have mobilised people for participation and encourage the participants to 

persevere. 

The multi-stakeholder partnership has ensured that FAL is not an isolated activity but is linked to the 

other nine programmes of Kabamwe Tukore Foundation for Integrated Development, which has about 

400 groups. FAL classes are integrated with savings and credit schemes and all participants are 

encouraged to access the loans. The first groups have been able to pay back the loans successfully. 

The instructors, although paid only the very small occasional allowance from government, have 

benefited by being supported to work together and have started their own savings and credit scheme 

with an account in Kabamwe micro-finance bank. 

The leader of the Organic Farming Programme in the same organisation praised the link with the FAL 

learners and graduates: they benefit doubly from the organic farming training sessions and from the 

FAL instructors. They are able to take notes during training sessions and study tours and are so eager 

to learn that they even pay spontaneous visits to organic farming activities. The Area-Based 

Agricultural Management Programme has given goats and fruit trees to some families. 

On the whole, the Kabamwe experiment has established a model that enables FAL to maximise 

benefits from various resources available in the area. Even though, like all efforts to address poverty it 

faces some challenges, it is worth closer scrutiny with a view of adapting it for use in other places.


5.4 Financing of literacy programmes 

NALSIP had initially included an average annual budget of shillings 30 billion to meet its target of 

making 3.5 million adults literate by 2007. This was rejected by the Ministry of Finance, Planning and 

Economic Development (MFPED), which reduced the budgeting figure to about Shillings 5 billion per 

year. That, of-course, meant that the original target was to be far out of reach. SDIP later reduced the 

target figure to a much less ambitious 1.2 million non-literates to be enabled to acquire literacy. The 

actual annual budget approved by MFPED has been slightly above Shillings 3 billion, one-tenth of the 

original estimate. 

FAL is funded mainly through the government Poverty Action Fund (PAF). However, it has also 

benefited from project funding from bilateral and international partners. UNESCO, UNICEF and the 

German Adult Education Association (now DVV International) helped the government to re-launch the 

programme as a pilot project in 1992. Supplementing government funding, UNESCO supported mainly 

the initial activities; UNICEF continued supporting the pilot project together with DVV and, while 

UNICEF concluded its support in 1999, DVV continued supporting but with gradual reduction until it has 

practically phased out the regular support. The 1999 evaluation revealed that over the years, government 

funding had been decreasing in comparison to donor funding and recommended that government should 

put in more money to back its claimed commitment to adult literacy as a priority. During 2001/2002, 

MGLSD worked with civil society organisations to develop NALSIP and FAL was included in PAF from 

the 2002/2003 financial year. 

The PAF funds rendered the much reduced donor funding less significant. Today DVV only supports 

occasional individual activities. However, the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA) has 

been giving significant support since 2002. This support will be briefly described below. As explained 

above, there are many other organisations offering adult literacy all over the country. Their activities are 

financed from a variety of sources on a project basis, as will be described below. 

The government funds have been released separately by the Ministry of Finance to MGLSD and to each 

district as in table 5.4, which displays information obtained in writing from the MGLSD. 

Table 5.4: Government financial releases in Uganda Shillings 

Release to MGLSD Total release to all districts 

Year Uganda Shs US dollars Uganda Shs US dollars 

2006/7 1.48 billion 0.9 million 1.6 billion 0.97 million 





Source: Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development. 

District allocation 

With the current number of districts at 80, and the total release to the districts at shillings 1.6 billion the 

average annual release per district is shillings 20,000,000/=, about 5,000,000/= (about US $ 2,900) per 

quarter or about shillings 1,380,000/= (US $ 966) per month. It is difficult to see how a whole district can 

run a meaningful FAL programme with that kind of funding, considering that most districts cannot afford 

to spend any of their locally-generated revenue on FAL. To aggravate the situation, some district officials 

reported that the releases are sometimes delayed so that for months there is sometimes nothing to spend


on FAL activities. The ministry officials explain that the delay is sometimes the result of delays from the 

districts to send their accountability, quarterly reports and requests. 

The above is just a hypothetical average. In reality the districts do not receive the same amount; some 

districts receive much more money than others (see example in Annex 6). Various criteria are used for the 

diversified distribution: such as poverty, literacy levels and size of the district. The MGLSD works 

together with MOLG Finance Commission to determine the amounts. 

The 1999 evaluation of adult literacy programmes in Uganda calculated the annual expenditure per 

learner over the previous five-year period as approximately Uganda shillings (Shs) 5,000/- to 6,000/- per 

year (US dollars 3.50-4.50 at the then current rates). Taking the figures from the MGLSD 1,234,887 

learners enrolled from 2002/2003 to 2005/2006 and the total amount released for FAL (to both MGLSD 

and districts) during the same period, Shs 13,380,000,000/-, the amount spent per learner from the point 

of view of the government is Shs 10,835/- or about US$6.40 calculated at average 2006 exchange rates. 

Taking into account all the key factors but trying to be as economical as possible, the 1999 evaluation had 

concluded: “The realistic annual recurrent costs of a sustainable programme, with reasonably committed 

and qualified instructors, would then be about US$14 per participant per year”. Obviously, there is still a 

long way to go. 

Central level financing 

The Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development headquarter is responsible for policy 

formulation, development of guidelines for implementation of FAL, quality assurance, priority planning, 

monitoring and evaluation, printing and distribution of literacy materials, purchase of bicycles for literacy 

instructors and preparation and administration of Adult learners’ examinations. 

Development and printing of literacy materials is centrally done to ensure quality control and economies 

of scale. Allocations of FAL funds to the central level are shown below: 

Allocation for FAL activities during Financial Year 2006/2007 (1,480,000,000/=): 

1. Policy formulation, development of literacy materials and training of trainers of FAL 15% 

2. Printing and distribution of literacy materials – primers, follow up readers, charts, badges, certificates 

and post literacy materials, training manuals, guidelines for implementation of FAL 30% 

3. Repair and maintenance of Vehicles 5% 

4. Purchase of Bicycles for Literacy Instructors 25% 

5. Purchase of computers and other equipments 3% 

6. Consultancy services 2% 

7. Support supervision and monitoring of FAL 20% 

Other organisations, both international and national, finance adult literacy in Uganda in three ways: by 

directly supporting the government FAL programme, by contributing to FAL related activities organised 

jointly with government and by designing and running their own separate programmes. Direct support to 

the government FAL programme has been mainly by international or external organisations. National 

CSOs have provided support more in the other two ways. 

Since 2002, the support by the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA) has been 

significant, although concentrated on the Lake Victoria islands of Kalangala and Mukono districts. Table 

5.4 shows that ICEIDA’s input between 2002 and 2007 (US$ 2,611,000) has been over 55% of the 

government financial release for FAL in all districts of Uganda (Shs 8.06 billion or US$ 4,706,325). Ofcourse 

one must remember that the government in addition pays the salaries of the community 

development officers and other staff involved in FAL. It should also be remembered that the cost of 

providing services on the islands is much higher than that of providing services on the mainland.


Table 5.5: ICEIDA financial support to FAL in Uganda (in US dollars) 

Direct Contribution 

Year Kalangala Mukono MGLSD 

Technical 

Assistance 

Total 

2002 46,000 37,800 83,800 

2003 62,000 50,400 112,400 

2004 170,000 50,000 74,200 294,200 

2005 155,000 140,000 100,000 105,000 500,000 

2006 182,000 204,000 200,000 105,000 691,000 

2007 120,000 300,000 200,000 105,000 725,000 

Total 735,000 694,000 500,000 477,400 2,406,400 

Source: Document provided by ICEIDA Project Manager, Social Sector 

The fact that ICEIDA is able to provide that kind of support may be an indication that, with more effort 

on the part of MGLSD there may be possibility of obtaining more support for FAL. Suggestions have 

been made by CSOs of finding ways of widening funding opportunities available in Uganda such as 

marketing FAL to Education Funding Agencies Group and Education For All funding initiatives such as 

Education Fast Track Initiative.


Chapter 6: Approaches Curriculum and Materials 

6.1 Adult literacy approaches in Uganda 

Functional adult literacy, commonly referred to as FAL, an approach that is designed to impart reading 

and writing skills side by side with other functional knowledge in agriculture, health and other areas, is 

the most commonly used in Uganda. Just over a decade ago, Action Aid introduced the REFLECT 

approach to Uganda and it has been adopted by a number of non-governmental providers. Government 

provision has also taken up aspects of REFLECT in some cases. 

Recognising that the need to learn to read and write is in most cases not as urgent as the need to find 

urgent solutions to the problems of poverty, most literacy programmes in Uganda make a link between 

literacy and activities geared towards poverty reduction. Aiming beyond poverty reduction, practically all 

the programmes mention development among their objectives. 

The Government approach has since 1992 emphasised the functional aspects of literacy and was designed to: 

• Help people to be sensitised and aware of the true nature and reasons for their situation and problems, 

and how their conditions can be improved; 

• Enable people to acquire practical knowledge and skills and the proper attitudes to use these to improve 

their living conditions (National Plan for Functional Literacy, May 1996). 

To achieve this two-fold task the methodology selected was described as ‘integrated’ and it was explained 

that the integration covers these three dimensions: 

Integration of subject matter: The approach brings the knowledge from different subjects, or ‘programme 

areas’ as referred to in this programme, to bear upon a problem or an effort at hand. Such integration has 

been found to be necessary because, in one’s life, one problem may arise from different things and it is 

usually not possible to solve a problem or promote an effort by looking at one aspect only. 

Integration among service providers: The approach is also integrated because it makes use of different 

professionals or sectoral workers in the field to address the learning or development issue at hand. It is 

often not possible for the literacy facilitator alone to cover adequately the different subject areas needed to 

address the learners’ needs. They are therefore encouraged to bring in extension workers from 

agriculture, health, co-operatives and so on to strengthen the learning process. 

Integration of learning and life: The approach keeps learning and life together by tying the learning to 

those things that the learners are already doing and first helping them to do those better before enabling 

them to start on new activities. To ensure this link to life, the approach aims at immediate application of 

what is learnt in real life situations. Follow-up activities are therefore designed to take the facilitators and 

learners from the classrooms to the learners’ work, which, for the vast majority of the learners, is in their 

homes and surrounding fields. 

The differences in approach observable among the different programmes arise more out of the way the 

link between literacy and the other developmental activities are forged in practice. While in some


programmes there is an effort to integrate literacy training with training for the other developmental 

activities, in others literacy is handled side by side with the other programme areas, hoping that the 

literacy will contribute to the other programme areas. In some cases the need for literacy had been 

realised because its absence had adversely affected activities that were already in place. 

There has of late been much international debate as to which of these approaches is most effective. A 

study sponsored by the World Bank and DVV (Oxenham et al 2002) seems to reinforce the conclusion by 

Alan Rogers: ‘Start with development projects and fit literacy learning into development projects: 

“Literacy comes second” model’ (Rogers 2001: 24). The main approach in Uganda, that used by 

Government, does not reflect this model. 

6.2 Programme contents, methods and materials 

The curriculum prepared for the pilot project in 1992 has been only slightly modified in subsequent 

revisions and still guides the implementation of the government programme, which hence tends to be a 

“one-size fits all” approach, although efforts are made to diversify through development and use of 

primers and teachers’ guides relevant to the different parts of the country. The FAL approach also 

encourages flexibility in the actual learning situation but the inadequately trained instructors seek safety 

in closely sticking to the curriculum and materials. 

There is need to build capacity among programme developers and implementers to develop contents, 

methods and materials that respond appropriately to the diversity of needs of the different participants and 

potential participants. 

However, as discussed elsewhere in this report, learners and graduates expressed great satisfaction with 

what they had learnt and explained how they had benefited from it and how it was continuing to help 

them in their daily life and their improvement efforts. However, they wanted to learn more, especially 

English and more reading, writing and numeracy. The learners’ satisfaction is rather puzzling in view of 

the apparently unsatisfactory provision observed on the ground. 

There seems to be general agreement among the programme providers that the primer and teachers’ guide 

prepared by the government and used by a number of other providers as well is a useful starting point. 

However, optimal use of these materials is only possible if the instructors are adequately trained, which is 

not the case in Uganda today. 

Primers are currently available in only 13 of the more than 30 languages of Uganda: 

- Eastern Region: Ateso, Dhopadhola, Kumam, Lugwere 

- Northern Region: Lebthur, Lugbara, Luo, Ng’akarimojong 

- Western Region: Rufumbira, Rukonzo, Runyankore/Rukiga, Runyoro/Rutoro 

- Central Region: Luganda (spoken throughout the region) 

- National: English 

The following languages do not currently have primers but people are demanding for them: 

- Eastern Region: Kupsabiny, Lumasaba, Lunyole, Lusamya/Lugwe, Lusoga 

- Northern Region: Alur, Kakwa, Kuku, Madi, Pokot (Acholi and Lango speakers want separate primers 

instead of the combined Luo that they are now using) 

- Western Region: Lubwisi 

- Central Region: Ruruli 

- National: Kiswahili


The department in MGLSD responsible for FAL is the same that is responsible for people with 

disabilities who, therefore, have special learning needs. The department has therefore paid some attention 

to the blind in its FAL work. Some Braille material has been developed. However, learning activities for 

people with disabilities have not been arranged except by NGOs focusing on disabilities, such as the 

Uganda National Association for the Blind (UNAB) and then at very few venues. 

6.3 Teaching and learning arrangements 

The generic scene in Box 5.1 could, with qualifications, apply to the FAL programme in almost any part 

of Uganda. Commenting on some of the elements mentioned in the text in the box gives a useful 

opportunity to present and discuss the findings on the FAL programme arrangements. 

Box 6.1: A traditional adult literacy class setting 

The scene is a women’s literacy group in India (or for that matter in Bangladesh 

or Pakistan – in this respect, they are much the same). There are thirty women on 

the register, about twenty five in attendance. It meets at a time agreed by the 

participants (usually afternoon or early evening) and in a central place in the 

village (often the house of the literacy instructor (facilitator or animator) which 

has also been chosen by the participants. The sessions last for about two hours. 

Most of the time is spent by the learners working individually on the textbook 

(the literacy primer) exercises, the rest on discussion of some common matter 

(not every group has this discussion element, but virtually every group is 

intended to have it). They are all working on the same page, at the same point – 

there is little difference between all the learners during the class. Many of them 

leave the primer (and sometimes even their own exercise books) at the class 

centre, others take them home until the next meeting. From time to time, a 

supervisor comes from the NGO or government agency providing the literacy 

class – to check up on the attendance or the teaching of the instructor, just like a 

school inspector. At the end of the nine months (or whatever length of time is set 

for the programme), the participants are invited to sit a test to see if they have 

become ‘literate’. (Rogers 2000) 

Enrolment register and record-keeping 

The text says “there are thirty women on the register”; this means there is a register, which is, of-course, 

one of the most basic tools one would expect in a programme such as FAL. It is one of the things on 

which this process review sought information. Of the numerous literacy centres visited, the research team 

was not able to see a register at even ten centres. The instructors usually explained that they had left the 

registers at home, in spite of the fact that part of the arrangements made through the CDOs was that in 

each sub-county visited the team would observe a class in action. In some cases where registers were seen 

it seemed that the registers had been prepared for the occasion, or had been out of use for a few weeks at 

least, sometimes even months. 

It seems that record-keeping is very poorly done in the FAL programme. Apart from the register there 

were hardly any other records. A few FAL centres had a visitors’ book. In most cases, the visitors’ book 

that the research team was asked to sign belonged to the LC committee or another organisation or 

association that hosted or supported the class. The poor record keeping was reflected also in the very little 

effort made by the learners to write down anything in class. At several centres where the research team


was able to look into learners’ books there were obvious gaps. Learners had written on only a few pages 

although claiming to have been attending for as long as six months and more. 

Meeting time and place 

The text in the box says the time and place of the meeting is agreed upon by the participants and that the 

chosen venue is often the house of the literacy instructor. The arrangement in the FAL programme is 

similar, with the difference that the instructor’s house is hardly ever used as a class venue because it does 

not have the space to host a group of even 20 people. In some cases the class is held in the instructor’s 

compound but even that is not common. There is a variety of venues for the class: institutional venues 

(Church and school classroom) house about 37% of the classes, according to instructors and 40% 

according to the participants. The majority of instructors report that they hold the classes under a tree 

while only 38% of the participants say that. It should, however, be remembered that the instructors and 

participants interviewed were not all from the same class centres. 

Both participants and instructors were asked their opinions about the class venues. Instructors’ responses 

show much dissatisfaction, citing the reasons that the place is poorly equipped (29%); has uncertain 

accessibility (27%); lacks a class building (12%); not appropriate or conducive for FAL (13%); exposes 

to rain inconveniences, is noisy or too small. However, about 27% of the instructors say their venues are 

appropriate or very appropriate. 

Almost 50% of the participants assessed their venues as good or very good, while just over 51% rated the 

venues as bad. The reasons they give for rating the place as good or bad are: 

For positive rating 

- Well equipped classroom 

- No interference 

- Conducive environment 

- Good structure 

- Better than being outside 

- Place belongs to a well wisher 

For negative rating 

- We learn under a tree 

- Poorly equipped 

- No classroom 

- Rain/sunshine disturbs 

- The building/structure not good 

- Long distance from home 

- Lot of interference 

Primers and exercise books 

The text in the box refers to primers and exercise books. In FAL, the primers are developed and produced 

in the different languages with the guidance and financing from MGLSD and distributed to the relevant 

districts for onward distribution to the classes implemented in the different sub-counties of each district as 

already mentioned above. The challenge is that the primers are rather inadequate for all those who desire 

to learn and so sometimes one book is shared by practically the whole class of even 20. There is also the 

situation where the primers are available at the district headquarters but cannot be distributed because of 

lack of transport, as claimed by some CDOs. Lack of comprehensive statistics made it difficult to 

calculate the current learner to primer ratio.


Some learners also claim that they cannot afford to buy exercise books and request that the government 

should provide them and give them also pens and pencils to write with. This looks more like a 

dependency attitude than a genuine situation of inability to afford these materials. 

Supervision and monitoring 

The quantitative findings as well as the focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews show that 

supervision and monitoring is very inadequate at all levels. At the implementation level, as has already 

been explained, no money reaches the sub-county level community development workers and the subcounty 

budget does not give them any, so they cannot move around to supervise and monitor. At the 

district level, the explanation given is that the money received is so little that it does not enable them to 

pay regular supervision and monitoring visits to the field. Between the national and district level, as 

already explained, there has been inadequate communication, with some districts claiming not to see 

ministry officials for years. However, as explained earlier, the information received from the State 

Minister and the Commissioner shows that this situation is being addressed and the link between the 

ministry and the districts is being strengthened. However, something must be done about the gaps at the 

local levels where the implementation actually takes place. 

6.4 Learning assessment and certification 

Alan Rogers’s text in Box 6.1 says, “At the end of the nine months (or whatever length of time is set for 

the programme), the participants are invited to sit a test to see if they have become ‘literate’”. FAL uses 

the nine-month cycle for each level or stage: the basic or beginners and the more advanced. After the first 

nine months there is a proficiency test and the great majority who pass the test are given a proficiency 

certificate. The learners are proud of the certificates, but often disappointed that no one seems to 

recognise them for employment. They are demanding not only that the certificates be recognised for jobs 

but that they should be able to use them also for further education. Many of them want to go beyond the 

initial certification. 

FAL graduates in Bundibugyo who have successfully completed one stage of the FAL programme and 

passed the proficiency test proudly display the certificates they have earned


MGLSD has also published guidelines for continuous assessment, recognising the importance of 

assessing learning all through the process. This is something rather new in the system and many 

instructors are not yet even aware of its existence. So it is hardly being used as yet. 

The Ministry has also, for a number of years now, been working on developing an Adult Learning 

Qualifications Framework. It commissioned one of the NGOs in adult basic education in Uganda to 

undertake a study to link adult learners’ needs to a proposed assessment and qualifications framework 

(Kiirya and Sentumbwe 2004). A joint Government-CSO workshop financed by ICEIDA in 2005 to 

discuss the study came to the conclusion that developing a qualifications framework was a long process 

needing wide consultation with different stakeholders and a lot of technical work. The workshop agreed 

that MGLSD works with the relevant MOES departments, especially BTVET, and CSOs to continue the 

process of developing the adult learning qualifications framework and relate it to other national 

qualifications frameworks. Not much has been done since then but MGLSD is still interested in following 

up and that is why suggesting ideas for its further development form part of the terms of reference for this 

process review. 

Another aspect in which MGLSD is interested and has included in the terms of reference for this process 

review is how to enable adult learners acquire the learning that is acquired through the formal basic 

education provision. The curriculum used for the formal education sector is based on and designed to 

address the national aim of education, which is in the Government White Paper of the Education Policy 

Review Commission Report (1992). The curriculum for FAL likewise addressed objectives from the 

same source. The White Paper defines basic education as “the minimum package of learning which 

should be made available to every individual to enable him/her live as a good and useful citizen in 

society” and commits the government to provide it to every Ugandan through “formal primary education 

and as well as the proposed non-formal education system” (Government of Uganda 1992:37). Functional 

adult literacy is included in the non-formal system proposed in the White Paper. The objectives of the 

primary education and that of adult basic education should therefore be similar. Table 6.1 presents the 

objectives and themes of both the adult and the primary school curricula side by side for comparison. 

The following discussion on equivalency, interrupted by Table 6.1, is based mainly on inputs by 

Professor Alan Rogers and could be helpful in considering the equivalency of what is acquired through 

FAL with what is acquired through the formal education system and in further efforts to develop the 

qualifications framework. 

Equivalency 

The development of alternative systems of equivalent schooling for adults has occupied many countries 

for several years now and different approaches have been drawn up in different locations. The following 

three possible approaches could be considered in the effort to take further the issue of equivalency. 

Open access approach 

This is to open to anyone the existing examinations and tests offered by the formal system of education to 

school children. This is done in a few contexts. It can be seen in the open school movement in India. The 

argument is that while adults may take a different route to get there, the goal is exactly the same – the 

award of a school-level certificate which is universally recognised. There are several arguments in favour 

of this: it will be easy to administer; it will give both the public and the learner confidence in the 

certification; and it will strengthen the validity of the existing forms of certification. But it does not treat 

adult learners as adults with their own purposes and aspirations; it does not use their experience. It uses 

standardised tests. However, this seems to be what many adults want; and many employers also at times 

seem to want this.


Table 6.1: Basic Education Curriculum in Primary School and in FAL 

Primary Education Curriculum 

Adult Basic Education (FAL) Curriculum* 

Objectives: 

a) To enable individuals to acquire functional, 

permanent and developmental literacy, numeracy and 

communication skills in English, Kiswahili and, at 

least, one Uganda Language; 

b) To develop and maintain sound mental and physical 

health among learners; 

c) To instill the values of living and working 

cooperatively with other people and caring for others 

in the community; 

d) To develop and cherish the cultural, moral and 

spiritual values of life and appreciate the richness that 

lies in our varied and diverse cultures and values; 

e) To promote understanding and appreciation for the 

protection and utilisation of the natural environment, 

using scientific and technological knowledge and 

skills; 

f) To develop an understanding of one’s rights and civic 

responsibilities and duties for the purpose of positive 

and responsible participation in civic matters; 

g) To develop a sense of patriotism, nationalism and 

national unity in diversity; 

h) To develop pre-requisites for continuing education 

and development; and 

i) To develop adequate practical skills for making a 

living 

Themes (Of the new “Thematic Curriculum”): 

i) Our School 

ii) Our Home 

iii) Our Community 

iv) Human Body and Health 

v) Weather 

vi) Accident and Safety 

vii) Living Together 

viii) Food and Nutrition 

ix) Things We Make 

x) Our Environment 

xi) Peace and Security 

Objectives: 

a) Attainment of permanent and 

developmental functional literacy and 

numeracy; 

b) Acquisition of functional skills relevant to 

life in the community; 

c) Development of national awareness of 

individuals; and 

d) Continued learning while at work and at 

home 

Themes: 

i) Health 

ii) Legal Issues 

iii) Agriculture, Cooperatives and 

Marketing 

iv) Animal Husbandry 

v) Gender Issues 

vi) HIV/AIDS 

vii) Literacy 

viii) Culture and Civic Consciousness 

ix) Language 

*This current FAL curriculum was first developed as the curriculum for the Integrated Non-Formal Basic Education 

Pilot Project (INFOBEPP) 

Different but equal 

This requires the creation of a graded set of examinations based on an adult equivalent course but closely 

related to that of the formal school system and labelled with the same kind of labels. This seems to be 

what South Africa set out to achieve; the UK also has tried this.


The approach poses challenges: it sets out to define the competences at various levels (the UK’s Adult 

Literacy Core Curriculum uses Key stages 1 and 2 as well as Entry levels 1, 2 and 3; Australia has similar 

systems). The International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) describes three different sets of literacy and 

numeracy skills. It then devises learning programmes and tests to promote and test those competences. It 

is always difficult to define the competences required for different occupational groups – to compare 

carpenters with hospital porters, for example. But it does take the differences among adults seriously. 

Indonesia has developed a system which awards three certificates – A at primary leaving level; B at junior 

secondary and C at secondary leaving level. A new curriculum has been developed on a national basis. 

Different and not entirely equivalent 

This tries to define for adults the various tasks which adults need to be able to do in modern society and to 

create learning programmes and tests which promote and test the abilities to do these tasks. The 

Philippines have gone down this route. It has five “strands” at various levels: communications skills; 

problem-solving and critical thinking; sustainable productivity; sense of self and community; and 

expanding world vision. “In the case of the Philippines, there was deliberately no attempt to make the 

non-formal ‘functional’ curriculum a replica of the formal curriculum or parallel with grade and year 

levels in the formal system”. The argument is that adults are different from children. They require 

different teaching-learning programmes and different measures to assess how far they are achieving their 

goals, since their goals are different. This will require a great deal of work to set up and administer a 

parallel but completely different learning programme. 

There is a further reason for doing this. Many occupations have within them inherent structures of 

competences which do not and cannot be paralleled across differences. The stages of training to be a 

nurse cannot be equated with the stages of training to be a hairdresser or a catering staff. Employers alone 

know what these levels are within their own spheres; for someone to come to say I have a Primary 7 level 

certificate in tailoring does not tell us anything. One problem here is that in each of the different areas 

identified, different levels of achievement will be needed; and the issue here is not the different categories 

of learning but the levels to be established and recognised. 

Rationale for making a choice 

It is important to keep in mind why the equivalency system is being sought. Equivalency is an answer to a 

problem but often the problem is not clearly defined. There are three groups of stakeholders here and their 

positions can be summarised as follows: 

- Employers want this to assess how far the person they are interviewing is of a level to perform certain 

tasks. 

- Some (not all) adult literacy learners want this: some of them want to go on into the formal system of 

education; others wish to identify themselves as ‘schooled’ persons. 

- The government has been working on it but the enthusiasm put into it leaves one wondering whether 

the government wants it at all. 

A possible choice 

A mixture of avenue 1 and avenue 3 could serve the needs of most of the FAL participants, as follows: 

a) Open all examinations to adults. Anyone can sit the examination at any time. They do not have to 

prove they have studied or how they learned. In this way their learning would be flexible and selfdirected 

while they would of their own choice subject themselves to an examination for their desired 

certificate 

b) Work with work-related bodies to set up series of tests in each sector of the economy to develop 

levels of competences in each area (e.g. basic farming; standard farming; advanced farming). Again 

all examinations are open to anyone: one does not need to prove one has studied before being allowed 

to take the test. A small fee would keep away those who are not serious.


Chapter 7: Participants’ Learning Experiences and Prospects for Further 

Learning 

7.1 Learners’ characteristics and reasons for joining the literacy programme 

Gender 

Observation during the process review confirmed the findings of previous studies that the great majority 

of adult literacy learners in Uganda are female. It is therefore quite in line with reality that the learner 

sample for the process review consisted of 79% female and 21% male. By very interesting coincidence, 

this was exactly the same ratio in the learner sample of the 1999 evaluation of adult literacy in Uganda! 

This is of-course a much higher proportion of women than the proportion of women who are non-literate 

(2002 census: 39% of the women compared to 24% of the men). It is obvious that there are many men 

who would be expected to need the literacy programme but are not participating. This has been a matter 

of concern to the government and other literacy providers. It is a concern that has been often raised also 

by the Uganda Literacy and Adult Learners Association (ULALA) whose chairman restated it to the 

process review proposing a special study to find out the reasons and possible solutions. 

During the focus group discussions some reasons were advanced for the limited visibility of men in these 

programmes. These include assertions that: 

- Men want quick results, preferably material benefits not just knowledge. 

- Men do not want to be identified as illiterate. 

- Because of their superiority complex, men do not want to be in the same class as their wives in case 

wives perform better. 

- Men find FAL a waste of time, and prefer spending their time socializing/ drinking. 

- Most men have some literacy skills, and FAL classes in their present form do not meet their needs. 

- Men would prefer vocational skills to apply and earn them money. Others would want to be 

mainstreamed in formal education system. 

The men’s negative attitude towards FAL has led to the situation that some husbands are not comfortable 

seeing their wives go out of the home and so refused them attending FAL classes. 

Figure 7.1: Age distrbution of learners (%) 

16% 

6% 

24% 

28% 

Below 20 

21-30 

31-40 

41-50 

Above 50 

26% 

Age 

The sample had a rather small percent of participants aged 20 years and below. It would be interesting to 

know whether this corresponds to the participation pattern. Unfortunately, adequate statistics are not 

available to conclude about that. Between the age of 20 to 50 years participation decreases only slightly, 

as displayed in Figure 7.1. The percentage of non-literates in Uganda increases with age, but there is not a 

corresponding increase in participation.


An elderly FAL participant being interviewed in Kumi District: even at an advanced age people explain 

that FAL makes a difference in their life. 

In any case, as will be presented in the section on participants’ schooling, the majority of the learners 

have attended school and many of them will not have been categorised as illiterates by the census. The 

younger adults, among whom the literacy rate is higher, seem to be slightly more willing to learn than the 

older adults, among whom the literacy rate is lower. 

Marital status 

The 2002 census showed that nearly 60% of the persons aged 15 years or more were in a marriage union. 

In that regard the sample of learners was not typical with almost 71% in marital union (see Figure 7.2). 

This is most likely explained by the very small percent of the sample that was 20 years or younger. In 

Uganda, the age-group 15-20 is over 15% of the total population and yet it is represented here by only 6% 

of a sample from only 50% of the population (the population above 15 years). According to the census 

about 80% of this age group had never married. The sample was also different from the census findings in 

that it had a higher percent of males in marital unions than women, whereas in the census the percent 

points were higher by 5 for the women. 

The significant percent of widowed female participants is also important to note. The percent of widowed 

women in the census was also higher than that of widowed men but the gap was smaller (7.2% female, 

4.3% male).


Figure 7.2: Marital status of learners by sex (%) 

N=403 

90 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

76.5 

69.1 70.7 

14.8 12.9 

9.4 8.8 8.9 

5.9 7.1 5.7 6 

Never married Currently married Widowed Divorced/separated 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Prior school attendance 

The FAL programme targets mainly those who have never attended school. However, many who 

participate in FAL have attended school. In this sample 57% had attended school (71% of the men and 

54% of the women). Of those who had attended school, the majority had gone only up to Primary 4 a 

level at which literacy acquisition is still very low, as revealed by the 1999 evaluation of the adult literacy 

programme in Uganda (Okech et al. 1999; Carr-Hill ed. 2001). It would therefore seem that the majority 

of the participants still needed to improve their literacy skills at the very basic levels. However, there are 

those who joined either to consolidate their literacy at a more advanced level or for other learning 

interests. The reasons given for their joining the literacy programme explain some of these other interests. 

7.2 Learners’ participation and learning experience 

Learners’ interest and attendance of lessons 

According to the instructors’ assessment, female learners are much more interested in learning, and attend 

more regularly than men (see Figure 7.3). 

Figure 7.3 Learners’ interest and attendance as assessed by their instructors 

N=87 

Men's and women's interest rated by 

instructors (%) 

Men's and women's attendance rated by 

instructors (%) 

80.0 

60.0 

40.0 

20.0 

0.0 

67.8 

62.2 

24.1 25.3 

8.0 

2.3 

Very high High Low 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

50.6 

44.8 

47.1 

31.0 

14.9 

2.3 

Alw ays attend Miss sometimes Miss very often 

Men 

Women 

Men 

Women


The women’s interest and men’s lack of interest has been shown by the fact that the learner sample had 

only 21% male but 79% female respondents. On their part, 97.5% of the learners reported that they enjoy 

learning and 52.6% said they always attend. This is somewhat higher than the instructors’ assessment of 

learners’ attendance. 

As would have been expected, the learners rate their attendance higher than the instructors rate them. This 

is not only because the learners may be more generous to themselves but also because the instructors are 

rating the whole class while the learners are rating their individual attendance. Whereas the same 

individuals may not be frequently absent, some members of the class will often be absent. Looking at the 

whole class, therefore, the instructor is right to say that learners are often absent, even though the 

individual learners may only be occasionally absent. 

Reasons for absenteeism 

Even while reporting a fairly high rate of absenteeism, the instructors rate the female learners’ interest 

very positively. They most likely see the frequent absenteeism among the learners not as due to lack of 

interest but due to other reasons which they spelled out and which are discussed below. Table 7.1 shows 

an interesting similarity between the instructors and learners in assessing the reasons that make learners 

absent from classes, although there are a few small differences. The instructors rate funerals much more 

highly than the learners. This may be because the learners are rating themselves while the instructor is 

putting together every time funeral is mentioned by the learners as a reason given for being absent. 

Table 7.1: Reasons for learners’ absence from class according to learners and instructors 

Instructors: N=87; Learners: N=403 

Reason given by instructors % Reasons given by learners % 

Sickness 55.3 Domestic work 59.5 

Domestic work 37.4 Illness 51.2 

Funerals 25.7 Family and social duties 39.0 

Farm work 16.0 Agricultural seasons 36.0 

Travel away from home 11.7 Funerals 15.9 

Occupation / business 9.7 Weather 3.7 

Teacher’s absence 1.5 Long distance 2.4 

Physical disability 1.0 Journeys 2.4 

Drop out (withdrawal) 

Family and social duties (42.7%) and illness (38.7%), were also the reasons given by most instructors for 

learners dropping out of the programme. However, other new reasons featured significantly: poor 

learning venue (21.3%); discouraged by neighbours’ comments (17.3%); poverty (16%); expectations not 

met (14.7%); ignorance (13.3%); migration (9.3%); lack of monitoring by government (8.0%); girls 

marrying (6.7%); and husband refusal (5.3%). This last reason, husband refusal, came out more during 

the focus group discussions but still not very significantly. Although some men still remain possessive of 

their wives and suspicious of their independent activities outside the family, one can say that the situation 

has changed immensely in Uganda during the last two decades of affirmative action. FAL itself seems to 

have contributed to this positive change as reported by some learners and graduates who mention, among 

other things, that it has led to reduced domestic violence. 

During the 1999 evaluation, it was possible to calculate the nine-month completion and drop out rates 

because of the availability of more comprehensive statistics. Unfortunately, this review could not obtain 

adequate statistics to compile completion and drop out rates. Of-course, what is commonly referred to as 

drop out must be seen in the light of the diversity of reasons for joining the programme. Some learners 

join for reasons that may not require all the nine months to achieve, for example to write and sign their


names. However, for instructors and programme providers, non-completion of the nine-month cycle is 

considered a failure. 

Learners’ interest and joy to learn 

The reasons given by the learners why they said they enjoy the adult literacy class are presented in Table 

7.2 side by side with the instructors explanation of why they rated the learners as interested in learning or 

not. 

Table 7.2: Learners’ reasons for enjoying class & instructors’ explanation of learners’ interest 

Instructors: N=87; Learners: N=403 

Learners’ reasons for enjoying Percent Why instructors rate learners as Percent 

learning 

interested in learning or not 

1. Enables me to read 57.7 Positive: 

2. Enables me to write 42.3 1. (Very) eager to learn and know 67.5 

3. Takes me out of ignorance 23.7 2. They admire reading and writing 31.2 

4. Helps me in my daily life 22.2 4. They want to emulate others 15.6 

5. I learn something new 21.9 5. Their teachers encourage them 14.3 

6. Gives chance to exchange ideas 17.6 Negative: 

7. Enables me to calculate (numeracy) 16.4 6. Irregular attendance 18.2 

8. Enables me to solve business problems 10.1 7. Lack of motivation 18.2 

9. Women put a lot of effort to learn 7.8 8. Men don’t attend 6.5 

10. Gives modern agriculture skills 4.5 9. They expect more (time, learning) 6.5 

The reasons given by the learners show that they enjoy the class not so much because of the class itself 

but because of the learning and the benefits that accrue from the learning. Their joy is not linked so much 

to material benefits but more to educational and social benefits. The instructors also gave responses along 

the same lines apart from the very few who said the learners are interested because the teachers encourage 

them. A few instructors said the learners’ interest was low. They explained that the learners lack 

motivation and expected more. Although mentioned by only a few people each time, the point of 

unfulfilled expectations was raised several times and may therefore be useful to keep in mind and probe 

further when planning future programmes. 

What is easy or difficult to learn 

The learners were also asked what they found easy or difficult to learn. The responses are displayed in 

Table 7.3. More learners find reading and writing easier to learn than numbers. Although more learners 

find reading easier to learn than writing, a significantly higher percent on the other hand find reading 

more difficult than writing! A rather small number of learners find everything easy, while significantly 

more seem to find nothing difficult. The findings are rather confusing here. 

Table 7.3: What learners reported finding easy or difficult to learn 

N=403 

What learners found easy Percent What learners found difficult Percent 

1. Reading 43.3 1. Numbers 31.0 

2. Writing 41.8 2. Reading 30.2 

3. Numbers (numeracy) 24.2 3. Writing 16.8 

4. Everything 6.8 4. Reading English 14.7 

5. Health/hygiene/sanitation 6.3 5. Nothing 13.2 

6. Nothing 3.0 6. Everything 2.3 

7. English/other languages 2.8 

8. Farming/agriculture 2.1


Learners’ satisfaction with their performance 

The learners are on the whole satisfied with their performance. They felt they were learning very well 

(42.9%) or just well (49.6%). They said they perform very well (25.6%) or fairly well (53.9%) in tests. 

They reported that they like doing tests because it helps them assess their progress and be aware of their 

weakness; and good results motivate them. They were able to report the benefits from their participation 

in the literacy programmes as: reading, writing, calculation, better agriculture, better family care, better 

business management, nutrition, health and sanitation. Asked whether what they had learnt had helped 

them, 95.0% of them said it had helped and they were able to explain how it had helped them: read on my 

own; write on my own; take better care of my family; keep my personal records; keep my business 

records; improve income; improve health and standard of living. The perceived benefits are not only 

reading and writing but also better family care, which the predominantly female participants greatly 

appreciate. 

This appreciation of learning to read and write is in harmony with what they gave in answer to related 

questions already discussed: what they want to learn and why, whether they enjoy learning and why and 

what more they would like to learn. Their interest in having the knowledge and skills to read, write and 

calculate is consistent before, during and after the learning. The benefit they see in this is not linked to 

new occupations or positions but rather to enable them perform better in their daily life, especially 

socially. This is an important signal for the kind of functional literacy that should be promoted. 

Learning venues and conditions 

The study also sought learners’ views on the conditions under which they learn. On the whole, as 

discussed in Chapter 8, they highly appreciate the work of their instructors. Generally, they also approve 

the time the classes are held. The main reason for this is that the time fits their work and is of their choice, 

since the practice is that the instructors decide together with the learners on the days and times when the 

classes should be held. They also explained that the class does not take much time. In a very few cases, 

however, the learners are not quite satisfied with the timing and preferred another time. 

There was much less satisfaction with the places where the classes are held. 51.3% of the learners rated 

the place they held the class as bad mainly because it had no shelter and lacked equipment. Those who 

appreciated the place the class is held similarly gave the main reason that it was because it was well 

equipped. The serious inadequacy of equipment in the literacy centres has negative implications on both 

teaching and learning conditions. 

7.3 Learners’ desire and prospects for further learning 

The learners’ desire for further learning has already been presented in Chapter 4. In summary, learners 

and graduates expressed great satisfaction with what they had learnt and explained how they had 

benefited from it and how it was continuing to help them in their daily life and their improvement efforts. 

However, they wanted to learn more, especially English and more reading, writing and numeracy, but 

also technical and vocational training, agriculture and health. The focus group discussions also revealed 

that many learners would like to see in place a system that would enable them to continue with education 

to obtain recognised school-type certificates. Apparently, the present provision, although meeting many 

of the learners’ needs and desires, does not cater for all the diversity of needs and desires presented by the 

different adults who seek learning in the FAL programme. Possible alternatives for enhancing the 

programme are therefore discussed here, drawing heavily from inputs by Professor Alan Rogers. 

One could consider three possible groups of actions to improving FAL to meet the variety of needs. These 

are not mutually exclusive alternatives and can all be pursued.


- Route 1: Strengthen FAL 

- Route 2: Develop new kinds of FAL activities 

- Route 3: Move beyond FAL 

Route 1: Strengthening the existing FAL 

Recognising that FAL is well established as a national programme for adults wishing to learn formal 

literacy skills and valued by government and people alike, this route seeks to build upon the existing 

FAL, strengthening areas of weakness. Among the possible suggestions are the following: 

• increasing resources for it: especially teaching-learning materials; use of ‘real materials’ in classes 

• providing more training and on-going support for facilitators 

• increasing of funding 

• training and support for management staff, especially CDOs, especially in monitoring 

• further development of a MIS 

• increased provision for English language courses (this may increase the participation of men) 

Route 2: Diversifying FAL 

FAL consists at present of a one-size-fits-all programme. A similar textbook, although somewhat 

different according to the language, and the same delivery system is being used throughout the country. 

This has worked well for some years, but it is now possible to see some ways in which FAL can be turned 

from being a single programme to being a field of activity. Different delivery systems can be found to 

help adults to develop their literacy skills and practices in the many different contexts in which they live. 

New formats can also be developed to help adults to learn literacy and develop their practices. 

The content of teaching-learning resources can be multiplied to meet the needs for different groups – 

courses for fisher folk; courses for urban residents; etc. The Community Literacy approach could be 

adopted in some places. 

Among the possible different delivery systems could be the following, which have been used elsewhere: 

• one-to-one learning: volunteers who help individual adults to learn literacy, often in their own homes 

or workplaces 

• work-based literacy – putting specially written literacy learning programmes into work places such as 

Tororo Cement using the texts found in the work place (e.g. health and safety notices etc) 

• drop-in centres which have been used in Nigeria and Sierra Leone where individuals can come for 

learning help with their own tasks and at a time when they need it rather than wait for a class 

• working with NGOs and other vocational training bodies to put appropriate embedded literacies into 

their training programmes –so that car mechanics and hairdressers can learn the literacy practices that 

go with their training in these economic activities . 

FAL could even start by establishing new skill training groups in (for example poultry farming) and 

include the appropriate literacy practices of those crafts and move from there to the more formal literacy 

practices of the classroom. 

This will call for two new things: 

i) New approaches to management - managing diversity: This can be done, if the appropriate capacity 

is built. There will need to be special training of CDOs and other managers. The CDOs will become 

more like agricultural extension workers who have a wide range of possible activities they can engage 

in (farmers’ days; field visits to help individual farmers; open days at research centres; issue of 

booklets). A literacy CDO can become as creative as agricultural or health extension workers in 

promoting their field of activity, building a supportive environment for literacy practices.


ii) Resource Centres, which can help the CDO/literacy-extension officer develop new kinds of activities 

and materials for literacy learning. The resource centre would serve as a Literacy Extension Unit. 

This will mean a cultural move away from a uniform ‘educational’ approach to literacy towards a 

more ‘developmental’ and locally participatory approach. The location of FAL in MGLSD and not 

MOES can help in this regard. The challenge for MGLSD is developing a more professional approach 

to FAL. 

Route 3: Moving Beyond FAL 

At the end of FAL Level 2 for most people and of Level 3 for a few, the question becomes: where do we 

go now? Some clearly want to continue with some form of group activity (which they can only see as a 

class). It is apparent they are getting more out of their meetings than simply learning literacy skills. 

There could be three possible avenues here for these participants: 

Avenue 1: working out literacy in their daily lives 

Avenue 2: moving into skill training and some form of economic activity 

Avenue 3: moving into formal educational programmes 

Avenue 1: Daily lives 

Some will not wish to continue to attend classes but would like to use their literacy in their daily lives. 

FAL should give this every encouragement by 

a) bringing daily lives into the classroom 

b) building a literacy environment through local libraries, book boxes, etc (as already being tried out 

in Kalangala) 

c) encouraging local self-help groups to establish a local stationery and book shop (to earn money by 

selling books and magazines and writing materials as happens elsewhere). 

Avenue 2: Skill training 

The findings of this process review show this is the demand of many of the participants who have 

finished or are near to finishing FAL. There are two possible ways this can be done: 

a) Participants move into existing craft training programmes or those provided by NGOs. It would be 

good to find out how many graduates from FAL do already go down this route but it may be hard to 

find out. This route is already provided with certification which will meet the needs of FAL 

graduates. 

b) FAL could work with other agencies to provide some skill training programmes itself for its groups. 

It would help if these courses could provide some form of certification (see equivalency in chapter 6). 

To some extent a start has been made with the Small Business Course in Kalangala, which has got off 

to a very good start and it can be strengthened further. It is however important to work out a good 

formula for its relationship with FAL. 

Avenue 3: Entry into the formal system of education. 

There clearly are some FAL graduates who want to go further into the educational system. This ties into 

the issue of equivalency already discussed in Chapter 6. Some FAL graduates have been asking about the 

relative weight of their certificates against the primary education certificates and wondering why their 

certificates cannot be considered for employment.


Chapter 8: Literacy Instructors and their Performance 

8.1 Literacy Instructors’ Characteristics 

Age and gender 

The sample for this review (N=87) seems to indicate that the literacy instructors currently in place are 

mainly young people: the cumulative percent at age 30 is 25.3%, and at age 40 is 55.2%. While the 

majority of the learners are women, the majority of the instructors are men (62.1%). This is probably due 

to several factors which makes it more difficult for women to seek employment or render regular service 

outside the home: the lower educational levels among women, their greater involvement in domestic work 

and the fact that in most cases they need the permission of their husbands. 

Educational level 

The educational level of the instructors was varied. Almost 20% of them completed only primary 

education, with another 50% completing Secondary 1-3. Holders of the Uganda Certificate of Education 

(UCE) were 17%. Less than 4% had additional education or training. While primary schooling, especially 

when the whole cycle is not completed, is not an adequate general education base for a functional literacy 

instructor, the more than 80% with some secondary or higher education have a good enough foundation 

for sound training as literacy instructors and adult educators for continuing education. 

Occupation 

A great majority of the literacy instructors are crop-farmers, small-scale cultivators farming mainly for 

subsistence. The farming percentage among them, 80.5% (Figure 3.2 in chapter 3), is only slightly below 

that of the learners, graduates and non-literates. In this, therefore, the instructors are not different from 

their learners and suffer the same constraints of subsistence agriculture. Asked what other activities they 

carried out, the main activities they mentioned were crop farming (for those whose main occupation is 

something else), church work, LC committee member, business or trading and health work, especially 

training. On the whole, only 7.4% mentioned salaried employment as an occupation or activity. 

Radio ownership 

To understand the instructors’ socio-economic conditions better, the study asked them about ownership of 

radio. 85.1% said they own a radio, a percentage that is significantly higher than that of the FAL 

graduates, learners and potential learners (Figure 3.4 in chapter 3). This is interesting, considering the fact 

that the instructors are engaged in similar economic activities as those other categories of respondents and 

should not therefore have greater economic capacity to afford a radio than the other categories. 

Computers 

Only 13.8% of the instructors said they could use the computer and 91% of them want to learn to use the 

computer. The government has recently set up a Ministry for Information Technology and will most 

likely come up with a policy that is favourable to the spread of computer-based ICT, which is still low in 

the rural areas of the country. 

What instructors read and write 

Over 80% of the instructors do some reading and writing that is not part of their teaching. What they read 

and write is displayed in Table 8.1. Their high interest in reading newspapers suggests that more would 

read newspapers if they had regular access to them. They access newspapers from different sources: 21% 

buy a personal copy; 20% read in a library; 10% read the copy that the husband brings home and 5% read 

in the work place.


Table 8.1: What Instructors Read and Write 

N = 87 

Reading 

Writing 

Books (assorted) 51.3% Letters 44.6% 

Newspapers 50.0% Personal records 39.2% 

Bible 21.3% Employment related things 23.0% 

Novels/story books 11.3% Business records 13.5% 

Pamphlets 8.8% Children books/homework 13.5% 

Magazines 6.3% Minutes in meetings 10.8% 

Letters 5.0% Lesson plans 8.1% 

Reports 5.4% 

As expected, reading and writing practice among the instructors is significantly higher than among the 

learners (see Chapter 3). If the instructors read and write, it is more likely that they will encourage the 

learners and be an example to them to do the same. The main reasons they gave for deciding to volunteer 

to teach literacy show that the instructors are people who value reading and writing. 

Other evidence that they value reading and writing is that 85% of them have books or magazines at home. 

Almost 60% of the instructors have religious books but over 50% have also other non-religious books 

apart from literacy class books (37%) and school books (23%). Although 20% said they buy their own 

personal copies of newspapers, only 4.0% reported having newspapers or magazines in the house. May be 

after reading they give them away or use them for other purposes, such as wrapping or lighting fires. 

8.2 Instructors’ Training for Literacy Work 

Good literacy instruction requires trained instructors with the necessary knowledge and skills. It is 

therefore gratifying to learn that 71.3% of the instructors had received some specific training for teaching 

adult literacy. However, the training received lasted only up to 5 days for the majority (70.1%). The 

findings also show that there is very little follow-up training. Even five days’ training is inadequate 

especially considering their level of formal education. The fact that as high as almost 30% of the 

instructors have received no training at all is a matter of concern. 

The central government has some budgetary allocation for training, but this is used only for training of 

trainers. The actual training of instructors is the responsibility of the districts, which as discussed in 

chapter 6, receive very little money for FAL from the central government and have in most cases nothing 

from their own revenue that they can budget for adult literacy. Most districts are clear that there is nothing 

more they can do in the present circumstances. The situation is much better where there is a significant 

input by external partners such as ICEIDA, as discussed in chapter 6. 

Apart from adult literacy, about one-third of the instructors had attended some other course or training, 

after their formal education. They attended courses in health and nutrition, counselling, HIV/AIDS, 

administration and management, and technical and vocational skills. Most of these were short courses 

lasting only a few days or weeks. Some instructors had attended more than one such course or training. 

About 9% of the instructors had received training as school teachers and a significant 30% had ever 

taught in formal schools, which have also sometimes had to use untrained teachers.


8.3 Instructors’ Motivation and Incentives 

Remuneration 

The literacy programmes in Uganda are taught largely by unpaid volunteers. It is a situation to which the 

government attention has been drawn many times and the government has made some effort to address. It 

is encouraging to note that 41% of the instructors reported receiving some form on incentive: 64% of 

them in cash; 26% bicycles; 15% T-shirts; and even motorcycles (8%). The cash incentives from 

government is extremely small in many districts, coming to as little as shillings 5,000/= (= US $ 2.50) 

every 3 months, but often shillings15,000 every 3 months. In most districts, as the findings show, even 

this little is not paid at all. 

Work satisfaction 

Although few instructors receive any incentive for the work, and where they do it is so little, yet 32.2% of 

the instructors said they are very happy with the work, 44.8% said they are happy while 10.3% said they 

are a little happy. Only 12.6% said they are not happy. The study tried to understand better what 

motivates instructors to undertake this voluntary work and what makes them happy about it. Table 8.2 

gives the reasons why they undertook the work in the first place side by side with the reasons why they 

feel happy with it. 

There is some correspondence between the reasons given for having decided to teach the literacy class 

and those for being happy with the work. Practically the same percentage of instructors gave the 

responses of fighting illiteracy and promoting development to both questions. The reason given by most 

instructors for having decided to teach literacy, that is, helping others, does not reappear in the reasons for 

their happiness with their work. Instead the main reason for happiness with their work is that they are 

proud of their achievements. Some of these achievements are of course that they have helped others, but it 

is interesting that this is not specifically mentioned. 

At first sight some of the reasons given may seem too noble and selfless to be genuine. However, the fact 

that the majority of these instructors have taught for years without any material or financial remuneration 

gives great credibility to these noble reasons. They would not have persisted if their motives had been 

based more on the material expectations. There is thus a strong volunteer spirit that deserves to be further 

strengthened by some incentive. 

Table 8.2: Instructors’ reasons for deciding to teach literacy and for happiness with the work 

N = 87 

Reasons for deciding to teach % Reasons for happiness with the work % 

1. Help others 53.5 Why happy 

2. Fight illiteracy 50.0 1. Fighting illiteracy 31.7 

3. Promote development 41.9 2. Happy with achievements 29.3 

4. Was requested 10.5 3. Social relations 29.3 

5. Keep busy 8.1 4. Promoting development 23.2 

6. Access NGO projects 3.5 Why not happy 

7. Refresh my mind 3.5 5. No incentives/rewards 7.3 

8. Patriotism 3.5 6. Inadequate payment 7.3 

Incentives must be thought of since 68.8% of the instructors mentioned no incentives or rewards as the 

personal problem they meet, and 49.4% said government should reward them or pay a regular salary. It is 

important to remember that these instructors are people who are not very well off materially; many of 

them are young people with growing families to take care of. It is not therefore easy for them to be 

seriously committed to providing good quality literacy education when the time spent on the work does 

not help them to improve their living conditions and provide more adequately for the needs of their


families. Concern should not only be with the fact that they teach but also with the amount and quality of 

commitment they put into the work. Information related to these concerns is presented in the next section. 

Kalangala District offers an interesting model of a package of incentives that could progressively be 

offered to instructors all over the country. It comprises a regular cash allowance of UShs30,000/- per 

month paid quarterly into their bank account, bicycles to ease their transport to the learning centres, 

regular refresher courses to enhance their performance and opportunities for further training in which the 

instructors identify the areas of their training. In addition, instructors have been encouraged to form an 

association and are supported to work together to develop income generating activities for their better 

livelihoods. The cash allowance is not very much, but with all those added incentives it makes for a 

motivating package. 

8.4 Instructors’ Participation and Performance 

Some programme managers mentioned a problem of a high turn over rate among the instructors. Figure 

8.1, however, seems to indicate this may not be such a big problem going by the percentage of instructors 

who have taught for over three years; only 27.6% of the sample had taught for one year or less. This 

seems to suggest a significant amount of continuity and a sign of commitment to the task on the part of 

the instructors, which is in line with what they said about enjoying teaching. 

Figure 8.1: How long instructors have taught literacy (%) 

4-5 years, 13.8 

6-7 years, 6.9 

5-6 years, 4.5 

Up to 1 year, 

27.6 

3-4 years, 11.5 

2-3 years, 12.6 

1-2 years, 12.6 

Attendance 

The commitment is also manifested by the regularity of their attendance to their class duties (Figure 8.2). 

To cross-check the information given on this by the instructors themselves, the learners too were asked 

about the regularity of their instructors. Although the question was put differently to the two samples, the 

responses have been harmonised for comparison. The instructors were asked how frequently they miss 

teaching and the responses categorised as often, rarely and never; while the learners were asked to rate the 

regularity of their instructor’s attendance and their responses categorised as bad, good or very good. 

Where the learners rated their instructor’s attendance as bad this was interpreted as the instructor being 

absent often; where the rating was good, this was interpreted as the corresponding percentage of rare 

absence; while a very good rating was interpreted as the corresponding percentage of never absent. The 

rating given by learners is much more positive than that given by the instructors themselves. This is rather 

difficult to explain, but would seem to indicate, at least, that the instructors’ responses were genuine. The


fact that the learners have such high appreciation of the instructors’ regularity in attendance is good for 

the programme. 

Absenteeism 

The main reason that the instructors gave for absence is illness, mentioned by 65.7% of them. This was 

followed by funerals at a very high 61.47%. Farm work and travel followed at a long distance at 12.9% 

each. The low percent mentioning domestic work (7.1%) could be partly explained by the fact that the 

larger percentage of the instructors is male. It is the women who usually feel the brunt of family 

commitments. 

Figure 8.2: Instructor's absence from class (%) 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

71.3 

69.2 

27.5 

24.1 

4.6 

1.5 

Often Rarely Never 

Reported by instructor 

Reported by learners 

Performance 

The learners were asked to rate their instructors also in other aspects of their performance, specifically: 

their teaching style, ability to make the learning interesting and relationship with the learners. The 

instructors scored highly in all three cases (see Table 8.3). 

Table 8.3: Learners’ Rating of their Instructors 

N = 403 

Making lesson interesting Relationship with learners 

Very good 59.1% 61.3% 

Good 36.2% 32.8% 

Bad 0.5% 1.0% 

The information about the instructors’ performance shows that they are committed to the work and 

perform to the learners’ satisfaction. This does not necessarily mean that they are providing good quality 

instruction. The learners may not be in a position to assess that properly. The few sessions that the 

researchers were able to observe briefly suggested that the literacy methodology used is not appropriate, 

and that it is very similar to that used to teach reading to children in schools, which is often also 

inappropriate. Obviously, if instructors have had very little, if any, specific training for facilitating adult 

learning, they can only fall back to what they themselves were exposed to in school. What the instructors 

possess abundantly in commitment is therefore most likely seriously undermined by lack in professional 

training for adult literacy education, thus calling for enhanced training efforts.


Chapter 9: 

Current Provision as a Response to the Learning Needs and 

Desires 

9.1 People’s Needs, Concerns and Learning Desires 

Poverty, disease and ignorance/illiteracy 

Poverty, mentioned by about 65% of the male “non-literate” respondents and 51% of the female, or lack 

of money, mentioned by 35% male and 56% female are the main problems and the top concerns of the 

predominantly rural population, depending on subsistence agriculture. This is followed by disease or 

illness (41% male and 44% female). Most of the non-literate respondents would like to change this 

situation by improving agricultural production (41%); but others by doing business (13%) and incomegenerating 

activities (10%). They would like to see government helping them to improve by providing 

micro-finance and supporting agriculture, but also by providing adult education and supporting FAL 

programmes financially. 

The non-literate respondents are also concerned about illiteracy (19% male and 19% female) and lack of 

knowledge and skills (9% female and 11% male), although these are not among the top concerns. They 

articulate clearly the problems associated with illiteracy and the benefits they expect from becoming 

literate. 

The main assumption that led to the commissioning of this process review was that needs were changing 

and so the original design of the programme may no longer be relevant to the needs. When the findings of 

this review, summarised above are compared to the findings of the initial needs assessment study for the 

pilot phase of FAL in 1992, they look quite similar: poverty led with 66% of the respondents followed by 

disease with 48% and ignorance coming much lower the ladder mentioned by only 10% of the 

respondents. The most consistent answers from the 1992 respondents on their plans for improvement 

were in the area of agriculture: grow crops for sale, grow more food and improve agriculture with a 

cumulative 38% (Okech et al. 1992). 

It is not surprising that the needs and concerns have not changed much. The socio-economic conditions 

have not changed significantly for most of the population. As explained in the section on the socioeconomic 

situation at the beginning of this report, the fairly steady economic growth since FAL was 

launched, piloted and expanded has been accompanied by an increasing gap between the poor and the 

rich, reflected in the Gini coefficient of 0.43. 

People’s learning desires and readiness to learn 

There seems to have been a shift in priorities regarding learning desires. In 1992 “better farming” 

logically took the top position (28%) among the things the respondents wanted to learn first if they were 

given the chance to learn whatever they wanted, with reading and writing coming second (22%). For the 

non-literate respondents in this process review literacy takes top priority among the things they would like 

to learn first, whereas illiteracy ranked fourth in the list of most serious problems, and acquisition of 

literacy skills was not even among their spontaneous strategies for dealing with the problems. 

They want to learn also numeracy, technical and vocational skills, agriculture, languages, health and 

religion, in that order of frequency of mention. The fact that agriculture and technical and vocational 

training also feature somewhat significantly would seem to indicate that the people to some extent see the 

acquisition of knowledge and skills as having a contribution to make to improvements in their strategies 

to deal with poverty, their most serious problem.


The people explained that they want to learn these different things in order to: read and write on their 

own; sustain their life; get information easily; be able to carry out a project; gain confidence and keep 

secrets. They felt that being literate would, specifically, be very useful in daily life; enable them to do 

things by themselves; make for easy communication; take them out ignorance and change their life and 

bring about development. 

More than half the current literacy programme participants and literacy graduates want to learn English, 

more reading, writing and numeracy and general knowledge. Only few of both the participants and 

graduates mentioned agriculture and business and even fewer mentioned technical and vocational 

training. Health was also mentioned, but by fewer than 10%. 

Apparently, the change brought about by participation in the FAL programme has been to strengthen even 

further the orientation of the learning desires towards things to do with communication and social benefits 

and weaken the desire for learning related to livelihood knowledge and skills. Paulo Freire argued that 

education systems and educators can work either to domesticate or to liberate people. David Archer, in an 

article commemorating the anniversary of Paulo Freire’s death paraphrased that by writing “It is clear that 

education can either work to close down people’s minds or to open them up”. The finding mentioned in 

this paragraph about the change brought about by participation in the FAL programme may leave one 

wondering whether FAL is really opening up people’s minds. 

9.2 Programme achievements 

Institutional capacity 

At institutional level, government has established and implements FAL as a reality. Through FAL and 

other adult programmes established and implementing the right to education, social and economic status 

of women beneficiaries has been raised. A line Ministry is in place to supervise and monitor these 

programmes. Instructors, men and women, some of whom would have been redundant are trained and are 

a major part of the implementation of adult programmes. The line Ministry has established guidelines and 

developed, produced and distributed printed learners’ primers and readers and instructors’ guides. A team 

of national trainers has been constituted and they have trained trainers for many of the districts. 

There are also a number of other organisations: NGOs, FBOs and CBOs that offer literacy education in 

selected parts of the country, on a small scale basis, following approaches that differ in varying degrees 

among the different providers. These have collaborated with MGLSD in a number of activities and are 

regularly invited by the ministry to a variety of FAL forums. 

Partnership 

Throughout the period under review there have been fairly frequent instances of public-private and 

private-private partnership in adult literacy and basic education in Uganda. Since CSOs put a firm foot 

into the process of developing NALSIP that seemed to have been seriously flawed and contributed to 

coming up with the splendid NALSIP document, they have been involved in the development of 

practically all the FAL guidelines. They have also been closely involved in the development of adult 

learning policy and the adult learning qualifications framework, which are both still being worked on. 

Several seminars, workshops and symposia have jointly been organised and held. This has been an 

important achievement. However, there are still a number of guidelines for partnership in the NALSIP 

and the other guidelines that have not been implemented.


Learning achievement and satisfaction 

The survey also assessed the qualitative achievements of the programme in terms on learning using both 

self-assessment by the learners and the instructors’ assessment of their learners. The learners reported that 

they perform well in tests and on the whole assessed themselves as learning well. They also reported 

overwhelmingly that they enjoy the literacy programme and gave reasons showing that they enjoy the 

programme mainly because of the benefits they obtained in terms of the new knowledge and skills they 

acquired and the use they are able to make of the knowledge and skills in their daily lives. This 

reconfirmed and concretised their assessment of themselves as learning well. Many reported that they are 

now able to sign visitors’ books, fill forms or register and take notes in meetings and workshops, write 

and read simple agreements, confidential letters and other confidential documents, read newspapers, 

religious books, announcements, act plays in local languages, calculate and keep business records, help 

and check their children’s school work. 

The fact that one of the reasons the instructors gave for being happy in their work is that they are proud of 

their achievement further reinforces this assessment that there is learning taking place. They find that their 

learners admire reading and writing and are eager to learn and know. One could therefore conclude that 

the literacy programme is producing learning, which both learners and instructors find satisfactory. 

The learners are generally satisfied with their instructors whom they rate as good or very good. There 

seem to be no problems that arise from the fact that the majority of the instructors are male and yet the 

majority of the learners are female. The potential learners also indicated that they would be happy to be 

taught by whoever is qualified: anyone with adequate knowledge who can help them. 

The learners are also happy with the arrangements for the days, the duration and the times of the day 

when the literacy classes take place. They particularly appreciate the fact that they are given the 

opportunity to make the choice of days and hours for classes. This enables them to choose the days and 

times when they are least engaged in other activities and to agree on time that is just enough for them. It is 

not surprising that the number of days per week and hours per day that the literacy classes are held 

corresponds to the days and hours preferred by the potential learners. 

Improved family welfare and harmony 

One of the frequently mentioned benefits from participation in FAL is ability to take better care of the 

family. The participants, especially women, have been made aware of health issues including HIV/AIDS 

and malaria and how to prevent and manage them. They have been taught hygienic practices, good 

nutrition and home or family care related issues and many have put them into practice thereby taking 

better care of their families. There has been increased harmony and appreciation in their families and this 

has further raised women's self-esteem, self-worth and self-confidence. A woman learner from Musaba 

FAL class in Kyenjojo district said, “My husband now values me more because of going to FAL. I 

perform better at home". Yet another woman learner in Kyenjojo said: "Abasaija baitu nibasemererwa 

obutuba tuguzire ebintu mumaka gaitu" (Women contribute items in the home, and when the husbands 

see them, they are happy). This feeling was expressed by many women learners and graduates of adult 

education programmes in other districts. 

Increased social participation 

Learners and graduates also reported increased social participation. Women, especially, have been 

enabled to have a sense of belonging, to socialize and cooperate with fellow learners. Adult education has 

given some learners capacity to empower themselves and some have become social leaders who directly 

and indirectly, individually and as a group have become agents of political and social change in their 

families and communities. In one FGD in Kisoro, it was noted that learners have increased their


appreciation of their cultural values when they are given and learn from materials like poems and idioms 

in their languages. 

Governance 

The literacy skills and certificates the participants have acquired have also qualified then to vie for 

political leadership posts and as a result, a number of them have got onto LC 1 and religious committees. 

They are better able to vote representatives of their choice, have contributed to reduce invalid votes and 

are in a position to make their leaders accountable. They have formed groups in which they are applying 

leadership skills. They have got to know and to participate in other government/ NGO's development 

programmes in their areas. This has greatly boosted their self-esteem and confidence. 

Economic empowerment 

Some adult education classes have encouraged and enabled members to start groups from which many 

have started and benefited from income generating activities and rotational savings. Others have started 

their personal businesses while others have improved their farming methods and increased production. In 

this way, they have earned some money, as well as acquiring skills in their management styles. As one 

learner from Musaba FAL class in Kyenjojo said, "Itwe abakazi netubika sente zaitu kandi zaitu 

ngabakazi" (We women have money, our own money as women). 

9.3 Challenges and concerns in the current provision 

Lack of firm data 

It has not been possible to establish, with any degree of confidence, the quantitative achievements of the 

literacy programmes in the country because of the unavailability of programme statistics, especially in the 

government provision. Whereas the extent of the quantitative achievement can only be meaningfully 

assessed when accurate statistics are available, the indications from what is happening and views gathered 

in the sampled districts is that the provision is still leaving a big gap in reaching all those who need the 

programme. With support from ICEIDA a management information system is being put in place in 

MGLSD. There is however concern about the availability of data from the field since the district and subcounty 

officials report lack of resources to collect the data on a regular basis. 

Problems reported by instructors and learners 

During the focus group discussions and interviews, a number of problems and challenges in the current 

provision were raised. After presenting the problems raised in the interviews by the instructors and 

learners the other challenges and concerns that arose from the process review, as already presented in the 

different chapters, are summarised and briefly discussed, as a bridge to suggesting possible ways of 

addressing them. 

The instructors were asked to mention the problems in four categories: administrative, teaching, learners’ 

and personal problems. The problems they mentioned in the three first categories are presented in Table 

9.1 while the personal problems are presented in Figure 9.1. Learners’ problems in this case meant the 

problems affecting or arising from learners as seen by the instructors. The responses show that the 

instructors had different interpretations of the categories as proposed to them by the interviewers. Thus, 

some of the problems given under teaching problems should really have been seen as administrative 

problems. The result of the differences in interpretation of the categories made some of the problems 

appear under different categories and so seem to have been mentioned by a smaller percent of the 

respondents than the actual percent that mentioned them.


Table 9.1: Problems Reported by the Instructors N = 87 

Administrative problems % Teaching problems % 

1. Lack of incentives 20.5 1. No incentives 28.8 

2. Lack of classrooms 18.7 2. Lack of teaching materials 19.7 

3. Lack of teaching material 18.7 3. Lack of classrooms 13.1 

4. Lack of monitoring by ministry 10.0 4. Need further training in adult education 11.6 

5. Untrained instructors 9.1 5. Varied age groups put together 10.1 

6. Lack of instructor-manager 

7.8 6. No chair 4.5 

communication 

7. Lack of interest by local authorities 5.5 7. Teasing from Primary School pupils 2.5 

8. One instructor for too many learners 2.3 8. Adults learn slowly / forget easily 1.5 

9. Adults don't want to be reprimanded 1.4 9. Distance is long 1.0 

10. Instructors-manager misunderstanding 0.9 10. Lack of transport 1.0 

11. Lack of transport 0.9 11. Learners think instructors are paid 1.0 

12. Others (≤0.5% each) 2.5 12. Others (≤0.5% each) 4.0 

13. None 1.8 13. None 1.0 

Male learners’ problems % Female learners’ problems % 

1. Absenteeism 14.6 1. Domestic work 26.9 

2. Domestic work 13.9 2. Family commitments 20.9 

3. Family commitments 12.5 3. Poverty 14.2 

4. Lack of interest / despise the programme 13.2 4. Learning materials insufficient 11.2 

5. Poverty 12.5 5. Absenteeism 6.7 

6. Over-drinking 8.3 6. Different levels in age and knowledge 4.5 

7. Learning materials insufficient 8.3 7. Lack of interest 3.0 

8. Sickness and eyesight problems 3.5 8. Sickness and eye problems 3.7 

9. Ashamed of learning with women 2.1 9. Men interfere / discourage their wives 3.7 

10. Different levels in age and knowledge 2.1 10. Shyness / feeling ashamed 1.5 

11. Busy looking for money 1.4 11. Others (≤0.7% each) 2.8 

12. Long distances to class centre 1.4 12. None 0.7 

13. Others (≤0.7% each) 2.8 

14. None 3.5 

Figure 9.1: Personal problems while teaching as reported by instructors (%) 

No reward / incentives 

Transport & communication 

Poverty 

14.8 

16.4 

30.1 

Family commitments 

No materials 

Little reward (Shs 5,000) 

No training 

Husband discourages 

Others 

No problems 

1.6 

1.5 

2.2 

5.5 

4.9 

11.5 

11.5 

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35


The general comments made by learners also raised a number of problems. These are given in Table 9.2. 

Table 9.2: Challenges/problems mentioned by learners 

N=403 

Reason % 

1. Provision of learning/instruction /reading materials 45.2 

2. Construct FAL learning centres 39.8 

3. Government/NGO support needed 21.0 

4. Provision of loans, for IGAs and project 20.7 

5. Payment of FAL instructors 17.9 

6. Appreciate the programme* 17.9 

7. Further learning /development opportunity 15.6 

8. Increase and train instructors adequately 13.9 

9. Allowance /incentives for learners 12.2 

10. Provide learners with (improved) farm seeds 10.2 

11. Technical and vocational skill training 6.8 

12. Support learners with physical disabilities 5.1 

13. Attach learning to projects/form groups 4.8 

14. Provide learners with employable skills 4.3 

15. Advertise /mobilise for FAL 2.3 

16. Provide land for demonstration 1.1 

17. Regular examinations and provision of certificates 0.6 

18. Address gender/women issues 0.3 

19. Grade learners according to levels 0.3 

*Responses that expressed appreciation of the programme 

Weak link between MGLSD and the districts 

The linking mechanism between MGLSD and the implementation in the districts is not clear and the link 

has as a result been weak. There is no evidence that the ministry, which should provide the guiding 

policy, supervise and monitor the programme is seriously involved with the districts. The view from 

community development officers in the districts was that the ministry was neglecting them. The 

inadequate supervision was also noted by both learners and instructors. The ministry headquarters 

admitted that this had to a certain extent been true but that several measures were being taken to improve 

upon the situation, as has been explained in the chapter on organisation and management. 

Commitment to FAL in the districts 

As in the 1999 evaluation it was also found in this review that the level of commitment to FAL varies 

among the different districts. Although many respondents from the district and sub-county levels stated 

that FAL is a priority in their district, there is very little to translate that priority position into reality in 

terms of budget allocation or other support. Whereas the central government (MOES) ensures that 

primary education, which is also decentralised like FAL, is treated with seriousness all over the country, 

MGLSD does not seem to do much in this line. The weak link discussed above partly explains this 

situation. The low commitment to FAL in the districts, where it is supposed to be implemented, seriously 

limits its effectiveness and impact. 

Weak collaboration and partnership 

Many provisions for public-private partnership in the NALSIP and other FAL guidelines are yet to be 

implemented. CSOs feel very dissatisfied with the progress towards effective partnership in literacy and


adult basic education. A study commissioned by LitNet in 2006 found that the collaboration and 

partnership between the public and private sector in the delivery of basic adult literacy programmes can at 

best be described as weak – few arrangements are formal while the majority are informal with no written 

memoranda and understanding. 

Collaboration between MGLSD and other relevant government ministries is also very weak, in spite of 

provision in some key government strategies for collaboration, e.g. between FAL and several agricultural 

development programmes such as NAADS and AAMP. Collaboration with MOES that should be 

naturally expected is also very unclear. 

Inadequate supervision, monitoring and documentation 

Most of the districts visited lamented the limited supervision and monitoring of FAL. The findings from 

the learners and instructors show that some classes were not visited in a period of over a year. Yet both 

learners and instructors would need to be visited regularly. Both at the district and sub-county level the 

explanation given is that the finances are not adequate for them to monitor adequately. District officials 

charged with monitoring are not supervised by MGLSD either, claiming is some cases that they hardly 

ever see the ministry officials in their districts. Arrangements to involve the learners and civil society in 

the monitoring laid down in the NALSIP and other guidelines have not been implemented. 

There is also very poor documentation of the programme especially at the field levels: the classroom and 

the sub-county. Reports from these levels are not available and the records kept are very scanty. There is 

very limited practice of record keeping by all the parties concerned: the learners, instructors and 

supervising officials, as visits to the classes and sub-counties showed. The weak record keeping at these 

crucial levels leads to unavailability of firm data already discussed, and of reports from the sub-county to 

the district and the district to the ministry. 

Lack of facilities 

The review has found that lack of facilities at the venues is a source of much dissatisfaction among both 

the learners and instructors. It is a big challenge that the government in the 1992 White Paper had 

suggested to deal with through use of various existing facilities, especially school classrooms. This 

would, however, have required different arrangements than those which exist now. Many school 

classrooms also lack basic facilities like desks, anyway. School classrooms would, moreover, be doubtful 

as psychologically and socially suitable environments for adults to learn in. Most FAL classes are held 

under trees, or in classes/church premises or in a member’s or instructor’s home, all of which have their 

challenges. There is no doubt that lack of facilities, equipment and materials significantly affects both 

teaching and learning. 

Resources and venues 

Very limited resources are provided for literacy education. In Uganda and elsewhere it is traditionally 

assumed that teaching and learning for adults can be organized in any place that the learners and their 

instructors can access. Many of the venues that are accessible are very inappropriate, lacking even the 

basic facilities like a shelter. They are poorly equipped and lack instructional materials. 

Shortage of textbooks and other teaching/learning materials 

The lack of equipment and materials is lamented by the learners and instructors. Even the potential 

learners are apprehensive that the lack of materials would be one of their problems if they started 

participating in learning. A number of FAL classes lack scholastic and training materials, and this 

discourages otherwise interested learners, especially the women who often are not in a position to buy 

them.


Languages 

The language policy in FAL is to use the local language that is usually the mother tongue of the majority 

of the inhabitants of the locality. However, currently only 13 of more than 30 languages of Uganda have 

the required literacy materials. Most of the remaining languages are demanding for materials in their own 

language, since most of the non-literate population speak only their mother tongue well enough. In any 

case it is today recognised that it is best for people to learn literacy in their mother tongue. 

Men’s participation 

Most learners and graduates of all adult education programmes in the districts visited are women. The 

statistics of literacy rates seen earlier indicate that there are more illiterate women than men. Thus it is no 

surprise to find more women than men in literacy classes. Their interest in FAL, according to them, 

among other things is because it meets their practical gender needs. The skills they get enable them to 

performance better their gender roles. However, the Adult Education programmes have not attracted and 

retained illiterate men, even if they form a smaller percent, as learners. 

Instructors’ training, incentives and motivation 

Instructors in FAL are generally local unpaid volunteers with not a very high level of education, and very 

little training for facilitating adult learning, often 3 to 5 days duration and no refresher training. They have 

on the whole no knowledge or skills in the technical and vocational areas in which some of their learners 

are interested. The majority (about 60%) reported receiving no remuneration at all while many of those 

that did receive any received as little as 5,000/- (US$2.50) per month. Yet most of them reported being 

happy with their work, proud of their achievement and glad to be contributing to the improved well-being 

of their fellow-citizens. The fact that the majority of the sample (60%) had served as instructors for more 

than two years, some of them for as long as five years (11%) is evidence that they are committed to the 

work. Nevertheless, they are generally dissatisfied with the fact that they are doing such noble work for 

no remuneration at all. All the stakeholders agree with them: learners, leaders and officials. 

It is clear that the contribution of the instructors’ voluntarism needs to be boosted by some form of 

incentives. The learners’ characteristics showed that they are poor people eking out a living from 

subsistence agriculture on small pieces of land with very little agricultural technology. Many of them are 

part of the percentage of Ugandans who fall below the poverty line. It is unrealistic to expect them to be 

able to put in all the required effort and time into FAL without remuneration. 

Methodology and contents 

There are also problems related to programme methodology and contents and to the quality of instruction, 

which are not readily visible to the instructors and learners but are nevertheless real as already discussed 

in this report. There seems to be general agreement among the programme providers that the primer and 

teachers’ guide prepared by the government and used by a number of other providers as well is a useful 

starting point. However, optimal use of these materials is only possible if the instructors are adequately 

trained, which is not the case in Uganda today. Some capacity has been developed at the level of trainers 

and trainers of trainers, although there is still need for more. Few instructors, if any, have practical skills 

such as carpentry, business management, modern farming etc, in which learners would like to be 

instructed. 

There is also the need to develop the capacity for designing and implementing literacy programmes that 

respond to the diversified needs of learners in different situations and different parts of the country. 

MGLSD recognises that the FAL curriculum is a broad guide that needs to be used creatively to identify 

and develop learning contents to meet the diversified needs of the people. However, low capacity among


the programme implementers and instructors make these actors depend so heavily on the curriculum and 

primers or teachers’ guides that diversified learners’ needs are usually not taken into consideration. 

Instead one uniform approach and set of contents is used with all. The only small opportunity for 

diversified learning is provided by the fact that different language-based teams developed materials for 

the different languages taking into account the specific needs of the linguistic group. That is, of-course, 

not yet diversified enough, since there are diverse learner characteristics and needs even within individual 

linguistic groups, especially the larger groups. 

There is also still a big gap in catering for people with special learning needs due to disabilities. 

Something has been done toward provision of Braille material but the implementation of learning 

activities for blind adults is still very limited. Moreover, there are other ability challenges such as being 

deaf-blind or being severely restricted in mobility. 

9.4 People’s suggestions for improvement 

Table 9.2 presents learners’ and instructors’ suggestions on what needs to be done to improve the literacy 

programmes for adults. Responses from both groups to the question asking for comments and suggestions 

focused almost exclusively on suggestions for improvement. The respondents most likely felt they had 

already made enough comments in the previous questions. However, some learners (7.3%) and instructors 

(3.9%) made comments appreciating the FAL programme. Using the suggestions from both learners and 

instructors, the suggestions are grouped into four categories and discussed below. 

Table 9.3: Learners’ and instructors’ suggestions for improvement 

Learners’ suggestions for improvement % Instructors’ suggestions for improvement % 

1. Provide learning/instructional materials 18.4 1. Pay FAL instructors 19.6 

2. Construct FAL learning centres 16.2 2. Construct FAL learning centres 10.3 

3. Increase government / NGO support 8.6 3. Provide learning/instructional materials 8.8 

4. Provide loans/funds for IGAs, projects 8.5 4. Increase government / NGO support 9.3 

5. Pay FAL instructors 7.3 5. Allowances / incentives for learners 5.9 

6. Further learning, development opportunities 6.4 6. Provide loans/funds for IGAs, projects 5.9 

7. Increase, train instructors adequately 5.7 7. Increase, train instructors adequately 5.4 

8. Allowance / incentives for learners 5.0 8. Regular monitoring and supervision 4.9 

9. Provide learners with improved farm seeds 4.2 9. Give instructors bicycles, houses, transport 4.4 

10. Technical and vocational skills training 2.8 10. Have radio talks, exchange visits 3.4 

11. Support learners with disabilities 2.1 11. Further learning, development opportunities 2.9 

12. Attach learning to projects / form groups 2.0 12. Encourage more adults to join 2.9 

13. Provide instructors for English 2.0 13. Give prizes/rewards to best learners 2.5 

14. Advertise / mobilise for FAL 0.9 14. Encourage people and NGOs to start FAL 2.5 

15. Others 0.9 15. Provide FAL curriculum, teaching guides 2.0 

16. Train sub-county officials to sensitise 2.0 

17. Others 3.5 

Scale of the programme 

In the NALSIP Uganda had set itself an ambitious target of enabling about 3,800,000 adults to attain 

formal literacy every year between 2002/03 and 2006/07. Although, as discussed earlier, reliable 

statistics are not available, the partial statistics seem to indicate that not even 50% of that target has been 

achieved, only some months to the end of the period. The target was certainly too ambitious and the 

Social Sector Development Strategic Plan realised that and proposed a lower target, which does not seem 

to have been achieved either. In the focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews it came out


that FAL was not reaching many who needed it and it therefore needs to be expanded. In the context of 

present-day Uganda, with all its multi-faceted challenges, it would be rather unrealistic to think of a mass 

campaign although a number of those interviewed or participating in the discussions suggested universal 

adult literacy provision similar to universal primary education. 

All countries in the region, including Tanzania have in recent years opted for a low-intensity programme 

to be sustained over a long period, which has proved more realistic in the circumstances. It is already 

quite a challenge to ensure that FAL produces adults with a reasonable mastery of literacy. Rather than 

scaling up the magnitude of the provision, what may be more needed is to address those aspects that can 

contribute to more effective and qualitative learning. 

Training 

Surprisingly few instructors mention the need for training, although many of them had no training at all 

and most of those who had any had very insufficient training. It would seem they do not realise that they 

are lacking in this aspect, which is a matter of concern. They do not realise that the service they are 

providing needs specialised knowledge and skills, which they do not have. 

Rewards and incentives 

The issue of remuneration came out much more prominently. It is interesting that rather few of the 

instructors propose a regular salary. Many simply talk of some reward or incentive. This should be a good 

opening for the government and other programme providers who are understandably wary of increasing 

the number of people on their regular payrolls. The instructors would be satisfied with some form of 

recognition of their effort. They certainly need something that helps them supplement their meagre 

livelihoods, but other forms of recognition and incentive would also be a welcome reward for their 

dedication and efforts. 

Supervision 

A few instructors felt the need for supervision, which, according to the findings, is seriously lacking 

especially in the government programmes. Here too, it is a matter of concern that only a few instructors 

recognised this need. With their very little training and the challenges they face teaching under difficult 

circumstances, they would benefit from regular supervisory support that could help to build their capacity 

for the work. Some instructors mentioned poor communication with programme managers as an 

administrative problem. One of the ways in which this problem could be overcome is through regular 

supervision. 

Non-human resources 

Building classrooms, provision of equipment and materials and increased financing of the programme 

came out of the suggestions of both learners and instructors. There is no doubt, as already discussed, that 

the deficiency in these resources is adversely affecting learning. The strong emphasis by the instructors 

that government must finance the programme is very much in order. Government funding, as already 

reported, is hardly reaching the real learning situation at the moment. It does not even seem to be 

contributing as much as it could to the training of instructors or production of enough materials. 

Learner sensitisation and motivation 

A few learners said there is need to sensitise the people about literacy. They also called for 

encouragement because they sometimes get discouraged. The instructors support them by suggesting that 

the learners need to be motivated. Two learners specifically mentioned that they needed money to buy a 

sewing machine. Some of the programmes are linked to small grants or micro-finance schemes and these 

two may have been thinking of such programmes. Such linkages seem to be the way to go. The FAL 

programme itself may not be the right channel for such support.


Chapter 10: Conclusions and Recommendations 

The general objective of this process review was to assess the changing needs for FAL and review the 


refinement and improvement to adequately address the current needs. The needs and the programme 

achievements and challenges as presented in the various chapters of the report, have been summarised in 

Chapter 9. The report should by now, therefore, have given a fairly good idea of the extent to which the 

current FAL programme, supplemented by other literacy programmes, is meeting the changing needs. 

10.1 Conclusions 

The overall conclusion that comes out of the review is that the FAL programme has been established to a 

great extent and has met and continues to meet many of the people’s learning needs and desires, leading 

to some change in their lives. The achievements by FAL have been supported and supplemented by adult 

literacy activities of international partners and indigenous civil society organisations. However, the 

programme faces numerous challenges including: 

• Low status in the host ministry 

• Inadequate supervision and monitoring 

• Inadequate financing 

• Inadequate financial records 

• Insufficient statistical data on the programme available 

• Lack of facilities at the learning venues 

• Insufficient materials 

• Inadequate programme documentation and flow of information 

• Weak partnership and collaboration arrangements 

• Lack of incentives for instructors 

• Inadequate instructor training 

• Tendency towards a “one-size fits all” provision that ignores diversity among learners and risks closing 

down their minds 

• Inadequate community sensitisation 

• Inadequate policy provision 

• Unclear way forward for learners who want to continue with further education 

10.2 Recommendations 

The objectives of the process review expected recommendations for: 

- redesigning the programme to meet the changing and unmet needs; 

- issues to be included in the adult learning policy that is currently under development; 

- the further development of the adult learning qualifications framework; and 

- the best option/modality for incentive arrangement. 

The recommendations are given below under each of those expectations. In addition some 

recommendations are made for the immediate way forward in the short run. These recommendations for 

the way forward are to enable the programme to be redesigned and the adult learning policy and 

qualifications framework to be put in place.


10.2.1 Redesigning the programme to meet the changing and unmet needs 

Under this objective the process review team recommends three routes to strengthen and widen 

FAL: 

i) Deepening FAL that is strengthening FAL relevance, management and so its effectiveness in meeting 

the changing needs and addressing poverty (Recommendations R1 –R6) 

ii) Diversifying FAL that is widening it by turning FAL from being a single programme to being a field 

of activity in which different delivery systems can be found to help adults to develop their literacy 

skills and practices in the many different contexts in which they live (Recommendation R7) 

iii) Moving beyond FAL by designing provisions that take the FAL participants who so wish for 

continued learning beyond the current levels of FAL (Recommendation R8) 

R1. Revise FAL curriculum and materials for more relevance to learners’ needs and the poverty 

eradication efforts 

a) to address poverty more effectively by enabling participants to analyse its causes, identify 

alternatives for addressing it and take appropriate measures to overcome it 

b) to develop a closer link, both in design and practice, between adult learning and the country’s 

various poverty eradication efforts as expressed in policies and strategies such as the PEAP and 

PMA 

c) to include the other learning areas learners and graduates desire such as English, Vocational 

and Technical training, Agriculture, Health (including HIV/AIDS) and Business 

R2. Develop links between literacy learning and practice so as to promote beneficial literacy use 

in the home and community and at work by 

a) encouraging the use of literacy skills in the home and community and the influence of the home 

and community in the literacy learning situation, building, for example, on the experience of 

the family literacy programme that was run by LABE in Bugiri for some years 

b) working to integrate FAL into skills training such as those that have been piloted in Kalangala 

with ICEIDA support, by the Promotion of Employment-Oriented Vocational Training 

(PEVOT) programme of MOES in Luweero, Kabale and Mubende districts, as well as by other 

organisations 

c) including in the learning situation material drawn from the daily lives of the participants to 

increase the uses of literacy outside of the classroom 

d) enhancing the literate environment by providing for mobile village libraries that could be linked 

to the local council (LC) systems and in other ways e.g. working with newspapers to include 

easy reading sections 

R3. Build more effective instructors who are more appropriately trained, remunerated and 

motivated by 

a) continued use of community members with an adequate educational base, at least some or 

complete secondary education, with adequate specific face-to-face training of at least 4 weeks, 

not necessarily continuous, and periodic refresher training, supplemented by distance learning 

and leading to some recognised certificate, as is, for example, being done in Kalangala 

b) strengthening the training so that the instructors build home-class links (family literacy) and 

develop more active group learning methods (building communities of practice) 

c) engaging existing adult education training institutions and organisations in developing relevant 

and diversified training curricula to develop the trainers and instructors able to meet the 

diversified learning needs of adults 

d) establishing instructor support and resource centres and a mechanism for regular field based ongoing 

support for instructors


R4. Strengthen the management and capacity of FAL for greater effectiveness, specifically 

a) strengthen further the FAL management structure in the ministry; the proposed Department of 

Community Development and Literacy with an Assistant Commissioner for Literacy should be 

implemented for a start 

b) increase training and support for management staff, especially CDOs, particularly in 

monitoring and developing new ways of working 

c) develop further and ensure effective functioning of the MIS for adult literacy and basic 

education being created within the Ministry 

d) improve documentation and information flow at all levels of the programme 

e) enhance the training of trainers and development of a national resource centre for adult literacy 

concentrating on training, research and development – perhaps developing further the centre in 

MGLSD, in Makerere University or one of the other relevant tertiary institutions 

f) restructure the FAL programme for systematic coverage focusing on specified areas of each 

district to ensure meaningful results in view of the limited resources available, and then 

gradually spreading out to other areas as more resources become available. 

g) strengthen the international links of FALP to keep in touch with new developments in the field 

in bodies such as UNESCO, ICAE and other agencies 

R5. Widen the financing and strengthen the financial management to ensure that adequate 

resources are availed for the programme, specifically: 

d) lobby to increase government budget allocation for FAL and other resources for the 

programme, especially teaching-learning materials 

e) work with interested international partners, e.g. Irish Aid, to find ways of tapping into 

funding opportunities available in Uganda such as marketing FAL to Education Funding 

Agencies Group and Education For All funding initiatives such as Education Fast Track 

Initiative 

f) improve financial record keeping and accountability and engage the civil society (including 

learners) in ensuring and tracking proper resource utilisation 

R6. Implement the collaboration arrangements found in the various strategy documents and 

guidelines to enrich adult learning provision and widen its reach, in particular: 

a) Activate inter-ministerial coordination and collaboration as provided for in the PEAP, NALSIP 

and other government documents 

b) Government and CSOs should work together to develop mechanisms for making real the 

suggestion in PEAP for subletting some literacy activities to CSOs 

c) Government should recognize the various roles CSOs can play and put in place measures to 

support CSOs to grow and take greater responsibility in the promotion of adult learning 

d) Government should study the initiatives that CSOs have taken and work to adopt them to enrich 

and widen adult learning provision; such initiatives include the innovative programmes, 

attractive materials and management mechanisms such as the systems for tracking the 

budgetary releases, expenditures and impact (value for money) that have been developed by 

UGAADEN and LitNet) 

e) CSOs should maintain and increase their momentum in advocating for adult learning 

opportunities and advising and providing experimental evidence on useful alternatives for best 

practices 

R7. Develop strategies and new strands of activities in FAL to reach the unreached, to include: 

a) strengthening the efforts to develop special packages for people with disabilities 

b) encouraging the inclusion of relevant literacy into skill training offered by other agencies such 

as extension services and private training providers


c) provision of relevant literacy and numeracy learning to existing user groups such as work-based 

literacy (employers), self-help and micro-credit groups etc 

d) development of ‘drop-in centres’ of adults to learn literacy at a time when they need it 

including the uses of ICT 

e) designing special courses, with narrow practical goals closely tied to the needs and interests of 

the men and combining some literacy elements into these courses (As recommended for 

Kalangala by Arnason and Mabuya, 2005) 

f) using the media for programme information dissemination and to supplement the face-to-face 

learning is recommended to enhance the programme, since the need for more sensitisation was 

expressed by many 

R8. Design continued learning provisions for FAL participants and graduates by 

a) Recognising the diversity of reasons why adults in Uganda join adult literacy programmes and 

the need to draw out diverse continued learning programmes to satisfy the different reasons for 

coming to learn 

b) Ensuring that whatever the design of the continued learning programmes, it allows adults room 

for flexible self-directed learning and does not subject them to a school-type curriculum and 

learning routine 

c) Developing demand-driven programmes such as English and Small Business Courses as 

already being tried out in Kalangala with ICEIDA support 

d) Choosing and developing an appropriate approach to enable adult learners to acquire the 

desired accreditation and certification (See discussion in Chapter 6, Section 6.4 and R11 below) 

10.2.2 Issues to be included in the adult learning policy that is currently under development 

R9. The adult learning policy under development should include provisions to enhance the status 

of adult learning, its more effective and efficient management, greater commitment to it at all 

levels and partnership to ensure optimal use of available capacity and recourses, specifically: 

a) Adult learning policy must provide for an adequate adult education organisational and 

management structure such as what had been proposed in the 1992 White Paper on Education, 

without necessarily transferring the structure to the Ministry of Education and Sports 

b) The policy must lead to, and be accompanied by, the immediate adoption of regulations and 

mechanisms for the promotion, coordination, supervision, monitoring and evaluation of literacy 

programmes in the country, at the central, district and sub-county levels. 

c) Specifically, measures must be put in place to ensure serious commitment to provision of adult 

learning opportunities in all districts and sub-counties through both dialogue and clear 

instructions 

d) Measures should also be put in place to ensure active inter-ministerial coordination and 

collaboration with relevant government ministries, e.g. those of Education, Health, Agriculture, 

Trade and Industry and Finance, Planning and Economic Development 

e) The policy should create a conducive environment and spell out clear mechanisms for 

partnership with civil society organisations, recognising that government has the primary 

responsibility for both policy and implementation and that civil society organisations must 

maintain their autonomy, but that the government has also the responsibility to support them to 

grow and take on responsibility for some elements in a vibrant adult learning programme 

R10. The adult learning policy must also lay down a strong resource base for FAL and other adult 

learning programme, specifically 

a) The policy must enable adult basic education to access budgetary allocation at a level of 

priority similar to that enjoyed by basic education in the formal education system


b) The policy should put in place strategies for involving the private sector in financing and 

providing other support for adult literacy programmes 

10.2.3 The further development of the adult learning qualifications framework 

R11. Opportunities must be opened for adults to move further from FAL and other basic 

education programmes in a manner that ensures diversity, flexibility and self-directed 

learning while at the same time enabling those who so desire to obtain formal accreditation, 

taking into consideration the following possible avenues: 

a) Enhancing the opportunities to enable people to use their literacy in their daily lives by 

bringing the daily lives into the classroom, building the literacy environment and encouraging 

individuals and groups to invest in activities that develop the literary environment 

b) Developing collaboration between FAL and skills training programmes to link adult literacy 

to skills training and skills training to literacy and enable FAL graduates who so wish to 

move into further skills training programmes, such as the Kalangala Small Business Course 

c) Developing a suitable arrangement to enable FAL graduates to obtain desired formal 

accreditation and equivalency, choosing from: 

i) Enabling adults to sit existing examinations without going through the formal school 

system; 

ii) Developing an adult education programme with its own set of examinations equivalent to 

those of the formal system; or 

iii) Developing an adult education programme with its own set of examinations different 

from those of the formal system but leading to recognised qualification 

The final choice can be a mix of two or all three alternatives. 

R12. The development of further learning opportunities for adults and an adult learning 

qualifications framework should be done in close consultation with other relevant bodies, 

specifically: 

a) Develop links with the Business, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (BTVET) 

Department in the Ministry of Education and Sports, which is developing a qualifications 

framework, so as to promote linkage between the adult learning qualifications framework and 

the BTVET qualifications framework 

b) Make systematic consultations with existing curriculum and accreditation authorities to 

establish beneficial links in the further development of the adult learning qualifications 

framework 

10.2.4 Best incentive arrangement options for instructors 

R13. Incentive arrangements for instructors must be significantly enhanced and include not only 

material remuneration but also provision of opportunities for profitable collaboration 

among themselves, further education according to their desires and upward career 

movement, specifically: 

a) The current arrangement of giving a bicycle to each instructor should be implemented more 

effectively to make sure each instructor receives one: it enables them to move to the class 

centres, apart from helping them at home and in their other work. The arrangement should, 

however, include some kind of bonding so that an instructor who receives a bicycle is bound 

to serve for a defined period; at least two years are recommended 

b) Whoever is engaged as instructor should be given some incentive of a type acceptable to the 

instructors and affordable to the country. Ideally, the arrangement should have a regular 

monthly payment of allowances as recommended by many of the respondents.


c) Instructors should be encouraged to form associations, which could be supported to undertake 

some developmental projects and be an example in the communities where they are. The 

example of the ICEIDA supported association in Kalangala (KAFIA) could provide a model. 

d) Instructors should be supported in their search for further education and a career path, as is 

being done, with ICEIDA support, in Kalangala: this could be a strong incentive. 

10.2.5 Way forward in the short run 

R14. To take forward the lessons learnt and recommendations coming out of this process review, 

it is recommended that MGLSD works with CSOs to set up and finance task forces or 

teams to draw up plans and develop a range of curricula for a more relevant and effective 

adult learning provision to meet the diverse and changing needs and poverty eradication 

effort, specifically: 

a) Planning task force to develop NALSIP II and take forward the Policy and Qualifications 

Framework 

b) Technical team to revise the curriculum and further develop a range of curricula and training 

packages 

c) A research development task force to plan and design research and documentation of various 

key aspects where information is required, especially: 

i) Gender concerns in FAL 

ii) Learning session (classroom) methodology and delivery/learning techniques 

iii) Comprehensive survey and documentation of effective adult literacy provision in Uganda 

iv) Social uses of literacy and literacy practices in Uganda 

As part of their field study, Makerere University students of the Bachelor of Adult and Community 

Education interact with a restaurant owner (centre) on the literacy practices in his environment. It is of 

mutual benefit for the FAL programme to work more closely with training and research institutions.


References 

Aderinoye Rashid and Rogers Alan, 2005 Urban literacies: the intervention of the literacy shop approach 

in Bodija market, Ibadan, Nigeria, in Urban Literacy: communication, identities and literacy in 

development contexts (edited by Alan Rogers) 

Arnason H and M Mabuya 2005 ICEIDA Support to the Implementation of FALP in Kalangala District 

2002-2005 external evaluation report by (ICEIDA Kampala and Reykjavik 2005) 

Finnish refugee Council 2005 Promoting Refugee Self reliance: the FAL Curriculum in Use (published 

by Finnish refugee Council, and LABE, Kampala). 

Government of Uganda 1992. Government White Paper on the Education Policy Review Commission 

Report. Kampala 

Kiirya Patrick and Godfrey Sentumbwe 2004 A Study to Link Adult Learners’ Needs to a Proposed 

Assessment and Qualifications Framework (MGSD and LABE, Kampala) 

LitNet 2006 Public-Private Partnership in Adult Basic Education, Report of a Study by LitNet August 

2006 (LitNet, Kampala). 

Maruatona Tonic 2005 Workplace Literacy in Botswana: a critical analysis, in Urban Literacy: 

communication, identities and literacy in development contexts (edited by Alan Rogers) 

MGLSD 2002 National Adult Literacy Strategic Investment Plan 2002/3-2006/7 

MGLSD 2003 Knowledge is Wealth English Primer Book 1 

MGLSD 2004 Guidelines for Continuous Assessment of Functional Adult Literacy Learners (Ministry of 

Gender, Labour and Social Development, Kampala) 

MGLSD 2004 Guidelines for the Implementation of FALP (Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social 

Development, Kampala) 

MGLSD 2005 Training of Trainers Manual on Adult Literacy (Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social 

Development, Kampala) 

Okech Anthony, Roy A Carr-Hill, Anne R Katahoire, Terese Kakooza, Alice N Ndidde 1999 Report of 

Evaluation of the Functional Adult Literacy Programme in Uganda 1999, Kampala: MGLSD 

Okech Anthony (ed) 2004 Adult Education in Uganda: growth, development, prospects and challenges 

(Fountain, Kampala) 

Okech Anthony 2000 Needs Assessment Survey for FAL in Karamoja Uganda (MGLSD and World Food 

Programme in Uganda) 

Okech Anthony 2005 Evaluation Practices in Adult NFE and Literacy Programmes in Uganda: A 

Situational Analysis (UIE, Hamburg) 

Okech Anthony 2006 Continuation and Extension of Literacy Programs: from Literacy to Adult Basic 

Education and Beyond in Uganda (unpublished paper prepared for ADEA Bienniale 2006) 

Oxenham J., Diallo A.H., Katahoire A.R., Petkova-Mwangi A., Sall O. (2002). Skills and 

Literacy Training for Better Livelihoods: A Review of Approaches and Experiences. 

Washington: World Bank. 

Parry Kate (ed) 2000 Language and Literacy in Uganda: towards a sustainable reading culture 

(Fountain, Kampala) 

Republic of Uganda 2003. Uganda Poverty Status Report 2003. Kampala 

Rogers A 1999 Improving the quality of adult literacy programmes in developing countries: the ‘real 

literacies’ approach, International Journal of Educational Development 19: 219-234 

Rogers A 2000 Literacy comes second: working with groups in developing societies, Development in 

Practice 10.2: 236-240 

Street Brian V 1995 Cross Cultural Approaches to Literacy Cambridge: Cambridge University 

Press, Introduction, New Literacy Studies 

Uganda Bureau of Statistics 2006 2002 Uganda Population and Housing Census: Analytical 

Report Abridged Version. The Republic of Uganda, Kampala


Uganda Bureau of Statistics 2006. 2005/2006 Uganda National Household Survey. The Republic 

of Uganda, Kampala 

UNESCO 2006 Synergies between Non-formal and Formal Education (UNESCO, Paris) 

Wagner, Daniel 2001. Literacy and Adult Education. UNESCO, Paris 

Other material consulted but not directly referred to in the report: 

Action Aid 2004 Contemporary Issues on the Practice of Adult Learning in Uganda (published by 

District Local Government Kalangala, ICEIDA Uganda and Action Aid International Uganda) 

EFAG Education Funding Action Group comments on NALSIP 2002 

Empowering Civil Society to ensure Quality Basic Education (UGAADEN and CEF) 

ICEIDA 2005 Support to the Implementation of Uganda FALP in the Island Counties of Mukono District 

Monitoring Report 

ICEIDA 2006 Support to the Implementation of Uganda FALP in the Island Counties of Mukono District 

Monitoring Report 

ICEIDA Reports on to the Implementation of Uganda FALP in the Island Sub-counties of Mukono 

District, March 2005 and April 2006 

LABE 2000 Evaluation of the work of LABE from 1995 to the present, Lalage Bown, Jassy Kwesiga, 

Herbert Baryayebwa, Jane Mace 

LABE 2005 Final Evaluation of Literacy and Continuing Education in Uganda 2000-2005 and Family 

Basic Education in Uganda 2003-2005 Programmes by Warren Nyamugasira, Aanyu Dorothy- 

Angura, and Clinton Robinson 

LABE Annual Reports; The Lit Newsletters Promoting Literacy Choices 

LABE The LitKit 2003 

LitNet materials 2001; Civil Society Response to Draft FAL Strategic Investment Plan 

Mace Jane and Keihangwe Stellah 2000 We are together, we are many World University Service 

Mukono 2005 Support to the Implementation of Uganda FALP in the Island Sub-Counties of Mukono 

District, Monitoring Report, March 2006 (ICEIDA Kampala) 

Nsamizi Training Institute of Social Development Course material August 2000 

Robinson Clinton and Katahoire Anne 2003 Midterm review of Project, LABE Education Action 

International 

UGAADEN Publicity material 

Uganda Change Agent Association Publicity material and newsletters 

ULALA Publicity material 

ULALA undated Uganda Literacy and Adult Learners’ Association: Five Year Strategic Plan 2007-2011 

(ULALA Kampala) 

World University Service 1996 Plan for Sustaining and continuing Literacy in Uganda: curriculum 

development for adults and enhanced training for literacy workers, Lalage Bown and Eric Karuhije


Annexes 

Annex 1: Writing the Wrongs: International Benchmarks on Adult Literacy 2005 

These Benchmarks were developed by the Global Campaign for Education and ActionAid International with 

support from UNESCO / the EFA Global Monitoring Report in 2006. These benchmarks emerge from a detailed 

survey of 67 adult literacy programmes in 35 countries 

1. Literacy is about the acquisition and use of reading, writing and numeracy skills, and thereby the development of 

active citizenship, improved health and livelihoods, and gender equality. The goals of literacy programmes 

should reflect this understanding. 

2. Literacy should be seen as a continuous process that requires sustained learning and application. There are no 

magic lines to cross from illiteracy into literacy. All policies and programmes should be defined to encourage 

sustained participation and celebrate progressive achievement rather than focusing on one-off provision with a 

single end point. 

3. Governments have the lead responsibility in meeting the right to adult literacy and in providing leadership, 

policy frameworks, an enabling environment and resources. They should: 

- ensure cooperation across all relevant ministries and linkages to all relevant development programmes, 

- work in systematic collaboration with experienced civil society organisations, 

- ensure linkages between all these agencies, especially at the local level, and 

- ensure relevance to the issues in learners’ lives by promoting the decentralisation of budgets and of 

decision-making over curriculum, methods and materials. 

4. It is important to invest in ongoing feedback and evaluation mechanisms, data systematization and strategic 

research. The focus of evaluations should be on the practical application of what has been learnt and the impact 

on active citizenship, improved health and livelihoods, and gender equality. 

5. To retain facilitators it is important that they should be paid at least the equivalent of the minimum wage of a 

primary school teacher for all hours worked (including time for training, preparation and follow-up). 

6. Facilitators should be local people who receive substantial initial training and regular refresher training, as well 

as having ongoing opportunities for exchanges with other facilitators. Governments should put in place a 

framework for the professional development of the adult literacy sector, including for trainers / supervisors - 

with full opportunities for facilitators across the country to access this (eg through distance education). 

7. There should be a ratio of at least one facilitator to 30 learners and at least one trainer/ supervisor to 15 learner 

groups (1 to 10 in remote areas), ensuring a minimum of one support visit per month. Programmes should have 

timetables that flexibly respond to the daily lives of learners but which provide for regular and sustained contact 

(eg twice a week for at least two years). 

8. In multi-lingual contexts it is important at all stages that learners should be given an active choice about the 

language in which they learn. Active efforts should be made to encourage and sustain bilingual learning. 

9. A wide range of participatory methods should be used in the learning process to ensure active engagement of 

learners and relevance to their lives. These same participatory methods and processes should be used at all levels 

of training of trainers and facilitators. 

10. Governments should take responsibility to stimulate the market for production and distribution of a wide variety 

of materials suitable for new readers, for example working with publishers / newspaper producers. They should 

balance this with funding for local production of materials, especially by learners, facilitators and trainers. 

11. A good quality literacy programme that respects all these benchmarks is likely to cost between US$50 and 

US$100 per learner per year for at least three years (two years initial learning + ensuring further learning 

opportunities are available for all) 

12. Governments should dedicate at least 3% of their national education sector budgets to adult literacy programmes 

as conceived in these benchmarks. Where governments deliver on this international donors should fill any 

remaining resource gaps (e.g. through including adult literacy in the Fast Track Initiative)


Annex 2: The Abuja Call for Action 2007 

WRITING THE WRONGS 

HIGH LEVEL WORKSHOP ON ADULT LITERACY 

ABUJA – FEBRUARY 16 TH 2007 

CALL FOR ACTION 

Officially 781 million adults are illiterate in the world, most of them women. In reality, this figure is 

much higher – and even more adults are unable to read or write well enough to function effectively in 

society. Yet literacy is a fundamental human right and a right that enables people to access and secure 

many other rights. 

Committed to building new momentum on adult literacy, 60 participants from 24 countries gathered in 

Abuja, Nigeria from 12 th -16 th February 2007, including Ministers of Education, Permanent Secretaries, 

Directors and Managers of National Literacy Programmes, United Nations officials, donors and civil 

society organisations. 

The participants were all committed to “writing the wrongs” in the field of adult literacy – reversing 

decades of under-investment in the sector, and transforming policy and practice to develop effective 

programmes. They identified a range of important priorities for national and international action. 

NATIONAL ACTION 

In order to make the case for renewed commitment and investment there is an urgent need for 

governments to take new action on adult literacy. We call on national, state and local governments as 

well as civil society actors to: 

1. Understand the scale of the literacy challenge and ensure programmes recognise and respond to 

demand. Present literacy statistics are unreliable and often significantly underestimate the scale of the 

problem. National adult literacy surveys are needed (along the lines of the recent survey in Kenya) to 

build comprehensive new evidence on the number and profile of people facing literacy challenges. 

Particular attention is needed to shift understandings from a dichotomous view of literacy that is based on 

people crossing some magic line from illiteracy to literacy (which does not exist). We must move to an 

understanding of literacy as a continuum. 

2. Collate national dossiers on the benefits of literacy. There is considerable international evidence on 

political, social, economic, cultural and personal benefits that come from adult literacy. However, new 

research and new evaluations are urgently needed at a national level specifically on the multiple impacts 

of adult literacy, in order to convince Ministries of Finance and national policy makers. 

3. Renew national dialogue on literacy policies and practices by using the International 

Benchmarks developed by the Global Campaign for Education and ActionAid International with support 

from UNESCO / the EFA Global Monitoring Report in 2006. These benchmarks emerge from a detailed 

survey of 67 adult literacy programmes in 35 countries (see appendix 1). These benchmarks are a concise 

expression of accumulated international learning on developing an effective adult literacy strategy. They 

should be used to stimulate debate with all stakeholders but should be nationalised and contextualised in 

each country to reflect diverse contexts / realities.


4. Ensure that all stakeholders from all relevant sectors at local and national level engage in a new 

national debate on the pivotal role of adult literacy for achieving development goals. We call for the 

active involvement in this new debate of Ministries of Finance, Education and other line ministries, 

parliamentarians, civil society actors, national education coalitions and the media. 

5. Include adult literacy in education sector plans, especially those submitted to the Fast Track 

Initiative (FTI). FTI donors will support the full Education For All sector if national governments put 

forward comprehensive plans. Pressures from in-country donors to reduce the focus of education plans to 

just primary or formal schooling must be resisted as there is a clear inter-dependency in the EFA goals. 

6. Recognise adult literacy as the “invisible glue” presently missing from national plans seeking to 

address the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) or Education For All (EFA) goals, as well as from 

Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) and national development strategies– and take action to 

redress that. Any review of progress towards the MDGs or reviews of present PRSPs or National 

Development Plans should examine the impact of failing to address adult literacy. 

7. Act on the understanding that effective adult literacy programmes require a significant increase 

in funding and sustained investment from core government budgets – but that the costs of illiteracy are 

much higher. 

INTERNATIONAL ACTION 

In order to mobilise new momentum on adult literacy and new investments by national governments, we 

need to work together to influence international actors. Particularly we call for: 

1. UNESCO to work more closely with national governments around adult literacy. They should 

specifically review and improve the way in which literacy data are conceptualised, collected, compiled 

and reported, moving beyond conventional dichotomous definitions. 

2. The UNESCO Institute of Statistics to support national efforts to conduct national literacy 

surveys like that conducted in Kenya - to develop quality and reliable data on literacy at a reasonable 

cost. 

3. The United Nations Literacy Decade (UNLD) and UNESCO’s Literacy for Empowerment 

initiative (LIFE) to consider the use of the international benchmarks on adult literacy for the 

purposes of planning and designing quality literacy programmes in the national context. 

4. The Fast Track Initiative to include the benchmarks for adult literacy in their indicative 

framework – and to be explicit in guidelines to country-level donors that adult literacy is a legitimate and 

important area for inclusion in education sector plans. 

5. All bilateral and international donor meetings, (for example those in Brussels in April 2007, in 

Dakar in December 2007 and the White House / UNLD regional Literacy Conferences) to ensure that 

new resources are mobilised to support adult literacy – recognising that at least $1 billion of new aid 

per year is required urgently for closing the resource gap if the Dakar literacy goal is to be achieved by 

2015. 

6. The World Bank, regional banks and donors to support national government’s education sector 

plans especially those who are committed to investing in adult literacy – demonstrating alignment to 

national plans, respecting their sovereignty and their right to determine their own education and 

development priorities.


7. The IMF to remove conditionalities that unnecessarily constrain education budgets so that 

countries have the fiscal space to invest in achieving the full MDG and EFA agenda. The achievement of 

development goals should be placed at the centre of macro-economic planning. 

8. Researchers and academic institutes to initiate and support new strategic research and new 

evaluations on the impact of adult literacy on wider development goals. 

9. Civil Society Organisations to play a vigilant role in facilitating synchronised action towards adult 

literacy goals. 

10. The Global Campaign for Education and all international NGOs to increase pressure on 

achieving adult literacy goals, making this a core part of their agenda and action, including during the 

Global Action Week and on International Literacy Day. 

11. All relevant regional and international bodies to facilitate the sharing of practices on adult 

literacy, promoting lessons learnt and the exchange of experiences between countries. 

We commit ourselves to maintaining a new momentum for adult literacy nationally and internationally 

and welcome the offer from the State Minister of Education in Pakistan to host a follow up workshop 

later this year.


Annex 3: Organisations from which information was obtained in the sampled districts 

Bugiri 

- Bugiri District Literacy and Adult Education 

Network (BDLAEN) 

- Busoga Child Ministry 

- GOAL Uganda 

- Uganda Reproductive Health Bureau 

- Uganda Women’s Efforts to Save Orphans 

(UWESO) 

Bundibugyo 

- Bundibugyo NGO/CBO Forum 

- World Vision 

Kapchorwa 

- Family Planning Association of Uganda 

- Kapchorwa Civil Society Organisation 

- Perfection Church and Ministry 

- SNV (The Netherlands Development 

Organisation) 

Kayunga 

- Community Awareness and Response on AIDS 

- FARE Ministries 

- Human Rights and Civic Education Forum 

(HURICEF) 

- Mansa Children’s Care and Family 

Kisoro 

- Africa 2000 Network 

- Caring for Orphans Widows and Elderly 

(COWE) 

- Kisoro Beekeepers Cooperative Society 

- Kisoro Cooperative Society of People with 

Disabilities 

- The Gorilla Organisation 

- Uplift the Rural Poor (URP) Project 

Kumi 

- Pentecostal Assemblies of God Planning and 

Development Secretariat 

- Vision Terudo 

Kyenjojo 

- Kind Initiative for Development 

Mpigi 

- World Vision Kituntu Area Development 

Programme (ADP) 

Nebbi 

- Action for Social-Economic Development 

- Community Empowerment for Rural 

Development (CEFORD) 

Uganda Society for Disabled Children (USDC) 

Ntungamo 

- Kabamwe Foundation for Integrated 

Development 

- Ntungamo District Farmers’ Association 

- Office of First Lady and MP Ruhaama Country 

- UGAFODE Ltd 

- Uganda Red Cross 

Rakai 

- Concern World Wide 

- Rakai Counsellors’ Association 

- World Vision Kyotera Area Development 

Programme (ADP) 

Tororo 


- Tororo Civil Society Network (TOCINET) 

- Oriwa Project CBO 

- Uganda Red Cross Society 

Annex 4: Other organisations reported operating in the sampled districts 

This information was from questionnaires filled in by the respondents and some of them mentioned the 

organisations operating in their areas only by their acronyms, some of which the review team has failed to 

interpret in full. 

Adjumani 

- Madi AIDS Control Initiative (MACI) 

Bugiri 

- BDLAEN (Adult education) 

- BUNASO 

- Busoga Child Ministry 

- Compassion International 

- Foc-Rev; GOAL; IDAAC 

Bundibugyo 

- AMA 

- BIOP 

- NORRACOL 

- Save the Children 

- UPHOLD 

- World Food Programme


Kapchorwa 

- Action Aid 


- Food for the Hungry 

- KADFA 

- KASCO 

- NAADS 

- REACH 

- Red Cross 

- S.N.V. 

Kayunga 

- CAI 

- CARA 

- Community Awareness and Response on AIDS 

(CARA) 

- FARE Ministries 

- HURICEF 

- Kangulumira Integrated Health Project 

- Kitwe Charity Initiatives 

- Makerere University Walter Reed Project 

(MUWRP) 

- Mansa Children Care and Family Support 

- PREFA 

- Rubaga Youth Development Association 

- Uganda HIV/AIDS Control Project 

- Uganda Micofinance 

Kisoro 

- Africa 2000 Network 

- Africare 

- Area-Based Agricultural Management 

Programme (AAMP) 


- Caring for Orphans, Widows and Elderly 

(COWE) (Education for orphans) 

- Compassion 

- Diana Fossy Gorilla Conservation 

- Foundation for Rural Development 

- Foundation for Rural Development 

- Prime West 

- Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) 

- United Organisation for Batwa Development in 

Uganda 

Kumi 

- Action Aid; Ireland Aid; KASO; KUNEDO 

- PAG/PDs 

- Pentecostal Assemblies of God Planning and 

Development Secretariat 

- Save the Children in UgandaSoroti Catholic 

Diocese Development Organisation 

(SOCADIDO) 

- TESDA 

Kumi contd 

- Uganda Women’s Efforts to Save Orphans 

(UWESO) 

Vision Terudo (offers adult education) 

Kyenjojo 


- Kabarole Research and Resource Centre 

Nebbi 

- Action Aid 

- AFARD 

- CARITAS 

- Compassion International 

- CUAAM 

- DRC 

- Lutheran World Federation 

- Red Cross Society 

- Uganda Society for Disabled Children (USDC) 

- United Nations High Commission for Refugees 

(UNHCR) 

- USAID 

Ntungamo 

- Africare 

- Area-Based Agricultural Management 

Programme (AAMP) 

- ARISE 

- CICMCI 

- Family Trust 

- NAADS 

- Ntungamo Farmers Association 

- PEARL Micro-finance 

- Red Cross 

- UGAFODE 

- UNIFA 

Rakai 

- ANPPCAN 

- CIDI 

- Community Enterprise Development 

Organisation (CEDO) (offers farmer training) 

- Community Initiative for the Prevention of 

HIV/AIDS/STDS 

- Concern 

- Health Project 

- International Care and Relief 

- Lutheran World Federation (LWF) 

- Poverty Monitoring Group 

- Project 

- World Vision 

- YOPIDIDA (training youth and people with 

disabilities) 

Tororo 

- Africa 2000 Network


Annex 5: Summary of information obtained from some national organisations 

Annex 5.1: Literacy Network for Uganda (LitNet) 

1. Name of Organisation: Literacy network for Uganda 

(Information provided by the Network Coordinator, with 2 years experience in the position) 

2. Location and coverage of the organisation 

- Eastern region: Jinja, Iganga, Central : Kampala and Nakasongola: 

- Northern Uganda: Gulu, West Nile: Nebbi: 

- Work through partners 

3. Objectives of the organisation 

• To exchange information among NGOs, government agencies and educational institutions for 

purposes of influencing the adult education agenda 

• To influence national and international policies in the area of adult. Continuing and life long 

learning 

• To raise public awareness about literacy issues 

• To advocate for the establishment of a national accreditation and monitoring systems for literacy 

workers and literacy learners 

4. Other activities apart from literacy education: - N.A. 

5. Location and coverage organisation’s adult literacy activities: 

- Eastern region: Jinja, Iganga, Central : Kampala and Nakasongola: 

- Northern Uganda: Gulu, West Nile: Nebbi: 

- Work through partners 

6. How long the organisation has offered adult literacy education: 

- LitNet’s work in adult literacy is basically advocacy and has been doing this since 2002 

7. Other locations the organisation has offered adult literacy in Uganda – N.A. 

8. Basic statistics on the organisation’s current programme as follows: LitNet does not reach learners 

directly 

9. Total number of learners (male-female) who have ever benefited from theorganisation’s literacy 

activities: LitNet does not reach learners directly 

10. Other literacy personnel the organisation has, apart from facilitators: Coordinator-Female (1) 

11. The facilities the organisation has for literacy: Assorted adult literacy training materials, reference 

materials, adult literacy international reports, computer, printer 

12. Facilities or equipment available in the organisation, which could be used, borrowed or hired for 

adult literacy and other adult education activities by Government or other organisations: Assorted 

adult literacy training materials, reference materials, adult literacy international reports, computer, 

printer


13. Literacy-related services the organisation has provided or still provides to Government or other 

organisations 

Advocacy related activities: Led in put into the development of NALSIP, NALMIS, and literacy 

instructors’ incentive scheme in districts, initiated district and sub county literacy planning, National 

literacy awards 

14 .The methodology used in the organisation’s literacy activities: Advocacy through partners’ 

organisations. Use of Radio programmes and platform partner dialogue, petitions 

15. Curriculum covered in the organisation’s literacy activities - N/A 

16. Teaching and learning materials used and their source - N/A 

17. Achievements of the organisation’s literacy activities: Led in put into the development of NALSIP, 

NALMIS, Literacy instructors’ incentive scheme, initiated district and sub county literacy planning, 

National literacy wards 

18. Main challenges faced by the organisation’s literacy activities: Government is taking long to finalise 

the literacy policy 

19. Other important information about the organisation’s adult literacy activities - Not provided 

20. Publications about literacy education in the organisation 

• A research report on Public private partnerships- can be accessed on website or at LitNet 

resource centre 

• Copies of sub county and district literacy plans 

• Advocacy and policy briefs-at LitNet resource centre 

21. Comments on the provision of adult literacy education in Uganda by both the government and nongovernment 

organisations 

By government: The curriculum is rigid and doesn’t take into consideration the different literacies 

demanded by different learners. Government has taken long to complete and implement the qualifications 

framework. Government does not allow NGOs to innovate new approaches such as developing new 

curricula that address the demands of learners. Government has taken long to appreciate Public private 

partnership in adult basic education; the PEAP recommendations of subcontracting are yet not 

implemented 

By Non Government organisations 

NGOs are not well coordinated and this has led a lot of duplication. There is increasing competition 

among NGOs for limited resources 

22. Suggestions for strengthening adult literacy education in Uganda 

• Development of supplementary curriculum/ materials 

• Professional training of literacy instructors 

• Structured system of motivating literacy instructors 

• Certified literacy courses 

• Literacy policy in place and operational 

• National literacy qualification framework operational 

• Public private partnership functioning 

• Increased resources allocation-timely release and reaching the intended user 

• Regular monitoring and reporting at district and Ministry level


Annex 5.2: Adult Literacy and Basic Information Centre (ALBEC) 

1. Name of Organisation: Adult Literacy and Basic Information Centre (ALBEC) 

(Information provided by the Director, with 13 years experience in the organisation) 

2. Location and coverage of the organisation – Kampala: Makerere Uuniversity 


– To promote literacy and adult basic education in Uganda 

4. Other activities apart from literacy education: 

- Consultancy, lobbying and advocacy, research 


- Kampala, Mukono and Wakiso districts 


- 18 years 

7. Other locations the organisation has offered adult literacy in Uganda 

– Conducted training of Literacy Instructors for Baptist Church in Luwero, Mukono, and Wakiso 

districts 

8. Basic statistics on the organisation’s current programme as follows: 

- 126 learners (42 male, 84 female); 10 facilitators: (9 male, 1 female) – all at Makerere 

9. Total number of learners (male-female) who have ever benefited from the organisation’s literacy 

activities: 

- Over 3,000: the majority female 

10. Other literacy personnel the organisation has, apart from facilitators: 

- 5 programme officers (3 male, 2 female); 1 casher (male); 1 secretary (female); 1 cleaner (female) 

11. The facilities the organisation has for literacy: 

- 4 computers; desks, blackboards, benches, chairs, tables, book shelves; literacy materials 


adult literacy and other adult education activities by Government or other organisations 

Resource materials 


organisations 

- Seminars, workshops, trained instructors, produced literacy materials, preparation of adults to sit 

UNEB examinations at PLE, UCE and UACE levels, liaising with UNEB to allow adult learners to be 

registered, engaged in lobbying and advocacy issues 

14 .The methodology used in the organisation’s literacy activities 

- Traditional, participatory, interactive, drama, songs, debate, exchange visits 

15. Curriculum covered in the organisation’s literacy activities 

- Holistic curriculum covering all aspects of literacy, PLE, UCE, UACE


16. Teaching and learning materials used and their source 

- Tailor-made materials from existing books/literature available at the centre and other resource 

centres; other materials are obtained from different literacy resource centres, especially during 

exchange visits 

17. Achievements of the organisation’s literacy activities 

- Self sustainable for 18 years 

- Impact is visible (over 3,000 learners benefiting from service) through effective follow-up, 

monitoring and evaluation 

- Many literacy instructors have been trained thus benefiting other literacy organisations 

- Influenced UNEB policy to grant permission to register adult learners to sit UCE without PLE 

certification 

- Conducted a UNESCO workshop on education for refugees 

- Harmonious collaboration and partnership with UNHCR 

- Participation in developing Literacy Manual for MGLSD 

- Effectively networked with other literacy organisations/stakeholders 

18. Main challenges faced by the organisation’s literacy activities 

- Inadequate funding 

- Lack of permanent premises/facilities 

- Low motivation for instructors 

- No equivalent accreditation for adult learners 

19. Other important information about the organisation’s adult literacy activities 

- Should consider idea of semi-formal education system (both formal and non-formal) 

- Endeavour to ratify the government policy on literacy and adult basic education 

- Should train adult literacy instructors and employ them on government permanent basis 

- Should establish literacy centres in every parish all over the country 

- Adult literacy learners should benefit from Universal Adult Education funded by government 


Basic Education Skills in English (copies available at ALBEC) 


organisations 

Efforts are being made to harmonise adult literacy in Uganda, however a lot more is still desired and this 

can be achieved through concerted and collaborative innitiative by all the stakeholders. “There is the will, 

but the way is lacking”. 

Annex 5.3: Literacy Aid Uganda 

1. Name of Organisation: Literacy Aid Uganda 

(Information provided by the Director of the organisation) 

2. Location and coverage of the organisation – Mukono District, 20 kilometers East of Kampala, 

Kaloli-Matovu Road near Mukono Lands offices 


- Train Adult Literacy Instructors 

- Teach those who have been disadvantaged by not going to school to know how to read and write


- Promote Resource centers with up-to-date information for easy access of the population for 

information, education and research. 

- Offer them with vocational skills for self-sufficiency. 

- Promotion of Primary Health care, advocate and promote the education of the Girl-Child and counsel 

communities on the importance of education. 


- Carpentry 

- Tailoring and Knitting 

5. Location and coverage organisation’s adult literacy activities: Mukono District 


Six years 


– N.A. at this time: Mukono only since the start 


- No. of learners: There are 14 male and 19 female 

- No. of Facilitators: There are 3 and all are female 


activities: - There are 796 learners 


- One carpenter (Trainer) in carpentry department (male) 

- Tailoring and Knitting 2 trainers. ( a male and a female) 

11. The facilities the organisation has for literacy: - Information not provided 



- Recorder 

- White Board 

- Black Boards 


organisations: – The organization is designed to offer Vocational Training Skills in Tailoring, 

Carpentry, Knitting and Weaving. 

14 .The methodology used in the organisation’s literacy activities: - Learning/Teaching Aids: 

Blackboards, chalk, Grammar books, Newsprint and storybooks, Participatory learner’s approach. 


- We use the Functional Adult Literacy Curriculum developed by the Ministry of Gender, Labor 

and Social development. We also developed our own curriculum based on a participatory 

approach where we inquire from the learners what they really want to learn. 

- This is because these are already adults, some of them with businesses already and come when 

they have specific needs i.e., need to be able to communicate in English, or write figures, need to 

know how to bank their money etc



- Knowledge is Wealth and Amagezi Bugagga from Ministry of Gender 

- Essential Grammar in Use from Book shops. – Tuyige Oluganda from Bookshops 

- We also developed our own. 


- Literacy Aid Uganda has been appreciated by many people, mostly those who came without 

knowing how to read and write. 

- Those who used to be cheated in their businesses by their customers are no longer cheated. And they 

can speak in public without any fear. 

- The reports we receive from our learners are that they can now fully participate in meetings. 

- Our learners are able to help their children with their home work 


- Lack of funding in terms of cash to run our programs. 

- Lack of transport. We need a follow up on our students and also it would have been easy for us to 

open up other training centers for those from far away places. 

- We have young girls and boys in this program that would have wished to continue with the 

formal education and need more assistance but we are not able to assist them because of money 

problem. 

- There is no national syllabus for adult education. 


We have been consistent with our programmes and through this the learners have built trust in us. 


- Okusoma kw’abakulu Essomo Erisooka 

- Beginners’ English Book One 

- Intermediate and Advanced English Book 

They access these books through being taught from them. 


organisations 

Adult Literacy education in Uganda has not really been taken seriously by both the government and the 

Non Governmental organization. The problem arises when we think that the instructors have to be 

volunteers all through. Yet the success of all these other programs is it improved health, improved 

agriculture e.t.c depend on a literate population. A person who never went to school may not see the 

value of taking his/her children to school. 


- Have adequate funding for the program. 

- Outsource the adult Literacy Program to civil Society organizations which reach the grassroots and let 

the ministry do the monitoring 

Annex 5.4: Uganda Programme of Literacy for Transformation (UPLIFT UGANDA) 

1. Name of Organisation: UPLIFT UGANDA 

(Information provided by: Volunteer Advisor for Finance and Administration with 6 years experience 

in the organisation)


2. Location and coverage of the organisation – Throughout Nebbi District 


– To achieve Millennium goals in basic Literacy for Nebbi District with related goals of Education for 

All, Gender balance and empowerment for community development. 


– Informal value based education for school leavers with up-grading the English language. 

- Developmet of an English language course for rural areas 

( Nebbi District ) 


Throughout Nebbi District with 271 Parish literacy class locations 


Progressively since 2001 

7. Briefly describe where else and for how long the organisation has offered adult literacy in Uganda – 

N.A. at this time. 


8,682 enrolled ( 86% women ); 67 facilitators ( 25% female ) – all in Nebbi District – 


activities: 

8,682 between 2001 and 2007. 


An Area Coordinator in each of the Sub-Counties and Town Councils of Nebbi District 


6 Area Resource Centres and Offices –shared in the 9 locations 



There is a Memorandum of Understanding for a Private/Public/Partnership for shared services to the 

public in defined areas of action. 


organisations 

- Some training 


Materials: Each learner and each facilitator is provided a book based of subject material required in the 

FAL curriculum and adapted to the local situation and language in Nebbi District. 

Training: A 10 step methodology is used and is learned progressively as provided to learners. Training 

begins with a few days formal training for facilitators who then are provided in service training with 

further formal training at end of each month, usually for one day. If needed a further few days formal 

training is provided. Total would average 14 days formal and 20 days in-service, or about 34 days training


over a one year period. This should be sufficient for accreditation for the following year. All trainees must 

be on a voluntary basis. 

Monitoring and support: Field visits are provided by Area Coordinator who are also capable of training 

facilitators. Needed supplies are provided from each resource centre and monthly statistical reports are 

prepared by the Area Coordinator. 

Area Coordinators usually are promoted from facilitators( Mentors ) and then provided training from 

District Coordinator. 

Communications: Regular and consistent communication is carried out at all levels. 


The curriculum covers modernization of agriculture, health, numeracy, and motivation for 

development with an inter-faith component to ensure cooperation and access to all. 


UPLIFT develops and prints learner and teacher books in the vernacular ( Alur/Luo ) Government 

teacher books used for reference or for gaps in UPLIFT material content. 


- A united vision at all levels of Government and between Local parishes, Government and UPLIFT. 

This has resulted in a high level of empowerment and achieved a number of development initiatives 

as well as outstanding support for some of the Government programs in the District. eg immunization, 

malaria control, environment and agricultural programs. 

- A District and Sub-county Memorandum of Understanding has been formalized with Goverment for a 

Public/Private/Partnership approach to provision of basic literacy, ( FAL ) that will provide for access 

to all, and achievement of Adult basic education in accordance with Millennium goals. This program 

has proven to also support child education in the UPE system . 

- Over 6,000 learners completing the course since 2001 and becoming literate, 86% of them women. 

Cost as low as US$ 10 per enrolled learner. Basic learning has been achieved within an average of 

about 100 hours of instruction. 


- There is no Government policy about rewarding facilitators. UPLIFT facilitators are called Mentors 

because they operate on a volunteer basis. 

- Government is slow to provide necessary budget funds for class supplies as agreed. 

- Absentism in classes due to lack of time to attend all classes. The solution is partly by repetition of 

materials (in different ways) in the various steps to accommodate those who miss some classes while 

giving others a deeper understanding. 


The methodology of initial and continuing consultations at village level has an effect also on village 

development as empowered classes of literacy learners complete their course. Learner groups and villages 

have been satisfied with the courses they received and are still active supporters of UPLIFT, despite very 

little follow-up This indicates the basic program is successful and can be expanded exponentially with 

expectations of improved community development, particularly as a critical mass of graduates is 

achieved.



Webb site, Documentary video, evaluation reports, information documents and learned academic papers 

on theory and importance of literacy (etc. Available from Head office to be established in Kampala in 

next few months. In the meantime contact Tom Gossen at 0712320200 or tgossen@starcom.co.ug 


organisations 

It appears there is no doubt that literacy can be a very useful service in development of rural areas. 

Government should take the lead in promoting a dual approach with some Donor funds provided to 

NGO’s, preferably directly through some kind of Trust Agency. There is need for implementation 

strategies rather than pursuing endless policy discussions. We can learn as we go – there is no time to lose 

if we hope to achieve the Millennium goals. 


There needs to be a strong and effective Literacy Network that has the capability of handling or 

recommending funding for various NGO’s in a Public/Private Partnership role in provision of adult basic 

education. This requires a Secretariat funded by a Donor. Other costs can come from the network. 

Annex 5.5: Kampala Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) 

1. Name of Organisation: Kampala Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) 

(Information provided by the Head of Department, Youth and Gender) 

2. Location and coverage of the organisation – Kampala, covering Central Region of Uganda 

3. Objectives of the organisation – Not provided 

4. Other activities apart from literacy education: Not applicable 


- Kampala, covering Central Region of Uganda 


- 20 years at the centre; between 2 to 5 years in the outreaches 


- In Arua: YMCA facilitated a Self-Reliant Development Training course for Functional Adult 

Literacy Instructors in a programme run by the Jesuit Refugee Services at Rhino Camp, a 

UNHCR refugee settlement in West Nile 


- No. of learners: There are 19 male and 41 female 

- No. of Facilitators: There are 4 male and 5 female 


activities: 

- Approximately 1000 learners (40% male; 60% female) 


- Head of Department and coordinators for literacy and post-literacy and other social development 

areas (4 males and 5 females)



- Information not provided 



- Room with facilities that can be hired 


organisations 

Various services are rendered to the learner 


- Encouragement of self-study by use of dictionary, the library, taking notes for reading and 

provision of reading books 

- Participatory methods: during spoken and listening English sessions, open forums on particular 

topics, shared facilitatoi/learner activities like role plays, songs etc 

- Individual teaching 

- Learners carrying out their own sessions, teaching others or leading their own discussions 


- Curriculum covers 3 levels: Literacy level; Basic Education level and Advanced English study 

level. Each of these levels have several components. 


- Books used in primary schools (P3-P7) are followed 

- Additional materials prepared by YMCA and the facilitators are also used 


- The literacy programme has in the course of the 20 years given rise to other programmes: the Youth 

Council (since many participants are youth), which developed into the Youth and Women section 

and later the Youth and Gender section and currently the Youth and Gender Department 

- The whole departments stands on the foundation of adult literacy as an intervention to all specific 

programmes and activities within the department 


- Space for more activities 

- Difficulties in identification of creative self driven personnel to suit ever changing interests of 

adults in accordance with the diverse backgrounds 

- Specific hostel for adult learners who come from long distances (existing hostels are full of 

university standards of high standard to the adults) 

- Strong need for continued counselling and guidance to learners


Annex 6: Conditional Grants for FAL to the Districts 2006/2007 

Code District Budgeted Grant Code District Budgeted Grant 

501 Adjumani 27,746,824 545 Nebbi 29,479,277 

502 Apac 27,972,141 546 Ntungamo 18,119,736 

503 Arua 27,746,824 547 Pader 25,388,185 

504 Bugiri 25,275,093 548 Pallisa 25,887,651 

505 Bundibugyo 20,839,050 549 Rakai 12,707,500 

506 Bushenyi 25,268,107 Lyantondye 3,523,920 

507 Busia 22,767,717 550 Rukungiri 22,236,739 

508 Gulu 27,952,263 551 Sembabule 18,206,176 

509 Hoima 24,539,521 552 Sironko 17,161,452 

510 Iganga 20,839,050 553 Soroti 16,385,560 

511 Jinja 20,839,050 554 Tororo 28,764,057 

512 Kabale 17,295,869 555 Wakiso 21,188,954 

513 Kabarole 19,875,130 556 Yumbe 24,972,141 

514 Kaberamaido 20,839,358 557 Butaleja 16,826,412 

515 Kalangala 5,846,013 558 Ibanda 16,317,796 

516 Kampala 15,289,057 559 Kaabong 20,337,487 

517 Kamuli 22,971,187 560 Isingiro 20,142,172 

518 Kamwenge 18,206,178 561 Kaliro 26,328,169 

519 Kanungu 25,138,420 562 Kiruhura 18,045,825 

520 Kapchorwa 23,154,500 563 Koboko 15,970,920 

521 Kasesse 24,032,529 564 Amolatar 16,784,706 

522 Katakwi 20,839,051 565 Amuria 16,784,706 

523 Kayunga 15,585,006 566 Manafa 16,627,407 

524 Kibale 23,073,549 Bududa 14,766,793 

525 Kiboga 16,385,560 567 Bukwa 17,801,939 

526 Kisoro 20,249,639 568 Mityana 15,106,235 

527 Kitgum 34,969,921 569 Nakaseke 17,801,943 

528 Kotido 27,746,824 570 Amuru 14,906,490 

529 Kumi 23,127,597 571 Budaka 14,906,490 

Bukedea 14,906,490 572 Oyam 14,906,490 

530 Kyenjojo 20,627,869 573 Abim 14,906,490 

531 Lira 27,746,824 574 Namutumba 14,906,490 

532 Luwero 15,807,860 575 Dokolo 14,906,490 

533 Masaka 15,289,057 576 Bulisa 14,906,490 

534 Masindi 18,206,178 577 Maracha/Terego 14,906,490 

535 Mayuge 23,154,500 751 Arua Municipal Council - 

536 Mbale 23,154,500 752 Entebbe Municipal Council - 

537 Mbarara 20,839,050 753 Fort-portal Municipal Council - 

538 Moroto 28,764,057 754 Gulu Municipal Council - 

539 Moyo 25,887,651 755 Jinja Municipal Council - 

540 Mpigi 16,385,560 757 Kabale Municipal Council - 

541 Mubende 13,760,152 758 Lira Municipal Council - 

542 Mukono 16,385,971 760 Mbale Municipal Council - 

543 Nakapiripirit 25,887,651 762 Moroto Municipal Council - 

544 Nakasongola 13,760,152 764 Tororo Municipal council - 

Total 1,599,890,328 

Source: MGLSD, Finance Department


Annex 7: Terms of Reference for the Process Review 

1. Background 

Uganda considers education as one of the most important strategies in poverty eradication, which is the 

basis of its planning today. The country has seriously embarked on the implementation of education for 

all, in which the government plays a major role through formal education for children and functional adult 

literacy (FAL) for youth and adults. Whereas the main government focus has been on universal primary 

education, attention has also been given to the other aspects of education including FAL, whose recent 

development can be summarized as follows: 

a. Launch of the government’s functional adult literacy provision in 1992 through the Integrated Non- 

Formal Basic Education Pilot Project (INFOBEPP) in eight districts representing the four regions of 

Uganda, preceded by a country-wide needs assessment survey as a basis for the project 

b. Process review of the pilot project in 1995 that recommended expanding the project into a 

nationwide programme in a controlled, systematic and planned manner, starting with consolidation 

in the 8 pilot project districts 

c. Evaluation of the functional adult literacy programme in Uganda in 1999 that revealed the 

effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the programme and made significant recommendations for 

its improvement and consolidation for better results 

d. Development and adoption of the National Adult Literacy Strategic Investment Plan (NALSIP) in 

2002 and inclusion of its budget under the Poverty Action Fund, support from Icelandic 

International Development Agency (ICEIDA) and German Adult Education Association. 

e. Inclusion of FAL as an important component for community empowerment and mobilisation in the 

Social Development Sector Strategic Investment Plan in 2004 

f. Inclusion of adult literacy as a strategy in the Government’s revised Poverty Eradication Action 

Plan (2004). 

g. Decentralised management of FAL funds, at Local Government level transfers through Conditional 

Grants. 

2. Rationale for a Process Review 

In 2006, it is fourteen years since the countrywide needs assessment study, eleven years since the first 

process review and seven years after the comprehensive 1999 evaluation. Much of the information 

generated by those studies, each of which had a different focus, is now outdated in the dynamic rapidly 

changing environment of Uganda. The country has in the mean time made significant progress in the 

development and implementation of the FAL programme. The very momentum with which FAL is 

growing has raised new challenges that need to be addressed in order to sustain the momentum and 

answer the new needs and demands that arise from the successes and weaknesses that the programme has 

experienced. 

3. Objectives of the Process Review 

3.1 Overall objective 

To assess the changing needs for FAL and review the current FAL programme and its context so as to 

provide information required for its further development, refinement and improvement to adequately 

address the current needs. 

3.2 Immediate objectives 

i) Identify and describe the basic needs, problems and concerns of the FAL participants and potential 

participants. 

ii) Assess the adult learning needs and desires of the target population.


iii) Determine the status and performance of the Government FAL and other adult literacy programmes in 

the country. 

iv) Analyze the values attained by learners through the formal basic education curriculum and propose 

how the same values can be attained through the non-formal Curriculum i.e. adapted to suit the needs 

of adult learners with the view to obtaining equivalent qualifications. 

v) Draw lessons from past and current literacy programmes for planning the FAL programme and 






3.3 Expected Outputs of the Process Review. 

The main expected output is a report describing: 

i. Current needs for FAL and adult learning among literacy learners, literacy graduates and potential 

learners. 

ii. Current provision, management of the programme at different levels including funds 

transfers through conditional grants to local Governments and other financial modalities by 

Development partners and Government, training and supervision of instructors, materials 

development and distribution, forms of motivating FAL instructors and male learners 

participation in the programme, the extent to which it is responding to current needs, the gaps that 

exist and the factors affecting its performance. 

iii. Lessons learnt and recommendations for redesigning the programme, developing effective policy 

and strategies and developing an adult learning qualification framework 

4. Methodology 

4.1 Coverage 

This shall be a comprehensive study to address a wide range of issues on literacy and adult learning 

throughout Uganda from both the demand and supply side, as indicated in the objectives above. The 

researchers shall use appropriate sampling procedures to obtain the required samples at the different 

levels as explained below. 

4.2 Sources of Data 

4.2.1 Primary Sources 

The primary sources will comprise different categories of the population sampled from a selected 20% of 

the districts of Uganda. This percentage is to make the study comparable in coverage to that of the 

original needs assessment study undertaken in 1992. At that time 8 of the 39 districts were sampled. A 

similar percentage of districts was selected for the 1999 evaluation of the effectiveness and costeffectiveness 

of the FAL programme in Uganda. This study shall select 16 of the current 81districts of 

Uganda. In each of the 16 districts, two sub-counties shall be selected, representing as much as possible 

the key characteristics of the district, again similar to what was done in the previous two studies. 

On average 100 respondents shall be reached in every district bringing the total sample size of the study 

to 1,600 respondents from the districts. The researches shall identify the relevant categories of the 

population to provide adequate data to meet the objectives of the study. Information to be collected will 

take into consideration the needs of different groups such as urban, a peri-urban communities, PWDs, 

elderly, fisherfolk, pastoralists, agricultural communities, minorities and IDPs. Gender concerns should 

also be addressed at all stages of the process review. An additional number of respondents shall be 

composed of officials of the Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development; Ministry of Education 

and Sports, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Local Government, Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry


and Fisheries, Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development, National Curriculum 

Development Centre, Uganda National Examinations Board, Education Standards Agency, Uganda 

Bureau of Statistics, members of the Parliamentary Committee on Gender, Labour and Social 

Development; and academics and trainers in the Adult Education discipline, Literacy instructors and Civil 

Society Organisations involved in implementing adult literacy programmes. 

4.2.2 Secondary Sources 

The research shall consult and obtain data from the following and other relevant documentary sources: 

• Needs Assessment for Integrated Non-Formal Basic Education in Uganda 1992 

• Report of a Process Review of the Functional Literacy Project in Uganda 1995 

• Report of Evaluation of the Functional Adult Literacy Programme in Uganda 1999 

• Needs Assessment Survey for FAL in Karamoja Uganda 2000 

• Report of Needs Assessment Survey for FAL in Kalangala District 2000, External Evaluation 

Report for Kalangala 2005 

• Report of Needs Assessment Survey for FAL in the Island sub-Counties of Mukono District 

Uganda 2004, Baseline Survey for Mukono FAL – 2006. 

• National Population and Housing Census 2002 

• Poverty Eradication Action Plan 

• Social Development Sector Strategic Investment Plan (SDIP) 

• Education Sector Investment Plan 

• Socio-economic survey reports 

• The 1992 Government White Paper on Education 

• Uganda Participatory Poverty Action Programme reports 

• Annual Reports on FAL 

• District Profiles, Development Plans and other information documents 

• Records from various service registers and databases e.g. schools, health units 

• Community mobilisation and empowerment strategy. 

• Needs Assessment Survey Report for English & Small Business by LABE, 2004. 

• Public-Private Sector Partnership Report by Litnet, 2006. 

• Other relevant literature from Government and Non-Governmental Organisations involved in 

implementing FAL programmes. 

• Litereture/studies on IDPs in the Northen Uganda 

4.3 Methods and Instruments 

The study shall use a variety of approaches to obtain both quantitative data and qualitative insights and 

interpretation of information. The study shall collect data from primary sources through formal structured 

instruments, such as questionnaires and structured interview schedules, and through semi-formal 

discussions and interviews and some participatory tools. 

5. Research Team 

The researcher shall constitute a team of researchers and research assistants with the right qualifications 

and competence to obtain the data and provide the information required to achieve the objectives of the 

process review. Constitution of the team shall be entirely the responsibility of the researchers, who must 

ensure that they meet the requirements of the study. 

The team of consultants should have competencies in the following areas: 

• Adult literacy and community education. 

• Planning with specific reference to monitoring and evaluation. 

• Formal basic education with specific reference in curriculum development.


• Gender analysis skills. 

There is need to include part-time international expert on literacy and adult learning to support the team. 

This expert should have had experience in evaluation of adult literacy programmes in Africa. 

6. Time Frame 

The researcher shall have fourteen (14) weeks to conduct the study excluding the 2 of Christmas, produce 

a first draft report, disseminate and hand over the final copy of the report, broken up as follows: 

• Ten weeks after commencing the study, the researchers shall present a draft report to the Task 

force. 

• Two weeks after presenting the report to the Task force the researchers shall present the report at 

a dissemination and feedback workshop 

• The researchers shall have two weeks to prepare and hand over the final copy of the report to the 

Task force. 

7. Terms of payment 

The Consultants will be paid 20% of the fees after signing the Agreement, 40% of the fees after 

submitting the acceptable draft report and 40% after submitting acceptable final report. The Consultants 

will be paid funds for fieldwork after signing the agreement. 

8. Submission of technical and financial proposals 

The Terms of Reference (TOR) will be collected from either the Project Manager, International Icelandic 

Development Agency, 5 th Floor East African Development Bank Building, or from the Ministry of 

Gender, Labour and Social Development from the Commissioner Disability and Elderly; on the ground 

floor, Simbamanyo Building – Room 111 on Friday 20 th October 2006. The Technical proposal should be 

submitted to Project Manager ICEIDA, 5 th floor, East African Development Bank Building, Plot 4, Nile 

Avenue by 5.00 p.m. on Monday 30 th October, 2006. 

9. Management/reporting for the Consultants 

The Consultants will liaise with the Taskforce composed of the MGLSD and ICEIDA for the execution of 

their assignment. The Task force will introduce the team to all relevant places, organize the meetings, 

certify the work and recommend for payment.


Annex 8: Instruments Used in the Process Review 

Annex 8.1: Interview Schedule for Adult Literacy Instructors 

INTRODUCTION 

The Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social Development is reviewing the Functional Adult Literacy 

Programme that it is running in most parts of the country. This is being done in order to assess the 

changing needs for FAL among the people and review the current FAL programme and its context so as 

to provide information required for its further development, refinement and improvement to adequately 

address the current needs. You are one of those who have bee selected to assist by contributing 

information and ideas to help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in which it 

could be improved. 

You are for that reason being requested to provide some information by answering the following 

questions. Your contribution will be very highly appreciated. The information you provide will be treated 

in great confidence and used for the purposes of this study only. 

IDENTIFICATION 

DISTRICT 

COUNTY 

SUB-COUNTY 

VILLAGE 

NAME OF CLASS CENTRE 

ORGANISATIONS IN CHARGE OF THE CENTRE 

RESPONDENT’S STATUS 

INTERVIEWER’S NAME 

DATE OF INTERVIEW 

NAME 

CODE 

PRELIMINARIES 

Time of starting 

Greetings and self-introduction done 

Purpose of study explained 

Promise of confidentiality given 

Permission to interview requested 

Permission given 

…………… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

Instructor’s Background 

1. Sex 1. Male 2. Female 1. 

2. Age 1. Below 20 2. 21-30 3. 31-40 4. 41-50 5. Above 50 2. 

3. a) What is your mother tongue? ……………………………….. 

b) What language do you use while teaching in the literacy centre? ......................... 

3a. 

3b.


4. Which other language do you speak and how well? (CODE NUMBER OF LANGUAGES 

SPOKEN) 

Language Fluent Not fluent 

………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

5. Is your home within the village in which your literacy centre is located? 1. Yes 2. No 

6. What was the highest level of schooling that you completed? 

1. Primary 1-3; 2. Primary 4-7; 3. Passed PLE; 4. Secondary 1-3; 5. UCE; 6. UACE; 

7. TTC Grade 2-3; 8. TTC Grade 5; 9. Other qualification......................................... 

4. 

6. 

7. In which year did you complete that level of schooling? ………… 7. 

8. What is your marital status? 

8. 

1. Currently married 2. Never married (SKIP TO 11) 

3. Divorced/ Separated (SKIP TO 8) 4. Widowed (SKIP to 11) 

9. (IF A MARRIED MAN) How many wives do you have? ….. 

9. 

(CODE EXACT NUMBER OF WIVES) 

10. (IF A MARRIED WOMAN) How many wives does your husband have? ……. 10. 

11. a) How many sons do you have? (CODE EXACT NUMBER OF BOYS) 

b) How many of your sons go to school? 

c) What is the age of your youngest son? 

d) What is the age of your oldest son? 

a) How many daughters do you have? (CODE EXACT NUMBER OF GIRLS) 

12. b) How many of your daughters go to school? 

c) What is the age of your youngest daughter? 

d) What is the age of your oldest daughter? 

13. What do you use for lighting at night? 

1. Electricity 2. Hurricane lamp 3. Kerosene candle (Tadoba) 4. Wood fire 5. Sheaths of 13. 

grass 6. Others (Specify) ..................................................................................... 

14. What is your main occupation, that is, the occupation that takes most of your time? 

(RECORD ONE ONLY) 

14. 

1. Crop farmer 2. Pastoralist 3. Business (trading) 4. Artisan 5. Salaried employee 

6. Other (Specify) ................................................................................. 

15. What other activities do you carry out, apart from teaching adult literacy? 

15. 

(CODE ALL MENTIONED) 

1. Crop farmer; 2. Pastoralist; 3. Business (trading); 4. Artisan; 5. Salaried employee; 

6. LC committee member; 7. Church worker; 8. Others (Specify) ..................................... 

Instructor’s training 

16. Apart from formal school education, have you attended other courses? 1. Yes 2. No 16. 

17. 

First course attended Second course attended Third course attended 17. 

Dates: 

Duration: 

Place: 

Subject: 

18. Have you been trained to teach adult literacy? 1. Yes 2. No (IF NO SKIP TO 20) 18. 

11a. 

11b. 

11c. 

11d. 

12a. 

12b. 

12c. 

12d.


19. (IF YES) Give the dates, duration, place and subject of the course 

19. 

Dates: ...................................................................................................................... 

Place: ...................................................................................................................... 

For how long: .......................................................................................................... 

Subject: .................................................................................................................. 

20. Did you train to be a school teacher? 1. Yes 2. No 20. 

21. Are you or have you ever been a school teacher? 1. Yes 2. No (IF NO SKIP TO 22) 21. 

(IF YES) How long have you taught in schools? …………………years 

Instructor’s reading, writing and other communication practices 

22. a) Is there a radio in your family? 1. Yes 2. No 

b) Do you have control over the radio? 1. Yes 2. No 

c) (IF YES) Do you have batteries at the moment? 1. Yes 2. No 

23. a) Do you ever listen to radio? (PROBE TO ESTABLISH HOW OFTEN) 

1. Rarely 2. Sometimes 3. Frequently 4. Never 

b) which radio station you listen to most? .................................. 

c) At what time do you usually listen to the radio? (CODE ALL MENTIONED) 

1. Early morning 2. Late morning 3. Afternoon 4. Evening 5. Whole day 

d) Which programmes do you usually listen to? (CODE ALL MENTIONED) 

1. News 2. Announcements 3. Music 4. Sports 5.Politics 6. Religious 7. Plays and 

other entertainment 8. Health 9. Agriculture 10. Family life 11. Home economics 12. 

Other (specify) ....................................................... 

24. What do you read, apart from what you teach in class? (CODE ALL MENTIONED) 

1. Newspapers; 2. Books; 3. Pamphlets; 4. Letters; 5. Others (specify) ............................ 

25. (IF READS NEWSPAPER) How do you access the newspaper? 

1. Buys a personal copy; 2. Reads a friend’s copy; 3. Reads in a library; 4. Reads a copy 

belonging to the work place; 5. Other source (specify) .................................................. 

26. Apart from writing while teaching, do you write anything outside the class? 

1. Yes 2. No (IF NO SKIP TO 28) 

27. (IF YES) What do you write? 

1. Letters; 2. Personal records; 3. Things related to my employment; 4. Business 

records; 5. Others (specify) .................................................................................................... 

28. (IF NO) Why don’t you write? 

1. Nothing to write; 2. No writing materials; 3. No time for writing; 4. Others (specify) 

29. a) Do you have any books or magazines in the house at home? 1. Yes 2. No 

b) If yes, what kind of books or magazines are they? (CODE ALL MENTIONED) 

1. Literacy class books; 2. School books; 3. Other non-religious books; 4. Bible; 

5. Koran; 6. Hymn books; 7. Other religious books 

30. Do you have access to the following? 

a) Television 1. Yes 2. No 

b) Mobile phone 1. Yes 2. No 

31. (IF YES) Do you own one or how do you have access to it? 

a) Television 1. Own one 2. Other access (specify) ......................................... 

b) Mobile phone 1. Own one 2. Other access (specify) .......................................... 

32. a) Do you know how to use a computer? 1. Yes 2. No 

b) Would you like to learn to use a computer? 1. Yes 2. No 

22. 

23a. 

23b. 

23c. 

23d. 

24. 

25. 

26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32a. 

32b.


Literacy Programme Experience 

33. How long have you been teaching adult literacy? (USE ACTUAL NUMBER OF MONTHS) 33. 

34. What were your reasons for accepting to teach adult literacy? 

34. 

1. Promote development; 2. Fight illiteracy; 3. Help others; 4. Patriotism; 5. Hobby; 6. 

Evangelism; 7. Was requested; 8. Others ..................................................................... 

35. How long have you been teaching at this centre? (USE ACTUAL NUMBER OF MONTHS) 35. 

36. Do you receive any incentive for teaching the literacy class? 1. Yes 2. No (IF NO, SKIP 36. 

TO 39) 

37. (IF YES) What form of incentive? 

37. 

1. Cash money; 2. Hoe; 3. Bicycle; 4. Cash & bicycle; 5. Others; (N/A). 

38. (IF MONEY) How much in a year? ......................................................................... 

38. 

1. Up to 50,000/= 2. 51,000-100,000/= 3. 101,000 -200,000/= 4. 201,000-300,000/= 5. 

301,000-400,000/= 6. 401,000-500,000/= 7. 501,000-600,000/= 8. Over 600,000/= 

39. How happy are you with your work as instructor? 

39. 

1. Very happy 2. Happy 3. A little happy 4. Not happy 

40. Give reasons for your answer 

40. 

1. Enjoy one’s achievement; 2. Lack of alternative job; 3. Fight against illiteracy; 4. 

Development promotion; 5. Social relations; 6. Others ................................................. 

41. What is the number of men and women in the class you teach? a) Men ....... b) Women ...... 41a 

41b. 

42. How many usually attend classes? a) Men ....... b) Women ...... 42a. 

42b 

43. How many learners were enrolled in your class last year? a) Men ....... b) Women ........ 43a. 

43b 

44. How many learners completed in your class last year? a) Men ....... b) Women ....... 44a. 

44b 

45. How do you find the number of learners in your class? 1. Too many 2. Just right 3. Too few 45. 

46. What is the age range of your learners? 

46. 

a) Youngest .......... b) Oldest ................ 

47. What days of the week do you teach? 

47. 

1. Monday; 2. Tuesday; 3. Wednesday; 4 Thursday; 5. Friday; 6. Saturday; 7. Sunday 

48. How many hours each day? (CODE EXACT NUMBER OF HOURS) 48. 

49. At what time do you start the class? 1. Morning; 2. Afternoon; 3. Evening 49. 

50. How many days in a week could you dedicate to teaching? (CODE EXACT NUMBER OF 50. 

DAYS) 

51. How many hours could you teach each day? (CODE EXACT NUMBER OF HOURS) 51. 

52. Do you teach the class alone or with other instructors? 1. Alone; 2. With others 52. 

53. How often do you miss to teach? 1. Often 2. Rarely 3. Never 53. 

54. If you have ever missed to teach, what are the reasons? 1. Domestic work; 2. Farm work; 54. 

3. Sickness; 4. Funerals; 5. Travel; 4. Other factors (specify) 

…………………....................................... 

55. Where do you hold the classes? 1. School classroom 2. Government building 

55. 

3. Church 4. Someone’s home 5. Under a tree 6. Special shelter 7. Other (specify) 

56. Is the place built for the adult literacy class? 1. Yes 2. No 56. 

57. What do you think about the place? 1. Very appropriate; 2. Appropriate; 3. Noisy; 4. Too 57. 

small; 5. Poorly equipped; 6. Uncertain accessibility; 7. Others (specify) 

58. Do you have a written syllabus which you follow while teaching? 1. Yes 2. No 58.


59. List the different subjects or issues which you have taught your class 

59. 

1. Reading and writing; 2. Agriculture & livestock; 3. Health, family and nutrition; 4. 

Environment & elementary science & technology; 5. HIV/AIDS; 6. Savings & 

cooperatives; 7. Social behaviour and religion, Civic awareness; 

8. Others (specify) ...................... 

60. Why have you taught those things? 

60. 

1. According to the syllabus; 2. Necessary for adult education; 3. Expose the learners to 

the world and life; 4. Relevant to their life and work; 5. Relevant to their faith; 6. 

Others ....................... 

61. What else do you think should be taught in an adult literacy programme? 

61. 

1. Fight against HIV/AIDS; 2. Environment & agriculture; 3. English; 4. Kiswahili; 5. 

Foreign/other language; 6. Economy, cooperatives, business; 7. Health, family 

planning; 8. Games & sports; 9. Civic education; 10. Gender; 11. Others.................... 

62. Indicate which of these materials are available in your class and whether they are enough and 

appropriate 

Material 

a) Blackboard 

b) Chalk 

c) Benches 

d) Primers 

e) Teacher’s guide 

f) Reading materials 

g) Notebooks 

h) Exercise books 

i) Others 

Available 

1. Yes 2. No 

Sufficient 

1. Yes 2. No 

Appropriate (Ask the respondent to comment 

on the quality and relevance) 

63. Are the primers and reading materials used in your class easy to use? 

63. 

1. Very easy; 2. Easy; 3. Difficult 

64. Why do you say so? 

64. 

1. Easy: I have been trained; 2. Easy: well prepared and clear; 3. Easy: high level of 

education; 4. Easy: I have long experience; 5. Difficult: it requires training; 6. 

Difficult: inappropriate materials; 7. Others ................. 

65. Are the primers and reading materials used in your class interesting? 

65. 

1. Very interesting 2. Interesting 3. Not interesting 

66. Why do you say so? 1. Useful contents for learners; 2. Help learners achieve expected 66. 

knowledge; 3. Interesting for learners; 4. Well prepared/designed 5. Irrelevant to 

adult learners; 6. Insufficient; 7. Unavailable; 8. Others ............... 

67. Apart from the materials currently used in your class, what other materials do you consider 67. 

necessary? 1. Stationery; 2. Books, maps; 3. Desks, 4. Benches, 5. Blackboards; 6. 

Classrooms; 7. Newspapers; 8. Computers; 9. Others 

68. How high is the interest of the men and women your class to learn? 

68. 

a) Men: 1. Very high; 2. High; 3. Low 

b) Women: 1. Very high; 2. High; 3. Low


69. Why do you say so?.................................................................................................. 69. 

1. They are very eager to learn & know; 2. They want to emulate others; 3. Their 

teachers encourage them; 4. They like their teachers; 5. They admire reading & 

writing; 6. The lesson is interesting; 7. Training is free of charge; 8. Lack of 

motivation; 9. Irregular attendance; 10. They expect more (time, knowledge etc); 

11. Others .................... 

70. How regularly do they attend class? 

70. 

a) Men: 1. Always regular; 2. Miss sometimes; 3. Miss very often 

b) Women: 1. Always regular; 2. Miss sometimes; 3. Miss very often 

71. If your learners miss class sometimes or often, what do you think makes them miss most? 71. 

1. Illness; 2. Domestic work; 3. Family & social duties; 4. Agricultural seasons; 

5. Loss of interest; 6. Others............... 

72. What are the reasons that most often make learners stop coming to classes? 

72 

1. Poor learning venue; 2. Illness; 3. Family and social duties; 4. Ignorance; 

5. Poverty; 6. Migration; 7. Bad instructors; 8. Girls marry; 9. Look for a job; 

10. Discouraged by the neighbour’s comments; 11. Lack of monitoring by the government; 

12. Others .................... 

73. How long does it take for a learner to be able to read, write and calculate autonomously? 73 

1.1-3 months; 2. 4-6 months; 3. 7-9 months; 4. 10-12 months; 5.More than 12 months 

74. Give any other comments you may have about the learners 

74 

1. Need stationery; 2. Need government support; 3. Need sensitization on adult literacy; 

4. Some come expecting aid; 5. Need material support for learners (e.g. money, soap etc) 

7. Others ...................... 

75. Do you invite other people to talk to your class? 1. Yes 2. No 75 

76. Who do you invite? 

76 

1. LC Chairman; 2. Local and religious leaders; 3. Education , social affairs , youth & 

gender officials; 4. Agriculture technicians; 5. Officials of NGOs; 6. Health officials; 7. 

Teachers; 8. Others ................................................................. 

77. For what do you invite them? 

77 

1. To talk special topics; 2. To encourage, motivate the learners; 3. For learners to tell them 

their problems; 4. To let learners know existing opportunities e.g. microfinance; 5. Others 

(specify) .................... 

78. When was the last time a supervisor visited your class? 

78 

1. Current month; 2. Previous month; 3. months ago; 4. 3 months ago; 5. 4 months ago; 

6. 5 months ago; 7. 6 months ago; 8. Beyond 6 months ago 

79. What did he or she do when he or she visited your class? 

79. 

1. Sensitized learners; 2. Motivated learners with books, chalk etc; 3. Inquired about 

instructors’ and learners’ problems; 4. Gave advice; 5. Talked on special topics e.g. 

HIV/AIDS Malaria; 6. Brought tests, examinations; 7. Provided certificates; 8. Others 

(specify) ............................. 

80. List the administrative problems you have met in teaching the adult literacy class 

80. 

1. Untrained instructors; 2. Lack of classrooms; 3. Lack of teaching materials; 4. Lack 

of incentives; 5. Lack of interest by local authorities; 6. Lack of follow-up by Ministry 

officials; 7. Misunderstanding between instructors and local authorities; 8. One instructor 

for too many learners; 9. Lack of communication between instructors and programme 

managers; 10. None; 11. Others ................. 

81. List the teaching problems you have met in teaching the adult literacy class 

81. 

1. No incentives; 2. Teasing from primary school pupils; 3. Varied age groups put 

together; 4. Lack of teaching materials; 5. Lack of classrooms; 6. Teaching too many 

learners; 7. Need for further training in Adult Education; 8. None; 9. Others ..................


82. List the men and women learners’ problems you have met in teaching the adult literacy class 82. 

a) Men’s problems 

b) Women’s problems (USE SAME CODES FOR 82a and 82b) 

1. Learning materials insufficient; 2. Poverty; 3. Family commitments; 4. Domestic work; 

5. Absenteeism; 6. Lack of interest/motivation; 7. Different levels in age and knowledge; 

8. None; 9. Others ......................... 

83. List the personal problems you have met in teaching the adult literacy class 

83. 

1. No rewards; 2. Poverty; 3. Family commitments; 4. No training; 5. Problems of 

transport and communication; 6. No materials; 7. Crowded classrooms; 8. No problems; 

9. Others ................... 

84. How have cultural attitudes and expectations affected the adult literacy class? 

84. 

................................................................................................................................................... 

.................................................................................................................................................... 

85. What can be done to make the literacy class more interesting? 

85. 

................................................................................................................................................... 

86. What projects or activities has your literacy group carried out together? 

86. 

................................................................................................................................................... 

87. What projects or activities have the individual class participants carried out as a result of 87. 

participating in the learning? 

................................................................................................................................................... 

88. How do you encourage or help those who have completed your class to continue reading and 88. 

writing and using the other knowledge they have gained? 

................................................................................................................................................... 

89. What can be done to make the literacy class more useful? 

89. 

................................................................................................................................................... 

90. What support has your literacy class received from local government, other organisations, individual 

and community? 

Name of organisation, individual etc. Support given to literacy class 

91. What other organisations are there in the area which could support literacy classes, if 91 

approached? 

................................................................................................................................................... 

.................................................................................................................................................... 

92. What do men and women in the community say about your literacy class? 

92 

a) Men: 

................................................................................................................................................... 

.................................................................................................................................................... 

b) Women: 

................................................................................................................................................... 

.................................................................................................................................................... 

93. Please make any other comments or suggestions you may have about adult literacy 93 

programmes in your area and in Uganda as a whole. 

................................................................................................................................................... 

....................................................................................................................................................


Annex 8.2: Interview Schedule for Participants in Adult Literacy Programmes 

INTRODUCTION 












DISTRICT 

COUNTY 

SUB-COUNTY 

VILLAGE 

NAME OF CLASS CENTRE 

ORGANISATION IN CHARGE OF LITERACY CENTRE 




NAME 

CODE 

PRELIMINARIES 







…………… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

RESPONDENT’S BACKGROUND 



3. What is your mother tongue? ……………………………….. 3. 

4. Which other language do you speak and how well? (WRITE EACH LANUGAGE 

MENTIONED AND CODE NUMBER OF LANGUAGES SPOKEN) 

4. 


………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

5. Have you ever attended school? 1. Yes 2. No (SKIP to 7) 5.


6. a) What was the highest level of class of schooling that you completed? ………. 

b) In which year? ………… (CODE HOW MANY YEARS AGO) 

7. a) What is your marital status? 



b) (IF A MARRIED MAN) How many wives do you have? ….. 

c) (IF A MARRIED WOMAN) How many wives does your husband have? …….. 










10. What do you use for lighting at night? (CODE ALL MENTIONED) 

1. Electricity; 2. Hurricane lamp; 3. Kerosene candle (Tadoba); 4. Wood fire; 

5. Sheaths of grass; 6. Others (Specify) .................................................................. 



1. Crop farmer; 2. Pastoralist; 3. Business (trading); 4. Artisan; 5. Salaried employee; 

6. Unemployed; 7. Other (Specify) ............................................................ 



1. Literacy class books; 2. School books; 3. Other non-religious books; 4. Bible; 

5. Koran; 6. Hymn books; 7. Other religious books 

13. a) In your family, is there anyone older than 15 years who cannot read or write? 

1. Yes 2. No 

b) (IF YES) How many? .............. 

c) (IF YES TO a) How many attend literacy classes? ................. 





1. Rarely 2. Sometimes 3. Frequently 4. Never (IF NEVER, SKIP TO 16) 

b) Which radio station do you usually listen to? .................................. 




1. News; 2. Announcements; 3. Music; 4. Sports; 5.Politics; 6. Religious; 7. Plays and 

other entertainment; 8. Health; 9. Agriculture; 10. Family life; 11. Home economics; 

12. Other (specify) ....................................................................... 

6a. 

6b. 

7a. 

7b. 

7c. 

8a. 

8b. 

8c. 

8d. 

9a. 

9b. 

9c. 

9d. 

10. 

11. 

12a 

12b 

13a 

13b 

13c 

14a 

14b 

14c 

15a. 

15b. 

15c. 

15d. 

LITERACY PROGRAMME EXPERIENCE 

16. When did you join the adult literacy class? 

1. Up to 6 months ago 2. Between 6 months and 1 year ago 3. Between 1 and 2 years 

ago 4. More than 2 yeas ago 

16.


17. What was your reason for joining the adult literacy class? 

17. 

1. To know how to read and write; 2. To be able to find a job; 3. To refresh myself; 

4. To get out of ignorance; 5. Brought by someone else; 6. Social benefit, e.g. get 

married; 7.To read something, e.g. newspapers, bible; 

8. Others (specify)...................................................................................................... 

18. How many times a week does your literacy class meet? (CODE EXACT NUMBER) 18. 

19. How regularly do you come to class? 1. Always 2. Miss sometimes 3. Miss often 19. 

20. (IF MISSES) Why do you sometimes miss? (CODE ALL THOSE MENTIONED) 20 

1. Domestic work; 2. Farm work; 3. Sickness; 4. Funerals; 5. Travel; 6. Other factors 

(specify) …………………................................................................................ 

21. Do you enjoy the literacy class? 1. Yes 2. No 21. 

22. (IF YES) Why? 

22. 

1. Enables me to read; 2. Enables me to write 3. Enables me to calculate (numeracy); 

4. Helps me in my daily life; 5. I gain something new; 6. Enables me to solve business 

problems; 7. Gives me chance to exchange ideas; 8. Takes me out of ignorance; 9. 

Improves my social status; 10. Others (specify).................................................................... 

23. (IF NO) Why? 

23. 

1. Things are difficult to learn; 2. The teacher is not interesting; 3. What is taught is not 

helpful to me; 4. Others (specify).................................................................................. 

24. What do you find easy to learn in class? 

24. 

1. Reading; 2. Writing; 3. Numbers (numeracy); 4. Everything; 5. Nothing; 

6. Others (specify) ............................................................................................................... 

25. What do you find difficult to learn in class? 

25. 



26. a) Do you have any physical problems which make it difficult to attend literacy classes? For 26a 

example: hearing, eyesight, walking problems? 1. Yes 2. No 

b) (IF YES) What problems? 

1. Eyesight; 2. Hearing; 3. Walking disability; 4. Sickness; 5. Others (specify) ............... 26b 

27. Do you have any other problems which make it difficult to attend literacy classes? 27. 


(specify) …………………....................................... 

28. Would you say you are learning very well, just well or not well? 

28. 

1. Very well 2. Just well 3. Not well 

29. What have you learnt as a result of participating in the class? 

29. 

1. Reading; 2. Writing; 3. To write my name; 4. To write letters; 5. To calculate 

(numeracy); 6. Better agriculture; 7. To care for my family better; 8. Better business; 

9. Others (specify) .................................................................................................... 

30. Have the things you have learnt helped you? 1. Yes 2. No 30. 

31. (IF YES) How have they helped you? 

31. 

1. To read on my own; 2. To write on my own; 3. To keep my personal records; 4. To 

keep my business records; 5. To improve my farming; 6. To take better care of my 

family; 7. To improve my income; 8. Others (specify) ......................................................... 

32. (IF NO) Why have they not helped you? 

32. 

1. What we learn is not helpful; 2. I have only learnt a little; 3. I lack resources to 

improve (poverty); 4. Others (specify) .................................................................................. 

33. Do you want to learn more? 1. Yes 2. No 33. 

34. (IF YES) What more do you want to learn? 

34. 

1. Reading; 2. writing; 3. numeracy; 4. English; 5. Swahili; 6. Business; 7. Agriculture; 

8. Health; 9. General knowledge; 10. Others (specify) ................................................. ......


35. How does your instructor evaluate learning? 

35. 

1. Home work; 2. Class work; 3. Oral questions; 4. Small quiz; 5. Dictations; 

6. Examinations; 7. No evaluation; 8. Others (specify) ...................................................... 

36. Does the instructor give you tests? 

36. 

1. Yes 2. No (IF NO, SKIP TO 39) 

37. (IF YES) How often do you do the tests? 

37. 

1. Weekly 2. Monthly 3. Once in three months 4. Once in six months 5. Once a year 

38. (IF YES in 36) How well do you perform in the tests? 

38. 

1. Very well 2. Fairly well 3. Not well 

39. How much do you like doing tests? 1. Very much 2. A little 3. Not at all 39. 

40. Why? 

40. 

1. Good results motivate; 2. It helps to evaluate my self and progress; 3. To be aware 

of my weaknesses; 4. To reinforce the learning; 5. Others (specify) ................................... 

41. Is there a printed book which the instructor uses for teaching in class? 1. Yes 2. No 41. 

42. Are there printed books for learners in your literacy class? 

42. 


43. a) (IF YES) Do you personally use the book? 1. Yes 2. No 

43a. 

b) (IF NO) Why don’t you use it? ............................................................................................ 

44. (IF YES) Do you use the book alone or do you share it with others? 1. Alone 2. Shared 44 

45. (IF SHARED) With how many others do you usually share the book? ……………. 45 

46. How would you rate your instructor on the basis of the following characteristics? 

1. Very good 2. Good 3. Bad 

a) Regular attendance 

b) Making the lesson interesting 

c) Good relationship with learners 

47. What more do you have to say about your instructor? 

1. Is interesting; 2. Is punctual and regular; 3. Is experienced ; 4. Likes us; 5. Is 

intelligent; 6. He knows his job; 7. Is dynamic; 8. He should work harder; 9. Nothing; 

10. Others (specify) ................................................................................................. 

48. a) What time are your classes held? 

1. Morning 2. Afternoon 3. Evening 

b) What do you think about the time that the classes are held? 


49. Why? 

1. It fits with our work; 2. It doesn’t take a lot of time; 3. That is our choice; 4. The 

time is not enough; 5. Another time would be better (Prefer another time); 6. It 

interferes with our work; 7. Others (specify) ...................................................................... 

50. Where are your literacy classes held? 

1. School classroom 2. Government building 3. Church 4. Someone’s home 

5. Under a tree 6. Special shelter 7. Other (specify) ......................................... 

51. What do you think about the place where the classes are held? 


52. Why? 

1. well equipped classroom; 2. poorly equipped; 3. no classroom; 4. we learn under a 

tree; 5. the place belongs to a well wisher; 6. the building is not good; 7. long distance 

from home; 8. Others (specify) ......................................................................................... 

53. Do you read outside the class? 1. Yes 2. No 53. 

46a. 

46b. 

46c. 

47 

48a 

48b 

49 

50 

51 

52.


54. (IF YES) What do you read? 

54. 

1. Revision of class work; 2. Learners’ book (primer); 3. Newspapers; 4. Bible/Koran, 

hymn books, prayer book; 5. Pamphlets on health, agriculture etc; 6. Story books; 

7. Others (specify) ................................................................................ 

55. (IF NOT) Why not? 

55. 

1. No reading materials; 2. I can’t read on my own; 3. I do not have time; 4. I am not 

interested; 5. Others (specify) ................................................................................................. 

56. Do you write outside the class? 1. Yes 2. No 56. 


57. 

1. Revision of class work; 2. Letters to my friends; 3. Religious matters; 4. Reports 

and projects; 5. Minutes of meetings; 6. Others (specify) ................................................ 


58. 

1. No writing materials; 2. I have no time; 3. I can’t write on my own; 4. I haven’t 

reached that level; 5. I have nothing to write about; 6. Others (specify) ........................... 

59. Do you do written calculations? 1. Yes 2. No 59. 

60. (IF YES) What do you calculate in writing? 

60. 

1. Business/trade matters; 2. Exercises/homework; 3. Money transactions; 

4. Children’s homework; 5. School fees; 6. Others (specify) ......................................... 


61. 

1. Too early; 2. Nothing to count; 3. No interest; 4. No materials; 5. Not enough skills; 

6. Others (specify) ........................................................................................................ 

62. Do you read newspapers? 1. Yes 2. No 62. 

63. (IF SO) Which newspapers? 

63. 

1. Rupiny; 2. Etop; 3. Bukedde; 4. Orumuri; 5. Monitor; 6. New Vision; 7. Others 

(specify) ........................................................................................................................... 


64. 

1. No access to newspapers; 2. Not enough skills; 3. Not interested in newspapers; 

4. Others (specify) ............................................................................................. 

65. What do you like to read most in the newspapers? 

65. 

1. Announcement; 2. Games; 3. Politics; 4. Comedy; 5. News; 6. Agriculture; 

7. Everything; 8. Education; 9. Sports; 10. Others (specify) ..................................... 

66. Do you ever heard of a computer is? 1. Yes 2. No 66. 

67. What is it used for? ....................................................................................................... 67. 

68. Have you ever used a computer? 1. Yes 2. No 68. 

69. Would you like to learn to use it? 1. Yes 2. No 69. 

70. What do men and women in the community say about your literacy class? 

70. 

a) Men: 

b) Women: 

Thank you very much for your cooperation 

Time of finishing...............................................


Annex 8.3: Interview Schedule for Graduates of Adult Literacy Programmes 

INTRODUCTION 












DISTRICT 

COUNTY 

SUB-COUNTY 

VILLAGE 

Name of Class Centre Attended 

ORGANISATION IN CHARGE OF LITERACY CENTRE 




NAME 

CODE 

PRELIMINARIES 







…………… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 





4. Which other language do you speak and how well? (WRITE EACH LANUGAGE 4. 



………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

5. Have you ever attended school? 1. Yes 2. No (SKIP to 7) 5.


6. c) What was the highest level of class of schooling that you completed? ………. 

d) In which year? ………… (CODE HOW MANY YEARS AGO) 
















1. Electricity 2. Hurricane lamp 3. Kerosene candle (Tadoba) 4. Wood fire 5. Sheaths of 

grass 6. Others (Specify) .................................................................. 



1. Crop farmer 2. Pastoralist 3. Business (trading) 4. Artisan 5. Salaried employee 

6. Unemployed 7. Other (Specify) ............................................................ 



1. Literacy class books 2. School books 3. Other non-religious books 4. Bible 5. Koran 

6. Hymn books 7. Other religious books 

13. a) In your family, is there anyone older than 15 years who cannot read or write? 

1. Yes 2. No 












1. News 2. Announcements 3. Music 4. Sports 5.Politics 6. Religious 7. Plays and other 

entertainment 8. Health 9. Agriculture 10. Family life 11. Home economics 12. Other 

(specify) ....................................................... 

6a. 

6b. 

7a. 

7b. 

7c. 

8a. 

8b. 

8c. 

8d. 

9a. 

9b. 

9c. 

9d. 

10. 

11. 

12a 

12b 

13a 

13b 

13c 

14a 

14b 

14c 

15a. 

15b. 

15c. 

15d.


LITERACY PROGRAMME EXPERIENCE 

16. When did you join the adult literacy class? 

1. Up to 6 months ago 2. Between 6 months and 1 year ago 3. Between 1 and 2 years 16. 

ago 4. More than 2 yeas ago 

17. What was your reason for joining the adult literacy class? 

17. 

1. To know how to read and write; 2. To be able to find a job; 3. To refresh myself; 

4. To get out of ignorance; 5. Brought by someone else; 6. Social benefit, e.g. get 

married; 7.To read something, e.g. newspapers, bible; 

8. Others (specify)...................................................................................................... 

18. How many times a week did your literacy class meet? (CODE EXACT NUMBER) 18. 

19. How regularly did you come to class? 1. Always 2. Miss sometimes 3. Miss often 19. 

20. (IF MISSES) Why do you sometimes miss? (CODE ALL THOSE MENTIONED) 20 


(specify) …………………................................................................................ 

21. Did you enjoy the literacy class? 1. Yes 2. No 21. 

22. (IF YES) Why? 

22. 

1. Enabled me to read; 2. Enabled me to write 3. Enabled me to calculate (numeracy); 

4. Helped me in my daily life; 5. I gained something new; 6. Enabled me to solve 

business problems; 7. Gave me chance to exchange ideas; 8. Took me out of ignorance; 

9. Improved my social status; 10. Others (specify)................................................................. 

23. (IF NO) Why? 

23. 

1. Things were difficult to learn; 2. The teacher was not interesting; 3. What as taught 

was not helpful to me; 4. Others (specify)............................................................................... 

24. What did you find easy to learn in class? 

24. 



25. What did you find difficult to learn in class? 

25. 



26. a) Do you have any physical problems which made it difficult to attend literacy classes? For 26a 

example: hearing, eyesight, walking problems? 1. Yes 2. No 

b) (IF YES) What problems? 

1. Eyesight; 2. Hearing; 3. Walking disability; 4. Sickness; 5. Others (specify) ............... 26b 

27. Did you have any other problems which made it difficult to attend literacy classes? 27. 


(specify) …………………....................................... 

28. Would you say learnt very well, just well or not well? 1. Very well 2. Just well 3. Not well 28. 

29. What did you learnt as a result of participating in the class? 

29. 

1. Reading; 2. Writing; 3. To write my name; 4. To write letters; 5. To calculate 

(numeracy); 5. Better agriculture; 6. To care for my family better; 6. Better business; 

7. Others (specify) .................................................................................................... 

30. Have the things you learnt helped you? 1. Yes 2. No 30. 

31. (IF YES) How have they helped you? 

31. 

1. To read on my own; 2. To write on my own; 3. To keep my personal records; 4. To 

keep my business records; 5. To improve my farming; 6. To take better care of my 

family; 7. To improve my income; 8. Others (specify) ......................................................... 

32. (IF NO) Why have they not helped you? 

32. 

1. What we learn is not helpful; 2. I have only learnt a little; 3. I lack resources to 

improve (poverty); 4. Others (specify) ..................................................................................


33. Do you want to learn more? 1. Yes 2. No 33. 

34. (IF YES) What more do you want to learn? 

34. 

1. Reading; 2. writing; 3. numeracy; 4. English; 5. Swahili; 6. Business; 7. Agriculture; 

8. Health; 9. General knowledge; 10. Others (specify) ................................................. ...... 

35. How did your instructor evaluate learning? 

35. 

1. Home work; 2. Class work; 3. Oral questions; 4. Small quiz; 5. Dictations; 

6. Examinations; 7. No evaluation; 8. Others (specify) ...................................................... 

36. Did the instructor give you tests? 1. Yes 2. No (IF NO, SKIP TO 39) 36. 

37. (IF YES) How often did you do the tests? 

37. 

1. Weekly 2. Monthly 3. Once in three months 4. Once in six months 5. Once a year 

38. (IF YES in 36) How well did you perform in the tests? 

38. 

1. Very well 2. Fairly well 3. Not well 

39. How much do you like doing tests? 1. Very much 2. A little 3. Not at all 39. 

40. Why? 

40. 

1. Good results motivate; 2. It helps to evaluate my self and progress; 3. To be aware 

of my weaknesses; 4. To reinforce the learning; 5. Others (specify) ................................... 

41. Was there a printed book which the instructor uses for teaching in class? 1. Yes 2. No 41. 

42. Were there printed books for learners in your literacy class? 

42. 


43. a) (IF YES) Did you personally use the book? 1. Yes 2. No 

43a. 

b) (IF NO) Why did you not use it? ......................................................................................... 

44. (IF YES) Did you use the book alone or do you share it with others? 

44 

1. Alone 2. Shared 

45. (IF SHARED) With how many others did you usually share the book? ……………. 45 

46. How would you rate your instructor on the basis of the following characteristics? 


a) Regular attendance 

b) Making the lesson interesting 

c) Good relationship with learners 

47. What more do you have to say about your instructor? 

1. Is interesting; 2. Is punctual and regular; 3. Is experienced ; 4. Likes us; 5. Is 

intelligent; 6. He knows his job; 7. Is dynamic; 8. He should work harder; 9. Nothing; 

10. Others (specify) ................................................................................................. 

48. a) What time were your classes held? 1. Morning 2. Afternoon 3. Evening 

b) What do you think about the time that the classes are held? 1. Very good 2. Good 3. Bad 

49. Why? 

1. It fits with our work; 2. It doesn’t take a lot of time; 3. That is our choice; 4. The 

time is not enough; 5. Another time would be better (Prefer another time); 6. It 

interferes with our work; 7. Others (specify) ...................................................................... 

50. Where were your literacy classes held? 

1. School classroom 2. Government building 3. Church 4. Someone’s home 

5. Under a tree 6. Special shelter 7. Other (specify) .................................. 

51. What did you think about the place where the classes are held? 1. Very good 2. Good 3. Bad 51 

52. Why? 

52. 

1. well equipped classroom; 2. poorly equipped; 3. no classroom; 4. we learn under a 

tree; 5. the place belongs to a well wisher; 6. the building is not good; 7. long distance 

from home; 8. Others (specify) ......................................................................................... 

53. Do you do some reading these days? 1. Yes 2. No 53. 

46a. 

46b. 

46c. 

47 

48a 

48b 

49 

50


54. (IF YES) What do you read? 

54. 

1. Revision of class work; 2. Learners’ book (primer); 3. Newspapers; 4. Bible/Koran, 

hymn books, prayer book; 5. Pamphlets on health, agriculture etc; 6. Story books; 

7. Others (specify) ................................................................................ 


55. 

1. No reading materials; 2. I can’t read on my own; 3. I do not have time; 4. I am not 

interested; 5. Others (specify) ................................................................................................. 

56. Do you do some writing? 1. Yes 2. No 56. 


57. 

1. Revision of class work; 2. Letters to my friends; 3. Religious matters; 4. Reports 

and projects; 5. Minutes of meetings; 6. Others (specify) ................................................ 


58. 

1. No writing materials; 2. I have no time; 3. I can’t write on my own; 4. I haven’t 

reached that level; 5. I have nothing to write about; 6. Others (specify) ........................... 

59. Do you do written calculations? 1. Yes 2. No 59. 

60. (IF YES) What do you calculate in writing? 

60. 

1. Business/trade matters; 2. Exercises/homework; 3. Money transactions; 

4. Children’s homework; 5. School fees; 6. Others (specify) ......................................... 


61. 

1. Too early; 2. Nothing to count; 3. No interest; 4. No materials; 5. Not enough skills; 

6. Others (specify) ........................................................................................................ 

62. Do you read newspapers? 1. Yes 2. No 62. 

63. (IF SO) Which newspapers? 

63. 

1. Rupiny; 2. Etop; 3. Bukedde; 4. Orumuri; 5. Monitor; 6. New Vision; 7. Others 

(specify) ........................................................................................................................... 


64. 

1. No access to newspapers; 2. Not enough skills; 3. Not interested in newspapers; 

4. Others (specify) ............................................................................................. 

65. What do you like to read most in the newspapers? 

65. 

1. Announcement; 2. Games; 3. Politics; 4. Comedy; 5. News; 6. Agriculture; 

7. Everything; 8. Education; 9. Sports; 10. Others (specify) ..................................... 

66. Do you ever heard of a computer is? 1. Yes 2. No 66. 

67. What is it used for? ....................................................................................................... 67. 

68. Have you ever used a computer? 1. Yes 2. No 68. 

69. Would you like to learn to use it? 1. Yes 2. No 69. 

70. What do men and women in the community say about the literacy class? 

70. 

a) Men: ....................................................................................................................... 

b) Women: .................................................................................................................. 

71. Please make any other comments or suggestions you may have about adult literacy 71. 

programmes in your area and in Uganda as a whole 

………………........................................................................................................................... 

................................................................................................................................................... 

Thank you very much for your cooperation 

Time of finishing...............................................


Annex 8.4: Interview Schedule for Non-Literate Adults (Potential FAL Learners) 

INTRODUCTION 

The Government is trying to provide learning opportunities for adults who want to learn and continue 

their education. For that reason the government is trying to find out how well the programme for adults is 

helping adults to learn whatever they want to learn and to improve their life. The government therefore 

needs to know people’s problems and how they want to solve them. It also wants to find out what people 

want to learn. You are one of those who have been selected to assist by contributing information on the 

problems and learning desires of adults and ideas to help see how well the programme has performed and 

suggest ways in which it could be improved. 





DISTRICT 

COUNTY 

SUB-COUNTY 

VILLAGE 




NAME 

CODE 

PRELIMINARIES 







…………… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 

YES ……… 





4. Which other language do you speak and how well? (WRITE EACH LANUGAGE 


4. 


………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

………………………………… (…..) (…..) 

5. Have you ever attended school? 1. Yes 2. No (IF NO, SKIP to 7) 5. 

6. a) What was the highest level of class of schooling that you completed? ………. 

b) In which year? ………… (CODE HOW MANY YEARS AGO) 

6a. 

6b.



7a. 






7b. 

7c. 





8a. 

8b. 

8c. 

8d. 

9. 


b) How many of your daughters go to school? 



9a. 

9b. 

9c. 

9d. 


10. 

1. Electricity 2. Hurricane lamp 3. Kerosene candle (Tadoba) 4. Wood fire 5. Sheaths of 

grass 6. Others (Specify) .................................................................. 


(RECORD ONE ONLY) 1. Crop farmer 2. Pastoralist 3. Business (trading) 4. Artisan 5. 11. 

Salaried employee 6. Unemployed 7. Other (Specify) ...................... 



12a 

12b 

1. Literacy class books 2. School books 3. Other non-religious books 4. Bible 5. Koran 

6. Hymn books 7. Other religious books 

13. a) In your family, is there anyone older than 15 years who cannot read or write? 1. Yes 2. No 












1. News 2. Announcements 3. Music 4. Sports 5.Politics 6. Religious 7. Plays and other 

entertainment 8. Health 9. Agriculture 10. Family life 11. Home economics 12. Other 

(specify) ....................................................... 

13a 

13b 

13c 

14a 

14b 

14c 

RESPONDENT’S PROBLEMS PERCEPTIONS ON LITERACY AND LEARNING NEEDS AND 

DESIRES 

15a. 

15b. 

15c. 

15d. 

16. Which are the most serious problems you face in your life today? 1. Poverty; 2. Lack of 

money; 3. Insecurity; 4. Lack of food; 5. Illness; 6. Lack of knowledge; 7. Not being 

able to read and write; 6. Others (specify) ............................................... 

17. How are you trying to solve those problems? 1. Increased or improved agriculture; 

2. Business; 3. Income generating activities; 4. Working in groups; 5. Borrowing 

from microfinance; 6. Selling property 7. Others (specify) .................................. 

16. 

17.


18. In which ways do you think the Government could help you to solve those problems? 18. 

...................................................................................................................................... 

19. List the things you would like to learn first if you were given an opportunity to learn 19. 

whatever you want 1. Reading & writing 2. Numeracy 3. Technical, vocational 

training 4. Languages 5. Religion 6. Health 7. Agriculture 8. Others ............................. 

20. Explain why you would like to learn each of those things you have mentioned 

20. 

1. Reading on my own; 2. Getting information easily; 3. Communicating easily; 

4. Sustain my life; 5. Keeping secrets; 6. Being able to carry out a project; 

7. Others ................................................................................ 

21. Do you think that not knowing how to read and write is a problem? 1. Yes 2. No 21. 

22. (IF YES) Please list all the problems which result from not knowing how to read and write 22. 

1. Mismanagement of resources; 2. Bad communication; 3. Lack of confidentiality; 

4. No progress in life; 5. Limited job opportunities; 6. Risk of being conned; 7. Inability 

to carry out any business; 8. Inferiority complex; 9. Others (specify) ............................... 

23. (IF NO) Why do you think not knowing how to read and write is not a problem? 

23. 

..................................................................................................................... 

24. Would you like to learn how to read and write or to improve on your reading and writing? 24. 

1. Yes 2. No 

25. Please explain why 

25. 

1. Very useful in daily life; 2. To do things by myself; 3. It will change my life; 

4. Consideration in society; 5. Possibility to get a job; 6. Easy communication; 

7. For development; 8. Come out of ignorance; 9. Others ............................................. 

(IF RESPONDENT ANSWERED NO TO QUESTION 24, END THE INTERVIEW 

HERE) 

26. What things do you want to read? 1. Newspapers; 2.The Bible/Koran; 3. Prayer book; 26. 

4. Hymn book; 5. Other books; 6. Others ...................................... 

27. What do you want to write? …………………………………………………………..... 27. 

28. Do you want to learn to calculate in writing? 1. Yes 2. No 28. 

29. Explain why ………………………………………………………………………………… 29. 

30. How do you expect to benefit from being able to read and write? 

30. 

.................................................................................................................................. 

31. Have you ever found yourself in a situation in which you regretted being unable to read and 31. 

write? 1. Yes 2. No 

32. (IF YES) Give details ..................................................................................................... 32. 

33. What kind of person would you prefer to teach you reading, writing and other skills? 33. 

..................................................................................................................................... 

34. Why would you like that person to teach you? 

34. 

...................................................................................................................................... 

35. What is your best time for coming to class? 1. Morning; 2. Afternoon; 3. Evening 35. 

36. How many times would you be able to attend class in a week? (CODE EXACT NUMBER 36. 

OF TIMES) 

37. How many hours should the class last? (CODE EXACT NUMBER OF TIMES) 37. 

38. What difficulties do you think you will face while learning? 

………………........................................................................................................................... 

Thank you for your cooperation! 

Time of finishing: .................................................. 

38.


Annex 8.5: Questionnaire for District Leaders and Officials 


(FAL) Programme that it is running in most parts of the country. The aim of the exercise is to assess the 

changing needs for FAL and review the current FAL programme and its context so as to provide 

information required for its further development, refinement and improvement to adequately address the 

current needs. As a leader or official in this district, you are therefore requested to assist by answering the 

following questions to help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in which it 


The information you give will be treated confidentially and used only for the review. 

1. District: ……………………………………… 

2. Your position in the district: …………………………………………………... 

3. a) How long have you held this position? ………………………… 

b) Your sex: Male ( ) Female ( ) 

4. Are there Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) classes provided by the Government in your district? 

(TICK THE BOX YOU CHOOSE) 

Yes No I don’t know 

5. Apart from FAL classes provided by the government, are there other adult literacy classes going on in 

the district? 


6. If there are other adult literacy classes, mention the organisations offering them 

………………………………………………………………………………………........... 

6. If there are Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) and other adult literacy classes in the district, to what 

extent would you say their performance has been improving since the year 2002? 

To a great extent To some extent Not at all 

7. Explain your answer: ……………………………………………………………………… 

8. To what extent would you say that FAL classes have brought about a change in people’s lives? 



10. Would you say FAL enjoys high priority status in the district and the different sub-counties? 

Yes ( ) No ( ) 

11. To what extent would you say FAL is a regular item in the plans and budgets of the district and the 

different sub-counties? 

To a great extent To some extent Not at all


12. Indicate by ticking the appropriate box how high or low the attendance in FAL is every month: (In 

case you do not have the information, indicate by ticking “I don’t know” below) 

I don’t Know ( ) 

High 

Middle 

Low 

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov 

13. On the tables below, indicate the things which you think reduce the attendance of women and men in 

FAL? (TICK THE BOXES INDICATING THE REASONS YOU CHOOSE) 

1 Housework 

2 Employment 

3 Agriculture and livestock rearing 

4 Lack of resources 

5 Fear of being identified as illiterate 

7 Insecurity 

8 Others (specify) 

Women 

Men 

14. On the tables below, indicate the things which you think promote the attendance of women and men 

in FAL? (TICK THE BOXES INDICATING THE REASONS YOU CHOOSE) 

1 Desire to improve social status 

2 Hope of finding a job 

3 People’s appreciation of education 

4 Desire to help children with their school work 

5 Mobilisation by education authorities 

6 Mobilisation by LCs 

7 Mobilisation by religious leaders 


Women 

Men 

15. To what extent would you say the current government policy is an adequate guide for the provision of 

adult literacy and adult education in general in Uganda? 



17. To what extent would you say there has been collaboration among the different agencies, both 

government (Central and Local), non-government and international in the provision of FAL in the 

district? 



18. Explain your answer: …………………………………………………………………………… 

19. What contribution does your department or Council make towards the running of FAL? 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

20. To what extent does the community contribute to FAL? 



22. What weaknesses and gaps would you say there are in the provision of adult literacy in the district? 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

23. What other comments and suggestions for improvement do you have about the FAL Programme and 

adult education in general? 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

Thank you!


Annex 8.6: Questionnaire for Sub-County Leaders and Officials 





current needs. As a leader or official in this district, you are therefore requested to assist by answering the 

following questions to help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in which it 



1. District: ……………………………………… 

2. Sub-County: ..................................................... 

3. Your position in the sub-county: …………………………………………………... 

4. a) How long have you held this position? ………………………… 

b) Your sex: Male ( ) Female ( ) 

5. Are there Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) classes provided by the Government in your sub-county? 

(TICK THE BOX YOU CHOOSE) 


6. Apart from FAL classes provided by the government, are there other adult literacy classes going on in 

the sub-county? 


7. If there are other adult literacy classes, mention the organisations offering them 

………………………………………………………………………………………........... 

8. If there are Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) and other adult literacy classes in the sub-county, to what 

extent would you say their performance has been improving since the year 2002? 



10. To what extent would you say that FAL classes have brought about a change in people’s lives? 




12. Would you say FAL enjoys high priority status in the sub-county? 

Yes ( ) No ( ) 

13. To what extent would you say FAL is a regular item in the plans and budgets of the sub-county? 


14. Indicate by ticking the appropriate box how high or low the attendance in FAL is every month: (In 

case you do not have the information, indicate by ticking “I don’t know” below) 

I don’t Know ( ) 

High 

Middle 

Low 

Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov 

15. On the tables below, indicate the things which you think reduce the attendance of women and men in 

FAL? (TICK THE BOXES INDICATING THE REASONS YOU CHOOSE) 

1 Housework 

2 Employment 

3 Agriculture and livestock rearing 

4 Lack of resources 

5 Fear of being identified as illiterate 

7 Insecurity 


Women 

Men 

16. On the tables below, indicate the things which you think promote the attendance of women and men 

in FAL? (TICK THE BOXES INDICATING THE REASONS YOU CHOOSE) 

1 Desire to improve social status 

2 Hope of finding a job 

3 People’s appreciation of education 

4 Desire to help children with their school work 

5 Mobilisation by education authorities 

6 Mobilisation by LCs 

7 Mobilisation by religious leaders 


Women 

Men 

17. To what extent would you say the current government policy is an adequate guide for the provision of 





19. To what extent would you say there has been collaboration among the different agencies, both 


sub-county? 


20. Explain your answer: 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

21. What contribution does your department or Council make towards the running of FAL? 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

22. To what extent does the community contribute to FAL? 



24. What weaknesses and gaps would you say there are in the provision of adult literacy in the subcounty? 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

25. What other comments and suggestions for improvement do you have about the FAL Programme and 

adult education in general? 

……………………………………………………………………………………………… 

Thank you!


Annex 8.7: Questionnaire for Heads of Organisations and Other Leaders at District Level 

INTRODUCTION 





current needs. As the head or an official of an organisation working in this district, you are kindly 

requested to provide information to help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in 

which it could be improved. 


SECTION A: INFORMATION ON THE ORGANISATION 

1. Name of Organisation ……………………………………………………………. 

2. a) Your position in the Organisation …………………………………………….. 

b) How long have you been in that position …………………………………….. 

3. Your sex: (Circle the right one) 1. Male 2. Female 

4. Location and coverage of your organisation 

………………………………………………………………………………………...................... 

………………………………………………………………………………………...................... 

5. What are the objectives of your organisation? 

………………………………………………………………………………………........................ 

………………………………………………………………………………………........................ 

………………………………………………………………………………………........................ 

6. What activities does the organisation carry out in this district? 

Activity 

Where carried out 

7. What personnel does the organisation have in the district? 

Category of personnel (Indicate No.) 

Where Located 

8. What facilities does the organisation have in the district? 

Facilities (Indicate No. & capacity) 

Where located 

9. Mention any facilities or equipment available in your organisation which could be used, borrowed or 

hired for adult literacy and other adult education activities 

………………………………………………………………………………………........................


SECTION B: GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE AREA 

10. a) What do you think are the three most serious problems in this district? 

1. ………………………………………………………………………………………. 

2. ………………………………………………………………………………………. 

3. ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 

b) Which are the most serious problems affecting the women ? 

1. …………………………………………………………………………………........... 

2. ……………………………………………………………………………………........ 

3. ……………………………………………………………………………………......... 

c) Which are the most serious problems affecting people with disabilities ? 

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………........ 

2. ……………………………………………………………………………………........ 

3. ……………………………………………………………………………………........ 

11. Mention what you feel needs most attention in the islands district 

……………………………………………………………………………………….............. 

12. Do you find the following services satisfactory in the district? (CIRCLE THE CORRECT 

ANSWER) 

a) Schools 1. YES 2. NO 

Explain: ……………………………………………………………………………................... 

b) Medical Services 1. YES 2. NO 

Explain: ……………………………………………………………………………................... 

…………………………………… …………………………………………………................ 

c) Agriculture Department 1. YES 2.. NO 

Explain: …………………………………………………………………………….................. 

…………………………………… …………………………………………………............... 

c) Transport Services 1. YES 2.. NO 

Explain: ……………………………………………………………………………................. 

13. What comments do you have about other public services in the district by Government or by other 

organisations? 

……………………………………………………………………………………….. 

14. Which are the main organisations operating in this area and what are the aims of each? 

Organisation 

Aims and Activities (Broadly) 

15. The Department of Community Development is responsible for the provision of adult literacy 

programmes in the communities. What comments do you have on its services? 

…………………………………… …………………………………………………….


16. a) Do you feel that functional adult literacy is useful for people in this area? 

1. YES 2. NO 

b) Give reasons for your answer 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

17. What in your opinion should be done to strengthen functional adult literacy programmes and to 

promote adult education in general in the district? 

…………………………………… …………………………….............………………………. 

18. a) If your organisation is not yet involved in providing adult education programmes, would you be 

able to get involved? 

b) If so, in which areas of the district? ..................................................................................... 

c) If not, why would you not be able to? .................................................................................. 

.............................................................................................................................................. 

19. Does your organisation carry out development programmes or adult education in the district? 1. 

YES 2. NO 

(IF THE ANSWER TO QUESTION 19 IS YES THEN CONTINUE WITH QUESTIONS 20 – 29) 

SECTION C: 

FOR ORGANISATIONS CARRYING OUT DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES 

OR ADULT EDUCATION IN THE DISTRICT 

20. What type of programmes do you carry out in the district? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

21. a) In what areas of the district do you carry out the programme? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

b) For how long have you carried out the programme in each of those areas? 

………………………………………………………………………………………… 

22. What is the duration of the programmes? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

23. Which of the programmes are most liked by the people? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

24. Which kind of people participate in the programmes and how many are they? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

25. Which time of the year is participation 

i) highest? …………………………………………………………. 

ii) lowest? ………………………………………………………….. 

26. What kind of programmes do women participate in most? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

27. To what extent and in which ways have cultural values affected your programmes? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

28. For what reasons do you think your programmes are useful in this area? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

29. What are the sources of your finances for running the programmes and about what percentage does 

each source contribute to the programmes? 

…………………………………… ……………………………………………………. 

(THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND CO-OPERATION. UNLESS IT HAS BEEN ARRANGED 

OTHERWISE, THIS QUESTIONNAIRE WILL BE COLLECTED FROM YOU)


Annex 8.8: Guiding Questions for Semi-Structured Interviews with Community Leaders 

and Local Government Leaders and Officials 

Introduction 





current needs. As a leader or official in this district, you are therefore requested to assist by providing 

information to help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in which it could be 

improved. 


1. People’s problems and their solutions 

a) What are the most serious problems for the people in this area? 

b) Why do these problems occur – what are their causes? 

c) What is being done by the government, community leaders and the people themselves to solve the 

problems? 

d) What else should be done to try to solve these problems? 

e) In what ways do you think Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) can contribute to solving these 

problems? 

2. People’s learning needs and desires 

a) Which categories of adults desire to learn in this area? 

b) What are the main subjects and topics that adults desire to learn? 

c) To what extent do the people, especially non-literate adults, desire to learn to read and write? 

d) In which types of activities do people use reading and writing? 

3. Performance of FAL programme in the area 

a) To what extent would you say the current government policy is an adequate guide for the provision of 


b) To what extent, would you say, the local government is committed to FAL? – In what ways is the 

commitment manifested? 

c) How suitable are the teaching and learning arrangements for the people? 

d) What are the arrangements for the instructors and how good are they?


e) What teaching and learning methods and techniques are used and how well do they help people to 

learn? 

f) What is the rate of participation, perseverance and completion among women and among men? 

g) Why is there a difference in participation among women and men, if it is there? 

h) What arrangements are there for supervision, monitoring and evaluation and how effective and useful 

are they to instructors and learners? 

i) To what extent would you say there has been collaboration among the different agencies, both 


district? 

j) What weaknesses and gaps would you say there are in the provision of adult literacy in the district? 

4. Benefits from the FAL programme 

a) How well do the people learn from the programme? 

b) What helps them to learn or makes it difficult for them to learn? 

c) What changes does participation in the FAL programme and other adult education activities make in 

the life of the people? 

d) How well are the programmes meeting the needs and desires of the area? 

e) What can be done to make the programmes meet the needs and desires of the people better? 

Ideas for improving the programme 

What ideas would you propose for improving the performance and the impact of the programme?


Annex 8.9: Guiding Questions for Semi-Structured Interviews with Schooled People 

Introduction 





current needs. As a leader or official in this district, you are therefore requested to assist by providing 

information to help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in which it could be 

improved. 


1. People’s problems and their solutions 

a) What are the most serious problems for the people in this area? 


c) What is being done by the government, community leaders and the people themselves to solve the 

problems? 

d) What else should be done to try to solve these problems? 

e) Have you ever heard about FAL in your area? 

f) (IF YES) In what ways do you think Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) can contribute to solving these 

problems? 

2. People’s learning needs and desires 

a) Are there people in your area who need Adult Literacy? 

b) What type of things would they desire to learn? 

c) From where would they desire to learn? 

d) In which aspects of life do people require (use) reading and writing? 

3. Performance of FAL programme in the area 

a. Are you aware of government policy regarding Adult Literacy? 

b. How do you think such Policy has made provision for adult literacy and adult education in Uganda? 

c. Are there FAL learning centres in your area? 

d. Do you know the arrangements of learning activities at the centre? 

e. How are the instructors selected (appointed)? 

f. Do you know of people who have completed the learning programme at the centre? 

g. (IF YES) Can you name the people? 

h. Do you notice the difference in participation between: 

- women and men at the learning centre? 

- the age range of people who attend FAL programme? 

i. Do you ever visit the FAL learning centre? 

j. (IF YES) For what reason did you visit the learning centre? 

k. Who else visits the learning centre? (NGOs; Local Govt; others) – For what reason? 

4. Benefits from the FAL programme 

How well do you think people learn at the centre? 

What changes does their participation in the FAL programme and other adult education activities make in 

the life of the people?


5. Weakness of FAL 

What weaknesses and gaps would you say there are in the provision of adult literacy: 

i) In the centre? 

ii) In the district? 

6. Way Forward 

What in your view should be done to improve the performance and impact of the Programme?


Annex 8.10: Guide for Focus Group Discussions Used For the Study 

INTRODUCTION 

Explain to the participants the purpose of the research, covering the following: 





address the current needs. You are therefore requested to assist by contributing information and ideas to 

help see how well the programme has performed and suggest ways in which it could be improved. 


COUNTY 

SUB-COUNTY 

PARISH 

VILLAGE 

PARTICIPANTS 

NAME 

Age: 

Sex: 

Number of participants: 

Participants’ main activity: 

Other characteristics: (e.g. literacy, education status) 

CODE 

NAME OF MODERATOR: 

NAME OF RECORDER: 

Date of discussion: …………………………………………. 

Time of starting …………………………. 

Time of finishing …………………………. 

1. INTRODUCTION 

The Focus Group Discussion is one of the methods to be used in this Process Review. This method 

consists of bringing together a small group of specially selected people, usually between 8 and 12 in 

number, to discuss specific issues that are relevant to them and to the research. It is used especially to 

identify the kinds of behaviour and opinions that exist and reasons for them. 

2. HOW THEY WILL BE ORGANISED 

2.1 Selection of the Groups 

The group should be homogenous; that is, it should consist of people whose characteristics are as similar 

as possible. The main characteristics to be taken into consideration are: 

- age 

- sex 

- education 

- occupation


Other characteristics can be taken into consideration if that is useful for the topic under discussion and the 

given situation. 

For this study, the following groups are to be covered and should be composed, as much as possible, 

according to these categories: male, female, youth, older. 

- Participants in FAL 

- Graduates of FAL 

- Lowly-educated 

- Schooled 

2.2 Organising the Group Meetings 

It is expected that each Focus Group Discussion will last about two hours, which should be just right to 

provide enough information and views without being so long as to bore the participants. 

In organising the discussion meetings, it is important to take into consideration the venue and time which 

are most suitable to all the members of the group. This will make it possible for them not only to attend 

but also to discuss freely. Suitable venues and times may be different for different groups. One should 

consider issues like: 

- Is the venue near enough for everyone to reach easily? 

- Is it a place where every member will feel comfortable? (For example some people may not be 

comfortable near an administrative headquarters, in a drinking place, etc.) 

- Is it a place where there will be no interruptions? 

- Is it a time when every member of the group is free from essential or very important work? 

- Is it a time when there are no other activities to attract members of the group? 

- Is it a time all members of the group can feel comfortable to be out meeting? 

- (And other such questions) 

Among the interruptions that may occur are those beyond one’s control like rain. However, the danger of 

this causing a serious disruption can be reduced by ensuring that the times of the day when it is likely to 

rain are avoided whenever possible and that the venue for the discussion is either sheltered from the rain 

or is near enough to a shelter large enough to keep the group together. If they get scattered it may be 

difficult to reconvene them. In arranging the sitting, the organiser of the group discussion should try to 

make sure the group can sit as comfortably as possible in a circle. The interviewers should be part of the 

circle and not apart at a table or a desk. 

2.3 Moderating and Recording 

At every Focus Group Discussion there must be at least two interviewers one of who should play the role 

of moderator (Chairperson) and the other the role of recorder (Secretary). The following are brief 

guidelines for each of the two: 

a) Moderator (Chairperson) 

A moderator is one who guides the discussion, makes it easy for members to discuss freely and for 

everyone to contribute whatever information or ideas they may have. The following is an outline of the 

tasks of the moderator:


‣ At the beginning of the discussion the moderator should: 

• Make the members feel at ease; 

• Explain the purpose of the discussion and motivate the members to discuss; 

• Start off the discussion by very briefly introducing the first topic, making sure he or she does not do 

too much talking so that enough time is given for the real discussion. 

‣ During the discussion, the moderator should: 

• Allow discussion to flow among the participants (above all avoid turning it into a question and 

answer session); 

• Listen, observe and find tactical ways of encouraging the silent ones to contribute; 

• Find tactical ways of discouraging individuals from dominating the discussion; 

• Probe for deeper information or views as appropriate; 

• Give feedback and clarify issues only when necessary; 

• Guide the discussion smoothly from one topic to another (The topics and possible questions are given 

in the next section of this guide); 

• Take a few notes to remind him or her of the important points raised, to be compared with those of 

the recorder (secretary) after the discussion. 

b) Recorder (Secretary) 

Although the moderator should also take notes, the person to keep a complete and accurate record of the 

proceedings is the recorder. Keeping a complete record does not mean trying to write down everything 

that is said word by word. What it means is that the recorder should: 

• Listen to what is said, 

• Understand it, and 

• Put it down in a few words to be expanded later, if necessary. It is better to put down a few ideas you 

can follow later than many words which make no sense even to you afterwards 

• Write down, in full, important, striking statements in the exact words of the speaker. If it is difficult 

to write it in full straightaway, put down some points which will help you to remember the whole 

statement and then write it in full immediately at the end of the discussion. 

The recorder must, above all, avoid putting down his or her own ideas, but only the ideas that have come 

out of the discussion. Other items to be recorded are indicated at the end of this guide. 

The recorder should also occasionally assist the moderator to keep the discussion flowing and to ask 

questions that may bring in other useful information that has not been covered. 

2.4 After the Discussion Meeting 

Immediately, or as soon as possible after the discussion meeting, it is important for the moderator and 

recorder to sit together, compare notes and come out with a common version of the information and views 

which came out of that discussion. They should not hold another discussion meeting before completing 

the record of the previous one because this may lead to confusing ideas which came from different 

meetings. 

NB: A full, well-written version of each Focus Group Discussion will then be produced, under each of the 

topics given in the next section (3.1 – 3.5).


‣ The time schedule is tight and this full version will have to be produced at the earliest opportunity 

possible, either the same evening or early the following morning before starting on the day’s work. 

TOPICS AND GUIDING QUESTIONS 

The following are the topics to be discussed, with examples of the kind of questions that could guide the 

discussion. Other questions will have to be used as necessary to go deeper into the topics and to get more 

opinions. 

People’s problems and their desired solutions 

a) What are the most serious problems for the people in this area? (Let the group if possible decide 

which is the most serious problem) 


c) What solutions does the group suggest for the problems? 

d) What are the community leaders and the government doing in trying to solve these problems? 

e) What else should the leaders and the government do in trying to solve these problems? 

f) How can Functional Adult Literacy (FAL) contribute to solving these problems? 

People’s learning needs and desires 

a) Which categories of adults desire to learn in the area? 

b) What are the main subjects and topics that adults desire to learn? 

c) How much desire is there for learning to read and write? 

d) Why do people desire to learn to read and write? 

e) In which types of activities do people use reading and writing? 

Performance of FAL programme in the area 

a) What are the teaching and learning arrangements and how suitable are they for the people? 

b) What are the arrangements for the instructors and how good are they? 

c) What teaching and learning methods and techniques are used and how well do they help people to 

learn? 

d) What is the rate of participation, perseverance and completion among women and among men? 

e) Why is there a difference in participation among women and men, if it is there? 

f) What arrangements are there for supervision, monitoring and evaluation and how effective and useful 

are they to instructors and learners? 

Benefits from the FAL programme 

a) How well do the people learn from the programme? 

b) What helps them to learn or makes it difficult for them to learn? 

c) What changes does participation in the FAL programme and other adult education activities make in 

the life of the people? 

d) How well are the programmes meeting the needs and desires of the area? 

e) What can be done to make the programmes meet the needs and desires of the people better? 

Ideas for improving the programme 

What ideas does the group have to improve the performance and the impact of the programme?

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