Modelling of hydrocarbon generation in the Cenozoic Song ... - CCOP

PERGAMON 

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 17 (1999) 269±294 

Modelling of hydrocarbon generation in the Cenozoic Song Hong 

Basin, Vietnam: a highly prospective basin 

L.H. Nielsen a, *, A. Mathiesen a , T. Bidstrup a , O.V. Vejbñk a , P.T. Dien b , P.V. Tiem b 

a Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, GEUS, Thoravej 8, DK-2400, Denmark 

b Vietnam Petroleum Institute, VPI, Yen Hoa, Cau Giay, Hanoi, Vietnam 

Received 11 August 1998; accepted 2 November 1998 

Abstract 

The Cenozoic Song Hong Basin, situated on the northern part of the Vietnamese shelf, has been only sporadically explored 

for hydrocarbons. A review of the results of the exploration e€orts so far shows that the distribution of potential source rocks 

and their time of hydrocarbon generation are the critical risks for ®nding commercial amounts of hydrocarbons. In the Song 

Hong Basin, including the Hanoi Trough, the rocks most likely to have source potential are: (1) oil-prone Eocene±Lower 

Oligocene lacustrine mudstones and coals, (2) oil- and gas-prone Middle Miocene coal beds, (3) gas-prone Upper Oligocene± 

Lower Miocene coals, and (4) gas- and oil-prone Miocene marine mudstones. To assess the time of hydrocarbon generation 

from these units, relative to the formation of traps, the generation history was modelled at 32 well and pseudo-well locations. 

The modelling demonstrates that the two ®rst-mentioned source rock units are especially important. In the northern and 

northeastern part of the basin and along its western margin traps may have been charged by Eocene±Lower Oligocene source 

rocks. In the Hanoi Trough, the excellent Middle Miocene coal beds have probably generated hydrocarbons within the last few 

million years. Thus the huge and still underexplored Song Hong Basin provides attractive areas for further exploration. # 1999 

Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 

1. Introduction 

The Cenozoic basins on the Vietnamese shelf are 

regarded as highly prospective, comparable to many 

other petroliferous basins in Asia. There has been a 

remarkable increase during the last decade in the number 

of signed production sharing contracts, exploration 

blocks awarded, acquisition of 2D and 3D seismic 

data, and number of wells drilled. The yearly production 

of crude oil has shown a signi®cant rise from 

0.4 million tons in 1986 to more than 8 million tons in 

1996, and is expected to increase considerably in the 

near future. The discovery rate on the Vietnam shelf 

has been more than 20%Ðamong the world's highestÐand 

recent discoveries of oil and gas in the Cuu 

Long and Nam Con Son basins, located in the 

southern shelf area, are expected to be brought on 

* Corresponding author. e-mail: lhn@geus.dk. 

stream soon. Similarly, exploration activities in the 

huge Song Hong Basin (Bac Bo/Yinggehai/Red River 

Basin), located on the northern part of the Vietnam 

continental shelf, have shown promising results. The 

aim of this paper is to discuss the exploration potential 

of the Song Hong Basin by reviewing the exploration 

history and presenting results from the modelling of 

hydrocarbon generation. 

2. Exploration activities in the Song Hong Basin 

The Song Hong Basin is one of the Cenozoic basins 

located along the western margin of the East Vietnam 

Sea (South China Sea; Fig. 1). Exploration for hydrocarbons 

began more than 30 years ago, when the ®rst 

deep onshore well was drilled in 1965 in the Hanoi 

Trough. In 1975 the Tien Hai gas ®eld was discovered 

in the Miocene section, approximately 90 km southeast 

of Hanoi (Fig. 2). Several wells have tested oil, con- 

1367-9120/99 $ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 

PII: S0743-9547(98)00063-4

270 

L.H. Nielsen et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 17 (1999) 269±294 

Fig. 1. Present-day tectonic map of southeast Asia (modi®ed from Lee and Lawver, 1994). BBB = Beibu Wan Basin, BKB = Bangkok Basin, 

CB = Chuxiong Basin, EVBF = East Vietnam Boundary Fault, GTB = Gulf of Thailand Basin, LSB = Lanping±Simao Basin, MLB = Malay 

Basin, MT = Manila Trench, QB = Qiongdongnan Basin (South Hainan Basin), PI = Paracel Islands, RRF = Red River Fault (Song Hong 

Fault), SHB = Song Hong Basin. 

densate and gas from siltstones and sandstones in the 

Middle and Upper Miocene Phu Cu and Tien Hung 

formations (Fig. 3). Recently, in mid-1996 Anzoil is 

reported to have tested heavy oil and gas from carbonates, 

probably of Devonian age, in their wells B10 

STB-1x and D14-1x (Long, 1998) (Fig. 2). Other direct 

evidence of hydrocarbons is provided by natural asphalt 

in outcrops of Upper Devonian±Lower 

Carboniferous fractured carbonates on Cat Ba Island 

and at Yen Bai, and by oil and gas seepages along the 

coasts of Vietnam and Hainan (Chen et al., 1993, 

1998; Traynor and Sladen, 1997) (Fig. 2). 

Likewise, o€shore activities have shown encouraging 

results. These activities began with acquisition of seismic 

data in the northern shelf area by the former 

General Department for Oil and Gas, with assistance 

from the USSR. Since then, more detailed seismic acquisition 

has been undertaken by the various licence 

holders, and in 1993 Geco-Prakla acquired a regional 

data set. Drilling activities began with the Con Den 

110 well (LK 110) drilled by PetroVietnam in very 

shallow water in the northwestern part of block 102 

(Fig. 4). The French company Total drilled three wells 

on inversion structures in the northern part of the

L.H. Nielsen et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 17 (1999) 269±294 271 

Fig. 2. Map showing principal structural elements, exploration wells and selected localities in the Song Hong Basin and adjacent areas.

272 


Fig. 3. Stratigraphic scheme of northern Song Hong Basin (modi®ed after Dien, 1997). HD = Hai Duong, KX = Kien Xuong. 

basin in blocks 103 and 107, the 103 TH-1x, 103 TG- 

1x and 107 TPA-1x wells in 1990±1991. The 103 TH- 

1x tested oil, condensate and gas from Miocene sandstones, 

but was considered non-commercial by Total. 

Well 107 TPA-1x penetrated Eocene±Oligocene synrift 

sediments in a major inversion structure east of the 

Song Lo Fault zone, but encountered only traces of 

gas. Farther to the south, Shell drilled two wells in 

block 114 and block 112 in 1990. The well 114 KT-1x 

was drilled on the rotated Kim Tuoc fault block 

(Fig. 2). The second well, 112 BT-1x was drilled to a 

total depth of 4114 m with oil and gas encountered in


103 

104 

102 

106 

107 

108 

109 

Hainan 

(China) 

close to Hainan Island, a number of wells on the 

Dong Fang structures have encountered signi®cant 

amounts of gas, though mostly CO 2 . Similarly, gas or 

oil shows were found in several of the Ledong and 

Ying wells in the southern and eastern part of the 

basin (Fig. 2). Producing oil ®elds are present in the 

Beibu Wan Basin north of Hainan, and a gas ®eld 

occurs in the Qiongdongnan Basin south of Hainan. 

105 

110 

3. Potential source rocks 

111 

Vietnam 

112 

114 

113 

115 

116 

118 

117 

119 

Fig. 4. Block delineation and o€shore exploration wells in the Song 

Hong Basin and adjacent areas. 

Oligocene sandstones and Devonian carbonates. Shell 

drilled well 112 HO-1x in the same year, with oil 

shows and a gas test in Lower Miocene carbonates 

overlying Palaeozoic rocks. Subsequently, Shell drilled 

112 AV-1x at a more basinward position on the 

Hoang Oanh structure, but both the Palaeozoic rocks 

and the Lower Miocene mixed carbonate-siliciclastic 

section were water-bearing. In 1990 and 1991 the Tri 

Ton Horst structure was tested by the IPL well 115 A- 

1x, and by the BP wells 118 CVX-1x and 119 CH-1x. 

All three wells encountered signi®cant amounts of gas 

in Miocene carbonates developed over the horst 

(Morris, 1993). In 1993, BP drilled 118 BT-1x in the 

Quang Ngai Graben and gas was indicated. Later, in 

1995 BP drilled 117 STB-1x in which gas was detected. 

In the northern part of the basin, Idemitsu drilled 

two wells in block 102, well 102 CQ-1x and 102 HD- 

1x in 1993 and 1994, of which the ®rst-mentioned 

encountered gas shows. Idemitsu later relinquished the 

block. In Block 104 on the shallow footwall of the 

Song Chay Fault bounding the central depocentre of 

the basin, OÈ MV in 1995 and 1996 drilled two wells, 

104 QN-1x and 104 QV-1x, to test a Miocene pinnacle 

reef and a buried basement hill (Dien et al., 1998; 

Andersen et al., 1998). Within the disputed area 

between Vietnam and China, many wells have encountered 

hydrocarbons. In the eastern part of the basin, 

Eocene±Miocene rift-lake claystones are widely distributed 

in many Asian basins, and constitute good to 

excellent sources for oil generation (e.g. Wu Jinmin, 

1988; Sladen, 1993; 1997; Hao et al., 1995; Williams et 

al., 1995; Katz and Xingcai, 1998). In the Song Hong 

Basin, organic-rich lacustrine claystones of Eocene to 

Oligocene age were probably deposited in grabens and 

half-grabens, when sedimentation was outpaced by 

rift-induced subsidence, allowing strati®ed, oxygenpoor 

water columns to be established in tectonically 

controlled lakes. The formation of adequate source 

rocks in the rift-lakes may be related to the distribution 

of Devonian±Permian carbonates, which initially 

prevented a large input of clastic material to the 

early rift-lakes. Several seismic sections show distinct, 

high-amplitude re¯ectors in the lower part of the synrift 

sequences that are interpreted as lacustrine organic-rich 

shales and coal beds. Outcrops at Dong Ho 

expose immature organic-rich Oligocene mudstones 

with fresh-water algae and land plants interbedded 

with thin coals and asphaltic sandstones from a small 

inverted half-graben on the northern margin of the 

Hanoi Trough (Fig. 2). These rocks show TOC values 

of 6±42%, S2 values of 30±94 kg/tonne and HI values 

520±670, indicating that they are strongly oil prone 

(Traynor and Sladen, 1997). These facies are similar to 

the prime sources for oil in the basins north of Hainan 

Island and the Pearl River Basin, and are probably 

rather widespread (e.g. Allen et al., 1988; Zu Jiaqi, 

1985; Zhang Qiming and Kou Caixiu, 1989; Jishu et 

al., 1994, Sladen, 1997). In the southwestern part of 

the Song Hong Basin, Oligocene sediments with type 

III/II kerogen and TOC varying between 1±7% occur 

in well 112 BT-1x. In the western part of the 

Qiongdongnan Basin at the margin to the Song Hong 

Basin, gas is produced from Oligocene and Lower 

Miocene sandstones in the Yacheng 13-1 ®eld containing 

estimated reserves of 3.5 TCF of gas (Asian Oil & 

Gas, 1996). The ®eld has been charged by Oligocene 

gas-prone type III kerogen from both the 

Qiongdongnan Basin and the Song Hong Basin (Chen 

et al., 1998; Hao et al., 1998). 

Another excellent source of hydrocarbons is the 

Miocene coal beds that occur abundantly in the Hanoi

274 


Trough. They show both high TOC and HI values in 

many wellsections. Several coal beds found in the o€shore 

wells 102 CQ-1x and 102 HD-1x show HI values 

of more than 400, and are thus highly oil-prone (Fig. 5) 

(e.g. Mukhopadhyay et al., 1991; Scott and Fleet, 

1994). In addition, Upper Oligocene coaly shales were 

drilled in well 112 BT-1x, and the oil and gas encountered 

in the wells 112 HQ-1x, 112 BT-1x and 114 KT- 

1x was probably sourced from similar beds. In the 

southeastern part of the basin, Middle±Upper Miocene 

o€shore marine mudstones with 0.2±3.0% TOC dominated 

by type III kerogen are a likely source of hydrocarbons 

in the Ledong and Dong Fang structures 

(Hao et al., 1995). 

Thus, potential source rocks in the Song Hong 

Basin may include: (1) oil-prone Eocene±Lower 

Oligocene lacustrine mudstones; (2) oil- and gas-prone 

Middle Miocene coal beds; (3) gas-prone Upper 

Oligocene±Lower Miocene coal beds; and (4) gas- and 

oil-prone Miocene o€shore marine mudstones. 

A review of the exploration history and available information 

from neighbouring basins shows that the 

Fig. 5. Geochemical plots of TOC, S2, HI and %Ro from the wells 102 CQ-1 and 102HD-1 (partly after Ha, 1998).


main geological risks associated with ®nding commercial 

amounts of hydrocarbons in the Song Hong Basin 

are: (1) distribution of source rocks; (2) timing of hydrocarbon 

generation from the source rocks relative to 

formation of potential structures; and (3) presence of 

sealing shales in the sandstone-dominated sections. In 

an attempt to assess the timing of hydrocarbon generation 

relative to formation of potential traps, the hydrocarbon 

generation history of the main source rock 

units was evaluated using the YuÈ kler 1D model 

(YuÈ kler et al., 1978). 

4. Geological setting and development of the Song Hong 

Basin: framework for the modelling 

The Song Hong Basin is an elongated geological 

structure, approximately 500 km long and 50±60 km 

wide, striking NW±SE. It consists of an onshore part, 

the Hanoi Trough, that reaches into the Hanoi area in 

the Song Hong river valley, and a much larger o€shore 

part (Figs. 1 and 2). The development of the Song 

Hong Basin is related to the large-scale evolution of 

the East Vietnam Sea basin. This great basin is 

bounded by the continental margins of South China to 

the north, Vietnam to the west, Borneo to the south 

and the Manila Trench to the east. Its development 

since the Early Cretaceous has been governed mainly 

by two or three stages of extension, rifting and sea- 

¯oor spreading (Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Pigott and 

Ru, 1994; Lee and Lawver, 1994). 

4.1. Basement of the Song Hong Basin and thickness of 

the Cenozoic basin-®ll 

The basement of the Song Hong Basin is complex. 

The onshore shallow part comprises Proterozoic schists 

and gneiss, and Palaeozoic and Mesozoic clastics, carbonates, 

and volcanics (Tien et al., 1991; Bao et al., 

1994; Dien, 1996, 1997). The deep o€shore part is 

poorly known, but presumably consists of similar 

rocks. In some areas seismic pro®les indicate well-strati®ed 

sections that are interpreted as Mesozoic lowgrade 

metamorphic sedimentary rocks. The depth to 

the base of the Cenozoic basin-®ll in the central part 

of the basin is well below the base of conventional 

seismic, in excess of 8 sec TWT, which corresponds 

to more than 15 km. Estimates, based on gravity 

inversion and isostatic models, suggest a maximum 

depth of 14 km (Vu and Rabitnowitz, 1996), whereas 

other estimates suggest as much as 15±20 km 

(Hirayama, 1991; Dinh and Troung, 1995; Hao et al., 

1995, 1998). 

4.2. Regional extension phases 

Late Cretaceous to Paleocene±Early Eocene NW± 

SE regional extension caused the formation of a NE± 

SW trending proto-East Vietnam Sea, as well as regional 

uplift and a series of rift basins along the 

southern margin of China. Cretaceous and/or 

Paleocene±Lower Eocene sediments, predominantly 

terrestrial redbeds and lacustrine mudstones, were 

deposited in these basins (Ru and Pigott, 1986; Sun 

Shu et al., 1989; Pigott and Ru, 1994; Zhou et al., 

1995). However, the ages of the oldest Cenozoic deposits 

in northern Vietnam, and their genetic relation to 

Mesozoic and younger Cenozoic rocks, are uncertain. 

According to Dien and Dzung (1994) and Dien (1997), 

molasse-type deposits, dominated by alluvial and ¯uvial 

conglomerates and sandstones, were deposited in 

Paleocene±Early Eocene time in residual depressions 

formed during earlier continental convergence (Fig. 3). 

Other authors attribute the formation of the oldest 

Cenozoic sediments to initial rifting in Eocene time 

(e.g. Dinh and Truong, 1995; Dinh, 1998). 

A second phase of regional N±S extension, initiated 

by collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian 

Plate, lasted from Mid±Late Eocene to Early Miocene 

(Tapponnier et al., 1986, 1990; Huchon et al., 1994; 

Lee and Lawver, 1994). This collision caused tectonic 

escape of the Indochina Block toward the southeast, 

subsequent clockwise rotation of 18±308 (of 

Indochina) and opening of the East Vietnam Sea. Leftlateral 

movements along the Song Hong Fault system 

(Red River Fault) initiated the formation of the Song 

Hong Basin. The net displacement may amount to 

more than 200 km, and possibly up to 500 km (Peltzer 

and Tapponnier, 1988; Briais et al., 1993; Leloup et 

al., 1995). However, the amount of displacement and 

the relationship of the Song Hong Fault to the major 

shear zone o€shore Vietnam and the opening of the 

East Vietnam Sea is still debatable (e.g. Roques et al., 

1997; Thi and Giang, 1998). The strike-slip movements 

occurred mainly along the Song Chay and Song Lo 

fault zones (Fig. 2). During the rifting phase, grabens 

and half-grabens were formed in the Song Hong Basin 

and adjacent basins (Figs. 6±8). Within these grabens 

thick rift-sequences of dominantly ¯uvial and lacustrine 

deposits are preserved (e.g. Wu Jinmin, 1994). 

These deposits are included in the Dinh Cao 

Formation in the Hanoi Trough (Fig. 3) and in the 

Hue Group in the southern Song Hong Basin (Dien, 

1997). 

4.3. Drifting and sagging phase 

Continued regional N±S extension led to the establishment 

of a spreading axis in the central East 

Vietnam Sea and formation of oceanic crust in the

276 


Fig. 6. Part of seismic line 89-1-36A from SP 100 to 1600. The line is located at the northeastern margin of the Song Hong Basin, and shows 

Eocene±Early Oligocene half-grabens overlain by Upper Oligocene-Recent post-rift deposits. The top syn-rift unconformity, Re¯ector B, is correlated 

to the break-up unconformity associated with the opening of the East Vietnam Sea in late Early Oligocene time (32 Ma). Re¯ector A is 

Early Oligocene (Fig. 9) (Taylor and Hayes, 1980, 

1983; Briais et al., 1993; Lee and Lawver, 1994, 1995; 

Pigott and Ru, 1994). A major break-up unconformity 

separating the syn-rift and post-rift sections was 

formed in late Early Oligocene time in many of the 

basins along the margin of the South China Block, 

and a similar unconformity is also evident in the Song 

Hong Basin (Rangin et al., 1995; Vejbñk et al., 1996) 

(Figs. 6±8). The age of the top syn-rift unconformity 

may be variable, however, along the South China margin, 

indicating that the rifting phase ended at di€erent 

time in the various basins (Zhou et al., 1995; Chen et 

al., 1998). 

The left-lateral transtension along the Song Hong 

Fault system continued during the Early Miocene, 

causing rapid subsidence of the Song Hong Basin. The 

Fig. 7. Part of seismic line 90-1-065 from SP 3030 to 4080. This line follows the strike of the Song Hong Basin along the northeastern margin. 

The break-up unconformity associated with the opening of the East Vietnam Sea (Re¯ector B) is only moderately a€ected by the NW±SE 

oriented strike-slip movements associated with the Song Hong Fault zone. For location see Fig. 10.


Fig. 8. Part of seismic line 89-1-62 from SP 1580 to 3080. The line shows position of 103 TH-1x and 103 TG-1x drilled by Total centrally in the 

northwestern part of the Song Hong Basin. The conspicuous reverse faults in the axis of the Song Hong Basin are related to strike-slip movements. 

Re¯ector A is near top basement, Re¯ector B is the late Early Oligocene break-up unconformity (32 Ma), Re¯ector C is near base 

Middle Miocene, Re¯ector D is intra-Upper Miocene, and Re¯ector E is base Pliocene. At the well locations Re¯ector E corresponds to a major 

erosional hiatus due to inversion in Late Miocene times. For location see Fig. 10. 

depositional environments during Late Oligocene± 

Early Miocene times vary widely, from ¯uvial, estuarine, 

and deltaic to o€shore marine, with the deposition 

of sandstones and mudstones. The deposits are 

included in the Thuy Anh and Phong Chau formations 

in the northern part (Fig. 3), which correspond to the 

Da Nang Group in the southern part of the basin 

(Morris, 1993; Wu Jinmin, 1994; Dien, 1997). 

By Middle Miocene time sea-¯oor spreading in the 

East Vietnam Sea, and left-lateral movements on the 

Song Hong Fault ceased (Briais et al., 1993; Huchon 

et al., 1994; Lee and Lawver, 1994, 1995; Leloup et al., 

1993, 1995; Hall, 1996). The relative movements along 

the Song Hong Fault changed to right-lateral as the 

southeastward drift of Indochina was blocked by the 

Sundaland Plate, while the China Block continued its 

drift to the east, as the Indian Plate continued its 

northward penetration (Fig. 9). This change in relative 

displacement along the fault probably occurred in the 

mid-Miocene (Lee and Lawver, 1994, 1995; Hall, 

1996), leading to the current right-lateral displacement 

(Allen et al., 1984). The change of displacement direction 

is expressed in the Song Hong Basin by the formation 

of a distinct unconformity near the base of the 

Middle Miocene (Re¯ector C in Figs. 6±8), which in 

places shows deep channel incision, and a conspicuous 

lateral shift of depocenters (Vejbñk et al., 1996). Weak 

compression and tectonic inversion in the Middle 

Miocene of the Pearl River Basin, probably relate to 

this change in movement along the fault (X. Wang et 

al., 1989, cited from Lee and Lawver, 1994; Pinglu and 

Chuntao, 1994). However, other workers have 

suggested that the change from left- to right-lateral 

displacement occurred during the Late Miocene to earliest 

Pliocene time (Phach, 1994; Pigott and Ru, 1994; 

Rangin et al., 1995). Thick prograding deltaic units of 

sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and brown coals 

were deposited in Middle±Late Miocene times in the 

northern Song Hong Basin. These deposits are 

grouped into the Phu Cu and Tien Hung formations 

(Fig. 3) (Tien et al., 1991; Wu Jinmin, 1994; Dien, 

1997). The corresponding deposits in the southern part 

of the basin are dominated by shallow marine clastics, 

grouped into the Song Huong and Quang Ngai formations, 

or the Bac Bo Group, which partly inter®ngers 

with various carbonates, including platform 

carbonates, barrier and pinnacle reefs of the Middle 

Miocene Tri Ton Group (Morris, 1993; Dien, 1997). 

4.4. Late Miocene basin inversion and renewed sagging 

The strike-slip activity, causing reversal of faults and 

the formation of signi®cant inversion structures and 

several minor unconformities in the northern part of 

the basin, culminated in Late Miocene time, with the 

formation of a signi®cant and widespread unconformity 

that deeply truncates the inversion structures 

(Fig. 8). Renewed and increased subsidence of the 

Song Hong Basin is witnessed by the thick, draping, 

and virtually undisturbed latest Miocene to Pliocene±

Fig. 9. Oligocene reconstruction (30 Ma, above) and Middle to Late Miocene reconstruction (10 Ma, below) according to Lee and Lawver 

(1994). Prior to Late Oligocene times, the area was dominated by N±S to NW±SE tension. Note the reversion to dextral movements along the 

Song Hong Fault Zone.


Quaternary section that overlies the Upper Miocene 

unconformity (Figs. 6±8). South of Hainan, the thickness 

of the Pliocene shelfal to bathyal mudstones is up 

to 5 km, indicating an extremely rapid subsidence rate 

of up to 1400 m/Ma (Wu Jinmin, 1994; Hao et al., 

1995). The deposits in the northern part of the basin 

are dominated by o€shore marine to shallow-marine 

mudstones, siltstones, and sandstones, with minor proportions 

of lagoonal and possibly ¯uvial deposits. 

These deposits are included in the Dong Hoan, Vinh 

Bao, Hai Duong and Kien Xuong formations (Fig. 3). 

The dominant marine mudstones of the southern part 

of the basin are grouped into the Bien Dong 

Formation (Dien, 1997). 

5. Model concept 

The exploration potential of the Song Hong Basin 

has been assessed by stratigraphic analysis of well data 

and seismic data, and the use of the YuÈ kler 1D basin 

model (YuÈ kler et al., 1978). The YuÈ kler model is a forward 

deterministic model that quanti®es the geological 

evolution of a sedimentary basin by calculating compaction, 

pressure, temperature, thermal maturity and 

hydrocarbon generation. 

Geological information and input data for the 

model (thickness, age, lithology, porosity, palaeotemperature, 

heat ¯ow and palaeo water depth) are synthesised 

into model events in such a way that the 

model can handle deposition, nondeposition, and erosion 

in the basin. 

Computed values representing present time can be 

compared with measured values of thickness, porosity, 

temperature and thermal maturity obtained in wells 

from the basin. The geological model and input parameters 

are optimised by minimising the di€erences 

between computed and measured values. The lithological 

properties such as compressibility, thermal conductivity 

etc. are assigned according to the lithology 

speci®ed for each model event. Thickness is optimised 

automatically by the programme, by changing the porosity 

of the depositional unit. In some cases it may be 

necessary to change the assigned lithology to give a 

reasonable match. 

The thermal history of each sedimentary unit is 

determined from an equation that describes the heat 

movement as a function of heat ¯ow into the basin, 

and surface temperature at time of deposition (sea bottom 

for marine, or surface for continental sediments). 

Heat is transported by conduction and by compaction 

¯uids moving up through the sediments as they compact. 

The hydrocarbon generation history is determined 

from kinetic equations based on the work of Tissot 

and EspitalieÂ (1975). The original frequency factors 

and pseudo-activation energies used in these equations 

have later been modi®ed by YuÈ kler (unpublished 

data). The amount of generated hydrocarbons is calculated 

for each model event and presented as empirical 

modi®ed transformation ratios in grams of hydrocarbon 

per gram of original total organic carbon 

(TOC). Values are calculated as if the original organic 

matter type was either type I, II or III kerogen. An 

empirical approach divides the hydrocarbon generation 

into zones, each of which is de®ned as a percentage or 

degree of alteration. These zones describe the main 

types of hydrocarbon generated. 

6. Event de®nition 

The geological information for the modelling was 

compiled from sources at the Vietnam Petroleum 

Institute in Hanoi, supplemented by interpretation of 

seismic pro®les and nine onshore and ®ve o€shore well 

sections (Fig. 10). The well sections were extrapolated 

down to the basement using seismic data. The data 

have been combined to model 18 pseudo-wells located 

at strategic positions in the basin (Fig. 10). The term 

pseudo-well is used as a point of compiled information 

within a given area, and is therefore not a real well location. 

The thicknesses of the model events in the 

pseudo-wells are estimated from seismic sections using 

a modi®ed velocity function based on information 

from well 103 TH-1x and assuming a maximum depth 

to the base of the basin of approximately 17 km. This 

assumption is based on the likelihood of overpressure 

in the deeper part of the basin due to rapid loading, as 

indicated by mud-diapirism and pressures measured in 

wells (e.g. Hao et al., 1995, 1998; Chen et al., 1998). 

The history of the basin is subdivided into model 

events, each of which represents deposition, non-deposition, 

or erosion (Table 1). Lithostratigraphic units 

such as formations or informal members de®ned in 

wellsections in the Hanoi Trough form the basis for 

the event de®nitions. The approach has been to use 

subdivisions not shorter than 0.5 Ma. The events are 

extrapolated from the Hanoi Trough into the deeper 

o€shore part of the basin by correlating the principal 

seismic sequence boundaries to known unconformities 

in the Hanoi Trough. The known, or inferred, stratigraphic 

ages have been transferred into absolute ages 

(Ma) using the time scale of Harland et al. (1989). 

6.1. Base of the model and the syn-rift sequenceÐmodel 

events 1 and 2±7 

Based on palynomorphs, the age of the ®rst 

Cenozoic basin-®lling deposits seems to be Eocene 

(Tien et al., 1991; Bat et al., 1993; Trung et al., 1997), 

possibly Middle±Late Eocene (Bao et al., 1994). The

Fig. 10. Position of modelled wells and pseudo-wells; seismic lines (Figs. 6±8) and cross-sections (Figs. 14 and 15).


Table 1 

Model events of the development of the Song Hong Basin 

No. Type of model event Duration (Ma) Age (Ma) 

27 Pleistocene, deposition (``Kien Xuong Fm'') 0.5 0.5 

26 Pleistocene, deposition (``Hai Duong Fm'') 1.0 1.5 

25 Late Pliocene erosion/non-deposition 0.5 2.0 

24 Late Pliocene erosion/non-deposition 0.5 2.5 

23 Pliocene deposition (Vinh Bao Fm, upper part) 1.0 3.5 

22 Pliocene deposition (Vinh Bao Fm, lower part) 1.5 5.0 

21 Late Miocene (to earliest Pliocene) erosion on highs, deposition in depressions and 1.5 6.5 

in the main part of the basin (Dong Hoang Fm) 

20 Late Miocene erosion on highs, (Re¯ector D). Deposition in depressions and in 

1.5 8.0 

the main part of the basin (Dong Hoang Fm) 

19 Late Miocene deposition (Tien Hung Fm, upper part) 1.0 9.0 

18 Late Miocene deposition (Tien Hung Fm, middle part) 1.0 10.0 

17 Late Mid-Late Miocene deposition (Tien Hung Fm, lower part) 1.5 11.5 

16 Late Mid Miocene, minor erosion 0.5 12.0 

15 Mid Miocene deposition (Phu Cu Fm, upper part) 1.0 13.0 

14 Mid Miocene deposition (Phu Cu Fm, middle part) 1.0 14.0 

13 Mid Miocene deposition (Phu Cu Fm, lower part) 1.0 15.0 

12 Early Mid Miocene erosion (Re¯ector C). Stop of sea-¯oor spreading 1.0 16.0 

11 Early Miocene deposition (Phong Chau Fm, upper part) 7.5 23.5 

10 Late Oligocene minor erosion, ridge jump and change of spreading axis in the East 0.5 24.0 

Vietnam Sea 

9 Late Oligocene deposition (Thuy Anh/Phong Chau Fm, lower part) 6.0 30.0 

8 Early Oligocene erosion (Re¯ector B). Break-up unconformity, onset of sea-¯oor 

2.0 32.0 

spreading in East Vietnam Sea 

7 Late Eocene-Early Oligocene syn-rift deposition (Dinh Cao Fm, 2) 2.5 34.5 

6 Late Eocene-Early Oligocene syn-rift deposition (Dinh Cao Fm, 1) 2.5 37.0 

5 Late Eocene erosion 1.0 38.0 

4 Late Eocene (``Phu Tien Fm, upper part 2'') 1.5 39.5 

3 Late Eocene (``Phu Tien Fm, upper part 1'') 1.5 41.0 

2 Mid Eocene, pre to early rift deposition (``Phu Tien Fm, lower part''). Mid Eocene 3.0 44.0 

onset of sinistral movement on the Song Hong Fault, initiation of the basin 

1 ``Pre-Cenozoic'' seismic acoustic basement (Re¯ector A) (Palaeozoic-Mesozoic) 1.0 45.0 

age of the base of the Cenozoic basin ®ll is thus arbitrarily 

set at 44 Ma (Table 1), assuming that deposition 

began during the initial tectonic phases of the 

left-lateral rifting which probably started in Mid- 

Eocene time (44 Ma; Lee and Lawver, 1994). 

The dominantly Upper Eocene±Lower Oligocene 

syn-rift sequence was subdivided into six model events 

(2±7, Table 1), consisting mainly of the deposition of 

conglomerates, sandstones, and shales in alluvial, ¯uvial, 

lacustrine, and paralic environments. 

Occasionally, seismic data from the lower part of the 

syn-rift prisms show a distinct unit that subparallels 

the acoustic basement and is unconformably overlain 

by onlapping deposits. This unit, which often shows a 

chaotic re¯ection pattern, is interpreted as composed 

of alluvial deposits. At other places high-amplitude, 

parallel and continuous re¯ectors indicate a uniform 

depositional environment, such as a lake. The syn-rift 

prisms are occasionally more than 5 km thick. The 

well 107 TPA drilled more than 2.5 km of Eocene± 

Oligocene syn-rift sediments comprising conglomerates 

and sandstones overlain by an unit of alternating sandstones, 

siltstones, mudstones and thin coal beds deposited 

in a mixed alluvial and lacustrine environment. 

6.2. End of rifting and start of post-rift sagging phaseÐ 

model events 8 and 9±19 

The rifting phase is interpreted to have ended in the 

late Early Oligocene, based on the correlation of the 

signi®cant unconformity topping the rift-sequence, to 

the regional unconformity present in many other 

basins along the margin of South China. A similar interpretation 

is presented by Lee and Watkins (1998) 

from the Phu Khanh Basin o€shore central Vietnam. 

An age of 32 Ma, corresponding to magnetic anomaly 

11, is assigned to this break-up unconformity (Taylor 

and Hayes, 1980, 1983; Briais et al., 1993; Lee and 

Lawver, 1994). This age conforms well with biostratigraphic 

data from a marine horizon overlying the 

unconformity in the Song Hong Basin. That horizon is 

penetrated by the wells 103 TH and 103 TG and is 

correlated to the Upper Oligocene Chattian NP 25 

zone, corresponding to approximately 27±28 Ma

282 


(Rangin et al., 1995). In well 112 BT in the southwestern 

part of the basin, biostratigraphic data likewise 

suggest an Oligocene age for the unconformity (Trung, 

1997). Although the time represented by the unconformity 

may be highly variable, even on a local scale, for 

the modelling it is arbitrarily set at 2 million years 

(Table 1, event 8). 

The unconformity is overlain by a thick post-rift 

succession composed of several seismic sequences that 

mainly contain paralic or deltaic to marginal marine 

sandstones, mudstones, and coals along the basin margins 

(Thuy Anh and Phong Chau formations in the 

Hanoi Trough; Fig. 3), grading into fully marine mudstones 

toward the central and southern part of the 

basin (the Da Nang Group). A marked seismic unconformity 

in the lower part of the post-rift succession 

above the 27±28 Ma marine horizon probably corresponds 

to the unconformity recognised from the 

Hanoi Trough between the Thuy Anh Formation/ 

lower part of Phong Chau Formation and the upper 

Phong Chau Formation (Table 1, event 10). The 

unconformity may be related to the reorientation of 

the spreading in the East Vietnam Sea, which seems to 

have occurred in the Late Oligocene as a result of a 

ridge jump (24 Ma, Briais et al., 1993; or 23 Ma, 

Huchon et al., 1994), possibly as a consequence of the 

collision of the Australian Plate with the Philippine 

Sea Plate arc (25 Ma, Hall, 1996). 

The most pronounced unconformity within the postrift 

succession, showing large incised valleys, is dated 

to the Middle Miocene by biostratigraphic evidence 

from the o€shore wells and by correlation to onshore 

sections, where it is overlain by the Phu Cu 

Formation. The unconformity (Table 1, event 12) may 

be related to the cessation of the spreading activity in 

the East Vietnam Sea, which happened at approximately 

16 Ma (Briais et al., 1993; Lee and Lawver, 

1994). Morris (1993) assigned an age of 17 Ma to the 

correlative surface in the southern part of the Song 

Hong Basin, and from the Phu Khanh Basin, Lee and 

Watkins (1998) likewise related their SB 4 to the 16 

Ma cessation of the sea-¯oor spreading. Rangin et al. 

(1995) assigned an age of either 16.5 Ma or 15.5 Ma 

to the unconformity, based on the assumption that it 

can be correlated to regressive events of Haq et al. 

(1988). However, the unconformity clearly has a tectonic 

component, and precise correlation to regressive 

events on an assumed eustatic chart is uncertain, without 

strong biostratigraphic control. 

During Middle and Late Miocene times thick prograding 

deltaic units were formed. In the northern part 

of the basin, including the Hanoi Trough, large variations 

in both thickness and lithology occur due to 

strong structural in¯uence. The deposits are grouped 

into the Phu Cu and Tien Hung formations separated 

by a minor unconformity (Table 1, event 16). 

Inversion occurred along some of the half-graben 

faults, and signi®cant structures were formed. 

Concurrently, deposition occurring between the growing 

structures caused a complicated development. 

Toward the central and southern part of the basin, the 

prograding units show a pronounced downlapping pattern, 

and parts of the Middle±Upper Miocene section 

seem to be thinly developed. 

6.3. Truncation of inversion structures and renewed 

saggingÐmodel events 20±21 and 22±27 

A very pronounced Late Miocene unconformity deeply 

truncates palaeo-highs developed over inversion structures 

(Figs. 7 and 8; Table 1, events 20 and 21). In the 

areas around wells 103 TG, 103 TH and 107 TPA 

the unconformity corresponds to the base of the 

Pliocene. Ages of approximately 5.5 Ma and 6 Ma 

have been assigned to the surface by Rangin et al. 

(1995) and Morris (1993), respectively. Lateral tracing 

of the unconformity into more conformable successions 

indicates that it occurs within the Upper 

Miocene. However, the surface is clearly of composite 

nature and re¯ects a long period of erosion over 

palaeo-highs, while contemporaneous sedimentation 

(the Dong Hoang Formation) occurred in lows. The 

overlying thick and virtually undisturbed Late 

Miocene±Recent sequence comprises interbedded o€shore 

marine to shallow marine and lagoonal mudstones, 

siltstones and sandstones belonging to the Vinh 

Bao, Hai Duong and Kien Xuong formations (Fig. 3; 

Table 1 events 22±27). 

7. Strategy for the modelling of the Song Hong Basin 

The strategy for the modelling is based on the 

assumption that basal heat ¯ow development has been 

similar all over the basin, with a gradual increase at 

the onset of the rifting phase (Mid Eocene), reaching a 

maximum of 1.2 heat ¯ow units (HFU) during the 

active rifting phase (Early Oligocene). During the subsequent 

post-rift phases (Late Oligocene±Late 

Miocene) of relatively uniform subsidence, lower and 

gradually decreasing heat ¯ow values reaching a minimum 

of 1.0 were used. In order to match present-day 

temperatures and vitrinite re¯ectance data, a gradual 

increase in heat ¯ow during the latest Miocene± 

Pleistocene was used (Figs. 11 and 12). The increase is 

supported by temperatures up to 568C at the surface 

in several onshore wells, presence of hot springs along 

basin margin faults, and warm water from shallow 

wells used for ®sh-breeding farms southeast of Hanoi. 

Dao and Huyen (1995) also suggest high heat ¯ows, 

based on calculations using thermal conductivities 

measured on core samples and temperature gradients


Fig. 11. Plots displaying the results of the optimisation process for well position LK 200 (onshore) and 103 TG (o€shore). Left plots compare 

measured vitrinite re¯ectance (crosses) with the results of the modelling (®lled dots). Right plots compare modelled and measured temperatures. 

The temperature plot for LK 200 and the vitrinite plot for 103 TG shows a good ®t between measured and modelled results, whereas the other 

plots show some discrepancies. Note that the hydrocarbon generation zones on the vitrinite re¯ectance plots only refer to general guidelines, 

whereas the zonations shown on the subsidence plots (Fig. 12) are those used by the modelling programme. Emphasised layers are the model 

events 6, 11, 14 and 15.

284 


Fig. 12. Plots showing subsidence history and development with time of hydrocarbon generation zones at the position of well LK 200 and 103 

TG. Model event 1 began to subside at 45 Ma and is at present day at approximately 5000 m and 6400 m depths, respectively. The subsidence 

history of the four selected model events (6, 11, 14 and 15 corresponding to Dinh Cao Fm, 1; Phong Chau Fm, upper; Phu Cu Fm, middle; and 

Phu Cu Fm, upper) with possible source rocks are marked with thick stippled lines. The hydrocarbon generation zones are indicated according 

to the legend to the left. The used heat ¯ow history is annotated (relative to 1 heat ¯ow unit) in the lower part of the ®gures.


from wells. Likewise, Chen et al. (1998) suggested a 

high heat ¯ow in the last stage of the basin development. 

The late Cenozoic±Recent high heat ¯ows may be 

related to the volcanic activity in the region and the 

suggested presence of a mantle plume beneath 

Indochina (Ru and Pigott, 1986; Bat et al., 1994; 

Flower and Hoang, 1994). Thick basaltic volcanic 

rocks and intrusives of Late Miocene±Pliocene age 

occur in the Quang Ngai Graben at the southernmost 

tip of the Song Hong Basin (Morris, 1993) and are 

clearly shown by magnetic anomaly data. Young olivine 

basalts crop out on Con Co Island in the southwestern 

part of block 112, and Pliocene±Pleistocene 

basalts are known from outcrops close to the 17th 

Parallel (in Phy Quy District, Khe Sanh, and Cua 

Tung) and from the west Nghe An province approximately 

200 km south of Hanoi (Fig. 2) (Ru and 

Pigott, 1986; Tien et al., 1991; Bao et al., 1994). 

Likewise, 5±13 Ma basalts are present along the Song 

Hong Fault northwest of Hanoi (Phan Truong Thi, 

personal communication, 1996). 

Quantitative data on palaeo-surface temperatures 

such as oxygen isotopes, are not available from the 

Song Hong Basin. Thus, the estimates on palaeo-surface 

temperatures are based on general palaeoclimatic 

models and palaeolatitude provided by Habicht (1979) 

and Scotese et al. (1988), and the interpreted palaeobathymetry. 

For model events 1±3 that represent a 

continental pre- to early-rift phase, a surface temperature 

of 258C is used. For the remaining events, that 

mostly represent periods with marine to deltaic sedimentation, 

an average surface temperature of 208C is 

used. However, in order to match the present-day high 

temperatures that are measured at very shallow depths 

in the onshore area, the surface temperature for the 

youngest model event is typically given a value of 

308C. In some cases, a higher or lower temperature is 

chosen to ®t the actual measurements in wells, where 

they are considered to represent true formation temperatures. 

For the youngest model event in o€shore 

and pseudo-wells, a value of 28.58C is used as based 

on measurements from 102 CQ and 102 HD. 

Calculated sea-bottom temperatures based on oxygen 

isotope ratios from the Qiongdongnan Basin indicate a 

change from 208C in the Oligocene to 308C in the 

Quaternary (Chen et al., 1998). 

The lithologies assigned to the model events are 

based on in-house descriptions from onshore wells by 

the Vietnam Petroleum Institute, evaluation of welllogs 

and interpretations of lateral variation of the 

depositional facies. Thicknesses and amounts of erosion 

of the units in the Hanoi Trough are primarily 

based on lithostratigraphic tops picked by the Vietnam 

Petroleum Institute, and on interpretation of cross-sections 

prepared by Hoai (1985). The stratigraphic column, 

from the basement to the base of the drilled 

sections, is incorporated in the modelling by using the 

information from neighbouring well sections and by 

the interpretation of the general basin history. Depth 

to basement is estimated from the top basement map 

of Dung et al. (1995). The thicknesses of o€shore units 

are based on interpretations of well-logs and seismic 

pro®les. 

In general, the amount of erosion decreases from 

the northwestern Hanoi Trough toward the southeast 

along the length of the basin, and the section shows a 

general increase in thickness. This trend is accompanied 

by a general change of lithology toward 

larger proportions of marine mudstones and fewer 

sandstones towards the southeast. Coal beds are common 

in the central Hanoi Trough and in the 102 CQ 

and 102 HD wells, whereas coals disappear toward the 

margins of the Hanoi Trough and toward the central 

part of the basin. 

8. Discussion of the modelling results 

The 1D forward model used in this study calculates 

amounts of hydrocarbons available for expulsion 

through time. The model calculates values in the past 

as a function of the input parameters. Thus, optimisation 

is of fundamental importance for calculation of 

the hydrocarbon generation history, especially of those 

parameters that a€ect the thermal maturity calculations. 

The single most critical parameter for the 

modelling of the hydrocarbon generation has been the 

heat ¯ow history. However, as a given layer has 

reached its highest temperature in recent times in most 

cases, temperature log data and bottom hole temperatures 

provide good constraints for the recent part of 

the temperature history. In order to optimise the modelling, 

all available measurements of vitrinite re¯ectance 

and subsurface temperatures were used. 

Relatively few vitrinite re¯ectance data were available 

from the wells in the Hanoi Trough, but detailed temperature 

pro®les, measured long after (up to two 

years) the termination of the drilling activities, supplemented 

the optimisation (e.g. LK 200, Fig. 11, 

upper part). From the o€shore wells, vitrinite re¯ectance 

data were more numerous and reliable, while 

temperature data were more scarce (Fig. 11, lower 

part). Vitrinite re¯ectance mainly records maximum 

temperatures and therefore does not constrain the 

palaeo-heat ¯ow very well. However, vitrinite re¯ectance 

data from Late Miocene inversion structures 

gives some constraints on the preinversion heat ¯ow 

history. Suppression of vitrinite re¯ectance in the 

southern part of the basin has been suggested by e.g. 

Hao et al. (1995) due to overpressuring. However, 

overpressure seems not to be signi®cant in wells from

286 


the northern part of the basin, but may increase in 

importance toward the deep southern part of the 

basin. 

The modelling was conducted for type II and III kerogen 

(Nielsen and Dien, 1997). Comparison of the modelling 

of type II and III for the Hanoi Trough shows that 

the main di€erence is the time of onset of early oil generation. 

This time di€erence is, however, negligible, as 

compared to the overall uncertainty in onset time, related 

to uncertainties of the other input parameters. 

Thus, emphasis was placed on type III kerogen as this is 

the dominating organic matter in the basin (Hao et al., 

1995, 1998; Chen et al., 1998; Ha, 1998). 

Scenarios with a variety of heat ¯ow histories were 

calculated to investigate which heat ¯ow history gave 

the best ®t. It appears that a scenario with a relatively 

low heat ¯ow of 1.2 HFU during the Late Eocene± 

Early Oligocene rifting phase and a stable low heat 

¯ow of 1 HFU during the main part of the post-rifting 

phase, followed by a slight increase in late Cenozoic 

times, shows the best ®t with the available control 

points. The values in this heat ¯ow history are relatively 

low as compared to typical rift-basins. The 

reason for this is that the early development of the 

Song Hong Basin was caused mainly by strike-slip tectonics 

rather that extensional rifting over a thermal 

dome. In addition, the rapid deposition caused considerable 

blanketing e€ects (e.g. Lucazeau and Le 

Douaran, 1985). Using this heat ¯ow history, the subsidence 

history and the development of the hydrocarbon 

generation zones with time was modelled for 

each well and pseudo-well location (Fig. 12). In addition, 

the present-day positions of the hydrocarbon 

zones were modelled (Fig. 13, left part). Examples of 

the generation history of model event 6 are shown in 

Fig. 13 (right part). A higher heat ¯ow during the rifting 

phase would have accelerated the maturation and 

caused an earlier generation of hydrocarbons. Early 

generation of hydrocarbons would reduce the potential 

in some areas due to erosion subsequent to the charging 

of potential traps, such as the inversion structures. 

A number of cross-sections combining the hydrocarbon 

generation zones modelled at well and pseudowell 

locations were constructed (e.g. Figs. 14 and 15). 

In addition, hydrocarbon generation maps of the three 

most important source rocks, the Upper Eocene± 

Lower Oligocene syn-rift lacustrine shales and coals, 

the Lower Miocene coal beds, and the Middle 

Miocene coal beds, were constructed to illustrate the 

situation at present day and at 5 Ma (Nielsen and 

Dien, 1997). 

The modelling results demonstrate that source rocks 

in model event 6 are in a favourable position for hydrocarbon 

generation, as they are presently within the 

gas window in large parts of the Hanoi Trough 

(Fig. 16, left). In the shallow part of the trough, event 

6 is in the condensate to oil window. In the o€shore 

areas at the well locations 103 TG, 103 TH, 102 CQ 

and 102 HD, the top of event 6 passed out of the oil 

window between 15±17 Ma and is currently gas generating, 

to overmature. Thus oil generation stopped 

before the Late Miocene inversion structures were 

developed and ready to trap hydrocarbons. The lack 

of proven commercial amounts of hydrocarbons by 

these four exploration wells drilled on inversion structures 

is therefore in accordance with the results of the 

modelling. Farther to the south and centrally in the 

basin, model event 6 reached the main oil window at 

approximately 34 Ma and was already overmature at 

approximately 25 Ma. Towards the northeast, model 

event 6 is currently ranging from immature to the 

beginning of gas generation (Fig. 16, left). 

Lower Miocene coal beds with high HI and S2 

(model event 11) occur in well sections in the Hanoi 

Trough and in well 103 TG. The coal beds disappear 

toward the intermediate and central parts of the Song 

Hong Basin. However, in the deeper part of the basin 

contemporaneous marine sediments with a signi®cant 

amount of kerogen type III may occur (e.g., Hao et 

al., 1995). In the Hanoi Trough, event 11 is in a very 

favourable position. It ranges from immature in the 

western and northern part of the trough (well LK 104 

and LK 100, Fig. 14), through the main oil to condensate 

and gas window in the eastern part of the trough 

(well LK 102). Event 11 is immature in the northeastern 

part of the Song Hong Basin (PW 2, 3, 4, 10; 

Fig. 2), and is missing in 107 TPA, PW 5 and PW 6. 

In the o€shore areas at wells 102 CQ, 102 HD, 103 

TH, 103 TG and PW 1, event 11 ranges from immature 

over main oil to dry gas. In 102 CQ and 102 HD 

hydrocarbons were generated prior to the formation of 

the Late Miocene inversion structures, conforming 

with the lack of signi®cant amounts of hydrocarbon in 

those wells. In the central part of the basin, the base 

of model event 11 reached the main oil window 

between 15±20 Ma, and the top of event 11 passed out 

of the oil window at 3 Ma. 

Middle Miocene coal beds (Phu Cu Fm., middle 

part, model event 14) occur abundantly in the Hanoi 

Trough, but are immature in the main part of the 

trough (Fig. 16, right). In well LK 101, the base of 

model event 14 entered the early oil window at 1 Ma. 

In well LK 102 and LK 110, the base of model event 

14 passed into the main oil window at 2 Ma, and is 

currently near to the condensate-oil boundary. The 

main part of the coal beds in these two wells is now 

situated in the main oil window, thus being in a very 

favourable and actively producing position (Fig. 14). 

In the o€shore area at well 102 CQ, the coal beds are 

immature. In well 102 HD, the base of the model 

event entered the early oil window at 13 Ma, and the


Fig. 13. Plots showing hydrocarbon generation zones at well positions LK 200 and 103 TG. Left plots display the depths of the generation zones 

at present day. The positions of the four selected model events, with possible source rocks, are shown along the depth scale to the right for direct 

comparison with the generation zones. The plots to the right show the generation history of model event 6 (geological time versus degree of organic 

matter alteration). The time when the base of the event entered the various hydrocarbon zones is indicated by numbers. The black line indicates 

peak generation.

288 


Fig. 14. Two pro®les illustrating the results of the modelling in the present-day situation. The upper pro®le approximates a dip section, and the 

lower pro®le approximates a strike section (for position refer to Fig. 10). Each pro®le shows the distribution of the four selected model events, 

with possible source rocks, and the distribution of the hydrocarbon generation zones modelled at well and pseudo-well locations (same code as 

in Figs. 12 and 13). 

main oil and condensate windows at 8 Ma and 1 Ma, 

respectively. The top of the coals is immature at present 

time (Fig. 14). After 11 Ma, hydrocarbon generation 

did not occur, because of the lack of further 

signi®cant subsidence. In the wells 103 TG and 103 

TH, model event 14 is immature. It is missing in 107 

TPA and seems to be absent or very thinly developed 

in most of the pseudo-wells. 

The coal beds in the upper part of the Phu Cu 

Formation, model event 15, are immature in all the


Fig. 15. The same two pro®les as shown in Fig. 14, backstripped at 5 Ma to illustrate the situation closely after the formation of the major structural 

traps formed by Late Miocene inversion tectonics. 

onshore wells and the o€shore wells 102 CQ, 102 HD 

and 103 TH (Fig. 14). Model event 15 is absent in 

most of the pseudo-wells, and seems to be absent or 

very thin in the central and southern part of the basin 

(Fig. 14, lower part). 

8.1. Possible plays 

Late Miocene inversion structures are common in 

the northern part of the Song Hong Basin and to the 

northeast. In drilled sections these structures contain

290 


Fig. 16. Map showing the hydrocarbon generation zones (same code as in Figs. 12 and 13) for top and base of the Dinh Cao Fm, model event 6 (left) and Phu Cu Fm, upper, model event 14 

(right) at present day.


various Oligocene±Miocene reservoir sandstones. The 

structures are sealed by overlying Pliocene transgressive 

marine claystones, and form good structural traps. 

However, the timing of the hydrocarbon generation is 

critical, because migration and trapping should occur 

after the deeply truncating Upper Miocene unconformity 

was draped by a suciently thick and sealing 

layer of Pliocene claystones. Due to the relatively slow 

subsidence in the northeastern part of the study area 

since Late Oligocene time, the precise time of hydrocarbon 

generation is highly dependent on the heat ¯ow 

history, and the position of the potential source rocks 

within the tilted, syn-rift sequences. 

The modelling indicates that potential source rocks in 

model event 6 may have generated hydrocarbons after 

Late Miocene time at locations PW 2, PW 3, PW 4, 

PW 5 and PW 10 (Fig. 10), although the generation 

began earlier in the Miocene. This means that structural 

traps may have been in a favourable position in these 

areas for trapping hydrocarbons produced after Late 

Miocene time. In the deeper and central part of basin 

(e.g. at PW 14±17), the source rocks were mature 

already at approximately 25 Ma, and potential traps 

would have had to have been in place at that time, in 

order to accumulate hydrocarbons generated from 

model event 6. However, oil in a reservoir from this time 

would have cracked to condensate or gas at their present 

depths, and it seems unlikely that a gas accumulation in 

the deeper part of the basin would have remained e€ectively 

sealed until present day. Generated hydrocarbons 

may, however have migrated updip and into reservoirs 

at shallower depths along the basin margin. Potential 

reservoirs could be draped, fractured basement 

rocks, alluvial and submarine fan sandstones, shallow 

marine sandstones, and carbonate build-ups. This 

play was in part tested with some success in block 112. 

In the southeastern part of the area, detailed geochemical 

analyses from the Yacheng gas ®eld indicate 

that Oligocene coal-bearing strata, with type III kerogen 

in the Song Hong Basin (corresponding to model 

event 7 or 9), in part charged the ®eld (Chen et al., 

1998; Hao et al., 1998). Peak gas generation occurred 

probably in Pliocene time, and the major basin bounding 

fault, the southern extension of the Song Lo Fault 

(also called No. 1 fault) functioned as a conduit for 

gas migration into the ®eld. 

The coal beds in the Lower Miocene section (model 

event 11) in the central part of the Hanoi Trough may 

have generated both oil and gas after the formation of 

the Late Miocene inversion structures. The gas, condensate 

and oil encountered in wells from this area 

may thus have been produced from these coal beds. 

Model event 11 does not have potential in the areas of 

the o€shore wells 103 TG and 103 TH, whereas some 

potential for gas should be present at the wells 102 CQ 

and 102 HD, although gas generation may have 

started already in the Miocene. Marine sediments, with 

organic matter dominated by kerogen type III, are present 

in the model event in the deep and central part of 

basin (e.g. Hao et al., 1995). In this area, peak oil generation 

began after the formation of stratigraphic 

traps, such as lowstand deltas and incised ¯uvial-estuarine 

sandstones, overlying the pronounced near-thebase 

Middle Miocene unconformity. In addition, the 

hydrocarbon generation occurred contemporaneously 

with the formation of traps with Upper Miocene± 

Lower Pliocene mud-draped submarine fans and basin 

¯oor turbidites. Generated hydrocarbons may furthermore 

have migrated updip and into reservoirs at shallower 

depths along the basin margin. 

The excellent Middle Miocene coal beds in model 

event 14 may have produced signi®cant amounts of 

oil, gas, and condensate within the last few million 

years in the deepest part of the Hanoi Trough. It is 

thus likely that the coal beds are the main source of 

the hydrocarbons encountered in the onshore wells. 

Hydrocarbons may have migrated updip and into 

reservoirs at shallower depths, and may account for 

the hydrocarbons in the B10-STB and D14 wells 

recently drilled by Anzoil. In the main part of the 

Song Hong Basin coal beds are unlikely to occur at 

this stratigraphic level. 

9. Conclusions 

Modelling of the Song Hong Basin has been carried 

out using all available geological, geophysical, temperature 

and maturity data. The optimised results have 

been used to estimate the depth of hydrocarbon generation 

zones, and to calculate the timing of hydrocarbon 

generation for intervals that are expected to 

contain the principal source rocks. The modelling 

results are in good agreement with the exploration history 

of the basin, and indicate several areas for further 

exploration activities. These are primarily the Hanoi 

Trough, the northern and northeastern part of the o€shore 

basin, and the western basin margin. The modelling 

shows that plays with Eocene(?)±Oligocene, synrift 

lacustrine source rocks (shales and coals) are most 

promising in the northeastern part of the basin, and 

along the basin margins. Plays sourced from Lower 

Miocene coals are most promising in the central part 

of the Hanoi Trough and the area southeast of the 

Hanoi Trough. Contemporary marine deposits in the 

central and southern part of the Song Hong Basin 

may be possible sources for several play types in these 

areas. Coals from the middle part of the Phu Cu 

Formation are very interesting source rocks, for both 

oil and gas, in the central and south-eastern part of 

the Hanoi Trough.

292 


Based on the occurrence of potential source rock 

units, reservoirs and structures in the Song Hong 

Basin, and occurrences of hydrocarbon accumulations 

in the adjacent basins, a large number of plays may be 

proposed. The plays include among others: fractured 

basement highs of Devonian±Permian carbonates; 

Late Miocene inversion structures with Upper 

Oligocene and Miocene ¯uvial, coastal and marine 

sandstones; stratigraphic pinch-out of various Upper 

Oligocene±Miocene sandstones; Miocene carbonate 

build-ups; Pliocene turbidite sand over mud-diapirs; 

and mudstone-draped basin-¯oor fans. In addition, 

various types of lowstand depositional units with sandstones, 

such as mud-encased lowstand deltas and 

incised valley-®lls, are likely to form stratigraphic 

traps, especially within the Miocene section. 

Acknowledgements 

The results presented herein were obtained from an 

ongoing research project on the development and hydrocarbon 

potential of the Song Hong Basin. The project 

is carried out by the Geological Survey of 

Denmark and Greenland (GEUS) together with the 

Vietnam Petroleum Institute, a subsidiary of the stateowned 

Vietnam Oil and Gas Corporation 

(PetroVietnam). The Danish Energy Agency and 

Danida (Danish International Development 

Assistance) are thanked for funding the project. 

PetroVietnam and Vietnam Petroleum Institute provided 

data, manpower, and support, and are thanked 

for permission to publish the results. The project is 

carried out under the auspices of CCOP (Coordinating 

Committee for Coastal and O€shore Geoscience 

Programmes in East and Southeast Asia) and the technical 

secretariat in Bangkok is thanked for support. 

The two referees P. Abolins and D. Waples are 

thanked for constructive reviews. 

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