Prehistory from the Earliest Humans - The University of Nottingham

UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM
PREHISTORY FROM THE EARLIEST
HUMANS
TO THE FIRST FARMERS
(V61110)
Semester A 2011-12
Fridays 11:00-13:00
Clive Granger Building A41
Available as a subsidiary module for students in
Years 1 and 2, and JYA/Erasmus students
- And a whole lot more besides!
1

Prehistory from the Earliest Humans to the First Farmers (V61110)
Convener: Dr Hamish Forbes
email: hamish.forbes@nottingham.ac.uk
phone: ext. 14843
office: B31 Humanities Building
Offering School: Humanities
Offering Department: Archaeology
Level: 1
Total Credits: 10
Prerequisites: None
Co-requisites: None
Method and Frequency of Class: lectures amounting to 2 hours per week plus three seminars/artefact
handling sessions. There will be an open plenary discussion session at the end of the module.
Method of Assessment: one 2.0 hour exam (100% of total mark)
Early Bronze Age daggers: central Europe
Ice Age art: mammoth from Rouffignac cave, France
2

University Regulations on Attendance:
Students must attend all teaching activities necessary for the pursuit of their studies, undertake all
associated assessments and attend meetings and other activities as required by their School or the
University. Where students face difficulty in attending sessions or undertaking assessments and
examinations, it is their responsibility to inform their School of this fact and to provide a satisfactory
explanation. Please see http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/quality-manual/study-regulations/attendance.htm
for further details on attendance regulations at the University.
Individual Schools and Departments have systems in place to monitor attendance during the academic year.
Unauthorised absences are reported to the Registry and recorded as appropriate. Where students are
absent without authorisation, to the point that it is not possible to continue with the course, the Registry will
write to the student stating that they will be deemed to have withdrawn from the University and their
student record will be amended to show that they have withdrawn.
Where required the University will report non-attendance to appropriate authorities including the UK Border
Agency.
Departmental attendance policy:
Lack of attendance can result in very serious penalties (see the Quality Manual for the University Regulations
on Attendance:
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicservices/qualitymanual/studyregulations/attendanceprocedures.as
px).
You should note that where students are absent without authorisation, to the point that it is not possible to
continue with the course, the Registry will write to the student stating that they will be deemed to have
withdrawn from the University and their student record will be amended to show that they have withdrawn.
Where required the University will report non-attendance to appropriate authorities including the UK Border
Agency.
Attendance at Lectures and Seminars is compulsory and all students will be required to sign an attendance
register at each session. If you cannot attend, you must inform the Departmental Office by e-mailing both
archaeology-enquiries@nottingham.ac.uk and the Module Convenor stating your reason for absence. Any
student who is seemed to have unsatisfactory attendance for lectures and seminars will be issued a warning
by the department and may be called for interview. Attendance will be considered at exam boards.
It is the responsibility of the student to ensure they attend lectures and seminars and that they make the
department aware of any extenuating circumstances they may have.
Two examples of Ice Age art
3

Marking criteria:
Your work will receive one of the marks listed in the left-hand column – the descriptors for each class of
work are provided in the columns to the right.
Exceptional
Class I
quality
100
98
95
92
90
Class I
quality
88
85
82
80
-------
78
75
72
70
Class
II.i
quality
68
65
62
60
Class
II.ii
quality
58
55
52
50
Knowledge and understanding Professional and intellectual skills Technical skills
Innovative and original
thought
Exemplary answer to the
question
Outstanding knowledge
and understanding of the
relevant material
Well-formed in response to existing
debates, with outstanding criticism of
others’ arguments
Exemplary integration of wide reading, as
appropriate
Sure handling of analytical terms and
critical concepts
Precise, focused argument
Exemplary analysis
Exemplary discussion of evidence /
examples
Superb structure, maintained
throughout, that helps to highlight
salient points
Lucid style and accurate English at an
outstanding professional standard
Outstanding professional
presentation, including referencing
and bibliography as appropriate
At higher levels of study, an answer in the 90-100 range might contain elements of publishable quality (depending
on the discipline, topic, and task).
Independence of thought
and/or evidence of
originality, especially at the
upper range
Comprehensive and effective
answer to the question
Excellent, wide-ranging
knowledge and
understanding
Some independence in
thought and approach
Thorough answer to the
question, covering most or all
aspects
Good to very good
knowledge and
understanding
Adequate to good answer to
the question, covering the
main aspects
Adequate to good knowledge
and understanding
Well-digested and extensive reading (as
appropriate for the task)
Sure handling of analytical terms and
critical concepts
Accurate analysis and effective criticism of
others’ arguments
Cogent argument, effectively directed to
the question
Excellent discussion of evidence /
examples
Wide reading (as appropriate), generally
well-digested
Appropriate handling of analytical terms
and critical concepts
Critical awareness and satisfactory analysis
of different points of view
Sound argument, generally well-directed
to the question
Good to very good discussion of evidence /
examples
Fair amount of reading
Some awareness of different points of
view, maybe with some deficiencies in
analysis and characterisation
Serious attempt to make appropriate use
of analytical terms and critical concepts,
maybe with some deficiencies
Adequate and generally relevant argument
Some discussion of evidence / examples
Excellent structure
Clear writing and accurate English
style
Professional presentation, including
referencing and bibliography as
appropriate
Good to very good structure
Generally clear writing and
acceptable English style
Good to very good presentation,
including referencing and
bibliography as appropriate
Generally coherent structure
Some deficiencies in clarity and
English style, but generally adequate
to good
Moderate presentation, including
referencing and bibliography as
appropriate
Typical weaknesses in this class include over-reliance on one or two authorities; some irrelevance; some incoherence in
argument and/or structure.
4

Class III
quality
48
45
42
40
Knowledge and understanding Professional and intellectual skills Technical skills
Some aspects of the question
addressed adequately, but
failure to address important
aspects of it
Limited knowledge, with
serious errors and/or
omissions
Limited to adequate reading
Some ability to interpret questions and to
convey information adequately, but weak
argument
Limited discussion of evidence / examples
Adequate to weak structure; there
may be some irrelevance
Moderate level of fluency and
technical competence, with errors in
grammar and/or vocabulary
Poor presentation, with poor or
perhaps incomplete referencing and
bibliography
Soft
Fail
quality
38
35
32
30
Hard
Fail
quality
28
25
22
20
--------
18
15
12
10
--------
8
5
2
0
Could scarcely be considered
a serious attempt at the task
Failure to address the
question adequately
Little evidence of knowledge
and/or understanding
Typically brief and/or
incomplete
Could not be considered a
serious attempt at the task
whatsoever
Failure to show
understanding of the
question
Failure to show evidence of
any knowledge and/or
understanding
Typically very brief and/or
incomplete
Little or no evidence of relevant reading
Little or no discernible argument
Some demonstrable ability to
communicate information about relevant
material
Failure to show evidence of relevant
reading
Extensive incoherence and/or irrelevance
Little ability to communicate information
about relevant material
Little or no discernible structure
Widespread incoherence and/or
irrelevance
Minimal acceptable level of fluency
and technical competence;
comprehensible overall even if
characterized by errors in grammar
and/or vocabulary
Poor or very poor presentation, with
poor, incomplete or no referencing
and bibliography
Extensive incoherence and/or
irrelevance
An unacceptable level of fluency and
technical competence, characterized
by serious errors in grammar and/or
vocabulary
Very poor presentation, with poor,
incomplete or no appropriate
referencing and bibliography
Star Carr: a Mesolithic camp. Reconstruction by Alan Sorrell
5

MODULE CONTENT, AIMS AND OUTCOMES
Module content: The earlier part of the module introduces students to the appearance and evolution
of humans and the changing sequences of material culture (i.e. tools, etc), with special attention to
Europe. The time-frame for this section of the module will be from about 5 million years ago to the
early post-Ice Age (post-Glacial) period, which started about 10,000 years ago. The later part of the
module will investigate the origins of farming and its spread through Europe. The adoption of
metalworking, especially in western Europe, and the social changes associated with it will also be
investigated.
Module aims: The module gives you an overview of the appearance and evolution of the human
species and the evidence of how past human communities supported themselves. You will be
introduced to some very simple aspects of human anatomy and evolutionary theories. You will also
be introduced to the ways in which archaeologists interpret the remains of material culture (tools
and other artefacts, remains of structures, etc.) and to the ways in which archaeologists reach
beyond simple questions of how people made a living – for example by sociological interpretation of
burials, items of wealth, art, etc. Above all, this module is designed to introduce you to the ways in
which archaeologists use the bare bones (literally!) and tools of the past to interpret how humans
lived and died in periods with no written records.
Learning outcomes:
Knowledge and understanding:
an understanding of the methods by which prehistory is investigated
a basic knowledge of human evolution and its archaeological context
a knowledge of the ways in which archaeologists divide up prehistoric time
Intellectual skills:
an appreciation of the various challenges which the study of periods lacking written documents
presents
Professional skills:
an understanding of the methods by which archaeologists interpret the material cultural record
to reconstruct extinct societies
a basic knowledge of human evolution and its archaeological context
a basic knowledge of the development of human culture in Europe from the later part of the last
Ice Age up to the appearance of metalworking
Transferable (key) skills:
a basic understanding of evolutionary theories and their application in a specific context
an ability to demonstrate knowledge through a written examination.
Neolithic house interior, with
stone furniture. Skara Brae,
Orkney
6

TIMETABLE
Lecture: Fridays, 11.00-13.00
Introduction: What
is prehistory?
Human evolution
Foragers to farmers
Neolithic and Early
Bronze Age Europe
Summary sessions
DATE Lecture No. Lecture topic
07 Oct 1 Sources of information for prehistory
2 The problem of dating: archaeological and geological
time
14 Oct 3 Human descent - a "monkey puzzle tree"
4
5 The first humans in Europe and Asia
21 Oct
6 The Neanderthals - and their relatives, the Denisovans
28 Oct
04 Nov
7 Hunters of the last Ice Age in Europe;
8 Cave art
9 Hunters of postglacial Europe - the Mesolithic
10 The domestication of plants and animals
11 Nov 11 The spread of farming in Europe: the Mediterranean
zone
12 The spread of farming in Europe: the Linear Pottery
culture
18 Nov 13 The spread of farming in Europe: TRB & Michelsberg
cultures
14 Later Neolithic in Europe: the corded ware question
25 Nov 15 The first farmers in Britain
16
02 Dec 17 The Copper Age: Beakers in NW Europe
09 Dec 19
20
16 Dec 21
22
18 The Early Bronze Age: the Unetice culture
Video, followed by discussion
Exams review
Reconstruction of a Neolithic burial
mound. Fussell’s Lodge, an earthen long
barrow near Salisbury
7

READINGS
ACADEMIC HEALTH WARNINGS:-
Don’t believe everything you read!
Using web sites
The websites listed here are intended to give you access to a wide range of information. Many of them are
not however proper academic sources, and it is recommended that when you are writing any academic
essays and projects you cite information from published books and journal/e-journal articles and do not use
web sites as sources.
Web sites on archaeological topics:
There are some very good web sites on archaeological issues. There are others which are produced by people
with very strange and sometimes dangerous ideas, so if possible stick with those listed here. All the sites
listed here were checked within a month prior to the start of the module. However, that does not guarantee
that they will still be live when you decide to use them hence why there are generally several alternatives.
Wikipedia entries are written anonymously and there is no really effective quality control over content.
However, those recommended here were considered to be reasonably accurate and helpful at the time they
were checked. Wikipedia sites are always subject to change, though, so be especially careful when reading
them and think about how reliable the information seems to be.
Do I have to do all these readings? Definitely not. The wide range of choices of paper references is there
because some readings may be out on loan. The range of web sources is given to suit students’ differing
needs: some students may want something pretty basic while others may want greater depth.
* an asterisk indicates the best or most important readings on a particular topic.
General introductory reading
CHAMPION, T., GAMBLE, C., SHENNAN, S. & A. WHITTLE 1984: Prehistoric Europe, London: Academic Press.
[CC161.P7]
CLARK, G. 1977: World prehistory in new perspective, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press (3rd edition).
[CC160.C5]
CUNLIFFE; B. 1998, Prehistoric Europe: an illustrated history, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. [CC161.O9]
DARVILL, T. 2010: Prehistoric Britain, 2 nd Ed. London: Routledge. [DA140.D2]
HUNTER, J., & I. RALSTON 1998: The archaeology of Britain: an introduction from the Upper Palaeolithic to the
Industrial Revolution, London: Routledge. [DA144.A7]
MEGAW, J.V.S. & D.D.A. SIMPSON 1979: Introduction to British prehistory, Leicester: Leicester Univ. Press.
[DA140.M4]
RENFREW, C. (ed.) 1974: British Prehistory. A New Outline, London: Duckworth. [CC161.R4]
SCARRE, C. 2005: The Human Past: World Prehistory and the development of human societies, London: Thames
and Hudson [oversize GN281 HUM]
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/human-origins/index.html The Natural History Museum’s pages on
human evolution – a good source of basic information, with interactive pages, etc.
8

Reading for Lectures 1 & 2: What is prehistory? The problem of dating: archaeological and geological time.
BOWEN, D.Q., 1978: Quaternary Geology: A stratigraphic framework for multidisciplinary work. [George Green
Library, QE696.BOW]
CLARK, J.G.D. (Grahame), 1977: World Prehistory: in new perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. 3 rd
edition. Chapter 1. [CC160.C5]
DANIEL, G.E., 1962, The idea of prehistory. Harmondsworth: Penguin. [CC100.D2] – also updated edition by G.
Daniel & C. Renfrew 1988: Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. [CC100.D2]
DANIEL, G.E., 1967: The origins and growth of archaeology. Harmondsworth: Penguin [CC100.D2]
DANIEL, G.E., 1975: A hundred and fifty years of archaeology. London: Duckworth. [CC100.D2]
* DANIEL, G.E., 1981: A Short History of Archaeology. London: Thames & Hudson [CC100.D2]
LOWE, J.J. & M.J.C. WALKER (John J.),1997 [2 nd ed.]: Reconstructing quaternary environments. Harlow: Longman.
[QE696 LOW]
WEST, R.G. 1968 [2nd ed. 1977]: Pleistocene geology and biology. London: Longman. [George Green Library,
QE696.WES]
Stratigraphy:
* http://id-archserve.ucsb.edu/Anth3/Courseware/Chronology/01_Contents.html - stratigraphy in archaeology.
See sections: “Introduction”, “Superposition”, “Stratigraphy”
http://www.pastperfect.org.uk/archaeology/stratig.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratification_(archeology)
Uniformitarianism:
Note: There are especially large numbers of sites on this subject run by religious fundamentalists. They attempt
to undermine the basics of geology, which threatens literalist/fundamentalist interpretations of religious
literature. The sites below are reliable:
* http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10c.html
Three Age System:
*http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/archaeology/overview/notepads_laptops_03.shtml - a brief overview: part
of the BBC’s archaeology web pages.
Typology:
Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn (eds) 2005: Archaeology: the key concepts, London: Routledge [CC165.A7]
Colin Renfrew and Paul Bahn (eds) 2004: Archaeology: theory, methods and practice, London: Thames and
Hudson (4 th edition) [CC75.R4]
* http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/kevin.greene/wintro/chap4.htm#2 – an archaeological dictionary with a very brief
entry.
There are few web sources on archaeological typology which are really helpful. However, the Wikipedia page is
pretty good:
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typology_(archaeology) and almost exactly the same at:
* http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/1405001
Tree ring dating (dendrochronology):
Baillie, M. G. L. 1995. A slice through time :dendrochronology and precision dating. London :Batsford.
9

* http://www.sonic.net/bristlecone/dendro.html
* http://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/dendrochronology.html
Radiocarbon:
Bowman, S. 1990: Radiocarbon dating, London: British Museum Publications
Renfrew, C. 1999: Before civilization: the radiocarbon revolution and prehistoric Europe, London: Pimlico
Press. Originally published over 30 years ago but very readable. Read introductory chapters and
appendix for history of the development of archaeology and the scientific basis to radiocarbon dating.
* http://www.c14dating.com/ - a comprehensive site with useful links
*http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/the_museum/departments/conservation,_doc__science/research/scient
ific_techniques/radiocarbon_dating.aspx - the British Museum’s radiocarbon pages: very short overview
Readings for Lecture 3/4: Human descent - a "monkey puzzle tree"
BOYD, R., & J.B. SILK 2003: How humans evolved, New York: W.W. Norton (or earlier editions: 1997 & 2000).
[George Green Library, OversizeQH368.BOY]
CONROY, G.C. 2005 [2 nd edition]: Reconstructing human origins: a modern synthesis, New York: W.W. Norton.
[George Green Library, QH368.CON]
DANIEL, G.E., 1962: The idea of prehistory. Harmondsworth: Penguin. [CC100.D2] - also updated edition by G.
Daniel & C. Renfrew 1988, Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press. [CC100.D2]
Jones, S., R. Martin & D. Pilbeam (eds) 1992: The Cambridge encyclopedia of human evolution, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press [George Green Library, Oversize QH368.CAM]
LOWE, J.J. & M.J.C. WALKER 1997 [2 nd ed.]: Reconstructing quaternary environments. Harlow: Longman
[QE696 LOW]
READER, J., 1988: Missing links: the hunt for earliest man, London: Penguin. [George Green Library
QH368.REA] (old, but gives background information to many of the more famous East African
discoveries).
* Excellent site on human origins with very useful Introduction to current theories of human evolution -
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/ - there is also regular updating with the latest news
* Another excellent site with video clips and animations - http://www.becominghuman.org/
Interesting site on human evolution (last updated Aug 2007) - http://www.handprint.com/LS/ANC/evol.html
Institute of Human Origins ("Science" page about Lucy, Hadar, etc; good cross-links) -
http://www.asu.edu/clas/iho/
Natural History Museum http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/human-origins/index.html some good
interactive pages
What does it mean to be human? http://humanorigins.si.edu/human-characteristics
Reading for Lectures 5 & 6: The first humans in Europe and Asia; Neanderthals – and now Denisovans
DRELL, J.R.R. 2000: “Neanderthals: a history of interpretation", Oxford Journal of Archaeology 19 (1): 1-24.
[Periodicals C]
10

GAMBLE, C. 1986: The Palaeolithic settlement of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp.320-331
& 378-383. [CC180.G2]
GAMBLE, C. 1999: The Palaeolithic societies of Europe, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[CC180.G2]
Pettitt, P.B. 1999: “Disappearing from the world: an archaeological perspective on Neanderthal extinction",
Oxford Journal of Archaeology 18 (3): 217-240 [Periodicals C]
STRINGER, C.B. & C. GAMBLE, 1993: In search of the Neanderthals: Solving the puzzle of human origins.
London: Thames & Hudson. [CC180.S8, also George Green Library]
TRINKAUS, E. & P. SHIPMAN, 1994: The Neandertals: changing the image of mankind, London: Pimlico.
[George Green Library, QH368 TR]
Boxgrove (mid Pleistocene c. 500,000 years ago) -
http://matt.pope.users.btopenworld.com/boxgrove/boxhome.htm
* Dmanisi:
http://www.donsmaps.com/dmanisi.html
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/d2700.html
Note that the official web site, http://www.dmanisi.org.ge/ was not available at the beginning of October,
but the first of the two recommended sites summarises much of the content
* Denisovans:
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/denisova.html
* Neanderthals:
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/mtDNA.html#nucleardna
http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/species.html#neandertals
Reading for Lectures 7 & 8: Hunters of the last Ice Age in Europe and their art
Bahn, P.G. 1998: The Cambridge illustrated history of prehistoric art, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press,
[N5311.B2]
Bahn, P.G. & J. Vertut 1988: Images of the Ice Age, New York: Facts on File [OversizeCC181.F8.B2]
Champion, T., C. Gamble, S. Shennan & A. Whittle 1984: Prehistoric Europe, London: Academic Press, pp.89-
112. [CC161.P7]
*Darvill, T. 1987: Prehistoric Britain, London: Batsford, pp.37-50. [DA140.D2]
Gamble, C. 1986: The Palaeolithic settlement of Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [CC180.G2]
Gamble, C. 1999: The Palaeolithic societies of Europe, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[CC180.G2]
*Gibbons, A. 2010: ‘Close encounters of the prehistoric kind.’ Science. 328(5979): pp. 680-684.
[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;328/5979/680]
Lawson, A.J. 1991: Cave art, Princes Risborough: Shire. [CC180.L2]
Megaw, J. V.S. & D.D.A. Simpson 1979, Introduction to British prehistory, Leicester University Press, pp.46-79.
[DA140.M4]
Mellars, P.A. 1974: 'The palaeolithic and mesolithic', in C. RENFREW (ed.), Prehistory. A New Outline, London:
Duckworth, pp.41-99, esp.77 , [DA140.R4]
11

Smith, C. 1992: Late Stone Age Hunters of the British Isles, London: Routledge [CC170.S5]
Ucko, P.J. & A. Rosenfeld 1967: Palaeolithic cave art, London: Weidenfeld Nicolson. [CC180.U3]
Zilhão, João 2006: “Genes, fossils and culture. An overview of the evidence for Neandertal-Modern Human
interaction” Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society Vol 72, 1-20 [Periodicals: C] [This is very heavy-going,
but makes a clear case for absorption of Neandertals by incoming Cro-Magnon populations]
Web sites:
http://www.btinternet.com/~ron.wilcox/onlinetexts/onlinetexts-chap2.htm (lower, middle and early upper
Palaeolithic in Britain)
http://www.human-nature.com/darwin/books/tattersall.html (discusses the importance of creativity (incl.
art) among Cro Magnons)
http://www.hatii.arts.gla.ac.uk/MultimediaStudentProjects/99-00/9608559r/project/html/reality.html
(comprehensive site on understanding cave art. Treats you as an adult but not easy to use)
http://www.2blowhards.com/archives/001173.html (blog site. Rather populist approach, but a pretty good
summary of the argument that cave art represents hallucinations)
http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis (Neanderthals)
http://humanorigins.si.edu/research/asian-research/hobbits (Homo floresiensis, aka 'the hobbit')
http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/neanderkid.html (neandertal/modern human hybrid)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0220_030220_humanorigins2.html ('out of Africa'
theory and the origins of behaviours characteristic of modern humans)
Web sites for lectures 6, 7 & 8: glaciations, neandertals and anatomically modern hominids
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10ad.html (brief overview of ice ages and glaciation)
http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/ice/gloss.htm (glossary of ice age terms)
http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/neanderkid.html (neandertal/modern human hybrid)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0326_030326_neanderthalthumb.html (neandertal
hands as dextrous as modern human hands)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/05/0514_030514_neandertalDNA.html (neandertal DNA
study)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/03/0306_0306_outofafrica.html (argument that modern
humans interbred with neandertals)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0410_030410_cannibal_2.html (was cannibalism
normal in early humans?)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/03/0306_030306_neanderthal.html (claim that
neandertals were eliminated by cognitively superior H. sapiens sapiens)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0220_030220_humanorigins2.html (’out of Africa’
theory and the origins of behaviours characteristic of modern humans)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/09/0920_050920_neanderthal.html (prolonged
adolescence in humans may have arisen with neandertals)
12

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/01/0125_060125_neanderthal.html (neandertals hunted
as well as Cro Magnons)
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/05/100506-science-neanderthals-humans-matedinterbred-dna-gene/
(neaderthals and humans share genes)
http://www.sciencemag.org/special/neandertal/feature/index.html (sequencing the Neanderthal genome)
http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskning/sarc/iakh/lithic/MOUST/mousterian.html#anchor51768 (illustrations
of mousterian tools – generally associated with neandertals)
http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskning/sarc/iakh/lithic/MOUST/upperPal.html (a good overview of upper
palaeolithic tools – with pictures)
http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskning/sarc/iakh/lithic/sarc.html (the home page for the 2 previous pages –
gives detailed discussions of other aspects of making and classifying stone tools)
http://anthro.palomar.edu/homo2/mod_homo_5.htm (excellent overview of the upper palaeolithic – flint
and bone tools, food-getting, art)
http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/HistoryofLife/CH20images.html (large range of images of early
and later hominids, including art. Also good links)
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHprehistoric.html#paleolithic (large site: lots of pictures. Lots of links – be
prepared to use your knowledge of French for some!)
http://www.crystalinks.com/stoneageflute.html (upper palaeolithic flutes: these seem to be undisputed as
musical instruments)
http://www.btinternet.com/~ron.wilcox/onlinetexts/onlinetexts-chap3.htm (late upper palaeolithic and
Mesolithic in Britain)
Neandertals: skeleton and recent artist’s reconstruction
13

Reading for lectures 9 & 10: Mesolithic and the beginnings of agriculture
Mesolithic:
Whittle, A. 1996: Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[CC185. W4] – a revised and updated version of:
Whittle, A, 1985: Neolithic Europe: a survey, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [CC185.W4]
Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, pp.123-156; 167-182 (esp. sections on Iron Gates Mesolithic and Franchthi Cave.
Web sources:
* http://www.calpal-online.de/index.html IMPORTANT: User-friendly site for calibrating “raw” radiocarbon
dates to calendar year dates
* http://mesobrit.tripod.com/ Mesolithic Britain web site
* http://www.geo.arizona.edu/palynology/geos462/02holocene.html - excellent overview of Holocene (i.e.
post-glacial) vegetation sequence.
* http://mesobrit.tripod.com/starcarr.html Brief overview of the important site of Star Carr
http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba48/ba48feat.html and http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba96/feat3.shtml Two
reports in British Archaeology (scroll down if you cannot find Star Carr article immediately)
http://sites.google.com/site/starcarrfieldwork/videos/the-other-side-of-the-antler 30 minute video about
Star Carr
Origins and spread of agriculture:
http://history-world.org/neolithic.htm Fairly simplified overview. Caution - tends to present theories as fact
http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/orig_agri_tur.html Looks at why Near Eastern domesticated plants
spread so rapidly
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/world_archaeology/lifeways/hg_ag/agriculture.html A
readable overview, based on the author’s research project. Possible legibility problems with the
background
http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030410 Not
easy reading. A detailed argument supporting the demic diffusion hypothesis of the spread of
agriculture across Europe. Downloadable.
http://www.econ.ku.dk/wpa/pink/2003/0341.pdf A detailed discussion of theories explaining the origins of
agriculture. Not for the faint-hearted!
Reading for lectures 10 & 11: The domestication of plants and animals; the spread of farming in Europe: the
Mediterranean zone
Near East - archaeology:
*Mellaart, James 1975: The Neolithic of the Near East, chapters 1,2,3 & 9. [DS62.2.M4]
Mellaart, James 1961: "Hacilar: a neolithic village site" Scientific American Vol 205, no.2 (Aug 1961), 86-97.
[Science Library]
*Moore, A.M.T.1979: "A pre-neolithic farmers' village on the Euphrates" Scientific American Vol 241, no.2
(August 1979), 50-58. [Science Library]
14

Moore, A.M.T. 1982: "Agricultural origins in the Near East: a model for the 1980's" World Archaeology Vol 14,
no.2, 224-236.
Clark, J.G.D. 1980: Mesolithic Prelude, chapter 2.
Near East - domestication of plants and animals:
Zohary, Daniel, and Maria Hopf: Domestication of Plants in the Old World, chapters 2 & 3. [GC2554 ZOH]
*Harlan, Jack: Crops and Man, chap 8. [Science SB186 HAR]
Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 204-217
Clutton-Brock, Juliet: Domesticated Animals from Early Times. [Science SF41.C5]
Harris, David R. (ed) 1996: Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia.
Spread of farming to Europe:
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, pp.201-229
Lichter, Clemens and Recep Meriç (eds) 2005: How did farming reach Europe? Anatolian-European relations
from the second half of the 7th through the first half of the 6th millennium cal BC: proceedings of the
international workshop, Istanbul, 20-22 May 2004 Istanbul, Turkey: Ege Yayınları [Oversize GN799.A4
HOW] More advanced discussion
Web sources:
* http://www.thamesandhudsonusa.com/web/humanpast/summaries/ch11.html (useful summary overview
of the spread of the Neolithic to the whole of Europe)
Southeastern European early Neolithic:
*Mellaart, James 1975: The Neolithic of the Near East, chapter 9. [DS62.2.M4]
*Tringham, Ruth 1971: Hunters, Fishers and Farmers of Eastern Europe, 68-105. [CC161.T7]
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 218-229; 233-242
Whittle, A.W.R. 1996: Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds [CC185.W4]
Whittle, A.R.W.1985: Neolithic Europe: a Survey, chapters 2 & 3 (up to p.66). [CC185.W4]
Whittle, A. W. R. 2003: The archaeology of people: dimensions of Neolithic Life. London: Routledge.
[CC180.W4]
Phillips, Patricia 1980: The Prehistory of Europe, chapter 5, 147-163.
Champion, Timothy, Clive Gamble, Stephen Shennan, Alasdair Whittle 1985: Prehistoric Europe, chapter 5.
[CC161.P7]
Tringham, Ruth; Krstic, Dusan; Kaiser, Timothy; Voytek, Barbara: 1980: "The early agricultural site of Selevac,
Yugoslavia" Archaeology Vol 33, no. 2, 24-32. [Includes some more general discussion of S-E European
neolithic.]
Rodden, R. 1965: "An early neolithic village in Greece" Scientific American Vol 212 no.4, 82-91. [Science Library]
Web sources:
15

http://what-when-how.com/ancient-europe/transition-to-farming-in-the-balkans-transition-to-agriculture-
70004000-b-c-ancient-europe/ A discussion of the spread of the Neolithic in southeastern Europe
Franchthi cave:
Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 179-182
Jacobsen, T.W. 1976: "17,000 years of Greek prehistory" Scientific American Vol 234 no.6, 76-89. [Science
Library]
Hansen, J. and J.M. Renfrew 1978: ‘Palaeolithic – Neolithic seed remains at Franchthi Cave, Greece’ Nature
271, 349 – 352 [What it says!]
http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/history/bronze_age/lessons/les/1.html
http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/lessons/les/1.html#6
http://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/07/02/inhabited-for-17000-years-franchthi-cavegreece/
Early neolithic in central and west Mediterranean:
*Whittle, A.W.R. 1996: Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds [CC185.W4]
*Whittle, A.R.W. 1985: Neolithic Europe: a Survey, 95-113.
Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 248-258
Phillips, Patricia 1980: The Prehistory of Europe, chapter 5.
(*)Phillips, Patricia 1975: Early Farmers of West Mediterranean Europe, chapters 1,2,3.
Champion, Timothy, Clive Gamble, Stephen Shennan, Alsadair Whittle 1985: Prehistoric Europe, chapter 5.
Web sources:
http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001550.html Excavation of an Italian site
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805216/62031/sample/9780521662031ws.pdf See section on ‘The western
Mediterranean’ (pp11-13). A good overview of present views.
http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/documenta/pdf31/31oosterbeek.pdf New trends in the study of the spread of the
Neolithic – not for the faint hearted but important for those with a serious interest!
Reading for lecture 12: Spread of farming in Europe: the Linear Pottery culture
*Whittle, A.W.R. 1996: Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds [CC185.W4]
*Tringham, Ruth 1971: Hunters, Fishers and Farmers of Eastern Europe, 105-137. [CC161.T7]
*Whittle, A.R.W. 1985: Neolithic Europe: a Survey, 66-95. [CC185.W4]
Champion, Timothy, Clive Gamble, Stephen Shennan, Alasdair Whittle 1985: Prehistoric Europe, chapter 5.
[CC161.P7]
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 259-272
Phillips, Patricia 1980: The Prehistory of Europe, chapter 5, 163-169.
16

*Milisauskas, Sarunas 1976: "Olszanica: an early farming village in Poland" Archaeology Vol 29, no. 1, 30-41.
Soudsky, B. 1962: "The neolithic site of Bylany" Antiquity Vol XXXVI, 190-200.
Web sources:
http://www.princeton.edu/~bogucki/mosaic.html (good overview of the spread and development of the
Neolithic in central Europe)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_Pottery_Culture (major article, based largely on material presented in the
following 3 sites)
http://archaeology.about.com/od/lterms/qt/lbk.htm (overview)
http://www.donau-archaeologie.de/doku.php/kulturen/linearbandkeramik_english_version (good overview)
http://archaeology.about.com/od/inventions/a/haak.htm (argument for population movement)
http://www.princeton.edu/~bogucki/saa1995.html (overview of the spread of the Neolithic to central Europe)
Reading for lecture 13: the spread of farming in Europe: TRB & Michelsberg cultures
Post-LBK developments in Central Europe: ca. 4000-2500 b.c. ("middle neolithic"):
*Whittle, A.W.R. 1996: Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds [CC185.W4]
*Whittle, A.R.W. 1985: Neolithic Europe: a Survey, 184-232.
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 293-310
Champion, T., C. Gamble, S. Shennan, A. Whittle 1985: Prehistoric Europe, chap 5.
Midgley, Magdalena 1992: TRB Culture: the First Farmers of the North European Plain. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press
Milisauskas, Sarunas, and Janusz Kruk 1978: "Brononcice: a neolithic settlement in southeastern Poland"
Archaeology Vol 31, no.6, 44-52.
Nogaj-Chach, Jolanta 1991: “The stone-packed graves of the Funnel Beaker culture in Karmanowice, site 35”
Antiquity 65, 628-640. Also available at:
http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/065/0628/Ant0650628.pdf you may need your university passwords (a
detailed look at a burial site)
Web sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funnelbeaker_culture
http://www.princeton.edu/~bogucki/mosaic.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~bogucki/landcape.html (detailed article discussing landscape changes LBK-TRB)
http://www.pcl-eu.de/virt_ex/detail.php?entry=01 (Funnel Beaker culture houses)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelsberg_culture (Brief page on the Michelsberg culture)
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1006 (Michelsberg culture flint mines at Spiennes, Belgium)
Lecture 14: Later Neolithic in Europe: the corded ware question
17

Late neolithic (eneolithic/chalcolithic) in Central Europe:
*Whittle, A.W.R. 1996: Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds [CC185.W4]
*Whittle, A.R.W. 1985: Neolithic Europe: a Survey, 239-263.
Champion, T., C. Gamble, S. Shennan, A. Whittle 1985: Prehistoric Europe, chapter 6.
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, pp.371-382
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture
‘The Globular Amphora Culture’: Document on Web CT
http://www.bris.ac.uk/archanth/staff/heyd/Copper1.pdf - lots of detail but heavy going
http://www.bris.ac.uk/archanth/staff/heyd/Copper2.pdf - more of the same!
http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/kultt/vk/kriiska/tekstid/05.html - Corded ware sites from Estonia – to
save time go straight to the “discussion” section
http://www.kar.zcu.cz/texty/TurekND.htm#funerary – see “3. Stone axes in the corded ware contexts” Stone
axes as markers of social differentiation
Discussions of this period in individual countries may be found in the following (mostly very out-of-date, but
still quite helpful, especially for pictures or charts):
Neustupny, E. and J.: Czechoslovakia before the Slavs, chapter VIII.
Jazdzewski, K.: Poland, 92-101.
de Laet, S.J.: The Low Countries, chapter VI.
Klindt-Jensen, O.: "Denmark Before the Vikings, chapter III.
The "secondary products revolution":
*Sherratt, Andrew 1983: "The secondary exploitation of animals in the Old World" World Archaeology Vol 15,
no. 1, 90-104.
Sherratt, Andrew: "Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution" in I. Hodder, G.
Isaac, and N. Hammond (eds): Pattern of the Past. Essays in Honour of David Clarke, 261-306.
Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, pp.325-333
Craig, Oliver E., John Chapman, Carl Heron, Laura H. Willis, László Bartosiewicz, Gillian Taylor, Alasdair
Whittle, Matthew Collins 2005: “Did the first farmers of central and eastern Europe produce dairy
foods?” Antiquity 79, 882–894 - a probable partial contradiction to the theory. Also at:
http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/079/0882/ant0790882.pdf - but probably only accessible directly at this
URL on campus.
Reading for lectures 15 & 16: the first farmers in Britain
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, 276-286
Julian Thomas 1999: Understanding the Neolithic, 2 nd ed, London: Routledge
18

I.F. Smith: "The neolithic" in Colin Renfrew (ed) British Prehistory: a New Outline (Readable outline)
J.V.S. Megaw and D.D.A. Simpson: Introduction to British Prehistory, chaps 3 & 4. (More detailed discussion)
A. W. R. Whittle: Neolithic Europe, chap. 6, pp. 219-224, 233-239, 249-50, 261-263.
Possibly see also: R.J.C. Atkinson: "Wayland's Smithy" Antiquity Vol 39, 126-33.
Web sites
http://email.eva.mpg.de/~richards/pdf/Richards_et_al%20Nature2003.pdf – demonstrates a sudden shift from
heavy reliance on marine resources to land-based cereals and meat in early Neolithic
http://www.dot-domesday.me.uk/develop.htm - an introductory-level site
http://www.dot-domesday.me.uk/henge.htm - introductory level page on henge monuments
http://www.orkneyjar.com/history/tombs/index.html - chambered tombs in Orkney
http://www.knowth.com/neolithic-religion-status.htm - good discussion of the social context of Neolithic burial
monuments
http://www.knowth.com/newgrange.htm - describes the passage grave at Newgrange. Follow links to other
tombs
http://arheologija.ff.uni-lj.si/documenta/pdf31/31thomas.pdf - a really serious discussion about the origins of
the Neolithic in Britain.
* http://www.hardav.co.uk/MA%20-%20HTML/chapter%203.htm – major discussion of the British Neolithic. A
good general text on the subject.
* http://www.btinternet.com/~ron.wilcox/onlinetexts/onlinetexts-index.htm - useful site, including periods
other than the Neolithic.
Reading for lecture 17: The Copper Age: Beakers in NW Europe
The basic text is:
*Harrison, R J 1980: The Beaker Folk: Copper Age archaeology in western Europe. London: Thames & Hudson.
[CC185.H2]
General reading, including Continental material.
Champion, T C ET AL 1985 Prehistoric Europe. London & Orlando: Academic Press. [Chapters 6-7.] [CC161.P7]
Harrison, R J 1974 'Origins of the Bell Beaker cultures', Antiquity 48 (1974), 99-109. [Periodicals C]
*Harrison, R J 1980: The Beaker Folk: Copper Age archaeology in western Europe. London: Thames & Hudson.
[CC185.H2]
*Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol I, pp.476-484
*Mercer, R J (ed) 1977: Beakers in Britain and Europe. Oxford: BAR (Int. series 26) [especially papers by Case,
Harrison & Shennan.] [OversizeD51.B7/26]
British Beakers: general treatments.
Burgess, C B 1980: The age of Stonehenge. London: Dent. [Esp. pp. 61-76] [DA140.B8]
Burgess, C B & S J Shennan 1976 'The Beaker phenomenon: some suggestions', in Burgess, C B & R Miket (eds)
Settlement and economy in the third and second millennia BC, 309-331. Oxford: BAR (British series 33.)
[OversizeDA140.B7/33]
19

*Case, H J 1977 'The Beaker culture in Britain and Ireland', in Mercer, R (ed) Beakers in Britain and Europe,
71-101. Oxford: BAR (Int. series 26.) Oxford: BAR. [OversizeD51.B7/26]
Clarke, D L 1966 'A tentative reclassification of British Beaker pottery in the light of recent research',
Palaeohistoria 12 (1966) [1967], 179-197. [Periodicals C]
*Darvill, T C 1987 Prehistoric Britain. London: Batsford. [DA140.D2]
Lanting, J N & J D Van der Waals 1972 'British Beakers as seen from the Continent', Helinium 12(1972), 20-46.
[Periodicals C]
*Megaw, J V S & D D A Simpson 1979 Introduction to British prehistory. Leicester: Leicester Univ. Press. [pp. 178-
207. 'Traditional'.] [DA140.M4]
Recent journal references:
R.J. Harrison, R. Jackson, M Napthan 1999: “A rich Bell Beaker burial from Wellington Quarry, Marden,
Herefordshire” Oxford Journal of Archaeology, February 1999, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1-16(16) [An intact
Bell Beaker grave with a range of “typical” Beaker grave goods.
R. G. Pena 1997: “Bell beakers in the southern Meseta of the Iberian peninsula: socioeconomic context and
new data” Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16 (2), 187-209
Rojo-Guerra, M.A., Garrido-Pena, R., García-Martinez-de-LagráJuan-Treserras, J., Matamala, J.C. 2006: “Beer
and bell beakers: drinking rituals in copper age inner Iberia” Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 72,
243-265.
Neil Brodie 1997: “New perspectives on the bell-beaker culture” Oxford Journal of Archaeology 16 (3), 297-
314
T. Douglas Price, Gisela Grupe, and Peter Schröter 1998: “Migration in the bell beaker period of central
Europe” Antiquity 72, 405-411.
Michael J. Allen 2005: “Beaker settlement and environment on the chalk downs of southern England”
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society, Vol. 71
Web resources:
http://www.bris.ac.uk/archanth/staff/heyd/Bell1.pdf - a detailed view from Germany
http://www.bris.ac.uk/archanth/staff/heyd/Bell2.pdf - bell beaker settlement sites in Germany
http://www.aquincum.hu/oskor/akorabronz.html - beaker period in Hungary
http://www.wiltshireheritage.org.uk/galleries/index.php?Action=3&obID=101&prevID=9 – has a good photo
of the Upton Lovell necklace
http://www.missgien.net/archer/amesbury_archer.html - the Amesbury archer
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/archaeology/excavations_techniques/king_stonehenge_01.shtml - ditto
*http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/amesbury/archer.html - ditto. Click on the You Tube icon at the
bottom of the page for a virtual tour of the Stonehenge area.
Readings for lecture 18: The beginnings of the Bronze Age in Central Europe: the Unetice culture
Readings:
A.F.Harding 2000: European societies in the Bronze Age Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
20

J.M. Coles and A.F. Harding 1979: The Bronze Age in Europe: an introduction to the prehistory of Europe
c.2000-700 B.C.
B. Cunliffe (ed.) 1994: The Oxford illustrated prehistory of Europe Oxford: Oxford University Press
Bogucki, Peter, and Pam J. Crabtree, eds. 2004: Ancient Europe 8000 BC – AD 1000. Encyclopedia of the
Barbarian World Vol II, 3-11; 20-33
Web resources:
http://odur.let.rug.nl/arge/Work/chrono.htm Chronological schemes for the Bronze Age in different regions of
Europe. Note that “Bronzezeit” is German for “Bronze Age”!
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unetice_culture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leubingen - brief description of extremely wealthy burial
The Nebra skydisk: clever fake or evidence of ancient astronomical knowledge?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebra_sky_disk - a reasonably balanced account, indicating that it is still very
uncertain whether this object is genuine
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6722953.stm - another balanced account
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M1dSMcZbHq4 – short video programme on the Nebra skydisk, which
assumes that it is genuine
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mR2NM5kSVi0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7fkizDQuWAg These two videos provide over 25 minutes of coverage on the Nebra
skydisk.
Nebra sky disk
21